e-Learning for Lifelong Learning in Denmark

e-ASEM White Paper: 

e-Learning for Lifelong Learning 

Editor in Chief 

Bowon Kim 

Authors 

Lars Birch Andreasen, Mie Buhl (Denmark) 

Tsuneo Yamada (Japan) 

Mansor Fadzil, Latifah Abdol Latif (Malaysia) 

Alena Pistovcakova, Jaroslava Kovacova (Slovakia) 

Min Seung Jung, Kyung Ae Choi, Eun Soon Baik (South Korea) 

Thapanee Thammetar, Supannee Sombuntham (Thailand) 

Publisher 

KNOU Press 

57 Ihwa-dong, Jongno-gu, Seoul, South Korea, 110-500 

http://press.knou.ac.kr 

Copyright ⓒ 2010 by ASEM Education and Research Hub for Lifelong Learning, 

Research Network 1 (e-ASEM). All rights reserved. 

ISBN 978-89-20-00574-9 93370 

ISBN 978-89-20-00575-6 99370 (e-book) 

PDF version of this work is available under a Creative Commons 

Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs 3.0 Unported License. 

(See http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/ for more) 

It can be accessed through the e-ASEM web site at http://easem.knou.ac.kr.

Acknowledgements 

This white paper is a general view of the practices of e-Learning for lifelong learning 

in six ASEM countries: Denmark, Japan, Malaysia, Slovakia, South Korea and Thailand. 

All of them are key members of the research network 1 (e-ASEM) of the ASEM 

Education and Research Hub for Lifelong Learning, and I am delighted to see the 

first visible outcome of their cooperative research since its inception. 

The idea of publishing this white paper was proposed in the network meeting held 

in Bangkok, July 2009. The network members unanimously affirmed the significance 

of this project and representatives from the above six countries promised to participate. 

The basic structure of the book was also agreed upon during the meeting: concepts 

of e-Learning, policies, regulations and funding of e-Learning in lifelong learning, 

and the status and characteristics of e-Learning for lifelong learning. The basic ideas 

and format were faithfully followed by the respective papers submitted by each 

country. 

This white paper will play an important role in providing basic materials for further 

studies and comparative research. I hope this accomplishment will contribute to formulating 

policies concerning e-Learning and lifelong learning in all the ASEM 

countries. This could also serve as a stimulus to the second ongoing white paper 

series covering other ASEM countries. 

I’d like to express my gratitude to all the authors of six countries, without whose 

dedication this white paper could not have been started. The Malaysian representatives 

deserve special thanks for their efforts regarding the cross-analysis paper, which en- 

Acknowledgements iii

hanced this large volume and made it more accessible. Likewise, gratitude is expressed 

to the secretariat of the ASEM Education and Research Hub for their continuing 

encouragement and financial support for this publication. Last but not least, my deepest 

gratitude goes out to the e-ASEM support team of the Institute of Distance of Education: 

Dr. Youngsook Jung, Dr. Younghee Woo, and Ms. Heyeon Yune, whose passion 

and energy made this book possible. 

iv e-ASEM White Paper: e-Learning for Lifelong Learning 

Bowon Kim 

Coordinator, Research Network 1 (e-ASEM) 

ASEM Education and Research Hub for Lifelong Learning

Part I 

A Cross Analysis of e-Learning for Lifelong Learning in Six 

Participating Countries of the e-ASEM White Paper Project 

Open University Malaysia ∙ 1 

Introduction ∙ 5 

1. Education Systems ∙ 5 

2. Concepts of e-Learning for Lifelong Learning ∙ 10 

3. Policies, Regulation and Funding of e-Learning in Lifelong Learning ∙ 14 

4. Status and Characteristics of e-Learning for Lifelong Learning ∙ 18 

Part II 

White Papers of Six Asia-Europe Countries ∙ 27 

01❚Denmark ❘Lars Birch Andreasen, Mie Buhl ∙ 29 

Introduction ∙ 31 

1. The Danish educational system ∙ 32 

2. Concepts of lifelong learning and e-Learning ∙ 45 

3. Government policy, funding & regulation of e-Learning 

for lifelong learning ∙ 50 

4. Status and characteristics of e-Learning for lifelong learning in Denmark ∙ 59 

5. Typical cases of e-Learning for lifelong learning ∙ 83 

6. Recommendations and prospects ∙ 97 

References ∙ 100 

CONTENTS v

02❚Japan❘Tsuneo Yamada ∙ 105 

Executive Summary ∙ 107 

1. Educational Systems in Japan ∙ 109 

2. Lifelong Learning and e-Learning Concepts ∙ 133 

3. Government Policy, Finance/Funding, and the Regulation of e-Learning for 

Lifelong Learning ∙ 138 

4. Status and Characteristics of e-Learning for Lifelong Learning ∙ 162 

5. Typical e-Learning for Lifelong Learning ∙ 176 

6. Recommendations and Prospects ∙ 229 


03❚Malaysia ❘Mansor Fadzil, Latifah Abdol Latif ∙ 233 


1. The Malaysian Education System ∙ 237 

2. Concepts of Lifelong Learning and e-Learning in Malaysia ∙ 252 

3. Policies, Funding and Regulationof E-learning in Lifelong 

Learning in Malaysia ∙ 261 

4. Status and Characteristics of E-learning in Lifelong Learning 

in Malaysia ∙ 275 

5. Typical E-learning in Lifelong Learning: Malaysian Initiatives ∙ 281 

6. Recommendations and Prospects for Malaysia ∙ 291 


List of Tables and Figures ∙ 304 

04❚Slovakia❘Alena Pistovcakova, Jaroslava Kovacova ∙ 309 


1. Educational systems in the Slovak Republic ∙ 312 


vi e-ASEM White Paper: e-Learning for Lifelong Learning

3. Government policy, finance/funding, regulation of e-Learning 


4. Status and Characteristics of e-Learning for lifelong learning ∙ 336 

5. Typical e-Learning for lifelong learning ∙ 339 



05❚South Korea ❘Min Seung Jung, Kyung Ae Choi, Eun Soon Baik ∙ 357 

1. Introduction to Education System in South Korea ∙ 359 

2. Definition of lifelong learning and e-Learning ∙ 364 

3. Status and Characteristics of e-Learning for Lifelong Learning 

in Korea ∙ 370 

4. Typical e-Learning for Lifelong Learning ∙ 381 

5. Suggestions and Remarks for the Future ∙ 451 

06❚Thailand ❘Thapanee Thammetar, Supannee Sombuntham ∙ 453 

1. Educational systems ∙ 455 


3. Government policy, finance/funding, regulation of e-Learning 


4. Status and Characteristics of e-Learning for lifelong learning ∙ 462 

5. Typical e-Learning for lifelong learning ∙ 468 



CONTENTS vii

Part I 

A Cross Analysis of e-Learning for Lifelong 

Learning in Six Participating Countries 

of the e-ASEM White Paper Project 

-contributed by Open University Malaysia

OPEN UNIVERSITY MALAYSIA 

Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia 

Authors 

David Lim 

Ng Man San 

Tengku Amina Munira 

Moderators 

Mansor Fadzil 

Latifah Abdol Latif

Introduction 

This cross analysis reports the current status of six participating countries in planning, 

implementing and promoting e-Learning for lifelong learning, as described in each 

country’s respective e-ASEM white paper. The six countries are Denmark, Japan, 

Malaysia, Slovakia, South Korea and Thailand. This analysis also describes policies, 

legal, conceptual and practical issues that affect e-Learning and lifelong learning in 

these six countries. The main purpose of this cross analysis is to highlight the similarities 

and differences of the salient features that have been captured in each of 

the white papers. 

In the following sections, the broad education system of the six countries is first com- 

pared as background information. This is followed by a comparative description of 

policies and concepts relating to e-Learning for lifelong learning. Finally, the analysis 

highlights the status of e-Learning for lifelong learning. This comparison is illustrated 

with examples of relevant practices in these six countries. 

1 Education Systems 

1.1 Formal Education System 

In all six countries, two parallel education systems exist. The first is the formal education 

system which stretches from primary to tertiary education. The second is the 

lifelong learning system which provides educational opportunities to those who may 

not have completed formal education, especially beyond the secondary and tertiary 

levels; and for those who want to upgrade their academic qualifications or pro- 

A Cross Analysis of e-Learning for Lifelong Learning in Six Participating Countries of the e-ASEM White Paper Project 5

fessional competencies and skills for the ultimate aim of improving their quality of 

life. Generally speaking, the lifelong learning systems of all six sample countries 

involve three types of education, i.e. formal, informal and non-formal education. 

These two complementary systems are discussed in more detail in the following 

sections. 

All six participating countries demonstrate at least two similarities in their formal 

education systems. First, all six countries have similar structures; with six years of 

primary education, three years of lower secondary education, two years of upper 

secondary/high school education, one to two years of post-secondary education and 

three to four years of tertiary education. Another common feature is that this structure 

constitutes nine to 10 years of compulsory education. These two common features 

contribute to the larger goal of achieving universal literacy amongst the school-going 

age population and to prepare them with the necessary academic knowledge and 

skills to enter the labour market upon completing their studies. 

1.2 Lifelong Learning System 

Despite the fact that formal education can be considered universal in its reach, there 

are still many individuals who do not complete formal education and need to acquire 

valuable qualifications and skills after leaving the system. In addition, there is also 

a need for continuous professional improvement for working individuals already 

equipped with basic formal education. For others, there is also interest to acquire 

additional languages, ICT and other soft skills, in order for them to achieve better 

quality of life. For some countries like Japan, providing learning opportunities for 

an elderly population in an ageing society is of special concern as well. These are 

the rationales behind lifelong learning as an alternative education system. While each 

country may have different motives, all six sample countries have put in place, to 

varying degrees, a lifelong learning system to complement the existing formal educa- 

6 e-ASEM White Paper : e-Learning for Lifelong Learning

tion system discussed above. 

Depending on each respective cultural, social and economic backgrounds and requirements, 

the level and emphasis of lifelong learning vary for each of the six countries. 

In Denmark, a member of the European Union (EU), the lifelong learning system 

is well-organised and formalised. This is evident in that its national education system 

is characterised by two parallel formal systems – the mainstream formal education 

system discussed earlier, and the complementary adult education and/or continuing 

training system. The latter, which provides formal lifelong learning and training to 

adults, can be divided into vocationally oriented and general education, and liberal 

adult education. While Denmark does not have a separate open university to encourage 

e-Learning for lifelong learning (as in the case of Japan, Malaysia, South Korea 

and Thailand), e-Learning in general and distance learning in particular are available 

in all Danish traditional universities to cater to working adults and others to pursue 

lifelong learning. 

Similarly in Slovakia, also a member of the EU, adult education is included as another 

level in its formal education system, and is considered a form of lifelong learning. 

Lifelong learning is acknowledged as crucial for developing a knowledge-based 

society. The government, therefore, adopts a mission to promote lifelong learning 

by providing easier access to education, recognition of new qualifications and promoting 

employment throughout the entire lives of citizens. Apart from improving the 

nation’s labour productivity and competitiveness, another influencing factor for promoting 

lifelong learning in Slovakia is to equip its citizens with the appropriate qualifications, 

competencies and skills required for labour mobility within the EU in 

search of jobs and education. However, Slovakia does not yet have a national strategy 

for e-Learning, particularly as a specific feature in lifelong learning. Like Denmark, 

Slovakia does not have a separate open university. However, e-Learning and distance 

learning are available in their traditional universities as well. 

In South Korea, lifelong learning is provided by Air and Correspondence High 


Schools. These are affiliated with public high schools around the country to provide 

learning opportunities via broadcast and communication distance classes, offline 

classes and personal feedback from tutors. The vision of these Air and Correspondence 

High Schools is to develop a cyber lifelong learning system that can offer e-Learning 

to anyone, anywhere and at any time. Lifelong learning lessons are also provided 

by South Korea’s only distance learning university, Korea National Open University 

(KNOU) through television and multimedia lectures, web-based lectures and interactive 

distance video lectures and there are also private cyber universities that conduct 

courses via the internet. Finally, South Korea also has a Credit Bank System (CBS) 

that allows conferment of Bachelor’s degrees to those who have high school diplomas 

or who are recognised to have the same academic capacity as high school graduates. 

Lifelong learning is considered important for continuous improvement of productivity 

of the nation’s labour force. To individuals, lifelong learning is seen as a means to 

improve employability and income. 

In Japan, the education system differs slightly from other countries, whereby Japan 

has specialised training colleges and miscellaneous schools to cater to the lifelong 

learning society; in particular, the ageing society. These institutions offer practical 

education and training in various fields that are considered useful for performing 

a wide range of social, cultural, sports, recreational and volunteer work, and cultivating 

interests in hobbies and other related activities. Another unique aspect is the 

notion of libraries and museums as lifelong learning facilities where Japanese people 

can enhance their knowledge. As such, Japan has incorporated library and museum 

policies to encourage lifelong learning activities in an ageing society. Japan, like 

South Korea, has set up its Open University as an avenue for working adults to 

enhance their qualifications for better employability and income. 

Malaysia too has a lifelong learning system that runs parallel to the national formal 

education system, albeit it is still at a stage that requires further enhancement and 

integration. Community colleges are considered important as lifelong learning hubs 

for the country, and 43 have been set up since 2000 as an alternative avenue for 


secondary school leavers to further their education. Private distance learning institutions 

and public universities have also been established to provide higher education 

to working adults and many others who have missed their chance to pursue 

higher education. Informal activities organised by non-governmental organisations 

(NGOs) have also contributed to improving the people’s quality of life. Despite all 

these initiatives and activities, lifelong learning has not been fully integrated and 

formalised in Malaysia. 

Thailand’s lifelong learning development is very similar to Malaysia. However, unlike 

Malaysia, Thailand has established a Cyber University which uses ICT for delivering 

courses to their students. Apart from the Cyber University, Thailand has also established 

two open universities that are open to both high school graduates and working 

individuals. 

1.3 e-Learning for Lifelong Learning 

e-Learning is generally seen as the use of ICT and the internet for learning. Most 

of the sample countries indicate that e-Learning is a tool for education. Whether 

or not it is used for lifelong learning has not been discussed to great detail. As 

part of the formal education system, reports by Japan, Malaysia, South Korea and 

Thailand all made references to their local open universities and ODL institutions 

as e-Learning practitioners; unlike Denmark and Slovakia. In the case of the former, 

e-Learning is seen in a broad sense as any type of teaching and learning that involves 

ICT, whilst e-Learning is still a new phenomenon for the latter. The South Korean 

report is the only one that comments on the relationship between e-Learning and 

lifelong learning in its country; whereby the concurrent development of both has 

been central to what it has been able to achieve at a national level. Whatever the 

case may be, each of the sample countries appears to have some form of e-Learning 

that is readily available for lifelong learning. 


2 

2.1 

Concepts of e-Learning for Lifelong 

Learning 

2.1 Concept of Lifelong Learning 

Of the six participating countries, only Japan and South Korea provide definitions 

for lifelong learning. South Korea defines lifelong education (learning) as “the omnipresent 

system supporting the learning activities of anyone serving his/her interests anytime, 

anywhere”. In addition, South Korea’s revised Lifelong Education Act (2008) 

defines lifelong education as “organized educational activities taking place outside 

school”. This means that legally speaking, lifelong education (learning) does not occur 

within school premises. The South Korean concept of lifelong learning also calls 

for recognition of prior learning (RPL) and gives credit for learning experiences that 

are considered equivalent to the level of higher education. In this context, lifelong 

learning in South Korea has included the CBS which allows conferment of Bachelor’s 

degrees to those who have such equivalent knowledge. 

In Japan, the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (or 

MEXT) defines lifelong learning as “any kind of learning which citizens involve in 

throughout their lifetime in order to pursue their realization of lifelong learning society”. 

The term “lifelong learning society” is used to refer to a society where people 

can freely choose learning opportunities and learn at any time throughout 

their lives, and receive proper recognition for their learning achievements. Hence, 

the concept of lifelong learning as applied in Japan covers a wide range of activities 

which includes school, home or social education, cultural, sports, recreational 

and volunteer activities, corporate training, hobbies and learning opportunities in 

other areas. 


The other four countries namely, Malaysia, Thailand, Denmark and Slovakia have 

no definition of lifelong learning. A good idea of lifelong learning in these four 

countries, however, can be inferred from each respective description of practices and 

activities, as well as from documents released by their governments and non-governmental 

agencies. In Malaysia, there are several Government documents that make 

references to the concept and practices of lifelong learning. One of these documents 

is the National Higher Education Strategic Plan (NHESP) which describes lifelong 

learning as “… a process for the democratization of education through the acquisition 

of knowledge, skills and competencies via formal, informal or non-formal means based 

on workplace, experiences or training”. The NHESP also notes that lifelong learning 

is integral to support Malaysia’s human capital development and the nation’s knowledge 

and innovation-based economy. In addition, various other lifelong learning activities 

are carried out by NGOs in the country. Based on these references and examples, 

lifelong learning in Malaysia is understood to be characterised as comprising formal, 

informal and non-formal learning in support of the following objectives: development 

of human capital, a knowledge and innovation-based economy, improvement of individuals’ 

employability and personal development and quality of life. Finally, the 

concept of RPL, similar to the South Korean model, and the Accreditation of Prior 

Experiential Learning (APEL) are considered vital elements that make up a successful 

system of formal lifelong learning in Malaysia. At the moment, Malaysia has six 

operational open and distance learning (ODL) institutions that are approved to implement 

the RPL system. The Malaysian Qualifications Agency (MQA) is awaiting endorsement 

of the APEL by the Ministry of Higher Education so as to allow for 

full implementation. 

Like Malaysia, Thailand does not include a definition of lifelong learning. However, 

it reports that lifelong learning was introduced in the National Education Act of 

1999 as a guiding principle for Thai education to ensure economic competitiveness 

and sustainable development. It also reports that the Government considers lifelong 

learning as the foundation for a knowledge-based society which will lead to sustainable 

development in the country. From these official reports, lifelong learning in 


Thailand can be interpreted as a vehicle to achieve the objectives of developing human 

capital and a knowledge-based economy. Unlike Malaysia, there is no mention of 

improving individuals’ quality of life and employability. 

The European Commission defines lifelong learning as “all learning activity undertaken 

throughout life, with the aim of improving knowledge, skills and competence, within 

a personal, civic, social and employment perspective”. It can be assumed that 

Denmark and Slovakia, both members of the EU, are agreeable to this definition. 

Lifelong learning in Denmark covers “all phases and forms of learning from pre-school 

to post-retirement, in the support of the objectives of personal fulfilment, active citizenship, 

social inclusion and employability, improving knowledge, skills and competence”. 

Hence, the idea of lifelong learning in Denmark appears very similar to that of 

Malaysia. However, the striking difference is that the Danish concept also stresses 

on the role of active citizenship which is conspicuously absent in the lifelong learning 

concepts of Malaysia and Thailand. 

In Slovakia, the development of lifelong learning is influenced among others, by 

the “establishment of conditions for equal and constant access of citizens to acquire new 

and renewed skills which are necessary for participation in a knowledge-based society”. 

More importantly, the development of lifelong learning is influenced by the country’s 

policy to encourage and assist mobility of its citizens within the EU in search of 

jobs and education. 

2.2 Concept of e-Learning 

Among the six nations, South Korea stands unique in its effort to formulate the 

concept of e-Learning. Thus, e-Learning in South Korea is mainly discussed in the 

context of educational technology instead of learning per se. Therefore, its concern 

is technology-oriented; for example, it is concerned with “how to design e-Learning 


contents effectively or virtual learning interface efficiently”. South Korea defines 

e-Learning as “a purposeful learning process through the internet in which the latest innovations 

in education are utilized”. 

For the remaining five countries, e-Learning is seen as learning through the use of 

ICT and the internet. For example, e-Learning in Malaysia is clearly considered as 

one of the means of using ICT to foster lifelong learning. In addition, e-Learning 

is believed to be an effective alternative approach to traditional classroom teaching 

in schools and institutions of higher learning. Based on this concept, e-Learning initiatives 

have taken the form of projects such as MySchoolNet, Smart Schools, 

Computing Tablet, Computerisation programmes and EduWebTV at the school-level, 

and learning management systems, mainly in open universities and ODL institutions. 

In Thailand, e-Learning is defined as online learning via the internet. It is self-paced 

learning in which learners can study within their own capacities and interests. 

Learning content consists of text messages, pictures, audio, video and other media 

delivered via web browsers. Teachers and students can communicate via electronic 

tools such as e-mails, web-boards and chat rooms. 

In Japan, e-Learning refers to “electronic learning which utilises computers and networks”. 

e-Learning was introduced as a substitute for all or part of classroom 

education. Within the formal system, using ICT in blended teaching and learning 

approaches is considered as e-Learning. Asynchronous forms of online learning and 

computer-assisted training programmes in informal education are also considered 

e-Learning. Japan sees both types of usage as a comprehensive concept of e-Learning. 

In Denmark, e-Learning is used as a general term covering all forms of teaching 

and learning where ICT is involved. e-Learning covers teaching at a distance through 

the internet, and all kinds of ICT-supported educational activities such as those for 

self-study, face-to-face teaching, on-the-job training or net-based interaction in an 

online course. 


Like Denmark, e-Learning in Slovakia refers to teaching and learning through the 

use of ICT and the internet. However, Slovakia does not have a national strategy 

for e-Learning and the range of e-Learning activities is generally not well developed. 

3 

2.1 

3.1 Policies 

Policies, Regulation and Funding 

of e-Learning in Lifelong Learning 

It is evident that none of the six sample countries have developed individual policies 

on e-Learning for lifelong learning. Rather, it is common for policies that mention 

e-Learning and lifelong learning separately to be established under the broader themes 

of education, ICT and/or social advancement. The introduction of lifelong learning 

in policy documents is a recent development for most of these countries, occurring 

around 1999 to 2002. The availability of policies also varies – Malaysia, Slovakia 

and Thailand do not appear to have detailed policies yet; however, South Korea 

has laid extensive foundations since 2002 and is already carrying out its second promotional 

plan for lifelong learning in that country. 

The different levels of implementation of the available policies are attributable to 

each respective country’s national agenda/concepts, as well as its economic wellbeing. 

For example, Malaysia and Thailand are predominantly concerned with lifelong 

learning as a means for increasing national productivity and employability; 

hence, their policies have a tendency to address lifelong learning as a means to encourage 

human capital development and create a knowledge-based workforce. On 


the other hand, the policies of Denmark and Japan reflect their individual interest 

in the holistic social development of their citizens. Japan includes library and museum 

policies in its lifelong learning initiative; as these represent important social 

education facilities in that country; while Danish strategies encompass every level 

of learning, from preschool to adult and continuing education as well as liberal 

(non-formal) education. 

In the context of e-Learning policies, each country appears to focus on ICT development, 

its use in education and its role in fostering e-Learning. In general, these policies 

focus on the provision of ICT infrastructure and promoting the use of ICT in 

each country. South Korea approaches e-Learning as a section under higher education 

and vocational training and has established comprehensive strategies to address various 

aspects of e-Learning, e.g. establishing a development plan, promotion system, 

standardisation and cultivation of a professional workforce through e-Learning. At 

the end of its report, South Korea extends some recommendations for further policies 

to make e-Learning more effective in lifelong learning programmes, e.g. in the promotion 

of greater interactivity and multi-way communication, better electronic networks 

and co-operation within government agencies and with other countries. The policies 

of Japan, Malaysia and Thailand refer to e-Learning/ICT utilisation in education as 

a tool for lifelong learning. Slovakia has only recently given focus to e-Learning, 

although its interpretation appears similar to these three countries. Denmark provides 

the only distinctive notion of ICT usage – albeit it is considered important to boost 

the ICT capacity of its people; it is not expressly included in the Danish strategy 

for lifelong learning. 

3.2 Legislation 

Without definitive policies, most of the sample countries have not implemented any 

exclusive legislation on e-Learning for lifelong learning. Japan and South Korea are 


the only countries to have successfully legislated lifelong learning (i.e. the Lifelong 

Learning Promotion Law and Lifelong Education Act, respectively) alongside various 

other acts that affect e-Learning and lifelong learning, i.e. those involving higher 

education, vocational training and financial sources for lifelong learning. In 2009, 

Slovakia approved its act and law on lifelong learning; this law replaces the legislation 

for further education. 

Because there are no exclusive laws for e-Learning or lifelong learning in Denmark, 

Malaysia or Thailand, they are indirectly governed by legislation in education, higher 

education, social education and other related themes, e.g. legislation that controls 

the establishment of higher education institutions and the offering of their programmes 

(including those of lifelong learning nature) in Malaysia; and those that control activities 

in adult and non-formal education in Denmark. Frequently, these also outline 

the roles of relevant ministries and government agencies. Several unique acts are 

also present, e.g. Japan’s library and museum laws and Slovakia’s Trade Act that 

allows its citizens to obtain trade licences for craftwork (that can be used as professional 

qualifications). 

3.3 Regulation 

The information on regulation, particularly for e-Learning, is quite scarce. Again, 

only South Korea appears to have made progress in this particular regard. Its 

e-Learning Industry Development Act provides legal support for various aspects of 

e-Learning, even in areas such as standardisation and certification. In Malaysia, the 

single regulatory body that deals with quality assurance (QA) and accreditation for 

higher educational institutions is responsible for systematically linking different qualifications 

and properly accrediting prior experiential learning; thus indirectly involved 

in the regulation of formal lifelong learning activities. Japan’s lifelong learning regulation 

is implied in its Support for Learning policy. This policy describes a credit 


certification system for adult education programmes, a ‘job card’ system for individuals 

who need to leverage on their vocational skills and evaluation guidelines 

for various proficiency tests. Under its Law of School Education (2007), short programmes 

offered by universities and colleges are also given certification. 

For the other countries, there is indication that specific regulation for lifelong learning 

will be considered in the future. For instance, the Thailand Cyber University has 

included accreditation and regulation as the third phase in its 12-year operational 

plan. Currently, Thailand has already implemented a broad credit transfer system 

even between different types of education. Otherwise, it is clear that most have yet 

to implement any explicit regulation for lifelong learning. Any accreditation or QA 

procedure is also still under the control of education, higher education and/or training 

sectors. 

3.4 Funding 

All six countries report multiple sources for financing lifelong learning and e-Learning 

programmes. Many also discuss financing that is derived through national education 

and training budgets, as well as through payroll taxes and employer contribution 

(especially for professional, on-the-job training). Countries that focus on lifelong 

learning to increase national productivity also allocate funds for vocational training 

and corporate e-Learning, e.g. Malaysia and South Korea. South Korea has also enacted 

legislation for obtaining finances for its Employment Insurance Fund, which is 

the major contributor for all lifelong learning programmes in the country. Slovakia 

(and possibly Denmark as well) receives assistance from one of the EU’s structural 

funds, i.e. the European Social Fund. It is not stated if there is any such regional 

fund for the remaining four Asian countries. 

Informal lifelong learning is generally funded through foundations, donations and 


other such personal means that are not derived from government allocation. An advanced 

country like Denmark has also provided funds for producing digital resources 

for teaching and learning in schools and for developing digital educational materials 

for use in museums and art galleries. Slovakia is particularly concerned with consolidating 

its funds and incorporating this system into its lifelong learning legislation. 

Funding for e-Learning generally refers to provision for ICT infrastructure development 

in schools or other educational settings, e.g. supplying hardware and internet/broadband 

connection. This is a common thread across all six countries; the only 

difference being the level of ICT development in each country. 

4 

2.1 

Status and Characteristics of 


One of the key observations noticed from analysing the six countries is the varying 

states and levels of e-Learning readiness and penetration. e-Learning in the developed 

countries of South Korea, Japan and Denmark has progressed several stages ahead 

of the developing countries of Thailand and Malaysia. This is in a sense not surprising, 

considering that the former countries are, by virtue of their economic strength; 

better able to afford the high costs of setting up and maintaining the necessary infraand 

info-structures that enable e-Learning to take place. However, the country reports 

also indicate that the status of a country’s economic development does not necessarily 

determine the pace of its e-Learning development. e-Learning in contemporary 

Slovakia, for instance, has had limited development and impact on lifelong learning, 

despite the country’s high-income advanced economy. 


Collectively, the country reports indicate that, while funding for the development 

of e-Learning is crucial, what is just as important, if not more so, are such factors 

as the absence/presence of clear and growth-fostering government policies on 

e-Learning and lifelong-learning, the level of national support, coordination and funding 

provided by state agencies or governing bodies, the strength of cooperation between 

private and public sectors, the breadth and depth to which the culture of lifelong 

learning has become ingrained in society, and the proportion of popular mindshare 

that e-Learning has managed to stake a claim. 

Of the six countries, South Korea, which has one of the highest internet penetration 

rates in the world, is by far the most successful in mobilising e-Learning for lifelong 

learning. Through national-level support, e-Learning has enjoyed significant growth 

since 2000 with the introduction of a comprehensive series of legislation, policies 

and plans to promote e-Learning and lifelong learning as a means of enhancing the 

country’s competitive strength as a knowledge-based society. 

Japan, too, has promulgated various legislation and national plans, as well as produced 

policy reports on the subject, albeit, as it would appear, without the same degree 

of comprehensiveness and popular acceptance as South Korea. Japan’s country report 

notes that, largely as a result of the government’s push, e-Learning has been adopted 

and widely used by universities. It notes also that there is clear recognition in the 

country of the potential benefits of e-Learning, as attested by the various government 

initiated measures that have been taken to expand the use of ICT in education. Japan 

has been described as being in “a large-scale transition period”, where e-Learning 

is gradually overcoming various spatial and temporal obstacles that have traditionally 

prevented the masses from partaking in various educational opportunities. 

While e-Learning in Japan is expected to grow and diversify beyond the mere use 

of ICT in learning to involve organisational, technical and pedagogical dimensions, 

South Korea has already actively applied e-Learning for the most part, if not on 

full scale, on all levels, including elementary, middle and high schools, traditional 


and cyber universities, and continuing education (including vocational training, teacher 

training and public service training). 

Against the foregoing background, Denmark, with its well developed digital infrastructure, 

makes an interesting case for comparison. Denmark does not have a separate 

open university that runs programmes in e-Learning or blended mode, like the rest 

of the sample countries, since e-Learning is “a responsibility of all [Danish] universities 

to develop as part of their general educational offers.” Notwithstanding, Denmark already 

has in place a national strategy for e-Learning which aims to increase the usage 

and quality of e-Learning in the country. In terms of e-readiness, it is has been ranked 

as the country with the highest score in potentially transforming digital opportunities 

into social and economic development. Use of the internet for continuing education 

by adult learners is on the increase, as is e-Learning for staff training by enterprises. 

The same upward trend is evident also in the Danish schooling system, although, 

as the country report highlights, the knowledge sharing ICT systems are used primarily 

for administrative use and to supplement conventional teaching-learning, rather 

than for active sharing of knowledge among teachers and between teachers, learner 

and parents. Another interesting aspect of e-Learning highlighted in the Danish country 

report is that, in the area of non-formal adult education, particularly in personal 

development and general democratic education, distance learning or fully online learning 

are of no immediate interest to many schools and associations. This is due mainly 

to the mode in which such types of courses are typically run; that is, they require 

learners to physically attend meetings and to live with other learners for a certain 

period. As well, legal restrictions apply to some school types which prohibit some 

courses from running across municipalities. 

Despite the relatively advanced penetration of e-Learning in lifelong learning in South 

Korea, Japan and Denmark, there remain formidable challenges to be addressed. Some 

of these challenges appear unique to some countries, while others are shared in varying 

degrees across all sample countries. Duplication of efforts by the government 

and the private sector in providing e-Learning to elementary, middle and high school 


students represent an area identified as requiring optimisation in South Korea. Another 

area requiring redress concerns the proliferation of South Korean cyber (or private 

distance) universities at a time when there is reportedly decreasing national demand 

for tertiary-level education. The worry is that this phenomenon may cause an oversupply 

of higher education and threaten the very survival of existing universities 

in South Korea. Concerns have also been voiced about the quality of learning and 

other ethical issues related to the provision of e-Learning by cyber universities in 

general. 

Aside from these, two other issues have been identified in the South Korean country 

report. The first relates to the yet to be realised objective of developing an international 

e-Learning network to leverage on the global applicability of the internet. At 

present, e-Learning in South Korea, although already well developed, remains constrained 

within national boundaries, in part due to language barrier. The second concerns 

the persistence of the “old tradition” of teaching and learning, namely rote 

learning, which is widely considered to be incompatible with e-Learning. (Within 

the dominant constructivist paradigm, e-Learning requires learners to go beyond passive 

memorisation to active co-construction of knowledge through two-way interaction 

with peers and/or instructors.) This too is an area of concern highlighted in 

the Danish country report, which notes that teachers’ expectations from young learners 

may be “rather traditional” and insufficiently flexible to capitalise on collaborative 

learning. The Danish report also highlights the need for Denmark to step up efforts 

to utilise e-Learning not simply as an ICT project but more importantly as a pedagogic 

and didactic experience. 

Some of the aforementioned challenges confronting developed economies such as 

South Korea and Denmark are also shared by the other sample countries. Malaysia, 

for instance, too faces the problem of some duplication of efforts in part due to 

the lack of immediately tangible incentives to collaborate and the lack of comprehensive 

national-level coordination of e-Learning development. While Malaysia has 

adopted some initial policies to support the growth of e-Learning in the country, 


state agencies and the few parties that have actively promoted e-Learning in the 

context of lifelong learning have yet to successfully coordinate their efforts in any 

significant degree to avoid duplication of each other’s work and to maximise the 

limited resources at their disposal. Malaysia’s report underscores that the country 

is currently in the ‘embedding’ stage and has a long way to go to ensure a holistic 

enculturation of e-Learning in lifelong learning. Its utilisation of e-Learning is limited 

to the formal level; as well, there is a clear need for more funding and strategies 

to encourage more players and practitioners to enter the field and to make e-Learning 

more cost effective. It has also yet to establish something akin to South Korea’s 

CBS which allows learners to accumulate credits for the knowledge, skills and competencies 

gained previously through non-formal means. 

Nonetheless, despite these gaps, Malaysia has progressed a considerable distance in 

making available more e-Learning opportunities for Malaysians to continually upgrade 

their knowledge and skills. Implementation of e-Learning has been more active 

at the higher education level, as compared to the school level, although, in the latter 

case, a series of initiatives have been launched to deepen and widen the utilisation 

of ICT in education. The Malaysian country report also highlights for-profit 

e-Learning in the corporate training sector which, although still a relatively new phenomenon, 

has the potential to help accelerate employee development. 

Likewise, e-Learning in Thailand, while yet to reach its full potential or to approximate 

the gains already made in South Korea, is nonetheless recognised as a means of 

expanding educational opportunities for the people. The Thai country report states 

that Thailand already has in place “clear policy supporting the expansion” of lifelong 

learning supported by e-Learning. It places the country at what might be discerned 

as the embedding stage, where focus is placed primarily on establishing the networks 

and partnerships necessary for the provision of e-Learning that leverages on the sharing 

of learning resources and avoids wasteful duplication of efforts. Available literature 

outside the country report reveals also that an array of international partnerships 

has been forged to advance e-Learning penetration in Thailand. Among these partner- 


ships are with Microsoft (Partners in Learning), Intel, Japan International Cooperation 

Agency, UNESCO, and UNICEF. 

Of the six country reports, Slovakia’s is arguably the most candidly revealing of 

the situation on the ground. First, though, it needs to be qualified that the many 

challenges facing Slovakia with respect to education in general, and lifelong learning 

and e-Learning in particular, are not all entirely unique to the country. Concerns 

over the quality and adequacy of national education to meet the demands of the 

labour market in a globalised world, for instance, are shared by many more countries 

than the six sampled here. What is unique about the Slovakian country report is 

the sobering admittance that the Slovakia’s education system has in the last decades 

been insufficiently responsive to the changing world. As well, it would appear that 

Slovakia has the biggest gap to bridge in terms of e-Learning readiness and penetration. 

At present, according to the report, not only is there an absence of a national strategy 

for the development of e-Learning in the context of lifelong learning in Slovakia, 

there is also still no official recommendation by the Ministry of Education to include 

e-Learning as a standard tool in the education system. Among other things, this has 

had a discouraging effect on school directors and teachers who, perhaps due to the 

lack of incentive, are reluctant to include e-Learning in the teaching process. 

e-Learning in Slovakia is increasingly becoming accepted in specific subjects offered 

in some universities. Even then, its utilisation at the university level is patchy at 

best. It is limited mainly in urban areas where broadband internet is available and 

where most universities are situated. e-Learning in the corporate sector is employed 

primarily by big companies with foreign capital or major domestic IT companies. 

The majority of small and medium enterprises do not use e-Learning, while in the 

public sector, the situation differs between central and local state administrations. 

The Slovakian country report highlights several areas requiring urgent redress – areas 

which the other five sample countries too have identified, if not already addressed. 

Legislation and national coordination of e-Learning development are required, as are 

support, funding, and a policy advisory committee. 


5 Conclusions 

There is no doubt that all the six countries recognise the importance of lifelong 

learning in complementing existing formal education systems for greater national 

productivity, employability and improved quality of life. All six sample countries, 

too, recognise the importance of using ICT more broadly in education as well as 

for improving access to educational opportunities and for better utilisation of e-Learning 

in lifelong learning endeavours. In this respect, it is worthwhile to note that the 

development of e-Learning for lifelong learning varies between the sample countries; 

with South Korea, Denmark and Japan ahead of Malaysia, Slovakia and Thailand 

in terms of conceptualisation, implementation and progress. 

While it is universal for lifelong learning objectives to include meeting national goals 

like productivity, employability as well as social needs for improved quality of life, 

there are clear contrasts in its emphasis as reflected in the given policies, funding 

and implementation. For example, Japan emphasises on meeting social needs for an 

ageing society and Denmark is concerned not only with filling in gaps in the labour 

force, but also with the broader social context of lifelong learning for self-fulfilment. 

The other sample countries stress more on the aspects of productivity, employability 

and competitiveness. These differences mark individual concerns and cultural features 

that are unique to each country, and they of course have had great bearing on educational 

priorities that directly address lifelong learning and e-Learning or at the very 

least, influence them on a national scale. 

While the reports have highlighted the current stage of e-Learning for lifelong learning 

in the respective countries, they also point to many weak areas and missing 

gaps that need to be strengthened and closed. It is these areas that provide the basis 

for future direction of developing better systems and features that can be more specific 

to e-Learning for lifelong learning. Each country faces a different set of challenges 


to overcome that are openly acknowledged or at least, intimated in these reports. 

The comprehensive list of recommendations that have closed each report can certainly 

serve as input for developing the roadmap to improve e-Learning for lifelong learning 

in the respective countries. The reports collectively are also a comprehensive snapshot 

of e-Learning and lifelong learning practices in each sample country; and can certainly 

serve as an introductory study for the avid reader. 


References 

Six Whitepapers on e-Learning for Lifelong Learning, prepared by Denmark, Japan, 

Malaysia, Slovakia, South Korea and Thailand (2010). 

European Society of Association Education (2005). What is Lifelong Learning? The 

View from the European Commission. Accessed November 10, 2010, from http:// 

www.esae.org/articles/2007_08_005.pdf 

Han, S. (2001). Creating Systems for Lifelong Learning in Asia. Asia Pacific Education 

Review, 2(2), pp. 85-95. 

Tao, W., Cheng, J., Dong, W., & Wang, J. (2009). East Asia Lifelong Learning Community 

2020: Objective, Organization and Operation. Transition Studies Review, 16, 

pp. 252-268. 


Part II 

White Papers of Six Asia-Europe Countries 

Denmark 

- Lars Birch Andreasen, Mie Buhl 

Japan 

- Tsuneo Yamada 

Malaysia 

- Mansor Fadzil, Latifah Abdol Latif 

Slovakia 

- Alena Pistovcakova, Jaroslava Kovacova 

South Korea 

- Min Seung Jung, Kyung Ae Choi, Eun Soon Baik 

Thailand 

- Thapanee Thammetar, Supannee Sombuntham 



in Denmark 

October 2010 

Danish School of Education 

Aarhus University 

01

Lars Birch Andreasen 

Lars Birch Andreasen Associate Professor in ICT and Education, at the 

Department of Curriculum Research, Danish School of Education (DPU), 

Aarhus University, Denmark. He is MA in Cultural Sociology from the 

University of Copenhagen and PhD in Educational Studies (dissertation on 

““Collaboration in Virtual Learning Environments””, 2004) from the Danish 

University of Education. Contact: lba@dpu.dk 

Lars Birch Andreasen is member of DPU’s Research Programme on Media 

and ICT in a Learning Perspective, and co-coordinator of the Master’s Programme in ICT-based 

Educational Design at DPU. He has co-edited books (in Danish) on digital media andeducational 

design, and on development of students’ information literacy, and he was keynote speaker at the 

6th European Conference on e-Learning, ECEL 07, on "Challenges in Implementing e-Learning at 

Universities". His research interests include net-based collaboration, educational design, creation of 

dialogic spaces in education through social media, and development of e-Learning at universities. 

He is involved in projects on network building and storytelling, educational practice at museums, 

and students’ development of information literacy. In the e-ASEM research network he will contribute 

to the collaboration between researchers in e-Learning and lifelong learning. Lars Birch Andreasen 

is currently on a research stay in Hanoi, Vietnam, exploring developments and use of ICT in Vietnamese 

education. 

Mie Buhl 

Mie Buhl is Associate Professor at the School of Education, Aarhus university. 

From 2005- 2008 Mie Buhl was Head of Department of Educational 

Anthropology and led the development programme of the Department of 

Educational Anthropology as ICT-pedagogic frontrunner. 

Mie Buhl has been a member of the Research Programme on Media and 

ICT in a Learning Perspective at the Danish University of Education since 

2001. She has actively taken part in establishing the Unit of Visual Culture 

in Education at the Danish University of Education, and has been co-coordinator of the Unit since 

2002. Her research is related to the implications of digital technology and media in an aesthetic 

and educational perspective. Currently cooperating with Siegen University, Germany: 

http://www.mediengeschichte.uni-siegen.de 


Introduction 

This white paper on e-Learning for lifelong learning in Denmark is one among a 

number of white papers dealing with e-Learning and lifelong learning in specific countries 

in Asia and Europe. The production of these white papers is an Asian-European 

initiative, with offspring in the e-ASEM network ― the research network on Development 

of ICT skills, e-Learning and the culture of e-Learning in Lifelong Learning 

― under the ASEM Education and Research Hub for Lifelong Learning. 

The objective of the white papers are to focus on the areas of e-Learning and lifelong 

learning, and create a shared knowledge across the different participating countries 

of the organisation, the characteristics, and the innovations in the use of ICT and 

e-Learning in relation to the development of lifelong learning. This may act as a 

foundation for further collaboration between Asia and Europe. 

The white paper on Denmark has been produced by Associate Professor, PhD, Mie 

Buhl and Associate Professor, PhD, Lars Birch Andreasen, the Danish School of 

Education (DPU), Aarhus University. Both are members of the University’s Research 

Programme on Media and ICT in a Learning Perspective, and employed at the 

Department of Curriculum Research. 

Generally the white paper covers the period of 2005-2009, but also earlier resources 

have been used where relevant. In the work with the white paper we have employed 

a general understanding of as well the concept of e-Learning, which may cover broadly 

the various kinds of integration of ICT in teaching, learning, and education, as the 

concept of lifelong learning, which may cover all parts of the ordinary educational 

system as well as activities outside the established educational system. We will however 

make the reservation that even we have strived to include what was available as relevant 

sources of information and research in relation to the white paper’s topic, there will 

most probably be other relevant sources that could or should have been included. 

Mie Buhl and Lars Birch Andreasen, DPU, AU, Denmark, October 2010 

01. e-Learning for Lifelong Learning in Denmark 31

Chapter 1 The Danish educational system 

The Danish educational system is organised in two parallel systems, each covering 

the different levels of education: The mainline education system, and a parallel system 

covering adult education and continuing training. The educational levels of both systems 

are directly comparable. 

The mainline education system consists of the basic school (primary and lower secondary 

school), youth education (upper secondary school and vocationally oriented education), 

and higher education. The educational offers in the mainline education system 

are generally free and do not require payment for the students. Figure 1-a shows 

the structure of the Danish mainline education system. 

The adult education and continuing training system are aimed at people who wish to 

develop their qualifications further after having left the mainline education system. 

It consists of three types ― general, vocationally oriented, and non-formal adult education 

― which are further described in 1.2. The educational offers in the adult education 

and continuing training system are typically financed through a combination 

of tuition fees from participants and subsidies from the state. Figure 1-b further below 

shows the relations between the mainline educational system and the adult education 

and continuing training system. 

1.1 The mainline education system 

Basic school 

There is a ten-year compulsory education in Denmark, stretching from pre-school 

class (grade 0) to 9 th grade. (There is no compulsory schooling, but only very few 


children are home taught, so almost all children enter the basic school.) The basic 

school gives admission to youth education. There is an additional voluntary 10 th grade 

of the basic school, which a little less than half of the pupils choose before continuing. 

In 2008 82% of the pupils attended the public, municipal basic school, which is 

a free offer. Alternatively, pupils can attend private basic schools or continuation 

schools (private boarding schools from 8 th to 10 th form), which are financed in a 

combination of state subsidies and pupil contributions (UNI-C 2010:6). 

Figure 1-a The structure of the mainline education system (UNI-C 2010:8) 


Youth education 

The youth education system comprises of two areas: a) upper secondary education, 

preparing for higher education, and b) vocational education and training programmes 

that target the labour market, but which may also give admission to certain kinds 

of higher education. Approximately half of the students in youth education are enrolled 

in an upper secondary education programme, and half in a vocationally oriented 

education and training programme. Most youth education programmes have a duration 

of approximately three years, but depending on the type the duration may be from 

one and a half year to five years. All young people must be offered a youth education, 

and in 2008 a good 84 % of all youth are expected to complete a youth education. 

The government aims at reaching 95 % in 2015 (UNI-C 2010:11). 

Upper secondary education prepares young people for higher education through 

in-depth studies, allowing them to acquire general knowledge and competence, develop 

academic insight and study competence. Three of these programmes ― the general 

study preparatory examination, ‘studieforberedende eksamen’ (stx), the higher commercial 

examination, ‘højere handelseksamen’ (hhx), and the higher technical examination, 

‘højere teknisk eksamen’ (htx) ― are three-year education programmes with 

an introductory half year basic course and two and a half years in a study programme 

chosen by the students with three main subjects. Stx is usually offered at upper secondary 

schools, while hhx and htx are offered at vocational colleges. 

In a lifelong learning perspective a fourth type of upper secondary education, is interesting, 

because it is intended for somewhat older students. This type is called the 

higher preparatory examination, ‘højere forberedelseseksamen’ (hf). Hf comprises 

mandatory as well as optional subjects, and it is to a certain degree possible to put 

together an individual education programme. It is offered as a two year programme 

or as an adult programme composed of single subjects. 

Vocational education and training programmes comprise commercial and technical 

vocational education programmes, social and health care programmes, and education 


within the field of agriculture. These programmes are intended to give young people 

and adults professional, personal and general qualifications, which are in demand 

in the labour market. They qualify for employment in certain trades, and may also 

give study competence for higher education within the vocational academy programmes 

and certain bachelor programmes. 

In the vocational education and training programmes there are 12 vocational basic 

access channels to a total of 109 programmes (UNI-C 2010:12). The students in 

the programmes alternate between practical training in an enterprise and education 

in a school during their programme. Therefore it is a challenge for the students to 

obtain a training contract (internship) with an enterprise in order to fulfil their 

education. For students not able to obtain a training contract the vocational college 

may organise school-based practical training. 

Higher education 

The higher education programmes are the educational continuation of youth education 

and provide the students with final vocational qualifications. They are categorized 

according to level and duration: The short-cycle higher education, including the 

two-year vocational academy education programmes, the medium-cycle higher education, 

including the three-year university bachelor programmes, professional bachelor 

programmes, and other medium duration higher programmes, and the long-cycle higher 

education, including master’s programmes (candidates) and PhD programmes 

(UNI-C 2010:14). 

Higher education comprises universities as well as minor institutions. Since 2007 

several universities have been merged with other universities and with sector research 

institutions and in 2008 the total number of universities was eight. Furthermore, in 

2008 the major part of medium-cycle higher education was consolidated in eight 

professional higher schools (university colleges) and two engineering colleges, while 

the greater part of the short-cycle higher education programmes are offered at ten 

vocational academies (or “academies of professional higher education”) (UNI-C 


2010). 

Short-cycle higher education 

Most of the short-cycle higher education programmes are vocational academy educations, 

directed towards a specific trade or job function, and combining theory and 

practice. A vocational academy education takes as a rule two years, including a minimum 

of three months’ practice. The requirements to enter a vocational academy education 

are an upper secondary education or a vocationally oriented education, sometimes 

with specific requirements of certain levels in mathematics or English. 

In 1998 a reform of the short-cycle higher education made the access routes broader 

and more transparent, and gave better possibilities for the students of being awarded 

credits if they wanted to continue in a medium- or long-cycle higher education 

programme. In the autumn of 2009, there are 25 vocational academy education programmes; 

most of them are offered at academies of professional higher education 

(UNI-C 2010:15). 

Medium-cycle higher education 

A professional bachelor education is a profession-oriented. One type of medium-cycle 

higher education are the professional bachelor programmes, which are offered at eight 

university colleges, where education of e.g. teachers and nurses takes place, and at 

two engineering colleges. There are approximately 40 professional bachelor education 

programmes within pedagogy, health care, bio- and laboratory technology, media 

and communication, information technology, social sciences, and economics (UNI-C 

2010:15). The entry requirements are in most cases an upper secondary education; 

however, certain vocational education programmes may also give admission, if supplemented 

by certain upper secondary courses. The programmes normally take three 

to four years, including a minimum of half a year of practice. 

The universities’ three-year bachelor education programmes are another type of me- 


dium-cycle higher education. A structural change took place in 1993, when the five 

to six years university programmes leading to a master’s degree (candidatus) were 

divided into two cycles: a three-year bachelor programme and a two-year master’s 

programme (candidatus). Today, all long-cycle higher education programmes at universities 

consist of a bachelor level and a master level. 

Long-cycle higher education 

After a period of merging of universities, there are today eight universities in 

Denmark; five cross-disciplinary universities and three single-faculty universities, 

covering business, technical science, or information technology. The universities offer 

a range of programmes at various levels: bachelor, masters’ (candidatus), and PhD 

programmes (research education), as well as vocational masters’ programmes. 

Admission requirements to the master’s programmes are a relevant bachelor degree 

or another relevant Danish or foreign education at the same level. After the structural 

change of university education in 1993 mentioned above, it has become more common 

for students to combine their education of two different bachelor and master programmes 

eventually from different universities, instead of accomplishing their bachelor 

and master’s education at the same programme. 

Table 1-1 Number of pupils/students in the mainline education system 2008. Cohort, 

intake and graduated pupils and students in the educations 

Main figures 

Basic school 

Basic school, compulsory part 

Basic school, 10th form 

Non-qualifying education 1 

Youth education, total 

Upper secondary education 

Cohort Intake Graduated 

Number % Number Number 

1,171,194 

719,161 

682,110 

37,051 

3,039 

242,735 

118,666 

100.0 

61.4 

58.2 

3.2 

0.3 

20.7 

10.1 

.. 

.. 

63,085 

37,354 

7,657 

102,592 

45,875 

.. 

.. 

69,509 

31,470 

8,721 

62,834 

33,374 


Vocationally oriented education and training 

Higher education, total 

Short-cycle higher education 

Medium-cycle higher education 

Professional bachelor education 

Other medicum-cycle higher education 

University bachelor education 

Long-cycle higher education 2 

Unity master’s programmes (candidatus) 

Two-step master’s programmes (candidatus) 

PhD etc 

38 e-ASEM White Paper : e-Learning for Lifelong Learning 

124,069 

206,259 

18,950 

127,186 

62,460 

2,138 

62,588 

60,123 

4,026 

49,303 

6,794 

10.6 

17.6 

1.6 

10.9 

5.3 

0.2 

5.3 

5.1 

0.3 

4.2 

0.6 

56,717 

59,977 

9,404 

33,771 

16,555 

1,146 

17,527 

16,802 

78 

14,768 

1,956 

29,460 

45,935 

5,908 

26,411 

13,706 

552 

12,153 

13,616 

2,080 

10,423 

1,113 

Note 1: Preliminary figures 

Note 2: Unity 5-year master’s programmes (candidatus) are being phased out and replaced 

by two-step programmes (3-year university bachelor program + 2-year master’s 

programme) 

(UNI-C 2010:20) 

1.2 The adult education and continuing training system 

Besides the ordinary, mainline education system described above in 1.1., there is 

a parallel system of adult education and continuing training. The adult education 

and continuing training in Denmark can be divided into three types: General adult 

education; Vocationally oriented adult education; and Non-formal (or liberal) adult 

education (UNI-C 2010:17). The general adult education and the vocationally oriented 

adult education are formally qualifying for further studies or for the labour market. 

Non-formal adult education (especially in the tradition of liberal education) are usually 

without exams or grades, and are therefore not formally qualifying, but serves 

the purpose of each individual to develop what he or she needs or would like attain 

knowledge about. This kind of liberal education serves no other purposes than personal 

growth. People taking part in it are driven by curiosity to learn new things that

can add new perspectives on how to live a good life. The non-formal adult education 

takes place at folk high schools, in evening schools, adult education associations, 

and at private courses. Thus, the activities take place in people’s leisure time and 

it is not unusual to spend one’s summer holiday on a folk high school. As described 

below there is a long tradition in Denmark of non-formal (liberal) education, which 

is an important part of the understanding of lifelong learning in Denmark today. 

Figure 1-b The connections between the mainline educational system and 

the adult education and continuing training system 

(UNI-C 2010:9) 


A comparison of the two parallel Danish educational systems are shown in figure 

1-b. The figure shows the different levels of the ordinary, ‘mainline’ educational 

system, and the corresponding educational offers in the General and the Vocationally 

oriented parts of the adult education system. The figure does not show non-formal 

educational activities, as it can be difficult to indicate their educational level precisely. 

General adult education 

General adult education comprises a number of different possibilities, which are offered 

by regional and local adult education centres, ‘voksenundervisningscentre’ 

(VUC): 

● One offer is the preparatory adult education, ‘forberedende voksenunder- visning’ 

(FVU), which is a possibility for adults to obtain basic school level skills in 

reading, spelling, writing, and number skills, arithmetic and basic mathematical 

concepts. 

● Another offer is the general adult education, ‘almen voksenuddannelse’ (AVU), 

which is aimed at adults (over 18 years) to more generally improve their 

knowledge in subjects as Danish, mathematics, social studies. The teaching 

is organised as single subject courses, and the courses may be concluded with 

a test that corresponds to the 9 th and 10 th grade of the basic school level. 

● A third offer is the higher preparatory examination, ‘højere forberedelseseksamen’ 

(hf), which was also mentioned in 1.1., which corresponds to the upper 

secondary school level. It is meant for adults to obtain general qualifications 

for further education or to increase their opportunities in the labour market. 

The hf can be studied as single subject courses, and can also be pieced together 

to a full hf examination, that prepares for higher education. 

Vocationally oriented adult education 

The system of adult vocational training, ‘arbejdsmarkedsuddannelser’ (AMU), covers 

a wide offer of approximately 3000 different programmes and single subject courses 


that are aimed at unskilled or skilled workers in public or private employment, to 

qualify them for specific job functions. 

Basic adult education, ‘grunduddannelse for voksne’ (GVU), is an individual education 

plan that builds on a competence evaluation of the previous qualifications and 

experiences of the individual participant, and supplements these with relevant elements 

from vocational education or training programmes. When fulfilled, the participant 

will have the same professional level and take the same tests as in a corresponding 

vocational youth education. 

A growing number of vocationally oriented adult education programmes in higher education 

have been established, that correspond to different academic levels: higher 

adult education programmes, ‘videregående voksenuddannelser’ (VVU), (at level with 

the short-cycle vocational academy programmes), diploma programmes (at level with 

the medium-cycle professional bachelor or university bachelor), and master’s education 

programmes (at level of long-cycle higher education). The programmes are organised 

under the legislation of open education and demands payment of tuition fees. 

To enter these programmes, the participants are required to have several years of 

relevant professional experience. Hence, they are a chance of acquiring academic 

competence as an adult, outside the mainline education system. 

Note regarding table 1-2:. Table 1-2 above shows the number of persons that during 

a year have participated in adult education and continuing training courses. However, 

the participation in adult education and continuing training can be measured in different 

ways. On the one hand, as each person may have participated in more than one 

course, the number of participants in the courses would be slightly higher than in 

the table showing the number of persons. On the other hand, as adult education 

and continuing training courses are often shorter than other educational programmes, 

the number of equivalent full-time students would be slightly lower than in the table. 

Moreover, table 1-2 only shows the number of persons in public adult education 

and continuing training, and does not include persons attending non-formal adult 


education at folk high schools, private evening schools, adult education associations 

etc. 

Table 1-2 Persons in public adult education and continuing training 

2003 2004 2005 

Number 

2006 2007 

Total 346,535 439,569 445,537 442,686 436,934 

General level 83,893 83,586 80,309 74,889 75,489 

Preparatory adult education (FVU) 9,203 11,364 11,423 11,513 11,628 

General adult education (avu) 40,349 37,959 36,888 32,940 34,261 

Higher preparatory single subject 

course (hf) 

34,341 34,263 31,998 30,436 29,840 

Vocationally oriented level 240,792 306,786 317,290 326,906 351,482 

Adult vocational training (AMU) 206,252 278,126 296,505 305,226 331,166 

Open education etc 34,540 28,660 20,785 21,680 20,316 

Higher level 21,850 49,197 47,938 40,891 9,9631 

Bachelor 3,473 11,311 13,800 13,258 455 

Master 2,267 3,188 3,366 3,024 2,026 

Open education etc 16,110 34,698 30,802 24,609 7,482 

Remark: Exclusive of persons in another adult education and continuing training: Danish 

for adults, training of dyslexics, teaching in folk high schools etc. Includes education 

programmes under ministries other than the Danish Ministry of Education. 

Note 1: The figures for the higher level in 2007 have only been updated in part. 

Non-formal (liberal) adult education 


(UNI-C 2010:100) 

Non-formal (or liberal) education has a long tradition in Denmark. It can be traced 

back to the 1800s, where the Danish clergyman and philosopher N.F.S. Grundtvig 

started a movement based on the thoughts that everybody should have access to 

enlightenment and free educational opportunities. It might be said to be a particular 

kind of ‘forerunner’ of the lifelong learning perspective, which emerged when 

Denmark was primarily an agricultural country and many men and women served

as farmhands and servant girls. In those days, the folk high schools were an opportunity 

to get more education and thereby expand the access to knowledge and 

cultivation. A boarding for several months was also a possibility for those who could 

afford it. This movement has influenced the Danish educational system, as well in 

relation to informal adult education activities as in relation to the basic education 

system. Today many still insist on denoting the basic school “Folkeskole” (meaning 

“School of the people”) emphasising that the school is for everybody and is based 

on developing skills and competences as well as cultivation and formation of the 

future citizens of Denmark. This is one of the special features of the Danish Education 

system. 

The folk high schools, ‘folkehøjskoler’, are the most famous example of non-formal 

or liberal adult education, because they have this special concept of personal development 

as the main goal for their activities. This implies a high degree of freedom 

to choose the subjects, content and methods of their teaching. The legislation specifies 

that the subjects must be of a broad, general nature for half of the time, while the 

rest of the time can be spent on going into depth with special subjects and skills. 

Some folk high schools, for instance, concentrate on music and theatre while other 

emphasize sports, art, politics or philosophy. General discussions about important 

topics are common to all the teaching. Because folk high schools are not aimed 

at providing formal qualifications, there are no diploma and no tests or exams. 

Folk high schools are boarding schools, where the participants live at the school. 

About 45,000 people a year take part in one of the short courses (usually a week 

or two), while the longer courses (lasting several months) have approximately 8,000 

participants a year. The minimum age is 17½. Three folk high schools are only for 

young people between the ages of 16½ and 19, and four folk high schools are for 

pensioners. There are a total of 78 folk high schools located all around the country. 

Folk high schools are part of a multifarious system of non-formal education. On 

the Ministry of Education’s homepage, the description says that ”Non-formal adult 


education consists of forms of teaching and education that only to a limited degree 

are part of the formal, public educational system” and that “Non-formal learning 

activities are frequently based on private initiatives by non-governmental organisations 

(NGOs)”. No particular school or professional qualifications are required 

for participating in non-formal adult education. 

All offers are financially supported by the state to keep the tuition fees on a low 

level, where everybody can participate. A list is given of what non-formal adult 

education comprises: 

● Independent non-formal educational activities: evening schools and voluntary 

activity in associations 

● University extramural courses 

● Day folk high schools 

● Private independent boarding schools (folk high schools, home economics 

schools, arts and crafts schools, and continuation schools) 

Regarding voluntary activities and adult learning in associations, in 2005 there were 

approximately 19,000 associations in Denmark, of which approximately 2,100 were 

in the field of non-formal adult education and 17,000 were voluntary associations. 

The adult education can be organised in different ways: teaching, study circles, lectures, 

debate-creating activities, flexibly organised activities, and fees are charged 

for participation. By offering teaching in evening schools many should be able to 

attend. There are approximately 1 million participants each year (compared to 5 million 

citizens in Denmark totally!). 

Another kind of activities is association work. Association work is offered by associations 

in such fields as sports, politics and religious activity, other philosophically 

related and socially engaged work with children and young people, and youth clubs, 

which, within the framework of the law, make decisions themselves regarding how 

they will make use of grants and organise their activity. In 2005 approximately 1.8 

million people took part in association activity. 


The Act on Non-formal Adult Education Activity also includes the University 

Extramural Department and the Day folk high schools. The University Extramural 

Department is nationwide. Locally, there are more than 100 university extramural 

committees working with this activity outside of the university cities. Day folk high 

schools offers adult educational courses (4-18 weeks) and many also offer Preparatory 

Adult Education courses. In 2006 there were 52 day folk high schools with a total 

of approximately 16,000 participants. 

Private independent boarding schools include folk high schools, home economics and 

arts and crafts schools, and continuation schools. The main objectives of courses 

at private independent boarding schools are the interpretation and meaning of life, 

adult education and general democratic education. The teaching must be of a broad, 

general nature. The schools organise their activity on the basis of their chosen core 

values. The pupils live at the school and the courses include both teaching and social 

interaction. The teachers live close to the school and take part in social life outside 

of class hours, and pupils and teachers also eat several of the fixed meals together. 

Pupils at many of the schools take part in the practical work such as cleaning and 

cooking as part of the daily life at the schools. 

Chapter 2 

Concepts of lifelong learning and 

e-Learning 

As mentioned in chapter 1, Denmark has had a long tradition of liberal or non-formal 

adult education. This chapter will draw on this historical tradition in the discussion 

of today’s understanding of the concepts of ‘lifelong learning’ and ‘e-Learning’. 


The traditions of thought behind the development of liberal adult education, inspired 

by the Danish clergyman and philosopher Grundtvig, play an important part in the 

development of educational and pedagogical thinking in Denmark. These ideas can 

be summarised in the concept of “folkeoplysning”, literally meaning “people’s enlightenment”, 

but being difficult to translate in its full meaning. In the 1800’s 

Grundtvig advocated for “folkeoplysning” and the creation of folk high schools as 

a way to improve the education of the peasants particularly to give them the necessary 

qualifications to take part in the growing democratic society. Keywords for the understanding 

of “folkeoplysning” are liberty and active participation, self-management 

and responsibility. But education is only one part of “folkeoplysning”. Another part 

of the concept is activities carried out voluntarily in various kinds of organisations 

and associations. With an emphasis on fellowship and dialogue ― in Grundtvig’s 

phrase “the living word” ― there is not always a sharp line between educational 

activities and other forms of organised gatherings (Bacher et al 1993:5). 

In the development of the Danish educational system the ideas of “folkeoplysning” 

have corresponded with two other lines of thought: The labour force’s wishes of 

enlightenment and education for all, and the employers’ demand for supplementary 

training for their employees (Bacher et al 1993:3). These three influences are the 

background for many initiatives of development in the area of lifelong learning and 

for the various kinds of institutions described in chapter 1. 

Various traditions of thought have influenced the understanding on lifelong learning, 

also internationally, where e.g. UNESCO has had focus on the importance of ‘lifelong 

learning’. Lifelong learning has become central as a consequence of globalization 

and the transition from an industrial economy to a knowledge economy, where we 

are continually confronted with acquiring new knowledge and skills, in order to cope 

with changes in social life and in work life. It is not enough to learn; you have 

to learn how to learn. Therefore a broad understanding of lifelong learning is applied 

as all kinds of learning possibilities and activities, covering as well the ordinary 

educational system, the adult education and continuing training system, and liberal 


adult education activities. All are parts of the concept of lifelong learning. 

One of the common understandings of lifelong learning takes its departure in the 

challenges of the ‘knowledge economy’ and the global competition, and in the realization 

that the traditional education and training system face difficulties in coping with 

the demand for a flexible work force. In this context, ‘lifelong learning’ and the 

creation of a more open and flexible educational system is viewed as needed in 

order to facilitate a higher level of general education and to avoid skill gaps in the 

labour force (Aceto et al. 2004). In this understanding of lifelong learning, focus 

is on development of employability. 

However, beyond the strictly economic perspective, lifelong learning is also to be 

seen in a broader social context, focusing on the value of social and personal 

development. From this perspective it is recognised that learning that takes place 

outside formal educational and training settings may contribute with added value 

to competence development as well as social and personal development. It is also 

recognised that educational systems reflect the attitudes and power relations of society, 

and that educational curricula embody particular pedagogic philosophies (Aceto 

et al. 2004). Therefore, to broaden the access to education and make the social benefits 

of learning available for all, lifelong learning must also encompass informal learning 

activities. 

The European Commission defined in 2001 lifelong learning as “all learning activity 

undertaken throughout life, with the aim of improving knowledge, skills and competence, 

within a personal, civic, social and/or employment-related perspective” 

(Commission of the European Communities, 2001). Lifelong learning therefore comprises 

all phases and forms of learning from pre-school to post-retirement, in the 

support of four broad objectives of: 

● Personal fulfilment 

● Active citizenship 

● Social inclusion 


● Employability / adaptability 

Lifelong learning is about providing second chances to update basic skills, as well 

as offering learning opportunities at more advanced levels. Each citizen have individual 

learning pathways; and therefore the content of learning, the way learning 

is accessed, and where it takes place may vary depending on the learner and their 

learning requirements. The Commission therefore stresses the importance of all forms 

of learning, “including: formal learning, such as a degree course followed at a university; 

non-formal learning, such as vocational skills acquired at the workplace; and 

informal learning, such as inter-generational learning, for example where parents learn 

to use ICT through their children, or learning how to play an instrument together 

with friends.” (Aceto et al. 2004). 

For the individual to acquire new knowledge throughout his or her life, places new 

requirements to education (Qvortrup 2009:2): There must be coherence between different 

parts of the educational system. Businesses and society must create conditions 

and frameworks to support organisational learning along with individual learning. 

There must be an emphasis on inclusion, and the individual must be in the centre 

of the lifelong learning process. 

The concept of e-Learning 

A number of different terms have over time been used to describe what is today 

understood as included in the concept of e-Learning: ‘Online education’, ‘virtual learning’, 

‘computer-assisted instruction’, ‘technology-enhanced learning’, ‘internet-based 

distance education’ and many others. Each of these terms has their special emphasis, 

and all of them describe certain aspects of the concept of e-Learning. 

The concept of “e-Learning” can be criticised for being a contradictory term, because 

it is not the learning process in itself that becomes electronic; rather it is the learning 

environment framing the learning situation that becomes electronic/virtual/online/net-based. 

However, this is a criticism that can be said to apply to all expressions 


denoting an adjective to “learning”, and despite this point, the concept of e-Learning 

has become widely used and is today seen as the general concept regarding the relation 

between ICT and education. 

The concept of e-Learning is in Denmark today used as a general term covering 

all forms of teaching and learning, where information and communication technology 

is involved. E-learning is thus not only to be considered as a term covering teaching 

at a distance through the internet, but may cover all kinds of ICT-supported educational 

activities, e.g. ICT used for self study purposes, ICT as an integrated part 

of face-to-face teaching or on-the-job training with peers, or netbased interaction 

in an online course. A large part of the e-Learning activities in Denmark can not 

be categorised as distance learning, but rather as flexible learning or blended learning, 

i.e. learning situations that combine online activities with physically situated activities, 

e.g. at seminars. 

In their national strategy for e-Learning The Danish Ministry of Science defines 

e-Learning in the same broad sense as a general term covering all kinds of competence 

development, where the content ― or parts hereof ― are mediated through information 

and communication technology. Also communication and collaboration between 

students, as well as between student and teacher, can be mediated fully or 

partly through ICT. E-learning thus covers all forms of learning that is supported 

through the use of ICT (Danish Ministry of Science 2007a:2). 

The communicative and collaborative aspects are especially in focus in the dialogically 

inspired traditions of e.g. computer-supported collaborative learning (CSCL), 

where net-based discussions and student collaboration on shared projects are used 

as key elements in a student-centred learning approach. The focus on dialogue and 

collaboration has been central to many experiments with e-Learning in Denmark and 

Scandinavia, building on the traditions of enlightenment, active participation and 

dialogue. 


Chapter 3 

Government policy, funding & 

regulation of e-Learning for lifelong 

learning 

The basis of the Danish ICT-policy, as laid out in the 1990’ies, is that the Information 

Society is a society for everybody, and that citizens should be considered equal and 

not be divided in ‘A-teams’ and ‘B-teams’ on the basis of their ICT-related knowledge 

and skills. The vision for ICT in education is to ensure ICT qualifications for everyone 

during their education, and that these qualifications accord with their expected future 

needs as citizens and as members of the workforce (Pelgrum & Anderson 1999). 

The official intention is to integrate ICT as a fourth ‘cultural technique’, on a level 

with reading, writing, and arithmetic in basic schools. Realization of this aim throughout 

the school life requires policies that ensure a certain level of digital infrastructure 

accessible for students, teachers and other parties at schools as well as other educational 

institutions. Accordingly, a number of governmentally funded programs have 

been initiated in order to strengthen the access to hardware, software, and communication 

networks throughout the educational system, and in order to develop staff competences 

and ways of integrating ICT in the curriculum. 

Danish strategy for lifelong learning 

In 2007 The Danish Ministry of Education launched a report on the future strategy 

for lifelong learning (Danish Ministry of Education 2007). The report was based 

on the government’s goal for future education that Denmark shall have world-class 

education and that everyone shall participate in lifelong learning. 

The overall aims of the educational reforms are that 

● All children shall have a good start in school. 

● All children shall achieve good academic knowledge and personal skills. 


● 95 per cent of all young people shall complete a general or vocational upper 

secondary education by 2015. 

● 50 per cent of all young people shall complete a higher education by 2015. 

● Everyone shall engage in lifelong learning. 

The strategy represents a political agreement between a majority of the parties in 

the Folketing (Danish Parliament) and aims to ensure future prosperity and welfare 

and investment in the future. A further DKK 15 billion has been set aside over 

a six-year period for new long-term investments in education and lifelong skills upgrading 

until year 2012 as an increased contribution to achieving the set targets. 

The government’s goal is to enhance lifelong skills and should be promoted in all 

parts of society. The strategy of education covers all parts of education and learning, 

shall support and promote individual personal development, employment, active citizenship 

and participation in society. 

To reach the goals the government has set up the following objectives for the strategy: 

● A coherent education system from preschool to higher education must provide 

the opportunity for everyone to acquire excellent basic skills, a qualifying 

education and a solid foundation for lifelong learning. There must be equal 

opportunities and room for all. 

● Education must be world-class. The education system shall foster talent and 

be more accommodating to weak learners. Quality is given pride of place, 

and education must match the needs of the labour market and the society. 

● There must be relevant, high quality adult education and continuing training 

for everyone in the labour market which matches the needs and puts particular 

emphasis on the need for lifelong skills upgrading for those with the lowest 

level of education. There is a shared responsibility to ensure that everyone 

in the labour market is engaged in lifelong learning. 

● Systematic competence development in the workplace should be strengthened 


in both public and private enterprises. Increased public and private investment 

in continuing training and competence development for employees shall 

contribute to improving the skills of individuals and strengthen the development 

of the enterprises. 

● Opportunities for guidance and counselling must be improved and help ensure 

the best possible conditions for pupils, students and adults to choose education 

programmes and to participate in lifelong learning. 

● All forms of education and learning should be based on and build on the 

knowledge, skills and competences of individuals. In adult education and 

continuing training new and improved opportunities shall be created promoting 

visibility and recognition of an individual’s prior learning. 

● Coherent education paths and transparency in the education system are to 

contribute to targeted education and lifelong skills upgrading and facilitate the 

best possible use of public resources. 

● A global perspective must be included in all education programmes contributing 

to strengthening internationalisation and cooperation with the world around 

us. 

● tronger higher education environments are to be created in order to contribute 

to higher quality in education and knowledge development, and a better 

framework and better conditions shall be developed for interaction between 

educational institutions and enterprises and other relevant players. (Danish 

Ministry of Education 2007:8-10) 

The lifelong learning perspective implies initiatives from pre-school to higher university 

level. In pre-school initiatives are taken on enhancing the cohesion between 

day care and compulsory school. In the compulsory school initiatives are taken on 

more systematic and focused assessments on the particular parts of the school 

programme. For instance, it is a major challenge that one in six children still leave 

school with insufficient reading skills. In secondary schools initiatives are taken to 

ensure that more young people acquire a general or vocational upper secondary 


education. In higher education initiatives are taken to ensure that 50 % of all young 

people take a short or long term academic degree. 

In combination with these initiatives lifelong learning plays an important role due 

to the need for achieving new skills and competences through out the whole working 

life. Thus, the national strategy (Danish Ministry of Education 2007) claims that 

public efforts in adult education and continuing training play an important role in 

the development of the qualifications and competences of the labour force and provide 

opportunities for all groups in the labour market and in the population ― from the 

low-skilled to those with higher education, which is based on facts about adult education 

and continuing training as follows: 

● “60 per cent of the labour force participated in a learning activity in 2004 

either in public, private or company programmes. 

● It is estimated that 600,000 persons participated in public general or vocational 

adult education and training in 2004, corresponding to over 20 per cent of 

the labour force. 

● Grants are provided by the State and tuition fees are charged for most adult 

education and continuing training programmes. Educational grants are provided 

for a number of education programmes. 

● In 2004 expenditure amounted to a total of DKK 5 billion, of which DKK 

2.7 billion for educational activities, DKK 1.6 billion for special allowances, 

with employers contributing DKK 1 billion, and DKK 0.7 billion financed 

through tuition fees. 

● Total public and private expenditure for adult education and continuing training 

is estimated at DKK 15 billion in 2004” (Danish Ministry of Education 2007:20). 

The challenges are met to enhance the competences of the working force with the 

following goals: 

● Everyone shall engage in lifelong learning. 

● Adult education and continuing training efforts must be effective and flexible. 


They shall support good job opportunities for individuals, good competitiveness 

in enterprises and high employment and prosperity in society. 

● Adult education and continuing training must provide everyone with 

opportunities to improve competences ― not least those with the lowest level 

of formal education. 

● Adult education and continuing training must reflect changes in the qualification 

requirements and needs of the labour market. (op.cit.) 

The goals should be fulfilled in close relation between the social partners and all 

players in the society, and the government has initiated a row of actions aiming 

at qualification. Guidance and counselling have a crucial role to play for young people 

as well as adults, to fulfil the goals of lifelong learning. 

Finally the national strategy for lifelong learning addresses liberal or non-formal education 

and association life which has a long and strong historic tradition in Denmark 

and which the strategy sees as the key to Danish democracy and cohesion (Danish 

Ministry of Education 2007:30). The following facts give a quantitative picture of 

this: 

● 50,000 participated in a residential folk high school in 2004 with Government 

grants totalling DKK 432 million. The first folk high schools were established 

through popular movements more than 150 years ago. 

● 675,000 participated in evening school education programmes in 2004 with 

municipal grants totalling DKK 175 million. 

● A third of the population performs voluntary work. 

● The number of voluntary organisations is estimated at over 83,000 local 

associations, 6,200 foundations, almost 8,000 self-governing institutions and 

around 3,000 national organisations. 

● A charter for interaction between the Danish voluntary/association sector and 

the public sector was drawn up in 2001 by a working group comprising politicians 

and representatives of the voluntary sector. 


The government wishes to support this through creating a closer cohesion between 

liberal, non-formal education activities and the formal education system. 

The national strategy addresses the concept of lifelong learning from a broad perspective 

which includes formal, non-formal and informal education and learning. 

However, it is worth noting that the strategy for lifelong learning does not address 

the perspective of ICT as an object for learning nor as an organisational tool. 

Danish strategy for e-Learning 

The Danish government's IT and Telecommunications Policy Action Plan for 2003, 

"Using IT Wisely", launched an initiative to promote the use and development of 

e-Learning. The initiative aimed at creating a focus on better use of e-Learning in 

Danish society, and funding was provided to e-Learning projects in small and medium-sized 

enterprises, and to mobile e-Learning projects. 

Boosting the ICT skills of the general public is still a major focus area for the 

government. A study in 2009 showed that there is still a group of the population 

which has not yet embraced ICT, and it is therefore a focus to ensure that Danes 

can make the most of the opportunities offered by ICT, and are not marginalised 

on the job market or within the information society in general (Danish Government 

2010:14). 

There is no special legislation or Act only on e-Learning in Denmark. Instead, the 

development of e-Learning and use of ICT in education have been part of major 

initiatives and funding programmes agreed in the ‘Folketing’ (Parliament) through 

the years, as described on the following pages. In June 2007, the Minister for Science, 

Technology and Innovation launched a national strategy for e-Learning (Danish 

Ministry of Science 2007a). The strategy is an element in the Government's general 

efforts to strengthen the possibilities of competency development in Denmark 

throughout the whole life. 


The aim of the strategy is to increase the usage and quality of e-Learning through 

an innovative use of information and communication technology (ICT), and to 

strengthen the role of Denmark within the development of e-Learning. The Danish 

government sees considerable potential for improved productivity in the sector of 

education and training by increasing the use of e-Learning, given that e-Learning 

can contribute to reduced costs, increased flexibility and improved quality in training. 

In the understanding of the Ministry of Science, “e-Learning” is a general term covering 

all kinds of competence development and learning supported through the use 

of ICT (Danish Ministry of Science 2007a). As an element in the National strategy 

for e-Learning from 2007, a number of major coordinated e-Learning initiatives have 

been implemented for the purpose of strengthening the quality and effect of e-Learning 

within the following target groups: 

● Children and youth 

● Higher-level educational institutions 

● Employees in the public sector 

● Employees in private enterprises 

● Citizens 

In addition, a number of cross-sectoral initiatives have been implemented. 

Programmes for the funding of e-Learning in lifelong learning 

An early governmental goal regarding hardware in the schools, formulated in 1997, 

was to have a ratio of one computer of a recent date (less than five years old) for 

every 10 students by the year 2003, and to this end the government gave the local 

municipalities an extra grant of 15 million USD in 1996-97 (Pelgrum & Anderson 

1999). The goals regarding adequate hardware have been increased during the following 

years, and in 2008 Denmark has reached a number of one teaching computer 

of a recent date for every 4 pupils in municipal basic schools (UNI-C 2010:47). 

Regarding communication networks, the goal is to ensure cheap and quick internet 


connections by having all educational institutions in Denmark connected to the national 

high-speed internet network of educational institutions, the Sektornet. In 1997 

30 million USD was allocated over a four year period to connect basic schools to 

the Sektornet (Pelgrum & Anderson 1999). Since then the Sektornet has been increased 

with greater bandwidth etc. 

The Ministry of Education has over the years launched a number of larger funding 

programmes supporting the development of ICT in the educational system. These 

programmes have been supplemented by funding programmes by the Ministry of 

Science, Technology and Innovation, and by the Ministry of Culture, e.g. regarding 

development of museum education. 

One of the larger funding programmes from the Ministry of Education was a programme 

on ‘ICT and Media in the Public School’ (ITMF) from 2001-2004, where 

340 million DKK (55 million USD) was supplied on four areas: Educational research 

and development projects in schools and municipalities; development of teachers’ 

qualifications through a School-ICT course (a ‘teacher’s ICT license’); digitalization 

of TV broadcasts to produce a library of multimedia learning materials; and further 

development of the Sektornet, so all schools now were connected to the Sektornet. 

During the ITMF programme half of all municipalities and a third of all basic schools 

in Denmark were involved in educational development projects on innovative ways 

of integrating ICT in teaching and learning practices at schools (Rambøll 2005:3). 

A summary of results from the research and development projects under the ITMF 

programme showed that especially two factors were crucial for the creation of a 

change of practice of the use of ICT and media and of school development. One 

factor was to have a clear emphasis on pedagogy and didactics, and another factor 

was the role of the management at schools to create an innovative environment. 

It was of great importance if everybody, and especially the teachers of the school, 

had a clear set of local educational values and objectives, which helped to have 

a clearer understanding of the aim of the use of ICT and media. Therefore, schools 


that had clear common pedagogical goals and common values integrated ICT and 

media in education faster and easier. Other important factors in relation to developing 

the practice of ICT and media use in schools were collaboration and networks, initiatives 

of competence development and personal commitment of the involved teachers 

(Rambøll 2005:11). 

The ITMF programme was followed by a funding programme from 2004-2008 on 

‘ICT in the Public School ― Investment in knowledge and welfare’ (ITIF), where 

a total of 750 million DKK (125 million USD) from the government and local municipalities 

supported investment in upgrade of hardware in schools (e.g. computers for 

third grade classes), production of new digital resources for teaching and learning, 

implementation of knowledge sharing systems (intranets) for schools, and spreading 

of examples of best practice (EVA 2009). 

In the period 2006-2007 the Ministry of Education and the Ministry of Culture collaborated 

on an initiative called e-museum, which supported Danish cultural heritage 

museums and art galleries with 14 million DKK (2,5 million USD) to develop and 

produce digital educational materials based on the museums’ collections, targeted 

at teaching in primary and secondary schools. 

A number of other smaller funding programmes financed by the Ministry of Science, 

Technology and Innovation have facilitated the development of e-Learning in different 

areas of education. In 2007 the Ministry supported the development of e-Learning 

environments within natural sciences or language teaching targeted at children and 

young people with a total of 4,5 million DKK (0,8 million USD). In 2008 the Ministry 

supported a number of projects on developing e-Learning at universities with 7,5 million 

DKK (1,2 million USD). In 2009 the Ministry have co-financed the development 

of e-Learning objects for mobile phones with 3 million DKK (0,5 million USD). 

In the period of 2010-2012 the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation supports 

the area of ICT and education financially with 245 million DKK (app. 32 million 


Euro) that partly are allocated to research and innovation within ICT, partly to the 

development of ICT skills in the population. The granting of these funds, despite 

the difficult economic situation in 2009-2010, indicates that there is broad political 

agreement on prioritising ICT as one of the essential areas which will contribute 

to increased growth and productivity (Danish Government 2010:8). 

A former key phrase for Danish government policy on ICT has been to support 

a development from “learning to use ICT” and heading towards “using ICT to learn”. 

In other words, ICT is a tool for learning, and not a goal in itself. As a further 

development of this perspective, government policy in 2010 is focusing not only 

on the general use of ICT, but on the integration of ICT within each specific school 

subject. Based on a report on ICT in the school (EVA 2009), this perspective is 

discussed further in the following, in part 4.1. 

Chapter 4 

Status and characteristics of e-Learning 

for lifelong learning in Denmark 

In 2010 The Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation launched the Danish 

government’s policy report on IT and Telecommunications (Danish Government 

2010). The report’s analysis of the digital infrastructure states that Denmark is a 

highly networked society: Of households in Denmark, 81 per cent have internet access 

at home (IT- og Telestyrelsen 2009:17), and the digital infrastructure makes broadband 

internet access possible for 99 per cent of all households and companies in 

Denmark (Danish Government 2010:6). The number of mobile telephone subscribers 

per 100 people in 2007 are 114,7 (Dutta & Mia 2009:182). In 2009, in The 

Economist’s E-readiness Index as well as in the World Economic Forums Networked 


Readiness Index, Denmark was ranked as the country with the highest score in order 

to transform digital opportunities into social and economic development. 

Table 4-1 Share of households with computer and access to the internet 1997-2009 


(IT- & Telestyrelsen 2009:17) 

Table 4-1 shows that computer availability and internet access at home has been 

steadily increasing from 1997 to 2009. 

One can say that Denmark is at least technically prepared to meet the challenges 

of e-Learning. However, other investigations say that Denmark at the same time is 

challenged by the development in other European countries, with which we normally 

compete on economic growth. Within the country borders challenges of ensuring 

welfare, democracy, culture and participation for all Danes are in focus. Also climate 

and environmental challenges are addressed. These challenges are to be met with 

ICT and broadband internet as a part of the solution, and have provided a governmental 

initiative: the so-called High Speed Committee (2010). The High Speed 

Committee recommend a double strategy that on the one hand supports the continued 

development of technological broadband infrastructure and on the other hand the 

promotion of a widespread use of ICT in the Danish society. 

The Danish policy is formulated to be a part of the European digital agenda. A 

report from the World Bank shows the ICT-skills of citizens to be coherent with 

a country’s gross national product, other reports show that a well-functioning digital 

infrastructure reduces the costs of public administration, and that citizens with ICT 

skills earn more and have a better chance of keeping their jobs (Danish Government 

2010:9).

In 2009 the last elements of a strategy on enhancing the ICT skills of Danish citizens 

(Danish Ministry of Science 2007b) were brought into action: 

● 17 e-Learning modules of basic training in use of email, internet and public 

web sites. 

● A public campaign aiming to enhance the motivation among weak ICT-users. 

● A national collaborative network on ICT-training ― the ‘Learn more-network’ 

― was launched in the beginning of 2009, and by the end of the year the 

network had expanded to include 16 organisations. The network aims at providing 

citizens with an opportunity to learn more about ICT in the local area. This 

is further described in ch. 4.5 below. 

Participation in lifelong learning 

Besides the above mentioned strategy for enhancing the citizens’ ICT skills, it is 

also the aim of the Danish government to enhance generally the Danes’ participation 

in lifelong learning. According to Eurostat, the Statistical Office of the European 

Communities, the participation in lifelong learning in Denmark has in the period 

from 2000 to 2007 risen from 19,4 percent to 29,2 percent. Table 4-2 below compares 

the participation rate in lifelong learning in European countries in 2007. 

Table 4-2 Participation in lifelong learning in European countries, 2007 


Table 4-2 shows that the European Union benchmark goal for 2010 at a European 

level is to increase the level of participation in lifelong learning to 12,5%. In 2007 

the actual level for EU as a whole was just below 10%. 

It should be noted that the figures in table 4-2 are measured at adults (aged 25-64), 

not at the whole population. The criteria have been whether these adults have participated 

in education or training during the four week period prior to the period of 

the survey in 2007. The table therefore focuses specifically on lifelong learning seen 

as further education or training of adults. Note furthermore that this measurement 

method has as a consequence that the higher number of people over the age of 25 

still studying in the mainline educational system, the higher the participation rate 

in lifelong learning will show. Therefore the government’s campaign of having students 

to complete their education faster than they do today in order to enter the 

labour market earlier, will eventually mean that the participation rate in lifelong learning 

will show a lower figure. 

Using the internet for educational purposes 

In 2005, 17 percent of the population had used the internet for purposes relating 

to education and training within the last month, as shown in Table 4-3 below. Among 

enterprises, the use of internet for educational purposes has increased particularly. 

From 2004 to 2005 the share of enterprises that used the internet for training of 

their staff rose from 9 to 13 per cent of the enterprises. In comparison, the share 

of the population using the internet for educational purposes has only risen slightly 

from 2004 to 2005. The population accounts for a higher figure for internet use 

for education and training than the enterprises do. One reason for this is that the 

population use internet to a wide extent that not necessarily have connection with 

the enterprises’ training activities. 


Table 4-3 Use of the internet for educational purposes 

Characteristics of the use of ICT 

As described in chapter 1, the Danish formal education system is based on a basic 

school (the Folkeskole) with ten years of compulsory education, from pre-school 

to 9 th grade. After basic school, education is structured in two parallel systems: 1. 

the mainline educational system which represents upper secondary school education, 

vocational education, and different levels of higher education and 2. adult education 

which represents vocationally oriented, general, and liberal education. 

The next paragraphs describe some evaluations and initiatives taken on a national 

level aiming to enhance e-Learning in basic school education (4.1). After that follows 

paragraphs describing the youth education system (4.2). Examples are given from 

development activities conducted in the field. The description of the youth education 

system is followed by paragraphs describing initiatives in higher education (4.3), 

general and vocational adult education (4.4), and liberal and non-formal education 

(4.5). 


4.1 The basic school education and ICT 

E-learning in the basic school education takes form of a broad use of ICT. Due 

to the size of Denmark all children have access to school within a small distance. 

Distance learning is not and has never been implemented in compulsory education. 

However the infrastructural use of ICT in schools and use of internet are widespread. 

Almost all schools are connected to high-speed broadband internet, and a series of 

initiatives are taken regarding use of ICT during the basic school education. A report 

made by the The Danish Evaluation Institute (EVA 2009) gives a picture of recent 

developments. The preamble of the report tells how “the use of information communication 

technology (ICT) in Danish schools has been a long time coming; from its 

modest early beginnings, such as the elective ’computer studies’ in 1984, to its present 

status. Today, the Education Act regarding the Folkeskole (Danish primary and lower-secondary 

education) requires ICT to be integrated in the teaching of all subjects, 

at all levels” (EVA 2009). 

In brief, the integration of ICT in basic school education has had three different 

foci initiated successively: 

● The first focus is the qualification of teachers and pupils from specialised courses, 

by completion of a so-called IT-school license (late 1990’ies) 

● The second focus is digitalised teaching material and resources e.g. a shared 

portal (late 1990’ies) and the national purchase of computers for all third graders 

(2004-2008) 

● The third and latest focus is heading at the integration of ICT on a subject 

specific didactic level based on the report by EVA (from 2009). 

The Danish Evaluation Institute (EVA) and the Danish Ministry of Education have 

mapped the use and the experienced implementation of ICT in the Folkeskole together 

with stakeholders in the Danish Educational system. The project was carried out 

during the period of March 2008 to August 2009. Altogether, more than 550 teachers, 


head teachers and municipal employees participated in the various activities included 

in the project. The participants represented more than 70 different schools, and the 

local municipal employees represented more than 50 different municipalities (EVA 

2009:16). The study shows: 

● that many teachers focus on the general pedagogic options and benefits provided 

by the use of ICT - e.g. that it motivates the pupils - and primarily use ICT 

to supplement their ” standard teaching”. 

● that only a few teachers describe how they use ICT for subject-specific didactic 

purposes and in support of specific learning goals. 

● that knowledge sharing systems are primarily used for administrative and 

organisational purposes, among teachers and between teachers and school 

management. Only infrequently are knowledge sharing systems used as a means 

of sharing knowledge/information among teachers, and between teachers, pupils 

and parents. 

● that there is a need for new qualification development models that focus on 

integrating ICT into individual subjects and are more use-oriented, as well as 

being based on the teachers’ specific needs (EVA 2009:8). 

To the study from the Danish Evaluation Institute project was attached an expert 

group, who emphasized that: 

● the school management is the decisive factor in ensuring that ICT is implemented 

in each school. 

● teachers primarily focus on the general pedagogic usage and benefits of ICT, 

as the beneficial uses of ICT vary greatly depending on the nature of the subject. 

● much could be gained by employing knowledge sharing systems for the purposes 

of sharing knowledge beyond the administrative and organisational levels. 

● it is unsatisfactory that teachers and pupils at many schools lack access to 

well-functioning ICT. 


The expert group recommended that: 

● school managements prioritise ICT, and assume responsibility for developing 

ICT usage. Moreover, the expert group concludes that beyond ensuring a 

framework for ICT implementation, it is necessary that the management also 

engages itself in and actively follows up on the quality of ICT usage in their 

school. 

● schools, based on Fælles Mål II (Shared Goals II), focus on the subject-content 

related benefits of employing ICT in teaching, and on the development of 

ICT-based, subject-specific didactics. 

● schools utilise more fully the possibilities offered by the systems, in terms 

of knowledge sharing among teachers, e.g. the exchange of information about 

course planning and learning resources, and to promote communication and 

cooperation, among pupils as well as between the school and the parents. 

● The development of ICT qualifications should be closely linked with 

education-content goals and subject-specific didactics. 

● The development of ICT qualifications should be subject to a more use-oriented 

approach, and a needs-based supply of qualification courses. 

● that municipalities give greater priority to ensuring that ICT equipment be 

operational, and that the pedagogical potential of using ICT in schools is not 

curtailed by efforts of centralisation (EVA 2009:3). 

Another recent Danish study focusing on teachers from compulsory school (1 st- 9 th 

grade) and high school (10 th- 12 th grade) and their evaluation of their use of ICT 

in teaching, were conducted in 2008 by Danish Research Centre on Education and 

Advanced Media Materials. The study’s findings on the teachers’ preferred use of 

different media were that in their latest teaching lessons: 

● the teachers had a high score on paper prints and books for educational purposes 

(appr. 95%) 

● homepages were important for planning and instruction activities (appr. 50 %) 

● there was a low score on visions including web 2.0 and mobile devices (appr. 


8%) 

(DREAM 2009:8-9). 

Regarding the use of the new generation of ICT services ― the so-called web 2.0 

or social media ― it was reported that only 12% of the teachers in compulsory school 

and 10% of the teachers at high school level were using web 2.0-services as part 

of the teaching in the school subject of Danish (mother tongue language). Regarding 

the use of web 2.0-services in the school subject of mathematics, the figures are 

even smaller, with only one percent of the teachers reporting that they are using 

web 2.0-services, and only “to a lesser degree” (DREAM 2009:35). 

Current initiatives 

The portal of EMU, an “electronic meeting point on teaching resources”, at www.emu.dk 

serves teachers with updates and courses within ICT. The EMU portal contains 

a number of subject-specific sub-sites with collections of resources and communication 

of teaching experiences related to specific topics or school subjects. The portal 

has continually updates on new initiatives on ICT in school education. Recently, 

the focus is on the learning potentials from technologies such as interactive boards 

and on mobile devices. 

Gentofte Municipality outside Copenhagen is an example of a local frontrunner project 

within ICT. The municipality conducted a development Project ICT and Learning 

(PIL) from 2005-2007 with the involvement of research. The project had a subject-related 

focus on the relations between digital media and the students’ learning. 

The research focused on the didactics in a broad sense and investigated the learning 

potentials of the web-based activities such as communication within classes and aimed 

to identify new approached to subject didactics and pedagogy. The project concluded 

that the ICT-based educational design is crucial for digital media to be beneficial 

within teaching of a subject. In other words: Educational activities do not gain from 

ICT in itself. Goal-oriented pedagogical decisions are of significant importance 

(Levinsen & Sørensen 2008). 


The latest governmental initiative is published in a set of guidelines on ICT and 

Media competences in basic school education (Danish Ministry of Education 2009). 

The guidelines take their point of departure in the pupils as users of ICT, and in 

light of web 2.0 technology the following four topics are in focus: 

1. Information search and collection 

2. Production and mediation 

3. Analysis 

4. Communication, knowledge sharing and collaboration 

The four topics are integrated to facilitate the pupils’ learning processes, create better 

results and with the aim of supporting that they achieve digital formation. Not only 

addresses the latter how to use ICT, but also to be aware of the implications of 

doing it. 

4.2 Youth Education system 

The youth education programmes comprise the vocational education and training programmes 

and the general upper secondary education programmes. The e-Learning 

perspective is of an increasing importance in these programmes. The national government 

launched a project called the Virtual High School Programme in 2001. The purpose 

was to enhance the implementation of ICT in upper secondary education. 

The first evaluation report on the programme emerged views in four areas: 1) Flexible 

teaching and learning, 2) ICT as catalyst for pedagogical development, 3) technological 

frames and 4) guidelines for specific subjects. The results from the collected 

findings were summarized in the following conclusions (Danish Ministry of Education 

2001:9-12): 

● Enhancement of student centred activities are of increasing importance 

● Lack of technological equipment and policies restrict the possibilities for 


integrating ICT. This includes the nature of curriculum, ICT-competences, and 

the culture of the school as such 

● Use of ICT depends on the interrelation between ICT and the specific subjects’ 

core content and tradition 

● Use of ICT enhance the students’ motivation and support the subject content 

● ICT is regarded as the teacher’s tool to support her/his teaching methods 

The second report on the Virtual High School programme (Mathiasen 2004) focused 

mainly on internet mediated communication. This report pointed out the organisational 

culture of management and teacher development as a central issue. Another 

issue, which is part of the organisational culture, are the mechanisms of inclusion 

and exclusion in relation to gender, intellectual capacity, ethnicity, self discipline, 

and collaboration. A third issue addressed are the roles and functions of teacher and 

students in an ICT-based context. 

A third report from 2005 on the Virtual high school programme addressed the organisational 

level and the traditional culture of high school. The report recommended 

a reframing of high school culture as such. 

The upper secondary school reform 2003 

In May 2003 the Danish Parliament came to an agreement about a reform of all 

types of upper secondary academically orientated programs: Stx, hhx, htx and hf. 

The first students were enrolled in August 2005. E-learning did not take a privileged 

position in the reform. But the reform restructured the courses in a way that opened 

for a change of high school culture and thereby the integration of ICT. Regulations 

of ICT were implemented which placed Denmark in front of other youth education 

programmes in Europe. Use of ICT was implemented in all syllabuses and curricula 

in the high school: 

● Basic ICT competences 

● Virtual teaching and learning is possible up to 25 % of the total of the programme 


● The definition of assignments is expanded from purely written exercises to 

include production of e.g. multimedia products and PowerPoints 

● Permission to use ICT is implemented in examination regulations for written 

and oral performances except from a tool for communication 

● Development of digital examination papers in subjects on hhx and htx. The 

assignments are accessible digitally and can only be answered by using ICT. 

Yet, the final answer must be submitted on paper, and access to the internet 

during the tests is not permitted 

The effect in regard to ICT has so far not materialised and is debated among 

stakeholders. An example is a conference in 2010 as a collaboration between universities 

and libraries about information literacy among high school students. The 

conference debated the fact that there is a gap between ICT in education and the 

use of ICT in leisure activities. A mapping in the national research project DREAM 

(DREAM 2009) document that the integration of digital resources fall behind the 

demands from a modern knowledge based society and stand in contrast to the Danish 

strategy as it is formulated in the vision of the report: Denmark as a high speed 

society (High Speed Committee 2010) where digitalisation and netbased activities 

are crucial in all sectors of society. 

4.3 Higher education 

4.3.1. Short-cycle higher education 

From a general perspective the institutions of short-cycle and medium-cycle higher 

education has taken up the challenge of integrating ICT in the study programmes 

in different ways. So far no overall evaluation has been conducted. The report 

Kortlægning af it-integration i undervisningen på kvu og mvu [Mapping of ICT-integration 

in teaching on short-cycle and medium-cycle higher education] was published 


in 2007 with the results of a national mapping of ICT-integration. The report reported 

on best practice defined by criteria that were categorised as follows: 1) The institutions’ 

ICT facilities, 2) Organisational framework, 3) Use of ICT, 4) Development 

of students’ competences, 5) Development of teachers’ competences, and 6) Quality 

control of ICT integration (Fjeldsted et al 2007). 

The integration of ICT is in the report understood as divided into a three-staged 

process: distribution, communication and learning, in which the evaluators see an 

expression of a general progression of ICT integration in education: 

● In the first stage, ICT is used for distribution of information often via intranet. 

● In the second stage, communication of practical issues related to the courses 

take place ― often via platforms for knowledge sharing. 

● In the third stage, digital media are integrated in processes supporting learning 

through dialogues and in relation to subject specific content. The third stage 

― the e-Learning stage ― entails that e-Learning is comprehended in line with 

other pedagogical methods. This stage is based on changes in the teachers’ 

pedagogical and instructional practice and takes several issues of the profession 

into consideration like methods, learning goals, target group and so forth. 

This third stage was pursued in the search for best practices, and the results showed 

high score on stage one and stage two. In regard to stage three, only 10-20 % of 

the teachers acted on this stage and these teachers were often regarded as frontrunners 

in the area. The development process is, however, often influenced by structural and 

technological changes in the institution which causes delay or put the process on 

stand by. 

The report concludes that in 2007 no best practice institutions can be found on stage 

three. Explanations can be found within the culture and pedagogic of the profession 

and in the expectations from students. For instance, teachers who already execute 

their profession mainly as moderators and supervisors adapt easier the technology 

and integrate it in their courses on stage three. Though possessing some but diverse 


ICT skills, students appear to act in ways that maintain the teacher in a traditional 

deductive role, possibly in order to reduce the complexity of their learning situation 

(ibid). 

The report concludes that the need for change of the teacher’s role can be categorised 

in five main points: 

1. To strengthen the role of the supervisor 

2. To combine the professional authority with communicative equality 

3. To enhance the focus on learning through problem- and project based processes 

4. To enhance team-based planning between teachers and thereby strengthen new 

teaching roles and interdisciplinarity 

5. To strengthen differentiated learning processes (ibid.) 

4.3.2. Medium-cycle higher education 

The following will focus on e-Learning in the medium-cycle higher education which 

takes place in eight university colleges where education of e.g. teachers and nurses 

takes place and in two engineering colleges. This area is in many ways of great 

importance in the perspective of e-Learning in lifelong learning since future teachers 

in the basic school education, in adult education and in liberal education programmes 

like folk high schools and day folk high school are allocated from here. 

Though Denmark is a small country of 5 million people, several university colleges 

offer distance e-Learning programmes for a profession bachelor degree. The distance 

programmes are often located at university colleges outside the two big cities of 

Copenhagen and Aarhus. The distance programmes enrol students who are located 

within the region, but prefer the flexibility of e-Learning for either personal or workrelated 

reasons. 

It is therefore possible to obtain a Bachelor of Education and become a teacher on 

a distance. An example of an e-Learning based study programme of four years teacher 


training is University College Sjælland, where seminars in combination with face 

to face meetings goes hand in hand with virtual collaboration among other teacher 

students. The teachers are in contact virtually with the students during the programme. 

The organisation of the programme emphasises the collaborative aspect of learning 

processes where students are to regard each other as colleagues as well as resources 

for learning. Supervised instructional practice in schools is a part of the education 

in the Danish model of teacher education and can be executed in flexible schedules. 

The flexibility of education must be seen in light of the increasing demands for 

achieving competences throughout life, and this type of teacher education does also 

address potential students, who have already been in the working force for years, 

but with another profession. 

In 2007 the Danish Ministry of Education published guidelines based on the act 

for teacher education, aiming to enhance the process of ICT integration (Petersen 

2007). The guidelines focus on the teacher competences in two ways: as integrated 

general competences as well as subject-related competences based on basic skills. 

In relation to this, development work has been initiated in order to develop the ICT 

aspect as well as the particular cultures of the involved institutions. The various 

institutions do this differently: Some institutions concentrate on distance learning programmes 

(cf. above), others on developing the ICT infrastructure within the physically 

based organisations, constructing centres of specialised knowledge on the topic, conducting 

development work, and reorganising the subjects within a specialised ICT 

area like Ict and learning, or focusing on ICT in relation to subject didactics, didactic 

issues in relations to technology, or didactic issues in the development of digital 

learning resources in cross cutting cooperation between colleges and universities. 

4.3.3. Long-cycle higher education 

In this paragraph e-Learning activities at universities in Denmark will be discussed. 

Unlike other countries like England, Korea or Portugal, there have not in Denmark 

been established a separate Open University with the purpose of offering distance 


education or e-Learning possibilities in higher education. Instead, e-Learning and distance 

learning have been a responsibility of all universities to develop as part of 

their general educational offers. 

Through different kinds of initiatives universities have been experimenting with integrating 

various kinds of e-Learning activities in their educational programmes. Often 

e-Learning elements are integrated in university teaching in the form of blended learning, 

where online activities are combined with face-to-face activities. 

Like in many other countries, all universities in Denmark have established e-Learning 

platforms, or learning management systems (LMS), making it possible for the majority 

of courses to have specific resources as well as basic course information available 

online. The platforms may act as a kind of intranet to the students, and open 

up for other online activities as well. But the acquisition of an LMS does not in 

itself create new learning activities, and as OECD’s Centre for Educational Research 

and Innovation (CERI) summarizes in a study from 2005: “ICT has penetrated tertiary 

education, but has had more impact on administrative services (e.g. admissions, registration, 

fee payment, purchasing) than on the pedagogic fundamentals of the 

classroom.” (OECD/CERI 2005). Regarding the change of pedagogics, it is stated 

in a book on Global perspectives on e-Learning, that the rapid introduction of course 

management tools like Blackboard and WebCT are in risk of having the effect of 

actually reducing e-Learning’s impact on the way most faculty at universities teach, 

because it is almost too easy to transfer the existing standard teaching materials to 

the web (Zemsky & Massy 2005:248). 

In the following we will focus on initiatives aiming at utilising e-Learning to have 

an impact on the traditions of teaching and learning at universities. 

Such initiatives may for instance be found at the Faculty of Life Sciences at the 

University of Copenhagen. In a report by the Faculty’s IT Learning Center (ITLC 

2010), two online course examples are described and analysed; a Participatory Forest 


Management course, and a course on Climate Change. 

Participatory Forest Management is an online course with a few and voluntary 

face-to-face sessions during the course. It is a core course in the specialisation on 

Tropical Forestry at the Master in Agricultural Development at the university, and 

has been offered through the latest five years. 

Climate Change ― Impacts, Adaptation and Mitigation is an interdisciplinary course 

offered in cooperation between Copenhagen University, Danish Meteorological 

Institute, UC Berkeley and Australian National University, and is offered fully online. 

The course was supported by the development pool of the Ministry of Science, 

Technology and Innovation for promoting e-Learning at the universities. It was offered 

for the first time in 2009, where 60 participants from 25 countries studied 

via the Internet to qualify as climate experts, focusing on how to prevent and reduce 

climate changes and how to adapt to future climate changes. 

Both courses attracted a mix of Danish and international students. The courses are 

internet based and consist of weekly modules, each containing five activities during 

the week. These activities may be multiple choice tasks, essay assignments individually 

or in groups, and mediated online discussions with the aim of creating 

new knowledge on the basis of a relatively structured discussion input. Each module 

has a common structure, with deadlines for the different activities during the week, 

and each with a web page structure of Introduction, Overview, Study guide, E-lessons 

(exercises), and Learning resources. Each week a new module is opened for the enrolled 

students (ITLC 2010:5). 

A team of teachers have developed the courses. During the course the students are 

divided in four groups of 12-15 students in each. Each group of students has a teaching 

assistant attached, e.g. a PhD student, who acts as their general contact person, 

and takes care of the daily moderation of the online discussions in the group. 


From the beginning of the e-Learning initiative at the Faculty the goal was to develop 

online teaching that would reassure that students were engaged actively and did not 

loose their motivation for participation during the course of study, which is a challenge 

for online education generally. The Faculty and the IT Learning Center have 

developed a shared understanding of e-Learning pedagogy, through the British professor 

Gilly Salmon’s teaching method based on student involvement in five stages. 

The applied pedagogical method has as its key points: Socialising and establishment 

of an online community; combining online discussions and tests; and focusing on 

the frames of the teaching environment (ITLC 2010:11). 

The point of departure for the model is that online students have more challenges 

to cope with than campus-based students, because they have to learn to use a LMS, 

concentrate on the subject content, and overcome the challenge of written communication. 

The method is furthermore cheap and simple, and can be applied with 

only an internet connection and a discussion tool. 

The analysis shows generally that online education can not be viewed as an ICT 

project, but as a complex structure and interplay of organisational, technical and pedagogical 

factors. To include this already in the planning of an e-Learning strategy 

is seen as having an impact on the success of the e-Learning activities (ITLC 2010:1). 

At the moment there are no further evaluations of the outcome of these initiatives, 

but it will be worth following the future development and impact of these kinds 

of e-Learning courses in higher education. 

Another example of e-Learning in a long-cycle higher education with a specifically 

developed pedagogical method, is presented and discussed in chapter 5.1., on the 

vocational Master’s programme, the Master of ICT and Learning (MIL). Among the 

vocationally oriented part-time Master’s programmes in Denmark, there are generally 

higher shares of programmes organized as flexible learning, partly because these programmes 

are aimed at adult students that may have family obligations and a job 

in their profession while studying. 


4.4 General and vocational adult education 

In the parallel adult education and continuing training system (cf. chapter 1.2.), 

e-Learning initiatives have also been developed. In the regional and local adult education, 

a number of courses at different levels are possible to accomplish as self-study 

courses with resources available through the internet. These courses are generally 

organised as self-study courses. To support the participants in their self-studying activities, 

some adult education centres have established rooms with computer and internet 

facilities where the students can work, with a possibility of meeting other students 

or a counsellor at the centre. This gives the participants a flexible opportunity to 

practice and study at the time and place that suits them best, at home or at the 

education centre. 

The learning of ICT skills is among the basic skills, a number of people need to 

obtain. This may take place in various contexts. By the end of 2009 the Ministry 

of Science, Technology and Innovation cooperated with other ministries in order to 

make a survey of the current opportunities for adults to achieve ICT skills in 

Denmark. The survey was published in the spring 2010 (Rattleff & Henriksen 2010) 

and shows a comprehensive and diversified programme of courses targeted adults 

at all levels and at all costs. 

The survey also looked at other sides of how ICT skills are achieved, which are 

of interest to the e-Learning in a lifelong learning perspective. The report makes 

a distinction between intentional and incidental learning situations. The two different 

learning situations are compared to workplace learning and leisure time learning. The 

intentional learning situations are represented by the course programmes which may 

take place in workplaces as well as in leisure time. The incidental learning situations 

are of a more random nature. In work places, they typically take the forms of exchange 

of experience with a colleague or by apprenticeship. In leisure time activities, 

the learning situations emerge from the exchanges with friends and family. The two 


learning situations and the two learning places indicate the complexity of the lifelong 

learning perspective when it comes to ICT-skills and competences. 

The report addresses another aspect of learning: the participants’ experience of a 

need for change as an inner motivation. When adults enter a learning programme 

they need to see the utility value of it as a motivational source. Furthermore, other 

barriers must be overcome. The report refers to both the costs of the course, the 

mental demands and the time invested in it. The report refers to research by Jarvis, 

Schein and Kotter, that accentuates the break with routines as a demanding and difficult 

change. Thus, the individual needs to be brought to realize the necessity of 

change in order to break the routine of a practice which appears to be sufficient 

to the demands (Rattleff & Henriksen 2010: 57). 

Workplaces and mobile learning 

As described in table 4-3 earlier, the number of enterprises using the internet for 

training of staff rose from 9 to 13 per cent from 2004 to 2005 (newest figures). 

As a way of further enhancing the use of e-Learning as part of workplace learning, 

the Ministry of Science has put forth some initiatives, e.g. a support programme 

targeted at development of mobile learning initiatives. Instead of understanding 

e-Learning as something that is fixed to a computer with a mouse and a keyboard, 

the new technological developments have made ICT-based activities much more flexibly 

available, even in ordinary situations of daily life, through mobile phones. 

Among mobile learning projects supported by the Ministry of Science are a project 

aimed at truck and bus drivers, with a supplementary course on energy-saving driving 

techniques, which is build-up through mobile text messages, video clips and communication 

with a tutor. 

Another project are aimed at people in the building industry with reading difficulties, 

where a mobile phone with camera is used to having texts from the student’s daily 

life read aloud by an application on the phone. This is combined with mobile e-Learning 


modules for training reading skills. 

A third project is developed by Adult Education Centres and are aimed at social 

and health care assistants, who may put together their personal e-Learning course 

by downloading to their mobile phone or pda a number of small basic modules with 

a combination of picture, sound, video and text on subjects in which they have a 

need to enhance their skills. 

4.5 Liberal and non-formal education 

The non-formal programmes of lifelong learning are a wide range of activities and 

courses. They can be initiated and/or supported by the public authorities as well 

as private courses. An overview and some examples on the use of ICT in the area 

of liberal and non-formal education will be given here. 

At a first glimpse, there may be far between e-Learning development and the traditions 

of non-formal adult education. The emphasis on personal development and general 

democratic education through personal meeting and living with other people 

physically present has so far made the distance learning or fully online learning of 

no immediate interest to many schools and associations in the non-formal education 

area. Also legal restrictions apply for some school types; for example adult education 

associations are only allowed to organize courses locally, not covering more municipalities; 

and at folk high schools participants are required to live at the school, thereby 

making e-Learning activities less relevant in these situations. 

However, there are other initiatives in relation to the use of ICT in liberal and non-formal 

education: Folk high schools have made courses exploring ‘Social Media and 

Society’. The association of folk high schools have joined the digital age by being 

active on social media. Adult education associations are offering a high number of 


courses that qualify people in the use of ICT, in relation to specific tasks as well 

as in relation to more generally being a citizen in a modern society. A number of 

institutions outside the formal educational sector ― like museums, science centres, 

and libraries ― have developed activities and offers involving the use of ICT for 

learning purposes, that may be used by classes and students, as well as by private 

citizens. Some of these will be further described below. 

In a course on ‘Social Media and Society’ at Grundtvigs Højskole (a Danish folk 

high school) in 2010, the participants engage in exploring and debating the significance 

of the new social media in relation to democracy, politics, social movements, 

private life, and enterprises. Following the historic traditions of the folk high 

schools as an actor in creating a democratic society, the participants in the course 

investigate the use of social media for creating democratic discussions and public 

debates. This kind of debates may take place on the internet, or they may be organized 

in a combination of the physical and the virtual, where people gather in big ‘town 

hall meetings’ and where hundreds of simultaneous round table discussions through 

the use of ICT and social media can collaborate to produce a shared result. 

Another way of using social media is through the homepage of the Danish folk 

high school association http://www.folkehojskoler.dk/media, which is linked to Facebook 

and has approximately 2.700 fans. In a recent campaign Danish celebrities act as 

ambassadors with small gimmicks on Youtube supporting the folk high school. The 

social media are also used so that people from outside can get an impression of 

the daily life on folk high schools by watching a small video http://www.youtube.com/ 

user/hojskolerne. The House of the Folk High Schools planned a flash mob* on the 

music festival Roskilde festival 2010, where participants should freeze in front of 

the main stage (Orange Scene), thereby making a statement for the special offer 

of the folk high schools. (* A flash mob is a large group of people, often organized 

through the internet, who assemble suddenly in a public place to perform an unusual 

act for a brief time, and then disperse.) 


Non-formal education are also facilitated by other than educational institutions, e.g. 

by cultural institutions as libraries and museums. They are not part of the formal 

educational system, but both kinds of institutions have as a part of their basic purpose 

to enhance people’s possibilities of gaining knowledge. This may happen on a voluntary 

basis as citizens, or on an institutional basis as students in a class or programme 

that uses the educational offers from libraries or museums. Libraries are for instance 

part of the Learn More network described below, and in chapter 5.2 further below 

the role of museums and science centres are discussed. 

‘Learn More about ICT’ 

As a part of the national strategy of e-Learning, the Ministry of Science, Technology 

and Innovation has taken an initiative to start a network, ‘Learn More about ICT’, 

where various organisations collaborate to enhance the Danish citizens’ ICT-skills 

and their competences to teach other citizens. The ‘Learn More network’ was 

launched in the beginning of 2009 and aims at providing citizens with an opportunity 

in their local area to learn more about ICT. The network members has developed 

and published 60 teaching materials on ICT; materials that function as an open resource 

(Danish Government 2010:15). 

The background for the Learn More network initiative is that Denmark in many 

ways is technically ready to use ICT. A lot of public services becomes ICT- based: 

how we pay taxes, communication with public services in our municipalities, communication 

with our national health care system, e.g. if one want to make an appointment 

with one’s doctor. If this should work for all citizens, they have to achieve the skills 

and competences of using ICT. 

What the Ministry has done is to engage with various organisations that have an 

interest in non-formal education of their members. The idea is to build a network 

of users, draw on the ideas of non-formal education for everybody and at the same 

time draw on the experience from formal education. The organisations in the network 

are both contributors and users of online e-Learning resources, and the developed 


educational materials are uploaded and shared at a public website. 

The Learn More network initiative is an example of e-Learning for lifelong learning, 

and how the Danish tradition of folk high school is transferred to an initiative of 

the state, drawing on the tradition of free educational opportunities. 

Self-directed learning 

The use of free educational opportunities is in the centre of the possibilities that 

are available through the facilities of web 2.0 or social media that have evolved 

during the latest decade. Through social media ordinary citizens can produce and 

exchange all kinds of resources in various kinds of modalities ― text, pictures, videos 

etc. ― and share them on web sites like YouTube (for video sharing), Flicker or 

DeviantArt (for picture sharing), GoogleDocs (for text sharing and production) and 

others. A number of resources on these sites may be used in the pursuit of learning 

more about a specific subject of interest. Thereby citizens can use each other as 

resources for knowing more, without being dependent of an educational institution 

in order to have access to new knowledge. 

Figure 4-a A YouTube Search for basic instructions 


For instance a young person wanting to learn how to play an instrument may find 

some basic instructional videos on YouTube, uploaded by other people who want 

to share what they have learnt, as showed in figure 4-a. Afterwards a Google search 

may lead the ‘self-directed student’ to web sites with texts and chords to a number 

of songs that he or she wants to practice. This may be supplemented by free versions 

of software that explains interactively how to play certain chords in different ways. 

In the course of these steps a basic musical education is obtained through self-directed 

learning activities. These activities utilises the possibilities available through the new 

kinds of social media on the internet, and are examples of informal ways of developing 

e-Learning for lifelong learning. Though, most of the self-directed learning activities 

on e.g. YouTube aim at the development of particular skills rather than more 

complex learning processes. 

Chapter 5 

Typical cases of e-Learning for 

lifelong learning 

In this chapter we will present two cases of ICT-use in different areas of lifelong 

learning. The first case is a vocational Master’s Programme ― the Master in ICT 

and Learning ― that is from the formal education area, which means that it provides 

the students with a Master’s degree, and the courses are credited in the ECTS system. 

The second case is from the informal education area, dealing with how museums 

and science centres may be used as digital learning environments, either by museum 

visitors or web site users, or by students from different areas of the ordinary education 

system. In this way the two cases describe different ways of unfolding e-Learning 

in lifelong learning. 


5.1 The Master’s Programme in ICT and Learning (MIL) 

In Denmark, vocational master degrees were established in the late 1990’es, partly 

as an attempt to provide better cooperation within further and continuing education 

between universities and working life, and at the same time due to a European coordination 

of the structure of university studies. 

MIL ― The Master Programme in ICT and Learning ― is an example of a vocational 

Master’s degree, established in the year 2000, and aimed not at young people directly 

out of the bachelor studies, but at people with a couple of years of working experience, 

who wants to qualify themselves further. In the following we will present and 

discuss MIL as an example of e-Learning and lifelong learning in the formalised 

adult educational system. 

MIL is aimed at professionals in Information Communication Technology and 

Learning. It is based on the principles of problem and project based learning, and 

is organised as a two-year, part-time programme, equivalent to one year of full time 

study, that is 60 ECTS credit points. 

Students 

In order to enter the programme, students have to have at least two years of relevant 

practice and the formal requirements of a bachelor (or professional bachelor) degree. 

The students have a very diverse background. Approximately two thirds of the students 

come from work in the field of education (all levels), and one third comes 

from business (human resource and ICT). The distribution between men and women 

are fifty-fifty, and the students come from all around Denmark (Dirckinck-Holmfeld 

2010:552). 

Typically the students at MIL are not running for an academic career. They are 

very engaged in their workplace, and the motivation for studying are often to get 


a better position in their organisation or to get a new job in another organisation. 

The Master’s programme 

MIL was established in the year 2000, and each year 30-40 new students enter the 

MIL programme. As something unique within a Danish context five universities work 

together in offering MIL as a joint programme: Aalborg University (AAU), Aarhus 

University (AU), Copenhagen Business School (CBS), The Danish School of 

Education (DPU) (now a part of AU), and Roskilde University (RUC). That the 

five universities established a joint programme instead of five competing programmes 

provided volume and increased the quality of the learning environment by engaging 

students in different research environments throughout their education. This has also 

resulted in collaborative research activities between the researchers that teach on the 

programme. 

MIL is organised as a flexible and blended learning environment with periods of 

different kinds of online course activities supported by seminars and workshops: three 

two-and-a-half day residential seminars a year, a one-day project seminar, and a day 

for the final examinations. The seminars take place alternating between the involved 

universities, and are organised as joint seminars for both year groups of students 

in the programme. During the two years of study, the programme is made up of 

four course modules, one project module, and the thesis ― all in all 60 ECTS-points. 

For people with a normal job besides their study it is urgent to create a clear structure 

with well-defined goals for every part of the curriculum. Therefore MIL is structured 

as a modular system, with half of the modules as courses and half of the modules 

organized as project work. The experience has been that it shall be possible to finish 

a course in a relatively limited time span to secure the combination of knowledge 

acquisition, reflections and integration into practice (Fibiger et al 2004). 

The pedagogy 

MIL is based on a pragmatic concept of problem and project based learning adapted 


to the virtual conditions of the study programme. The pedagogical model of MIL 

incorporates a series of integrated didactical principles: problem formulation, enquiry 

of exemplary problems, participant control, joint projects, dialogues, net-based discussions 

and collaboration, interdisciplinary approaches, and action learning. 

The problem and project based learning pedagogy is a dynamic pedagogy in the 

sense that students bring in new research problems from their own practice to study, 

while using theories, concepts and methods from academia. The students work not 

only with input and inspiration from teachers, but also from each other, so the studying 

context makes them a group of experienced practitioners (Fibiger et al 2004). 

The MIL programme works with a combination of strong and weak ties between 

students. Students are organised in “big groups” of 30-40 students in each year group, 

and within these big groups students are connected by weak ties, where they connect 

more occasionally. At the same time students work in “project groups” of 3-6 students, 

where the students intentionally are connected by strong ties around a shared 

research project and a shared problem formulation (Dirckinck-Holmfeld 2010:554). 

The type of e-Learning brought into practice at MIL emphasises the importance of 

collaborative aspects of learning and the cooperative possibilities available in online 

learning. Organising the students in project groups invite the students to work together 

in a horizontal and dialogical manner and to create knowledge that transcend the 

knowledge of themselves as individuals. The point of view is that collaboration 

strengthen the individual learning process of the students, and at the same time make 

the study life more motivating and also more easy to maintain, when the students 

are responsible to others and not only themselves. Most of the students in the programme 

want to work in groups; however, for some students it is difficult to organize, 

because they at the same time want to work with research questions from their own 

practice. 

During the courses and projects at MIL the students engage in online collaboration 


and production through different kinds of software tools, some of which are made 

available by the MIL programme, and others of which the students choose to implement 

themselves. 

Figure 5-a A group of MIL students’ use of an online workspace 

Figure 5-a shows the front page of a group space in the FirstClass system used at 

MIL. It illustrates how a group of students organises a group space with different 

folders for different purposes. 

Some of the course modules at MIL emphasize the use of computer conferences 

or other asynchronous communication tools for online discussions, involving the students 

as initiators or moderators of certain areas of the discussions. In other course 


modules the students work in groups on shared online productions. During the students’ 

project work each group administer their own group spaces in the FirstClass 

system used at MIL, supplemented by online meeting environments with video and 

shared screen facilities (Adobe Connect). The students often expand their communication 

possibilities with other tools, e.g. a wiki for easy shared production, or Skype 

for easy online meetings. 

Online network and physical seminars 

The networked environment at MIL gives flexibility, which is most needed for the 

students, many of which are busy professionals that have demanding schedules and 

family life to take care of along with the study. The MIL programme strives to 

combine ways of bringing the students together in a virtual environment supported 

by a few residential seminars, and this combination seems to fit the students in the 

programme. The physical environment is not meant to be superior to the virtual, 

or vice versa, but is meant as different modes of communication, which supplement 

each other. 

5.2 

Museums and Science Centres as digital learning 

environments 

This paragraph describes an area of lifelong learning which is exemplified by the 

sector of museums and science centres and where e-Learning is interpreted in various 

ways. Firstly, initiatives are described where museum contribute to the formal education 

system by offering educational activities; secondly the initiatives are described 

which aims to enhance learning in the perspective of liberal education. 

5.2.1 Museums’ contribution to formal education 

Over the past years, the Ministries of Culture and Education have taken initiatives 

that operate in the borderland between cultural enlightenment and education. The 

initiatives are based on an increasing interest in ideas of user involvement, user driven 


innovation and in the user perspective in regard to digital dissemination of cultural 

heritage. 

Denmark has hundreds of museums, which comprise large national collections as 

well as small private collections. There are approximately 120 museums in Denmark 

funded by state subsidies, while approximately 10 are owned by the state. 

Several museums have developed a department for educational activities. The activities 

can be commissioned by schools from pre-school to the upper secondary level. 

They invite schools to come and experience the facilities of the museum. The goal 

of these activities is a mixture of dissemination of cultural heritage and formal 

education. This new zone of collaboration comprises a big challenge to the stakeholders 

and gives rise to discussions and evaluations. Digital resources add new perspectives 

to the questions of the different areas of expertise and their different goals 

for activities. The homepage of the managing institution The Heritage Agency 

(www.kulturarv.dk/english/home/), a body under the Ministry of Culture, operates a 

number of databases (www.kulturarv.dk/english/databases/), where a national overview 

of various aspects of Denmark's cultural heritage is accessible. The agency does also 

give financially support to museums wishing to digitalise their analogue collections 

and registers, primarily by scanning them, and to cultural institutions that develop 

new digital dissemination methods. 

A publication from Kulturarvsstyrelsen (Løssing 2009) presents some trends within 

the field. The trends are driven by inspirations from social media where user sharing, 

commenting and producing are central activities. The users’ preferences for participation 

give rise to reframing the museum practice of dissemination and communication 

of collections. The cultural heritage is also seen as database for educational 

activities and a part of the agency’s financial support are aimed for development 

of digital learning resources. 

In 2009 a nationwide project of developing digital learning resources ― e-museum 


― was established. 36 museums and science centres were conducting projects focusing 

on how to make new museum practices and to disseminate cultural heritage. 

The outcome was analysed in an evaluation report (Oerngreen & Levinsen 2009), 

the design and functionality of the resources were examined for their learning 

potentials. Furthermore, the examination was made in regard to cost benefit as well 

as the quality of navigation design. 

The analysis placed the product types in groups which refer to mixed products of 

leisure and school activities. One category is interactive games. The report describes 

that these games refer to different game genres: explorative adventures, strategy 

games and combinations, and that they focus on a so to speak win/loose situation 

driven by game rules. Another category is simulation which aims to give an experience 

of exploring an environment as if it was real. A third category comprise of 

narratives constructed as homepages where the user gets a role and follows a character’s 

story. A fourth category is denoted ’flat and open hypertext’. This category represents 

homepages with images and texts and interconnected links. A fifth category 

is denoted the elaborated hypertext resource and comprise combinations of complex 

objects like games, movies, animations, simulation etc. This category is the largest. 

Finally, a sixth category is denoted the map applications. This category represents 

resources based on interactive maps with hot spots. 

The authors’ findings show that the narrative is a generally construction for design 

in the categories games, simulations and narrative. In contrast to these categories, 

the possible approaches to the hypertext resources are open and diverse. The game 

and narrative category become a closed design which influences the learning possibilities 

and the teachers’ educational designs for planning and practice a class involving 

the material. 

Another finding is based on how the digital learning recourses are met in an educational 

perspective. Here, the authors introduce two positions: one is to regard the 

digital as an improvement of the established; another is to regard the digital as a 


adical change of practice. Neither appears to be sufficient and the issue of the teachers’ 

competences and diverse starting points are crucial. Based on the findings, the 

report emphasise the importance of user cooperation in the design processes in regard 

to design of navigation structure as well as content. 

In the final recommendations, the authors suggest that designers must include educational, 

didactic and instructional reflections to a much larger extent. This means that 

the designer must considerate the users ― here teachers ― and how the resource can 

become relevant to their educational design and learning goals. 

Thus, the ICT-based educational design and the user involvement are pointed out 

as crucial key points to achieve a successful integration of the digital applications 

as tools for learning. 

The digital annex 

The focus on user involvement in educational activities is the pivotal point in another 

study from 2008 (Andreasen 2010). The author describes a study of the Danish art 

gallery Thorvaldsens Museum which in 2006 constructed a digital annex. The museum 

opened in Denmark in 1848 as the country’s first museum of contemporary 

art with public admittance. It houses almost every work of art by Bertel Thorvaldsen 

(1770-1844), a famous Danish sculptor who lived and worked in Rome for almost 

forty years, producing sculptures often inspired by classical Greek art and made in 

marble. The museum is located centrally in Copenhagen and contains both large 

halls with collections of big sculptures and rows of smaller connected rooms in different 

colours with a single sculpture in each. Educational activities take place throughout 

the museum as well as in a room called The Digital Workshop, where student 

workshops take place that also integrates use the facilities of The Annex 

(“Tilbygningen”) at the museum home page. 


Fig. 5-b The website of the Annex 

The Annex (fig. 5-b) which opened in 2006 is a digital extension of the museum 

directed at secondary school and high school students, but designed with the aim 

that also older visitors may find the site relevant. The Annex consists of three areas, 

which each in it’s own way treat the sculptures of Thorvaldsen: “The Corridors” 

with a number of short fictive films loosely inspired by the myths behind the sculptures, 

shot with professional actors in the buildings of the museum; “The Archive” 

with facts, pictures and information regarding the art works at the museum; and 

“The Project Room” where students upload and comment their own productions made 

at workshops held at the museum. The three areas of the Annex are connected through 

links between the student productions, the films, and the factual information that 

deals with related themes or art works. These links are made by the students as 

they upload their productions. In the Project Room of the Annex user involvement 

is a central part of the educational strategy. In the process of the workshops student 

productions are published on the internet, thus recognizing personal as well as professional 

voices on the official home page of the museum. In May 2008 Thorvaldsens 


Museum received the Danish Museum Award, partly motivated by the Annex and 

its innovative use of the net (Andreasen 2010). The study shows that students are 

highly motivated when they experience that their contributions are valued and when 

the learning environments draw on their digital competences from social media 

(Andreasen 2010, Esbjørn 2009). 

The tendency among museums to establish dialogue with users and let them contribute 

actively can be seen as a recognition that after all, the museum will not be able 

to fully plan what people learn at a museum, irrespective of how ‘correct’ the material 

is presented. In this we see a change in the view of learning. Traditionally, museum 

exhibitions built on a view of learning as the acquisition of fact-based knowledge; 

that is, learning as a product that may be obtained. But recognizing that visitors 

will actively use the possibilities of the museum in creating their own personal outcome, 

opens up for a view of learning also as a process in which learners construct 

new ideas by reflecting on their experiences (Andreasen 2010). 

The examples given here show a tendency to mix dissemination activities at museums 

with educational activities in the formal educational system. They also point out some 

pedagogical challenges of how the digital resources serve the purpose of facilitating 

learning processes: how to make an ICT design that serves the purposes of the formal 

education goals, meet the teachers’ professional competences, and draw on students’ 

experiences. 

However, the museums also tend to attract the young generation in a broader sense 

and create the e-museum as an environment for explorative processes. 

5.2.2. The liberal education perspective on museums and e-Learning 

E-learning and museums in a liberal educational perspective comprise various ways 

of using digital technology. 


In 2005-07 a project was launched on basis of the idea of connecting e-Learning 

and museums in adult education. Denmark participated in the project in cooperation 

with seven other European countries in a “Grundtvig Learning Partnership” project. 

Based on an analysis showing that museums working in association with adult education 

institutions have a significant contribution in creating knowledge society, the 

project conducted a mutual exchange of information and experiences with historical/cultural 

heritage and availability of modern information technologies in adult 

education. 

The Danish part of the project reported on experiences with virtual museums. Some 

virtual museums exist only on the web, while others are made as presentations on 

the web of museums that already exist in the physical world. The latter present selected 

works from the museum’s exhibitions, but also give access to works from 

their collection that are not currently on display at the museum. On the web the 

visitor may dive deeper into resources and further explanations of the works 

presented. 

An example of a web presentation of a physically existing museum is the Danish 

museum of art, Ordrupgaard, at www.ordrupgaard.dk. 

Fig. 5-c Ordrupgaard website 

At the museum frontpage the visitor may find links to the actual exhibition, to works 

from the two main collections of Danish and French painters and to a tool of further 

exploration of selected pictures. 


Fig. 5-d “French painters” and “Zoom” sections of the Ordrupgaard website 

In the presentation of French painters the visitor finds further information of the 

works, and may jump directly to other works through the overview at the top of 

the page. In the Zoom section of the Ordrupgaard web page visitors can explore 

details of selected works and learn about different ways of analysing pictures. 

The Youth Art Lab at the National Gallery 

The National Gallery of Denmark is conducting a developmental programme to bring 

the museum to the very forefront of digital arts communication. The art gallery’s 

vision is to develop a digital museum practice that stimulates user interest in art. 

The digital museum of the National Gallery was launched in 2008. The digital museum’s 

status describes recent results from 2010: A new website for the museum, 

The collections online, gives the user online access to the museum’s collections and 

shows how museum professionals work with the collections, Stories of art - will 

bring the art to life (http://www.smk.dk/en/explore-the-art/film-games/behind-the-scenes/ update-2010-smk-digital/). 

Future projects comprise the art database, Corpus, which is 

a further development of the museum’s current knowledge database, that will make 

information on the museum’s collections, research and exhibition activities available 

online. Corpus is developed in cooperation with the international consortium 

CollectionSpace and will be launched in 2011. 

Another example of integration of digital media is ulk, the youth art lab, which was 

developed in close cooperation with the target group according to the idea of arts 

education and promotion for the young by the young. The ulk was launched in 2007 


as an independent homepage at www.ulk.dk hosted by the Young people’s art laboratories 

at the Danish National Gallery. 

Fig. 5-e Homepage of ulk, the Youth Art Lab 

The ulk web page is directed at young people who would like to participate in a 

creation and exchange of knowledge about art together with other youngsters. The 

page has three entries: ‘go create’, ‘go explore’ and ‘go participate’. Under ‘go create’ 

users can create a profile and then place pictures, statements, comments, links to 

other profiles etc. on the page. 

Fig. 5-f Profile page of a user at ulk 


The ulk is a part of the Egmont Knowledge Centre which is located at the national 

gallery as a resource offered to the visitors. The Knowledge Centre makes it possible 

to get close to art from many, different angles ― it is for people of all ages and 

widely varying interests. The Museum guests can visit creative workshops, digital 

laboratories, a reading room in the library, teaching and reflection rooms, special 

exhibitions with original art from the collections of the Museum, and participation 

in an art community. Furthermore the centre consists of Children's Museum of Art, 

The Danish National Art Library, and The Study Room for the Royal Collection 

of Graphic Art. 

The ulk exemplifies an initiative for a young generation that will continue to use 

digital technology in a lifelong learning perspective. 

From a learning perspective, the national gallery work with ideas on user involvement 

and is devising methods to allow users to generate their own content. The goal is 

to create the right conditions for an ongoing dialogue with the users in the developing 

process of new content. At the same time to explore when and how users may become 

active co-creators. 

Chapter 6 Recommendations and prospects 

The study shows that the digital infrastructure in Denmark is well developed, and 

that at the same time there is a need to make efforts in the pedagogical and didactical 

area. The implementation of e-Learning in lifelong learning is a complex of accessibility 

and learning cultures as well as ICT cultures. E-learning is not solely to be 

seen as an ICT project, but rather as a combination of organisational, technical and 

pedagogical issues, that must be reflected together, in the planning phases as well 


as in the delivery processes (cf. p. 45). The various examples described in this report 

show a complex of teaching and learning cultures that have developed over time, 

e.g the tradition of the folk high school, and which intertwine not only with the 

formal educational practices, but also appear to be useful in new mix of social media 

and user involvement (e.g. the museum). These teaching and learning cultures are 

met with governmental initiatives and strategies on ICT and e-Learning and form 

the current picture of education. Thus, the development processes of e-Learning in 

education and lifelong learning are to be seen as an ongoing interplay between bottom-up-initiatives 

and central strategies. 

The formal educational system in Denmark has for the past 20 years focused on 

the learners’ processes. New paradigms for ICT-based education have emerged and 

new theoretical concepts of collaborative learning processes and problem based learning 

have contributed to reframe the roles and the functions of teachers and learners. 

The digital technology forms the basis for developing learning resources where the 

learners are contributors in interactive processes. The learner centred approach has 

replaced the traditional notion of the teacher as the deductive instructor. 

Learners learn from other learners. The social media support activities of knowledge 

sharing and production. However, it appears that the expectations to the teachers 

from young learners may be rather traditional. The formal system performs a culture 

where the construction of ‘school’ is based on a specific way of doing things. The 

young learners may connect ‘schooling’ to a particular way of behaving. More flexible 

approaches to learning may be easier to implement outside the formal system. This 

gives rise to a reformulation of the roles and the functions of the teacher, which 

are to be developed in the years to come. 

The design of learning processes with ICT is crucial for the success of integrating 

ICT in lifelong learning. The teacher as educational designer is responsible for developing 

learning processes where learners can collaborate, share knowledge, produce 

knowledge and learn in multiple modes. The educational designer is responsible for 


planning practices which involve relevant stakeholders, for instance technicians as 

important partners to ensure that the digital infrastructure works. An important focus 

is therefore the education of teachers to achieve skills and competences to integrate 

ICT to support students’ learning in the various areas of lifelong learning. 


References 

Aceto S, Koskinen T, Wermundsen T, Tsakarissianos G (2004) Lifelong Learning 

Policies & Practice: The Drive of ICT. MENON Network EEIG, Brussels 

Andreasen LB (2010) User involvement in educational practice at museums. In: Qvortrup 

L, Weifang M (Eds.) Frameworks for Supporting Lifelong Learning. Tongxin 

Publishing House, Beijing 

Bacher P, Brems J, Jacobsen KM, Ullerup BM (eds) (1993) Adult education in Denmark 

and the concept of “folkeoplysning”. Danish Ministry of Education, Department 

of Adult Education, Copenhagen 

Commission of the European Communities (2001) Making a European Area of Lifelong 

Learning a Reality. Communication from the Commission. COM (2001) 678. 

Commision of the European Communities, Brussels. Available via http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=COM:2001:0678:FIN:EN:PDF 

(Accessed 12 July 2010) 

Danish Government (2010) IT and Telecommunications Policy Report 2010. Danish 

Government, Copenhagen. http://en.itst.dk/policy-strategy/it-andtelecommunications-policy-reports/filarkiv/IT_and_Telecommunications_Policy_ 

Report_2010_final.pdf (Accessed 10 May 2010) 

Danish Ministry of Education (2001) Fag, pædagogik og IT i det almene gymnasium. 

Det Virtuelle Gymnasium [School subjects, Pedagogics, and ICT in the general 

upper secondary high school. The Virtual High School]. Danish Ministry of 

Education, Copenhagen 

Danish Ministry of Education (2007) Denmark’s strategy for lifelong learning ― 

Education and lifelong skills upgrading for all. Report to the European Commission. 

Danish Ministry of Education, Department of Adult Vocational Training, Division 

for lifelong learning, Copenhagen. Available via http://pub.uvm.dk/2007/lifelonglearning 

(Accessed 22 Apr 2010) 

Danish Ministry of Education (2009) Fælles Mål 2009. Faghæfte 48. It- og medi- 


ekompetencer i folkeskolen [Shared goals 2009. Ict and media competences in 

the basic school education]. Danish Ministry of Education, Copenhagen 

Danish Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation (2007a) National strategi for 

ikt-støttet Læring [National strategy for e-Learning]. Danish Ministry of Science, 

Technology and Innovation, Copenhagen 

Danish Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation (2007b) Danskernes it-færdigheder 

― en målrettet indsats [The Danes’ IT Skills ― a focused initiative]. Danish 

Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation, Copenhagen 

Dirckinck-Holmfeld L (2010) Design of a Networked Learning Master Environment 

for Professionals ― using the approach of problem based learning to establish 

a community of practice. In: Dirckinck-Holmfeld et al (eds) Proceedings of the 

7 th International Conference on Networked Learning 2010. 

DREAM, Danish Research Centre on Education and Advanced Media Materials (2009) 

Digitale læringsressourcer ― i folkeskolen og de gymnasiale ungdomsuddannelser 

[Digital Learning Resources ― in basic school and upper secondary education]. 

DREAM, Odense 

Dutta S, Mia I (2009) The Global Information Technology Report 2008-09. Mobility 

in a Networked World. Available at www.insead.edu/v1/gitr/wef/main/fullreport/index.html 

(Accessed 22 Apr 2010) 

Esbjørn L (2009) Ung digital dialog [Young digital dialogue]. In: Løssing ASW (ed) 

Digital museumsformidling i et brugerperspektiv. Kulturarvsstyrelsen [Heritage 

Agency of Denmark], Copenhagen 

EVA, Danmarks Evalueringsinstitut (2009) IT i skolen: Undersøgelse af erfaringer 

og perspektiver [ICT in the school: A study of experiences and perspectives]. 

Danmarks Evalueringsinstitut, Copenhagen. 

Fjeldsted, S et al (2007) Kortlægning af it-integration i undervisningen på kvu og 

mvu [Mapping of ICT-integration in teaching on short-cycle and medium-cycle 

higher education]. @ventures ® Kompetencecenter for e-Læring, eVidenCenter, 

Viby 


Fibiger B et al (2004) Master in ICT and Learning ― project pedagogy and collaboration 

in virtual e-Learning. In: Remeney D (ed) Proceedings from 3 rd European Conference 

on e-Learning, Paris 

Highspeed Committee (2010) Danmark som højhastighedssamfund [Denmark as a high 

speed society]. Højhastighedskomiteen, Copenhagen 

IT- & Telestyrelsen (2009) Det digitale samfund 2009 [The digital society 2009]. 

IT- og Telestyrelsen [National IT and Telecom Agency], Copenhagen 

ITLC, IT Learning Center (2010) Analyse af udbyttet af onlinekurser på Det 

Biovidenskabelige Fakultet - LIFE, Københavns Universitet [Analysis of the outcome 

of online courses at the Faculty of Life Sciences at Copenhagen University]. 

Copenhagen University, Copenhagen 

Levinsen KT, Sørensen BH (2008) It, faglig læring og videnledelse: rapport vedr. 

Projekt It og Læring 2006-2007 [ICT, subject-specific learning, and knowledge 

management: Report on Project ICT and Learning 2006-2007]. The Danish School 

of Education, Aarhus University & Gentofte Municipality 

Løssing ASW (ed) (2009) Digital museumsformidling i et brugerperspektiv [Digital 

museum education in a user perspective]. Kulturarvsstyrelsen [Heritage Agency 

of Denmark], Copenhagen 

Mathiasen H (2004) Det virtuelle gymnasium. 2. del af følgeforskningsrapport om 

et udviklingsprojekt [The Virtual High School. Second part of an evaluation report 

on a development project]. Uddannelsesstyrelsen, Copenhagen 

OECD/CERI (2005) E-learning in tertiary education: Where do we stand? Centre for 

Educational Research and Innovation, OECD, Paris 

Oerngreen R, Levinsen K (2009) Evalueringsrapport - E-museum: evaluering af digitale 

undervisningsmaterialer [Evaluation report ― E-Museum: evaluation of digital 

teaching resources]. The Danish School of Education, Aarhus University, Emdrup 

Pelgrum WJ, Anderson RE (eds) (1999) ICT and the Emerging Paradigm for Life 

Long Learning: a Worldwide Educational Assessment of Infrastructure, Goals 

and Practices. IEA, Amsterdam 


Petersen K et al (2007) It-vejledning for læreruddannelsen 2007 [ICT Guidelines for 

teacher education 2007]. Danish Ministry of Education, Copenhagen. Available 

at http://itm-lu07.uvm.dk/pdf/It-vejledning.pdf (Accessed 16 July 2010) 

Qvortrup L (2009) Lifelong learning starts in the 1 st grade. Educational Alliance 

Quarterly, vol. 3, p.2. Available at www.quarterly.dpu.dk (Accessed 12 July 2010) 

Rambøll (2005) Evaluation of ITMF. Overall results. UNI-C, Copenhagen. Available 

at http://enis.emu.dk/spredning/itmf/finalreport_itmf.pdf (Accessed 12 July 2010) 

Rattleff P, Henriksen TD (2010) Kortlægning af it-kompetenceudviklingsmuligheder 

i det ikke-formelle it-undervisningssystem for voksne i Danmark [Survey of opportunities 

for ICT-competence development in the non-formal ICT-educational system 

for adults in Denmark]. Schultz Information, Copenhagen 

UNI-C Statistics & Analysis (2010) Facts and Figures 2009. Key Figures in Education 

2009. The Danish Ministry of Education, Copenhagen. Available at www.uvm.dk/ 

factsandfigures2009 (Accessed 2 July 2010) 

Zemsky R, Massy WF (2005) Stalled: e-Learning as Thwarted Innovation. In: 

Carr-Chellman AA (ed.) Global Perspectives on e-Learning. Rhetoric and Reality. 

Sage, London 



in Japan 

The Open University of Japan 

02

Tsuneo Yamada 

Tsuneo Yamada is a professor and the director of Department of International Collaboration, 

Center of ICT and Distance Education, the Open University of Japan (OUJ). He worked for 

thirteen years at National Institute of Multimedia Education (NIME), which was closed and 

merged into OUJ in March 2009. His main research fields are Educational Technology, Learning 

Psychology, and Second Language Learning. He has been engaged both in the study on advanced 

use of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in educational fields and in the 

development of various e-Learning materials. Under the new project, his current interests are 

on the development and evaluation of learning objects, the strategies for their sharing and 

distribution, and their quality assurance. He is participating in Global Learning Object Brokered 

Exchange (GLOBE) Initiative from his institution. He is also an adjunct professor of Department 

of Cyber Society and Culture at the Graduate University for Advanced Studies (SOKENDAI), 

a visiting professor of the Global Scientific Information and Computing Center (GSIC) at the 

Tokyo Institute of Technology and a member of the board of directors, Accreditation Council 

for Practical Abilities (ACPA). 


Executive Summary 

1) In Japan, “lifelong learning” was specified as a basic idea in the governmental 

educational policy (e.g. the Amended Fundamental Law of Education) and the 

Lifelong Learning Policy Bureau was set up as a responsible section in the Ministry 

of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT). 

2) “Lifelong learning” is generally defined as any kinds of learning which citizens 

involve in throughout their lifetime. Hence the term includes school education, 

home education, ‘social education’, cultural, sports, recreational and volunteer 

activities, corporate training, hobbies and other learning opportunities in various 

areas. “e-Learning” is an electronic learning in which utilizes computers and 

networks. Recently, as “blended approaches” are more popular, the broader 

definition, that is, “learning in which utilizes ICT in onsite and distance education”, 

is more preferable. From the viewpoints of learner-centered approaches, it is 

regarded as an effective way to realize the optimized learning space and content. 

3) In Japan, the government has promoted various measures for lifelong learning 

for almost thirty years. The ICT utilization in various social activities is one of 

the basic policies and, in January 2001, the Strategic Headquarter for the Promotion 

of an Advanced Information and Telecommunications Network Society (IT Strategic 

Headquarters) was established within the Cabinet. Recently, the IT Strategic 

Headquarters published “New national strategies of information and communication 

technology” in May 2010 and “The roadmap for new national strategies of 

information and communication technology” in June 2010 and education is one 

of the main fields. Currently, career education and vocational education in schools 

and corporate are urgent issues. 

4) With the little increase of the population under 18 years old, many Japanese 

universities have shifted to accept recurrent and/or older students and to contribute 

to lifelong learning society. The social infrastructure and systems which support 

the challenges by universities and colleges are also promoted by the government 

02. e-Learning for Lifelong Learning in Japan 107

and private sectors, such as university consortia. We can see several good practices 

in the Open University of Japan (OUJ), the Japan Opencourseware Consortium 

(JOCW), CCC-TIES, the Accreditation Council for Practical Abilities (ACPA) 

and so on. 

5) Because of the higher jobless rate and mobility of labor, the paradigm of lifelong 

learning was also to be changed. Career / vocational education and capacity rebuilding 

are needed more after the graduation. In the midst of the administrative reform, 

the government sections concerned are expected to implement inter-ministry 

measures on lifelong learning from the holistic viewpoint. 


Chapter 1 Educational Systems in Japan 

1.1 Japanese school system (｢学制｣) 

The current school system began with the Fundamental Law of Education and the 

School Education Law, which were enacted in 1947. In the framework, the 

6-3-3-4-year system of school education was established aiming at realizing the principle 

of equal opportunity for education. It has some variation and some exceptions 

from the rule. The following descriptions on Japanese schools were based on the 

some white papers published by MEXT (e.g. “Japan's Education at a Glance 2006”, 

MEXT, 2006). The elementary and lower secondary education are compulsory in 

Japan. 

 

幼稚園 

1) Kindergartens (“Yôchien”, 

) 

Kindergartens aim at helping pre-school children develop their mind and body by 

providing a sound educative environment for them. Kindergartens cater for children 

aged 3, 4 and 5, and provide them with one- to three-year courses. 

 

小学校 

2) Elementary Schools (“Shôgakkô”, 

All the children who have attained the age of 6 are required to attend elementary 

school for six years. Elementary schools aim at giving children between the ages 

of 6 and 12 primary general education suited to the stage of their mental and physical 

development. 

 

中学校 

3) Lower Secondary Schools (“Chûgakkô”, 

All the children who have completed elementary school are required to study in 

lower secondary school for three years until the end of the school year in which 

) 

) 


they reach the age of 15. Lower secondary schools give children between the ages 

of 12 and 15 general secondary education suited to the stage of their mental and 

physical development, on the basis of the education given in elementary school. 

 

高等学校 

4) Upper Secondary Schools (“Kôtô-gakkô”, 

Those who have completed nine-year compulsory education in elementary and lower 

secondary school may go on to upper secondary school. Students must normally 

take entrance examinations to enter upper secondary school. In addition to full-day 

courses, there are also part-time and correspondence courses. Full-day courses last 

three years, while both part-time and correspondence courses last three years or more. 

The last two courses are mainly intended for young workers who wish to pursue 

their upper secondary studies in a flexible manner in accordance with their own needs. 

All these courses lead to a certificate of the upper secondary education. In terms 

of the content of teaching provided, the upper secondary school courses may also 

be classified into three categories: general, specialized and integrated courses. General 

courses provide mainly general education suited to the needs of both those who wish 

to advance to higher education and those who are going to get a job but have chosen 

no specific vocational area. Specialized courses are mainly intended to provide vocational 

or other specialized education for those students who have chosen a particular 

vocational area as their future career. These courses may be further classified into: 

agriculture, industry, commerce, fishery, home economics, nursing, science-mathematics, 

physical education, music, art, English language and other courses. Integrated 

courses were introduced in 1994. These courses offer a wide variety of subject areas 

and subjects from both the general and specialized courses, in order to adequately 

satisfy students’ diverse interests, abilities and aptitudes, future career plans, etc. 

 

5) Secondary Schools (“Chûtô-kyôiku-gakkô”, 

In April 1999, a new type of six-year secondary education school, called “Secondary 

School” was introduced into Japanese school system. Secondary schools combine 

lower and upper secondary school education in order to provide lower secondary 

中等教育学校 


) 

)

education and upper secondary general and specialized education through 6 years. 

The lower division in the first three years provides lower secondary school education 

and the upper division in the latter three years gives upper secondary school 

education. 

 

特別支援学校 

6) Schools for Special Needs Education etc. (“Tokubetsu-Shien-gakkô”, 

Special Needs Educations are schools for children with comparatively severe disabilities 

and aim at giving education suited to their individual educational needs. 

Those schools comprise four levels of departments, namely, kindergarten, elementary, 

lower secondary and upper secondary departments. (The elementary and lower secondary 

are compulsory education.) After school system was turned into the current 

system that permits school to accept several types of disabilities in 2007, this new 

implementation is gradually spreading. Special Needs Education is provided also in 

regular schools. Special classes are small classes for children with comparatively 

mild disabilities that may be established in regular elementary and lower secondary 

schools. It may also be established as a branch class in a hospital for sick children. 

There is another program of resource rooms (in regular elementary and secondary 

schools) where children with disabilities who are enrolled in and studying most of 

the time in regular classes may visit resource rooms few times a week to receive 

special instruction. 

7) Institutions of Higher Education 

Institutions of higher education in Japan include universities, junior colleges and colleges 

of technology. In addition, specialized training colleges offering postsecondary 

courses (see 8 below) may be regarded as one type of higher education institution. 

a. Universities (“Daigaku”, ) are intended to conduct teaching and research 

in depth in specialized academic disciplines and provide students with advanced 

knowledge. Universities require for admission the completion of upper secondary 

schooling or its equivalent, and offer courses of at least four years leading 

to a bachelor’s degree (“Gakushi”, ). Universities may set up a graduate 

 

大学 

 

学士 

02. e-Learning for Lifelong Learning in Japan 111 

)

school offering advanced studies in a variety of fields leading to master’s 

(“Shushi”, ) and doctor’s (“Hakushi”, ) degrees. Graduate schools 

normally last five years, consisting of the first two-year courses leading to 

a master’s degree and the following three year courses leading to a doctor’s 

degree. However, there is a possibility for those who are especially successful 

in their studies to get a master’s degree in one year, and a doctor’s degree 

in two years. 

b. Junior Colleges (“Tanki-daigaku”, ) aim at conducting teaching and 

research in specialized subjects and at developing in students such abilities 

as are required for vocational or practical life. Junior colleges require for admission 

the completion of upper secondary schooling or its equivalent, and offer 

two- or three- year programs in different fields of study, which lead to the 

title of associate (“Jun-gakushi”, ). Most courses offered in these colleges 

are in such fields as humanities, social sciences, teacher training and 

home economics. The great majority of the students in these colleges are 

women. Those who have completed junior college may go on to university 

and their credits acquired at junior college may be transferred as part of the 

credits leading to a bachelor’s degree. Junior colleges are also allowed to offer 

advanced courses which may lead to a bachelor’s degree. 

c. Colleges of Technology (“Kôtô-senmon-gakkô”, 

), unlike universities 

or junior colleges, accept those who have completed lower secondary 

schooling, and offer five-year (five and a half years at colleges of maritime 

technology) consistent programs. They were established in 1962, intended to 

conduct teaching in specialized subjects in depth and to develop in students 

such abilities as are required for vocational life. Students who have completed 

colleges of technology are granted the title of associate (“Jun-gakushi”, 準学 

) and may apply for admission to the upper division of university. Colleges 

of Technology are also allowed to offer a two-years advanced courses, which 

follow the five-year program in order to provide a higher level of technical 

education. 

士 

 

修士 

 

短期大学 

 

準学士 


 

博士 

 

高等専門学校

専門士 

 

8) Specialized Training Colleges (“Senshû-gakkô”, 

Schools (“Kakushu-gakkô”, ) 

 

各種学校 

専修学校 

) and Miscellaneous 

In addition to the above mentioned institutions of primary, secondary and higher 

education, there are educational institutions known as “specialized training colleges” 

and “miscellaneous schools”, which offer a variety of practical vocational and technical 

education programs in response to diverse demands of citizens in a changing 

society. The great majority of these schools are privately controlled. 

a. Courses provided in Specialized Training Colleges may be classified into three 

categories: upper secondary, postsecondary and general courses. Each course gives 

at least 40 students systematic instruction, lasting not less than one year, for 800 

class hours or more per year. Specialized training colleges offering upper secondary 

courses are called “upper secondary specialized training schools (“Koto-senshu-gakko”, 

)” and those offering postsecondary courses are called 

“professional training colleges (“Senmon-gakko”, ) .” The former require 

for admission the completion of compulsory education, while the latter accept those 

who have graduated from the upper secondary schools or upper secondary courses 

of specialized training colleges and award the title, “technical associate (“Senmonshi”, 

),” to those who complete post-secondary courses that fulfill certain criteria, 

including a study period of at least two years. Students who have completed an 

upper secondary course lasting three years or more of specialized training colleges 

designated by the Minister are entitled to apply for a university place. 

b. Miscellaneous Schools provide people with vocational and practical training such 

as dressmaking, cooking, bookkeeping, typing, automobile driving and repairing, 

computer techniques, etc. Most courses in miscellaneous schools require for admission 

the completion of lower secondary schooling. These courses normally last one year 

or more with at least 680 class hours per year, but there are also shorter courses 

of three months or more. 

 

高等専修学校 

 

専門学校 


Figure 1-1 Japanese School System (from “Japan's Education at a Glance 

2006”, MEXT, 2006) 

The Brief notes on each type of educational institutions were shown in the texts. 


1.2 

Japanese Education Characteristics: Some statistic 

indicators 

1) The transition of the numbers of schools, that of the numbers of registered (enrolled) 

students, that of the percentage of registered (enrolled) students and that of the percentage 

of students who go on to a higher stage of education 

Because of the declining birthrate, both the numbers of schools and the numbers 

of registered (enrolled) students are decreasing in Japanese elementary and secondary 

education; both indicators are showing a tendency to rise in higher education, that 

is, at universities, colleges and graduate schools,. 

The percentage of registered (enrolled) students at the compulsory education level 

(that is, in elementary and lower secondary education) have remained close to 100 

percent following World War II. The percentage of students who go on to a higher 

stage of education, that is, senior high school and so on, has exceeded 95 percent 

Figure 1-2 The numbers of schools (from The FY2009 White Paper on 

Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, MEXT, 

2010, Appendix 3, p. 377) 


since 1990 and 97.9 percent in FY 2009 (both values include students in correspondence 

courses). The percentage of students who continue into higher education, 

that is, universities and junior colleges, is still a little more than 50 

percent. 

Figure 1-3 The numbers of registered (enrolled) students (from The FY2009 

White Paper on Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, 

MEXT, 2010, Appendix 4, p. 377) 

Figure 1-4 The transition of the percentage of school new entrants and 

that of the percentage of students continuing into a higher stage of 

education (from The FY2009 White Paper on Education, Culture, 

Sports, Science and Technology, MEXT, 2010, Appendix 8, p.379) 


The percentage of students who go on to universities or junior colleges was 

calculated as the ratio of the numbers of new entrants to the 18 year-old 

population. 

In Japan, while the birthrate is declining, university and junior college capacities 

are increasing and the total ratio of registered (enrolled) students to applicants has 

reached 92.5 percent (Figure 1-5). 

Figure 1-5 The transition of the 18 year-old population and several 

enrollment indicators (from The FY2009 White Paper on 


2010, Figure 2-3-1, p176) 

“Compared with overseas, the percent of students who go on to universities or junior 

colleges is not high in Japan. One reason is that Japanese ‘adult citizens’ (‘Shakai-jin’ 

in Japanese) do not enter universities or junior colleges. While on average the ratio 


of students 25 years old and older to total registered (enrolled) students in OECD 

countries was 21.3 percent, it was only 1.8 percent in Japan (Figure 1-6). On the 

other hand, about 80 percent of college freshmen were under 19 years old in Japan. 

The average age of freshmen was the lowest among OECD countries and most of 

the students going on to universities or junior colleges were from the 18 year-old 

population.” (from The FY2009 White Paper on Education, Culture, Sports, Science and 

Technology, MEXT, 2010, Part 1, Topic 1, Chapter 2, p.51) 

Figure 1-6 The ratio of students 25 years old and older to total new 

entrants at the university-level (‘tertiary-type A’ in OECD 

classification) (From The OECD database on education, 

2007). The value for Japan was the number of ‘Shakai-jin’ 

students MEXT surveyed. 

The number of graduate students has increased by about 2.9 times in the last twenty 

years. However, the number of degree holders per unit population is no higher than 

that of other countries (Figures 1-7, 1-8, 1-9). 


Figure 1-7 The transition of the number of registered (enrolled) graduate school 

students (from The FY2009 White Paper on Education, Culture, Sports, Science 

and Technology, MEXT, 2010, Figure 1-2-55, p.55) 

Figure 1-8 The number of Master’s degree holders per one million population by 

major fields in 2005 (from The FY2009 White Paper on Education, Culture, 

Sports, Science and Technology, MEXT, 2010, Figure 1-2-57, p.56, Source: The 

number of degree holders was based on “International Comparison in 

Educational Indicators”, MEXT, FY2008 and FY2009 versions. Population was 

based on “OECD Main Science and Technology Indicators” Vol.2009/2) 


In Korea and France, no statistical distinctions were made between Science, 

Engineering and Agriculture. 

Figure 1-9 The number of Doctorate degree holders per one million population by 

major fields in 2005 (from The FY2009 White Paper on Education, Culture, 

Sports, Science and Technology, MEXT, 2010, Figure 1-2-58, p.56, Source: The 

number of degree holders was based on “International Comparison in 

Educational Indicators”, MEXT, FY2008 and FY2009 versions. Population was 

based on “OECD Main Science and Technology Indicators” Vol.2009/2) 

In Korea and France, no statistical distinctions were made between Science, 

Engineering and Agriculture. 

2) Budget on education 

(1) The education budgets of Japanese central and local governments 

The education budgets of Japanese central and local governments, especially the national 

budget were restricted over the past ten years (Figure 1-10). As a result, the 

Japanese public expenditure on education is the lowest among OECD countries 

(Figures 1-11, 1-12). 


Figure 1-10 The transition of educational expenditures of Japanese 

central and local governments (from The FY2009 White 

Paper on Education, Culture, Sports, Science and 

Technology, MEXT, 2010, Figure 1-1-30, p.23) 

Figure 1-11 Total public expenditure on all levels of educational 

institutions as a percentage of GDP (2006) 


The chart is based on Table B2.4. “Expenditure on educational institutions as 

a percentage of GDP, by source of fund and level of education (2006)”, in OECD, 

“Education at a Glance 2009: OECD Indicators”, 2009, p.221). According to 

the original description, ‘Public’ includes ‘public subsidies to households 

attributable for educational institutions, as well as including direct expenditure 

on educational institutions from international sources.’ 

1. Year of reference 2005. 

2. Some levels of education are included with others. 

3. Year of reference 2007. 

Source: OECD. See Annex 3 for notes (www.oecd.org/edu/eag2009). 

Figure 1-12 Total public expenditure on education as a percentage 

of total public expenditure (2000, 2006) 


The chart (Chart B4.1, In OECD, “Education at a Glance 2009: OECD 

Indicators”, 2009, p.236) shows direct public expenditure on educational 

institutions plus public subsidies to households (including subsidies for living 

costs) and other private entities, as a percentage of total public expenditure, by 

year. It must be recalled that public sectors differ in terms of their size and breadth 

of responsibility from country to country. 

In higher education also, governmental subsidies to both national and private universities 

are decreasing (Figure. 1-13, Figure 1-14). As a result, the ratio of public 

expenditure on Japanese institutions of higher education to GDP was 0.5 percent 

(Figure. 1-15). 

Figure 1-13 “Uneihi-Kohukin” (national subsidy for administration at 

national universities), (from The FY2009 White Paper on 


2010, Figure 1-2-41, p.47) 


Figure 1-14 Ordinary expenditures at private universities and “Keijo-Keihi-Hojo 

(national subsidy for ordinary expenditures at private universities)” (from The 

FY2009 White Paper on Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, 

MEXT, 2010, Figure 1-2-45, p.49) 

Figure 1-15 Public expenditure on tertiary educational institutions as a percentage 

of GDP in OECD countries (from The FY2009 White Paper on Education, 

Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, MEXT, 2010, Figure 1-2-46, p.49; 

Original data: Table B2.4, In OECD, “Education at a Glance 2009: OECD 

Indicators”, 2009, p.221) 


(2) The Lifelong Learning Policy Bureau budget 

MEXT's General Budget for FY2010 is 5,592.6 billion yen a 310.9 billion yen increase 

from that for FY2009. The Lifelong Learning Policy Bureau budget is 339.22 

billion yen. The budgets for lifelong learning in a broader sense are found in those 

of other bureaus. 

Table 2-1 The FY2010 Lifelong Learning Policy Bureau Budget, MEXT 

Projects for the promotion of collaboration among schools, families 

and communities 

Promotion of educational reform (Management of national councils, 

Basic statistics survey) 

Related institution management (the National Institute for Educational 

Policy Research, the Open University of Japan, the National Museum 

of Nature and Science, National Women's Education Center) 

billion yen 

170.83 

02. e-Learning for Lifelong Learning in Japan 125 

4.5 

163,89 

Total 339,22 

3) Indicators on ICT implementation in education 

(1) Indicators on ICT implementation in school education (from The FY2009 White 

Paper on Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, MEXT, 2010, Part 1, 

Topic 1, Chapter 2, p.41-42) 

Realizing ‘easy-to-understand’ classroom teaching, decreasing the teacher burden of 

school administration, improving student information literacy, and providing high 

quality education are expected through the promotion of ICT implementation in 

school education. In the pilot projects managed by MEXT, the cases utilizing ICT 

showed tendencies to have better objective test scores in comparison with the case 

that did not use it (Figure 1-16).

Figure 1-16 Evidence of the positive effect of ICT utilization in teaching (from 

The FY2009 White Paper on Education, Culture, Sports, Science and 

Technology, MEXT, 2010, Figure 1-2-30, p.41, Source: The FY2006 

MEXT-funded project “Research on the Promotion of ICT Use in 

Education”) 

After the experimental operation (Experimental condition: experimental teaching 

with ICT use, Control condition: experimental teaching without ICT use), an objective 

test was given in each academic subject area and the scores were compared between 

the conditions. The total number of the subjects (students) was 2915 in arithmetic, 

social studies or science in elementary schools or in mathematics or social studies 

in secondary schools. Results in all academic subject areas showed the scores in the 

experimental group (that is, experimental teaching with ICT use) were significantly 

higher. 

In ICT implementation in school education, Japan is behind other developed countries. 

For example, as of March 2010, the number of students per computer was 6.4 in 

Japan while it was 3.8 in the United States, 3.6 in the United Kingdom (middle 

schools) and 6.2 (elementary schools) and 6.0 (junior high schools) in Korea. 

In addition, the ratio of the teachers who answered they were competent in using 


ICT in the classroom was 58.5%; that of the teachers who answered they were competent 

in using ICT for school administration was 69.4%. 

(2) Indicators on the ICT saturation level in Japanese homes 

As of the end of 2009, of the 94.08 million population 6 years and over, 78.0% 

were Internet users (Table 2-2). As of the end of 2008, 73.4% of the users connecting 

with the Internet at home utilized some sort of broadband connection (Table 2-3). 

According to a sample survey by the Cabinet Office, the computer diffusion rate 

at standard households was 74.6 % as of March 2010 (Figure1-17). 

Table 2-2 The number of Internet users and the percentage of 

users in the population 6 years and over (from the 

Communications Usage Trend Survey, Ministry of 

Internal Affairs and Communications, http://www. 

soumu.go.jp/johotsusintokei/field/tsuushin01.html) 

At the end 

of 

1997 

1998 

1999 

2000 

2001 

2002 

2003 

2004 

2005 

2006 

2007 

2008 

2009 

The number of 

Internet users (10 

thousands) 

1,155 

1,694 

2,706 

4,708 

5,593 

6,942 

7,730 

7,948 

8,529 

8,754 

8,811 

9,091 

9,408 

The percentage of 

users in the population 

6 years and over 

9.2 

13.4 

21.4 

37.1 

46.3 

57.8 

64.3 

66.0 

70.8 

72.6 

73.0 

75.3 

78.0 


Table 2-3 Internet connections from home computers (from Communications Usage 

Trend Survey, Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications, http:// 

www.soumu. go.jp/johotsusintokei/field/tsuushin01.html) (Percent) 

At the end of 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 

Broadband connections 6.8 14.9 29.6 47.8 62.0 65.0 67.9 67.6 73.4 

DSL 0.3 7.9 18.7 27.2 39.2 34.2 27.7 18.9 17.3 

c 

CATV 6.5 6.5 9.2 15.1 15.5 16.1 12.5 16.6 17.1 

Optical fiber(FTTH) - 0.5 1.4 5.4 6.1 14.8 27.2 31.3 39.0 

G3(Third Generation Mobile) - - - - 1.2 1.3 1.8 2.4 4.6 

FWA - - 0.7 1.0 1.3 0.5 1.7 0.7 0.8 

Dial-up 55.4 47.2 44.9 30.2 20.4 16.4 17.5 11.4 9.4 

ISDN(continuous connection) 

ISDN(on-demand connection) 

34.0 24.6 

16.8 

11.2 

13.9 

8.2 

13.3 

5.1 

14.8 

4.6 

14.9 

3.9 

13.7 

3.6 

10.0 

2.5 

Other Mobile telephone 

PHS 

11.5 

20.9 

3.2 

7.4 

2.6 

6.6 

3.7 

5.8 

2.0 

2.7 

2.5 

1.5 

1.9 

2.0 

0.8 

4.5 

0.7 

Figure 1-17 ICT equipment ownership rates in standard households (from the 

Cabinet Office, Source: Communications Usage Trend Survey in 2009; cf. 

Communications Usage Trend Survey in 2008, http://www.soumu.go.jp 

/johotsusintokei/tsusin_riyou/data/eng_tsusin_riyou2008.pdf) 


4) Lifelong Learning Indicators 

(1) Education expenses from the viewpoint of family budget 

In Japan, personal expenses for the compulsory education level (i.e. elementary school 

and junior high school level, 6-15 year-old period) have been low. In addition, from 

FY2010, personal expenses at the senior high school level will be reduced drastically 

under the new educational policy package, ‘toward free senior high school tuition’ 

of the new administration. 

“On the other hand, both in the pre-school (for example, kindergarten) and in the 

higher education levels, the ratios of personal expenses were higher when compared 

with those in other countries (the pre-school level ratio was at the top and the higher 

education level ratio is second among OECD member countries). One of the Japanese 

characteristics was that the ratio of expenses from the family budget was very high 

in the private expenses (Figure 1-18). That is, Japanese households paid more for 

educational expenses in comparison with overseas households.” (from The FY2009 

White Paper on Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, MEXT, 2010, Part 

1, Chapter 1, p.19-20). 

In Japan, lifelong learning has been promoted under the principle that autonomous 

learners should be responsible and those who are to benefit have to bear the cost. 

To ensure further progress, it is indispensable to prepare various quality higher/tertiary 

education programs in a more accessible fashion as well as to develop some marketplace 

or common place (including a social infrastructure and system) that allows 

citizens and corporations to easily participate in a variety of roles (for example, content 

developer, course provider, evaluator and user). 


Figure 1-18 Ratio of public-private sharing in education costs in each 

school level (from The FY2009 White Paper on Education, Culture, 

Sports, Science and Technology, MEXT, 2010, Figure 1-1-25, Source: 

OECD Education at a Glance 2009) 

(2) Motivation for lifelong learning 

Because of the higher jobless rate and mobility of labor, workers especially in younger 

and middle-aged generations have stronger interests in personal career development 

and on the resultant increase of lifetime income. As a result, they have stronger 

motivation to pursue lifelong learning even while industry costs to train non-expert 

workers have decreased. 


1.3 

Figure 1-19 Comparison of lifetime total wage on the basis of educational 

backgrounds (from The FY2009 White Paper on Education, 

Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, MEXT, 2010, Figure 

1-2-22 p.41, Source: “Useful Labor Statistics 2010”, the Japan 

Institute for Labour Policy and Training) 

Organization of the Ministry of Education, Culture, 

Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT) 

The location and sections of the Lifelong Learning Policy Bureau are shown in 

Figure1-20. 


Figure 1-20 Organization of the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, 

Science and Technology (MEXT, as of 1 st April 2010) 


Chapter 2 

Lifelong Learning and e-Learning 

Concepts 

2.1 Definitions of lifelong learning in Japan 

1) Definition by MEXT shown in The FY2009 White Paper on Education, Culture, Sports, 

Science and Technology (Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology 

(MEXT), 2010, Part 2, Chapter 1, Section 3, p.91) 

‘Lifelong learning’ is generally used as any kind of learning that citizens undertake 

throughout their lifetime. Hence the term includes school education, home education, 

‘social education’, cultural, sports, recreational and volunteer activities, corporate 

training, hobbies and other learning opportunities in various areas. Furthermore, the 

term ‘lifelong learning society’ is used to refer to a society in which citizens can 

freely choose learning opportunities and learn at any time throughout their lives, 

and receive proper recognition for their learning achievements. In order to pursue 

the realization of ‘lifelong learning society’, basic lifelong learning concepts have 

been specified in Article 3 of the Amended Fundamental Law of Education 

(established on December 15, 2006; promulgated and put into effect on December 

22 as Law No. 120 of 2006). 

2) Definition by the Central Council for Education (1981) 

The Central Council for Education is an organization that carries out investigations 

and deliberations on important matters related to the promotion of education, lifelong 

learning, sports and other matters in response to requests from the Minister of 

Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology and provides its report to the 

Minister. The Central Council for Education has, under the general committee, of 

five subdivisions on Education Systems, Lifelong Learning, Elementary and Lower 


Secondary Education, Universities, and Sports and Youth (from http://www.mext.go.jp/ 

english/org/struct/048.htm). 

In 1981, the Council drew up a report on the policies on lifelong learning in Japan. 

The definitions in the report were as follows: 

Lifelong learning: Learning through a lifetime that citizens do for personal self-fulfillment 

and personal lifestyle improvement, through their free will and by selecting 

the suitable means and manner to accomplish their objectives. 

Lifelong education: An objective comprehensively implementing and maintaining various 

educational functions, while taking into account relevant interactions to realize 

lifelong learning 

3) Professor Masaya Iwanaga’s view on the acceptance of the ‘lifelong learning’ model in 

Japanese society 

Professor Masaya Iwanaga of the Open University of Japan is a leader in lifelong 

learning research and practices in this country. In his recent paper (Iwanaga, M., 

“The Possibility of the Practical Use of ICT to the Lifelong Learning in Japan”, 

Journal of Multimedia Education Research, Vol.6, No.1, S32-S43), he discussed 

our understanding of the definitions within Japanese contexts and the processes that 

Japanese government has promoted and that Japanese society has accepted. 

(1) Viewpoint 1: the relationship between the related traditional education 

“The origin of ‘lifelong learning’ is the idea of ‘lifelong education’, that was originally 

advocated at UNESCO by Paul Lengrand. The essence of ‘lifelong learning’ 

was ‘to do learning activities at various opportunities in one’s lifetime, continuously 

and systematically throughout one’s lifetime based on learner independence. 

However, in Japanese society the ‘lifelong learning’ concept has not always been 

understood in this sense. In Japan, ‘lifelong learning’ has often been regarded as 

having learning content that differs from school (formal) education, and it is thought 

to be pursued by middle-aged and older citizens in their spare time. This is because 

educational opportunities in Japan existed separately over a long period after World 


War II. For example, there was school education for school aged children, corporate 

education in the workforce, or ‘social education’ as an administrative service. From 

the viewpoint of both provider and user, there was little overlap or commonality; 

content was incompatible and heterogeneous. Given these circumstances, autonomous 

adult learning in which learners should utilize various opportunities to cope with 

personal needs has not matured, and as a result, ‘lifelong learning society` has not 

flourished in Japan despite its continued advocacy since the 1981 Central Council 

for Education report (in the previous paper, S34).” 

Professor Iwanaga discussed that in former Japanese society ‘lifelong learning’ was 

regarded as some kind of special area that is distinct from both formal education, 

such as school education, and ‘social education’ as an administrative service. While 

‘lifelong learning’ was recognized in a holistic way as a philosophy or an idea, the 

actual implementation was still partial and fragmental. The Ministry of Education, 

Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT) has the Lifelong Learning Policy 

Bureau established at the same level as other bureaus, such as those for Elementary 

and Secondary Education and Higher Education. However, he analyzed that the introduction 

of ICT has not induced drastic changes to such fragmental situations yet. 

Japanese society has a similar informal education concept, called ‘social education’. 

‘Social education’ is defined as “systematic educational activities focusing mainly 

on the younger generation and adults and that are held outside schools” (Shigeo 

Hori and Kenji Miwa, “Lifelong learning and self-realization”, 2006). 

(2) Viewpoint 2: Political meaning of lifelong learning: A ‘safety-net’ policy 

Professor Iwanaga suggested Japanese lifelong learning had another important political 

meaning at the time the government adopted it. 

“With the proposed structural adjustment of education in the National Council 

for Educational Reform (NCER) report for the Nakasone Cabinet, Japanese 

educational policy moved into the so-called era of ‘neoliberalism’, 

‘deschooling’ or ‘liberalization of education’. Needless to say, ‘neoliberalism’ 

is a political ideal eliminating possible governmental controls and entrusting 


various issues to adjustable market (or private) functions based on free 

competition”. “NCER intended to apply the administrative reform concept 

to the educational field.” “At the same time, NCER proposed the transition 

to a lifelong learning society and measures, including the establishment 

of OUJ, as one of the main reforms.” “Lifelong learning society was proposed 

as a safety net, that is, as a complementary measure for citizens who had 

greater difficulty obtaining public education services due to liberalized and 

privatized education.” “The implementation was promoted under governmental 

leadership advocacy of ‘neoliberalism’. That context consequently deeply 

influenced the Japanese lifelong learning system. The most distinctive 

element was the construction of the market-driven system guided by the 

government.” 

This viewpoint is also helpful in comprehending the characteristics of the past lifelong 

learning measures in Japan. In 2009, changes to policy and measures were expected 

with the seating of the Democrat Party administration (shown in Chapter 3). 

2.2 Definition of e-Learning 

1) The definition in The 2007/2008 e-Learning White Paper edited by the Commerce and 

Information Policy Bureau, Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry (METI, 2007) 

The 2007/2008 e-Learning White Paper was the last Commerce and Information 

Policy Bureau, Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry (METI) edition. The 

e-Learning Consortium Japan took its editing over for the 2008/09 version. The 

2007/2008 e-Learning White Paper definition is as follows; 

“ ‘e-Learning’ is electronic learning utilizing computers and networks. In 

the broad sense, it is learning in which ICT is utilized. In a narrower 


sense, it is asynchronous and online-based learning, like WBT. Recently, 

as ‘blended approaches’ have become more popular, the broader definition 

is more preferable. The main features of ‘e-Learning’ are digitalization and 

interactivity. 

‘e-Learning’ has a self-directed (or independent/autonomous) learning aspect 

utilizing information technologies (IT). ‘e-Learning’ is introduced either 

as a substitute for all or partial classroom education or in combination 

with it. ‘e-Learning’ content is written and edited under the goals and 

objectives of the course and assures sufficient interaction not only between 

the content provider and the learners but also among learners. Interactivity 

is realized by providing adequate instruction by computers or by 2-way 

communication between the participants.” 

In Japanese formal education, the dominant use of ICT is in ‘blended’ approaches 

and terms such as ‘ICT-utilized’ education and/or ‘ICT-enhanced’ education are 

preferable. Asynchronous online learning and computer assisted training are popular 

in informal education, especially in corporate learning. At the present, ‘e-Learning’ 

is used as a comprehensive concept covering both synchronous and asynchronous 

learning modes. 


Chapter 3 

Government Policy, Finance/Funding, 

and the Regulation of e-Learning for 

Lifelong Learning 

As ICT utilization in various social activities is one of the basic policies in Japan, 

the Strategic Headquarters for the Promotion of an Advanced Information and 

Telecommunications Network Society (IT Strategic Headquarters) was established 

within the Cabinet in January 2001. The IT Strategic Headquarters published The 

New National Strategies of Information and Communication Technology (May 2010) 

and The Roadmap for New National Strategies of Information and Communication 

Technology (June 2010) (http://www.kantei.go.jp/jp/singi/it2/100622.pdf). 

In this chapter, in order to clarify the Japanese government’s official views, several 

translated parts of MEXT White Papers are introduced. The original documents are 

The White Paper on Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology FY2008 

and FY2009 versions (Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and 

Technology (MEXT), 2009 and 2010). As an English version of the full texts was 

not available, the OUJ-CODE team directed and is responsible for the translation 

from the original Japanese. 

Recent Japanese governmental policy amendments are overviewed before introducing 

the White Paper translation. 

3.1 

Recent Japanese government policies (from The FY2008 

MEXT White Paper, Part 2 Chapter 1 Topic 1 revised from 

http://www.mext.go.jp/b_menu/hakusho/html/hpab200801/detail/1292599.htm) 

The Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT) has 

promoted various measures such as expanding the acceptance of adult students in 


universities, promoting the Open University of Japan and by enhancing diverse learning 

opportunities through the promotion of ‘social education’. 

The Fundamental Law of Education, amended in December 2006, clarified the philosophy 

of lifelong learning. The Basic Plan for the Promotion of Education drawn 

up in July 2008 outlined the realization within 5 years of an environment in which 

anyone could learn anywhere at any point in their lives. 

Following the revision of the Fundamental Law of Education, the Act for Partial 

Amendment of the Social Education Law and other acts were passed and enacted 

in the 169th Diet, on June 11th, 2008. This law established the duties of national 

and local governmental ‘social education’, the administrative work of the Boards 

of Education, the management of community centers (kominkan), libraries and museums, 

and the regulations concerning the certificates for librarians and others. In 

addition to this law, the laws on training librarians and curators in the ministries 

will be revised. 

Establishing new after-school classroom regulations and regional school support headquarters; 

assessing community centers, libraries and museums to improve social education 

facility management as well as regulating information provided to citizens; 

and reviewing librarian and curator requirements including the precise university credits 

required for certification, were specified in the Act for Partial Amendment of 

the Social Education Law A subsequent February 2009 research survey report on 

new directions for libraries defined university Library Studies credits to be fulfilled 

in acquiring a librarian certificate. The proposed university credit reorganization and 

expansion to revise the current 14-course/20-credit system into a 13-course/24-credit 

system will come into effect in April 2012 following the enactment of the Ordinance 

for Enforcement of the Library Act in April 2009. 

Similarly, a February 2009 research survey report on new directions for museums 

defined university credits to be fulfilled in acquiring a curator certificate. 

The proposed university credit reorganization and expansion to revise the current 

8-course/12-credit system into an enhanced 9-course/19-credit system will come into 

effect in April 2012 following the enactment of the Ordinance for Enforcement of 

the Museum Act in April 2009. Reference material entitled Practical Guidelines for 


Museums will be compiled and distributed to universities and museums. 

3.2 Lifelong learning society and systematic promotion 

1) Background (from The FY2009 MEXT White Paper, Part 2 Chapter 1 General Discussion, 

p.79-80) 

In the midst of drastic socio-economic changes, there is an increasing necessity for 

measures to realize a ‘lifelong learning society’. The term ‘Lifelong learning society’ 

refers to a society in which each citizen can independently choose among learning 

opportunities, learn anywhere at any time during one’s lifetime and receive proper 

recognition for personal learning achievements that polish up each personality and 

increase the quality of life. 

In order to promote a lifelong learning society, the government enacted the Law 

on the Preparation of the Promotion System of the Measures to Promote the Lifelong 

Learning Society in 1990. In the Fundamental Law of Education, amended in 2006, 

the basic concept of lifelong learning has been specified (Article 3). However, the 

realization of the lifelong learning society is still midway. 

In the following current social situations, the significance of ‘lifelong learning society’ 

is increasing. 

(1) With the declining birthrate, aging, and a decreasing population, in Japanese 

economic society, cultivating each citizen’s ability and individuality to the 

maximum is indispensible in utilizing variable human resources. 

(2) Under the drastic industrial and employment structure changes, in the context 

of globalization it is essential for citizens to have lifetime opportunities to 

relearn knowledge and skills in maintaining personal vocational and job abilities 

and social lives. 

(3) With the increases in irregular employment and the risk of corporate bankruptcy, 


it is necessary to fulfill the educational and capacity building opportunities 

to support citizens who try to acquire knowledge and skills and try to support 

themselves in order to overcome social stratification and poverty. 

(4) From the viewpoint of autonomy and symbiosis or from that of reproduction 

of social bonds in the community, the participation of various agents such 

as public administration, residents, corporate and NPOs is an important task 

nowadays to realize public interests. Active community and lifelong learning 

construction practices are necessary for that purpose. 

(5) With the advent of an aging society, it is necessary to prepare learning 

opportunities that satisfy the aged population desire for knowledge in order 

to have an affluent life. 

As for item (4) above, community building and empowerment is regarded to be the 

process of learning and practices on various issues. For example, ‘Regional 

Headquarter to Support Schools’ and ‘After-school Children’s Classrooms’ and other 

measures offering community support for schools not only enrich children’s learning 

and empower school functions but also provide the community lifelong learning opportunities, 

strengthen social bonds, shape an active community, and stimulate society 

as a whole. That is, in the midst of drastic socio-economic changes, it is very important 

to re-examine education and educational policies from the viewpoint of lifelong 

learning. 

At present, financial circles, labor organizations, nation and local administration are 

collaborating toward ‘the balance between working and life’. In addition to ‘the balance 

between working and life’, the fulfillment of ‘learning’ and ‘community activity’ 

will bring increased richness to ‘working’ and ‘life’. MEXT is promoting various 

measures that stimulate society through lifelong learning from the viewpoint of ‘the 

balance between working and learning’. 


2) Systematic promotion of the educational policies: the new educational policy framework 

(from The FY2009 MEXT White Paper, Part 2 Chapter 1 Section 1, p.81) 

(1) The Fundamental Law of Education and the Basic Plan for the Promotion of 

Education 

In December 2006 the Fundamental Law of Education was amended and in July 

2008, according to Article 17 (1) of the law, the Basic Plan for the Promotion of 

Education was formulated by the Cabinet as the first comprehensive governmental 

plan on education. Toward realizing the concepts in the law, the plan showed the 

goals of the next 10 years to be (i) to cultivate the basic abilities of all of children 

to support themselves by the end of compulsory education (ii) to bring up talented 

people to support and develop society and to lead the international society. 

To realize those goals, the plan outlined four basic principles of the measures and 

77 actual plans for FY2008-2012, and clarified the PDCA cycle that would be introduced 

to assure step-by-step implementation. 

Furthermore, the nation and local public administration should play each part while 

collaborate each other towards the goals. It was also specified that each local public 

administration should make a regional plan in reference to the national basic plan. 

As of March 31, 2010, the basic local plan had been determined in 36 prefectures 

and ordinance-designated cities. 

Toward realizing ‘the nation based on education’, MEXT will promote various 

step-by-step measures for continuously checking the progress. MEXT deploys various 

measures in the following targets. 

i) Decreasing educational cost at households 

ii) Improving educational potentials at schools 

iii) Realizing universities that lead and contribute to the world 

iv) Supporting the employment of new graduates and cultivating independent 

learners in the workforce (members of society) 

v) Realizing new public community 


3.3 

The of lifelong learning and the establishment of its 

promotion organizations (from The FY2008 MEXT White 

Paper, Part 2, Chapter 1, Section 1 p.52) 

1) The significance of lifelong learning 

‘Lifelong learning’ generally refers to any kind of learning in which citizens undertake 

throughout their lifetimes. Hence the term includes school education, home education, 




independently choose learning opportunities and learn at any time during their lifetimes 

and receive proper recognition for their learning achievements. The basic concept 

of lifelong learning was specified in the amended Fundamental Law of Education 

in order to pursue the realization of a ‘lifelong learning society’ (Article 3). 

On Policy to Promote Lifelong Learning to Lead the New Era: Aiming to build 

a ‘knowledge circulation society’, a policy report submitted by the Central Council 

for Education in February 2008, included descriptions of the necessity and importance 

of promoting lifelong learning as follows: 

Firstly, economic development, the progress of science and technology, the propagation 

of information technology, and the aging of society have induced strong citizen 

demands for various learning opportunities for self-fulfillment/cultivation, and 

for an improved quality of life. In other words, there is a need for the realization 

of a lifelong learning society in which citizens can independently choose their own 

learning opportunities at any time during their lifetimes, and receive proper recognition 

for their learning achievements. 

Secondly, the 21st Century is referred to as a ‘knowledge-based society’, in which 

knowledge will be the basis for politics, economy, and culture, that is, in all social 

activities; and hence the importance of knowledge is ever on the rise. In a knowledge-based 

society, investments in human resources that can create new knowledge 

will be the important key. Especially given the current issue of increasing irregular 

employment, building an environment in which individuals can continue to learn 


as required ― in order to maintain vocational and employment abilities amidst 

changes in society, and to be able to learn and upgrade knowledge and skills as 

required to continue making a living in society ― is an urgent task. 

Thirdly, administrative services tend to decrease with administrative reform and deregulation, 

and as citizens are expected to be more self-accountable for their own 

decisions, demands for educational activities that enrich individual learning opportunities 

increase. At the same time, there is a need to build independent local societies 

in which the community itself can integrate its power to solve pressing issues. 

Furthermore, amidst various aggravated global-scale issues, there is a demand for 

building a ‘sustainable society’ in the world at large. The necessity and importance 

of education in building such a society at large, is internationally recognized and 

advocated. The building of a ‘knowledge circulation society’―in which individuals 

return the outcome of their learning activities to the community and it contributes 

to the improvement of educational force of overall society―will become the basis 

of a sustainable society. 

2) On Policy to Promote Lifelong Learning to Lead the New Era: Aiming to build a ‘knowledge 

circulation society’ (Policy report) 

Upon consultation in June, 2005, The Central Council for Education deliberations 

centered around the Lifelong Learning Subcommittee, and a two-part policy report 

entitled On Policy to Promote Lifelong Learning to Lead the New Era: Aiming to 

build a ‘knowledge circulation society’ was created in February, 2008. 

(1) Policy to promote future lifelong learning 

Part 1 describes the rising need and importance of promoting lifelong learning; a 

‘zest for living’ needed for children in the next generation; and the strength required 

as adults to live through the dramatically changing times. It then continues to recommend 

concrete policies aimed at building a ‘knowledge circulation society’ with the 

following two pillars: ‘support for learning throughout the lifetimes of individual 

citizens’ and ‘enhancement of educational ability in overall society’. 


i) Support for learning throughout the lifetimes of individual citizens 

First in terms of support for learning throughout the lifetimes of individual citizens, 

the policy report recommended the following enhancements in a policy entitled 

Support for Learning throughout the Lifetimes of Individual Citizens: 

(ⅰ) Deliberating the role of extra-curricular learning for children from the view 

of supporting extra-curricular activities that foster a ‘zest for living’; 

(ⅱ) Enhancing opportunities to utilize social education facilities, etc. as various 

learning grounds and to leverage the learning results to secure comprehensive 

problem solving functionality in the community; 

(ⅲ) Improving credit certification for universities to issue proof after finishing 

adult programs, using a ‘job card’ system to leverage vocational career building 

such as job hunting, and creating evaluation guidelines for proficiency 

tests provided by third party evaluators to add to social credentials. 

ii) Enhancing educational ability in overall society 

Further, a policy entitled Enhancement of Educational Ability in Overall Society, 

recommends the following: 

(ⅰ) Forming a home education support platform to proactively promote comprehensive 

support to various parents including those who are apathetic or those 

who have a high interest but lack the means for learning; 

(ⅱ) Promoting involvement of overall society with schools on a regional bases, 

such as the ‘After-school Child Plan’ in which local residents actively engage 

themselves to support the schools; 

(ⅲ) Using social education facilities such as community centers, libraries and 

museums as regional learning bases. 

Additionally, the report recommends considering the following reference viewpoints 

when promoting policy: 

(ⅰ) balancing ‘individual desire’ and ‘social demand’ 

(ⅱ) aiming to create a sustainable society through ‘inheritance’ and ‘creation’ 

(ⅲ) promoting policy by building tying up and networking. 


(2) The role of public administration in terms of policy promotion 

Part 2 in particular, describes the role of national and local public administrations. 

First, lifelong learning policies are summarized, then the basic concepts such as the 

philosophy of lifelong learning is delineated. Further, the report made recommendations 

including the revision in statutes as follows: 

(ⅰ) Specifying the new Board of Education role in the area of school and family 

education support; 

(ⅱ) Activating community centers, libraries and museums through evaluation and 

improvement of operational status, and through providing information; and 

(ⅲ) Reviewing librarian and curator qualification criteria, as well as enhancing 

their training. 

Furthermore, it recommends the following: 

(ⅰ) Actively affiliating public administration with private organizations such as 

NPO and middle support organizations and the private sectors that play major 

roles in providing various learning opportunities and implementation in the 

public administration of lifelong learning promotion and social education; 

(ⅱ) The Board of Education and chief magistrates taking a role and relationship 

in the local public entity. 

3) Setting up a system for promoting lifelong learning 

Aside from MEXT and the Board of Education, various agencies are involved in 

assorted ways to actualize a lifelong learning society. Hence it is important to build 

a system to coordinate and cooperate with these lifelong learning institutions and 

organizations. 

(1) MEXT involvement 

The Lifelong Learning Policy Bureau has been set up at MEXT; and the Subcommittee 

for Lifelong Learning at the Central Council for Education, investigates and deliberates 

important issues related to promoting lifelong learning. Additionally, the 

Private Sector Education Project Promotion Department has been set up in the 

Lifelong Learning Policy Bureau as a contact point for supporting private sectors 


that promote lifelong learning. Furthermore, an administrative structure has been put 

into place to support cities, towns and villages with their endeavors to develop their 

region through promoting education, culture and sports. 

Aside from all these efforts, a monthly magazine on lifelong learning to provide 

comprehensive information on promotion of lifelong learning entitled Monthly 

Lifelong Learning is being published. It gathers and introduces good lifelong learning 

promotion practices in cities, towns and villages, as well as implementing and reporting 

on research. The magazine is also involved in providing regular discussions and 

opinion exchange among prefectural Boards of Education, private social education 

organizations, NPO and economic organizations. 

(2) Local authority involvement 

i) The state of public administrative organizations 

There is a department/section in charge of lifelong learning in every prefecture. At 

the same time, as of June, 2008 the Lifelong Learning Council deliberates important 

items related to the comprehensive promotion of lifelong learning in the 37 prefectures. 

Furthermore, almost every city, town and village has a section in charge of lifelong 


ii) Lifelong learning promotion plans 

As of June, 2008, 43 prefectures have formulated a mid- to long-term basic plan 

or basic concept for promoting lifelong learning. Further, 1,027 cities, towns and 

villages have formulated a basic plan or basic concept. Furthermore, the number 

of cities, towns and villages declaring themselves to be a ‘Place of Lifelong Learning’ 

in order to actively promote lifelong learning has increased to 87 as of June, 2008. 

iii) Nation-wide Council for Lifelong Learning in Cities, Towns and Villages 

In November, 1999 the Nation-wide Council for Lifelong Learning in Cities, Towns 

and Villages was founded to strengthen the nationwide affiliation of cities, towns 

and villages that are actively involved in facilitating lifelong learning. It aims to 

promote networking through the exchange of lifelong learning and people. As of 

July, 2008, 123 cities, towns and villages are participating. 


3.4 

Enhancement and activation of ‘social education’ 

(from the FY2008 FY2009 MEXT White Paper, Part 2 Chapter 

1 Section 3-3, p.94) 

1) New era ‘Social education’ 

As the citizen demand for learning and the demand for more and more diversified 

and sophisticated content increase, the importance of projects hosted by the Board 

of Education and social education facilities is ever on the rise. The Social Education 

Law was revised in June 2008 based on a Fundamental Law of Education amendment. 

MEXT is intent on promoting ‘social education’ in order to continue actualizing 

a lifelong learning society. 

2) Enhancing experts to support learning activities for citizens 

(1) Current status of experts on ‘social education’ 

The list of experts for ‘social education’ may include social education directors at 

the Board of Education, community center directors at respective social education 

facilities, librarians (library), curators (museum), social education committees and 

social education instructors. The social education directors in particular will play 

a support role in proactive learning activities for citizens by planning and implementing 

the local social education administration that serves as the social education administrative 

core at the prefecture and sub-prefecture levels, advising and instructing 

on technical areas. Recently, coordination and adjustment among the human resources 

and the social education leaders is also expected. 

(2) Fostering and training experts 

MEXT is providing practical training programs for current social education directors, 

librarians, and curators to enhance their expert qualifications in response to social 

needs and the local social education tasks at hand. Furthermore, MEXT commissions 

universities and implements programs to provide further qualifications for social education 

directors and librarians to foster social education directors and librarians who 


are capable of meeting the ever sophisticated and diversifying learning needs of the 

local residents in response to social changes. 

A revision in the June 2008 amendment of Social Education Law, covers the lack 

of a social education board member presence in organizations involved in the opinion 

listening pre-process of local public entities to grant a subsidy to social education 

related organizations; deliberation councils that review and discuss the granting of 

social education related subsidy may become the substituting agent. Nonetheless the 

importance of the role of a social education board member still stands even after 

the revision. MEXT endeavors to provide necessary information so that a social education 

board member can continue to proactively expand activities in forming ‘social 

education’ related plans and in advising and mentoring the youth education in the 

local public entities. 

3) Setting up, forming and operating bases for local learning activities 

(1) Community centers 

Not only is the community center the closest base of learning for the local residents, 

but it plays an important role as a place of community interaction. As of October, 

2008, 15,943 centers around the nation provide classes and courses―various learning 

opportunities corresponding to the learning needs of the residents and the local community 

(Figures 3-1, 3-2, 3-3). 


Figure 3-1 Transition in number of community centers (from The FY2009 


MEXT, 2010, Figure 2-1-10, p.95, Source: MEXT Survey on Social 

Education) 

Each number of the courses was based on the survey held in the previous year 

However, it has been pointed out that current community center classes and courses 

tend to cater to hobbies and prestige achievement purpose learning for participants 

over 60 years old (Figure 3-3). 

In the Basic Plan for the Promotion of Education formulated in July, 2008, social 

education facilities such as community centers are to promote their function as a 

learning base to respond to various educational issues of the community and areas 

of high social needs; and to become the base for capacity building and community 

development. In building a network with related institutions and organizations, community 

centers are expected to play a further role as the base for the local community 

by expanding activities responding to new needs and issues. 

MEXT endeavors to enhance community center activities by promoting its involvement 

in sending instructors by affiliation with related ministries and agencies and 

providing learning opportunities that are of high social demand, as well as through 

its involvement in community center staff training to enhance their qualifications. 

Figure 3-2 Progress on number of courses provided (from The FY2009 



MEXT, 2010, Figure 2-1-11, p.96) 

Fig. 3-3 Gender and age group of the course students (from The FY2008 


MEXT, 2009, Figure 2-1-8, p.64) 

(2) Libraries 

Library is a social education facility close to the residents that collects, organizes 

and provides books and various information required for personal learning activities. 

As of October, 2008, there are 3140 public libraries and 25 private libraries. The 

number of libraries, the number of books lent, and the number of library users have 

steadily increased over the recent years (Figure 3-4). 

With the amendment of Library Law in June 2008, the Examination Council on 

the Future Role of the Library has compiled two reports viz., Policy on Enhancement 

of Library Staff Training (June 2008) and On University-level Subject Requirements 

to Acquire Librarian Qualification (February 2009). These reports recommend enhancement 

in qualification of library staff via enhancements in staff training and 

librarian qualification curriculum in the universities. MEXT in consideration of these 

recommendations has involves itself to enhance the training for new head librarians 

and middle standing librarians whilst enhancing the library promotion policy by revising 

ministerial ordinances such as the Library Law. 


Fig. 3-4 Number of libraries, that of books lent and that of users checked 

out books (from The FY2009 White Paper on Education, Culture, 

Sports, Science and Technology, MEXT, 2010, Figure 2-1-12, p.96, 

Sources: MEXT Survey on Social Education) 

Both the number of books lent and that of users checked out books were based 

on the survey held in the previous year. 

(3) Museums 

Museums are facilities which collect, preserve, research, display and disseminate 

knowledge in an integrated way. As of October, 2008, the number of registered museums 

are 907, facilities equivalent to museums 341; and facilities with similar function 

as museums number 4527 (Figure 3-5). 


Fig. 3-5 Numbers of Museums (from The FY2008 White Paper on Education, 

Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, MEXT, 2009, Figure 

2-1-10, p.65) 

The numbers of visitors are based on the survey held in the previous year. The 

numbers of museums are the total of registered, equivalent and analogous categories. 

Among the museums and art museums established by independent administrative institutions 

which fulfill establishment criteria, MEXT appoints them as ‘facilities 

equivalent to a museum’ based on the Museum Law. 

In order to advance museum functionality and to facilitate active participation in 

museum activities, MEXT not only supports various research on museum evaluation 

and risk management, but also supports model projects that construct a network 

among various types of museums under the Project to Promote Regional Knowledge 

Bases at Libraries and Museums. 

Further, MEXT dispatches local curators to various museums abroad for training 

to investigate on progressive display and knowledge dissemination; and have the 

curators reflect the training results in the national museum administration. 


In June 2008, the first amendment to the Museum Law was adopted almost half 

a century after its establishment. The Expert Meeting on the Future Role of the 

Museum continued to investigate into the area of curator training and compiled a 

secondary report entitled Policy on Enhancement of Curator Training (February 

2009). In consideration of these recommendations, MEXT has amended the necessary 

ministerial ordinances (effective April 1, 2012). 

The National Science Museum engages in research on natural history and the history 

of science and technology, and collects and preserves specimen material. In addition, 

the museum makes full use of research results and specimens in displays and study 

support activities. In the area of study support activities, various courses and observatory 

meetings will be implemented, while affiliation with universities to further 

promote student science literacy and communication skills are strengthened. 

4) Promoting ‘social education’-related organization activities 

Amid current drastic social changes, learning in school education settings may not 

be sufficient in terms of an education related to important subjects of high social 

imperative (e.g., environmental education, consumer education, law education), hence 

they would require continued learning after graduating from schools. The social education-related 

organizations play a major role in this area, provide nationwide research, 

study groups and symposiums and publish public relations magazines. MEXT 

provides support so they may promote their activities by various means, such as 

information provision. 

5) Towards an aging society 

In the process of rapid transition towards an aging society, in order that a smooth 

transition into a vibrant and affluent aging society may be realized, it is vital to 

provide appropriate learning opportunities to senior citizens while at the same time 

to promote their social participation in volunteer activities, etc. 

Community centers and other social education facilities function as bases for implementing 

classes, course and cross generation exchanges and various learning proj- 


ects that correspond with the senior citizen learning needs. 

3.5 

Support of lifelong learning in each lifetime 

(from the FY2008 FY2009 White Paper, Part 2 Chapter 1 

Section 3, p.91-93) 

‘Lifelong learning’ is generally used as any kind of learning that citizens undertake 

throughout their lifetimes. Hence the term includes school education, home education, 




freely choose learning opportunities and learn at any time during their lifetimes, and 

receive proper recognition for their learning achievements. 

Recently, individual needs for learning are increasing and content is diversified and 

advanced. With the trends, the role of lifelong learning has become more important. 

MEXT promotes various measures for ‘lifelong learning society’ realization, such 

as the preparation of learning environments in which citizens can learn throughout 

their lifetimes, a supply of diversified learning opportunities and a career framework 

in which learning outcomes are evaluated. 

1) Dissemination and cultivation of lifelong learning (All Japan Lifelong Learning Festival 

“Manabi-Pia”) 

In order to promote lifelong learning, it is essential both to disseminate and cultivate 

the understanding of the significance of learning throughout one’s lifetime and to 

stimulate motivation for autonomous learning. As a part of the dissemination and 

cultivation efforts since FY1989, MEXT jointly holds the annual All Japan Lifelong 

Learning Festival with local public entities. The festival provides various events and 

lectures on lifelong learning. The 21st All Japan Lifelong Learning Festival 

“Manabi-Pia Saitama 2009” was held in Saitama Prefecture for five days from 

October 30 through November 3, 2009, and since its 1989 launch in Chiba prefecture 


the festival has attracted approximately 224 million visitors. The festival has highly 

stimulated participant motivation to learn (79% of the questionnaire respondents replied 

they would “start some lifelong learning as a result of her/his participation 

into the event”). With individual prefectures creating their own unique events every 

year, the festival is a leading major success in the dissemination and cultivation of 

lifelong learning. 

2) Provision of diversified learning opportunities 

(1) Enhancement and development of the Open University of Japan (OUJ): 

i) Core institution for lifelong learning (The description on OUJ is also shown 

in Chapter 5, Section 1 on page 52. As this section is a part of a MEXT white 

paper that was authorized by the ministry, the editor decided to retain both parts.) 

The Open University of Japan (OUJ) was established in 1983 with the objective 

of providing higher education opportunities nationwide via the effective use of broadcasting 

media such as television and radio, and began accepting students in April 

1985. 

In the second semester of FY2009, OUJ had approximately 84,000 students throughout 

the country, and approximately 60,000 graduates who completed the entire 

curriculum. Centered on the adult population the expansive age range of the students 

is from 15 to 90 years old. The total cumulative number of students has reached 

approximately 1.2 million. OUJ has played a significant role as a core institution 

for lifelong learning in Japan (Figure 3-6). 

In order to meet growing and diversifying individual educational needs, OUJ has 

set up the Faculty of Liberal Arts that offers five programs (Living and Welfare, 

Psychology and Education, Society and Industry, Humanities and Culture, and Nature 

and Environment) with about 300 subjects that are not limited to the conventional 

academic framework so that the students can enrich their academic knowledge as 

well as deepen expertise to meet their real life needs. 

Further aimed to foster occupational specialists, OUJ has established a graduate 

school in Arts and Sciences (as of 2010, six programs; Human Life and Health 

Science, Human Development Science, Clinical Psychology, Social and Management 


Science, Cultural and Information Science, and Natural and Environmental Science) 

in April 2001; and it began enrolling students for graduate programs as of April 

2002. 

Furthermore, as of 2006 the Open University of Japan Expert (Certification System 

for Grouped Subjects) grants certificates to those obtaining subject groups credits 

in a specific field. OUJ is also actively engaged in enhancing teacher qualification 

by providing various education-related subjects targeting specialized certificate and 

special education certificate acquisition. 

Fig. 3-6 Transition of Enrollment at the Open University of Japan (OUJ) 

Distance education in higher/tertiary education is provided by broadcasting and the 

Internet in many countries and international collaborations and exchanges among institutions 

are also expanding. In October 2009, MEXT, Saitama City and OUJ 

co-hosted the World Conference of Open University Presidents in Saitama, and the 


epresentatives of distance universities in ten countries gathered and exchanged ideas 

on the role of open/distance universities for constructing a future lifelong learning 

society. 

ii) Enhancement and development of learning environments 

Lectures at the Open University of Japan are broadcasted via satellite and can be 

audited nationwide. Further, OUJ supports learning for students who have difficulties 

allocating sufficient time because of personal office/house work by providing supplementary 

re-audit facilities and libraries, and also by establishing at least one Study 

Center and/or Satellite Spaces in each prefecture to provide face-to-face classes. 

For the efficient utilization of radio waves, terrestrial TV broadcasting will transit 

from the current analog mode to the digital mode by July 24, 2011. As of December 

2006, digital terrestrial broadcasting service has started covering the Kanto region 

including the Tokyo metropolitan area and six prefectures. This enables enhanced 

services utilizing the advantage of digitalization ― such as Hi-definition broadcasting, 

multi-channel broadcasting (multi-compilation), data broadcasting, subtitle 

broadcasting, EPG (Electronic Program), and efficient utilization of available 

programs. 

Following the abolishment of the National Institute of Multimedia Education (NIME) 

in April 2009, OUJ took over media education resources and has supported educational 

improvements by utilizing ICT-enhanced education in universities and colleges. 

To enhance student learning environments, BS digital broadcasting is scheduled to 

be available as of October 2011. OUJ aims to further enhance its universal access 

as the core institution of lifelong learning in Japan. 

3) Promotion of Education at Specialized Training Colleges 

As stipulated by the School Education Law, the objective of Specialized Training 

Colleges is to “foster the ability required in vocational or daily life, or to enrich 

the cultured mind”. They play a major role as educational institutions to implement 


practical vocational training and specialized technical training (3,348 schools, 

624,875students, as of May 2009). The Specialized Training College is divided into 

three categories depending on entrance qualifications: ‘Postsecondary Course 

(professional training colleges)’ with a prerequisite academic equivalent of a high 

school graduate; ‘Upper Secondary Course (upper secondary specialized training 

schools)’ with a prerequisite academic equivalent of a junior high school graduate; 

and the ‘General Course’ that has no prerequisites. 

As promotion measures for Specialized Training College education, MEXT consigned 

Specialized Training Colleges to conduct research and development of new educational 

methods to respond to issues of high social imperative, initiated a program 

to support students from overseas in their employment and living, promoted the provision 

of opportunities for various occupational experiences to recharge vocational 

awareness for high school students, and provided learning opportunities for job applicants 

(especially young people and women) to improve their employment abilities 

by utilizing the Specialized Training College vocational education function. 

4) MEXT-certified adult correspondence course education 

Among the correspondence courses held by schools and public sectors, MEXT certifies 

some commendable courses from the viewpoint of ‘social education’, and promotes 

its recommendation and dissemination. As of the end of February 2010, there 

are 119 MEXT certified adult correspondence courses offered by 29 organizations. 

The annual cumulative enrollment number for 2008 was approximately 83,000. 

5) Cooperation with corporate and non-profit educational organizations 

Considering that educational corporations and NPOs, as bearers of a ‘new public’, 

play significant roles in supporting diversified personal learning activities, their roles 

will be more important in the future. 

MEXT launched the Lifelong Learning Revitalization Project with NPOs as Core 

Organizations starting in FY2008 to promote lifelong learning activities in close collaboration 

with such organizations. By preparing measures to shape a network among 


NPOs and to support capacity-building programs for them, MEXT copes with growing 

and diversifying personal learning needs. 

6) Preparation to accept workforce learners (working members of society) at universities and 

colleges (from The FY2009 MEXT White Paper, Part 2 Chapter 3 Section 1-4, p.181-182) 

In the Basic Plan for the Promotion of Education, to realize a lifelong learning society 

in which everybody can learn necessary content throughout their lifetimes and continually 

challenge themselves, universities and colleges are requested to cope with 

the broad-spectrum of needs from various learners including those in the workforce 

(working members of society). MEXT has prepared the following measures to facilitate 

the acceptance of workforce learners at institutions of higher education and expand 

personal learning opportunities for those who want to learn at the universities 

and colleges while working (Table 3-1). 

In FY2007, the Law of School Education was amended and a new certification system 

was established in order to provide citizens the opportunities to systematically learn 

advanced and professional content at universities and colleges and to facilitate positive 

social contributions by higher education institutions. Under the new system, universities 

and colleges can prepare certification programs (learning programs for a 

unit of subjects for non-regular students) and grant certificates to the participants 

who complete the program. As of FY2008, 48 programs were introduced at 39 universities 

and 8 programs at 7 junior colleges. The Junior College of Shizuoka Prefecture 

launched the Project for training HPS Japan that supports nursery school teachers 

in acquiring new skills and returning to the workforce; The Kyushu Institute of 

Technology opened the Program for Training Adviser Experts for ICT Implementation 

for Elementary and Lower Secondary Education and Lifelong Learning. 


Table 3-1 The main systems for the promotion for accepting workforce learners 

(working members of society) at universities and colleges (from The 

FY2009 White Paper on Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, 

MEXT, 2010, Figure 2-3-3, p.181). Survey by MEXT. 

Name Outlines 

Implementation 

in FY2008 

According to the student situation (such as jobhold- 

Long-term Registered 

ers), students can be enrolled beyond the ordinary 256 universities 

Student 

limit of years or semesters 

Non-regular Students 

Enrolled to Subjects 

Evening Graduate 

School 

Correspondence 

University 

Satellite Campus 

Even non-regular students can be enrolled in a limited 

number of subjects in universities and earn 718 universities 

credits. 

Graduate school that has evening services 28 schools 

University that is engaged in correspondence education 

24 universities 

University that has remote branch campus(es) for 173 universities 

students who have find it difficult to go to the main and 25 junior 

campus 

colleges 

Furthermore, from FY2007 MEXT started the Program to Promote Education Coping 

with Recurrent Needs of Workforce Learners (working members of society) and supported 

the development and propagation of short-term practical educational programs 

utilizing research and educational resources at universities, junior colleges, and colleges 

of technology and contributed to the re-employment and career training of workforce 

learners (working members of society). For example, the re-employment of 

nurses who had left their jobs on maternity leave was supported, and farmers were 

assisted in acquiring agricultural management and advanced agricultural technology 

know-how. 

Making use of these adaptive measures, systematic education and learning opportunities 

will result in the diversified needs of workforce learners (working members 

of society) being realized. 


Chapter 4 



4.1 Influences of e-Learning on lifelong learning system 

1) A catalytic effect of transforming the educational system and promoting a lifelong learning 

model 

Introduction of e-Learning has lowered the borders between educational classifications 

and promoted the realization of a lifelong learning model. Professor Iwanaga suggested 

such catalyst effects of e-Learning on Japanese educational system. 

“We are now in a large-scale transition period. With the remarkable progress of 

information and communication technologies (ICT), the borders between various educational 

opportunities have begun to disappear rapidly. Especially, the barriers at 

the new sectors’ participation into college education, that was exclusive at the entirely 

different level from other educational opportunities, have lowered. Innovation in ICT 

is overcoming various spatial and temporal obstacles in distance learning” (Iwanaga, 

2009; in previous paper, p. S34). 

“In Japan, adult correspondence education started in the early period just after World 

War II and adult education using broadcasting was established in the mid-1980’s. 

However, the current change induced by ICT’s rapid progress is entirely different 

in the following points; 

First, we have finally broken away from too much dependency on character-based 

media, which was accompanied with traditional correspondence universities by mail 

and printed materials. Now we utilize more easily visual presentation, that is effective 

in displaying more precise information and in motivating; second, we are now in 


transition phase to two-way learning from one-way teaching that was the evitable 

constraint of broadcasting education; third, on-demand education is more realizable, 

in which learner can learn what they want at preferable time and place. In this meaning, 

to adult learners, media-enhanced learning can be more effective and convenient 

than face-to-face classroom learning. 

With these changes, the borders between formal education and informal education, 

(that is, lifelong learning), has been less clear and the self-directed learning by adult 

learners has become easier. Both the development of ICT and the networking of 

universities will induce borderless among various educational opportunities in lifelong 

learning in infrastructure, human aspects and legislation” (Iwanaga, 2009; in previous 

paper, p. S34). 

Recently, in the United States, ICT implementation into both on-site and distance 

education brought about active discussions on the quality assurance and accreditation. 

In Japan, several full-online correspondence universities, such as Cyber University, 

passed MEXT’s approval process for the establishment while many traditional correspondence 

universities that had longer histories and used ordinary mail system mainly 

have also begun Internet technologies. On the other hand, in the new legislation, 

even ‘on-site’ universities can credit full online courses up to 50% of total credits 

that need for the graduation and ‘blended approach’ is recognized as an effective 

method to harmonize with the younger generation. In the near future, many on-site 

universities will adopt asynchronous e-Learning in order to enclose more lifelong 

learners. 

4.2 Governmental implementation of ICT for lifelong learning 

1) Increasing opportunities for diversified learning activities for each citizen (lifelong learning, 

from the FY2008 FY2009 MEXT White Paper, Part 2 Chapter 9 Section 3, p.339) 

With the change of social structures and the innovations of technologies, MEXT 


promotes the implementation of ICT in learning so citizens may realize the personal 

capacity building of both their professional and general knowledge and to expand 

more adaptive learning opportunities which adapts to each learner’s characteristics. 

Through the advocacy and dissemination of e-Learning and other ICT-enhanced education 

in higher education institutions, MEXT plans to provide the opportunities of 

continuing education to students including learners in the workforce. 

(1) Establishing an enriched lifelong learning society 

MEXT aims to create an environment in which Japanese citizens have a ubiquitous 

opportunity to learn and accordingly receive recognition of their achievements in 

a proper way, and promotes to provide various educational opportunities that incorporate 

ICT. 

i) Expanding learning and education opportunities through el-Net 

Coping with the expanding use of computer and the Internet, MEXT upgraded the 

el-Net (educational information communications network) in April 2008 by switching 

the platform from the previous satellite communications system to the Internet-based 

system (http://www.elnet.co.jp). 

Contrasting with the former system in which the access was limited to public facilities 

such as community centers, lifelong education centers, libraries or schools, the new 

system enables users to learn beyond spatial restrictions as long as the Internet connection 

is available. Furthermore, by transforming the delivery from the previous 

schedule-based to the new on-demand services over channels 1 through 10, users 

can choose from a variety of the Internet-delivered content to study at any time 

and review repeatedly as they want. The new system also has succeeded live distribution 

functions for real-time content such lectures, seminars, or meetings. 

Spurred by the Internet use, and taking it as an opportunity to embody its lifelong 

learning principle, MEXT plans to realize learning opportunities through which citizens 

can learn beyond the limitation of location and time. 

ii) Supporting the establishment of an ICT-based lifelong learning platform 


The lifelong learning platform means an administrative infrastructure which, under 

the collaborations with regional universities, private companies, NPOs, local authorities 

and citizens, offers individual learner with an environment for ubiquitous learning, 

consultation about learning, and/or group learning. 

In order to promote the establishment of a lifelong learning platform that incorporates 

ICT such as the Internet, MEXT provided learning content that enables ‘relearning’ 

or up-skilling, and develops a learning support system (basic management application 

software) which has functions of content delivery, consulting and discussions essential 

to learning as well as an open community space for the interaction among learners. 

With the sustained collaborative efforts of universities, companies, and private organizations 

around the nation to use this learning support system, a wide variety of 

citizens can be expected to benefit from a more advanced lifelong learning 

environment. 

One pilot case illustrating this initiative by a local community is the Toyama Internet 

Community School (http://toyama.shiminjuku.com/). 

(2) Introducing ICT into higher education and improving its environments 

The utilization of new technologies such as the Internet is expected to diversify and 

improve the quality of the classroom teaching in universities and colleges, as well 

as reinforce learning supports beyond the classroom. Various challenges are now 

underway in many higher education/tertiary education institutions. 

Parallel with ICT developments, the number of universities endeavoring to incorporate 

advanced media such as the Internet into education has multiplied. For examples, 

collaborative teaching and online symposia were held among multiple universities 

or among distributed campuses in a university, and e-Learning systems supported 

students to take classes without temporal and geographical constraints. Moreover, a 

growing number of universities are providing online study-related information and 

using e-mail or mobile phones for questions and responses. 

While private universities and colleges launched the Internet-based ‘cyber campus 

implementation’ project by ‘Governmental Subsidy to Private Universities and 

Colleges’, MEXT has supported their various operations to build up their advanced 


IT environment such as multimedia facilities and campus network (intra-school LAN). 

2) Educating children who will be the leaders in the future information society (elementary 

and secondary education, from the FY2008 FY2009 MEXT White Papers, Part 2 Chapter 

9 Section 2, p.330) 

With the rapid change toward an information society, it is more and more important 

that each student acquires the basic capacity (that is, information literacy) to take 

the initiative in selecting and using information and information tools to prepare 

for independent participation in the information society. Schools are also required 

to cope with IT movements, and students have utilized ICT such as the Internet, 

computers and digital cameras for the daily learning activities in the classrooms. 

It is also more important that teachers efficiently make use of ICT as a method 

for teaching to realize ‘easy-to-understand classes’ and to assure ‘steadfast academic 

abilities’ of students. 

Furthermore, it has been pointed out that the progressively heavier administrative 

workloads have resulted in the decrease of teachers’ fact-to-face contact time with 

her/his students. The efficient use of ICT will reduce the teachers’ burden of such 

administrative work. 

This section describes various MEXT initiatives to respond to the need for using 

ICT in education for the benefit of children who will be the leaders in the future 

information society 

(1) Strengthening education for the children who should survive in the information 

society 

Information education to foster ‘information literacy’ is important to cultivate a ‘zest 

for living’ in children. Therefore it is critical that it should be applied throughout 

various educational activities cross-disciplinarily. 

Guidelines for the Courses of Study required that information education should be 

systematically implemented through each level of elementary, lower secondary, and 

upper secondary schools; instruction is included in the ‘Period for Integrated Study’, 


the technology field of ‘Technology and Home Economics’, and ‘Information’ as 

a common subject in each school level. 

The New Guidelines for Courses of Study in Elementary and Lower Secondary 

School were enforced partially from FY2009 and those in Upper Secondary School 

were from FY2010 in order to fulfill information education. The new guidelines for 

elementary school stipulated that schools must help children acquire basic computer 

operating skills, appropriately use ICT tools in learning various subjects, and help 

children develop information morals by focusing on relevant issues in Morals classes. 

The new guidelines for lower secondary schools specified that schools emphasize 

information-oriented educational activities to cultivate student initiative to use computers 

based on what they have previously learned in elementary school, and that 

schools attach more significance to teaching information morals during the subject 

for the technology field of ‘Technology and Home Economics’. 

New guidelines for upper secondary schools stressed that in the common subject 

‘Information’, systematized cyclic IT-oriented educational activities across elementary, 

lower secondary and upper secondary schools were adopted to fulfill the guidance 

in order to assure students developed information literacy, and a focus on 

‘information morals’ learning activities was embraced to foster student information 

morals acquisition. 

So that computer-enhanced education might advance smoothly and soundly under 

the new guidelines for the Courses of Study, MEXT also issued the Guideline on 

Using Computers in Education, in the hope that it would serve as a useful reference 

as schools and boards of education for teacher training as well as for work on productive 

measures (http://www.mext.go.jp/a_menu/shotou/zyouhou/1259413.htm). 

(2) Ensuring ‘easy-to-understand classes’ and stimulating children’s curiosity and 

interest 

i) Improving the environment for promoting ICT-enhanced education 

On various measures on improving ICT environments at school, MEXT has undertaken 

include providing computers for education and establishing intra-school LANs 

(intra-school networks) for using computers in ordinary classrooms. As of March 


2010, computers were provided at the rate of about 6.4 students per computer; about 

65.5 percent of all of public schools had been switched to ultra-high-speed connection 

(30Mbps and higher); and about 81.2 percent of intra-school LANs had been completed 

for ordinary classroom use. Although these figures have grown on average 

nationwide, the rate of achieving intra-school LANs, for example, varies among prefectures 

between 99.7% and 43.1%. 

As, in FY2009 supplementary budget, school ICT environments were improved under 

the ‘School New Deal’ initiative, the situations will take a turn for the better. In 

response to these situations, MEXT will support and endorse the commitments of 

local governments that are responsible for the IT environment. (For the state of school 

ICT environment preparations, http://www.mext.go.jp/a_menu/shotou/zyouhou/1286417.htm) 

ii) Improving teachers’ competencies in implementing ICT in their teaching 

In order to grasp the current state of how well teachers actually employ ICT in 

their teaching, MEXT conducted a survey targeting public schools based on the 

‘Standards for Teachers’ Skills of ICT Usage in Teaching (Checklist)’ 

(http://www.mext.go.jp/b_menu/houdou/19/02/07021604), which consisted of 5 main 

items and 18 sub-items on teachers’ competencies. In this survey, teachers evaluated 

themselves with 4-point scale (‘able to do well’, ‘able to do to a certain degree’, 

‘unable to do well’, or ‘barely able to do’) for each item on the Checklist. The 

survey findings as of March 2010 showed some items evaluated at higher levels 

while others were assessed at somewhat lower levels, and indicated that further endeavors 

were necessary (Figure 4-1). As a measure to improve teachers’ competencies 

in implementing ICT in their teaching, MEXT developed an e-Learning training system 

(TRAIN, https://train.code.u-air.ac.jp/about.php?1265801076) and a self-checklist 

system (cf. http://training.t-ict.jp/) based on the ‘Standards for Teachers’ Skills of 

ICT Usage in Teaching’ in the Program for the Promotion of Leading ICT-enhanced 

Education. These products are expected to utilize in seminars, courses and self-study 

in teacher training. Through various survey and research projects, MEXT promotes 

local governmental measures and school efforts. (The current state of teachers’ skills 

in using ICT in teaching is shown at http://www.mext.go.jp/a_menu/shotou/zyou- 


hou/1286417.htm). 

Fig. 4-1 Teachers’ Skills in Using ICT in Teaching (Source: Results of a 2009 

MEXT Survey on the status quo of Computer Use in Education at Schools) 

Percentages of teachers assessing themselves as ‘able to do well’ or ‘able to do 

to a certain degree’ (that is, as a better half) of the 4 –point scales in each of the 

18 sub-items (A1 to E2). ‘Averages’ are of sub-item percentages that correspond 

with each main item (A to E). For A1 to E2 sub-item categorization see the 

Standards for Teacher ICT Usage in Teaching (Checklist) 

(http://www.mext.go.jp/b_menu/houdou/19/02/07021604.htm). 

iii) Ensuring ‘steadfast academic abilities’ of students by incorporating ICT 

A two-year research study conducted from 2005 on the effect of teaching with ICT 


found that using ICT in teaching effectively stimulated the interest, curiosity and 

satisfaction levels of children and boosted their academic performance, while it is 

effective in the improving the quality of teaching in the aspect of teacher training. 

In order to disseminate the good practices showing the effects of ICT utilization, 

while holding forums to teachers and parents all over Japan in FY2007, MEXT distributed 

the Handbook on ICT-enhanced Teaching for Better Academic Performance 

(http://www.mext.gojp/b_menu/houdou/20/07/08070107.htm) in July 2008 which summarized 

tips on ICT use in the classroom and advices for various teaching scenarios. 

iv) A practical survey and research on pioneering and effective cases 

In order to advance further ICT implementation in education, it is critical to validate 

the pioneering and effective possibilities in line with the rapid development of computer, 

information and telecommunication networks. 

Based on the findings of various research studies in which it has been involved, 

MEXT initiated a new program to promote innovative ICT implementation in education 

in FY2007-2009. The 12 organizations were selected for this program and conducted 

three-year practical research studies. The wrap-up seminar was held in Tokyo 

in March 2010 to publicly announce these achievements attracted more than 200 

participants including board of education members and school officials. 

v) Enriching and disseminating educational content 

(a) Natural Science Network 

The Japan Science and Technology Agency provides digital teaching materials 

free-of-charge to teachers on its Rika Network website (http://www.rikanet.jst.go.jp/) 

to enrich education in ‘natural science’ and ‘science and technology’. As of March 

2010, 129 teaching materials have been provided to around 48,000 teachers registered 

at the website. From January 2005, the version which was made open to public 

and accessible from households has provided for children’s study at home (http://rikanet2.jst.go.jp/). 

(b) The Contest on Good Practices in Internet Implementation to Educational 

Activities 


The goal of the Contest on Good Practices in Internet Implementation to Educational 

Activities, which has been held since FY2000, is to promote Internet-enhanced education 

by acquainting citizens across the nation with award-winning practices in schools 

and local communities which implemented the Internet in various activities 

(http://www.netcon.gr.jp/). 

(c) Digital Library on Culture (Digital Archives on Japanese Culture, http://www2. 

ntj.jac.co.jp/dglib/) 

The Archives provides digital educational content, which introduces the appeal of 

a wide variety of theatrical arts, to the public through the Internet. Information on 

national theatres’ performance records, as well as on colored woodblock print and 

show bill collections, is available in the database. This project has been primarily 

promoted by the Japan Arts Council since FY2000. 

vi) Maintenance of the National Information Center for Education Resources 

(NICER) 

Although a significant amount of information useful in education can be found over 

the Internet, it is not easy to identify which information is precisely what is needed; 

children also face various problems in using the Internet such as the risk of accessing 

hazardous websites. 

The National Institute for Educational Policy Research is working to maintain the 

National Information Center for Education Resources (NICER: cf. http://www. nicer.go.jp/), 

a core website on Japanese education. The website allows users to easily 

search for target information among teaching and learning sources found on the 

Internet through its systematically sorted ‘elementary school’, ‘lower secondary 

school’, ‘upper secondary school’, ‘teacher’, ‘university’ and ‘lifelong learning’ user 

categories. This website also offers instructional materials and good practices in the 

classrooms. 

NICER website operation began in August 2001, and approximately 300,000 pieces 

of information had been provided as of March 2010. In September 2009, the search 

system was renewed and improved in search speed and usability. The updating of 

information is also continued based on the new Guidelines for Courses of Study. 


vii) Supporting children with disabilities 

It is imperative that the education of children with disabilities focus on fostering 

information literacy, and at the same time it is crucial to utilize ICT as an auxiliary 

means that compensates for disabilities and assists learning. 

In FY2009-2010, to contribute to fostering disabled children’s capacity to utilize information, 

the National Institute of Special Needs Education (NISE) carries out 

“research on utilization and evaluation of assistive technologies to cope with serious 

and diversified disabilities”. NISE provides in-service teacher training opportunities 

at ‘Special Needs Education Seminars’ designed for prominent teachers actively engaged 

in schools in each prefecture across the nation. As well as distributing various 

information and a wide range of training video materials for the seminars organized 

by boards of education and the like; NISE also provides information on educational 

support for children with development disorders, delivers seminar lectures for teachers 

via the website of Information Center of Education for the Persons with 

Developmental Disabilities; and provides comprehensive information on its Education 

Plaza for Children with Disabilities portal site (http://www.nise.go.jp/portal/index.html). 

(3) Promoting the use of computers for administration at school 

There is now a call for streamlining administrative work at school to ensure better 

teaching. To this end, integrating computers for administrative work is justified. The 

computer dissemination rate for teacher use in doing administrative work as of March 

2010 was 98.3 percent. Incorporating computers for administrative work at school 

is an important issue because it enables easier information exchange for the better 

coordination with parents and the local community. In this regard, MEXT will support 

local governments in achieving the measures. To realize an environment in which 

computers are used for administrative work at school, it is important that boards 

of education and principals take a leadership as described in ‘Guidance on ICT 

Implementation in Education’. 

(4) Preparation of the support framework for ICT implementation at schools 

Developing a well-planned and systematic support system that includes ICT envi- 


onment plans and teacher support is important in both enhancing the informationoriented 

educational environment and inspiring teacher ICT skills. However, many 

school and board of education support systems were not prepared. 

Given the situations, MEXT set up a new comprehensive model project for assisting 

ICT-enhanced education in FY2008. Under the project, the five municipalities, which 

had high awareness in establishing the support environment for ICT-enhanced education 

in each local area, were selected and supported; CIOs were assigned to schools 

and boards of education; ICT support team the CIO led was utilized effectively; 

ICT environment, such as computers, was planned systematically; and teacher training 

seminars on enhancing ICT teaching skills were organized. 

5) Promotion of information morals education (from The FY2009 MEXT White Paper, Part 

2, Chapter 9, p.337-338) 

With the spread of the Internet and mobile phones, the hazards in which expose 

children to illegal or harmful information or to troubles are increasing. As children 

themselves were sometimes the ones who caused some problems, it was pointed 

out that information morals education, which cultivates children’s abilities to process 

information properly, is indispensable. Given the situations, MEXT revised Guidelines 

for Courses of Study in Elementary, Lower Secondary and Upper Secondary School 

and decided to fulfill information morals education at all levels. Information morals 

education was implemented prior to FY2009 in Elementary and Lower Secondary 

Schools and from FY2010 in Upper Secondary Schools. 

MEXT specified that students should acquire information morals in the ‘General 

Rules’ of the new Guidelines for Courses of Study in Elementary, Lower Secondary 

and Upper Secondary School. The common course ‘Information’ in Upper Secondary 

School consists of two subjects, ‘Society and Information’ and ‘Information Science’ 

(compulsory to choose either) from the viewpoint to cultivate abilities and attitudes 

to cope with the progress of ICT implementation into society individually. ‘Society 

and Information’ focused on the understanding of characteristics of information, that 

of influence of ICT implementation on society and learning activities to acquire in- 


formation morals; ‘Information Science’ focused on understanding of the roles and 

influences of information technology to support information society and learning activities 

to acquire information morals. 

In July 2008, the Guidebook for teaching information morals: Let’s Try Information 

Morals Education (http://kayoo.info/moralguidebook-2007/), in which good practices of 

teaching information morals and related links were introduced, was published on 

the Internet; in FY2009, the Project to Promote Information Morals Education in 

Schools realized sending experts to local districts, holding professional seminars on 

information morals and so on. Furthermore, collaborating with the association of 

telecommunication industries and the Ministry of Public Management, Home Affairs, 

Posts and Telecommunications, the seminars on the safe use of the Internet were 

held for parents and teachers (http://www.e-netcaravan.jp/). 

6) Measures to protect children from harmful information on the Internet 

In order to protect children from various trouble on the Internet, such as illegal or 

harmful information and net-bullying, the Law on the Preparation of Environments 

in which the Young Generation can use the Internet Safely and Securely was enforced 

on April 1, 2009. The law prescribed that private communication sectors should provide 

filtering functions and that the parents should manage children’s Internet use 

properly and promote the acquisition of their abilities to manage their own usage 

properly. 

On June 30, 2009, based on that law, the Basic Plan on the Measures to Realize 

the Environments in which the Young Generation can use the Internet Safely and 

Securely was established, and it advocates education and enlightenment. On 

November 2007, MEXT launched The All-Japan Council for the Promotion of the 

Safe and Secure Network and facilitated the nation-wide collaboration of the associations 

of schools, PTA, the association of communication industries and so on. On 

March 2010, the Forum for the Promotion of the Safe and Secure Network was 

held as an event of the council. The advanced practices such as ‘Internet patrol in 

each region’ were introduced and the representatives of the experts, parents and junior 


high school students exchanged ideas on the children’s use of mobile phone. In addition, 

MEXT supports the preparation of regional organizations to protect children 

from harmful environments such as an ‘Internet patrol in each region’ and activities 

utilizing filtering functions. 

Furthermore, as in the previous fiscal year, MEXT developed an awareness enlightenment 

DVD entitled Just a Moment Keitai 2 which collected crime cases, damage 

caused by and trouble with the use of mobile phones and distributed them to the 

prefecture boards of education. MEXT also published an enlightenment leaflet on 

the chips at the mobile phone use and delivered to all of 6-grade students (about 

1.2 millions). In addition, MEXT developed another leaflet entitled Just a Moment 

the First Mobile Phone which introduced household mobile phone use rule-making 

and distributed it to the board of schools and PTA. On the use of mobile phones 

at school, MEXT sent a notice (On the Use of Mobile Phones and Similar Devices 

at School, Notice from the executive director of the Bureau of Elementary and 

Secondary Education, as of January 30, 2009) which specified decisions on school 

and school board guidance policies in line with the basic principles (one of them 

is to prohibit bringing them into schools) and guiding students properly. 


Chapter 5 

5.1 

1) Overview 

Typical e-Learning for Lifelong 


The Open University of Japan: 

Budding e-Learning for lifelong learning 

The Open University of Japan (OUJ, formerly known as the University of the Air 

in English) was established as an independent 4-year institution of higher education 

in 1981 and its television and radio broadcast instruction started in April 1985. 

Though its instruction began in April 1985, the concept of establishing a university 

though the use of television and radio broadcasting was initiated in November 1967. 

The original objectives of the University were: 

[1] to provide working people and housewives with a chance for lifelong university-level 

education; 

[2] to provide an innovative and flexible university-level education system open to 

high school graduates; and 

[3] to co-operate with existing universities and make full use of the latest scientific 

knowledge and new educational technology in order to offer a higher education 

system which matches contemporary needs (Abe, 1989). 

OUJ currently has 79,056 undergraduate and 5,913 graduate students with 50 study 

centers located all over Japan. In April 2009 the National Institute of Multimedia 

Education (NIME), originally established as the research arm of the University of 

the Air but became an independent research institute promoting the use of information 

and communication technologies (ICT) in higher education in Japan, merged with 

OUJ and now The Center of ICT and Distance Education (CODE) serves as the 


OUJ research and support division. 

OUJ has a single undergraduate department, known as the Faculty of Liberal Arts. 

Throughout its history, OUJ has focused on a liberal arts education rather than specialized 

professional education. A major restructuring of the curriculum at the beginning 

of FY2009 resulted in its current five programs: Living and Welfare, Psychology 

and Education, Society and Industry, Humanities and Culture, and Nature and 

Environment. 

The six graduate programs established in April 2001 are: Human Life and Health 

Science, Sciences of Human Development and Education, Clinical Psychology, Social 

Governance, Arts and Information Science, and Natural and Environmental Science. 

Students admitted to the graduate program by passing an exam consisting of an essay 

and interview, study in the same way as undergraduate students. However, they must 

author a thesis under the consultation of their advisors after they have completed 

all the required academic credits. The advising is usually conducted face-to-face, 

but at times information and communication technologies such as e-mail, discussion 

boards, and web conferencing are also used. 

2) Technologies for teaching and learning at the Open University of Japan 

In order to graduate from an undergraduate program, a student must complete 124 

credits, of which at least 20 credits and at most 30 credits have to be taken by 

face-to-face instruction conducted at one of the study centers in Japan. Recommended 

weekly study activities in order to complete an undergraduate program with four 

years are: viewing a 45-minute TV lecture program or listening to a radio lecture 

program 7 times a week, reading 45-60 pages of the textbook, and attending an 

85-minute face-to-face instruction at a study center. In other words, the Open 

University of Japan provides three types of instruction: radio or television broadcast, 

printed materials, and face-to-face instruction at a study center. 

(1) Instructional delivery 

Since its inception, OUJ has relied on broadcasting mediums as the main mode of 

instructional delivery. Though it has the mission ‘anytime, anywhere, anybody’, the 


television broadcast of the lecturers was limited to the Tokyo metropolitan area until 

the broadcast through the CS (communication satellite) digital service was started 

in January 1998. What is also unique about OUJ among all open universities in 

the world is that OUJ has its own UHF television and FM radio stations. 

As there was a big demand to study through OUJ programs by people who lived 

in those areas where the OUJ’s television signals could not be received, in 1990 

video study centers were built initially in Hokkaido, Hiroshima, Fukuoka, and 

Okinawa where registered students could watch video tapes of the OUJ television 

lectures and listen to audio tapes of its radio lectures. In the following few years, 

14 other video study centers were built in different parts of Japan. In 1994, those 

video study centers were renamed as regional study centers and another 18 centers 

were added. When OUJ started broadcasting via digital CS in 1997, regional study 

centers were renamed as study centers and four other centers were added. In addition, 

since 1998, all study centers have accepted students in the undergraduate programs. 

In December 2006, OUJ also started terrestrial digital broadcasting. Again, this is 

limited to the Tokyo metropolitan area. Though OUJ’s original application for obtaining 

a BS analog license did not materialize, OUJ succeeded in obtaining a BS digital 

license in 2009. The actual broadcasting via BS (broadcasting satellite) digital will 

start in 2011 when all of the analog transmissions will be terminated nationwide. 

OUJ will also terminate its broadcasting via CS digital when it starts BS digital 

broadcasting. The advantage of broadcasting via BS digital rather than CS digital 

is that BS digital has been much more widely implemented than CS digital in regular 

households. As of 2007, only about 6% of the total households in Japan are equipped 

with the antenna and receiver to receive CS digital satellite signals while about 26% 

of them are equipped to receive BS digital signals. 

(2) Learning materials 

In addition to the broadcast of lectures via television and radio, OUJ provides students 

with printed materials for each course. All the printed materials are made at OUJ 

by the faculty members who are in charge of each course. The number of the students 

who rely solely on printed materials and do not watch television programs or listen 


to radio programs to graduate is increasing. Production of all the printed materials 

is done through the Society for the Promotion of the University of the Air (SPUA), 

which is a subsidiary of the Open University of Japan. 

(3) Production 

OUJ started producing all the television programs in digital format in 2006 when 

it started digital terrestrial broadcasting. It also started production in HDTV format 

and since then it has been expanding the number of programs produced in HDTV 

format. Some OUJ programs take advantage of the HDTV format and offer high 

quality visuals. In addition, digital broadcasting allows providing additional data information 

and OUJ is planning to provide supplemental information to facilitate the 

understanding of the television lecture program via such data channels. 

Making an OUJ television program course usually takes three years. Usually a proposal 

is submitted in the fall and the decision is made in the following summer. 

Then in the summer, course team members meet for the first time to discuss the 

general outline of the program. A course team usually consists of a chief lecturer 

who is usually a full-time faculty member of OUJ, a faculty member who is responsible 

for overseeing the entire process, and a producer who is responsible for the 

actual production process of the program. Producers are usually those experienced 

in directing educational programs in NHK. They spend the next eight to nine months 

developing a detailed course outline and then spend one year to actually produce 

the program. 

A course usually consists of 15 45-minute video programs or radio lecture programs 

which are usually broadcast one 45-minute program per week. Once the programs 

are made, they are expected to be broadcast for four or six years. In 2008, a total 

of 350 programs (179 television programs and 171 radio programs) were broadcast 

during the first semester (from April to July) and 357 programs (182 television programs 

and 175 radio programs) were broadcast during the second semester (from 

October to January). Most of the programs are broadcast twice a year. 

In the early days of OUJ, television programs were made by filming the actual classroom 

teaching scenes, but the style has changed to focus on a teacher talking to 


the camera. It has been considered that in this way a learner who watches those 

programs may feel more like being directly addressed by the teacher instead of observing 

a classroom interaction as a third party. In addition to the speaking teacher 

figure, photographs, video clips, computer graphics, and tables and charts which are 

printed on a board are often used to supplement the lecture. 

(4) Teacher-student interaction 

At OUJ, direct teacher-student interaction usually happens only at study centers. If 

students have any questions regarding the broadcast programs, they have to send 

an inquiry to the head office via postal mail or e-mail. Then, the head office forwards 

the inquiry to an appropriate professor for a response. With the use of Internet tools 

such as the Campus Networks described below, more direct communication between 

teachers and students online will be expected in the near future. 

For the broadcast lecture programs, there is a mid-term report assignment for which 

students have to answer questions posed by the teacher. The whole process is still 

print-based; A student turns in the report by postal mail and the teacher grades and 

comments on the report and returns it to the student by postal mail. A student has 

to pass the mid-term assignment in order to be eligible for taking the final credit 

authorizing exam. The final credit authorizing exams are conducted at study centers 

around the country. 

3) Current technological usage issues 

Due to the prevalence of the Internet, student demands to deliver the broadcasting 

programs online has been increasing. OUJ started video-streaming some programs 

in 2008 and currently in 2009 19 video courses are available online to students as 

streaming video. Efforts have been made to increase the number of video lectures 

available online; however, there still is a strong opposition to doing it among faculty 

members and it has been quite difficult to obtain the permission from lecturers who 

appear in the video programs to make it possible. 

Besides the use of the Internet for making television programs available anytime, 

anywhere, the Internet has been used mainly in the following two functions: to facili- 


tate communication between teachers and students and among students; and to make 

the university administration effective and efficient. The former is the Campus 

Network where teachers can post announcement about their classes and the corrections 

of printed materials, students can have access to the streaming audio and video 

programs and the archive of theses written in the past, and students can also download 

all the forms necessary for administrative processes. It has also been used for advising 

graduate students in their thesis writing processes offering such Internet tools as 

e-mail and discussion boards. 

In addition to the asynchronous communication tools, video conferencing has been 

also utilized for advising graduate students in the past several years. At the beginning, 

the system only connected teacher offices and a study center. But, the system has 

evolved over the years and now the web conferencing system can connect multiple 

points simultaneously and students can access it from their own home through the 

Internet. 

‘System Wakaba’ is an Internet-based computer system which manages student services, 

such as course registration and grade reports. But, the system preceding System 

Wakaba was only accessible by the OUJ administrative staff and even teachers did 

not have access to the system. As the critical personal information of all students 

is stored in the system database, great care has been taken in making the system 

accessible to teachers and students. Implemented in April 2009, System Wakaba enables 

existing students to access their grade records through a web browser and to 

register for courses online. Through this system, teachers can access student information 

or enter the course grade information directly anywhere through a web 

browser. 

With the increasing use of Internet tools, training students to use such tools effectively 

is an issue. Regular universities, where a majority of students are young people who 

have just graduated from high schools, may have fewer problems in training students 

to use such information and communication technology tools as they have grown 

up in the digital age. However, a majority of OUJ students are over 40 and are 

not very familiar with such ICT tools and providing them with training opportunities 

so that they obtain the skills to utilize ICT tools effectively for learning at OUJ 


is imperative. Information literacy courses at most of study centers are currently prepared 

to raise the ICT literacy level of OUJ students. 

4) Future directions 

As described above, OUJ has a unique history and characteristics which distinguish 

it from other open universities around the world. However, the instructional system 

relying primarily on one-way broadcast media has its limitations in today’s digital 

world where education is also expected to be interactive between teachers and students 

and among students. Broadcasting, especially television instruction, has a given perception 

of authenticity and credibility in instruction among students and potential 

students. Therefore, the production of such television programs has given a priority 

to the appearance of authenticity and credibility rather than to educational outcomes. 

However, in order to attract an increasing number of younger students, OUJ has 

to reexamine its educational system. With the start of broadcasting over BS digital 

channels in 2011, the fundamental structure of teaching and learning at OUJ needs 

to be reexamined. OUJ should serve as a role model as the most innovative education 

provider in the Japanese higher education system. 

(Authored by Kumiko Aoki, Professor, the Open University of Japan) 

5.2 

Japan Opencourseware Consortium (JOCW): 

A Japanese OER movement 

This part is based on the following paper by courtesy of Professor Yoshimi Fukuhara, 

the author and the executive director of the Japan Opencourseware Consortium. 

Fukuhara, Y., “OpenCourseWare in Japan: History, current status and perspective”, 

Paper presented at OCW Global Conference, May 5-7, 2010, Hanoi, Vietnam, 4 

pages. 

********************************************************************* 


1) Introduction 

OCW is a free and an open publication of course-material on the Internet, which 

was originally planned and promoted by Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) 

and has been having a huge impact on higher education all over the world. MIT 

completed publishing of all existing courses on November 2007. Since 2005 MIT 

has invited many other universities in Japan to launch OCW as well as those in 

other countries, and six major universities, Keio University, Kyoto University, Osaka 

University, Tokyo Institute of Technology, the University of Tokyo and Waseda 

University, decided to launch OCW and had a joint press conference on May 13, 

2005 to announce the launching of each university’s OCW web-site and the establishment 

of the Japan OCW Alliance which aimed to exchange information, experiences 

and issues in order to cooperatively move OCW activity in Japan forward. One year 

later, in 2006 we changed the role and position of JOCW from a closed forum to 

an open organization. We also changed the formal name of JOCW from Alliance 

to Consortium. At the beginning members were restricted to universities (regular 

members) and related non-profit organizations (associate members) but at the end 

of 2007 we enlarged the membership to private sectors (affiliate members). Nowadays 

(February 2010), forty-two organizations (twenty-four universities, three NPOs and 

fifteen companies) are official members of JOCW. Since 2006 we have also conducted 

four annual public opinion polls concerning OCW in the form of Internet 

research. Through these surveys many favorable findings were clarified. For instance 

more than 90% of people supported OCW and more than 80% of people would 

like to use OCW materials for their own learning. This paper addresses JOCW history, 

its current situation and perspectives including detailed public opinion poll 

results. 

In terms of OCW activity currently many universities have been opening up their 

lecture notes not only in the form of text but also in the form of movies. 

2) Significance of OCW 

The significance of OCW can be classified in roughly two aspects, one is the pro- 


vider’s point of view and the other one is the end user’s point of view. First from 

the provider’s point of view, it is said that universities should play an important 

role in the 21st century to provide accumulated knowledge as one of their social 

responsibilities. In order to realize that mission, the central university unit recognizes 

the importance of driving information disclosure and they must lead society based 

on their knowledge accumulation and its dissemination as a core knowledge society 

member. However since the subjective consciousness of each faculty towards information 

disclosure is not necessarily high, the introduction of OCW, which has 

been achieving broad recognition and acceptance, can accelerate faculty awareness-raising 

on information disclosure. Information provided through OCW possesses 

high reliability and represents each university’s education and research characteristics, 

and because it is a part of the formal course actually provided in the university, 

the value of OCW site as an advertisement media is not low. This effect has been 

approved through a survey by MIT. (1) The qualitative improvement of the lecture 

itself could also be expected due to the progress of information disclosure. In Japan 

lectures have been closed in the classroom for many years and although evaluation 

by the student has been partially introduced, improvements have been dependent upon 

the self-help efforts of each lecturer. Nonetheless, information disclosure can lead 

to the objective evaluation about lecture quality and it might cause essential improvement 

on the quality of the lectures. It is also expected that correct understanding 

of faculty about intellectual property rights will grow and the portion of original 

lecture content will increase. 

Regarding the significance from the users’ point of view, there are several sorts of 

users and the significance might be different depending on their purpose and position. 

Particularly since the role of the university has gradually changed from providing 

a higher education opportunity to high school graduates to providing a lifelong learning 

opportunity to full members of society, an enriched virtual environment is strongly 

required for the university to provide effective and efficient learning methods. When 

we plan for providing an education opportunity to a member of society, the number 

of persons wanting to acquire specific skills or knowledge relying on current needs 

or career developing plan will be higher than that of new high school graduates. 


For such a case a university must be selected not by the reputation of the public 

but by the content actually provided. OCW activity can meet such needs. Since OCW 

can provide new high school graduates with a real university education aspect, they 

can select a university by the content. For foreign people planning to come to Japan 

to apply to a university, OCW can provide the correct information for selecting the 

university and it could be an advantageous system for matching foreign students 

and universities. Moreover for educators, OCW can provide high quality educational 

resources and they can create and improve their lectures by using and modifying 

those resources with materials provided through OCW. 

3) Current status of OCW in Japan 

JOCW started with six universities in 2005 as a closed forum and by 2006 JOCW 

had evolved to an open organization, primarily for universities wanting to launch 

OCW, with nine universities and one national organization. In 2007 JOCW has enlarged 

its membership to private sectors and introduced annual fee system in order 

Fig. 5-2-1 JOCW membership 

to ensure operation. As of April 2008, JOCW membership included forty organizations, 

made up of twenty-two universities, five NPOs and thirteen companies 


(Figure 5-2-1). 

Initially, the total number of OCW courses distributed from Japan was 153, 96 courses 

in Japanese and 57 courses in English. As of April 2008 the total had grown to 

878 courses, 806 courses in Japanese and 172 courses in English (Figure 5-2-2). 

Fig. 5-2-2 OCW courses from JOCW 

Fig. 5-2-3 Monthly visitors to all JOCW sites 

According to the increase in total OCW courses, it is expected that more courses 


can be matched with user needs. Actually the number of visits to the respective 

university OCW sites was about sixty thousand per month at the beginning excepting 

the abnormally large number caused by the media exposure, but by April 2008the 

monthly total had increased to three hundred thousand. Figure 5-2-3 shows the collective 

number of visits to all JOCW member sites. 

4) Public Opinions Poll 

We have carried out public opinion polls annually since the first one in 2006. The 

surveys were conducted as a form of Internet research, which was distributed a thirty-seven 

question questionnaire to twelve hundred examinees on the Internet. A summary 

of the survey results is as below. 

(1) More than 90% gave positive evaluation to opening up university lectures. 

(2) Awareness of OCW is gradually increasing. 

(3) Persons who would like to use OCW contents for personal learning amount 

to more than 80%. 

(4) Two-thirds of respondents answered that as many universities as possible, 

regardless of whether they are national, public or private, should launch OCW. 

(5) Ranking of discipline for OCW is Economics (30%), Letters (27-28%), 

Business administration (23-27%), Information science (22-25%). 

Figure 5-2-4-a A sample opinion poll: inside circle shows 2009 and outside 2010 


Figure 5-2-4-b A sample opinion poll: inside circle shows 2009 and outside 2010 

5) Issues and perspectives 

There are some issues to be solved in order to move forward OCW activity and 

these issues can be categorized as follows: 1) Intellectual property rights-related issues, 

2) Project sustainability, 3) Improved visibility, 4) User evaluation and feedback, 

5) Language barrier 

In detail for each issue, firstly regarding intellectual property-related issues, since 

the citation of copyrighted material is allowed by law for educational purpose only 

in a limited environment like a classroom, but not allowed for the general public 

like on the Internet even for educational purpose, many cases require the from publisher 

and/or original author permission for use. Many faculty members still have 

no deep exact IPR understanding because closed classroom lectures have been conducted 

for so many years. Concerning IPR for content like OCW, although Creative 

Commons is becoming popular in the western countries, it does not fit with the 

conditions of our country and a more suitable scheme has to be considered. 

Secondly, the sustainability issue regards the total OCW project operation cost. If 

OCW is considered as a replacement of an existing program, it could be evaluated 

by whether or not the total cost can be reduced. However, if it is positioned as 

a new program, the appropriateness of additional cost must be explained as an eco- 


nomical measure for evaluation. Currently no definite measure for evaluation has 

been established for OCW projects. 

Thirdly elevating OCW awareness is necessary both internally and externally. An 

internal penetration of correct OCW understanding is essentially needed to drive it 

forward as a continuous program and as such, evaluation should be carried out from 

various points of view. A compulsory university scheme is not enough to obtain 

faculty support. External recognition is also necessary to make OCW into a social 

infrastructure leading to the continuity of this program. 

Fourth, user evaluation and feedback is essentially required for every service in order 

to continue stably. Particularly because OCW is an open and free formal university 

course publication, it has not involved an internal user opinion-gathering scheme 

and has thus been denied faculty follow-up. Even if it is free and open, the 

down-to-earth gathering of user opinion should not be ignored in order to make the 

program stable and continuous. 

Finally, the language barrier issue is very important and difficult for every global 

information dissemination project in Japan, and in particular because most university 

lectures are provided in Japanese for Japanese students, few lectures are provided 

in English. So when considering discriminative information dissemination through 

OCW, a translation process is inevitable. It nonetheless requires professional skill 

and knowledge both for language and specific domain. It might be too tough for 

each organization to handle and some collaborative work might be a good solution 

in solving this issue. 

Far from being independent, the issues from 1) to 5) mentioned above are closely 

related to each other and as such a comprehensive approach is required in clarifying 

them and moving them forward. From this point of view the role of the Japan OCW 

Consortium will be more and more important. 

6) Conclusion 

A decade has been passed since the start of the 21st century, the so-called knowledge 

century, and OCW activity has just stepped into a second stage, from MIT’s 

stand-alone activity to a global common scheme. In Japan the number of involved 


universities scaled up from six to twenty-four, and the Japan OCW consortium has 

just started as a large-scale consortium under academic-industrial cooperation. The 

huge possibility of OCW has been clarified through opinion surveys. After a two-year 

trial some issues has been clarified and the accumulation of know-how has started. 

We would like to share these issues and know-how through the consortium and work 

to promote OCW as a continuous and worthwhile project. 

References 

Miyagawa, S (2004). “MIT’s OpenCourseWare after one year”, Journal of Information 

Processing and Management Vol.46, No.12, pp.797-803 

Doshita M & Fukuhara, Y (2006). “The evaluation of the Keio OCW project focusing 

on feedback from users and academic contributors”, Research report of JSET 

Conferences, JSET06-02, pp.109-116 

Fukuhara, Y (2005). “Lecture exchanging among universities and course sharing on 

the Internet (Opencourseware: OCW)”, Proceedings of Annual Conference on 

informatization of universities, p.28-36 

Fukuhara, Y (2005). “Keio Opencourseware and JOCW Activities”, World Summit 

on the Information Society (WSIS) Parallel Event “Widening Access to Knowledge 

through Open Sharing: The Growing OpenCourseWare Movement” 

Fukuhara, Y (2005). “Japan OCW Activities”, OCW Experiences Panel, Advancing 

the Effectiveness and Sustainability of Open Education Conference 

(Yoshimi Fukuhara, Professor, Keio University & JOCW) 


5.3 

NPO CCC-TIES consortium: A collaboration among private 

universities to share the quality learning resources 

TIES was originally launched as a collaborative inter-university framework to improve 

teaching and learning. In reorganizing into a Non-Profit Organization (NPO), 

CCC-TIES groped for new lifelong learning missions. In 2008, TIES had an interim 

project with SANKEI Newspaper called Sankei e-college: Minna de Daigaku. 

According to its prospectus, the individuals it targeted ranged from high school students 

to middle-aged and senior citizens and its development was expected to be 

a main lifelong learning platform in the Japanese e-Learning market (Figure 5-3-1). 

Figure 5-3-1 The Sankei e-college: Minna de Daigaku site top page 

This part was based on the following papers by courtesy of Professor Koichi 

Nakajima, the author and the founder of the TIES consortium. 

Nakajima, K., and M. Hori, “How to Integrate Mobile Technologies with an 

eLearning System”, the 2nd IEEE ICCSIT 2009, August 8 - 11, 2009, Beijing, China, 

Proceedings pp.319-322. 

***************************************************************** 


1) TIES Community 

TIES is a homegrown teacher-centric ‘eTeaching-cum-eLearning’ system developed 

since 1996 at Tezukayama University. It currently has been hosting more than 1,000 

teachers and 50,000 students at 74 universities in Japan as shown in Table 5-3-1 

(http://www.tiesnet.jp/). 

Table 5-3-1 TIES Community Growth 

Years 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 Feb 2010 

Institutional users 

Instructors 

Students 

Lectures 

Video lectures 

Sharable content 

Lectures open to the public 

1) TIES System 

20 

82 

2,981 

103 

0 

3,313 

29 

33 

130 

7,321 

205 

0 

7,226 

78 


51 

320 

15,099 

548 

660 

9,861 

134 

66 

801 

32,935 

817 

1,879 

15,429 

186 

73 

907 

46,667 

1,053 

3,212 

20,801 

228 

The TIES system has a unique design like one seen in Figure 5-3-2. 

Figure 5-3-2 TIES Login Page 

74 

1,016 

50,409 

1,305 

5,988 

26,714 

265

TIES has all the basic e-Learning functionalities as well as totally integrated subsystems 

such as live video recording, e-Portfolio and e-Assessment, among others. 

TIES offers a user friendly interface and many unique features as seen in Figures 

5-3-2 and 5-3-3. They are: (1) one-click calendar-based access to all the necessary 

tasks for students, (2) a totally integrated live system enabling a teacher to place 

its icon anywhere in a TIES class and which then automatically records and uploads 

the lecture as a video for students to review, (3) a feature that automatically generates 

a URL tag for any content created in TIES to be used anywhere in the Web such 

as for a blog, e-mail, homepage, or other eLearning system, and (4) an integrated 

task management system enabling students to build their ePortfolios, among other 

tasks. 

Figure 5-3-3 Flexible and Visual Course Management 


A Web educational system like TIES must be evaluated from a Web 2.0 perspective 

by following O’Reilly’s article, where he uses the evaluation lists of Web 2.0 Meme 

Map and Christopher Alexander’s ‘A Pattern Language’ [1]. We have conducted 

an assessment of our TIES system according to these, and realized that one of its 

weaknesses lies in the lack of ‘software above the level of a single device’ [2]. 

That is, we need to make TIES available in mobile devices for today’s ubiquitous 

mobile learning. This is another factor to motivate us to initiate our mobile learning 

project. 

2) TIES system features 

In order to accommodate the new ICT style of students, we have developed a project 

to effectively motivate students to use mobile devices for learning and educational 

purposes. We were also interested in this project to see if it was possible to use 

mobile technologies to change the fragmented day-to-day learning habit of students 

to achieve more efficient and accumulative learning. 

Furthermore, while many activities outside of school are all a relevant part of the 

curriculum to enhance student learning experiences, it used to be extremely difficult 

to keep track of what students were doing. Thus, we also focused on how to use 

the new mobile technologies to assist faculty and staff to organize and supervise 

off-campus programs without actually accompanying the students. 

First, we used our TIES system live feature to enable students to use their cell phones 

as a TV conference device for live communication among students as illustrated in 

Figure 5-3-5. A student appearing in the top window of the TIES Live system was 

walking on campus with a cell phone, and communicating with other participants 

through voice and sending his surroundings via his cell phone camera. We also used 

the phone GPS feature to further ease the practice of monitoring off- campus student 

activities. 


Figure 5-3-5 A cell phone used with the TIES Live System 

Students were certainly more receptive to the use of cell phones and smart phones 

than laptops or net PCs, when they combined synchronous classroom lectures, online 

live lectures and asynchronous VOD learning with mobile devices. 

Next, free streaming servers like Air Cam and Orb were used to broadcast TIES 

live lectures on iPod Touch and iPhone, so that students could access to live classes 

without carrying a heavy laptop PC in the off-campus environment. Furthermore, 

since many TIES teachers today use the TIES Live system, currently more than 3,000 

video lectures have been accumulated in the video archive. Hoping that these video 

lectures, when used appropriately, may become useful review content to improve 

student learning retention, we were also interested in finding out how to motivate 

students to view video lectures more willingly. 

One way to stimulate students to join an extra curriculum lecture and/or study archived 

videos for review is to enable them to access to the content through their 

mobile devices. 

Figure 5-3-6 is an example of delivering a lecture video to an iPod Touch using 


Air Cam (http://www.senstic.com/). A student with an iPod Touch in a Wi-Fi environment 

can download video lectures from TIES just like Apple ‘podcasting’. 

Figure 5-3-6 TIES content download to an iPod Touch via Air Cam 

Having done this experiment, we have realized that although the iPod Touch screen 

size is generally bigger than a typical cell phone, the PowerPoint font size, for example, 

needs to be reframed for a mobile device to be more legible. 

Figure 5-3-7 is another example of how to send a TIES live lecture to a cell phone 

via Orb (http://www.orb.com/). Orb provides a free streaming service that enables a 

PC as a streaming server to push almost any digital content as well as TV programs 

in the hosting PC to many mobile devices. Since we used the most recent cell phone 

with a high resolution screen monitor in the case of Figure 6, the live video looked 

sharp and relatively large size fonts were legible. Thus, it may be possible for the 

existing TIES content to be recycled for mobile content without too much reframing. 


Figure 5-3-7 TIES Live to a cell phone via Orb 

The next example in Figure 5-3-8 is how to use a micro projector with a mobile 

device in an off-campus environment. 

It is often the case that students do not like to carry a heavy laptop PC during 

their off-campus activities. Then, suppose we keep an on-demand Orb system at a 

university office to run the TIES live system to a group of students attending, for 

example, an off-campus internship. If there is access to a wireless communication 

network at their location, and if a student needs to contact his supervisor for advice, 

he calls his supervisor to request TIES live broadcasting via Orb. Then, he connects 

his iPod Touch or iPhone with a micro projector and displays its TIES live screen 

on the wall so the rest of the team can watch their supervisor’s advice online and 

share it like an Internet TV conference. 


Figure 5-3-8 Micro projector for a TV conference 

As our last example, we illustrate how we asked a student to use a digital pen and 

a cell phone to get an assessment by his off-campus activity evaluator as in Figure 

5-3-9. 

Figure 5-3-9 A digital pen for assessing off-campus activity 


A digital pen with a built-in camera at its writing tip to record user hand-written 

text can synchronize the data via Bluetooth to a cell phone. We use these features 

of the digital pen to transmit the data from a student’s cell phone to the TIES server. 

TIES server then enables the student’s supervisor to view the note sent from the 

student’s off-campus location, while automatically uploading it to the student’s 

ePortfolio for storage and review. 

(Koichi Nakajima, Professor, Tezukayama University and the TIES consortium) 

********************************************************************* 

5.4 The Accreditation Council for Practical Abilities (ACPA) 

The Accreditation Council for Practical Abilities (ACPA) is a non-profit organization 

established in 2003. Its main functions are to facilitate the distribution and exchange 

of quality learning content among universities and corporations through common 

standard certification and accreditation. ACPA is a member of The International 

Network for Quality Assurance Agencies in Higher Education (INQAAHE, 

http://www.inqaahe.org/). 

This part is based on the following paper by courtesy of Dr. Akira Kurematsu, the 

principal author and the former executive director of ACPA. 

Kurematsu, A., Sakamoto, T., & Shubiki, Y., “Towards a Framework for the Quality 

Assurance of Practical Skill Ability”, Presented paper at INQAAHE 2009 Conference, 

13 pages. 

********************************************************************* 


(1) Importance of practical capability in higher education 

The Importance of Practical Capabilities in Higher Education 

In the present-day knowledge-based world, the enhancement of competencies, which 


involves the combination of knowledge, skills and human behavior, is essential for 

the accomplishment of a wide range of occupational abilities now required both by 

companies and in broader society. These include basic academic skills, such as literacy, 

foreign language, math, and science skills, as well as the ability to use information 

and communication technology. 

In Japan, companies have implemented enterprise-level training targeted at developing 

specific skills, but only after an individual has already been formally employed. The 

recent difficult circumstances in business, however, has made the implementation 

of adequate training problematic, leading to the need for the investment of a capable 

person able to immediately redress this situation. In addition, skill mismatches continue 

to arise between university graduates, who will have already received a general 

education at school, and the skill demanded by the companies. 

The demand for practical ability competence in higher education is increasing as 

a consequence of this mismatch in skills, especially in industries where information 

systems or embedded systems in electronic products are well developed. At universities, 

courses in practical abilities in collaboration with industry and in some 

cases, topical advanced contents and instructors are provided by the company. In 

the advanced technology area, companies already provide training and are increasingly 

involved in developing both occupational standards and curricula. 

The competency of an individual can thus be improved in relation to the associated 

demand for a skill that can be readily matched to the new technologies and existing 

trends in globalization. As the learning of practical skills includes the ability to use 

information and communication technology, literacy, foreign language, business management 

and human communication, ICT can help facilitate such competence in various 

ways through computer simulations. Skills analysis of the real data based on 

real world situations are therefore important for the realization of new ideas. 

(2) Sustainable tertiary education 

In higher education, tertiary education should necessarily be improved, because it 

plays a vital role in the functioning of knowledge-based economies and democratic 

societies. In this respect, tertiary education is crucial for the effective creation, dissem- 


ination, and application of knowledge as well as the improvement of technical and 

professional capacity. Tertiary education systems are to be adequately prepared to 

capitalize on the creation and use of knowledge. 

As to improving general human capabilities when an individual is already employed 

by a company, courses on literacy and communication skills can be provided that 

will help promote personal skills to those seeking employment; this, however, would 

require a consistent approach to improving an employee’s ability. Workers will need 

to advance competencies required for longer careers. A higher level of competence 

is required in order to take advantage of the new technologies and adapt to the challenge-based 

economy accordingly requires mastering new kinds of knowledge and 

different types of skill. 

In a rapidly changing knowledge-based age, workers also constantly need to acquire 

new skills. Moreover, with the recent global proliferation of computer and communication 

technologies, the importance of the production and management of knowledge 

has become increasing important to the extent that it now influences working practices 

on a worldwide scale. Corporations are spending much more on training in an attempt 

to increase and remain competitive in response to the growing knowledge economy. 

The latest innovative techniques that foster progress need to be learned at the right 

time in order to keep up with, and not fall behind, leading trends. Professionals 

expecting promotion are therefore now obliged to learn new skills and become lifelong 

learners that involves keeping up to date with new knowledge and technology. 

Tertiary education in the area of practical education contributes to building up an 

individual’s capacity to participate in an increasingly knowledge-based business 

environment. Workers must be able to use these skills effectively, act autonomously 

and reflectively, and join and function in globally distributed heterogeneous groups. 

In this regard, companies prefer to hire workers willing to constantly update their 

skills on a lifetime basis. Tertiary education takes the lead increasing the intellectual 

capacities on which knowledge production and utilization depend on and also helps 

promote the lifelong-learning practices necessary for upgrading knowledge and skills. 

It is therefore essential that high-level business capability in relation to technical 

progress and lifelong learning is taught through tertiary education. 


The principles of lifelong learning are listed as follows. 

― Educators are guides to sources of knowledge. 

― People learn by doing. 

― People learn in groups and from one another. 

― Assessment is used to guide learning strategies and identify pathways for further 


― Educators develop individualized learning plans. 

― Educators are lifelong learners. Initial training and ongoing professional development 

are linked. 

― People have access to learning opportunities over a lifetime. 

Education providers need to respond to these needs by creating education and training 

systems that equip people with new and appropriate skills. An increasing number 

of tertiary institutions are offering part-time, evening, weekend, and summer courses 

to meet the needs of working adults. New providers―private sector trainers, virtual 

universities, international providers, corporate universities, educational publishers, 

content brokers, and media companies―have arisen to complement and challenge 

traditional institutions. 

Quality assurance in tertiary education is important since the outcome of learning 

must be effectively demonstrated. Quality assurance systems need to recognize the 

range of formal and informal settings in which learning takes place. Quality assurance 

systems need to provide opportunities for learners to demonstrate their newly acquired 

skills and knowledge. For learners, information about the offerings and performance 

of providers will be required. Quality assurance systems are needed to assess learners 

and inform providers accordingly. Quality assurance systems can make it easier for 

learners to move among different types and levels of learning environments. 

In order to assure the quality of practical business education, the structure of a quality 

assurance is important. A framework is needed so that tertiary education institutions 

can become more innovative and more responsible to the needs of a globally competitive 

knowledge society and to the changing labor market requirements in relation 

to a more advanced human resource base. 


2) Framework of quality assurance in practical education 

Practical education for the training of young and adult employees alike is required 

so as to ensure that the education is adequate, coverage is sufficient, and access 

is equitable. In order to assure the quality of practical business education, a quality 

assurance structure is important because practical education is extremely diverse. This 

is because most of the initiatives and measures are undertaken by private enterprises 

or private institutions. 

Private education providers, including learning institutions and industries that are developing 

content, are playing a growing role in practical education. Distance education 

is one method by which institutions or suppliers can offer more flexible learning 

opportunities. In such situations, mechanisms for certifying the courses, assessing 

the achievements of learners, investigation of institutional and system performance, 

as well as promoting of learning pathways, are important. 

In this chapter, the framework by which quality assurance in the practical education 

undertaken by ACPA will now be described. 

(1) ACPA 

The Accreditation Council for Practical Abilities (ACPA) is a non-profit organization 

established in 2003 in Japan with the support of the government, corporations and 

higher education institutions such as universities. Its objective is to establish a new 

educational system and a practical ability certification system through cooperation 

between the government, industry and academia, and to conduct activities aimed at 

nurturing human resources needed by industries. [1] 

(2) ACPA Operations 

The ACPA functions as an intermediary to promote collaboration between three parties―companies 

(human resources and training departments), educational institutions 

(e.g. universities, companies), and individuals. 

The activities of the ACPA are listed as follows: 

● in relation to companies―listening to and receiving presentations about a 


company’s human resource requirements: 

● in relation to educational institutions―approving the institutions, and assessing 

and assuring the quality of their courses offered: 

● in relation to individuals―certifying the skills acquired by those taking 

high-quality courses. 

Toward this objective, the ACPA performs certification and accreditation of courses, 

course providers, educational institutions, lecturers, and trainees based on the criteria 

established by the ACPA. 

(3) Certification and Accreditation 

The ACPA certifies personnel training courses, educational institutions, and qualification 

tests based on its evaluation criteria with the aim of nurturing human resources 

capable of executing tasks professionally (practical abilities). The ACPA also 

issues certificates to individuals who complete a certified course or pass a certified 

test which signifies that they have acquired the knowledge and skills required for 

their occupation or assignment. 

The human resource development model in relation to certification and accreditation 

services provided by the ACPA is shown as in Figure 5-4-1. 

Qualification tests are awarded with certification when they are recognized as effective 

in determining the practical ability level of each individual. ACPA promotes 

certification and accreditation services for institutions providing a high-quality educational 

environment (course materials, curricula, etc.). 

The following certification and accreditation services were launched in April 2006, 

and are currently available. 


Private 

Enterprises 

(recruiting division) 

Requirement of Human-power 

Appeal one’s practical abilities and submit desired conditions 

Match requirements of enterprises and individuals 

Match job 

requirements and 

individual 

capabilities 

Investigation 

Corporation to build up 

skill competencies 

Provide and implement corses and tests 

Company employees to take courses, tests 

and provide information 

Accreditation Council 

for Practical Abilities 

Apply for 

certificate 

of skills 

Individual 

Certificate 

of skills 

Application 

Accreditation of courses, tests 

and institutions 

Educational institutions 

Accredited institutions 

(universities, companies’ 

training divisions, etc.) 

Attend the course 

Provision of courses and tests for certificate 

Build-up 

work-ready 

skills 

Figure 5-4-1 ACPA Personnel Skills Training Model 

● Course certification (in the domains of ICT, business and management, and 

language [English]) 

● Test certification 

● Institution certification (course-providing institutions and course-executing 

institutions) 

● Certification of individuals 

Quality assurance by certification is based on a standard skill description currently 

offered by ACPA and the measure of individual authorization to a certification is 

effective. ACPA carefully inspects each course provided by educational institutions, 

corporations, etc., and clarifies the positioning of each course for the benefit of the 

public, so that trainees can utilize this information as a guideline for acquiring practical 

abilities. 

By employing this certification and accreditation procedure, the process of imparting 

practical abilities that match the needs of industry requirements will hopefully lead 


to industries and universities being more able to work together towards continuously 

improving the quality of their courses for students and workers. 

(4) ACPA Standard Skills Guide 

ACPA sets out the knowledge and skills which are required in practical business 

in the form of the Standard Skills Description and certifies the courses and tests 

as well as issues certifications of practical abilities for each individual. 

The ACPA Standard Skills Guide consists of a skill standard matrix which depicts 

the relationship between the skill item required by work and the skill items description 

which describes skill contents in detail. 

● The skill standard matrix describes the relationship between job categories and 

skills in the form of a table showing which skills are required for each occupational 

category. The table therefore sets out clearly the required skill for each level. 

● The skill items description depicts details of each skill. 

● A series of documents describe the outline of the ACPA Standard Skill 

Description in the field of Information Communication Technology, Business 

Management, and Language field, especially English. 

● The ICT Standard Skill Description has been used for the certification service 

since 2006. 

● The Business Management Standard Skill Description has been used for the 

certification service since 2007. 

● The Language Standard Skill Description reference has recently begun to be 

used for the certification service in 2009. 

ACPA describes the skill inventory and skill items in the three domains of ICT, 

Business, and Language that have been developed. Overview of skill categories is 

shown in Figure 5-4-2. The ACPA skill inventory is itemized so as to describe the 

detailed components appertaining to knowledge and practical skills. The numbers 

of skill items and components are shown in Table 1. 


Table 5-4-1 Numbers of Skill Items and Components 

Domain Skill Items Skill Components 

ICT 

Business and Management 

Language 

Total 

ICT 

System Fundamentals 

Database 

Network 

Information Security 

Program Development 

System Development 

Multi-Media Development 

Project Management 

Information and Management 

Basic Personal Skill 

IT Basic 

Language 

English 

(Japanese) 

･Beginning 

･Basic 

･Pre-intermediate 

･Intermediate 

･Pre-advanced 

･Advanced 

343 

220 

108 

671 

Business and Management 

1137 

1141 

234 

2512 

Enterprise Planning 

Business 

Personnel/Labor/ 

Specific 

Human Resource Development Professional 

Legal/General/ 

Skills 

Public Relations 

Finance/Accounting 

Marketing 

Manufacturing Management 

Logistics 

International Business 

Sales 

Common ･Personal Skills 

Business ･Conduct Guideline 

･IT Usage 

･IT Application 

Figure 5-4-2 Skill Categories Overview 

･Productive Activities 

･Receptive Activities 

･Interactive Activities 

･Linguistic Competence 

Sociolinguistic Competence 

･Pragmatic Competence 


(5) ACPA Standard Skill Matrix 

The ACPA standard skill matrix has been developed in the fields of information 

technology and business management. It describes the required skill items that link 

occupational category to skills. An example of the ICT domain skill matrix is shown 

in Figure 5-4-3. 

Fu ndame ntals 

Example of Standard Skills Matrix 

[Requ isite achievement] 

★ …Havin g b as ic kn owled ge. ★★ …Having compreh ensive knowledge. ★★ ★… Ab le to utilize o btained skills effectiv ely. 

Ski ll M atr ix (E xtr ac t) 

Level 0 

Cat egory 

Skill 

Item 

Gene ral 

System 

De ve lopment 

IT 

Administration Operation 

(S E) 

Cu stom er 

Se rvice 

Sales 

Administration 

Staff 

IT Basic Internet ★★ ★★★ ★★ ★ ★★★ ★ ★ ★★ ★ ★ 

Bu siness 

Tool 

★★ ★★★ ★★ ★ ★★★ ★★★ ★★★ ★★★ 

Co mput er 

F undament als 

★ ★★★ ★★ ★ ★★★ ★ ★ ★★ ★ ★ 

Personal 

Skill 

Co mmunication 

★ ★★ ★★ ★★ ★★ ★★ ★★ 

Leadership ★ ★ ★ ★ ★ ★ ★ 

Ne go tiation ★ ★ ★ ★ ★ ★★ ★ 

Management ★ ★ ★ ★ ★ ★ 

System OS ★ ★★ ★★ ★★ ★★ ★★ ★ 

System Basic 

Technology 

★ 

System 

Co nfigulatio n 

★ 

Requ irement 

De fin itio n 

★ 

Platfo rm Design ★ 

Introduction 

Plan ning 

★ 

Evaluation Method ★ 

Se rver Applicatio n 

Server 

★ 


★ 

Figure 5-4-3 Example of the ACPA Standard Skills Matrix in the ICT Domain. 

(6) Level of Skill Competency 

Practical business abilities are considered a combination of technical knowledge, 

skills, and experience, and required abilities that vary depending on the level determined 

by the length of engagement of each worker. 

The definition of each level of skill competency is shown in Table 5-4-2(a). These 

definitions have been compiled based on the IT Skill Standard (ITSS) established 

by the Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry. The entry level is further divided 

into the following three levels of occupational specialty as indicated in Table 5-4-2(b). 


Le ve l 1

Entry Level 

Intermediate 

Level 

Advanced 

Level 

Table 5-4-2(a) Level Description of Skill Competency 

Capable of performing the given duties under the guidance of a person(s) 

at a higher level of the same occupational category, or by utilizing one’s 

own skills, and is able to identify and solve problems. 

University juniors or seniors, postgraduates, new employees in the first 

few years of working, etc. 

Capable of performing the given duties of the occupational category without 

assistance from others. In addition, capable of giving guidance to personnel 

at the entry level, and playing a leading role in technological, methodological 

and business operational aspects within the company and for a particular project. 

Employees in mid-career. 

Capable of leading technological development and commercialization and 

playing an important role in formulating a strategy as the manager of an 

occupational category. 

High-achievers who possess advanced expertise and fully use this to lead 

the business. 

Table 5-4-2(b) Entry Level Description 

Entry level 

Level 0 -Preparation stage prior to employment. Those who prepare for work. 

Level 1 

Level 2 

-Applicable to employees in their first year of work. Professional skills are 

not established, and technical knowledge is limited. Have to build up expertise 

through practice. 

-Capable of performing certain assignments relating to simple routine jobs 

of the occupational category under the close guidance of a superior(s). 

-Have experience of being involved in at least one project and have been engaged 

in some operations relating to a project under the guidance of a superior(s). 

-Applicable to employees in their first few years of working. Have to build 

up practical experience based on technical knowledge, and acquire higher 

expertise in their fields. 

-Capable of performing simple routine jobs by themselves under the general 

guidance of a superior(s). 

-Have experience of being involved in at least two projects and have been 

engaged in overall operations of a small-scale project under the guidance 

of a superior(s). 


(7) Advantages of ACPA Standard Skill Guide 

The ACPA standard skill matrix is useful to companies (employers) for preventing 

mismatch between employers and employees. 

● It clearly defines the kind of personnel that is required; 

● It ensures that personnel acquire clearly defined practical abilities through highquality 

courses; 

● It enables companies to quickly utilize those that have already acquired such 

abilities in their workforce and to flexibly assign them to new projects. 

In addition, the matrix is useful in human resource evaluation and development. More 

specifically, the standard skill matrix serves as a basis for defining the practical abilities 

that each employee should possess, and enables the evaluation of abilities using 

universal criteria, through an objective assessment of skills acquisition. It also enables 

the proposal and implementation of education and training plans for human resource 

development based on such evaluations, as well as the implementation of effective 

human resource development based on a long-term perspective by means of highquality 

ACPA-certified courses. 

For educational institutions (course-executing institutions and course-providing institutions), 

the ACPA standard skill matrix is useful in improving the recognition 

of courses by means of ACPA course certification because 

● The course-executing and course-providing institutions can both earn greater 

trust from customers and they can expect to increase the recognition of their 

courses; 

● In ACPA-certified courses, acquired skills are defined based on the ACPA 

standard skill matrix, so mismatches concerning the aspiration of those taking 

the course can be avoided. 

ACPA is also useful in developing educational materials suited to current needs. 

● The ACPA standard skill matrix makes it possible to understand current skill 

requirements and projected future scenarios, and to create educational materials 


that aim at realize these; 

● Since the ACPA standard skill matrix is updated each year, it is possible to 

develop human resource development tools suited to current changes and needs. 

For individuals, the ACPA standard skill matrix is useful for understanding the work 

description of occupations. 

● It enables individuals to gain a deeper understanding of the details of the work 

and occupations they are interested in, and to seek courses for acquiring the 

necessary skills applicable to a particular type of work; 

● Acquiring a strong foundation of work knowledge before joining a company 

results in strong performance assessments by the employer and more rapid 

career advancement. 

The standard skill matrix is also useful for up-skilling for personal development. 

● The ACPA standard skill matrix can be used as an indicator for systematic 

up-skilling; 

● Having acquired skills recognized with ACPA skills certificates help to maintain 

motivation for systematic up-skilling; 

● Skill certificates enable people to better market their acquired skills and helps 

individuals to improve and become more respected professionals; 

● In executing a career plan, it is possible to become competent in practical 

work skills and avoid a possible mismatch. 

3) Conclusion 

A framework of quality assurance in the practical education was described in introducing 

the ACPA standard skill guide. The certification and accreditation of courses, 

course providers, and educational institutions based on specific criteria were also 

described. It has been demonstrated how the standard skill guide, which sets out 

the types of jobs needed by industries in relation to required skills, can be improved 

to achieve the quality assurance associated for the achievement of practical abilities. 


Advantages of the ACPA standard skill guide and important examples of its use 

have also been outlined. The lessons obtained from the ACPA approach so far can 

be described as follows; 

● The standard skill guide has been useful for identifying the skill items required 

in the individual courses and tests. 

● The need for the high quality of courses and tests linked to the skill items 

of the standard skill description has been identified. 

● The institutions supplying courses and tests have made efforts to develop 

high-quality materials and resources. 

● Learners who obtained a certificate of skills have used it in job-recruitment. 

The enhancement of competencies which concerns the combination of 

knowledge, skills and human behavior is essential to meeting the needs of 

firms and wider society for a greater range of work skills. 

A global framework will be needed in order to encourage institutions and suppliers 

offering practical education to be more innovative and responsible to the needs of 

a globally competitive knowledge society and to the changing labor market in relation 

to advanced human resources. The creation of a quality assessment guideline for 

practical education that deals with lifelong learning practices will also contribute to 

the provision of high-quality education. Furthermore, tertiary education, which covers 

practical skills and abilities, has been shown to contribute to the development of 

an individual’s capacity for participation in a business. 

The continuous execution of tertiary education can additionally help to enhance the 

skill competence necessary for a higher professional qualification and in this respect 

increases self-empowerment. In a globalized age, it is also useful that learners acquire 

advanced skills effectively by way of overseas involvement and cooperation. In this 

regard it will be necessary to learn proficiency in business according to the rate 

of technological progress, by way of distance education through e-Learning. Tertiary 

education can thus contribute to the enhancement of personal creativity leading to 

both personal satisfaction and innovative company development, as well as a higher 


living standard. 

In this way, we believe that INQAAHE will play an important role in tertiary education 

in the future. As a new member working specifically in this field, we therefore 

expect to make a significant contribution to the establishment of the global framework 

for tertiary education in the 21st century. 

[1] http://www.acpa.jp/ 

Accreditation Council for Practical Abilities. 

5.4 

1) Overview 

Web Learning Plaza: An e-Learning Service for 

Engineering Education 

The Japan Society and Technology Agency (JST) provide 819 e-Learning materials 

free of charge at the Web Learning Plaza (WLP), an e-Learning site for engineers’ 

continuing education. In this section, objectives, planning, system, contents, and usage 

of WLP, as well as the results of a recent evaluation study will be presented. 

Objectives 

The WLP site opened on October 1, 2002 in order to advance Japanese competitiveness 

in science and technology, in response to the statement of the 2001 report of 

the Council for Science and Technology Policy (CSTP) which declared the importance 

of Japanese Continuing Engineering Education. Thus, the main WLP objective 

is continuing and remedial education for engineers (Kato and Koyama, 2004). 

Planning 

In the WLP planning stage, JST conducted a survey of Japanese engineers to assess 

the needs for a service to offer e-Learning materials, in addition to individual interviews. 

The findings are summarized as follows: 


http://weblearningplaza.jst.go.jp/ 

Figure 5-5-1 Web-Learning Plaza top page 

[1] E-learning materials should cover fundamental and practical topics of engineering 

relevant to each engineer’s own specialties, and 

[2] The time required to use each e-Learning material should be relatively short. 

JST also developed and evaluated a WLP prototype. Based on the survey and the 

evaluation of the prototype, JST designed a system and developed e-Learning materials 

in collaboration with relevant academic and professional societies. The text-based 

materials are developed to satisfy the need of fundamental topics, while video-based 

materials are to fulfill the need of practical topics. 

2) The e-Learning system 

Originally developed by JST, the WLP e-Learning system has the following main 

functions: 


Registration 

Everyone who wants to have access to WLP e-Learning materials can use it free 

of charge. Once users register with an e-mail address, they can use the My-Page 

in addition to receiving notes and the course completion certificate. 

My-Page 

My-Page is the initial page where registered users log into WLP. In this page, registered 

users can review a personal learning history, completed courses/lessons (a display 

of all the courses and the lessons completed by the user), a bookmark (a display 

of all the incomplete lessons of the user), and a ‘sticky’ (a marker the user can 

arbitrary stick on the screen to help a user readily return to the marked page). 

Search 

Any user who accesses WLP can search by category (a browsing interface to 14 

engineering fields with annotations), map (list of titles of all the e-Learning materials 

categorized into 14 engineering fields), and keyword (full-text search for all texts 

including narrations except for video-based materials). 

3) Learning content 

There are 819 e-Learning materials currently available on WLP. They are organized 

into 125 courses in 14 engineering fields as presented in Table 5-5-1. 

Text-based materials 

The text-based materials have a Field ⇒ Course ⇒ Lesson ⇒ Screen tree structure. 

Each lesson includes check tests, glossaries, and FAQs. A brief description of each 

of these elements follows: 

[1] Fields 

Fifteen fields were initially defined based on examination of the CSTP report. They 

have been synthesized into fourteen as presented in the Table 1. 


Table 5-5-1 Web Learning Plaza Materials (as of December, 2009) 

Engineering Field 

Life Science 

Information Technology 

Environment 

Nanotechnology and Material Engineering 

Electric and electronics engineering 

Mechanical engineering 

Chemistry 

Social Infrastructures 

Safety engineering 

History of Science and Technology 

Comprehensive technology management 

Engineering Ethics 

Intellectual property right 

Video-Based Materials 

Total 


Number of 

Courses 

9 

10 

5 

11 

7 

12 

8 

9 

15 

1 

20 

2 

2 

14 

125 

Number of e-Learning 

Materials 

[2] Courses 

Each field contains multiple courses and each course represents a technical topic. 

For example, the field of mechanical engineering is composed of courses including 

Strength of Materials, Dynamics in Engineering, Thermodynamics, Plasticity and 

Laser fabrication as well as several case studies on relevant topics. Currently, 111 

text courses are available. 

[3] Lessons 

Each course contains approximately ten lessons. A lesson is a unit of learning which 

is designed to be completed in 15 minutes. Currently, 763 text lessons are available. 

[4] Screens 

Each lesson is consists of multiple screens composed of animations and narrations. 

The animation and narration are synchronized and move simultaneously. 

[5] Check tests 

A check test is located at the end of each course to assess the learner’s comprehension. 

36 

92 

33 

59 

65 

131 

73 

76 

50 

3 

117 

16 

12 

56 

819

Approximately five questions are included in a lesson. When registered users give 

correct answers to all of these questions, they will receive a course completion certificate 

by e-mail. 

[6] Glossaries and FAQs 

Links to glossaries and FAQs included for every lesson are embedded in each screen 

so that learners can readily refer to them during their learning process. 

Video-based materials 

Video-based materials include engineering facility case studies such as plants and 

R&D institutions. Each of the fourteen available video-based materials consists of 

four main stories. Each main story has about five supplemental stories. It takes approximately 

fifteen minutes to watch a video-based story. 

4) Usage 

Potential WLP users are engineers, researchers, and students. Table 5-5-2 shows the 

number of accesses to and number of course completion certificates issued by WLP 

between FY2005 and FY2008. 

Table 5-5-2 Total Number of Accesses 

2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 

Number of Accesses 134,287 282,621 377,771 408,878 710,852 735,516 998,313 

Number of Course 

Completion Certificates -- -- -- 55,632 113,050 105,387 126,429 

Note: Japanese fiscal year begins on April 1, and ends on March 31. 

The total number of WLP accesses is increasing gradually, as presented in Figure 

5-5-2. 


Access 

35,000 

30,000 

25,000 

20,000 

15,000 

10,000 

5,000 

0 

Apr-07 

Aug-07 

Total 

registered User 

Unregistered User 

Dec-07 

Apr-08 

Aug-08 

April 2007 to December 2009 

Figure 5-5-2 Number of Accesses by Registered and Unregistered Users 

5) Evaluation 

An evaluation study was conducted by JST in 2009 in order to estimate the WLP 

impact in the Japanese engineering community by conducting a series of questionnaire 

survey. One questionnaire investigated the levels of WLP recognition and usage. 

Another questionnaire investigated time-saving and cost-saving effects. They were 

conducted using web-survey technique aiming at researchers, engineers, and students 

in colleges and universities, public research institutes, and manufacturing companies. 

The results of the evaluation study reveal that the recognition level (the ratio of 

the number of respondents who know WLP) was less than 10%. In addition, only 

36.1% of those who know WLP had actually used it before. On the other hand, 

97% of those who have experience in using WLP rated it as useful, and approximately 

10% of current users use it more than twice a week. The main merits of WLP use 

are ‘free of charge,’ and ‘convenient to use.’ The average cost-saving per lesson 

was 327 yen. 

The overall assessments given by the evaluation committee of field experts were: 


Dec-08 

Apr-09 

Aug-09

● WLP is a successful project in terms of cost-effectiveness and cost-benefit. 

● More efforts in publicity are needed to increase the level of recognition. 

● As a public service supported by tax money, WLP materials are open to the 

Internet external to the current system. 

● Reasons for providing WLP in the public sector should be argued since many 

commercial e-Learning services are available on the Internet. 

References 

Kato, T, Koyama, K. (2004) E-learning for continuing engineering education: Web 

Learning Plaza. Presented at the 9th IACEE World Conference on Continuing 

Engineering Education, Tokyo, May 15-20, 2004 

(Makiko Miwa, Professor, the Open University of Japan) 


5.6 

OCW Search Services for Lifelong Learners by the 

Open University of Japan 

In the midst of the global trends towards ‘open’ education, various Open Educational 

Resources (OERs) have been accumulated at numerous repositories all over the world. 

In order to find and retrieve quality content efficiently from the scattered and distributed 

sources, some common platforms and strategies for collecting the information 

and content are indispensable. 

The Open University of Japan (OUJ) provides a global search system for OERs 

from the viewpoint of lifelong learning (LLL). OUJ has two cross-institutional search 

systems, called GLOSS (Global Learning Object Search System) and JOCW Search, 

and new collaborations at the international consortium, GLOBE (Global Learning 

Object Brokered Exchange), have been started. 

In order to facilitate the international sharing and exchange of quality learning content, 

the national hub organization in each country and region, which manages the functions 

for federated repositories and meta-referatories, established the Global Learning 

Objects Brokered Exchange (GLOBE) consortium in September 2004. The original 

members were ARIADNE (EU), education.au limited (Australia), eduSource Canada 

(Canada; McGreal, R. et. al, 2004), MERLOT (North America), and the National 

Institute of Multimedia Education (NIME, Japan). Now, the number of GLOBE members 

is 14; eduSource Canada was replaced with LORNET in February 2006, NIME 

was merged into the Open University of Japan as the Center of ICT and Distance 

Education (OUJ-CODE) in April 2009 and education.au limited was merged into 

Education Services Australia in March 2010. Korea Educational Research and 

Information Services (KERIS, Korea), European Schoolnet (EU), the Center for Open 

Sustainable Learning, Utah State University (COSL, USA), and the Latin-American 

Community of Learning Objects (LACLO, Latin America) joined GLOBE in 2007, 

the Institute for Information Industry (III, Taiwan) and the Institute for the Study 

of Knowledge Management in Education (ISKME, USA) in 2008, Thailand Cyber 

University Project (TCU, Thailand) in 2009, and the Inter-University Center for 

e-Learning (MEITAL, Israel) and Al-Quds University (Palestine) in 2010. 


OUJ manages a common metadata database based on IEEE-LOM (Learning Object 

Metadata) version 1.0 (IEEE, 2002), registering the original metadata and exchanging 

them with international partners through federated search and harvesting. By using 

different subsets of the metadata collection, we provide plural search interfaces, that 

is, GLOSS and JOCW Search. GLOSS is a general search system for learners and 

GLOSS users can search not only domestic but overseas information through the 

GLOBE network. JOCW Search is a context-specific search system, which covers 

the category of Open Courseware provided by Japan Opencourseware Consortium 

(JOCW) member universities. Users can search JOCW content cross-institutionally. 

1) Metadata elements 

The metadata elements used for the OUJ-CODE common metadata database are 

shown in Table 5-6-1. While most of the elements are based on IEEE LOM (IEEE 

1484.12.1 - 2002 Standard for Learning Object Metadata), we have some exceptions, 

such as Copyright and Quality. The Copyright and Quality elements have a referred 

taxonomy system field and that of its value. In addition, it has some management 

elements, such as Permission for Harvesting and Permission for Federated Search. 

No. Name 

1. 

2. 

3. 

4. 

5. 

6. 

7. 

8. 

9. 

10. 

Table 5-6-1 Metadata elements used for the OUJ-CODE common 

metadata database 

ID of the metadata 

ID of the LO [2] 

Title 

Language(s) used within the LO 

Description 

Keyword(s) 

Aggregation level 

Contributor to the LO 

Language of the metadata 

MIME media types of the LO 

Corresponding element to IEEE 

1484.12.1-2002 

3.1 Meta-Metadata - Identifier 

1.1 General - Identifier 

1.2 General - Title 

1.3 General - Language 

1.4 General - Description 

1.5 General - Keyword 

1.8 General - Aggregation Level 

2.3 Life Cycle - Contribute 

3.4 Meta-Metadata - Language 

4.1 Technical - Format 


11. 

12. 

13. 

14. 

15. 

16. 

17. 

18. 

19. 

20. 

URL 

Technical requirements to use the LO 

Educational stages [3] 

Intended learning time 

Intended user of the LO 

Paid-for or free 

Restriction of usage 

Classification [4] 

Copyright [5] 

Quality [6] 


4.3 Technical - Location 

4.4 Technical - Requirement 

5.6 Educational - Context 

5.9 Educational - Typical Learning Time 

5.10 Educational - Description 

6.1 Rights - Cost 

6.3 Rights - Description 

9. Classification 

N/A- 

N/A 

[2] ID of the LO is generated automatically as Catalog is “URL”. Entry is the 

actual URL. 

[3] Educational stages have unique value space matched to Japanese educational 

system. 

[4] Classification shows the taxonomy system and its value(s). 

[5] Copyright shows the right management system and its value(s). 

[6] Quality shows the quality assurance system and its value(s). 

2) Architecture 

Both GLOSS and JOCW Search use a common metadata database (OUJ-CODE metadata 

database, OMD). OMD metadata is based on IEEE LOM. While OUJ-CODE 

Figure 5-6-1 OUJ search system architecture

egisters the original metadata, it exchanges them with international partners through 

federated search and harvesting. By using different subsets of the metadata collection, 

we can provide plural search interfaces, that is, GLOSS and JOCW Search. 

i) GLOSS 

The Global Learning Object Search System (GLOSS) is a search engine to find learning 

objects worldwide. GLOSS adopted both ‘Harvesting’ and ‘Federated Search’. 

As communication protocols, the Open Archives Initiative Protocol (OAI-PMH) is 

used for metadata ‘Harvesting’ and Simple Query Interface (SQI) is used for 

‘Federated Search’. As of April 2010, while GLOSS provided 1,834 metadata to 

GLOBE partner harvesters, it stored 50,804 GLOBE partner metadata. 

In Advanced Search, the user utilizes the following metadata elements; 

(1) Keywords 

(2) Content source (domestic/overseas) 

(3) Fields of Study (Philosophy, Religion, Ethnics, Literature, History, 

Archaeology, Law, Politics, Economics, Psychology, Language, Mathematics, 

Information Science, Computer Science, Science in general, Engineering in 

general, Medicine, Dentistry, Pharmacy, Physiology, Agriculture, Forestry, 

Science of fisheries, Fine Arts, Music, Gymnastics, Interdisciplinary field, 

Multidisciplinary field, Others) 

(4) School levels (Preschool, Elementary education, Secondary education, Higher 

education, Special needs education, Vocational education, Lifelong learning, 

Others) 

(5) Types of Media 

(6) URL 

(7) Cost (Proprietary, Open or Both) 

(8) Language 


Figure 5-6-2 GLOSS top page 

Figure 5-6-3 GLOSS search results (1) 

The first result showed domestic content for which metadata was stored in the 

OUJ common metadata database. The second metadata came from ARIADNE 


in EU, a GLOBE partner, by harvesting. 

Figure 5-6-4 GLOSS search results (2) 

The results came from edna online in Australia, another GLOBE partner, by a 

federated search process. 

ii) JOCW Search 

JOCW Search is a customized search engine for the Japan Opencourseware 

Consortium (JOCW). OCW content provided by JOCW member universities is 

searchable cross-institutionally. As of April 2010, 1393 OCW content from nine universities 

were registered. Each university tags metadata and sends them to 

OUJ-CODE. In the near future, the collection process should be operating 

automatically. 

Some member universities control rights under Creative Commons. JOCW Search 

has an element in which the CC license is described in their vocabularies (Table 

5-6-2). 


Table 5-6-2 Rights description under Creative Commons (Element 19) 

License System Value 

Creative Commons Version 3.0 


Attribution 

Attribution-No Derivative Works 

Attribution-NonCommercial - No Derivative Works 

Attribution-NonCommercial 

Attribution-NonCommercial - ShareAlike 

Attribution-ShareAlike 

Figure 5-6-5 JOCW Search search results 

License description by Creative Commons system is available. 

3) GLOBE metadata search infrastructure 

OUJ-CODE is a member of the GLOBE initiative. One of the GLOBE objectives 

is to provide a global infrastructure to share data for cross-institutional searches worldwide. 

GLOBE orients open architecture and harmonizes with international standardization 

organization activities.

i) Metadata 

GLOBE members adopt IEEE-LOM (Learning Object Metadata) version 1.0 (IEEE, 

2002) for the metadata standards. However, since the number of sharable elements 

is still limited, some agreements to increase them are expected in order to realize 

new value-added search functions. As a result, most of the metadata are Dublin Core 

compatible. 

ii) Federated search and harvesting 

GLOBE uses Simple Query Interface (SQI; Simon, Massart, Van Assche, Ternier 

& Duval, 2005) for the query language, and Open Archive Initiative Protocol for 

Metadata Harvesting (OAI-PMH; Logoze, Van de Sompel, Nelson & Warner, 2002) 

for harvesting. 

iii) Prospects 

Lifelong Learners (LLLers) have several characteristics. One of those is the broad 

spectra in their personal characteristics, such as age, interests, the objectives and 

goals of learning, learning environments, learning styles and strategies and so on. 

A search system for LLLers should be adaptive to the broad range of user 

characteristics. At the same time, in order to find and retrieve the most adequate 

and preferable content for each LLLer, the search system should have a huge metadata 

pool. Financial and human resource limitations make this a very difficult task and 

some common and collaborative infrastructure and supportive community are 

indispensable. 


References 

D'Antoni, S. (2007). Sharing content: access to knowledge, International Institute for 

Educational Planning Newsletter, Vol. XXV, N° 2, http://www.unesco.org/iiep/ 

eng/newsletter/2007/apre07.pdf 

IEEE (2002). Draft Standard for Learning Object Metadata (IEEE 1484.12.1-2002) 

Logoze, C., Van de Sompel, H., Nelson, M. & Warner, S. (2002). The Open Archives 

Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting. 

http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/openarchivesprotocol.html 

McGreal, R., Anderson, T., Babin, G., Downes, S., Friesen, N., Harrigan, K., Hatala, 

M, MacLeod, D., Mattson, M., Paquette, G., Richards, R., Roberts, T., & Schafer, 

S. (2004). EduSource: Canada’s Learning Object Repository Network. The 

International Journal of Instructional Technology and Distance Learning, http:// 

www.itdl.org/Journal/Mar_04/article01.htm 

OECD (2007). Giving Knowledge for Free: The Emergence of Open Educational 

Resources. OECD. 

Simon, B., Massart, D., Van Assche, F., Ternier, S. & Duval, E. (2005). A simple 

query interface specification for learning repositories. CEN Workshop Agreement 

(CWA 15454) 

Yoshii, A., Yamada, T., & Shimizu, Y. (2008.12). Development of Federated Search 

System for Sharing Learning Objects between NIME-glad and Overseas Gateways. 

Educational Technology Research, 31 (1-2), 125-132 

(Tsuneo Yamada, Professor, OUJ and Yosuke Morimoto, Associate Professor, OUJ) 


Chapter 6 Recommendations and Prospects 

This section discusses several issues occurring with the implementation of ICT and 

e-Learning into Japanese lifelong society. 

1) The digital divide and the older generation 

A characteristic of the current Japanese lifelong learning society is the aging society 

and the ratio of the older generation is higher than that of other countries. According 

to Professor Hiromitsu Ishi, the President of the Open University of Japan, the aging 

factor has influenced the framework of lifelong learning in Japan. 

“This aging of Japanese society has created a growing demand for lifelong learning, 

thereby pressing Japanese institutions of higher education to find ways to provide 

diverse and substantial learning opportunities to a great variety of citizens, of all 

ages, with different interests, capabilities, and learning objectives. For example, 

Japanese universities have begun to provide the so-called re-education for working 

people and refresher education for retirees” (Ishi, 2010, page 36). 

In addition, compared with the younger generation, older people have more serious 

problems in accessing, operating and using computers and the Internet. On the other 

hand, ICT-enhanced learning environments have the potentiality to reduce various 

physical constraints especially in older distance learners. So that older people may 

easily access computer and network systems, both research on physical and psychological 

characteristics and the development of a support system and up-skilling programs 

should prove to be indispensable. 

2) Information portal on lifelong learning 

In the midst of global trends towards knowledge-based society and/or lifelong learning 

society, various digital learning resources, such as learning content and educational 

information, have been accumulated at numerous web servers all over the world. 


In order to efficiently find and retrieve quality content and information from scattered 

and distributed sources, some information portals (such as the e-ASEM project homepage 

managed by KNOU, http://asem.knou.ac.kr/) are indispensable. Since lifelong 

learners are particularly independent, autonomous, self-directed and have often few 

advisors and cohorts in their own learning environments, it is desirable to have intelligent 

recommendation functions based on scientific grounds and objective data. 

While distance learners also need social contexts, they are often isolated. Various 

SNS (Social Networking Service) technologies realize virtual learning communities; 

such communities foster new learning activities and the continuation of the learning 

processes. Infrastructure and platforms to sustain virtual learning communities are 

essential to information portals. 

3) Various delivery channels: personalization and customization 

“Last year [2008], OUJ surveyed 1,110 students enrolled in forty-one specific distance 

learning courses about the methods of course delivery. A survey question was: ‘Which 

means did you choose to take courses: (1) Internet, (2) TV, (3) VTR and DVD 

at Study Centers, or (4) course textbooks.’ There is a sharp distinction between students 

aged fifty and older and those under forty. The older the students are, the 

more likely they are to use TV, DVD and VTR, while younger students tend to 

prefer the Internet and textbooks. This finding suggests that although expanding 

broadcast-delivered courses may be an important strategy at present, in order to promote 

distance education among older students, in the future we can expect a substantial 

shift toward more use of the Internet. At the moment, there are a variety 

of learning methods available to students at OUJ” (Ishi, 2010, page 43). 

From the viewpoints of learner-centered approaches, it is effective to realize optimal 

learning space and content. In the not-so-far future, ICT can easily realize such personalized 

and customized learning processes which are optimized to the conditions 

of each learner. 

4) Towards the further advancement of lifelong learning 

Professor Hiromitsu Ishi contended that “In spite of the sharp increase in public 


ecognition of the concept of lifelong learning, in practice it poses a problem [in 

Japan]. For instance, the main reasons why citizens have taken part in lifelong learning 

have been to pursue their hobbies and interests and to pursue health and recreation. 

On the other hand, lifelong learning is rarely undertaken for the purpose of advancing 

professional knowledge in regular courses at schools. Greater emphasis should be 

placed on the importance of academic studies in lifelong learning” (Ishi, 2010, page 

38). 

In addition, the higher jobless rate and mobility of labor would also lead to a change 

in the concept of lifelong learning. Career/vocational education and capacity rebuilding 

are still urgent issues. In the midst of administrative reform, the government 

offices concerned are expected to implement inter-ministry measures on lifelong 

learning from a holistic viewpoint. 

References 

Ishi, H. (2009). Academic Performance of Open and Distance Learning in Japan: 

ODL versus Conventional Education. Presented/invited paper at the 23rd Annual 

Conference of Asian Association of Open Universities (3-5 November 2009, 

Payame Noor University, Tehran, Iran), Vol.1, 34-50 


Acknowledgements 

The Editor addresses the special thanks to the Office for Information Policy, the 

Lifelong Learning Policy Bureau, the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science 

and Technology (MEXT) for checking the Japanese draft on the MEXT white papers. 

This work was partially supported by an Open University of Japan presidential grant. 

The Editor thanks the following contributors. 

List of contributors 

Kumiko Aoki, Professor, OUJ (Chapter 5-1) 

Yoshimi Fukuhara, Professor, Keio University & JOCW (Chapter 5-2) 

Koichi Nakajima, Professor, Tezukayama University and the TIES consortium 

(Chapter 5-3) 

Akira Kurematsu, Director, the Accreditation Council for Practical Abilities (Chapter 

5-4) 

Takashi Sakamoto, President, the Accreditation Council for Practical Abilities, 

(Chapter 5-4) 

Yoshito Shubiki, Advisory Member of the Accreditation Council for Practical 

Abilities and President & CEO, Shubiki Corporation (Chapter 5-4) 

Makiko Miwa, Professor, OUJ (Chapter 5-5) 

Yosuke Morimoto, Associate Professor, OUJ (Chapter 5-6) 

Tsuneo Yamada, Professor, OUJ (editor, Chapter 1, 2, 3, 4, 5-6 and 6) 


e-Learning For Lifelong Learning 

in Malaysia 

03

Mansor Fadzil 

Professor Dr.Mansor Fadzil currently serves as the Senior Vice President 

at Open University Malaysia (OUM). He obtained his Bachelor’s Degree 

in Science (Mechanical Engineering) from University of Birmingham in 

1981 as well as his Master’s Degree and Ph.D. in Control Systems Engineering 

from University of Sheffield in 1982 and 1985, respectively. 

Prof Dr.Mansor formerly worked as a full-time lecturer at the Faculty of 

Engineering, University of Malaya (UM). During his tenure at UM, he held various administrative 

posts and was responsible for introducing online learning to the UM lecturers in 1998. Prof Dr. 

Mansor was also instrumental in the establishment of OUM, Malaysia’s first open and distance learning 

(ODL) institution in 2000. Some of his most recent projects include the introduction of mobile 

learning, a new assessment instrument, an institutional question bank and a Mathematics resource 

centre at OUM. 

Latifah Abdol Latif 

Latifah Abdol Latif is currently serving as the Director, Center for Student 

Management, Open University Malaysia (OUM), since it was first established 

in 2003. She joined OUM in 2003after taking a break from her 22 years 

service at the University of Malaya as an Associate Professor, in the field 

of Organometallic Chemistry. She is currently a Professor in the Faculty 

of Science and Technology, OUM. Her main responsibility is to collaborate, 

coordinate, and monitorall retention related programmes with the faculties, learning centers, departments 

and units, to ensure that students are given the appropriate support in their studies. Her core interest 

is in student retention, so the design, planning and implementing of retention initiatives are mainly 

to help students go through their challenging times at OUM to enable them to complete their programmes 

and graduate within the allowable period. Besides giving advice and guidance via various platforms, 

the center also provides opportunities for students to be active and engaged with the university in 

making their learning experience an enriching one at OUM. 



Lifelong learning initiatives, whether utilising e-Learning or otherwise, are a relatively 

new phenomenon in Malaysia. Education for many people is still characterised by 

formal schooling; and for a certain disadvantaged section of the population, post-secondary 

education may not even be a possibility or an option. Out of the projected 

number of 881, 247 individuals enrolled at upper secondary school level in 2010, 

only 277, 904 (or 31.54 per cent) actually go on to participate in post-secondary 

education (Government of Malaysia, 2006). The remainder 68.46 per cent may gain 

employment without furthering their education, or may not be employed at all. This 

points to an even greater role that lifelong learning programmes has to play; as a 

formal, non-formal or informal means for many more individuals to attain some form 

of education to improve both their professional and personal lives. The foremost 

individual who made the earliest proposal for the enculturation of lifelong learning 

in Malaysia is the then incumbent Prime Minister, Tun Mahathir Mohamad. During 

and following his tenure, the Government began strategising to implement lifelong 

learning, particularly in the 8MP, OPP3, KEMP, 9MP, NHEAP and NHESP. 

The country is at a stage whereby the awareness and provision for lifelong learning 

still needs to be enhanced. The problem of digital divide remains at large, significantly 

marked between urban and rural communities, contributing to low levels of ICT adoption, 

knowledge and lacklustre response to e-Learning, principally within the latter. 

Having been an independent nation for only fifty-odd years, Malaysia has focused 

most of its efforts in providing basic education to its people. Today, the scenario 

has changed, and the Government recognises how rapidly evolving technologies, the 

erasure of political and geographical boundaries as well as competitive forces are 

impacting the global economic landscape. The need to create, develop and sustain 

a knowledgeable workforce with strong employability and productivity traits is one 

that is not exclusive to Malaysia, and like many other nations, the country has put 

in place various schemes to fulfil this requirement. 

03. e-Learning For Lifelong Learning in Malaysia 235

e-Learning in lifelong learning, while having been adopted in segregated forms 

throughout the country, from community-based efforts to bridge the digital divide 

to formal academic programmes designed for working professionals, is also still in 

its infancy. The key point in this regard is enculturation, where many of the infrastructures, 

policies and frameworks are actually already in place and the most important 

step to be taken is to ‘connect the dots’ and maintain efforts in all forthcoming 

action plans. 

The prospects for Malaysia are indeed quite positive, as the Malaysian public is 

receptive to new developments and very concerned with the importance of education. 

In this sense, the Government is seen to have a very significant responsibility in 

connecting the said dots and provide the push necessary to bring the cogwheels into 

motion. 

Within this publication, based on the context of lifelong learning in Malaysia, the 

education system will be described from the post-secondary level onwards. In terms 

of e-Learning, emphasis will be given to ODL institutions and practitioners that have 

been the most prominent advocates of e-Learning in the country. Categorisation of 

education will be made according to formal, non-formal and informal levels. All 

of the policies, plans, programmes, examples and other points documented in this 

publication are currently in implementation, or have been carried out within the years 

2005-2009. 


Chapter 1 The Malaysian Education System 

1.1 Background 

Malaysia has undergone three phases of educational system over the last 50 years. 

The first phase focused on a system that emphasised national unity. The second phase 

shifted the emphasis towards improving adult literacy in the country. Currently, due 

to global economic pressures, the education system has been broadened to include 

lifelong learning in the context of enhancing employability and productivity of the 

working age population. The lifelong learning agenda is also aimed at improving 

the quality of life of the general population. 

The first phase of the education system was based on the concept of national unity. 

This system was founded more than 50 years ago on the basis of the 1956 Report 

of the Education Committee (better known as the Razak Report 1956). Headed by 

the Minister of Education at the time, Dato’ Abdul Razak Hussain, the Committee 

was given the task of reforming post-colonial education and developing a structure 

that could satisfy the needs of all Malaysians and promote their cultural, social, economic 

and political development as a nation (Ministry of Education, 1956); a structure 

that is generally still in place today. 

The second phase emphasised on mainstream education in which the country aggressively 

implemented action plans to achieve universal primary enrolment. This 

is evinced by the high adult literacy rate which stands above 92 per cent (Prime 

Minister’s Department, 2010). There has also been considerable growth in the number 

of post-secondary education institutions, public and private universities, signifying 

the increasing supply and demand for various levels of educational opportunities in 

the country. While this has certainly been positive, changes in the Malaysian demog- 


aphy and socio-economy; particularly in terms of population size, levels of education 

attainment as well as employment and unemployment rates (illustrated in the following 

table), leads to the third phase in which it is widely accepted that education 

is and should be a lifelong process. With increases in the number of people in the work 

Table I : The Malaysian Demography and Socio-economy from 2000 to 2010 

(Figures from the Ninth Malaysia Plan (9MP), 2006-2010) 

2000 2005 2010 

Total Population (million) 

Age Structure (million): 

23.49 26.75 28.96 

0-14 8.00 8.72 9.18 

15-64 14.56 16.88 18.42 

65 and above 0.93 1.15 1.36 

Median Age (years) 22.4 23.3 24.2 

Enrolment in Public Education Institutions 

(by Level; until Post-Secondary): 

5,505,743 6,014,357 6,564,559 

Pre-schools 539,469 702,897 784,200 

Primary 2,907,123 3,044,977 3,195,977 

Lower Secondary 1,256,772 1,330,229 1,425,231 

Upper Secondary 707,835 736,618 881,247 

Post-Secondary 94,544 199,636 277,904 

Enrolment in Tertiary Education Institutions 

(by Level): 


574,421 731,698 1,326,340 

Certificate 105,570 132,880 284,770 

Diploma 208,454 230,381 474,370 

First Degree 230,726 322,917 428,200 

Master’s 26,181 38,638 117,320 

Ph.D. 3,490 6,881 21,680 

Employment: 

Total Labour Force (‘000 persons) 9,571.6 11,290.5 12,406.8 

Unemployment (‘000 persons) 297.0 (3.1%) 395.7 (3.5%) 430.8 (3.5%) 

Labour Force Participation Rate (%): 65.7 66.7 67.3 

Male 85.7 86.6 87.4 

Female 44.7 45.7 46.3

ing age group of 15 to 64 years (representing almost two-thirds of the entire population), 

as well as school leavers, graduates, female workers and the jobless, there 

is a similarly escalating need for educational channels that can impart equitable and 

continuous personal, moral and professional development. Malaysia’s challenge is to 

provide responses and solutions to the abovementioned concerns, e.g. to encourage 

greater participation and create substantial capacity at all stages, as well as to create 

more opportunities to educate, train, employ and absorb eligible persons (not excluding 

the unemployed) in fulfilling the lifelong learning agendum of the country. 

1.2 Overview of the Education System 

Within the last 50-odd years since its independence, Malaysia has shown great commitment 

in developing an education system that is able to achieve the goals first 

stated in the Razak Report of 1956. This commitment is evident in every economic 

plan with substantial allocation for education and training, and it is also prominent 

in many of the policies and plans that will be discussed in this publication. In the 

most recent economic plan, i.e. the 9MP, MYR 45.1 billion was allocated for education 

and training and this represents about one fifth of the total budget allocation 

for the five-year plan period. This commitment is also mirrored in the national education 

philosophy (NEP): 

“Education in Malaysia is an on-going effort to further develop the potential of 

individuals in a holistic and integrated manner, so as to produce individuals who 

are intellectually, spiritually, emotionally and physically balanced and 

harmonious, based on a firm belief in and devotion to God. Such an effort is 

designed to produce Malaysian citizens of high moral standards, knowledgeable 

and competent, and who are responsible and capable of achieving a high level 

of personal well-being as well as being able to contribute to the harmony and 

betterment of the family, the society and the nation at large.” (Ministry of 


Education (MOE), n.d.) 

Malaysia provides free and compulsory basic education to all its citizens. As illustrated 

in Figure I, the Malaysian national school system is made up of pre-tertiary and 

the optional tertiary education. At the pre-tertiary level, the national system is standardised 

until the upper secondary level. Outside this system, there are also many 

private schools that cater to specific groups (e.g. private Chinese schools, religious 

schools) and expatriates (e.g. international schools). Ordinarily, these schools do not 

teach according to the national curriculum and also do not subject their students 

to standard national examinations. However, they need to register with the MOE 

and are bound by regulations stated under the Education Act 1996. It is only at the 

upper secondary level that some form of streaming is apparent and will determine 

prospective pathways later on. At the post-secondary level onwards, there are several 

different options available, leading to employment, tertiary and/or postgraduate education. 

Post-secondary and higher education, while neither free nor compulsory, receive 

strong Government support and ample funding under the jurisdiction of both 

ministries. Although higher education is offered through both public and private 

means, much of it is carried out by public institutions. At this level, study opportunities 

are present at all levels, i.e. for certificate, diploma, undergraduate and postgraduate 

studies (Study in Malaysia Handbook, 2009). There are also designated 

Government agencies that promote and manage professional programmes for career 

advancement, upskilling and upgrading for a large section of the labour force. 

Undergraduate education constitutes studies for Bachelor’s degrees and professional 

certification. Postgraduate studies involve learning at Master’s and Ph.D. levels. 

Diploma programmes are made available for Malaysian Certificate of Education (Sijil 

Pelajaran Malaysia, SPM) holders from the age of 17, while Bachelor’s degree programmes 

are open to those with post-secondary certification, including diplomas and 

the Malaysian Certificate of Higher Education (Sijil Tinggi Persekolahan Malaysia, 

STPM; equivalent to GCE ‘A’ Level) (Study in Malaysia Handbook, 2009). The 

table and diagram provided in the following pages are a general representation of 


the entire Malaysian education system. 

Level Description Qualification(s) 

Pre-School 

Education 

Primary 

Education 

Secondary 

Education 

Post-secondary 

Education 

Tertiary/Higher 

Education 

Table II The Malaysian Education System 

․ Children from ages four to six 

․ Public and private kindergartens 

․ Children from ages seven to 12 

․ Standards one to six for six years 

․ Public or private schools 

․ Lower Secondary 

․ From ages 13 to 15 

․ Forms one to three for three years 


․ Upper Secondary 


․ Forms four to five for two years 


․ Option of academic, 

technical/vocational or religious 

education 

․ Form Six 


․ 1.5 years of additional schooling 

․ Public schools 

․ Option of Science or Humanities 

․ Matriculation 

․ From age 18 

․ One-year programme 

․ Public matriculation centres 

․ Science-based pre-university courses 

․ Private/Foreign Pre-University Courses 

․ Usually one-year programmes 

․ Private colleges 

․ Polytechnics and Community Colleges 


․ Teacher Training Institutes 


․ Three-year programme 

․ Undergraduate Studies 

․ From age 19 or 20 

― 

Primary School Achievement 

Test (Ujian Penilaian 

Sekolah Rendah, UPSR) 

Lower Secondary 

Assessment (Penilaian 

Menengah Rendah, PMR) 

Malaysian Certificate of 

Education (Sijil Pelajaran 

Malaysia, SPM) 

Malaysian Certificate of 

Higher Education (Sijil 

Tinggi Persekolahan 

Malaysia, STPM) 

Matriculation Certificate 

(External qualification for 

entry into foreign 

universities or foreign 

branch campuses) 

Certificate and Diploma 

Diploma in Teaching 

Bachelor’s Degree 


․ For three to five years 

․ Public or private institutions 

․ Postgraduate Studies 

․ After obtaining Bachelor’s degree 

․ For one to five years 

․ Public or private institutions 


Master’s Degree and Ph.D. 

Figure I Pathways in the Malaysian education system

1-3 

Lifelong Learning and e-Learning in Malaysia: 

A General View 

Lifelong learning as a policy agendum continues to receive significant emphasis by 

developed nations, spearheaded by various organisations, such as the Organization 

for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), United Nations Educational, 

Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) and the Council of Europe over the 

last three decades. The OECD policy brief on lifelong learning cites the following 

key reasons for lifelong learning (Ministry of Higher Education (MOHE), 2007): 

● The rapid pace of globalisation and technological change; 

● The changing nature of work and the employment market; and 

● The gaping disparities in access to learning opportunities between the knowledgehaves 

and knowledge have-nots. 

In the context of Malaysia, the Government has recognised the need for an 

“educational revolution” especially with respect to its aspiration to become a developed 

nation by 2020. Thus, Enculturation of Lifelong Learning was incorporated as 

one of the seven strategic thrusts of the National Higher Education Strategic Plan 

(NHESP) in 2007. The objectives of the above thrust are as follows: 

● To ensure that lifelong learning becomes a way of life for Malaysians in order 

to equip our citizens with lifelong knowledge and skills; and 

● To make lifelong learning the catalyst for establishing a learning community 

in every organisation. 

To achieve the above objectives, the following four strategies have been formulated 

by the MOHE in NHESP: 

● Upgrade mechanisms and infrastructure to facilitate lifelong learning as a means 

of developing diverse kinds of knowledge and skills in line with individual 

interests and needs to enrich the quality of life; 


● Enhance public awareness and involvement in lifelong learning so that 

individuals can develop their self potential and reap the benefits of lifelong 

learning in terms of productivity, competitiveness and marketability; 

● Ensure the continuity and appreciation of lifelong learning; and 

● Provide adequate financial support to inculcate lifelong learning as a way of 

life. 

Within the frame of this publication, the definition of lifelong learning in Malaysia, 

as well as all its relevant points, will thus be taken to include post-secondary and 

higher education levels. Further illustration regarding the concept of lifelong learning 

in Malaysia will be expounded in Chapter 2. 

e-Learning has also been a prominent feature in Malaysia’s policy statements; with 

one of its earliest mentions under the national information technology (IT) agenda 

(NITA) that was introduced in the 8MP. For that particular plan period, the National 

IT Council (NITC) was launched with five strategic thrusts (Government of 

Malaysia, 2001). One of these thrusts was e-Learning; seen as a means to cultivate 

a lifelong learning culture in Malaysia. As a whole, e-Learning encompasses systems 

to enable information gathering, management, access and communication in various 

forms; as well as the integration of information and communication technologies 

(ICTs) in teaching and learning (Raja Maznah Raja Hussain, 2004), particularly in 

higher education. Thus, within the frame of this paper, e-Learning will also be described 

as a representation of its role in higher education. Further details of 

e-Learning in Malaysia will be given in Chapter 2. Correspondingly, the following 

sections will provide detailed descriptions of post-secondary and higher education 

in Malaysia. 


1.4 Post-secondary Education 

Post-secondary or pre-university education in Malaysia can take place in several different 

ways: 

● By undergoing additional schooling for 1.5 years (Form Six) and sitting for 

the STPM examination; 

● By obtaining a Matriculation certificate through a one-year programme; 

● By undergoing pre-university programmes (internally- or externally-based) at 

private institutions; or 

● By undergoing certificate- and diploma-level programmes in public or private 

institutions. 

The STPM and matriculation certificates represent two of the major routes available 

for admission into higher education, particularly for public institutions. Students who 

are enrolled into pre-university programmes in private colleges will continue their 

Bachelor’s degree education overseas or in branch campuses in Malaysia. On the 

other hand, those who opt to undergo certificate- and diploma-level programmes may 

not necessarily continue to a higher level of education in universities. 

1) STPM 

Students who opt to take the STPM examination need to undergo 1.5 years of additional 

schooling in what is known as lower- and upper sixth form classes. Since 

the Malaysian school system is generally modelled after the British system, STPM 

is considered the equivalent of the GCE ‘A’ Level. There are two main fields of 

study, i.e. the Sciences and Humanities, whereby students typically take five subjects 

of any combination, depending on preference and location of study. The only compulsory 

subject is General Studies; it must be taken for students who wish to be considered 

for admission into public universities. 


2) Matriculation Programmes 

Matriculation programmes are a relatively new phenomenon in Malaysia, having started 

only in 1999/2000 (MOE, n.d.). It is currently managed by the Matriculation 

Division of the MOE as a preparatory programme for higher education. Unlike STPM, 

matriculation programmes focus on Science and Technology. The programmes are 

held at various matriculation centres throughout the country, including two that are 

housed independently at University of Malaya (UM) and the International Islamic 

University Malaysia (IIUM). At the end of two semesters, students undergo standardised 

final examinations before applying for enrolment into public universities. Both 

STPM and matriculation programmes use a cumulative grade point average (CGPA) 

system as a scoring method. 

3) Certificate and Diploma Programmes 

Diploma and certificate programmes are mainly broad-based programmes targeted 

at school-leavers who are looking into professional upgrading in technical and vocational 

fields. Under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Higher Education (MOHE), 

there are five types of institutions that conduct these programmes, i.e.: 

a. Polytechnics; 

b. Community colleges; 

c. Public universities; 

d. Private institutions; and 

e. Other relevant institutions. 

(1) Polytechnics 

There are currently 27 polytechnics that conduct certificate and diploma programmes 

in several technical fields such as engineering, commerce, hospitality and food 

technology. Entrants into these programmes are typically school leavers with SPM 

certification. Certificate programmes take about four semesters (two years) to complete, 

whilst diploma programmes can be completed within six semesters (three 

years). 


(2) Community Colleges 

Malaysian community colleges were first established in 2000 as a means of providing 

an alternative avenue for secondary school leavers to further their education. Similar 

to polytechnics, community colleges offer certificate- and diploma-level programmes 

in technical and vocational fields targeted at those with SPM certification. There are 

currently 43 community colleges throughout the country (Study Malaysia Online, n.d.). 

While a diploma programme can be completed within two semesters (provided one 

has completed the four-semester certificate course), community colleges also offer 

short courses in 12 areas, i.e. computer, electrical, vehicles, industry, apparel, beauty 

therapy, nutrition, languages, decoration, building, motivation and generic skills. Both 

polytechnics and community colleges are managed by a designated department within 

MOHE. 

(3) Public Universities 

There are currently 20 public universities in Malaysia, inclusive of five technical 

university colleges that were recently upgraded to university status. These five universities 

were established circa 1999-2002 to focus on higher technical education 

programmes, mostly at diploma and first degree levels. Albeit they no longer hold 

the status of technical university colleges, they continue to offer programmes in fields 

related to engineering and technology. Entrants into diploma programmes need either 

an SPM/equivalent or polytechnic certificate. 

(4) Private Institutions 

Many private colleges in Malaysia have been offering and awarding diploma-level 

qualifications, particularly through internally-developed programmes that are recognised 

and granted with ‘advance standing’ entry status by foreign universities in 

Australia, Canada, New Zealand, the United Kingdom, Germany and the United States 

of America (Study Malaysia Online, n.d.). This arrangement is designed to help those 

who wish to continue with a Bachelor’s degree education at second- or final-year 

level at these foreign universities. 


(5) Other Relevant Institutions 

Through the involvement of the relevant ministries and agencies, there are also several 

Government-linked institutions that provide training and professional courses similar 

to certificate programmes offered by the abovementioned institutions; representing 

the central Government’s effort to promote lifelong learning and skill enhancement 

of the Malaysian citizens as a means to bolster the nation’s human capital. The ministries 

and bodies involved include the following and a description of the associated 

institutions is provided in the ensuing table below: 

● The Ministry of Human Resources (MHR); 

● The Ministry of Youth and Sports (MYS); 

● The Ministry of Entrepreneur and Cooperative Development (MECD); 

● The Ministry of Agriculture and Agro-based Industry (MAAI); 

● The Ministry of Health (MOH); and 

● Majlis Amanah Rakyat (MARA). 

Table III Other Relevant Institutions and Post-Secondary Education 

Programmes Offered (Summarised from Study Malaysia Online, n.d.) 

Ministry/ 

Agency 

MHR 

Name/Type 

of Institution 

Industrial 

Training 

Institutes 

Japan-Malaysi 

a Technical 

Institute 

Advanced 

Technological 


Centres 

Centre for 

Instructor and 

Advanced 

Skill Training 

Type/Field of 

Programme(s) 

Formal skill training for 

school-leavers and 

industrial workers 

Courses in engineering 

technology 

(manufacturing, 

electronics, et cetera) 

Vocational training in 

engineering and 

manufacturing technology 

Training for instructors 

needed in vocational 

training institutes 


Remarks 

․ Certificate level 

․ Sponsored by the Government 

․ Duration between six and 36 months 

․ For SPM holders 

․ Diploma level 

․ Annual total fee of MYR5,000 (€1,020) 

․ Duration of 36 months 

․ For SPM/certificate holders 

․ Diploma level and advanced vocational training 

․ Annual total fee of MYR5,000 (€1,020) 

․ Duration between two and three years 

․ For SPM/certificate holders 



․ Duration between two and three years 

․ For SPM holders

MYS 

MECD 

MAAI 

National 

Youth 


Institutes 

Directly under 

the Ministry 

Agricultural 

institutes 

Institutionalised skills 

training in industrial- 

related fields 

Non-institutionalised 

training (National Youth 

Apprenticeship Scheme) 

Basic courses/workshops 

in business, commerce 

and motivation 

Skills training in 

agriculture-related fields 




․ Short-term modular skills training courses 


․ For Lower Secondary Assessment (PMR) and 

SPM holders; the unskilled and unemployed 

․ For all interested parties 

․ Also as a support for Government servants and 

non-graduate teachers 


․ Annual fee of MYR4,040(€824); sponsored by 

the Government 

․ Duration of two years 


Table III Other Relevant Institutions and Post-Secondary Education Programmes 

Offered (Continued) 

Ministry/ 

Agency 

MOH 

MARA* 

Name/Type of 

Institution 

Specialised 

training colleges 

MARA Skills 

Training Institutes 

MARA Business 

Institutes 

MARA Advanced 

Skills Training 

Institutes 

GiatMARA 

Centres 

Type/Field 

of Programme(s) 

Skills training for paramedics 

and auxiliaries required in 

medical disciplines 

Skills training in technical 

fields 

Business-based courses 

Joint ventures with specific 

international training 

agencies for 

technology-based courses 

Training courses in the fields 

of building technology, 

furniture craftsmanship, et 

cetera 

Remarks 


․ For PMR/SPM holders 

․ Certificate and diploma levels 


․ Certificate, diploma and higher diploma 

levels 



․ For graduates of MARA Skills Training 

Institutes and SPM holders 

․ Short term single-skill specialist training 

courses 

․ Targeted at school-leavers and the 

unemployed 

* MARA is an agency under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Rural and Regional Development 

(MRRD). It was established as an autonomous body to encourage and assist Bumiputeras to 

obtain education and participate in business, entrepreneurship, trade and industry as a means 

to enhance the overall Bumiputera standing in Malaysia. 


1.5 Tertiary Education 

Tertiary or higher education is delivered through both public and private means under 

the jurisdiction of MOHE as the governing authority for all higher education institutions 

in Malaysia. The Government regulates the administration and funding for 

public universities, polytechnics and community colleges. Private institutions conduct 

their own academic programmes and receive no financial support from the 

Government; albeit they need to adhere to Malaysian education laws, and they are 

also under close monitoring by MOHE. The following table indicates the numbers 

and types of tertiary education institutions currently available in Malaysia. 

Table IV Higher Education Institutions in Malaysia (Figures from 

Government of Malaysia, 2008; MOHE, 2009) 

Public 

Private 

Type Number 

Public Universities 

20 

Polytechnics 

27 

Community Colleges 

43 

TOTAL 90 

Private Universities 

15 

Private Colleges 

18 

Branch Campuses 

15 

Colleges 

490 

TOTAL 538 

GRAND TOTAL 628 

All 20 of the public universities receive financial aid from the Government, including 

lump-sum funds for research, development and capital expenditure (Government of 

Malaysia, 2008). Through the National Higher Education Fund Corporation 

(Perbadanan Tabung Pendidikan Tinggi Negara, PTPTN), the Government also offers 

scholarships and loans to students from low-income backgrounds. In the 1990s, three 

Government-linked corporations (GLCs) were authorised to run their own private 


universities, i.e. Multimedia University (MMU), Universiti Tenaga Nasional 

(UNITEN) and Universiti Teknologi Petronas (UTP); paving the way for further establishment 

of private institutions. Today there are over 500 private colleges and 

universities, a majority having been set up after the introduction of the Private Higher 

Education Act 1996. Six universities also operate in the open and distance learning 

(ODL) mode, i.e. Universiti Tun Abdul Razak (UNITAR), Open University Malaysia 

(OUM), Wawasan Open University (WOU), Asia e-University (AeU), Al-Madinah 

International University (MEDIU) and International Centre for Education in Islamic 

Finance (INCEIF). 

In the present system, enrolment into diploma and Bachelor’s degree programmes 

in public institutions is centrally controlled by the Division of Student Admission, 

MOHE (Study Malaysia Online, n.d.). Although admission requirements and selection 

criteria are the prerogative of the public universities, they still need to conform to 

the MOHE’s minimum entry requirements (UNESCO, 2006/2007). While those with 

STPM or matriculation certification commonly apply for admission into public universities, 

applicants for private institutions usually undergo pre-university programmes 

at private colleges before sitting for the corresponding examinations (e.g. 

GCE ‘A’ Level, Australian pre-university or Canadian pre-university examinations). 

Another entry pathway for private students is to undertake a university’s internal 

pre-university programme before enrolling into degree programmes in the corresponding 

foreign branch campus in Malaysia. 

Another form of higher education in Malaysia is teacher training (Study in Malaysia 

Handbook, 2009), whereby school-leavers can enrol into Diploma in Teaching programmes 

at teacher training colleges. In-service teachers who have obtained basic 

certification for teaching also have the opportunity to upgrade their qualifications 

by enrolling into Bachelor’s degree programmes in universities. The following table 

illustrates the current intake, enrolment and output of all higher education institutions 

in Malaysia. 


Table V Intake, Enrolment and Output in Malaysian Higher Education 

Institutions in 2008 (MOHE, 2009) 

Type of Institution Intake Enrolment Output 

Public Universities 

Polytechnics 

Community Colleges 

Private Institutions 

133,100 

40,574 

9,649 

185,846 


419,334 

85,280 

17,082 

399,852 

94,622 

32,783 

5,566 

78,561 

GRAND TOTAL 369,169 921,548 211,532 

In the 9MP, the Government expects to enrol over 1.3 million new students into 

all higher education institutions and at all levels by the end of the plan period. Evinced 

in the table above, Malaysia is doing relatively well in its drive towards this target. 

Chapter 2 

Concepts of Lifelong Learning and 

e-Learning in Malaysia 

2.1 Lifelong Learning in Malaysia 

At the time of writing, there is no concrete definition of lifelong learning in Malaysia. 

The most recent and germane national description of lifelong learning can perhaps 

be taken from the NHESP (MOHE, 2007): 

“… a process for the democratisation of education through the acquisition of 

knowledge, skills and competencies via formal, informal or non-formal means 

based on workplace experiences or training”.

The Plan also notes that lifelong learning ― through distance learning, e-Learning, 

workplace and part-time learning ― will be integral to support Malaysia’s human 

capital development and the nation’s knowledge- and innovation-based economy 

(MOHE, 2007). Apart from the abovementioned Plan, there are several other 

Government documents that make references to lifelong learning and the need to 

establish a national definition. These will be explained in Chapter 3 of this publication. 

Despite the current lack of a national definition, we can concur that lifelong learning 

practices in Malaysia universally encompasses a phase of both education and training 

that takes place after the completion of formal education. Lifelong learning is also 

generally associated with adult education; and thus refers to learning beyond the 

formal setting and involving those who have reached adulthood or who are no longer 

in school (Khairuddin Idris, 2004). Thus, its notion clearly concerns employability 

and economic strength, and has also come to contain a broader definition that includes 

all phases and forms of learning, including formal, non-formal and informal education 

(Mohamed Rashid Navi Bax & Mohd Nasir Abu Hassan, 2003). 

Beyond formal schooling, there are opportunities for furthering education at different 

levels; either leading to some form of qualification via workplace training or purely 

for self-development. The greater core of lifelong learning programmes is formal 

in nature, and to a lesser extent it may also include non-formal education (Mohamed 

Rashid Navi Bax & Mohd Nasir Abu Hassan, ibid.). 

For the purpose of this paper, the concept of lifelong learning in Malaysia will be 

addressed according to the following levels: 

● Formal lifelong learning; 

● Non-formal lifelong learning; and 

● Informal lifelong learning. 

1) Formal Lifelong Learning 

Formal learning includes activities that take place in formal learning institutions that 

lead to some form of accreditation or qualification (Khairuddin Idris, 2004). It is 


very organised and structured, with clear learning objectives and for learners, the 

explicit aim is to gain knowledge, skills and/or competencies (OECD, n.d.). In the 

context of lifelong learning, formal activities take place in educational institutions 

and lead to different levels of formal recognition. These include: 

● Certificates and diplomas at polytechnics and community colleges (e.g. as 

managed by MARA and several ministries); and 

● Executive and postgraduate diplomas and degrees (e.g. at universities). 

Community colleges are considered the lifelong learning hubs of the country (MOHE, 

2007). Their role has been further reinforced through a rebranding process in 2007, 

whereby they were encouraged to collaborate with Government-linked companies 

to offer more industry-relevant formal programmes at certificate and diploma levels. 

Public universities are also involved in the cultivation of lifelong learning through 

the offering of development, executive-Level, part-time and distance learning-based 

programmes. Several of these universities have established designated centres to manage 

these programmes: 

Table I Public Universities and Designated Centres for Lifelong Learning 

University Centre 

University of Malaya (UM) Centre for Continuing Education 

Science University of Malaysia (USM) School of Distance Education 

National University of Malaysia (UKM) Centre of Educational Extension 

Putra University of Malaysia (UPM) Centre for External Education 

Technology University of Malaysia 

(UTM) 

Northern University of Malaysia (UUM) 


School of Professional and Continuing 

Education 

Centre for Professional and Continuing 

Education 

MARA Technology University (UiTM) Institute of Education Development 

The concept of recognition of prior learning (RPL) is also significant in formal lifelong 

learning. It is a relatively new practice; with OUM as the first private institution

in Malaysia to implement RPL policies beginning in 2006. OUM’s Flexible Entry 

(FE) System is a system that provides leeway for those without extensive or complete 

formal schooling, but with the relevant work experience to gain entry into university 

programmes. At the moment, the MOHE has given the green light to six private 

ODL institutions (i.e. OUM, WOU, AeU, UNITAR, MEDIU and INCEIF) to implement 

the RPL system, particularly in the area of Open Entry. Another equally important 

and significant mechanism is the Accreditation of Prior Experiential Learning 

(APEL); which allows the lifelong provider to award credits for subjects in a certain 

course by converting learning experiences into the subject’s learning outcomes. Both 

Open Entry and APEL are new in Malaysia; and in fact, the Malaysian Qualifications 

Agency (MQA) is awaiting the MOHE’s endorsement for both systems so as to 

allow for full implementation. Both OUM and WOU have put the Open Entry system 

into practice. OUM is presently drafting out the detailed administrative and academic 

procedures for the implementation of APEL. 

2) Non-formal Lifelong Learning 

Non-formal education generally includes learning that is outside the formal educational 

context; with targets that may not necessarily result in a particular qualification 

(Khairuddin Idris, 2004). While non-formal lifelong learning programmes are usually 

planned and well-structured, many do not lead to the conferment of qualifications. 

In general, they are intended towards professional skill development and enhancement, 

and cover a significant part of the adult learning sector (OECD, n.d.). In 

Malaysia, opportunities for non-formal learning generally take the form of workplace 

and on-the-job programmes at various levels that also comprise vocational and executive 

training. Examples of non-formal lifelong learning in Malaysia include: 

● Training and apprenticeship schemes for employees; and 

● Training courses for professional development. 

One important factor in encouraging non-formal lifelong learning is the role of the 

Human Resource Development Council (Perbadanan Sumber Manusia Berhad, 

PSMB) that manages the Human Resource Development Fund (HRDF, described 


in Chapter 3). In general, PSMB focuses on assisting small and medium enterprises 

(SMEs) in various industries to provide continuous skills training for their employees. 

These industries include electronics, manufacturers of food and beverages, industrial 

chemicals, various household products, as well as those involved in printing, petroleum 

refineries, basic iron and steel, and et cetera. PSMB has full control of the 

HRDF; its roles include monitoring collection of levies, disbursing training grants, 

as well as approving financial assistance and training places. In 2008, PSMB achieved 

the following: 

Table II PSMB Achievements in Promoting Non-formal Lifelong 

Learning in Malaysia in 2008 (PSMB, 2008) 

Indicator Amount 

Approved Training Places 

Approved Financial Assistance 

Collection of Levies for the HRDF 

Disbursement of Training Grant 


736,410 places 

MYR 371.87 million 



Provided that employers are registered with PSMB, individuals at various levels of 

employment are given the opportunity to further their professional skills. The council 

also manages training schemes for retrenched workers and industrial needs, as well 

as one unique training scheme for information technology (IT) and software development 

specialists (PSMB, ibid.). 

3) Informal Lifelong Learning 

Informal education is not well-documented in Malaysia, although many acknowledge 

it as an important part of learning (Khairuddin Idris, 2004). Acquired through work 

and social interactions, it does not have a given structure and no set objectives in 

terms of learning outcomes (OECD, n.d.). As iterated earlier, informal learning is 

not a focal point in the Malaysian lifelong learning context (Mohamed Rashid Navi 

Bax & Mohd Nasir Abu Hassan, 2003). 

Informal activities take place for the typical reason of improving one’s quality of

life, takes place at all ages and across all levels of the society without leading to 

formal recognition and usually occurring at the initiative of the individual according 

to personal interests. Such opportunities are characterised by interaction between people, 

the media and material resources (Gan, 2005). By and large, tangible informal 

lifelong learning appears as community-based programmes that address diverse social 

problems and meet universal needs of the community, e.g. career training, skills upgrading, 

environmental concerns, basic education and literacy, public policies or community 

interests (Gan, ibid.). 

One example of a consolidated community-based initiative has been initiated by the 

Malaysian Chinese Association (MCA). Under its Community Education Development 

Bureau, MCA started a lifelong learning campaign in 2004, through which it has 

actively organised activities, short courses, talks, exhibitions and workshops throughout 

the country. These activities cover a wide range of interests and concerns, e.g. 

communication skills, information technology, personal development, martial arts, 

family and home care (MCA, n.d.). 

Because it is also known as experiential learning, a certain degree of informal lifelong 

learning can also be properly accredited for individuals who seek recognition for 

the experiences they have obtained throughout their work and from within the 

community. This concept ties in with RPL, allowing for many individuals to leverage 

on informal experiences when they seek entry into the formal education system. 

Although RPL is still relatively new in Malaysia, it is acknowledged as an important 

instrument in providing a pathway for any individual to continue learning at higher 

educational levels to attain a better quality of life. 

2.2 e-Learning in Malaysia 

In Malaysia, as is common with many other countries, e-Learning is seen as one 


of the means to foster lifelong learning. Having received mention in Malaysian policy 

initiatives since the introduction of the NITA in 1996, e-Learning is also frequently 

referred to alongside open and distance learning (ODL) as well as professional 

training and development (MOHE, 2007). Many educational institutions 

believe e-Learning to be an effective alternative approach to traditional classroom 

teaching. The deployment of ICTs through e-Learning is recognised as an important 

support system for lifelong learning, particularly through intensive use of the internet, 

mobile learning and other applications. Cost-effectiveness and flexibility that 

allows students to undergo academic programmes without attending full-time classes 

(MOHE, ibid.) are two of the main reasons that Malaysia has embraced e-Learning 

in its education system. 

The idea of e-Learning in Malaysia points to the utilisation of ICTs at various education 

levels, particularly with the Government’s attention in ensuring a respectable 

national ICT infrastructure in the drive towards globalisation and greater competitive 

force. This is evident in the inclusion of e-Learning as one of the five strategic 

thrusts under the NITC (NITC, n.d.), as excerpted below: 

“e-Learning is the first step towards capitalising on knowledge. This strategic 

thrust area envisions the creation of formal and informal network, providing the 

opportunity and cultivating an ethos of lifelong learning for individual 

organisational, institutional and societal advancement. It is expected that 

e-Learning will be the vehicle to accelerate the pace of growth of Malaysia's 

intellectual capital.” 

What is apparent is that e-Learning is considered vital for Malaysia to build a 

world-class human capital and has been adopted in various ways in schools and 

universities. Greater implementation has been noted at the higher education level, 

whilst still in its infancy at the school level (Rohana Abd Rahman, 2004). For the 

purpose of this paper, we will look into e-Learning at both levels. 


1) e-Learning in Schools 

e-Learning initiatives in schools are under the ambit of the Government, and is concerned 

with the provision and use of ICTs, the roll-out of ICT curriculum and assessment 

and its integration in teaching and learning (Rohana Abd Rahman, ibid.). 

School-level e-Learning initiatives have taken the form of projects as described in 

the following table. 

Table III e-Learning Initiatives in Schools 

Initiative Description 

MySchoolNet 

Smart Schools 

Computing Tablet 

Project 

Computerisation 

Programme 

EduWebTV 

2) e-Learning in Universities 

A website set up by the MOE to provide links to educational resources 

worldwide; and to allow interaction between Malaysian school children 

with those globally. 

Schools with up-to-date ICT infrastructure, using the most current 

technologies in its curriculum, pedagogy, assessment and materials. 

Encouraging the use of and providing laptops to enhance classroom 

teaching and learning experiences in a wireless environment. 

A development project to equip schools with the necessary ICT hardware 

and software. 

A website that hosts educational videos under the MOE. Launched 

in 2008, EduWebTV streams seven types of programmes, i.e. News, 

Academic, Articles, Interactive, Curriculum, Live and Guides. 

The most obvious utilisation of e-Learning is in institutions that have adopted the 

ODL mode. In Malaysia, these include UNITAR, OUM, WOU, AeU and other 

universities. 

(1) UNITAR 

UNITAR was the first of any Malaysian university to attempt full-scale distance 

education, and is considered Malaysia’s first virtual university (Syed Othman 

Alhabshi & Hasnan Hakim, 2006). As the first provider of virtual learning, UNITAR 

retained its full-time mode while it continued to experiment in the provision of educa- 


tion through the use of ICTs, beginning with producing CD ROM-based course materials 

to web-based and online content. Currently, UNITAR is a dual mode university 

that operates mostly on a full-time basis. 

(2) OUM 

OUM was established in 2000, just two years after UNITAR, and operates completely 

via ODL. As Malaysia’s first open university, the majority of OUM’s students are 

working adults who study on a part-time basis. OUM has developed a blended pedagogy 

that combines self-managed learning and face-to-face tutorials with online 

learning. OUM is one of the leading e-Learning practitioners in the country; and 

has now enrolled more than 90,000 learners in over 70 programmes. 

(3) WOU 

WOU was established in 2007, making it the second private university in Malaysia 

to practise ODL. Like OUM, WOU employs a flexible mode that incorporates 

e-Learning as a means to help part-time students study at their own pace without 

leaving their jobs or compromising their other commitments. WOU considers itself 

the country’s first private, not-for-profit open learning institution that is funded by 

charitable trusts, corporations and the public. 

(4) AeU 

AeU, formed in 2008, is the latest university to employ e-Learning in Malaysia. 

It is an international university established under the Asia Co-operation Dialogue 

(ACD). AeU collaborates with institutions of higher learning in 31 Asian countries 

through ODL; benefiting from the collective expertise and experiences of the universities 

in each ACD member country. 

(5) Other Universities 

Several other universities also deserve mention as e-Learning practitioners. UM, 

MMU and International Medical University (IMU) were among the first to launch 

learning management systems (LMS). Since then, many other universities have also 


introduced their own LMS, even if they do not employ the ODL mode. This is 

an indication of overall ICT and e-Learning acceptance in Malaysia, including for 

institutions that offer various full-time programmes in physical campuses throughout 

the country. Two other institutions also employ the ODL mode, i.e. MEDIU and 

INCEIF. Both are relative newcomers, having been established in 2007 and 2006, 

respectively. Additional explanation of e-Learning in Malaysian education will be 

provided in subsequent chapters of this publication. 

Chapter 3 

Policies, Funding and Regulation 

of E-learning in Lifelong Learning 


Caveat 

At the time of writing, there are no definitive national policies on e-Learning for 

lifelong learning in Malaysia. For the purpose of this publication, this chapter will 

provide a description of e-Learning and lifelong learning separately as they appear 

in each of the specified documents. Matters concerning funding and regulation will 

be explained in the context of education and training. 

3.1 Government Policy Statements and Plans 

As introduced in Chapter 1, e-Learning and lifelong learning have received separate 

and linked statements in several policy documents, i.e.: 8MP, 9MP and OPP3. 

Substantial statements were also made in the Knowledge-based Economy Master Plan 

(KEMP), introduced in 2002 by the Economic Planning Unit (EPU), under the jurisdiction 

of the Prime Minister’s Department; and the NHEAP and NHESP, released 


y MOHE in 2007. 

1) Eighth Malaysia Plan (2001-2005) 

The 8MP provides one of the earliest mentions of e-Learning and lifelong learning 

policies in Malaysia. This Plan introduced the NITC’s role in achieving the NITA 

through the Strategic Thrusts Agenda, of which e-Learning was one and was meant 

“to focus on cultivating a lifelong learning culture” (Government of Malaysia, 2001). 

Having access to lifelong learning opportunities was also seen as important aspect 

in addressing the dangers of the digital divide in marginalising a substantial number 

of Malaysians. The Plan states that: 

“A system of lifelong learning will be introduced and skills upgrading 

strengthened to support the development of a learning society…” 

As such, lifelong learning was also listed as a human resource policy thrust that 

could encourage and further enhance the employability and productivity of the labour 

force (Government of Malaysia, 2008). The promotion of lifelong learning was needed 

in order to develop a knowledge-seeking culture amongst Malaysians. The 

Government anticipated lifelong learning, through the use of ICTs, distance learning 

and web-based learning, could help steer the nation towards becoming a knowledge-based 

economy. The Government’s attention to education in this respect was 

evident in better support services in the form of public and mobile libraries. Educational 

institutions were also encouraged to offer more diversified courses through distance 

learning programmes and part-time courses (in community colleges). In essence, the 

8MP asserts lifelong learning as the strong foundation needed for the creation of 

a knowledge-seeking society in the nation’s drive towards Vision 2020. 

2) Third Outline Perspective Plan (2001-2010) 

Having been launched during the same period as the 8MP, the OPP3 also outlines 

e-Learning as a strategic thrust under NITA and lifelong learning as a means to 

develop Malaysia’s human capital. In line with Vision 2020 and the Government’s 


concern for the creation of a knowledge-based economy, the OPP3 recognises lifelong 

learning as vital in allowing Malaysians to continuously learn and upgrade their skill 

base after leaving the formal education and training system. In this respect, OPP3 

outlines quite clearly the role of lifelong learning in training programmes. The setting 

up of information technology (IT) kiosks and cyber centres were planned, particularly 

in rural areas. This is in line with the use of ICT-related media to offer access to 

training programmes and education across the Malaysian society. Similar to the 8MP, 

the OPP3 also outlined the following action plans related to formal education and 

training: 

● The establishment of community colleges, open universities and distance education 

as alternative avenues for tertiary education; 

● Community colleges to provide opportunities for school-leavers to further their 

education; 

● Encouraging financial institutions to provide soft loans to working adults to 

continue their education; 

● Encouraging employers to promote lifelong learning through training and retraining 

programmes; and 

● Strengthening the delivery of public training institutions by using ICTs and 

web-based learning systems. 

3) Knowledge-Based Economy Master Plan (2002) 

The KEMP, launched by EPU in 2002, is based on the development thrusts provided 

in the OPP3, and contains 136 recommendations encompassing human resource development, 

information structure, incentives, science and technology development, reorientation 

of the private and public sectors as well as addressing the digital divide 

(EPU, n.d.). The KEMP views education as crucial to develop a knowledge-based 

economy; of which one of the most important steps is to enhance Malaysia’s human 

resource capacity. The KEMP provides a comprehensive collection of action plans 

spread over three phases from 2001 to 2010, along with the relevant implementing 

agencies. Under education alone, there are 64 recommendations that either directly 


or indirectly involves the implementation of e-Learning and lifelong learning in 

Malaysia. Several prominent recommendations related to lifelong learning in the KEMP 

(Government of Malaysia, 2002) are: 

● Formulate and adopt a National Policy on Lifelong Learning and Education 

within the context of Vision 2020 and the knowledge-based economy; 

● Embed lifelong learning education and philosophy in all major Government 

policies; 

● Promote research and development in the areas of adult education and lifelong 

learning by strengthening existing research and development centres of lifelong 

learning; 

● Foster the development of scientific and technological literacy through lifelong 

learning and education; and 

● Promote trade union involvement in lifelong learning. 

4) Ninth Malaysia Plan (2006-2010) 

The 9MP clearly describes e-Learning and lifelong learning as important features 

in the nation’s efforts to mainstream ICTs as well as to enhance human capital development 

(Government of Malaysia, 2006). The following are excerpts of the 9MP 

with regards to e-Learning and lifelong learning (Government of Malaysia, ibid.): 

● E-learning initiatives will be expanded in the formal education process, 

vocational training programmes, in the private sector and also in public offices 

(through the formulation of the Public Sector e-Learning Blueprint by the 

National Institute Of Public Administration (INTAN)); 

● Encouraging the use of the internet is integral in the growth of e-Learning 

as a potential source of online education and training. 

● Provision of infra- and infostructure through initiatives such as the Malaysian 

Grid for Learning (MyGfL) and Smart School community projects; 

The establishment of the National e-Learning Consultative Committee (NeLCC) to 

direct and monitor all e-Learning strategies and programmes. The NeLCC is also 


esponsible for overseeing the preparation of INTAN’s Blueprint; 

● Offering of lifelong learning programmes with flexible entry requirements (by 

community colleges and ODL providers); 

● Accelerating lifelong learning through upgrading and expansion of infrastructure, 

increasing accessibility (through e-Learning and distance education) and inculcating 

a learning culture; 

● Public universities to establish centres for continuing education with flexible 

entry requirements; 

● Institutions such as OUM and UNITAR will be encouraged to offer postgraduate 

programmes to cater to working professionals; and 

● Private institutions, training providers, non-governmental organisations (NGOs) 

will also be encouraged to provide lifelong learning programmes, including 

amongst the workforce. 

5) The National Higher Education Action Plan (2007-2010) and National Higher Education 

Strategic Plan (2007) 

(1) The National Higher Education Action Plan (2007-2010) 

The NHEAP lists lifelong learning as one of the critical agenda to be achieved during 

the 9MP plan period. The Plan calls for measures to put in place a comprehensive 

policy on lifelong learning that will involve both the Government and the private 

sector. Some of the desired outcomes listed in this Plan are to increase the number 

of adult learners in order to bolster the knowledge value of the work force; to inculcate 

a pervasive lifelong learning culture; and to provide alternative and equitable 

access to tertiary education for the rural and urban poor, Bumiputera communities 

in East Malaysia, indigenous (Orang Asli) communities as well as the physically 

disadvantaged. 

(2) The National Higher Education Strategic Plan (2007) 

The NHESP focuses on the enculturation of lifelong learning to democratise education 

across all levels of the Malaysian society. Similar to the above Plans, this Plan lists 


extensive lifelong learning mechanisms to support the nation’s knowledge- and innovation-driven 

human capital development. Drawing on ODL, e-Learning, workplace 

and part-time learning, these mechanisms include: 

● The establishment of a Lifelong Learning National Committee under the MOHE 

and MHR; 

● The expansion of lifelong learning programmes at all higher education institutions; 

● The proper accreditation of prior learning through the Malaysian Qualifications 

Framework (MQF); 

● The reinforcement of community colleges as a lifelong learning hub; and 

● Increasing enrolment in lifelong learning programmes by up to ten per cent 

at diploma and first degree levels through flexible entry requirements. 

Figure I The NHESP’s transformation process for Malaysian lifelong 

learning (Translated from the NHESP, MOHE (2007)) 


The following is the diagram of the NHESP’s transformation process for lifelong 

learning in Malaysia. It is evident from this diagram that the various parties described 

in this publication have important roles to play in this regard. 

3.2 Funding: Education and Training 

With the focus of lifelong learning and e-Learning in Malaysia resting on enhancing 

the employability and productivity if its citizens, the main point of reference is the 

Government’s attention towards education and training at the higher education level. 

The most recent economic plan allocated MYR 45.1 billion between 2006 and 2010 

(Government of Malaysia, 2006). What is important to note is that this allocation 

represents financial aid awarded to public institutions; disbursed through the pertinent 

Government agencies and ministries. The following table details the allocation for 

tertiary education and training, as stipulated in the 9MP (Government of Malaysia, 

2006). 

Table I Development Expenditure and Allocation for Tertiary Education 

and Training, 2006-2010 

Programme 9MP Allocation (MYR in million) 

Tertiary Education 

Training: 

16,069.0 

Industrial Training 

4,103.6 

Commercial Training 

179.5 

Management Training 

509.5 

Total 20,861.6 

Grand Total (Education and Training) 45,149.1 

Similar to other countries, central provision of funds for lifelong learning and professional 

development in Malaysia involves resource generation through payroll taxes, 

incentives for employers to invest in lifelong learning programmes and other such 


approaches. The funds described below represent the main components in financing 

lifelong learning and e-Learning in Malaysia. 

1) Funding for Public Institutions 

Within the context of lifelong learning and human capital development, Government 

funding for training and retraining opportunities are present in the form of specific 

funds, e.g. the HRDF, Skills Development Fund (SDF) and National Higher Education 

Fund (NHEF). In general, funding for education and training represents about a fifth 

of total Government expenditure (EPU & World Bank, 2007). 

(1) HRDF 

The HRDF is managed by the Ministry of Human Resources and operates through 

levy contributions from private institutions and companies (Anuwar Ali, 2005). 

Established in 1993 to replace the training tax incentive scheme, it provides funding 

for training and retraining programmes for private sector employees. Employers are 

liable to pay an average of one per cent of each employee’s monthly remuneration 

to the fund. The fund’s objective is to provide financial assistance to defray part 

of the costs for employee upgrading programmes through a cost-sharing scheme between 

private companies and the Human Resource Development Council (Haslinda 

Abdullah, Raduan Che Rose & Kumar, 2007). In the 9MP, almost MYR 4.8 billion 

was set aside for financing all training programmes (Government of Malaysia, 

2006). 

(2) SDF 

The SDF was established in 2001 as a means to provide loans for technical and 

vocational training courses in both public and private training institutions (Anuwar 

Ali, 2005). Students who have obtained a basic skills certificate can apply for a 

loan programme that will provide them with MYR 5,000 for every level of study. 

In the 9MP, a total of MYR 644.5 million was disbursed to about 135,000 trainees 

nationwide (Government of Malaysia, 2006). 


(3) NHEF 

The PTPTN is a semi-autonomous agency under MOHE and has been operating since 

1997. The NHEF offers subsidised loans to meet tuition fees in both public and 

private institutions of higher education throughout Malaysia; intended to promote 

further enrolment and access to tertiary education nationwide. From 1997 to 2006, 

a total of MYR 17.27 billion was disbursed to benefit over 890,000 students at various 

study levels across the country. For the 9MP, the Government increased the allocation 

to MYR 19.83 billion to be distributed from 2006 to 2011 (Ministry of Higher 

Education, 2007). 

The national Employees Provident Fund (EPF) is the largest contributor to the NHEF, 

and for the next two economic plans, i.e. the Tenth and Eleventh Malaysia Plans, 

MYR 38.85 billion and MYR 71.40 billion, respectively, will be allocated for the 

fund. Out of those figures, MYR 9.68 billion and MYR 16.12 billion for each of 

the aforesaid Plans will be subsidised by the Government (Ministry of Higher 

Education, ibid.). 

2) Other Sources of Funding and Scholarships 

Within the context of financing lifelong learning and e-Learning programmes, it is 

necessary to mention the role of MARA as one of the main providers of not merely 

education programmes at various levels, but also as a provider of financial aid to 

needy individuals, many of whom are school-leavers, those without complete basic 

education and come from rural areas. MARA is a Government agency that focuses 

on providing business, educational and financial support to Bumiputeras. Under the 

ambit of the MRRD, MARA has financially aided Bumiputera students and budding 

entrepreneurs for over 40 years with scholarships, loans and various training and 

development programmes (as described in Chapter 1). 

The Public Services Department (PSD), under the MHR, also provides a source of 

scholarships and financial aid for ‘critical’ academic programmes, e.g. Medicine, 

Dentistry, Pharmacy and Engineering. In general PSD scholarships are offered to 


students enrolled in public universities, or to those who are placed in selected universities 

in the United Kingdom, the United States of America and Australia (Study 

Malaysia Online, n.d.). 

MOHE’s designated Scholarship Division provides study loans and scholarships for 

students in various stages of education, i.e. matriculation students and students at 

polytechnics and community colleges. The Federal Training Award Scheme, also under 

the MOHE, is offered to academic personnel and postgraduate students bound 

to polytechnics and community colleges as well (Study Malaysia Online, n.d.). 

3) Funding for Private Institutions 

As iterated earlier, private education institutions in Malaysia are self-sustaining bodies 

outside the state funding mechanism. Private providers that directly or indirectly operate 

within the sphere of lifelong learning and e-Learning, for instance OUM and 

WOU, rely almost entirely on independent revenue-generating activities (in particular, 

student enrolment and tuition fees) to remain viable. From a national viewpoint, the 

private sector provides additional places at the tertiary level; and it also helps to 

reduce the total public subsidy to higher education (Wilkinson & Ishak Yussof, 2009). 

That said, private students can also apply for study loans under the NHEF or obtain 

other means of scholarship. 

3.3 Regulation and Quality Assurance 

1) Legislative Acts 

At present, Malaysia has yet to introduce legislative acts that are exclusive to 

e-Learning for/and lifelong learning. In spite of this, the increasing use of ICTs in 

education has had an enormous impact on the quality of education throughout the 

country. Many of the e-Learning and lifelong learning initiatives described earlier, 

particularly at the school and post-secondary levels (e.g. MySchoolNet, MyGfL, Smart 


Schools, upgrading of ICT infrastructure, et cetera) during the 8MP and 9MP plan 

periods, have been implemented by the Malaysian Government with support from 

private entities. This suggests the Government’s keen involvement in the management 

and regulation of these initiatives. Educational reforms, especially in the 1990s, have 

had great bearing on the provision of e-Learning and lifelong learning programmes. 

The following are details on legislative acts and how they have affected e-Learning 

and lifelong learning in Malaysia, particularly at the post-secondary and higher education 

levels. 

Table II Legislative Acts and Their Impact on e-Learning and Lifelong Learning 

Education Act 1996 

Private Higher Educational 

Institutions Act 1996 

(Adapted from UNESCO, 2006/2007; Study Malaysia Online, n.d.) 

National Council of Higher 

Education Act 1996 

Act Content/Impact 

The National Accreditation Board 

Act 1996 

(Replaced by the Malaysian 

Qualifications Agency Act, 2007) 

Universities and University Colleges 

(Amendment) Act 1996 

National Higher Education Fund 

Corporation Act 1997 

․ Provisions that apply to MOHE in the establishment of 

polytechnics and community colleges. 

․ Establishment and operations of private higher educational 


․ Provision for the establishment of private universities, university 

colleges, branch campuses of foreign universities, 

as well as the upgrading of existing private colleges to 

universities. 

․ Liberalisation of higher education to meet increasing demand 

for tertiary education and a highly skilled workforce. 

․ Establishment of a national body to determine policies 

and co-ordinate the development and rapid expansion of 

tertiary education in Malaysia. 

․ Establishment of the National Accreditation Board (now 

MQA) to ensure that high academic standards, quality 

and control are maintained in private higher educational 


․ The MQF as a platform for QA in Malaysian higher 

education. 

․ Corporatisation of public universities. 

․ Establishment of the PTPTN as a fund that provides financial 

assistance through study loans to students. 


2) Quality Assurance (QA) 

(1) Public Institutions 

QA in public higher education, whether constituting conventional studies, e-Learning 

or mixed models, comes under the purview of MOHE. Public education is regulated 

by the Quality Assurance Division under the ambit of MOHE. This division concerns 

itself with the quality of academic programmes in the public system and also manages 

ISO-related certification for every institution. Professional accreditation bodies, such 

as the Malaysian Medical Council, PSD and Engineering Accreditation Council provide 

standards for licensure and professional practice as well as deal with QA in the 

academic sense (EPU & World Bank, 2007). Because all public institutions are centrally 

managed by the Government, all matters with regards to QA are also a central 

concern. However, it is common for each institution to have a Quality Management 

Unit that deals with institutional QA according to guidelines provided by MOHE. 

(2) Private Education Providers 

Based on the Private Higher Educational Institutions Act 1996, all private colleges, 

universities and non-degree granting institutions are answerable to QA measures outlined 

by the Government. Operational activities are not explicitly supervised by the 

Government, thus allowing for a certain degree of autonomy for these institutions. 

However, with the establishment of the MQA, each of these institutions must abide 

by the classifications given in the MQF. In this sense, qualifications awarded by 

all institutions must conform to criteria that clarify academic levels, learning outcomes 

and credit systems (MQA, 2007) set by the MQF. MQA, as the authoritative agency 

for implementing the framework, is responsible for monitoring and overseeing QA 

practices and accreditation in all private institutions. MQF stands as the basis for 

QA in higher education as well as the reference point for criteria and standards for 

national qualifications (MQA, n.d.). It covers eight levels of qualification, i.e. Certificate 

Levels One to Three, Diploma, Advanced Diploma, Bachelor’s Degree, Master’s and 

Doctoral Degrees (MQA, 2007). The functions of MQA (MQA, n.d.) are to: 

● Implement MQF as a reference point for qualifications; 

● Develop standards, credits and all other relevant instruments as national 


eferences for the conferment of awards with the co-operation of stakeholders; 

● Quality assure higher education institutions and programmes; 

● Accredit courses that fulfil the set criteria and standards; 

● Facilitate the recognition and articulation of qualifications; and 

● Maintain the Malaysian Qualifications Register (MQR). 

In the context of lifelong learning, the MQF also provides education pathways to 

systematically link qualifications and allow proper recognition of prior learning, 

whether obtained through formal, non-formal or informal means (MQA, 2007). This 

is evident in the document’s clear inclusion of lifelong learning in its qualifications 

and levels (Figure I). Listed in the MQF, these pathways are represented by three 

qualifications (Table III). 

Particularly where formal private education is concerned, this is a significant development 

that demonstrates the value of lifelong learning initiatives in Malaysia. One 

example of which is the implementation of FE at OUM; a system that promotes 

lifelong learning by providing access to university education to individuals who generally 

have little beyond basic education (i.e. just PMR or SPM certification). This 

is done by evaluating and recognising their working and other learning experiences 

against the learning outcomes for a particular course or programme. OUM began 

implementing FE and RPL policies in February 2006; the first of its kind in the 

country. 

Table III Qualifications for Lifelong Learning Pathways in the MQF 

Qualification MQF Description/Definition 

Advanced Diploma 

Graduate Certificate 

and Graduate Diploma 

․ A specific qualification that identifies an individual who has knowledge, 

practical skills, managerial abilities and more complex and 

higher responsibilities than those expected at a diploma level. 

․ Qualifications that comprise competencies at the Bachelor’s level. 

․ Graduate Certificate and Graduate Diploma differ by credit value. 

․ Used for purposes such as continuing professional development 

(CPD), changing a field of training or expertise and as entry qual- 


Postgraduate Certificate 

and Postgraduate 

Diploma 

ification to a higher level with permissible credit transfer. 

․ Qualifications that contain competencies at least at the Master’s 

level and acquired after obtaining a qualification equivalent to that 

of Bachelor’s. 

․ Postgraduate Certificate and Postgraduate Diploma differ by credit 

value. 

․ Conferred when the practitioner completes CPD or advanced training 

which is more professional than academic in nature. 

Figure II Qualifications and levels in the MQF 


Chapter 4 


E-learning in Lifelong Learning 


4.1 Status: A General Overview 

Lifelong learning is widely practised across many different levels in Malaysia. As 

described earlier, many different parties are involved in the provision of lifelong 

learning programmes at formal and non-formal levels, from public universities, ODL 

institutions, post-secondary institutions, MARA as well as through the relevant 

ministries. In 2008 alone, the enrolment at certificate and diploma levels amounted 

to almost 430,000 (MOHE, 2009); representing students in public and private institutions, 

community colleges and polytechnics. Despite the rising participation in 

lifelong learning programmes, there is a clear lack of co-ordination and management 

at a national level. Through a more resolute effort by the relevant bodies, it is hoped 

that all these programmes, from education to skills and training, will be represented 

by a more concerted co-ordination by the Government and its ministries. 

The rising interest in lifelong learning can be attributed to the pressures of globalisation 

and technologies as well as Malaysia’s changing demography (Mohamed 

Rashid Navi Bax & Mohd Nasir Abu Hassan, ibid.); as the nation gears itself towards 

greater employability and productivity of its citizens (Ruslan Abdul Shukor, 2005). 

Globalisation brings with it social and economic changes that compels Malaysia to 

look into upgrading skills and technology intensity and knowledge capabilities in 

its labour force. With a population that is expected to reach 28.9 and a working 

age group (ages 15 through 64) of about 19 million individuals in 2010, the new 

Malaysian demography implies the need for more employment and training opportunities 

(Mohamed Rashid Navi Bax & Mohd Nasir Abu Hassan, ibid.) that could 

be created through lifelong learning. The need to nurture a learning society, mentioned 


in the OPP3 (Government of Malaysia, 2001) involves encouraging more women, 

senior citizens, retirees and marginal groups to take part in informal or non-formal 

learning as well. 

Despite the increasing number of institutions adopting e-Learning throughout the 

country, its utilisation in lifelong learning programmes in Malaysia is not well-established 

as yet; and mainly limited at the formal level through private higher education 

institutions. In connection to this, there is also growing interest from many working 

adults who are beginning to see lifelong learning as a way of furthering their education 

or obtaining formal recognition for their professional experiences. Of particular 

interest are programmes offered through e-Learning as this will allow them to enrol 

on a part-time basis. While various parties are involved in the provision of continuing 

professional education, skills upgrading and training programmes (as has been described 

in the earlier chapters), the adoption of e-Learning in these institutions and 

programmes has not been as widespread as with those practising ODL (e.g. OUM 

and WOU). 

e-Learning initiatives at the school level have mainly focused on the provision and 

use of ICTs, while more and more organisations, both public and private, are beginning 

to look into e-Learning as a viable means for training their employees. At the 

informal level, this is slightly less distinct, but literature suggests that many lifelong 

learning projects involving e-Learning are usually performed at the community level 

and are aimed towards creating awareness of ICTs and bridging the digital divide 

between urban and rural populations (see Chapter 5). 

At this point in time and regardless of its level of use, there is a need for: 

● Greater awareness amongst the citizens; 

● More extensive adoption of technological infra- and infostructures (including 

internet accessibility); and 

● Greater Government attention in: 

◦ Carrying out the various policies and action plans described in Chapter 3; 


◦ Providing better management, guidance and funding to allow more players 

and practitioners to enter the field; and 

◦ Introducing new schemes that would make e-Learning more cost-effective. 

4.2 Characteristics 


The use of e-Learning in lifelong learning in Malaysia aims to achieve the following 

objectives: 

● As a smart and cost-effective way for employee training and upgrading; 

● To complement the traditional mode of learning through blended learning; 

● To facilitate greater educational access to geographically distant individuals; 

● To broaden access to disadvantaged and marginalised individuals (e.g. the 

disabled, those in remote areas); 

● To improve cost-effectiveness in offering formal educational programmes; 

● To develop information-retrieval skills and digital literacy in its target audience; 

● To improve the quality of teaching and learning; and 

● To promote continuous personal and professional development. 

Many of these objectives are embodied in the practices of ODL institutions, particularly 

as they are the pioneers and continuous practitioners of e-Learning in Malaysia. 

Because ODL is generally targeted towards working adults in search of higher qualifications, 

the lifelong learning connotation is evident as well. For the purpose of 

this publication, the characteristics of e-Learning in lifelong learning will be provided 

from the viewpoint of ODL. 

2) The ODL Viewpoint 

Four of Malaysia’s ODL institutions (as listed in Chapter 2), i.e. UNITAR, OUM, 


WOU and AeU, can be considered the key proponents of e-Learning in the country. 

With the exception of UNITAR, which currently operates as a dual-mode university, 

OUM, WOU and AeU operate fully through ODL and focus on providing tertiary 

education to working adults. Other higher education institutions also supplement traditional 

modes with ODL, e.g. MMU and IMU. However, as providers of formal higher 

education to full-time, first-degree university entrants, these institutions are not considered 

to be involved in the lifelong learning context of Malaysia, and thus will 

not be described in this publication. Public universities that dabble in e-Learning 

(mostly through distance education programmes) have been described in Chapter 2 

and will not recur in this chapter. The following is an illustration of the characteristics 

of e-Learning provided by UNITAR, OUM, WOU and AeU. 

U 

N 

I 

T 

A 

R 

O 

U 

M 

Table I Characteristics of e-Learning in Lifelong Learning in Malaysian ODL 

Institutions 

ICT Infrastructure 

Course Management System 

(CMS) known as Virtual Online 

Instructional Support System 

(VOISS). 

This consists of e-mails, forums, 

bulletin board, virtual library and 

announcements. 

LMS known as myLMS. 

myLMS consists of e-mails, 

forums, bulletin board, 

announcements, academic 

calendar, links to all learning 

resources, digital library, 

university publications, 

handbooks, online assessment, 

iRadio, etc. It also allows learners 

to track financial transactions with 

the university. 

Criteria 

Type and Availability 

of Learning Resources 

CD- and web-based 

courseware and virtual 

library (online databases, 

electronic texts, e-books, 

examination papers, etc). 

Print-, audio-, PDF- and 

web-based modules, 

Digital Library (books, 

journals, etc), iTutorials, 

iWeblets, iRadio learning 

segments, multimedia 

courseware. 

Also includes mobile 

learning, online resources 

(e.g. Mathematics 

Resource Centre and 


Delivery of 

Programmes 

Hybrid e-Learning model 

that incorporates classroom 

teaching, online tutorial 

meetings, the virtual 

library and an online/offline 

Call Centre 

and Customer Relations 

Management. 

Blended pedagogy that 

comprises online learning, 

self-managed learning 

and face-to-face 

tutorials. 

One programme (Master 

of Instructional Design 

and Technology, MIDT) 

is offered as a fully-online 

programme. 

Other Details 

Malaysia’s first virtual 

university, but 

currently operates as 

a dual-mode university, 

mostly targeting 

full-time first-degree 

university 

entrants. 

Malaysia’s first ODL 

institution. 

Targets working 

adults in pursuit of 

higher/ 

further/continuing 

education and 

professional training.

W 

O 

U 

iRadio is OUM’s internet radio, 

the first for any university in 

Malaysia. 

Electronic Gateway to 

English Resources) and 

multiple choice question 

(MCQ)-based 

assessment. 

LMS known as WawasanLearn. Digital Library, CD- ODL model that includes Operates as a 

ROM based material, self-learning course not-for-profit ODL 

It contains course-by-course an- supplemented by materials, face-to-face university. 

nouncements, online forums, tuto- PowerPoint slides for tutorials, telephone and 

rials, supplementary course mate- selected topics, PDF files, online tutoring, video Like OUM, also 

rials, assignments, self-tests and website links, articles, conferencing and support targets working adults 

online quizzes, etc. 

quizzes and online from regional offices in pursuit of higher 

interactive programmes. (library and internet 

access). 

education. 

A 

e 

U 

LMS known as AeU LMS. 

The system contains courseware, 

course announcements and information, 

forum, chat room, messaging, 

assignments, timetable, 

question bank, web links and 

quizzes. It is accessible through 

the student portal that allows students 

to do online transactions, 

add/drop subjects, change programmes, 

etc. 

Virtual library, books, 

journals, theses and print 

modules. 

Distance learning mode 

that involves independent 

study, online discussions 

and face-to-face 

interaction/tutorial. 

Operates as a multinational 

university under 

the ACD. 

It is an international 

university and is in the 

process of gaining international 

recognition. 

The four universities above share several similar grounds, i.e. they have all constructed 

each respective CMS or LMS either based on an open source platform or 

developed it independently from the ground up. All four institutions also employ 

an open entry system to provide leeway for individuals without extensive educational 

backgrounds to enrol in their academic programmes and each has also developed 

its own courseware and/or modules. While there are slight distinctions in the modes 

of delivery, in essence the utilisation of e-Learning in these institutions are quite 

clearly represented as not only a technological feature, but an important component 

in the teaching and learning process. What is also important to note is that because 

the main clientele for these ODL institutions are working adults (a majority of whom 

are within the 25-45 age range), many of them are either not well-versed or may 


have never even had any experience with e-Learning technologies. As such, these 

institutions spend a great deal of time and effort in guiding new students to adapt 

to their new ways of teaching and learning. 

3) Corporate Involvement: A New Form of e-Learning in Lifelong Learning 

For-profit, on-demand and corporate e-Learning are relatively new phenomena in 

Malaysia. This form of e-Learning warrants a mention in this publication as it is 

considered to be a part of continuous training for working professionals; a complement 

of the traditional face-to-face trainer-trainee programme (Rozana Sani, 2004). 

Having been given allocations under the HRDF, corporate e-Learning is a response 

to the World Trade Organization’s General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS) 

that first came into force in 1995 (Jung, 2009). The influence of GATS on the 

e-Learning practices of many countries, including in Asia and Malaysia, is clear in 

that many have come to realise this new, under-exploited market for e-Learning and 

there have been, in recent years, evidence of local, national and regional for-profit 

providers that have entered this market (Jung, ibid.). 

In Malaysia, for-profit e-Learning has grown quite rapidly in the corporate training 

sector; seen as an effective strategy for employee development. Several examples 

of such providers include the following (cited in Jung, ibid.): 

training.my 

HP Education 

Services(HPES) 

Malaysia 

Table II Several Corporate e-Learning Providers in Malaysia 


Description 

․ Malaysia’s one-stop portal for training events across various areas. 

․ Includes a list of e-Learning courses. 

․ Major clients include National Bank of Malaysia, MMU and the EPF 

․ A training house under Hewlett Packard Malaysia. 

․ Lists a comprehensive selection of training and e-Learning solutions 

across a wide variety of IT course subjects. 

There are also several major vendors that provide school curriculum-based educational

courseware, online or e-Learning teaching courses for primary schools in Malaysia 

(Jung, ibid.). Two such examples include KDEB Anzagain, a private company that 

develops and supplies courseware to the MOE; and e-Learn Dot Com, that provides 

software for primary web-based learning system, multimedia teaching solutions, as 

well as thematic learning software for children and materials for schools and kindergartens 

in various subjects. 

While there has been significant growth in this area, corporate e-Learning has yet 

to truly take off in Malaysia, with many parties still preferring the traditional approach 

of face-to-face sessions (Rozana Sani, 2004). However, as the country searches for 

flexible, cost-effective access to lifelong learning, primarily for working adults, corporate 

e-Learning could provide the solution needed to close the gaps in terms of skills 

and demographics of Malaysia’s society. 

Chapter 5 

5.1 Introduction 

Typical E-learning in Lifelong 

Learning: Malaysian Initiatives 

The first part of this chapter will deal with formal and non-formal examples of 

e-Learning in lifelong learning initiatives in Malaysia. In line with the concepts introduced 

in Chapter 2, formal examples will be taken to include programmes and 

courses conducted by designated educational institutions that utilise e-Learning and 

are aimed at award of official qualification and certification. Frequently, these instances 

have specific target groups and in the case of higher education institutions, 

represent the learning pathways for working adults. Non-formal examples will focus 


on programmes that are sponsored by large organisations for the purpose of employee 

professional development or skills upgrading of the labour force. 

The second part of this chapter will deal with informal examples of programmes 

that have been conducted in Malaysia. There are extensive instances of both forms 

of lifelong learning activities; and their impact range from large-scale, national implementation 

to small, community-based efforts. Both types will be mentioned in 

this publication to provide a comprehensive view for the whole country. Many of 

the informal initiatives have taken the route of rural development as an effort to 

bridge the digital divide and ensure that rural folk and the underprivileged have equal 

lifelong learning opportunities and are not left behind in the race towards greater 

technological awareness in the country. These programmes do not confer certifications 

per se and are generally conducted on a not-for-profit basis. 

5.2 Formal and Non-formal Lifelong Learning Examples 

1) Public Universities: A General Observation 

As iterated in Chapter 2, several established public universities are involved in the 

offering of lifelong learning programmes through each respective designated centres 

or schools that focus on continuing, professional and adult education. In general, 

many of such programmes are conducted on a part-time basis, leading to certificates, 

executive and professional diplomas and may include short courses as well. The use 

of e-Learning in such instances may not be as prominent as in institutions that fully 

employ the ODL) mode. Rather, the “e” component is, more often than not, represented 

by IT infrastructure, internet accessibility and encouraging students to leverage 

on technologies to complement their learning. That said, some of the courses and 

programmes offered can include an e-Learning component, particularly for public 

universities that also dabble in ODL as well. The table in the following page describes 

the efforts of public universities in offering e-Learning in lifelong learning. 


The USM, is a prime example of a traditional public university that has opened 

up to e-Learning; being the first university to implement distance education in 

Malaysia in 1971 (USM, 2008; Lee & Rozinah Jamaludin, 2009). Today, USM’s 

e-Learning model includes an LMS, virtual library, blended pedagogy and an ICT 

helpdesk (Lee & Rozinah Jamaludin, ibid.) and the School of Distance Education 

has also produced more than 14,000 graduates since the School began operating in 

full distance education mode in 1993 (USM, ibid.). 

U 

M 

U S 

M 

U 

K 

M 

U P 

M 

U T 

M 

U 

U 

M 

U iT 

M 

Table I Involvement of Public Universities for e-Learning in Lifelong 

Learning in Malaysia 

Centre Type of Programmes e-Learning Component 


Continuing 

Education 

School of 

Distance 

Education 

Centre of 

Educational 

Extension 


External 

Education 

School of Professional 

and Continuing 

Education 

Short courses, certificates, 

executive and professional 

diplomas and coaching programmes 

Short courses, undergraduate 

and postgraduate 

programmes 

Bachelor’s degrees, postgraduate 

diplomas and 

Master’s programmes 

Undergraduate and postgraduate 

programmes 

Short courses, executive, 

English and undergraduate 

programmes and diplomas 

Centre for Professional 

Diplomas and undergraduate 

and Continuing 

programmes 

Education 

Institute of Education 

Development 

Short and professional courses 

and undergraduate programmes 

․ Not extensive. 

․ Programmes are conducted on a part-time basis, 

complemented by adequate IT infrastructure. 

․ Available. 

․ USM employs full distance learning mode, supplemented 

by well-established infrastructure. 

․ None ( UKM discontinued their distance learning 

programmes in 2002). 

․ Programmes rely on face-to-face lectures conducted 

on weekends or after office hours. 


․ UPM uses the distance learning model, using 

e-Learning complemented by face-to-face sessions. 


․ UTM has developed its own learning management 

system to complement the e-learning mode for these 

programmes. 


․ UUM also employs distance learning as the main 

delivery mode. 


․ UiTM also employs distance learning as the main 

delivery mode. 


2) OUM: A Private Example 

In deliberating both e-learning and lifelong learning in Malaysia, it is essential to 

describe the role of OUM. While UNITAR was the first virtual university in Malaysia, 

OUM is the country’s premier ODL institution. Having been established in response 

to the call for the democratisation of education in 2000, OUM’s very foundation, 

much like other open universities worldwide, underlies the need to provide working 

adults with a viable alternative to lifelong learning opportunities. 

As an ODL institution, OUM employs a blended pedagogy that combines e-learning 

complemented by face-to-face tutorials and self-managed learning. The e-learning 

component is backed by the university’s myLMS, that is used by all tutors and learners 

to communicate, share information, access course materials, assignments, practice 

tests, learning objects and other e-content as well as important announcements from 

the university. It also includes an online interactive forum, learning content management 

and online assessment management; and e-learning is complemented by various 

electronic elements, e.g. a digital library, internet radio, educational text messages 

via mobile learning and web-based technologies (Figure I). 

As much as 95 per cent of the OUM learner population is made up of working 

adults, many of whom did not have the chance to pursue tertiary education earlier 

in their lives, or are now looking to continuing education as a means for career 

advancement. This is the heart of OUM’s lifelong learning philosophy ― i.e. anyone, 

regardless of time, place, creed, age or socio-economic background has the right 

to education. 

One of the mechanisms that can create a lifelong learning pathway is RPL; an increasingly 

significant avenue for formal recognition and for a more meaningful lifelong 

learning experience. As mentioned in Chapter 2, OUM is the first in Malaysia to 

implement RPL through a system now known as FE. FE allows for entry into OUM 

academic programmes through less stringent requirements by taking into consideration 

every applicant’s prior learning and work experiences for admission into an 


appropriate field of study at the university. Thus far, almost 2,000 individuals have 

enrolled as FE learners, representing 18 per cent of the open market intake for OUM 

(Latifah Abdol Latif, Mansor Fadzil & Kek, 2009). While many may be sceptical 

about the FE system and question the quality of such learners, the study above has 

shown that their academic performance can be far better than normal entry students 

in the same courses taken. The re-registration rate (persistence level) among the FE 

students is also higher and this indirectly implies that the motivation and perseverance 

among the FE students are relatively high (Latifah Abdol Latif, Mansor Fadzil & 

Kek, ibid.). Such a result serves as strong evidence of the effectiveness of RPL and 

its implementation. This success is indeed a significant milestone for OUM; representing 

the effort to uphold the philosophy of a democratised education and dispelling 

the myth that FE system will lead to inferior output. 

Under RPL, OUM is also exploring the possibility of implementing APEL, another 

mechanism to create a clear pathway for lifelong learning. Once implemented, APEL 

will be applicable to all undergraduate learners, allowing them to obtain credits for 

certain courses where they are able to provide proof of adequate and relevant experiential 

learning. Learners will be assessed through a system that involves either sitting 

for a challenge test (comprising multiple-choice questions) or writing an e-portfolio. 

In this context, Malaysia should emulate Korea in the establishment of a Credit Bank 

System (CBS), i.e. an open education system that recognises diverse learning experiences 

gained not only through formal learning, but also through non-formal and informal 

means as a way to provide a better opportunity for the people to enhance 

their individual capabilities. Assessing the candidates’ applications via the e-portfolio 

system is an innovation in itself; giving flexibility to candidates to fill up the required 

forms for their credit applications. Both APEL and the CBS will serve every individual 

who aspire to continue learning to obtain recognition in terms of all the 

knowledge and skills acquired. 


3) Community Colleges 

Figure I Various print and electronic media used at OUM 

Community colleges, proposed to be the lifelong learning hubs of Malaysia (MOHE, 

2007), conducts various programmes at certificate and diploma levels; targeted at 

school-leavers who have entered the job market and are looking towards furthering 

their basic education for professional upgrading. There are currently 39 community 

colleges and 21 branches that conduct, in total, 11 diploma and 23 certificate programmes, 

along with 15 clusters of short courses that registered over 106,000 participants 

as at March 2009 (Ani Asmah Tajul Ariffin, 2009). All these programmes 

are considered to be work-based learning (WBL) programmes whose curricula includes 

industry-based theoretical and practical education, generic soft skills and other 

academic content. They are generally conducted via classroom teaching and learning, 

supported by workplace learning and mentoring (Ani Asmah Tajul Ariffin, ibid.). 

Present evidence for e-Learning usage at community colleges is obscure, but it is 

certain that this is currently in implementation. The Mid-Term Review of the 9MP 


(Government of Malaysia, 2008) confirms that WBL programmes at community colleges 

will be enhanced through: 

● Installing better info- and infrastructure at community colleges; 

● Encouraging greater use of ICTs by lecturers, facilitators and students; and 

● Developing an e-Learning platform and various learning objects to complement 

teaching and learning. 

4) e-Learning for the Public Sector 

A new training policy introduced in 2007 required every civil servant to attend at 

least seven days of training in a year and that one per cent of the total emolument 

in all yearly budgets to be allocated for training purposes (Azizah Abd Manan & 

Malek Shah Mohd Yusoff, 2007). This policy aligns well with the context of lifelong 

learning in Malaysia, its close association with employability, productivity and professional 

upgrading, as well as the missions of the KEMP (described in Chapter 

3). For the civil service, an important aspect of professional training is enhancing 

the use of technologies in Government agencies (Azizah Abd Manan & Malek Shah 

Mohd Yusoff, ibid.). With close to 850,000 Malaysians working under the public 

administration (representing 7.6 per cent of the total labour force in the third quarter 

of 2009) (Department of Statistics, 2009) and a total public sector emolument budget 

of MYR 38.05 billion in 2009 (equivalent to €7.95 billion; Economic Planning Unit, 

2009), the need and allocation for training and human capital development are indeed 

quite staggering. 

As the main training arm for the Malaysian civil service, INTAN initiated a pilot 

project to promote lifelong learning for public sector personnel. The Public Sector 

e-Learning Project was meant to provide learning opportunities that gave particular 

focus to improving on-the-job skills and capabilities. The e-Learning for the Public 

Sector (e-Pembelajaran Sektor Awam (EPSA)) Project was launched in July 2007, 

offers 54 different courses in management, leadership, ICT, agricultural management, 

financial management and languages (Syahidi Bakar, 2009). Until October 2009, almost 

7,000 civil servants had registered with EPSA. The system has been found 


to successfully reduced training duration and cost as participants can undergo courses 

via an online platform without compromising their day-to-day responsibilities. 

5.3 Informal Lifelong Learning Examples 

1) Bridging the Digital Divide: MyGfL, Rural Internet Programme and e-Community Centres 

The MyGfL project was initiated by the MOE in 1999 to promote and support 

Malaysia’s lifelong learning agenda (Zailan Arabee Abdul Salam & Azmi Mansur, 

2006) by connecting all Malaysians, education institutions, industries, communities 

and online learning resources into one integrated platform (United Nations 

Development Programme (UNDP), 2006). 

The MyGfL portal was made available in 2004, and a pilot programme was initiated 

in 2005, focusing on deaf children and their parents, the rural community and youths 

(Zailan Arabee Abdul Salam & Azmi Mansur, 2006). It is clear that the project 

was oriented towards creating better technological awareness amongst underprivileged 

groups, and it found that e-Learning holds great potential in promoting continuous 

learning in Malaysia, although at that time there was need for more and better content, 

and there were disparities in terms of computer ownership, internet and broadband 

penetration (Zailan Arabee Abdul Salam & Azmi Mansur, ibid.). While it paved 

the way to the use of e-Learning platforms and proposed the need for e-Learning 

standards, it is unfortunate to note that MyGfL has not been successfully utilised. 

The rural internet programme (Program Internet Desa, PID) and e-Community 

Centres were also initiated to address the digital divide between urban and rural 

Malaysia. The PID was initiated by the Ministry of Energy, Water and 

Communication (MEWC) with support from Pos Malaysia Berhad (PMB) to build 

computer centres in rural areas (Julia Ismail, 2007). With a sponsorship of MYR 

2.8 million from PMB, the Ministry managed to build over 40 of such centres in 


post offices around the country; targeting housewives, school leavers, senior citizens 

and small-scale entrepreneurs to help build awareness and encourage the community 

to leverage on ICTs in their daily lives. The PID is, in fact, one of the large-scale 

projects known collectively as e-Community Centres (Norizan Abdul Razak, 2005). 

Together with Medan Info Desa and Kedai.Kom, they represent a lifelong learning 

opportunity for many rural folk and acts as an access point for information, 

e-Learning, socialisation and as an advertising platform for their businesses (Norizan 

Abdul Razak, ibid.). 

2) The eBario Project of Sarawak 

Similar to the establishment of e-Community Centres, Sarawak University of 

Malaysia (UNIMAS) also initiated a project that focused on deploying ICT to a 

remote rural community in Bario, Sarawak (about three days’ journey from Sarawak’s 

capital of Kuching). The researchers from UNIMAS aimed to empower the people 

to apply technologies to improve their lives (Yeo, Songan & Khairuddin Ab Hamid, 

2007). The project was implemented in 2001 with the setting up of a computer laboratory 

and a telecentre equipped with desktop computers and internet access. 

Interestingly, this project also attempted to design a sustainable model by acquiring 

volunteers and powering the computers using solar energy. Since then, UNIMAS 

had reported increased computer literacy amongst the Bario community, along with 

various other socio-economic benefits evident in, among others, its tourism industry. 

3) Other Initiatives 

There are various other instances of projects that utilise e-Learning in lifelong learning 

in Malaysia. Many, like the above, aim to increase computer literacy and awareness, 

bridge disparities between different socio-economic circles and provide educational 

opportunities to marginalised communities. One example is the collaboration between 

OUM and the Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) in 2008 to conduct workshops 

in ICT training to women in rural communities. The workshops were conducted 

in the rural areas of Malaysia, a south-western state of Malaysia. In the December 


2008 workshop, about 20 women, many who are homemakers, factory workers, farmers 

and teachers, were introduced to computer parts and taught to use e-mails, perform 

web searches and familiarise themselves with the internet. 

The MCA, through its nationwide lifelong learning campaign, has also included 

e-Learning as a component in several of its programmes, e.g. English for Speakers 

of Other Languages, Computerised Accounting and Information Technology (The 

Star, 2005). The Aminuddin Baki Institute (IAB), an institute under the ambit of 

the Ministry of Education that provides training programmes that are related to teacher 

development and upgrading as well as educational management, has introduced 

e-Learning in several of its courses as well. In 2006, IAB initiated a pilot programme 

that involved the development of an LMS, a web portal, object repositories and modular 

authoring tools that can be reused for various types of courses at the institute 

(Ahmad Rafee Che Kassim, Lew & Hafizi Shafiin, 2009). IAB will be expanding 

the e-Learning programme to cover all of its courses nationwide. 

With support from the Ministry of Entrepreneur and Co-operative Development, another 

Government-linked institution, i.e. the Co-operative College of Malaysia 

(Maktab Kerjasama Malaysia, MKM), which offers programmes and conducts training 

for various co-operatives under specific agencies in Malaysia, e.g. Federal Land 

Consolidation and Rehabilitation Authority (FELCRA) and the Fisheries Development 

Board of Malaysia (LKIM). MKM conducts about 400 different programmes at certificate, 

diploma and Bachelor’s degree levels; with about 30 using e-Learning as a 

main mode of delivery (MKM, n.d.). 

At the formal and non-formal levels, e-Learning adoption has taken place as a new 

method for teaching and learning, particularly to benefit part-time studies. Informal 

educational programmes have also benefited from e-Learning, especially in addressing 

the digital divide and other socio-economic gaps between urban and rural societies. 

While there are various examples of its utilisation in lifelong learning programmes 

by different types of institutions that include formal educational institutions, 


Government-linked agencies, private entities and not-for-profit organisations, as a 

whole this is still in its infancy in Malaysia. The country is at the stage where 

e-Learning is progressively being embedded, and there is a need for better awareness 

of both e-Learning and lifelong learning, as well as more concrete policies, legislation 

and regulation. With better management and funding, this will allow for greater adoption 

across all levels of education. 

Chapter 6 

6.1 Introduction 

Recommendations and Prospects 

for Malaysia 

Based on the current status of e-Learning in lifelong learning in Malaysia, it is clear 

that the country still has some ways to go to ensure a holistic enculturation of lifelong 

learning throughout every cross-section of the Malaysian society. While the various 

Government plans and policies prepared within the last two decades have outlined 

numerous recommendations and strategies towards this end, Malaysia has yet to be 

able to fully realise the potential of both lifelong learning and e-Learning in Malaysian 

education. In terms of readiness for e-Learning, Malaysia is still at an ‘embedding’ 

stage, featured by a general acceptance of ICTs by citizens, businesses and the 

Government at large; with the incorporation of e-business requirements in policies, 

legislation and regulation. Efforts have also been taken to enhance the international 

standing of Malaysian e-Learning. 

The research that has gone into this publication has brought into view an assortment 

of lifelong learning initiatives that may or may not utilise e-Learning, and have met 


with varying degrees of success. That said, the youthful, open and receptive nature 

of Malaysia points to a healthy outlook for a more comprehensive implementation 

of e-Learning in lifelong learning initiatives in the country. Higher education institutions 

have been and are likely to continue spearheading e-Learning development. 

Community colleges, labelled as the lifelong learning hubs for the country, have 

also utilised e-Learning, but its use could be widened further by incorporating best 

practices for e-Learning. In view of better funding obtained from either public or 

private means, e-Learning based CPD and WBL, as well as for-profit, by-demand 

and corporate e-Learning are likely to have a better foothold amongst Malaysian 

professionals. Informal lifelong learning activities, especially those that aim towards 

bridging the digital divide between urban and rural communities could also increase 

the use of e-Learning in lifelong learning with improved ICT infrastructure throughout 

the country. 

For all the reasons stated above and in view of current progresses being made by 

the Government, the list of recommendations provided in this chapter is intended 

as suggestions to further enhance the e-Learning in lifelong learning initiative in 

Malaysia. This chapter will also provide a brief description of what the future scenario 

might be like for the nation. 

6.2 Recommendations 

A large number of education and training organisations, particularly universities, are 

now realising that there is a market outside of their standard sphere of operations. 

This market is present through courses conducted, either wholly or in part, via 

e-Learning. Private providers of non-formal training offer courses online to anyone 

with access to the internet, regardless of their individual ability or level of 

understanding. Community colleges and polytechnics, government and state agencies, 

GLCs, corporate agencies and SMEs have, to a certain extent, used e-Learning in 


delivering short courses and training programmes. However, there has been no proper 

monitoring in terms of the impact of e-Learning in lifelong learning. Thus, in using 

e-Learning for lifelong learning to boost the employability of individuals and the 

productivity and competitiveness of organisations, the following recommendations 

are put forth. 

1) To establish a National e-Learning and Lifelong Learning Council 

Promoting and sustaining the culture of e-Learning in lifelong learning will require 

a designated body to act as the national advocate or champion. This body could 

function under the jurisdiction of the MOHE. The objectives and aims if this body 

will include: 

1. To develop policies and strategies relating to e-Learning and lifelong learning 

and coordinate their implementation at a national level; 

2. To monitor the implementation of e-Learning in lifelong learning as stipulated 

in the lifelong learning policies endorsed by the MOHE and the Malaysian 

Government; 

3. To improve coordination amongst Government agencies, statutory bodies, 

education and training institutions as well as the private sector; 

4. To ascertain that sufficient funding for e-Learning and lifelong learning initiatives 

are appropriately distributed to identified agencies as well as to manage the 

disbursement of the funds; 

5. To provide adequate financial support to acculturate use of e-Learning in lifelong 

learning as a way of life; 

6. To create a workable mechanism to increase participation and awareness and 

at the same time promote the use of e-Learning amongst all Malaysians in 

lifelong learning activities and programmes; 

7. To upgrade the mechanisms, physical infrastructures and expertise in the area 

of ICT integration to facilitate the use of e-Learning in lifelong learning; 

8. To maintain continuity and recognition of lifelong learning by creating clear 

pathways to connect, integrate and consolidate formal, non-formal and informal 


lifelong learning; 

9. To ensure the quality and effectiveness of education and training by instilling 

elements of creativity, innovation and entrepreneurship in all lifelong learning 

programmes, by incorporating the use of ICTs; 

10. To put in place a QA system for all lifelong learning institutions/providers 

and their respective courses and programmes; 

11. To accredit institutions on the basis of output or performance measures such 

as graduation rates rather than on the basis of input measures; 

12. To set-up a national e-content development centre in order to: 

i) Coordinate content development in the country; 

ii) Act as a repository for quality e-contents; 

iii) Train and develop e-content experts; 

iv) Develop and monitor e-content standards; and 

v) Promote knowledge sharing among e-Learning and lifelong learning providers; 

13. To initiate research in the applications of ICTs or use of e-Learning in teaching 

and learning and also in the area of lifelong learning itself; while at the same 

time to promote international collaborations in both areas; and 

14. To ensure that e-Learning is fully integrated in the lifelong learning agendum 

and its potential is fully explored, as well as to accompany innovation processes 

that take place in education and training systems, including in the non-formal 

and informal contexts. 

2) To establish a definition for lifelong learning in Malaysia 

With a designated body to steer all national lifelong learning initiatives, Malaysia 

needs a national definition for lifelong learning. This definition has to be both operational 

and measurable and must take into account Malaysia’s concept of the working 

age population in the context of lifelong learning. It is also necessary to note that 

lifelong learning that utilises e-Learning as a tool should also fall under the purview 

of this definition. As such, the recommended definition for lifelong learning in 


Malaysia is: 

“Learning engaged by (a) employed persons, (b) unemployed persons, (c) 

retirees and (d) homemakers to acquire additional academic or skill-based 

qualifications for improving their knowledge or/and skills.” 

The concept of the working age population in Malaysia and its characteristics will 

be provided in the Appendix of this publication. 

6.3 Prospects 

The demand for a lifelong learning system is enormous in Malaysia. Like any other 

country, Malaysia will not be able to implement all elements of the system at once. 

Malaysia needs to develop a strategy for moving forward in a systematic and sequenced 

manner. This publication serves as an important step to identify Malaysia’s 

current stand, and from here, develop the future planning for the use of e-Learning 

in lifelong learning. Based on the present status, in order for Malaysia to fully utilise 

ICTs and e-Learning in lifelong learning in contributing towards achieving the goals 

of Vision 2020, the following aspects will need to be reflected upon. Malaysia will 

need to take a closer look at the approach towards ICTs for education and training. 

Among the important features in this regard include: 

● ICTs as a basic education and training tool: 

The infrastructure investment in ICTs needs to be fully exploited. One of the ways 

is to do so is to ensure that ICTs are fully embedded in pedagogical practices and 

educational systems. Greater efforts are called for in terms of pedagogy, especially 

for developing innovative teaching and learning tools that are made possible through 

ICTs. ICTs are also an enabler of teaching and learning processes as they can empower 

learners in various new ways, whether they are engaged in formal, non-formal 


or informal learning. 

● ICTs as an enabler of lifelong learning: 

ICTs can extend the scope of education and training at all stages of life by providing 

unprecedented accessibility for anyone with the desire to learn. While existing developments 

need to be sustained, effort is needed to help the most disadvantaged groups, 

e.g. people in remote and rural areas, retrenched workers, the unemployed, the physically 

disadvantaged, homemakers, and et cetera. The appropriate use of ICTs or 

e-Learning can contribute towards employability, personal development and social 

participation. ICTs can also help to build and support a learning continuum, including 

formal, informal and non-formal learning, thus helping to achieve the lifelong learning 

agendum of the country. More should be done to increase confidence levels, to upgrade 

digital competencies and to shift from access to quality in the use of ICTs 

for learning. 

● ICTs as a key driver for creativity and innovation: 

Innovation is today seen as one of the main engines for long-term economic growth 

and social development; with ICTs as a key driver for change in many fields, including 

education and training. Intelligent use of ICTs can improve the core functions 

of education and build active learning communities in a networked society. In today’s 

world, an increasing share of learning occurs at the workplace, in non-formal contexts 

and often through new ICT-based learning tools and methods. This shift towards 

informal and non-formal learning modes clearly shows that interactive learning, content 

creation, personalised and self-directed learning all play an increasing role in 

the ways people learn. The role of ICTs in enhancing collaboration has a clear relevance 

for lifelong learning. 

● Benchmarking national systems of lifelong learning: 

One way in which Malaysia could move forward would be by establishing national 

benchmarks for measuring lifelong learning outcomes. In the present environment, 

such measures are underdeveloped. Traditional measures of educational progress, such 


as gross enrolment ratios and public spending as a proportion of the country’s gross 

domestic product, are not able to capture important dimensions of lifelong learning. 

Traditional indicators also fail to capture learning in the non-formal and informal 

sectors, which are becoming increasingly important elements throughout the entire 

educational landscape. 

APPENDIX 

The proposed definition takes into account Malaysia’s concept of the working age 

population, which can be characterised according to the following: 

● For the purpose of defining the labour force, the age range of the working 

population is between 15 and 64 years old. In general, this implies that Malaysians 

can enter the working population at 15 years old and exit at 64 years old; 

● However, for lifelong learning, the age range of the working population should 

include individuals at 15 years old and above, i.e. there should not be any 

upper cut-off age at 64 years or older. This is because at 64 years old and 

above, these adults may still engage in learning for various personal or professional 

reasons. Those below 15 years of age are excluded because ordinarily, 

they attend full-time formal schooling and are assumed not to be engaged in 

lifelong learning yet; and 

● In terms of lifelong learning, the population is segregated into those within 

and outside the labour force. Those within the labour force include employed 

and unemployed persons, whilst those outside the labour force are subdivided 

into three categories, i.e. retirees, homemakers and full-time students (Figure 

I). 


Figure I Distribution of lifelong learners in Malaysia 


References 

Ahmad Rafee Che Kassim, Lew, Y K, & Hafizi Shafiin (2009) Aplikasi e-Pembelajaran 

Dalam Program Latihan di Institut Aminuddin Baki. Presented at the Kolokium 

Kajian Tindakan 2009, 9-14 August 2009 

Ani Asmah Tajul Ariffin (2009) Innovative Practices in TVET Towards Education 

for Sustainable Development: Work-Based Learning Diploma Programmes at 

Community Colleges in Malaysia. Presented at the International Experts Meeting 

on Reorienting TVET Policy Towards Education for Sustainable Development, 

17 August 2009 

Anuwar Ali (2005) Lifelong Learning: Policy of Malaysia and the Role of OUM. 

Presented at the Seminar by Korea National Open University, 14 -16 November 

2005 

Azizah Abd Manan & Malek Shah Mohd Yusoff (2007) e-Learning for the Malaysian 

Public Sector. Public Sector ICT Management Review 1(1): 11-19 

Co-operative College of Malaysia (n.d.) MKM e-Learning. Available via Co-operative 

College of Malaysia http://lms.mkm.edu.my/ Accessed 19 February 2010 

Department of Statistics Malaysia (2009) Labour Force Survey Report: Third Quarter 

2009. Available via Department of Statistics Malaysia 

http://www.statistics.gov.my/portal/index.php?lang=en Accessed 10 February 2010 

Economic Planning Unit & The World Bank (2007) Malaysia and the Knowledge 

Economy: Building a World-Class Higher Education System Available via The 

World Bank http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTMALAYSIA/Resources/ Malaysia- 

Knowledge-Economy2007.pdf Accessed 28 December 2009 

Economic Planning Unit (2009) The Malaysian Economy in Figures 2009 Available 

via Economic Planning Unit http://www.epu.gov.my/malaysianeconomyfigures 

2009 Accessed 10 February 2010 

Gan, S L (2005) A Closer Look at Lifelong Learning. Available via The Star Online 

http://thestar.com.my/news/story.asp?file=/2005/5/1/education/10737145&sec= 


education Accessed 26 January 2010 

Government of Malaysia (2001) Eighth Malaysia Plan (2001-2005). The Government 

Press, Kuala Lumpur 

Government of Malaysia (2001) Third Outline Perspective Plan (2001-2010). Available 

via Economic Planning Unit Malaysia http://www.epu.gov.my/third Accessed 16 

December 2009 

Government of Malaysia (2002) Knowledge-Based Economy Master Plan. Available 

via Economic Planning Unit Malaysia http://www.epu.gov.my/knowledgebased 

Accessed 27 December 2009 

Government of Malaysia (2006) Ninth Malaysia Plan (2006-2010). Available via 

Economic Planning Unit http://www.epu.gov.my/html/themes/epu/html/rm9/html/english.htm 


Government of Malaysia (2008) Country Report. Presented at the Asia Pacific Sub-regional 

Preparatory Conference for the 2009 World Conference on Higher 

Education, 24-26 September 2008 

Government of Malaysia (2008) Mid Term Review of the Ninth Malaysia Plan 

(2006-2010). Available via EPU http://www.epu.jpm.my/mtr-rm9/html/english.htm 

Accessed 4 February 2010 

Haslinda Abdullah, Raduan Che Rose & Kumar, N (2007) Human Resource Development 

Strategies: The Malaysian Scenario J Social Sci 3(4):213-222 

Julia Ismail (2007, 17 May) Program Peluang Penduduk Luar Bandar Mengenali ICT. 

Kosmo, p.8 

Jung, I (2009, March/April) The Emergence of For-Profit e-Learning Providers in 

Asia. TechTrends 53: 18-21 

Khairuddin Idris (2004) Diverse Settings and Providers of Lifelong Learning in 

Malaysia. In Singh, M (ed) Institutionalising Lifelong Learning: Creating 

Conducive Environments for Adult Learning in the Asian Context. UNESCO 

Institute for Education: Hamburg, pp 186-191 

Latifah Abdol Latif, Mansor Fadzil & Kek, L (2009) Persistence and Performance: 


Does Prior Learning Really Matter? Presented at the Ninth International Conference 

on Information, 12-13 August 2009 

Lee, N, & Rozinah Jamaludin (2009) Developing and Validating an Instrument to 

Assess the e-Learning Environment at a Public Higher Education Institution in 

Malaysia. Presented at the Ninth International Conference on Information, 12-13 

August 2009 

Malaysian Chinese Association (n.d.) Lifelong Learning Malaysia. Available via 

Malaysian Chinese Association http://www.lll.net.my/English/Pages/default.aspx 

Accessed 2 February 2010 

Malaysian Qualifications Agency (2007) Malaysian Qualifications Framework. 

Available via Malaysian Qualifications Agency http://www.mqa.gov.my/ fail/dokumen/kerangka_BI_FA.pdf 

Accessed 20 January 2010 

Malaysian Qualifications Agency (n.d.) Official Website. http://www.mqa.gov.my/ 

eng/index.cfm Accessed 20 January 2010 

Ministry of Education (1956) Report of the Education Committee 1956. The Government 

Press, Kuala Lumpur 

Ministry of Education (n.d.) Official Portal. http://www.moe.gov.my/?id=3&lang=en 


Ministry of Higher Education (2007) National Higher Education Action Plan (2007- 

2010). Available via Ministry of Higher Education http://www.mohe.gov.my/transformasi/images/1_bi.pdf 


Ministry of Higher Education (2007) National Higher Education Strategic Plan. 

Available via Ministry of Higher Education http://www.mohe.gov.my/transformasi/images/ 

Bab1.pdf Accessed 26 January 2010 

Ministry of Higher Education (2009) Perangkaan Pengajian Tinggi Malaysia 2008. 

Available via Ministry of Higher Education http://www.mohe.gov.my/web_statistik/Buku_ 

Perangkaan_2008.pdf Accessed 16 December 2009 

Mohamed Rashid Navi Bax & Mohd Nasir Abu Hassan (2003) Lifelong Learning 

in Malaysia. Working Document presented at the International Policy Seminar 


Co-organised by IIEP/UNESCO and Krivet, 24-26 June 2003 

National Information Technology Council (n.d.) National IT Agenda. Available via 

NITC http://www.nitc.my/index.cfm?&menuid=49 Accessed 8 February 2010 

No Author (2009) Study in Malaysia Handbook (7 th Edition). studymalaysia.com, Kuala 

Lumpur 

Norizan Abdul Razak (2005) An Analysis of Malaysian E-Community Centres in 

Bridging the Digital Divide. Presented at the e-Malaysia Seminar, 6-7 December 

2005 

Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (n.d.) Recognition of 

Non-formal and Informal Learning. Available via OECD http://www.oecd.org/document/25/0,3343,en_2649_ 

39263238_37136921_1_1_1_1,00.html Accessed 2 

February 2010 

Perbadanan Sumber Manusia Berhad (2008) Annual Report 2008. Available via 

PSMB http://www.hrdf.com.my/ Accessed 26 January 2010 

Prime Minister’s Department (2010) Government Transformation Programme: The 

Roadmap. Percetakan Nasional Malaysia Berhad, Kuala Lumpur 

Raja Maznah Raja Hussain (2004) eLearning in Higher Education Institutions in 

Malaysia. E-Mentor 5(7): 72-75 

Rohana Abd Rahman (2004) e-Learning Initiatives in Malaysian Schools. Presented 

at the 3 rd Seminar-Workshop of the 7 th Programming Cycle of APEID Activities, 

30 August-6 September 2004 

Rozana Sani (2004, 30 September) Barriers in Corporate e-Learning. Available via 

training.my http://www.training.my/news/7 Accessed 22 February 2010 

Ruslan Abdul Shukor (2005) Assuring Access to Lifelong Learning in Malaysia. 

Presented at the Global Forum on Education, 24-25 October 2005 

Science University of Malaysia (USM) (2008) School of Distance Education. Available 

via USM http://pppjj.usm.my/Undergradute%20Study%20Introduction.html Accessed 

26 January 2010 


Study Malaysia Online (n.d.) Official Portal. http://www.studymalaysia.com/main.php 


Syahidi Bakar (2009, 15 November) EPSA-Pembelajaran Tanpa Sempadan. Available 

via the Malaysian Administrative Modernisation and Management Planning Unit 

(MAMPU) http://www.mampu.gov.my/pdf/sisipan/jpa.pdf Accessed 4 February 

2010 

Syed Othman Alhabshi & Hasnan Hakim (2006) Universiti Tun Abdul Razak 

(UNITAR), Malaysia. In D’Antoni, S (ed) The Virtual University: Models and 

Messages, Lessons from Case Studies. UNESCO, Paris 

UNESCO (2006/2007) World Data on Education. Available via UNESCO International 

Bureau of Education http://www.ibe.unesco.org/Countries/WDE/2006/index.html 


UNESCO (2009) ICT in Education: Malaysia. Available via UNESCO Bangkok 

http://www.unescobkk. org/education/ict/themes/policy/regional-countryoverviews/ 

malaysia/ Accessed 29 December 2009 

United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) (2006) Malaysian Grid for Learning 

(MyGfL). Available via UNDP http://www.apdip.net/projects/undp/my08/view 

Accessed 26 January 2010 

Wilkinson, R, & Ishak Yussof (2005) Public and Private Provision of Higher Education 

in Malaysia: A Comparative Analysis. Higher Ed 50:361-386 

Yeo, A W, Songan, P, & Khairuddin Ab Hamid (2007) Providing Equal Access to 

ICTs for Rural Communities: A User-Centred Design Perspective. Presented at 

the Workshop on User Centred Design and International Development (UCD4ID) 

ACM Computer Human Interaction 2007, 28 April 2007 

Zailan Arabee Abdul Salam & Azmi Mansur (2006) MyGfL: A Lifelong Learning 

Platform for Malaysian Society. Electronic Journal of e-Learning, 4(1): 7-14 


LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES 

Chapter 1: 

Table Ⅰ:The Malaysian Demography and Socio-economy from 2000 to 2010 

Table Ⅱ:The Malaysian Education System 

Table Ⅲ:Other Relevant Institutions and Post-Secondary Education Programmes 

Offered 

Table Ⅳ:Higher Education Institutions in Malaysia 

Table Ⅴ:Intake, Enrolment and Output in Malaysian Higher Education Institutions 

in 2008 

Figure Ⅰ:Pathways in the Malaysian education system 

Chapter 2: 

Table Ⅰ:Public Universities and Designated Centres for Lifelong Learning 

Table Ⅱ:PSMB Achievements in Promoting Non-formal Lifelong Learning in 

Malaysia in 2008 

Table Ⅲ:e-Learning Initiatives in Schools 

Chapter 3: 

Table Ⅰ:Development Expenditure and Allocation for Tertiary Education and 

Training, 2006-2010 

Table Ⅱ:Legislative Acts and Their Impact on e-Learning and Lifelong Learning 

Table Ⅲ:Qualifications for Lifelong Learning Pathways in the MQF 

Figure Ⅰ:The NHESP’s transformation process for Malaysian lifelong learning 

Figure Ⅱ:Qualifications and levels in the MQF 

Chapter 4: 

Table Ⅰ:Characteristics of e-Learning in Lifelong Learning in Malaysian ODL 

Institutions 

Table Ⅱ:Several Corporate e-Learning Providers in Malaysia 

Chapter 5: 

Table Ⅰ:Involvement of Public Universities for e-Learning in Lifelong Learning 


Figure Ⅰ:Various print and electronic media used at OUM 


Chapter 6: 

Table Ⅰ:Four Strategies for Lifelong Learning and e-Learning in Malaysia 

Appendix : Figure Ⅰ:Distribution of lifelong learners in Malaysia 

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS 

9MP : Ninth Malaysia Plan (2006-2010) 

8MP : Eighth Malaysia Plan (2001-2005) 

ACD : Asia Co-operation Dialogue 

AeU : Asia e-University 

APEC : Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation 

APEL : Accreditation of prior experiential learning 

CBS : Credit Bank System 

CGPA : Cumulative grade point average 

CMS : Course management system 

COL : Course On-Line 

CPD : Continuing professional development 

EPF : Employees Provident Fund 

EPSA : e-Learning for the Public Sector 

EPU : Economic Planning Unit 

FE : Flexible Entry 

FELCRA : Federal Land Consolidation and Rehabilitation Authority 

GATS : General Agreement on Trade in Services 

GLC : Government-linked company 

HPES : Hewlett Packard Education Services 

HRDF : Human Resource Development Fund 

IAB : Aminuddin Baki Institute 

ICT : Information and communication technology 

IIUM : International Islamic University Malaysia 

IMU : International Medical University 

INCEIF : International Centre for Education in Islamic Finance 

INTAN : National Institute Of Public Administration 

IT : Information technology 

KEMP : Knowledge-Based Economy Master Plan 

LKIM : Fisheries Development Board of Malaysia 

LMS : Learning management system 

MAAI : Ministry of Agriculture and Agro-based Industry 


MARA : Majlis Amanah Rakyat 

MCA : Malaysian Chinese Association 

MCMC : Malaysian Communication and Multimedia Commission 

MCQ : Multiple choice question 

MECD : Ministry of Entrepreneur and Co-operative Development 

MEDIU : Al-Madinah International University 

MHR : Ministry of Human Resource 

MIDT : Master of Instructional Design and Technology 

MKM : Co-operative College of Malaysia 

MMU : Multimedia University 

MOE : Ministry of Education 

MOH : Ministry of Health 

MOHE : Ministry of Higher Education 

MQA : Malaysian Qualifications Agency 

MQF : Malaysian Qualifications Framework 

MQR : Malaysian Qualifications Registry 

MRRD : Ministry of Rural and Regional Development 

MyGfL : Malaysian Grid for Learning 

MYS : Ministry of Youth and Sports 

NeLCC : National e-Learning Consultative Committee 

NEP : National Education Philosophy 

NGO : Non-governmental organisation 

NHEAP : National Higher Education Action Plan (2007-2010) 

NHEF : National Higher Education Fund 

NHESP : National Higher Education Strategic Plan 

NITA : National Information Technology Agenda 

NITC : National Information Technology Council 

ODL : Open and distance learning 

OECD : Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development 

OPP3 : Third Outline Perspective Plan (2001-2010) 

OUM : Open University Malaysia 

PID : Rural internet programme 

PLAR : Prior learning assessment and recognition 

PMB : Pos Malaysia Berhad 

PMR : Lower Secondary Assessment 

PSD : Public Services Department 

PSMB : Human Resource Development Council 

PTPTN : National Higher Education Fund Corporation 


QA : Quality assurance 

RPL : Recognition of prior learning 

SDF : Skills Development Fund 

SME : Small and medium enterprise 

SPM : Malaysian Certificate of Education 

STPM : Malaysian Certificate of Higher Education 

UiTM : MARA Technology University 

UKM : National University of Malaysia 

UM : University of Malaya 

UNESCO : United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization 

UNIMAS : Sarawak University of Malaysia 

UNITAR : University Tun Abdul Razak 

UNITEN : Universiti Tenaga Nasional 

UPM : Putra University of Malaysia 

UPSR : Primary School Achievement Test 

USM : Science University of Malaysia 

UTM : Technology University of Malaysia 

UTP : Universiti Teknologi Petronas 

UUM : Northern University of Malaysia 

VOISS : Virtual Online Instructional Support System 

WBL : Work-based learning 

WOU : Wawasan Open University 



in Slovakia 

04

Alena Pistovčákova 

Alena Pistovčákova – Ilavská have been teaching at Technical University 

in Zvolen since 1989. She got her degree at Comenius University in Bratislava 

in Philosophy and Physics. She received her doctor degree in Sociology 

in 2000 at Comenius University. Before maternity leave (2008) she was 

working two years for Greek Ministry of Development as a researcher - 

sociologist in the frame of ENTER Project. The title of reserch topic: Maturity 

with ICT and e-maturity level of people aged between 40~60 years. 

She was working ten years as a director of Local center for Distance Education at Technical University 

in Zvolen (1995~2005) and she continuosly dealwith distance learning and e-Learning technologies. 

Jaroslava Kovacova 

Jaroslava Kovacova received her degree in Public Economy at the Masaryk 

Univeristy in Brno, Czech Republic. The title of her graduate thesis is 

"Utilization of structural funds for implementation of eLearning within the 

terciary education area in Slovakia". Currently, Jaroslava is working on a 

PhD. at the department ofSocial Development and Social Policy, Faculty 

of National Economy at the University of Economics in Bratislava, Slovakia. 

Her PhD. thesis is linked to the fulfillment of the Lisboa Strategy objectives in the field of education, 

research and development. Apart from her studies she is empolyed at the Ministry of Education 

of the Slovak Republic. Her areas of expertise are participatory education issues, eLearning, lifelong 

learning, training, coaching, personal development and leadership. 



e-Learning offers many opportunities for individuals and institutions in Slovakia. 

Individuals can access to education they need almost anytime and anywhere they 

are ready to. Institutions are able to provide more cost effective training to their 

employees. It is common to find educators who perceive e-Learning as internet-only 

education that encourages a static and content-focused series of text pages on 

screen. Others envisage the shallow and random online messages that are typical 

of a social real-time chat session, and wonder how that type of communication 

could add any value to academic discourse. Some may have experienced e-Learning 

done poorly, and extrapolate their experience into a negative impression of all 

e-Learning. 

The current situation in Slovakia indisputably shows the widespread adoption of 

e-Learning, in the last few years it has become an irrevocable part of all forms, 

types, modes and levels of education. Even though the e-Learning in Slovakia has 

made up to now a big quantitative and qualitative advance, it could be concluded 

that still a lot is to be done. In order to meet the new requirements and challenges, 

special efforts related to e-Learning have to be made. E-learning is gradually included 

in strategic governmental documents (such as National Lisbon Strategy, education-related 

documents, etc.) as a significant and promising tool for the further development 

of education systems in Slovakia for all target groups. 

This paper introduces the main features about Slovak educational system and its priorities, 

concepts of e-Learning and lifelong learning in the country, government policy, 

regulation and financing issues. The general characteristics of e-Learning for lifelong 

learning together with illustration of typical cases and the major drivers, barriers 

and challenges in Slovakia are presented. The purpose of this paper is to provide 

a view of the e-Learning’s and lifelong learning’s state in the Slovak republic and 

possible implications for policy and practice. 

04. e-Learning for Lifelong Learning in Slovakia 311

Chapter 1 

Educational systems in the Slovak 

Republic 

Education has very long tradition in the territory of the contemporary Slovak 

Republic. Its development can be traced to the ninth century when Christian missionaries 

St. Constantin and St. Method established here the first schools. The first 

university, Academia Istropolitana, was established in Bratislava, today’s capital of 

the Slovak Republic, in 1465. The educational system continued to develop within 

the framework of the Habsburg Empire. After 1918, secondary and higher education 

developed considerably and compulsory schooling was extended up to 8 years. After 

World War II the school system became identified with the principles of Marxism- 

Leninism, and eventually turned into a uniform, conforming and particularly ideological 

institution. Though younger Slovaks have grown up under a Communist educational 

system, the system was based on historical roots of German and Dutch 

educational systems and the Slovaks are still among the best-educated people in 

the world, with 63% having completed secondary school (Fullbright Comission, 

2009). 

Education is compulsory from ages 6 to 16 and is fully funded by the state at all 

levels. Church and private schools have augmented a spectrum of state schools and 

they receive subsidies from the state. The literacy rate is almost 99%. As education 

is one of the most important areas in today’s fast moving world, it must follow the 

needs of society. This is the main reason why the Slovak Government pays long-term 

attention to reforms in education. The main goal of the reforms was to transform 

the traditional schools into a modern school system for the 21st century, which works 

with other components of the lifelong learning system to prepare and continue preparing 

people for life and work in new conditions. 

The preparation of implementation of this reform is based on the National Program 

of Training and Education in the Slovak Republic - Millenium, approved by the 


Government in 2001. After the public administration reform in the country the administration 

and financing of all type of education is decentralized. But essential reform 

of education is the reform of its contents. 

Description of the educational and training system in the Slovak Republic 

The educational system as defined by the current Slovak legislation includes the following 

levels of education: 

1. Pre-primary education; 

2. Primary and lower secondary education; 

3. Secondary general and vocational/technical education; 

4. Higher (tertiary) education; 

5. Education of adults. 

e-Learning as a concept is relevant to all the above levels with the possible except 

of the pre-primary education. 

Regional Institutions of Education 

Local and municipal governments are authorized to: 

1. Establishing and abolishing pre-school educational establishments, primary 

schools, primary art schools, school clubs of all types, leisure activity centers, 

school kitchens and cantinas, primary school language centers; 

2. Appointing and removing directors of schools and educational establishments; 

3. Supervising compulsory attendance at primary schools; 

4. Supervising economic management of schools and their handling of financial 

and material assets; 

5. Allocating funds for private and church schools and establishments and 

supervising the use of money; 

6. Approving contracts on school buildings and space. 


The system includes the following components: 

Pre-school Education is composed of nurseries and kindergartens assigned for children 

from 3 to 6 years of age. The Ministry of Health manages them and their 

main function in addition to caring for children is preparation for primary school. 

Elementary schools provide general, ethical, esthetic polytechnic, health, and environmental 

education, physical training and religious education. Elementary education 

lasts for 9 years and the curricula vary mainly in the higher grades. 

Secondary education is comprised of three types of secondary schools: gymnasium, 

secondary specialized school and secondary vocational school. The applicants must 

pass selective exams for all types of secondary schools. 

Institutions of Higher Education he Act on Higher Education (the Act of the National 

Council of the Slovak Republic No. 131/2002 of Law Code on Higher Education 

and on Change and Supplement to Some Acts) defines the institutions of higher 

education as legal entities, providing education and research in the Slovak Republic. 

According the character and amount of activities they can be divided into university 

type institutions, providing education up to the PhD. study, and non-university type 

institutions, providing education up to the Bachelor’s level. 

There are the three types of institutions of higher education in the Slovak Republic: 

Public Institution of higher education legally established according the Act on 

Higher Education. The bodies of the academic autonomy of the institutions are 

the Academic Senate, the Rector, The Scientific Council and the Disciplinary 

Commission. They decide on the organization, activities and administration of the 

institution. 

State Institution of higher education, established through the Ministries of the Slovak 

government. The respective Ministry sets the rules for the types of study, administering 

the financial means, regulating the number of students, the employees etc. supervised 

by respective Ministry as: 

1. Police institutions of higher education (established and supervised by the Ministry 

of Interior); 

2. Military institutions for higher education (established and supervised by the 

Ministry of Defense); 


3. Health care institutions of higher education (established and supervised by the 

Ministry of Health). 

Private Institutions of Higher Education, established by non-government institutions 

or founders, but the providing of education and research must be approved by the 

Ministry of Education. The approval is based on the approval of the Accreditation 

Commission. 

The quality and outcomes of the educational process in the Slovak Republic have 

become important topics only in recent discussions concerning changes in the education 

system. Signals of declining quality at all levels of education from anecdotal 

accounts and international measurements have increased calls for a systematic 

identification of quality including the development of adequate instruments 

and technologies for measuring and monitoring the results of education and training 

in primary and secondary schools. The Ministry of Education has recognized 

the need to obtain impartial information necessary for the efficient management 

of educational work at schools as well as for the decision-making of pupils and 

parents. 

The declining quality of performance in education and training at Slovak schools 

has been influenced mainly by these factors: 

1. Partial absence of qualification and professionalism in teaching; 

2. Insufficient equipment of schools with educational technology/IT; 

3. Insufficient equipment of schools with textbooks or the absence of quality 

textbooks. 

The natural social and economic development of the recent time generated a whole 

society need of adopting of lifelong learning and lifelong guidance strategy (LLL and 

LLG Strategy) being the tool for forming a knowledge society, forming of which 

is undoubtedly a priority of the government, declared in the Program declaration of 

the Government of the Slovak Republic (Minstry od Education, 2007). 

The main goal of the Strategy of Lifelong Learning and Lifelong Guidance in the 

Slovak Republic, passed by the Government of the Slovak republic in April 2007, 


is the completion of the system of lifelong learning and the system of lifelong 

guidance. The aim is a flexible obtaining of new qualifications for the citizens 

apart from formal also in non-formal system of education and in the system of informal 

learning with the assistance of complex counselling and guidance services 

during the entire life. 

Approach of the state policy and value of lifelong learning was underlined by Act 

on further education adopted in 1997, which was replaced by Act on lifelong learning 

adopted by governement in December 2009. Importance of education including 

lifelong learning in the knowledge-based society is crucial, with respect to employment, 

social status, career building, creativity etc. There is a long tradition of adult 

education in the Slovak Republic. The current mission for lifelong learning is to 

make the access towards education easier as well as to make access to the new qualification 

and employment easier during the entire active life of citizens. Initiative 

how to involve more people in learning processes is visible in the numbers of institutions 

which are associated in the Association of Institution for lifelong learning. 

The largest from the non-state training institutions and the only one with a regional 

network is the Academy of Education with centres in 38 cities spread over the 

whole country. Adult education is managed by the ministries within the framework 

of their competencies. In the Slovak Republic there are the Ministry of Education, 

the Ministry of Labour, Social Affairs and Family responsible for financing retraining, 

the Ministry of Health Care responsible for the further education of physicians 

and health personnel and the Ministry of the Interior responsible for the further education 

of staff in public administration. Higher education institutions expand under 

the umbrella of lifelong learning deriving from the study programmes of their 

faculties. Institutionalized centres of lifelong learning or continuing education have 

been established at several universities, popular are also Universities of the third 

age. 


Table 1 SWOT analysis of the education system 

Strengths Weaknesses 

․ well organised formal system of education ․ low flexibility of the formal system of education 

․ wide supply and relatively high demand ․ unresolved system components in non-formal 

for education in the non-formal system education: 1. guarantee of quality; 2.financing; 

of education 

3. recognition of education achievements 

․ informal learning is a natural way of ob- ․ high level of non-organisation in informal learntaining 

knowledge and skills 

ing 

Opportunities Threats 

․ equality of results of non-formal system ․ resistance from the side of employers and the 

of education with the formal system formal system to recognise education obtained 

․ utilisation of outcomes of the national in the non-formal system 

project of Academia Istropolitana also to ․ no interest of the decision making sphere to cre- 

support of non-formal education: 1. certifiate conditions for implementation of innovative 

cation of education institutions, certifi- components into the non-formal system and the 

cation of lecturers, accreditation of educa- resistance of the formal system to accept these 

tion programs; 2. national qualifications innovative components 

authority; 

․ possible devaluation of both formal and non-for- 

․ change of paradigm of evaluation of achmal education 

ievements of education based on measurement 

of inputs (length of education) to 

measurement of outcomes (result of education, 

the so-called „learning outcome principle“), 

which is also suitable for recognition 

of outcomes of informal learning 

Source: Ministry of Education of the Slovak Republic, 2007. 

The education system in Slovakia within the last decades insufficiently responds to 

the needs of the labour market in the Slovak Republic, which mainly shows in the 

following: 

1. Absence of an open system of lifelong learning for the labour market; 

2. Insufficient ability of the formal system of education to flexibly respond to 

arised needs of new qualifications through creating and implementation of new 


learning and study programs; 

3. Mutual closeness between formal and non-formal system of education; 

4. Absence of recognition of learning outcomes of non-formal education for the 

purpose of obtaining of qualification; 

5. Insufficiently guaranteed high quality of non-formal education by the state; 

6. Absence of ongoing monitoring and survey of education needs on the national 

level; 

7. Absence of the system of lifelong guidance for all phases of education and 

active life of a man; 

8. Insufficiently transparent and effective way of investing in both formal and 

non-formal education and informal learning; 

9. Insufficient development of key competencies for lifelong learning; 

10. Lasting gender stereotypes. 

Chapter 2 

Lifelong learning 



The promotion of the knowledge society constitutes a priority of the Government 

of the Slovak Republic. The Policy Statement of the Government of the Slovak 

Republic, reads: “The Government of the Slovak Republic considers the forming 

of the knowledge society as its priority because only such society constitutes the 

prequalification for democratic development, scientific technical progress, economic 

growth and social security, employment and growth.” (Governmental Statement, July 

2006). 


The priority objective of the development of lifelong learning in the Slovak Republic 

is based on the adopted conceptual and strategic materials on the national level, which 

are targeted on: 

1. The establishment of conditions for general equal and constant access of citizens 

to acquiring new and renewed skills, which are necessary for participation in society 

based on knowledge (digital literacy, foreign language competence, social, 

business skills and developed ability to learn). 

2. Increasing the level of investments in education as an emphasis of the priority 

of the most important wealth of Europe ― its people. It is related to direct 

investments, tax regimes, accounting standards, bookkeeping and information 

duties. It is important to make the investments more structured. 

3. The introduction and promotion of innovations in education regarding the content. 

Form and methods, in education technologies based on the use of information-communication 

technologies. 

4. The design of procedures and rules in the evaluation of the participation in education 

and education results especially in the case of informal and non-formal 

education. An integrated Europe with an open labour market, free movement 

of citizens in search of jobs and education requires an effectively designed 

system for the evaluation of education. 

5. Ensuring the access to quality information and advice regarding the possibilities 

of lifelong education for all. Career counseling is understood as permanent and 

locally accessible service for all, containing not only precise and relevant information 

regarding education possibilities but also highly professional advice 

enabling decision-making and motivating individuals to further efforts for better 

jobs in the region based on acquired education. 

6. Providing education opportunities as close as possible to learners in their own 

communities while making the maximum possible use of their support through 

the means of information communication technologies. That is why establishing 

conditions for local education in commonly accessible education centers, achiev- 


ing the approximation of education through communication technologies to less 

accessible locations or for disabled citizens constitutes a priority. 

The intention to create and implement an open system of lifelong learning in the 

Slovak Republic was an outcome of development of the ongoing communication 

between the Ministry of Education of the Slovak Republic and Academia Istropolitana 

― an educational institution, ministerial agency in the area for lifelong learning in 

2003, when in connection with the preparation of the Slovak Republic for being 

a part of the European Union, this governmental institution was addressed to create 

a working draft of a national project for the area of lifelong learning. Upon the analysis 

of situation in this area the authors decided to principally resolve the area of 

lifelong learning in the Slovak Republic by creation and implementation of the open 

system of lifelong learning in the Slovak Republic for the needs of the labour market 

(Ministry of Education, 2007). 

The description of the open system of lifelong learning in the Slovak Republic for 

the needs of the labour market is elaborated in the concepts for particular subsystems 

of lifelong learning, covering all components of the system of education ― formal 

education, non-formal education and informal learning. These mutually interlinked 

concepts were elaborated by Academia Istropolitana, in the framework of the national 

project “Creation, development and implementation of the open system of lifelong learning 

in the Slovak Republic for the needs of the labour market“. Activities of experts on 

the project began in 2004 and were concluded in March 2007. Results showed among 

others, necessity of well functioning system of lifelong learning evaluation and feedback 

for absolvent. It could be assumed that foreign language and ICT related trainings 

dominate in courses offered in lifelong learning in Slovakia, courses which offer 

a good opportunity for self-employment were popular. (The abstract on Lifelong 

Learning - Slovak Republic, 2008). 

The current mission for lifelong learning is to make the access towards education 

easier as well as to make access to the new qualification and employment easier 

during the entire active life of citizens. The most important reason of establishment 

of the lifelong learning and lifelong learning guidance strategy was the need to sys- 


tematically roof the existing subsystems of education, in such a way that they would 

respond to the real needs of citizens, employers, public administration and involved 

educational institutions. 

Components of the open system of lifelong learning include: 

1. System of monitoring and survey of the education needs with the aim of 

elaboration of their prognoses and information system on lifelong learning. 

2. System of quality of lifelong learning with an emphasis on the quality on 

non-formal education and informal learning. 

3. System of recognition of learning outcomes of non-formal education and informal 

learning for obtaining qualification-permeability. 

4. Supporting tools of financing of lifelong learning. 

E-learning 

Slovakia does not yet have a national strategy for e-Learning and the supply of 

e-Learning activities is generally not well developed. The existing legislation does 

not deal directly with e-Learning, it only defines a general legal framework and principles 

concerning how an education program can be accredited. In the field of public 

administration some progressive initiatives were recorded during the period 

2003-2006 (e.g. a general training strategy for civil servants or obligatory European 

Computer Driving Licence trainings). 

From the available statistical data it is clear that the ICT infrastructure for e-Learning 

developed significantly during 2004-2005 and it was not until the end of 2006 that 

all teachers were trained in ICT. Mainly for this reason e-Learning is used at primary 

schools generally for the training of teachers (e.g. INFOVEK training courses) and 

only a few pilot activities are focused on the teaching process for children in specific 

areas, e.g. arts, informatics or economics. Since 2004, a few specific projects have 

been implemented for teaching subjects, such as the Slovak language (reading and 

understanding of text, selection of information, forms, discussion on the Internet, 

creative homework to be done primarily using MS Word, MS PowerPoint, e-mail 


and letter games), arts (creative tasks and problems), informatics, and web-basedlearning 

using the methodology of student centred learning. The majority of the above 

mentioned e-Learning courses were prepared by the INFOVEK Project (at the 

Institute of Information and Prognoses on Education). At present, the real involvement 

of schools in e-Learning prepared by INFOVEK depends on the initiative of school 

directors and its IT teachers and their practical ICT skills. While e-Learning is accepted 

as a specific learning method, it is still not officially recommended by the 

Ministry of Education as one of the standard tools in the primary education system. 

For this reason school directors and teachers are rather reluctant to use e-Learning 

in their own teaching process. The mentioned e-Learning projects are available for 

all teachers, although the real use is small. 

In secondary education ICT infrastructure was better developed than in primary 

education. The values are approximately two times higher in all relevant indicators 

in comparison with primary schools. As far as different school types are concerned, 

the best ICT deployment was observed in high schools and secondary technical 

schools. Many schools developed their own ICT infrastructure thank to local private 

initiatives and the parents of students, or through projects supported by the EU 

Structural Funds or foreign grants. 

In secondary education e-Learning is not often used in the teaching process. 

e-Learning is not formally included in curricula by the Ministry of Education. If 

employed, it is usually a pilot activity, carried out mainly by teachers who have 

sufficient personal ICT skills or personal experience in e-Learning stemming from 

international cooperation or foreign courses. e-Learning implementation depends on 

the activity of each school director and local teachers. In higher education the ICT 

infrastructure is better developed than in other parts of the Slovak educational system. 

A few years ago all public and state universities became connected to the high quality 

broadband backbone network SANET. Thank to its wide and long-term international 

cooperation and partnerships with foreign academic institutions (mainly from Austria, 

the Czech Republic and Germany). SANET is a broadband infrastructure leader in 

the Slovak Republic and regularly uses standard international experience in the implementation 

and practical usage of ICT for academic purposes. Decreasing pene- 


tration rates per student reflect the increasing trend in the total number of new university 

students. 

During the 1990s several local centres of distance education were established at five 

Slovak universities within a project co-financed by the European Union, 26 all of 

them as so called "special purpose units". They were coordinated by the Slovak 

National Distance Education Centre, which belongs to specialized departments at the 

Slovak University of Technology in Bratislava with university-wide activities. Since 

1999 these centres have attempted to jointly establish a solid base for the provision 

of distance education in the country. From 2002 e-Learning has become an important 

teaching method in specific subjects at some universities. The majority of universities 

have been very active in e-Learning implementation for their own students since 

2004. Because of the limited broadband penetration, e-Learning activities are used 

mainly in urban areas - seats of universities, where broadband access is available 

in their student dormitories as an integral part of the university network, or where 

broadband access is much better developed by public telecom operators than in rural 

areas. At present the majority of universities have already developed and implemented 

their own e-Learning processes and products. The level of e-Learning implementation 

depends on the activity and professional experience of individual departments at 

universities. Universities focused on technology have the most experience but some 

non-technical universities have already achieved excellent results as well (e.g. Faculty 

of Drama Studies of the Academy of Music and Dramatic Arts in Bratislava). 

In the business sector the required ICT infrastructure with broadband access (directly 

supporting e-Learning usage) is available mainly in cities and in rural areas very 

close to the cities. Broadband services have been launched in a few big cities only 

since mid-2003. At present, in the business sector, broadband is regularly used by 

large enterprises and by the majority of SMEs located in cities. In the business sector 

e-Learning is used regularly only by big companies with foreign capital or by major 

domestic IT companies (using their own ICT infrastructure). 

The majority of SMEs does not use e-Learning at present. In the public sector the 

situation differs between central state administration, local state administration and 

local and regional self-Government. 



Source: Eurydice, 2005 

Figure 1 General Institutional Framework for e-Learning in Slovakia 

The general institutional framework for e-Learning in Slovakia described in Figure 

1 presents the institutional and competence structure at all stages of the e-Learning 

process valid under the current Slovak legislation. All existing relationships between 

the main actors are also linked to all relevant target groups of end-users (children, 

students, the employed/unemployed, the disadvantaged and the elderly).

Chapter 3 

Government policy and regulation 

Government policy, finance/funding, regulation 

of e-Learning for lifelong learning 

Until presence all most visible e-Learning activities have been developed in Slovakia 

mainly by individual initiatives of public universities, foreign IT companies, training 

institutions and NGOs initiatives. The process was, generally speaking very chaotic 

and lacking support from some central e-Learning agency. Strategic Governmental 

documents relating to the implementation of e-Learning in Slovakia are still missing. 

There is a lack of specific legislation supporting the e-Learning process, too. The 

area of e-Learning belongs to the responsibility of the following institutions: 

1. The Ministry of Transport, Posts and Telecommunications (as an integral part 

of its responsibility for the Information society until January 2007); 

2. The Ministry of Finance (as an integral part of its responsibility for the 

Information society since February 2007); 

3. The Government Office (position of Plenipotentiary for the Information Society, 

who should report directly to the Vice-Prime Minister for Knowledge Society, 

European Affairs, Human and Minority Rights, from February 2007); 

4. The Ministry of Education (general responsibility for education including 

life-long education and training). 

Legislative, Political and Strategic Instruments 

The intentions and objectives of lifelong learning are based on the valid conceptual 

and strategic nation-wide and supra-ministerial documents, which in the monitored 

period incorporated especially: 

1. The National Program of Upbringing and Education in the Slovak Republic for 

the Next 15 to 20 Years (Millennium Project) approved by the Slovak Republic 


Government Resolution No.1193/ 2001, it submits the target status of upbringing 

and education, and the basic pillars and strategy of reform changes in the field 

of education. 

2. The National Report of the Slovak Republic regarding the Memorandum on 

Lifelong Education (June 2001) indicated the problem areas of lifelong education 

and proposed possibilities for their solution. 

3. The National Strategy of Sustainable Development adopted by the Government 

in October 2001 through the Resolution No. 978/2001, which submits the intentions 

and objectives leading towards increasing the competitiveness of regions 

and towards sustainable development. Education constitutes one of the conditions 

for sustainable development. 

4. Concept of Continuing Education in the Slovak Republic (Bratislava 2002) established 

the main objectives of continuing education, one of which it is to pay 

necessary special attention to the status of continuing education, the quality 

of education, its financing and its legislative background in the system of 

education. 

5. National Action Plan of Employment for 2004-2006, which besides others assigns 

plans to modernize and broaden the module system of continuing education 

of citizens as an instrument for developing the economy based on knowledge 

continuing in the school system and on knowledge from the field of information 

technologies with the goal to increase the flexibility of the labour force to 

the changing labour market. Furthermore this document proposes measures targeted 

on the solution of the cofinancing of lifelong education, the establishment 

of information system regarding education possibilities and deepening cooperation 

between individual subjects responsible for education. 

6. The National Plan of Development, which included the Sector Operation Program 

Human Resources which defined the global goal ― the growth of employment 

based on a qualified and flexible labour force. The intention of the whole operation 

program was targeted on the development of an effective and functioning 


system of continuing education as a warranty for the adaptability of human 

resources, the solution of financing and the development of conditions to facilitate 

access to continuing education, the development of the system of continuing 

education and its connection to the system of certification. 

7. The Strategy of the Informatization of Society in Terms of the Slovak Republic 

approved by the Government on January 21, 2004 through the Slovak Republic 

Government Resolution No. 43/2004, declares the task of ensuring the acquisition 

of competencies for the use of ICT, or computer literacy for students, teachers 

and citizens. 

8. The Concept of Lifelong Education in the Slovak Republic approved through the 

Government Resolution No. 157 of February 25, 2004 ― the first document 

of a conceptual character in the Slovak Republic which defines the priorities 

and objectives for lifelong education in the Slovak Republic, indicates the direction 

and management of processes for their implementing in actual areas. 

9. The Strategy of Competitiveness of the Slovak Republic until 2010 (The National 

Lisbon Strategy approved through Slovak Government Resolution No. 140 of 

February 16, 2005 ― Action Plans, The First Education and Employment Action 

Plan) constitute the most significant document in which the effort to increase 

the competitiveness of the Slovak Republic and the human resource potential 

for the needs of the knowledge economy was declared. 

10. The National Strategic Referential Framework for 2007-2013 was approved by 

the Government of the Slovak Republic on December 6, 2006 through its 

Resolution No. 1005/2006, its Operation program Education within the framework 

of Objective Convergence and Objective Regional Competitiveness and 

Employment. This document establishes the national priorities and ensures 

that the assistance from European Union funds will be used in compliance 

with the strategic instructions of the Communities. The strategic part of the 

document is based on the vision of the economic and social development 

of the Slovak Republic which is formulated as “The Overall Convergence 


of the Economy of the Slovak Republic to the European Union Average through 

Sustainable Development”. 

11. The Strategy of Lifelong Education and Lifelong Counseling approved by the 

Government of the Slovak Republic on April 25, 2007 through its Resolution 

No. 382/2007. The main goal of the strategy is to complete the building of 

lifelong education and the system of lifelong counseling to facilitate the access 

of citizens to the repeated and flexible acquisition of new qualifications through 

quality education acquired in addition to formal education in the informal 

subsystem of education and in the subsystem of informal learning with the 

assistance of lifelong comprehensive services of counseling and thus maintaining 

the highest employment and increasing the participation of the population 

in lifelong education while adhering to the equality of opportunities. 

12. The National Program Learning Region elaborated and approved by the Ministry 

of Education of the Slovak Republic in May 2007. The goal of the national 

program is to ensure the effective connection of lifelong education to the 

needs of the local and regional labour markets through the active participation 

of all levels of schools, institutions for continuing education, employers, 

self-government, professional associations and chambers in the implementation 

of the strategy of lifelong education and counseling. 

13. The Government of the Slovak Republic discussed and with comments on 

its 172nd session of 30 September 2009 approved the draft law on lifelong 

learning and on the amendments of certain laws, which was approved by 

the National Council of the Slovak Republic on 1 December 2009. 

The following legal regulations pertain lifelong learning in the formal subsystem of education: 

1. Act No. 29/1984 (Digest) on the system of elementary and secondary schools 

(the School Act) as amended, which establishes the status and role of elementary 

schools, secondary schools, special schools, schools for education within amateur 

clubs, private and church schools, school employees and compulsory school 


attendance. The School Act was amended several times and is supplemented 

by a set of execution regulations for actual areas of its implementation. The 

School Act also regulates the possibility of acquiring elementary education 

for persons who prematurely left school. It is possible to acquire basic education 

by attending a course. The School Act also regulates the terms and possibilities 

of adult secondary education in the form of part-time study at technical apprentice 

schools, secondary technical apprentice schools, secondary technical schools 

and gymnazia. 

2. Act No. 131/2002 Coll. of colleges/universities and on changes and supplements 

to some Acts as amended (until March 31, 2002 Act No. 172/1990 (Digest) 

on colleges/universities), which regulates the status of public, state and private 

colleges and universities and their related institutions, establishes the rules for 

study at college/university, the status of students and employees of colleges/ 

universities, the composition, activities and competencies of the accreditation 

commission, the rules for financing colleges/universities and the system of social 

support of students, the status and roles of the state administration and 

representatives of colleges/universities. 

The Ministry of Education issued a set of executive legal regulations to this Act. 

The colleges/universities organize college/university study at all three levels in full 

time and part time programs. Thus they also facilitate access to education to that 

group of the adult population who wants to acquire a higher level of education in 

their leisure time. 

Lifelong learning in the informal subsystem of education is regulated by the following legal 

regulations: 

1) Act No. 386/1997 Coll. on continuing education in the wording of Act No. 

567/2001 Coll. The wording of this Act defines continuing education as a 

part of lifelong education; it characterizes its types, establishes the institutions 


for continuing education, the terms for accreditation of continuing education 

and the status and activities of the Accreditation Commission of the Ministry 

of Education of the Slovak Republic for continuing education. It also regulates 

the issuing of education certificates and defines the resources for financing 

continuing education. This Act is generally targeted on continuing education; 

it does not pertain to preparation and education for the performance of special 

technical activities which require a special aptitude. This field of adult education 

is regulated in the legal regulation issued by the central state administration 

bodies (ministries). 

2) Act No. 311/2001 Coll. Labour Code as amended (until March 31, 2002 Act 

No. 65/1965 (Digest) Labour Code), which establishes the obligation of the 

employer to take care about the deepening or enhancing of the qualifications 

of its employees. The employer is obliged to provide to employees who enter 

jobs without qualifications the opportunity to acquire qualifications through 

initial training; furthermore it is obliged to re-qualify employees transferred 

to a new assignment or workplace. The employee is authorized to assign the 

employee to participate in continuing education with the goal of deepening 

his qualifications. On the other hand, the Act also establishes the obligation 

of the employee to constantly deepen his qualifications for the performance 

of the job agreed upon in the employment contract. It also regulates the possibility 

of provide time off to participate in continuing education. 

3) Act No. 312/2001 Coll. on civil service and on changes and supplements to 

some Act as amended, which regulates the deepening and enhancement of 

qualifications of civil servants (at ministries, upper-tier territorial units). The 

deepening of qualifications is provided for by the service office at each ministry 

in the scope of at least five service days per calendar year. 

4) Act No. 5/2004 Coll. on employment services and on changes and supplements 

to some Acts as amended (until January 31, 2004 Act No. 387/1996 Coll. 

on employment), pursuant to which, education and preparation for the labour 


market is constituted by theoretical or practical preparation which leads to the 

acquisition of new knowledge and technical skills for the purpose of finding 

a job for job seekers or those interested in job in a suitable job or for the 

purpose of keeping an employee in the job, especially through education activities 

targeted on the completion of elementary school education or secondary school 

study in the last grade of the pertinent school, based on projects and programs 

for education and preparation for actual jobs based on the promise of an employer 

to hire him for job and for education and preparation for the performance 

or execution of independent gainful employment. The designation of the content 

and scope of labour market education and preparation is based on the present 

level of knowledge and professional skills of the job seeker, person interested 

in the job or employee so those would be purposefully used in acquiring new 

knowledge and professional skills. For the purposes of this Act, labour market 

education and preparation does not constitute the enhancement of the level 

of education. 

5) Act No. 279/1993 Coll. on school facilities as amended regulates some types 

of informal education, for example education in foreign languages at language 

schools and state language schools. 

6) Act No. 455/1991 (Digest) on trades (the Trades Act) as amended, enables 

individuals to acquire trade licenses for craft activities to demonstrate their 

professional qualification through a certificate on acquired education in an accredited 

education institution and a certificate on the successful completion 

of the qualification test. The qualification test examines the professional theoretical 

and practical knowledge of technical and technological procedures required 

in performing a trade. This Act also establishes the prequalification for establishing 

private education institutions implementing adult education. 

7) Act No. 124/2006 Coll. on occupational safety and health protection and on 

changes and supplements to some Acts in the wording of Act No. 309/2007 

Coll. on occupational safety and health protection as amended). This Act regu- 


lates the upbringing and education of employees provided by each employer 

for the proposes of acquiring the technical capacity to operate a designated 

means of production and for performing designated activities established by 

legal and other regulations. 

Financing and funding 

According to law on further education, financing for lifelong learning is provided 

from a variety of sources. There are subsidies from State budget, other sources of 

finance are fees from participants, employers’ funds, the budget of the National 

Labour Office, funds from municipal budgets, funds from foundations and other natural 

persons and legal entities. Informally is lifelong learning financed by foundations 

and donations. For personal relationship in processes of lifelong learning are easy 

to use key competences set in the Reference Framework, maybe in next different 

order: Communication in the mother tongue and in foreign languages, Learning to 

learn, Social and civic competences; Cultural awareness and expression, Digital competence, 

Sense of initiative and entrepreneurship and at least Mathematical competence 

and basic competences in science and technology. 

The system of financing of almost all forms of education was significantly and dynamically 

changed recently and the process of change is not complete. The subjects 

participating in financing have changed; new connections and financial flows, new 

competencies and responsibility were established. 

The resources flowing into the formal and informal subsystems of education can 

be divided into two main groups: 

1) public resources (derived from the public budget); 

2) other resources (resources spent by the business subjects, the third sector, the 

European Union, private resources of lifelong education participants) The resources 

and rules for financing are designated by the following legal regulations: 

1. Act No. 597/2003 Coll. on financing elementary and secondary schools and 

school facilities as amended, which introduces the normative financing per 

student and the subsidies from the public finances which are equally provided 


to all schools (state and non-state); 

2. Act No. 564/2004 Coll. on the budgetary determination of the income tax 

yield to the territorial self-government and on changes and amendments 

to some Acts, which regulates the method for the determination, allocation 

and transferring of the physical persons’ income tax yield to municipalities 

and upper-tier territorial units. The criteria based on which the tax offices 

allocate the collected tax yield to individual municipalities and upper-tier 

territorial units are determined by Slovak Republic Government Order No. 

668/2004 Coll.; 

3. Act No. 131/2002 Coll. on colleges/universities and on changes and supplements 

to some Acts as amended, which regulates the resources and rules 

for financing state colleges/universities, public colleges/universities and private 

colleges/ universities. The main resource for financing is comprised 

of subsidies from the state budget, school fees and fees connected with 

the study; 

4. Act No.386/1997 Coll. on continuing education, which regulates the resources 

for financing continuing education from the payments of participants of 

continuing education, the means of employers, subsidies designated for certain 

purposes from the state budget, the National Labour Office budget if it 

applies to the re-qualification of the registered unemployed and employees 

pursuant to a special regulation and means of the municipal budgets, foundations 

and other legal entities and physical entities and other resources. 

The aim is to evaluate the possibilities of financing lifelong learning in the Slovak 

Republic with emphasis on multi-source financing and to put them into a legal norm. 

This means that apart from individuals the state should also participate in financing 

of lifelong learning in a form of national grants. Other participants should be the 

regional self-government, employers from both public and private sector and the bank 

sector. 

The resources from the EU structural funds, primarily the European Social Fund, 


could also be used for financing of lifelong learning in the framework of the following 

activities: 

1. Improvement of quality of lifelong learning; 

2. Development of human resources in further education; 

3. Support of learning regions and creation of networks in lifelong learning; 

4. Support of lifelong learning in particular sectors; 

5. Making the access to lifelong learning easier; 

6. Development of key competencies through lifelong learning; 

7. Improvement of permeability between sectors and levels of formal and non-formal 

education and informal learning. 

In order to provide for supporting tools for motivation of participation of the involved 

stakeholders in lifelong learning, it will also be necessary to look for possibilities 

of its effective financing in the framework of the legislative changes proposed in 

the future. 

Table 2 Significant programs used for e-Learning Project preparation in Slovakia 

Specific 

Program 

Leonardo da Vinci 

Program 

INFOVEK 

(National Program) 

VEGA 

(National grants) 

KEGA 

(National grants) 

Sectoral 

Operational 

Program 

Priority Period 

e-Learning and teaching 

supporting activities 

Support for primary and 

secondary schools 


Expected 

Budget for 


(M EUR) 


1995-2005 5.0 Specific e-Learning 

projects implemented at 

universities 

2002-2006 2.0 e-Learning Courses for 

students and teachers 

Support for universities 2002-2006 0.3 Few projects only 

Support for universities 2002-2007 0.1 Two projects only 

3.2 - Improved 

Qualifications and 

Adaptability of People 

2004-2006 48.8 Target for 2006: To be 

trained: 5 000 teachers, 100 

education institutions, 8

HR in Employment and of 

Those Entering the 

Labour Market 

e-Government 

Roadmap 

MINERVA 

(National Lisbon 

Strategy) 

National Strategic 

Reference 

Framework 

ICT skills for civil 

servants 

Education and 

Employment 

000 civil servants, 6 000 

employees and 2 000 

specific trained employees 

2005-2008 6.3 2006~7 thousand 

certificates already 

awarded Target: ECDL 

certificates for 40 thousand 

civil servants in state 

administration 

2005-2007 5.0 

Education 2007-2013 50.0 Including e-Learning 

implementation Note: after 

the general election (June 

2006) document was 

updated by Government on 

6 Dec 2006) 

Source: Ministry of Labour, Social Affairs and Family, Ministry of Education, 2008. 

Table 2 presents the most significant programs which create possibilities for the 

preparation and implementation of e-Learning projects and activities in Slovakia. 

The majority of e-Learning projects were or still are supported by Slovak academic 

grant schemes or by EU structural funds. With regard to this table, it is important 

to note that even though future investments in e-Learning seem substantially higher 

than before, one cannot be sure that these investments will materialize. The reasons 

are twofold. Firstly, in Slovakia so far, the real investments in e-Learning have 

been always smaller than originally planned. Secondly, the new Government elected 

in June 2010 may change the plans prepared by the previous Government. 


Chapter 4 


e-Learning for lifelong learning 

Since November 2004, the Government has appointed the Plenipotentiary for the 

Information Society as an advisory body to coordinate tasks in the area of the 

Information Society. In the area of e-Learning the Plenipotentiary plays an important 

role in necessary supporting activities and can influence the intersectoral coordination 

or discussion of relevant problems. 

There has been no specific Government policy document directly dealing with the 

e-Learning area adopted yet. However, there are two main policy documents: 

Government Program Declaration and National Information Society Policy that describe 

Government’s policy on e-Learning. 

After the general election in June 2006, the new Government and Parliament adopted 

the Government priorities for the period 2006-2010, which are: 

Millennium - National Policy for Education and Training (2000) - strategy for the implementation 

of the Bologna Declaration principles was established by the Program 

document Concept of the Further Development of Higher Education in the Slovak 

Republic for the 21st Century, which was approved by the Government of the Slovak 

Republic in August 2000. In November 2003 and December 2004 the amendments 

to this Act were adopted to regulate some areas significant from the point of view 

of European Union law, particularly the adaptation of the content of education in 

higher education institutions according to the respective directives of the European 

Commission; 

1. National Information Society Policy (2001) - the former Government has adopted 

the National Information Society Policy document, which indicated, in one 

priority (education), the necessity to give attention to modern teaching methods 

including e-Learning in the future. The document did not specifically deal with 

e-Learning activities; 


2. Government Program Declaration (August 2006) - after the general election in 

June 2006, the new Government and Parliament adopted the Government priorities 

for the period 2006-2010. The Document presents the new Government’s 

vision in eight specific areas (e.g. information society, employment policy, education). 

Current strategies dealing with e-Learning are: 

1. Training Strategy in Civil Service (2003); 

2. Sectoral Operational Program - Human Resources (2003); 

3. National Information Society Strategy (2004); 

4. The Strategy of Competitiveness until 2010 (National Lisbon Strategy) adopted 

by the former Government in February 2005; 

5. National Concept for Further Education (2002); 

6. National Strategy for Lifelong Learning (April 2007); 

7. The National Strategic Reference Framework (adopted in December 2006) for 

Structural Funds programming 2007-2013. 

At present, in the Slovak Republic the main positive impact of e-Learning on the 

education system can be seen in tertiary education, which is characterised by the 

highest level of e-Learning projects already implemented. A gradual positive impact 

can be observed also in training at workplace by big companies and in the lifelong 

learning system provided by universities. Currently, most interest seems to be in 

courses that are internationally certified. Universities, some private education institutions 

and large enterprises (mainly with foreign investments) are the most active 

in the development of e-Learning services in the Slovak Republic. Public administration, 

primary and secondary schools and SMEs are still lagging behind. However, 

universities fall behind in e-Learning content management, since human resources 

in this area require heavy funding, which cannot be covered by grants and state 

subsidies in many cases (Massy, 2001). 


Table 3 Achievments and Shortcomings in e-Learning in the Slovak Republic 

e‐Learning Main achievments Main shortcomings 

Areas 

covered 

․ Availability of CDs, DVDs, Video cassettes 

and Multimedia for e‐Learning 

in the market 

․ LMS systems are frequently used 

․ SES (Smart Enterprise Suites) are 

available 

Content ․ Availability of following services in 

Slovak market: 

․ foreign language courses in e‐Learning 

form (some free of charge) 

․ natural science (physics, chemistry, 

etc.) 

․ health‐care trainings and fire protection 

at workplace trainings 

․ IT topics (ECDL, CNAP) 

․ specific topics taught by universities or 

training institutions in e‐Learning from 

Interactivity ․ Availability of following services in 

Slovak market: 

․ products for self‐education 

․ distance learning 

Usage in 

different 

target groups 

ICT 

infrastructure 

․ Availability of services for 

․ employed people (large companies) 

․ students (higher education and lifelong 

training) 

․ business sector 

․ multimedia technology is regularly 

used at universities and training centres 

․ computer access rates for enterprises 

are high 

․ computer penetration in training institutions 

is very high 

․ increasing purchases of new PCs and 

especially branded PCs 

․ SANET infrastructure for universities is 

at place 

․ solid broadband penetration for training 

institutions 


․ Level of multimedia technology used 

at primary and secondary schools 

․ Digital literacy is low 

․ Low LCMS systems usage 

․ Insufficient offer of topics for education 

and training of adults, unemployed 

and specific target groups 

․ free e‐Learning courses usually prove 

only basic skills and knowledge 

․ uniform access with same standard 

and quality for all participants without 

special features for gifted students 

Unsatisfactory usage of e‐Learning by 

․ the unemployed 

․ inactive population 

․ SMEs 

․ majority of primary and secondary 

schools 

․ percentage of primary school teachers 

using PCs for education still low 

․ computer penetration rates for primary 

and secondary schools still low 

․ multimedia technology not used by 

70% of primary and secondary 

schools 

․ computer access rates for households 

still low 

․ broadband penetration at primary and 

secondary schools still low 

․ household broadband penetration still 

very low (compared to EU25 average) 

Source: Sabol T., e-Learning country report for the Slovak Republic; 2006

Chapter 5 

Typical e-Learning for lifelong learning 

Main e-Learning actors in the Slovak Republic 

(Illustration of typical cases) 

The most significant e-Learning projects in non-commercial sector were initiated and 

provided mainly by these institutions: 

1. Universities; 

2. State Institute of Information and Prognoses on Education; 

3. Non-Government organizations; 

4. Private sector. 

In private sector there can be found the following companies being significant in 

providing trainings through e-Learning: 

1. CISCO Slovakia s.r.o.-e-Learning on ICT topics (certified courses) only,; 

2. EL&T, s.r.o., Bratislava-different kind of e-Learning topics; 

3. ELFA s.r.o.-different kinds of e-Learning topics; 

4. Novitech Partner a.s.-project TeleDom-different kinds of e-Learning topics 

(management, marketing, finance, project management). 

The most active actors in training institutions using e-Learning in the training of 

relevant target groups are as follows: 

1. CNAP (CISCO Networking Academy Program); 

2. Institute of Lifelong Learning (ICV) of Slovak Technical University in 

Bratislava; 

3. Academy of Education (Akademia vzdelavania); 

4. Slovak Society for Computer Science (civic association)-ECDL trainings 

coordinator and methodology centre in the Slovak Republic. 


The most active business companies using e-Learning in the training of their own 

employees based on reports in the media are as follows: 

1. Slovnaft (oil company-MOL subsidiary company); 

2. Slovak Telekom and T-Mobile (Deutsche Telekom group); 

3. Orange Slovakia (Orange group-mobile operator); 

4. Matador Puchov (tyre manufacturer); 

5. ESET (Slovak private SW company-antivirus software producer well known 

worldwide); 

6. Banks (mainly with foreign capital)-e.g. Slovenska sporitelna (Erste Bank 

group); 

7. A few alternative telecom operators; 

8. National and regional energy distribution companies (e.g. SPP-monopoly gas 

distributor). 

Government plans to use e-Learning as an important training method in trainings 

of unemployed people and physically disadvantaged people (by calls for Specific 

Structural Fund Operational Programs–in the areas of Human Resources, Training, 

and Education). Usage of e-Learning is limited by low digital literacy currently reachable 

by the mentioned target groups. e-Learning courses for the unemployed and 

disadvantaged are managed by local Labour Offices located in each district. 

Slovak projects including e-Learning 

1. CNAP (CISCO Networking Academy Program, 2001)-it can be regarded as one 

of the Ministry of Education’s most important activities in the field of e-Learning. 

The project is very popular among students, secondary schools, universities 

and the private sector (ICT companies mainly). The project offers excellent 

possibilities for secondary and tertiary education students as well as employed 

people to be trained in high-tech IT by e-Learning methods. 

2. INFOVEK Project (within the State Institute of Information and Prognoses on 

Education)-the INFOVEK project is one of the most effective projects managed 


y public administration in the area of e-Learning. The aim was to provide 

all primary and secondary schools within four to five years with computer 

classrooms of about ten computers and an Internet connection in each. There 

are training programs being organised for INFOVEK teachers and a centralised 

purchasing of hardware for the selected schools. One of the four pillars of 

this project was to equip every primary and secondary school (public, church 

or private) in the Slovak Republic with a multimedia classroom with high quality 

Internet access. 

3. DIGISTUR Project-the project is a successor of the INFOVEK project idea. 

It is trying to involve the majority of schools participating in the INFOVEK 

project in wider ICT training activities for citizens in the whole territory of 

the Slovak Republic. 

4. e-Learning projects implemented by universities-during 2005-2006, the majority 

of universities have actively worked on the implementation of e-Learning for 

their own students and successfully developed e-Learning portals. 

5. ECDL - the initial objective of the former Slovak Government was to make 

all civil servants pass the tests until the end of 2008. From January 2007, 

there will no longer be compulsory ECDL (European Computer Driving Licence) 

tests for civil servants in the Slovak Republic. The arguments in favour of 

the current decision say that most of the civil servants are already computer 

literate and that there would be preselected companies to make a profit from 

those courses. 

6. DILBAC project (2004-2006)-the project was financed by the European Union 

under the Leonardo da Vinci Program. The aim of the project was preparation 

of e-Learning modules in the area of banking and accounting in the four participating 

countries. Cooperation between the academic institutions and institutions 

from practice laid a realistic basis for meeting project objectives. The beneficiaries 

of offered courses were students and interested people from practice. The 

outputs included survey of e-Learning needs in banks and enterprises, elaboration 


of curricula that take into account working needs and the creation of education 

modules, command of e-Learning methodology, the establishment of a virtual 

library under the DILBAC project. 

7. Tomorrow is Today-the Slovak Telekom e-Learning project “e-Learning- 

Tomorrow is Today” won the 6th annual competition Slovak HR Oscar in 

2006. The aim of the project was to create a learning system to enable coherent 

learning management, focused on supporting strategic tasks and corporate objectives 

in the times of transformation. 

8. VUDU e-Learning Project (Virtual University of Drama Art)-since September 

2006, the Theatre Science Department at the Drama Faculty of the Academy 

of Music and Dramatic Arts in Bratislava has implemented its initial e-Learning 

project in collaboration with the European Cultural Society, drawing a grant 

from the European Social Fund. For theatre science and drama students, five 

courses dealing with the world and Slovak theatre of the 20th century were 

organised. The e-Learning Courses in the form of learning texts, assignments, 

tests and visual materials were distributed via the Internet. 

9. School for Young Rescuers-since September 2005, the Rescue Team Slovakia 

civic association, focusing mainly on voluntary rescue services, has been carrying 

out the learning project “School for Young Rescuers”. This preemptive 

e-Learning project was designed to enable all pupils, students and even teachers, 

parents and ordinary citizens to acquire and renew their knowledge in the area 

of prevention, health-and lifesaving, first aid and emergency aid. Several 

e-Learning courses were realized to date, all of them being systematically divided 

into units covering child injury prevention, traffic education, first aid, healthand 

lifesaving in dangerous situations and the survival in such instances. 

10. DIVES Program-the civic association The House of Europe, prepared for 

the period of March 2005-March 2007 the DIVES Program (Distance Learning 

Via Internet), which should have contributed to eliminating discrimination 

and inequality in the labour market. It was designed for secondary school 


and university graduates, mothers on maternity leave, the long-term unemployed, 

people over the age of 50, employees of non-profit organisations 

as well as for disabled people. The courses were free of charge and their 

purpose was to find a job. Project participants had a choice of nine courses. 

The most favourite course was the English language course, since many consider 

it as the best start to get a better job. Other favourite courses were project 

management, regional policy and EU structural funds. Participants could also 

choose to attend entrepreneurial, self-government and public administration, 

civil society, community development courses as well as volunteering or international 

political development courses. All nine courses received the accreditation 

from the Ministry of Education and successful course graduates received 

a certificate. 

11. Internet for Education-the project has started in June 2006, based on the 

MINERVA Action Plan for Information Society aiming to support the wider 

usage of broadband by the young generation in the Slovak Republic. The 

project offered the possibility to receive a 2-year limited financial subsidy 

from the state (approx. 8 EUR per month) for the establishment of a new 

broadband connection at home. Up to 40 thousand young people (aged 15-25, 

in October 2006 the age limit was cancelled) can participate, 5 thousand people 

in each of 8 Slovak regions. Broadband access should be faster than 512 

kbps/256 kbps. The integral part of this project also rests on e-Learning in 

that it supports education of project beneficiaries in foreign languages and 

ICT skills. 

The list of above-mentioned projects is not exhaustive, however these projects are 

worth mentioning in this report because of the speed of their implementation, innovative 

character or their originality. Every successful e-Learning activity has a 

positive impact on society as it brings the possibility to test new ways of teaching 

and training. The following positive features and trends were observed in the Slovak 

Republic in the area of e-Learning: 


In the Field of Education 

1. Blended learning is regularly used for many years; 

2. INFOVEK activities (coordination, trainings for teachers and students) were 

developed; 

3. Implementation of specific e-Learning pilot projects; 

4. Private initiatives like a Slovak Telekom project supported higher computer 

penetration at school facilities; 

5. Specific e-Learning products (e-Economy) are available, several secondary 

school projects were implemented; 

6. Multimedia technology and e-Learning courses are regularly used in universities; 

7. SANET activities created technological infrastructure support for e-Learning 

services,; 

8. Since 1997 there has been CNAP (Cisco Networking Academy Program) 

implemented; 

9. Several specific university e-Learning projects were implemented (e.g. VUDU 

project); 

10. Financing from EU funds was available also for e-Learning; 

11. Newer multimedia technology available at the majority of schools. 

In training at the Workplace 

1. Multimedia technology is regularly used; 

2. e-Learning for trainings at the workplace are regularly implemented by big 

companies (Slovak Telekom, banks, etc.); 

3. Few domestic e-Learning products on CDs, DVDs and Internet designed for 

training and education can be used in the training of specific target groups; 

4. CNAP (Cisco Networking Academy Program) trainings are available,; 

5. e-Learning started to be an important training method for civil servants, several 

e-Learning projects were implemented by central state administration institutions 

(e-Justice, ECDL); 


6. Several e-Learning projects organised by regional self-Government administrations 

were already implemented (e.g. a regional self-Government e-Learning 

project for the region of Zilina, a specialised Virtual Academy project prepared 

by the regional self-Government for the region of Bratislava); 

7. Specific international cooperative e-Learning projects (e.g. DILBAC-the banking 

sector in cooperation with universities); 

8. Multimedia technology is regularly used for teaching. 

In Life Long Learning 

1. The National Centre of Distance Education was established in 1996; 

2. The national life-long learning strategy and life-long learning guidance were 

adopted by the Ministry of Education (in 2006 and 2007); 

3. Several universities have established lifelong training centres; 

4. Multimedia technology is regularly used at training centres; 

5. Government initiatives, such as the DIGISTUR Project, support development 

of ICT literacy by citizens; 

6. The structure of e-Learning products on CDs and DVDs for education and 

training is well developed (mainly foreign products, e.g. Czech e-Learning 

products on CDs and DVDs can be also used by at least 42% of Slovak citizens 

aged 15+); 

7. Few domestic e-Learning products on CDs, DVDs and Internet designed for 

training and education can be used in the training of specific target groups 

(lifelong learning, at home); 

8. Several educational institutions started to provide e-Learning courses, e.g.: City 

University Bratislava (business programs), Transfer Slovakia (management, 

marketing, engineering); 

9. Academia Istropolitana Nova (postgraduate studies in economics, architecture, 

environmental policy, European studies, English language), Academy of 

Education (language, professional and spare time courses), Verlag Dashofer 


(IT skills, practical economy courses); 

10. few free of charge English training e-Learning courses are available; 

11. The Government supports e-Learning as an important method for the training 

of unemployed people and specifically disabled groups of people; 

12. Several NGO e-Learning projects (e.g. School for Young Rescuers, DIVES 

project) were already implemented; 

13. Rapid foreign language skills development by youth creates a great potential 

for use of foreign e-Learning products. 

In the Slovak Republic in the area of e-Learning the following negative features 

were observed: 

In the Field of Education 

1. The information society framework is lagging behind the EU level (institutional, 

legal, financing matters); 

2. There is absence of the National e-Learning Strategy, e-Learning coordination 

at the national level, and database of existing e-Learning products designed 

for education and training; 

3. Multimedia technology is not properly used in a large scale of schools; 

4. Inadequate financing of schools and HEIs causes the absence of modern/expensive 

latest e-Learning systems at the majority of universities; 

5. Generally poor skills in e-Learning content development at universities; 

6. Existing e-Learning activities are very fragmented; 

7. ICT literacy at the general level is less developed than the EU25 average. 

In training at the Workplace 

1. Poor implementation of e-Learning by SMEs. 

· 

In Lifelong Learning 


1. Insufficient legislation for life-long learning; 

2. An inadequate portfolio of domestic e-Learning products designed for training 

and education on CDs; DVDs and Internet are available. 


Analysis of policy options 

The information society is not a goal but an instrument to develop knowledge-based 

society. Flexible learning represents a new philosophy of education with the focus 

on students. Electronic forms of education provide quick access to the information 

required. Thus the point of departure should be a new system of education and possibilities 

to attend trainings and courses via Internet services (e-Learning). 

Although e-Learning sets higher demands on computer skills and knowledge of students, 

it also offers alternative solutions in education. The importance of e-Learning 

should not be overestimated, one should rather search for efficient forms of its use. 

It is necessary to implement e-Learning very sensitively, so that it turns out to be 

a useful tool. 

Availability of teaching resources is another principal question. It would be therefore 

essential to concentrate on creating the valuable teaching resources with multimedia 

elements and elaborating generally accessible archives of these resources. Under the 

teaching resources one understands the materials with multimedia elements, but also 

copies of video presentations, conferences, etc., which would subsequently be accessible 

via streaming technologies. Even, for example, live online broadcasts of videoconferences, 

virtual teaching infrastructures with interactive elements, distant access 

to laboratory equipment via Internet, various simulation environments should be considered 

as the teaching resources. Internet availability is a pre-condition to develop 

e-Learning services. 


In Slovakia there have been only recently some considerably positive developments 

in this area. However, the significance of a massive need for educating wider population 

in order to gain basic Internet skills is often being overvalued, because people 

already acquire those skills naturally. One “Internet literate“ member of the family 

(e.g. a university student, or older pupil) is enough to naturally share the skills with 

other family members (i.e. it’s highly probable the whole family learns how to use 

the Internet). 

Inadequate domestic e-Learning services offered in Slovakia can be overcome by 

products in foreign languages-here the most limiting factor is generally insufficient 

language skills required for foreign e-Learning. As already mentioned due to the 

history of Slovakia there is quite a substantial group of people able to speak Czech 

or Hungarian while the knowledge of English is improving especially in the group 

of younger generation. This helps people in Slovakia to utilize not only Slovak but 

also foreign e-Learning products. 

In Slovakia, the most important policy objectives in e-Learning are as follows: 

1. Modern educational systems also for primary and secondary educational levels; 

2. Flexible and effective training activities for all strata of population; 

3. Practical lifelong learning implementation. 

The Government should also ensure and use its legislative and financial instruments 

more efficiently in order to: 

1. Ensure broadband Internet availability to all levels of society as well as to 

all country regions; 

2. Motivate more efficient use of e-Learning by educational institutions; 

3. Foster lifelong learning of employees as a constant part of the important strategic 

decision making process in the business sector (mainly by SMEs). 

The key mechanisms which are clearly related to necessary Government actions aiming 

at supporting further development of e-Learning in Slovakia are as follows: 

a) Implement the new adopted legislation (mainly by new Lifelong Learning Act 


and new Schooling Act); 

b) Prepare and implement National e-Learning Strategy, National/Regional/Local 

e-Learning action plans; 

c) Improve broadband and multimedia infrastructure for primary and secondary 

school; 

d) Improve computer literacy of citizens-especially that of disadvantaged target 

groups. 

The new legislation needs to be adjusted to define e-Learning as an integral form 

of education. The Government should foster the development of e-Learning services 

mainly through consistent implementation of concepts already existing in this area 

(Information Strategy, National Broadband Strategy). The deficiency in the coordination 

of projects to support e-Learning and the absence of the common use of former 

e-Learning projects results have negative effects on the e-Learning development in 

Slovakia. 

The Government provides funding, but the financial resources are distributed to many 

projects, each with fairly low funding, and the outcomes of such projects are used 

only by the project managers themselves without any real impact on wider society 

(Druga, 2008). 

Projects aimed at creating the content of multimedia should be carried out by teams 

of specialists in the relevant area and should be disseminated to be used for teaching 

countrywide, or their English translations could even be offered abroad. The coordination 

of e-Learning activities must be guaranteed by the Government. The Government 

should also provide sufficient promotion, so that e-Learning would not be perceived 

only as a trendy word to be included in all educational strategies, but it should rather 

support the implementation of e-Learning in the process of efficient transformation 

of the Slovak educational system. 

The current status of e-Learning usage and expected quick and effective action by 

the Government should lead to the establishment of a permanent national e-Learning 

committee as a sector policy advisory committee to the Minister of Education. This 


committee should consist of national experts representing all levels of the existing 

educational system who already have long-term personal experience with e-Learning. 

The committee should be established under clear and transparent principles defined 

in the legislation. Clear and effective network of guarantors of the e-Learning implementation 

in primary, secondary, tertiary education and lifelong learning should 

be defined by the legislation. 

There is a necessity for the creation of a central database of e-Learning projects 

and products already existing in the Slovak educational system, which have been 

up to now supported by means of public funds (state budget or EU funds). The 

central database of e-Learning products should be publicly available, and it should 

serve as a tool for further acceleration of utilization of existing e-Learning experience 

and products in the educational system. It can also serve as an e-Learning knowledge 

database. The e-Learning products included in such a database should be easily accessible 

by all educational institutions in Slovakia. Principles of creation, responsibility, 

rights and obligations of all relevant institutions related to such database should be 

defined by law. 

For wider involvement of e-Learning in the distance form of education at universities, 

lifelong learning institutions or at other levels of the educational system for physically 

disadvantaged people, it is necessary to prepare and adopt an e-Authentication regime. 

Such legislation and its implementation could solve the problem with certification 

procedure during exams. It is very important to solve this problem on legal bases 

as it will allow preparing more possibilities for education based on ICT solutions 

for specific target groups. Wider use of distance education via ICT would be welcome 

also by other groups of users (e.g. inactive women/men with small children at home), 

because it creates a more comfortable possibility of studying. The e-Authentication 

regime should employ the latest technology solutions applying principles of current 

testing/certification procedures in the educational process in a new e-environment. 

Major challenges 

In Slovakia, different sectors have seen differing levels of implementation of 

e-Learning services. A serious problem needs to be resolved in terms of legal, techno- 


logical and educational issues for children aged less than 15 years. At present, young 

people spend more time on the Internet than watching television. They are exposed 

to a variety of content, including pornography and according to statistics in some 

EU member states as many as one in three children participating in discussion forums 

have been the subject of sexual advances. (Druga, 2008). In a number of aspects 

of e-Learning, the challenges for Slovakia are shared with other EU member states. 

One of the advantages in areas where Slovakia is a laggard is the opportunity for 

policy learning from countries, which have advanced further and addressed similar 

challenges over recent years. 

Technological developments and challenges 

Off-line e-Learning is already generally implemented in all types of education or 

trainings. However, more extensive implementation should be a key priority in primary 

and secondary education and in trainings for civil servants (mainly at the local 

level) and specific target groups (unemployed, handicapped people). Research work 

is required to identify the needs and prepare both basic training in this area for 

teachers and trainers as well as advanced training tailored to their specific needs. 

In Slovakia, more attention should be paid to the development of basic ICT skills 

(digital literacy) for citizens in general as well as for specific groups including civil 

servants and groups at risk of finding themselves on the wrong side of the digital 

divide (the unemployed, people with disabilities, employed people not working with 

IT, older people). 

With changing technologies and modes of their use, it is important to pay attention 

in research to both identifying needs and appropriate means of improving ICT skills. 

With increasing digital literacy of citizens it will be easier to prepare flexible trainings 

or re-education of specific target groups by relevant public administration organisations 

(Labour Offices, public administration on all levels) or employers in the 

private sector. The following areas need to be tackled in the near future to respond 

to technological challenges in the field of e-Learning: 

● Metadata concept should be developed for creation of : 


(a) Central e-Learning database for wide usage by primary and secondary 

schools and with direct open access by primary and secondary schools with 

specific methodology support for teachers should be involved; and 

(b) Digital libraries for different levels of education systems; 

● Interoperability of e-Learning systems must be introduced (it should increase 

effectiveness and balanced e-Learning usage by primary and secondary schools 

in all regions aiming to provide unified educational quality everywhere); 

● User-friendly technology accessibility for physically disabled people should be 

introduced aiming to ensure better and more flexible individual education or 

trainings. 

Non-technological challenges 

It would be essential to concentrate on creating valuable teaching resources with 

multimedia elements and on elaborating generally accessible archives of these 

resources. The teaching resources should embrace materials with multimedia elements, 

but also copies of video presentations, conferences, etc., which are subsequently 

accessible via streaming technologies. Furthermore, the teaching resources 

should include inter alia live on-line broadcasts of videoconferences, virtual teaching 

infrastructures with interactive elements and distant access to laboratory equipment 

via Internet or various simulation environments. 

Here are also other topics, which need to be addressed in order to facilitate e-Learning 

development in Slovakia: 

● Improvement in digital rights management (ensuring practical implementation 

for primary and secondary schools and methodology support for tertiary education 

or lifelong learning); 

● e-Learning content creation and management (ensuring practical implementation 

for primary and secondary schools and methodology support for tertiary education 

or lifelong learning), study of optimal teaching methods for pupils of different 

ages in primary education, for different kind of secondary education regimes 

(gymnasia, vocational schools), for different kinds of study topics aiming at 


increasing effective use of the existing SANET infrastructure potential in tertiary 

education and optimal training methods for different kinds of specific target 

groups (the unemployed, the disabled, the elderly) within state social and employment 

policy; 

● Development of e-Learning documentations (curricula) and didactic and methodology 

focusing on effective e-Learning incorporation into teaching methods 

in primary and secondary schools (e-Didactic and e-Methodology problems); 

● e-Learning management for Municipality level should be put in place (it should 

increase effectiveness and balanced e-Learning usage by local, regional and 

central public administration institutions in all regions aiming to ensure 

high-trained civil servants); 

● Improvement of higher education of new teachers implementing new e-Learning 

approaches; 

● Preparation of an e-Learning awareness campaign for all relevant targeted groups 

in society. 

Financing issues and challenges 

Relatively high primary investment into the implementation of e-Learning (e.g. learning 

management systems) remains an important challenge for schools, universities 

and many small and medium size enterprises. In offline e-Learning in primary and 

secondary education necessary improvement in computer, multimedia and broadband 

penetration is still essential for the next few years. New systematic approach trying 

to prepare quality broadband infrastructure for primary and secondary schools also 

needs further substantial investments. 

At the same time financial resources should be allocated for further ICT training 

of teachers. On the public administration level new approach in lifelong training 

should result in financing ICT courses at least for civil servants. Improvement of 

digital literacy in specific target groups within the state social and employment policy 

framework should be backed by adequate budgetary support. In e-Learning online 

it is necessary to prepare financial resources equal to what has been already invested 


in ICT development. Besides more finances allocated from the state budget or from 

active and effective drawing of EU Structural Funds, there are also other solutions 

such as public-private partnership frameworks and wide use of e-Learning based on 

Open Standard platform (GNL). The mix of all the above mentioned alternatives 

seems to be the best solution to deal with an immense need for investments into 

ICT. 

Identity aspects and challenges 

For wider involvement of e-Learning in distance education at universities, lifelong 

learning institutions or in other levels of education system working with disabled 

people it is necessary to prepare and adopt a comprehensive e-Authentication regime. 

Such legislation and its implementation could solve the problem with certification 

procedures during exams. It is very important to solve this problem on a legal basis 

as it will enable to arrange more opportunities for education based on ICT solutions 

for specific target groups. 

Security aspects and challenges 

In Slovakia, the security regime in e-Learning based on the Internet is regulated 

mainly by the Electronic Communications Act, by the Personal Data Protection Act 

and by the Antispam Act. For the time being, the present legal framework seems 

to provide enough security for e-Learning applications, according to the experts 

(Druga, 2008). However, with the new requirements for further e-Learning application 

in primary and secondary schools, the problems of security of central. e-Learning 

meta databases and local e-Learning databases including personal identity of pupils 

and students can be identified as a challenge for further research and development. 


References 

Arneberg P., Keegan D.,The provision of e-Learning in the EU. [online]. [accessed 

2009-20-07]. . 

Demiray U., Cases on Challenges facing e-Learning and National Development: 

Institutional Studies and Practices, Anadolu University 2010. Eskisehir, Turkey. 

Electronic ISBN 978-975-98590-8-4 (1.c) 978-975-98590-7-7 (tk.). [online]. 

[accessed 2010-14-02]. . 

Druga P., The Development of eServices in an Enlarged EU: e-Learning in Slovakia. 

Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, 

European Communities, 2008. ISSN 1018-5593, pp 35-52. 

e-Learning Country Report-Slovakia. [online]. [cit. 2009-2-12] . 

Strategy of Lifelong Learning and Lifelong Guidance. April 2007. Ministry of Education 

of the Slovak Republic. [online]. [accessed 2010-14-02]. < http://www.minedu.sk/index.php?lang=en&rootId=81>. 

Massy J., The e-Learning industry and market in Europe. [online]. [accessed 2009-08-12]. 

. 

Okruhlicova A., CSc. The abstract on Lifelong Learning-Slovak Republic, Parliamentary 

Institute, Chancellery NC SR, Bratislava [online]. [accessed 2010-10-07]. . 

The educational system of the Slovak Republic, Fullbright Comission. [online]. [accessed 

2010-14-02]. . 

The Global Information Technology Report 2008-2009. [online]. [accessed 2009-08-12]. 

 


Tomas Sabol, Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Informatics, Technical University 

of Kosice, Slovak Republic. [online]. [accessed 2009-08-12]. . 



in South Korea 

February 2010 

Institute of Distance Education 

Korea National Open University 

05

■ Min-Seung Jung is an associate professor in the Department of 

Education at Korea National Open University. Dr. Jung holds her doctoral 

degree in Education from Seoul National University(Ph. D and M. Ed.), and 

teaches several subjects such as ‘Lifelong Learning’, ‘Feminist Pedagogy’, and 

‘Development and Education’, and ‘Social Movement and Lifelong Learning’. 

She has joined in the National Research Foundation of Korea, the Korean 

Society for Lifelong Education, the Korean Society for the study of 

Anthropology of Education, National Institute for Lifelong Educationas an 

executive member. She has published articles centered on the critical approaches of adult learning 

and cyber-culture, and books including Internet as a space of learning, and Researching Adult Education. 

She is presently researching the characteristics of adult students with Dr. Kasworm of North Carolina 

State University, and Korean immigrants’ intercultural learning process in University of North Carolina 

Asia Center as a visiting scholar. 

■ Kyoung-Ae Choi has been working as an associate professor and 

the head of Department of Educational Technology in Cyber Graduate School, 

Joongbu University. Dr. Choi, graduated Seoul National University(Ph. D 

and M. Ed.), had an experienceto work for Korea National Open University 

(KNOU) as a researcher. Now she teaches several subjects such as ‘Understanding 

Distance Education’, Systems Approach to Instructional Design’, ‘Quality 

Management of Distance Education’. With regard to research, her main concern 

is to enhance the quality of teaching and learning in traditional or technology-based 

environment. Recently, She has studied the learning strategies and 

attitudes of excellent students in a traditional/cyber university, and the policies of universities to 

enhance the teaching quality. Now She is writing a book about Quality Management of Distance 

Education. 

■ Eun-Soon Baik is a Director General of NILE (National Institute 

of Lifelong Education) which is a national government funded institution 

established to promote the lifelong education in Korea. She has worked in 

the area of lifelong education for a long time as a scholar and policy maker. 

She is currently vice president of the Korean Society for Lifelong Education, 

board member of the association of the lifelong education specialist, board 

member of the Adult and Continuing Education of Korea, committee member 

of the Adult Literacy Education, committee member of the Military Education 

and Training, the association of female lifelong education, and the Committee 

of Educational Statistics. 

She has written many articles and research papers related with the lifelong education policy such 

as “the Characteristics of adult learners in the Academic Credit Bank System”, “Cross-Cultural 

Comparison on Open Learning System in APEC Member Economies” and etc. She is also teaching 

doctoral students. 


I 

2.1 

Introduction to Education System 

in South Korea 

The founding principle of education in South Korea is humanitarianism named 

Hongik, which leads the provision of education for all the people in the country 

regardless of age, class and gender. According to the principle, free education should 

be available for children under the age of 15. The Constitutional Law allows everyone 

to learn throughout their lifetime depending on his/her capacity and aptitude. 

Educational opportunity is defined by laws such as the Early Childhood Education 

Act, the Elementary and Secondary Education Act, the Higher Education Act, and 

the Lifelong Education Act. This chapter presents an overview of education system 

in South Korea as the basis of understanding of e-Learning in the context of lifelong 

education. 

I-1 Formal Education System 

South Korea’s current education system has established since the liberation from 

Japanese colonial rule. For the purpose of constructing new democratic country, South 

Korea adopted American education system characterized as “6-3-3-4 school year system” 

just after the establishment of the Education Law in 1949. Schooling in South 

Korea expanded so rapidly during the 20-year period from 1960 to 1980 that it was 

referred to as “School Inflation.” South Korean government propelled literacy project, 

whose purpose was achieving all the people literate. Through compulsory and free 

schooling policy, the main beneficiaries are school-age children who could have failed 

to participate equally in South Korea’s social development. Nowadays, the 9 years 

of compulsory education from elementary to middle school is provided tuition-free, 

including provision of supplement education for middle school. 

05. e-Learning for Lifelong Learning in South Korea 359

Fig. I-1 Education System in South Korea 

High school programs are provided at a small cost($200 per semester) and divided 

into general high schools, commercial high schools, science high schools, and special-purpose 

high schools depending on educational contents and purposes. These 

schools are described as follows: 

- General high schools provide students with a liberal education. In the first year, 


students learn basic knowledge that all the people must acquire as citizens, and 

they choose subjects depending on their aptitude, capacity, and career plans in 

the second and third year. 

- Commercial high schools, typical vocational institutes in Korea, provide both professional 

education and secondary general education. First-year students learn the 

knowledge that every citizen must acquire, and second and third-year students 

study professional subjects. Professional subjects include agriculture, industry, 

commerce, fisheries and marine transportation, household affairs and business. 

Since 2000, subject fields are becoming specialized into information technology, 

robotics, animation, film, cooking, beauty culture, and tourism reflecting the specific 

division in the industry and vocational world. 

- Science high schools are designed for the talented students in fulfilling their potential 

without meaningless competitions. Students who complete 2 year program 

in their schools may enter the bachelor’s course (same as a university program) 

at the Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology as well as those universities 

where they have been admitted. 

- Special-purpose high schools are established to provide students with specialized 

education in foreign languages, music, the arts, dance, and sports. 

Universities are the most representative institutes at the level of higher education. 

Because of the enthusiasm of Bachelor’s degrees, there are over 170 universities 

(408 including colleges, in 2007) whose percentage of the population is very high. 

Most of the people get a degree of well-regarded university which is a kind of symbol 

of high status. Therefore, whereas most of the high school graduates attend universities, 

only a few people go to the institutions for vocational higher education 

in spite of the promotion of government. These institutions are divided into two 

parts: industrial universities that train industrial human resources and colleges that 

train professional workers generally offer 2 to 3-year courses such as vocational colleges, 

technical colleges, technical schools (3 years), advanced technical schools (3 

years), civil education centers (2-3 years), and advanced civil education centers (2-3 

years). The avoidance of vocational higher education reflects the privilege of liberal 


arts in Korea, however, this bias is noticeably decreased after the crisis is spreading 

with the world-wide change of knowledge-based society. 

Although rapid growth of schooling, according to South Korea’s 2005 census, more 

than 2 million people 20 years old or older in the adult population did not have 

elementary school diplomas; 5.98 million people did not have middle school 

diplomas. Even after narrowing the population range to people 20 - 50 years old 

and who are expected to be fully engaged in social activities, there are still about 

100,000 people without elementary school diplomas and 690,000 people without middle 

school diplomas. This situation forces government to secure the educational and 

learning rights for undereducated people and non-formal learning activities centering 

on the complementation of academic ability, basic adult and literacy education, and 

enhancement of vocational competencies for those who were deprived of a regular 

school education with post-secondary lifelong learning in general. 

I-2 Non-formal Education 

The non-formal education at the national level is represented by Air and 

Correspondence High Schools and alternative schools. Air and Correspondence High 

Schools provide advanced learning opportunities for those who were unable to enter 

high school due to financial and other personal reasons. Chapter 5 will discuss Air 

and Correspondence High Schools further. Alternative schools are the result of the 

school reform movement in South Korea that was naturally born in the course of 

the social and structural transformation to knowledge based society. Nevertheless, 

only about 5,000 students are enrolled in alternative schools, which account for only 

0.2% of the total student population. 

As of higher education in the context of lifelong learning, South Korea has well-established 

institutions and systems for the disadvantaged such as Korea National Open 


University, the Credit Bank System and Bachelor's Degree Exam System for Self-educated 

man. 

As South Korea’s only national distance university, Korea National Open University 

(KNOU) has contributed to the educational equality in the context of higher education 

since its establishment in 1972. The teaching and production staff provides higher 

education contents through cassette tape, radio, TV and web, applying media development 

to course design. Annually, around 180,000 students enroll the course for the 

Bachelor’s degree in KNOU every year. . 

Cyber universities are private distance universities established since 2001. It confers 

degrees based on entire courses provided through the Internet. Cyber University was 

originally established to meet the criteria established in the Lifelong Education Act 

and 17 universities established as of 2009. Some universities applied the Higher 

Education Act to their institutions in order to deliver a quality education. 

The Credit Bank System recognizes various forms of learning experiences and qualifications 

occurring within and outside the school such as academic credits on the 

basis of laws and regulations regarding credit recognition, and grants a bachelor’s 

degree or an associate bachelor’s degree when the student accumulates sufficient 

credits and satisfies certain criteria. 

The Bachelor's Degree Exam evaluates self-access people and officially approves 

the results of an individual’s learning through examinations, granting a bachelor’s 

degree when the applicant passes the examination. This System for self-access people 

ensures an opportunity to receive an alternative higher education for those in socially 

and economically difficult circumstances and officially affirms the result of self-study 

through a qualification examination that embodies educational welfare. 


II 

2.1 

Definition of lifelong learning and 


II-1 Lifelong Education and Lifelong Learning 

Lifelong education literally means “education that covers from the cradle to the 

grave,” and includes formal/non-formal/informal education. This definition seems to 

be a denotative description of education for a whole life of the people. Because 

of the traditional school-oriented approach which confines education as a narrow 

and closed pedagogy, lifelong education which stresses adult learners’ everyday life 

was accepted as an innovative viewpoint. It declares that the education is belonged 

to school but to our all life from the beginning. Korean government and scholars 

have accepted the concept of lifelong education extensively since middle of 1990s, 

regarding it as an alternative to traditional education. 

However, the scholars and government have different approaches to lifelong learning: 

theoretical and practical respectively. In a theoretical context, lifelong education 

is regarded as a holistic approach to disclose the phenomenon of learning and teaching 

in ordinary life instead of school practice. The term ‘lifelong learning’ has been 

preferred to lifelong education by scholars with the analysis of oppositional 

characteristics. While the school is managed by the ideological mechanism of the 

state that absolutely represents “education-ism”, lifelong learning is trying to promote 

learning activities on the standpoint of the learner’s rights. Therefore, lifelong 

learning is also considered as an ideal toward which all kinds of education are 

oriented. 

On the other side, practitioners and government officers regard lifelong education 

as the engine of national competency. Discussions on lifelong education for human 


esources development or vocational competency development expanded rapidly since 

being introduced in 2002. This expanded lifelong education throughout Korean society 

in connection with state policies. The representative case of the state policies 

is the Lifelong Education Act(LEA). According to the Lifelong Education Act, which 

was promulgated in 1999 and fully revised in 2008, “Lifelong Education” refers to 

complementary education regarding academic ability, basic adult education, elimination 

of illiteracy, vocational competence enhancement, humanities and cultural education, 

and education involving citizen participation excluding regular school 

curriculum. In other words, lifelong education is defined as “organized educational 

activities taking place outside school.” In addition, the legal formalities exclude school 

premises from discussions on lifelong education, which is a uniquely Asian 

characteristic. 

Because the term ‘lifelong education’ has so many connotations that it could not 

easy to find out a single definition to which all the concerned agree. The spectrum 

is too wide to designate one sigle term such as teaching style or educational system. 

It is used as an ideal, an ideological orientation, learner-centered perspectives, and 

extra school activities, etc. However, there is an exclusive consent that lifelong education 

is a new paradigm which could be the basic requirements of next generation, 

and facilitate our society to be integrated. 

Nowadays, the term lifelong learning is commonly used instead of lifelong education, 

changing the connotation of ‘learning’. From the experiences of formal school discipline, 

most of adult in South Korea regard learning as the passive accommodation 

to the absolute knowledge. Therefore, lifelong learning as an active meaning creation 

in ordinary life faced many hardships before it is accepted. Although it takes almost 

10 years until the term ‘learning’ is generally used, ‘lifelong learning’ is still accepted 

as taking courses in various kinds of institutes. 

For comparing the politics of other countries, this white paper confines the concept 

of lifelong education to “the omnipresent system supporting the learning activities 

of anyone serving his/her interests anytime, anywhere” However, the term of lifelong 


learning is already used as the general interaction of teaching and learning, we use 

lifelong learning instead of lifelong education, while an exclusive supporting system 

which has deliberate designs for instructions is called ‘lifelong education’. Regarding 

LEA of Korea, the education within K-12 schools are excluded from this study. 

But learning institutes of granting degrees are included. 

II-2 e-Learning 

○In general, e-Learning is defined as the delivery of a learning, training or education 

program by electronic means(Stockley, 2003). It involves the use of computer, 

internet or mobile devices which facilitate independent and interactive learning. 

e-Learning consists of all forms of electronically supported learning and teaching(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E-learning). 

At any definition, e-Learning is related 

to the ‘electronic’. 

In Korea, e-Learning was accepted as a new device of education. In the beginning, 

it represented new teaching methods through advanced technologies, especially, online 

learning in the internet. Interestingly, e-Learning in Korea has been mainly discussed 

not in the context of lifelong learning but at the level of technology, despite most 

of the e-Learning was operated in the adult education. For example, the most frequent 

question on e-Learning was about efficiency: “How to design e-Learing contents or 

virtual learning interface efficiently?” In keeping with this trend, significant pedagogical 

support system such as Learning Management System(LMS) was reduced 

to an issue of technological devices such as a computer game. These technology-oriented 

perspectives locates e-Learning not as a new educational paradigm but a new 

device. 

Although the exclusive concern on technology, there are various trials to find out 

the nature of e-Learning: a typical learning style, a kind of knowledge management 


system, marketing, learning methods, and some times learning itself(Rha, 2002, Cho, 

2002, White paper, 2003). As time goes by, more and more emphasis is on learning 

itself referring to the limitation of the technology-centered approach. Even in the 

e-Leanring Industrial Act, e-Learning is defined as a learning for which electrical 

devices, information-communication technology and broadcasting system are actively 

used(2004, article7417). The following figure stands at various perspectives of 

definitions. 

Fig. II-1 Different Layers of e-Learning 

○Current discussions point out e-Learning’s ability to bring an innovation to 

education. Some interpret the “e” in “e-Learning” to represent the “engagement” 

of learners in independent learning activities and the opportunity to “express” what 

they have learned while “encouraging” learners and pursuing interesting and useful 

“edutainment” to provide a unique “experience” as distinguished from offline education 

that is merely “electronic.” 

Besides, e-Learning derives its strength from the interactivity of internet. It compensates 

regular face-to-face teaching for providing pre-designed course for learners. 

Therefore, for example, learners could access to a learning site anytime, anywhere 

which has consistent contents quality providing with materials for independent learners 

in personal. 


This study defines e-Learning as a supportive electronic system which facilitates 

learners to enhance their ability to acquire, share, and transform knowledge and 

experience In Korea, because of the high access and usage of internet, e-Learning 

seems to be equal to the internet-based learning whose contents are ready made. 

II-3 Relationship between Lifelong Education and e-Learning 

○Lifelong education and e-Learning have made rapid progress in South Korea since 

late 1990s through support at the national level. As a new member of OECD, 

the government of South Korea declared lifelong learning and e-Learning as the 

basis of national competitiveness g, and has promoted these practices at the national 

level. Through greater availability of broadband access to the Internet and Lifelong 

Education Act, have been believed as a driving force which could propel its citizens 

into an “knowledge-based society.” In other words, lifelong learning and e-Learning 

have generally been considered to be a major factor in the enhancement of South 

Korea’s competitive strength as a knowledge-based society. 

○The South Korean government established the Lifelong Education Act as well as 

information and communication-related laws and regulations in addition to 

e-Learning-related bills to solidify the foundation for lifelong education and 

e-Learning. It has also supported inspiring social events such as the Lifelong 

Learning City and Lifelong Learning Festival, and fully implemented projects to 

eliminate the information divide. As a result, the ratio of lifelong education for 

adults ― which had been a mere 17.6% in 2001 ― increased to as much as 33% 

in 2009. PC ownership for each household increased to 81.4% as of May 2009, 

representing a 10.4% increase in the nine years since 2000 (71.0%). Lifelong education 

in South Korea transformed passive learning taking place within schools into 

an interactive, e-Learning-based acquisition of high-quality contents that was accessible 

by everyone online. In particular, e-Learning homogenized the quality of 

education. 


○As of 2009, the information and communication technology environment embodies 

the idea of lifelong education and e-Learning. This system also suppors learners 

by eliminating distance barriers between instructors and learners as well as between 

learners. Together, these two concepts form the concrete strategy for implementing 

lifelong education. e-Learning efficiently equalizes the educational contents and 

access to first-rate teachers, which is so vital in leveling the playing field of knowledge 

acquisition. e-Learning and lifelong education have the same direction in 

terms of their roots. 

Fig. II-2 Nested Relations in Lifelong Education and e-Learning 


III 

2.1 

III-1 Status 

A. General Overview 



in Korea 

According to the survey in Korea Internet & Security Agency, the rate of computer 

possession and that of internet of family are 81.4%, 81.2% in 2009(). 

In addition, according to the survey of e-Learning industry status in 2009, 48% of 

population (3 years old and older) experienced e-Learning. Individual demand for 

e-Learning has been steadily increased from 13.6% in 2005 to 48.3% in 2009(). The status of e-Learning use analyzed by gender, age, background, occupation 

are as . 

Table Ⅲ-1 The rate of internet use and computer possession of family 

the rate of internet use 

of family 

the rate of computer 

possession of family 

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 

49.8 63.2 70.2 68.8 72.2 74.8 78.4 79.8 80.6 81.2 

71.0 76.9 78.6 - 77.8 78.9 79.6 80.4 80.9 81.4 

Source: 2009 Survey on the status of internet use, Korea Communication Commission, 

Korea Internet & Security Agency. 

Table Ⅲ-2 The rate of e-Learning use of individuals 

Year 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 

e‐Learning Use Rate (%) 13.6 27.8 39.4 45.0 48.3 

Source: 2009 Survey on the Status of the e-Learning Industry, Ministry of Knowledge 

Economy, Korea Institute for Electronic Commerce, March 2009. 


According to the status of e-Learning Use in 2008, the use rate of male learners 

is 47.6%, and that of female learners is 41.9%. And the highest e-Learning use group 

by age is teenagers, by academic backgrounds, it is high school students group, and 

by occupation, it is students group. As access tools to e-Learning as of 2007, 35% 

of learners use educational broadcasts, 34.1% educational websites, 19.3% online 

lectures of regular schools, 16.7% online lectures of public institutions, and 16.1% 

online lectures of private institutes. In addition, 51.1% of e-Learning learners use 

for supplement their school learning and 33.5% use it for studying foreign languages. 

Table Ⅲ-3 Status of e-Learning Use categorized by gender, age, background, 

occupation(%) 

Year 2005 2006 2007 2008 

Total (%) 13.6 27.8 39.4 45.0 

Gender 

Age Group 

Academic 

Background 

Occupation 

Male 

Female 

3~5 

6~19 

20 

30 

40 

50 or Above 

Preschool 

Elementary School Student 

Middle School Student 

High School Student 

University(Graduate School) Student 

High School or Below 

University Graduate or Higher 

Student 

Expert Profession / Office Work 

Service / Sales / Production 

Home manager 

Unemployed / Others 

15.2 

11.8 

- 

17.1 

14.6 

12.4 

12.1 

4.7 

- 

17.0 

14.8 

19.5 

22.8 

4.3 

14.1 

18.8 

17.0 

- 

6.4 

9.8 

29.1 

26.4 

- 

66.9 

31.8 

20.3 

11.4 

10.7 

- 

55.9 

61.0 

75.6 

63.6 

13.9 

22.5 

64.2 

25.3 

- 

9.9 

32.9 

45.8 

31.5 

28.7 

67.0 

50.7 

27.2 

23.4 

11.2 

26.4 

61.3 

65.6 

77.4 

69.5 

10.2 

34.9 

66.8 

43.5 

16.1 

10.0 

21.5 

47.6 

41.9 

32.3 

70.9 

61.3 

30.5 

29.6 

13.5 

34.4 

70.3 

64.5 

81.2 

69.3 

15.0 

41.5 

70.5 

48.8 

22.4 

10.5 

26.5 


B. Areas of e-Learning Use 

e-Learning has been widely used in every aspects of lifelong learning in S. Korea. 

As well as in formal education including K-12 school and university, in nonformal 

and informal education including vocational education, recurrent education, outside 

school programs for K-12 students, public servant training, teacher training, e-Learning 

is becoming an important tool for education and environment for learning. For this, 

Ministry of Education, Science and Technology, have made EDUNET from 1996, 

revised several times depending on the development of technology. 6 ministries of 

Korea have made collaborative efforts through the establishment of the e-Learning 

Industry Development Act to spread out e-Learning in 2004. The use of employment 

insurance fund for vocational training is one of representative examples of e-Learning 

projects pursued by the government. But we didn’t review here e-Learning inside 

Fig. III-1 Areas of e-Learning Use in S. Korea 


K-12 school, because e-Learning inside K-12 schooli, that is called School Informatization, 

was driven by Ministry of Education, Science, Technology(MEST) separately 

from lifelong learning. Instead of it, e-Learning outside school for K-12 Schools. 

The concept map of all areas of e-Learning use in S. Korea is as . 

III-2 Status and Characteristics of each part of e-Learning 

A. e-Learning in K-12 Schools 

e-Learning has been extensively used for outside and inside school for K-12 students. 

In e-Learning for schools, the initiatives are under the ambit of Government in Korea. 

The governments steadily carried out various projects for educational informatization 

since 1990s. There are 4 stages as follows. In addition, e-Learning system for inside 

school education, that is EDUNET, started to service students, teachers and parents, 

etc., since 1996 and contributed to sharing all kinds of educational materials and 

ideas between them. 

Table Ⅲ-4 4 stages of e-Learning for K-12 school in Korea 

Stage I II III IV 

Year 1996-2000 2001-2003 2004-2005 2006~ 

characteristics infrastructure Using ICT e-Learning U-Learning 

B. e-Learning Outside Schools for K-12 students 

In the aspect of lifelong education, however, we focused on outside school e-Learning 

program. e-Learning outside school is generally divided into the government level 

and private level. The most typical e-Learning program at the government level is 

the Air and Correspondence High School, Cyber Home Learning, and the Internet 

Lecture for National Scholastic Achievement Examination Preparation. At the private 

level, e-Learning for elementary, middle, and high school curricula are provided 


through LMS by private institutions. The use of e-Learning by K-12 students is also 

increasing each year, thanks to the spread of the internet and computer use. 

1) Cyber Home Learning 

The Cyber Home Learning System was launched as part of the “Ways for reducing 

private education expenses through the normalization of public education” announced 

by the Ministry of Education, Science, and Technology in July 2004. This program 

provides e-Learning contents at home to supplement public school education and 

some teachers of K-12 school provide counseling and consultations through this system; 

it targets 4 th graders up to high school students. A budget of at least KRW 

20 billion has been earmarked for this program since 2005 (2008: KRW 29 billion; 

2009: KRW 21.1 billion). 

Approximately 3.12 million students have subscribed to the Cyber Home Learning 

Service as of August 2009, with an average of 1.34 students per teacher under their 

learning management. There are 46,882 assigned-type cyber classes, 64,535 cyber 

teachers, 3,600 tutors consisting of parents and university students, and 1.78 million 

students studying under self-direction. The number of cyber classes decreased compared 

to 2008, but the number of students increased. As of 2009, a total of 16 education 

offices provide Cyber Home Learning Service; the contents and services vary 

depending on the circumstances of each office. 

The quality of contents had been independently managed by municipal and provincial 

education offices; however, since 2006, the contents must be approved by the Korea 

Education and Research Information Service (KERIS), with the Quality Management 

Corps supervising the contents quality in the entire development process from planning 

and design to production. 

2) EBS Internet Lecture for National Scholastic Achievement Examination Preparation 

(NSAEP) 

The EBS Internet Lecture for National Scholastic Achievement Examination 


Preparation was launched on 2004 to reduce private education expenses through the 

normalization of public education. Since then, examination candidates have accessed 

the EBS Internet Lecture for NSAEP through the Internet (www.ebsi.co.kr), broadcast, 

and Cyber Home Learning Service of municipal and provincial education offices. 

During 2007-2009, a total of 6,619 EBS lectures for 4 th to 9 th graders were provided 

to municipal and provincial education offices and serviced through the Cyber Home 

Learning System. 

The accumulated number of members of the EBS lecture system reached 2.63 million 

as of August 2007 and approximately 3.09 million as of 2009. According to the 

2007 statistics, 1.32 million out of the total number of members were middle and 

high school students to account for 50.2 of the total members and 75.2 of all high 

school students (1.76 million). Accordingly, the share of middle and high school 

contents in the lecture increased consistently from 19% in 2005 to 26% in 2009. 

The EBS lecture service made enormous progress as the educational programs and 

services it provides increased from a total of 5,169 lectures in 51 subjects in 2004 

(2,239 lectures provided through EBS Plus 1, 2,930 through the Internet service) 

to 12,806 in 51 subjects in 2007. Since 2007, a series of essay curriculum by stage, 

instructor, and theme for 1 st ~3 rd year high school students are available.in this system. 

For middle and high school students, 804 lectures were produced in 2009: 653 lectures 

for the National Scholastic Achievement Examination (14,395 sessions), 111 lectures 

for academic records (5,780 sessions), and 40 essay-related lectures (577 sessions). 

Some exemplary instructors who have participated in producing the contents of live 

lectures have incentives 

3) e-Learning at the Private Level 

e-Learning at the private level has mostly targeted NSAEP market, its growth has 

slowed recently. Therefore, e-Learning for elementary and middle school students 

did not grow as big as the high school e-Learning market; recently, however, it 

has been drawing attention in preparing for the high school entrance examination. 


In addition, e-Learning market for first and second year high school students is gradually 

increasing too. Mostly students outside the Seoul where there are relatively few 

examination preparation private institutions use this service. 

The e-Learning market for K-12 students began as an alternative to the offline market 

for NSAEP. However, these days, the way of using e-Learning in the market, is 

combining online and offline activities. 

The growth of e-Learning for the private education of elementary, middle, and high 

school students runs counter to the reduction of private education demanded by most 

citizens and the government’s private education expenses reduction policy. Thus, it 

surfaces as a social issue from time to time. For such reasons, the e-Learning market 

for private education will need to fulfill the task of developing a differentiated, profit-yielding 

business model while dynamically coping with the government’s education 

policies and changes in curricula. 

C. e-Learning in University Education 

1) e-Learning in Traditional Universities 

The government and universities have made extensive investments in e-Learning since 

1996. The universities made consortia in 1998, provided e-Learning courses, and 

recognized it as regular credit courses since 2000. At the end of 2002, the government 

announced implementation of the e-Campus Vision 2007 (2003-2007) for campus 

digitalization. As a result, e-Learning support systems were completely developed 

in 10 nationwide regions at the end of 2008, and they have been operating since 

then. 

Universities have been adjusting teaching-learning support systems and the administrative 

organization to support e-Learning more effectively. The results of their efforts 

are the “e-Learning Support Center,” “The Center for Teaching and Learning,” 

“The Virtual Education Center,” and “The Cyber Education Center.” National organizations 

include the Korean University Alliance for Cyber Education and the Korean 

Association of Centers for Teaching and Learning. 


According to a survey taken in 2002, only 40 % of universities in South Korea 

were using e-Learning. However, a 2006 survey showed that 56.7%, or 114 out of 

the 201 4-year universities, are now using e-Learning. 

2) e-Learning in Cyber University 

Following the Lifelong Education Act revised in 2000, which concerns the foundation 

of cyber universities, distance universities conferring bachelor’s degrees or associate 

bachelor’s degrees through e-Learning began to open in 2001. 9 distance universities 

opened with only about 6,000 students in 2001; however, 80,600 students enrolled 

in 19 distance and cyber universities 2009. There have been 57,946 graduates so 

far and the entrance quota for 2010 is 28,440. 

3) e-Learning for master’s degrees 

There are two types of e-Learning for master’s degree. The one is e-Learning in 

distance graduate school. The other is online program in traditional face-to-face graduate 

school. Distance graduate school opened at first in 2001 at Korea National Open 

University. Now in 2010, 7 Distance graduate schools are providing their educational 

services, fiveschools in existing face-to-face universities, one school in cyber universities, 

and one school in Korea National Open University. The total entrance quota 

of all 7 distance graduate schools for 2010 is about 1,450. The accumulated total 

of graduates is estimated at over 5,000. On the other hand, there are online master’s 

courses in traditional graduate school, and online research courses by e-Learning. 

D. e-Learning in Continuing Education 

e-Learning is widely used for continuing, in-service education and training like corporate 

training, teacher training, servants training, etc.. 

1) Corporate e-Learning 

e-Learning in the vocational competency development includes public vocational 

training, in-plant training (in other words, corporate e-Learning), and designated training 

by the Ministry of Labor. In public vocational training, e-Learning was used 


since 1999 and it was called Internet correspondence training. In-plant training, 

e-Learning is most actively and systematically applied into. The domestic e-Learning 

market in this area was valued at KRW 1,870.4 billion in 2008, with corporate 

e-Learning accounting for 44% (KRW 759.6 billion) of the market compared with 

42.6% (KRW 735.1 billion) for individual demand and public institutions. 

2) e-Learning in Teacher Training 

e-Learning is widely used in Teacher Training Area. e-Learning in Teacher Training 

has been provided by Distance Teacher Training Center recognized by MEST since 

2000. There were 69 Centers in 2008. These Centers are divided into municipal and 

provincial training centers, certified distance teacher training centers, and training 

centers for special education. And the number of teachers using distance training 

increased each year, reaching approximately 50% of the entire teacher training, in 

2007. 

3) e-Learning in Public servants training 

The expansion of e-Learning market in servants training is also becoming apparent. 

The ratio of e-Learning in government and public institutions servants training increased 

from 43% in 2005 to 56.9% in 2007. e-Learning expenditures in the public 

servants training in 2007 reached KRW 163.3 billion, an 18.7% increase from KRW 

137.5 billion in 2006. The ratio of e-Learning courses to the total training courses 

of servants training in 2007 was 21.6%. However, the ratio of e-Learning to the 

total training budget was 10%. 

E. Status of the e-Learning Industry 

According to the 2008 Survey on the Status of the e-Learning Industry, the total 

number of e-Learning enterprise stood at 1,145 in 2008. The distribution of e- 

Learning providers in major business areas in 2008 shows that there were 727 service 

providers(63.5%), 283 contents providers(24.7%), and 135 solution providers 

(11.8%). 


Table Ⅲ-5 Number of e-Learning Providers by Business Area 

(Unit: Businesses Enterprise) 

Year 

Business Area 

2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 

Total 258 381 621 756 1,145 

Solution 68 74 92 201 283 

Contents 101 126 167 94 135 

Service (Ordinary Company, Private 

School, Regular Education) 

89 181 362 461 727 

※ Source: 2008 Survey on the Status of e-Learning, Ministry of Knowledge Economy, Korea 

Institute for Electronic Commerce, March 2009 

Total sales of e-Learning businesses in 2008 showed an 8.3% increase compared 

to 2007, and has been increasing consistently since 2003. Sales records in major 

areas in 2008 show increases compared to the previous year in all businesses including 

solution, contents, and service, but the increase in sales of service providers was 

greater than that of other businesses. 

Table Ⅲ-6 Total Sales of e-Learning Businesses (unit: KRW 100 Million) 

Business Area 

Year 

2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 

Total 1,077,041 1,298,484 1,470,817 1,617,797 1,727,057 1,870,475 

Solution 215,002 222,954 244,814 239,091 406,022 432,763 

Contents 243,521 287,498 336,320 389,452 218,389 221,696 

Service (Ordinary 

Company, Private 

School, Regular 

Education) 

618,518 788,032 889,683 989,254 1,102,645 1,216,016 

※ Source: 2008 Survey on the Status of e-Learning, Ministry of Knowledge Economy, 

Korea Institute for Electronic Commerce, March 2009 


The domestic e-Learning market in 2008, as estimated based on the result of the 

survey of expenses incurred by consumers on e-Learning in South Korea in 2008, 

was aggregately valued at KRW 1,866.8 billion. Individual users were estimated to 

have spent KRW 816.7 billion or 43.7% of the total market share, and companies 

KRW 812 billion or 43.6%, for a combined 87.3% share of the market. The government/public 

institutions spent KRW 162.7 billion (8.9%); educational institutes spent 

the least with KRW 70.8 billion (3.8%). 

Table Ⅲ-7 Scale of the e-Learning Market 

(Division: KRW 100 Million, %) 

Division 

Year 

2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 

Total 1,292,635 1,452,520 1,613,307 1,727,632 1,866,828 

Individuals 668,996 671,509 697,227 735,108 816,765 

Educational 

Institute 

Government/Public 

Institution 

Businesses 

(Companies) 


13,243 18,424 26,220 69,555 70,804 

83,105 94,418 137,574 163,366 167,207 

527,291 668,169 752,286 759,603 812,052 

※ Source: 2008 Survey on the Status of the e-Learning Industry, Ministry of Knowledge 

Economy, Korea Institute for Electronic Commerce, 2009

IV 

2.1 

Typical e-Learning for Lifelong 


IV-1 Korea National Open University 

A. Overview 

○As South Korea’s one and only distance university, Korea National Open University 

(“KNOU”) has been contributing to the nation’s expansion of higher education 

since its establishment in 1972. KNOU has continuously adopted new teaching 

media, progressing from mail to radio, TV, videotape, and to today’s Internet lecture 

system. Currently, the teaching staff and production team are producing and 

supplying advanced learning contents through TV, multimedia, and web-based and 

interactive video lectures. 

○KNOU was established to serve the following purposes: First, to provide people 

who are unable to receive a university education for economic, geographic, age, 

and/or other reasons the opportunity to obtain higher education through the distance 

education system; second, to enhance the level of national education by providing 

the professional training required by corresponding industries along with a liberal 

education; third, to expand and enhance social education for individual development 

and advancement by providing people the learning opportunity through which 

they can contribute to the advancement of the country and society and the development 

of industrial technology; fourth, to produce competent people who can cope 

in an age of rapid changes through continuous education and who are required 

for the betterment of the nation. 

○KNOU has produced 450,000 graduates since its establishment and is currently 

delivering courses to 180,000 registered students through 13 regional campuses 

and 33 study centers around South Korea. The tuition fee for a single term is 


around KRW 350,000 or about 1/12 that of most universities, thus making more 

learning opportunities available for those in low-income brackets. 

○e-Learning became main stream in 2001, but KNOU did not fully introduce Internet 

courses until 2006 since most students were underprivileged. With the launch of 

Internet courses, KNOU became capable of providing “Broadcast Lectures” through 

KNOU TV (OUN), “The Broadcast Lecture LOD System,” which provides broadcast 

lectures via the Internet, “Interactive Video Lecture System,” which simultaneously 

connects the main campus and regional campuses as if students around 

the country were studying in the same lecture room, and “Web Lecture,” which 

maximizes the Internet’s interactivity for each subject and for the teacher’s in-class 

lectures. In 2007, KNOU introduced the Tutor System as a learning aid and the 

Mentor System in full scale to improve the unilateral learning system. KNOU 

is rapidly pushing through multidimensional efforts to enhance the quality of education 

by improving counseling, education for multicultural groups, education for 

a new neglected population segment, and a plagiarism prevention system. 

B. Organization 

○Generally, development of a distance university’s campus support system is based 

on supporting the methods of distance education for available subjects. However, 

the distance university in South Korea developed a system similar to that of ordinary 

universities, thus reflecting the characteristics of education in South Korea. 

It has the same Office of Academic Affairs, Office of Student Affairs, and Office 

of Planning Affairs as other universities, with computer-related systems such as 

online contents and homepage management being operated by an independent 

department. 

1) Undergraduate Program (22 departments) 

○College of Liberal Arts: Department of Korean Language & Literature, Department 

of English Language & Literature, Department of Chinese Language & Literature, 

Department of French Language & Literature, Department of Japanese Studies 

○College of Social Science: Department of Law, Department of Public Administration, 


Department of Economics, Department of Management, Department of International 

Trade, Department of Media Arts & Sciences, and Department of Tourism 

○College of Natural Science: Department of Agricultural Sciences, Department of 

Home Economics, Department of Computer Science, Department of Information 

Statistics, Department of Environmental Health, and Department of Nursing 

○College of Education: Department of Education, Major in Youth Education, 

Department of Early Childhood Education, Department of Culture & Liberal Arts 

2) Graduate School: Korea National Open University Graduate School 

(9 Departments) 

○Korea National Open University opened a cyber university for lifelong education 

that offered a master’s degree through the cyber education system in September 

2001 for the first time in South Korea. Students can now obtain master’s degrees 

solely based on distance education through the Internet. 

- Departments: Department of Public Administration, Department of Management, 

Department of Computer Science, Department of Lifelong Education, 

Department of Home Economics, Department of Early Childhood Education, 

Department of Practical English, Department of e-Learning, Department of 

Nursing. 

3) Non-Degree Course at the Center for Lifelong Education 

○ Unlike other universities, the Center for Lifelong Education of the KNOU has 

been contributing to the spread of the lifelong education program online. In 2009, 

the community program was introduced to reestablish the status of the Center 

for Lifelong Education in pursuing full-scale on-off blended learning. The Center 

for Lifelong Education is simultaneously enhancing the diversity and integration 

of student support by confirming programs that can be operated in core institutes 

such as 54 regional campuses/study centers and operating programs that can make 

the most use of the characteristics and specialization of the corresponding programs 

individually or in connection with the Center. As of 2009, 21 online programs 

are serving approximately 6,000 students each year. 


○The Lifelong Education Center also operates the Center for Integrated Teacher 

Training as the second lifelong education institute established with the Enforcement 

Decree of the Minister of Education (No. 764) following the establishment of Korea 

National University of Education and offers training programs designed to enhance 

the expertise and competency of teachers. As of 2009, 3 courses are offered, which 

train approximately 600 people per year. 

4) Affiliated Facilities 

○KNOU has attached facilities to support the production and distribution of distance 

education contents; these facilities are directly concerned with the improvement 

of education quality. The Digital Media Center evolved from OUN, the cable channel, 

and contributes to the production of digital educational contents for distribution 

over the Internet. It also directly participates in the lifelong education programs 

to be broadcast through cable TV. 

○As the largest institute specializing in distance education in South Korea, the 

Institute of Distance Education leads studies on lifelong distance education and 

on ways to improve the policies of KNOU; it is also in charge of a network for 

international cooperation and international academic exchange programs. Moreover, 

it is engaged in the publication of an academic journal titled Journal of Lifelong 

Learning Society, a survey of KNOU statistics and the publication of a collection 

of statistical data, the holding of academic seminars, and the operation of a psychological 

counseling center. 

○The Information & Computer Center manages information for all members of the 

university and for research data, develops the education interface, and manages 

the homepage. The center established the Comprehensive Computerization Advancement 

Plan in addition to programs specifically related to the enhancement 

of education quality such as the development of a plagiarism prevention system 

and an e-Library module; it is also introducing u-Learning as a long-term goal. 

The center successfully carried out a pilot program for lectures delivered through 

mobile devices in 2009. 


5) Administrative Organizations 

○As with traditional universities, KNOU has an administrative support system with 

an Office of Academic Affairs, an Office of Student Affairs, and an Office of 

Planning Affairs. 

C. Teaching-Learning Method 

1) Teaching Methods of KNOU 

○The teaching-learning method of KNOU has reflected changes in the system over 

the years. Modifications in educational methods at KNOU have been summarized 

into the following 4 phases: 

Table Ⅳ-1 Changes in the Education Methods of KNOU 

Phases System Major Media 

Phase 1 

(1972~1980) 

Phase 2 

(1981~1991) 

Phase 3 

(1992~2000) 

Phase 4 

(2001~Present) 

2-Year College Mail and Radio 

5-Year University with Regular 

Bachelor’s Program 

4-Year University with Regular 

Bachelor Program 

Expansion of Distance University 

(Establishment of Cyber University) 

Cassette Tape, Radio, TV 

TV, Distance Video Lecture 

Internet 

○In phase 1, overall teaching-learning activities at KNOU consisted of print media, 

radio-based media lectures, offline classes, and student achievement evaluations; 

there were also subjects for experiment/practice. 

○In phase 2, teaching-learning activities were similar to phase 1. Advances in education 

media included the introduction of cassette tapes and TV. Some subjects provided 

study contents in print media without requiring students to attend face-to-face 

classes, and corrective evaluation was introduced. 

○The teaching-learning activities of phase 2 continued in phase 3, along with the 

following changes: supplementary learning materials were provided through the 


Internet; subjects that offered distance video lectures in lieu of offline class were 

introduced; the system of replacing offline classes with examinations was introduced 

for students who were unable to attend the face-to-face lecture; and the 

local tutor system was introduced at KNOU. 

○Major teaching-learning activities were generally maintained in phase 4 with some 

new activities introduced and others cancelled: the workbook was included as part 

of the composite learning materials and type of supplementary learning materials; 

stoppage of production of radio lectures/recorded lectures (cassette tapes) and introduction 

and emergence of multimedia lectures/web lectures as a major educational 

media; introduction of the department tutor and cyber tutor system, which 

diversified and expanded KNOU’s tutor system. 

○The teaching-learning system at KNOU has continuously undergone changes 

through activities that were introduced and eliminated in each phase while maintaining 

key structures such as print media, media lectures, offline lectures, student 

achievement evaluations, and subjects that involved experiment/practice. 

2) Type of Class 

○Classes at KNOU are mainly made up of non-real-time, remote media that presents 

the major learning contents of the course and real-time learning experiences such 

as the instructor’s in-class lectures and distance video lectures. For students having 

difficulties attending offline classes, supplementation is possible with online lectures 

and substitute examinations. 

A) Media Lectures 

Before the Internet became a popular medium, “media lecture” referred to the act 

of instructors transferring the contents of learning through a variety of educational 

media by imitating the format of a traditional lecture taking place in the lecture 

hall at ordinary universities. The media lecture was virtually a conversion of a unilateral 

lecture into remote contents. However, as the Internet became popular in the 

2000s, the student-oriented lecture involving instructor-student as well as student-student 

interactions became a new paradigm. Although it has limitations, i.e., difficulty 


of operating large-scale lectures, this new paradigm is spreading to a few subjects 

in graduate schools. Generally, students watch and listen to media lectures and read 

printed materials to participate in distance learning. 

B) Offline Class 

The offline class distinguishes a cyber university from KNOU. KNOU incorporated 

offline classes as an important teaching-learning activity to complement the weakness 

of distance education from the beginning. In the distance system, students lack interaction 

with the instructor and peers, a sense of belonging, and a motivation for study. 

However, this problem is addressed by the face-to-face lectures provided for a certain 

period. Three subjects in the 1 st , 2 nd , and 3 rd year courses involve offline classes 

and two subjects in the 4 th year. Each subject requires 8 hours of offline classes. 

Students can go to nearby regional campuses for the offline class. 

C) Distance Video Lecture 

The distance video lecture system was introduced in 1995 and has been applied to 

offline classes and classes at the Center for Lifelong Education. In 2009, it was 

fully digitized to enable real-time, distance, and interactive classes. Students around 

the country can exchange ideas with students of other regions and the instructor 

through the interactive lecture room of each regional campus. 

3) Educational Media of the KNOU 

A) Print Media 

○As the media systematically provides the bare minimum required learning contents 

to distance learners, print media consists of a basic textbook, supplementary textbook, 

workbook, and supplementary learning materials. Since 80% or more of 

the final examination ― which determines whether the student can advance to 

the next level or stay in the same level ― is based on textbooks, the print media 

is hugely important to the learning process. KNOU provides them at 50% less 

than the market cost through its own press. 

○Supplementary learning materials provided to students by KNOU other than text- 


ooks include special lectures in the KNOU Weekly, a collection of sample questions, 

online class lectures, supplementary studies on the Internet, and materials 

related to substitute examinations for offline classes. 

① Special Lectures in the KNOU Weekly: This is a supplementary learning material 

provided through the KNOU Weekly. Currently, special lectures are given 

for each department and on liberal arts subjects. The special lecture for each 

department is provided in the format of an appendix attached to the KNOU 

Weekly; all departments provide two special lectures for each term, with the 

contents varying by department. It includes supplementary learning material 

for the lecture, intensive learning materials, guidelines, and department news 

and learning information. The special lectures on liberal arts subjects are provided 

for each subject offered each term; three lectures (1 page per lecture) 

are offered through the KNOU Weekly. 

② Collection of Sample Questions: KNOU provides sample questions for the final 

examination to help students prepare. Students are making great use of the 

sample questions. 

③ Online Class Lecture (Lecture on Paper): The online class lecture is the 

learning material provided through the homepage for subjects that do not 

have offline classes; it is used to prepare for the midterm and for assigned 

examinations. 

④ Supplementary Studies on the Internet: This provides remedial help for students 

having difficulty understanding contents delivered via print media and 

media lectures. The text-based material covers broadcast lecture summaries, 

supplements to broadcast lectures, and problem-solving questions delivered 

via the Internet. Subjects in each department are selected each term for 

inclusion. 

⑤ Materials Related to Substitute Examination for Offline Class: Materials related 

to the substitute examination for offline class have been provided since the 

second term of 2005 to students applying for substitute examinations for offline 

classes (introduced in 1993) as materials to supplement the hours of offline 

classes they missed; the materials are provided through the Internet in the 


form of texts, recordings of offline classes or video lectures, and e-Learning 

contents. 

B) TV 

○TV lectures began with broadcasts on a public TV channel in 1984 and evolved 

into an independent nationwide cable channel in 1999 that enables students to 

watch needed lectures on TV. The age of interactive TV began with the introduction 

of IPTV in 2008. Beginning in 2007, all TV lectures became available for download 

from the Internet through the LOD service. 

C) Internet 

○The Internet enhanced learners’ options in terms of time and space. KNOU is 

producing and providing a simple lecture production tool for large-scale lectures 

through multimedia lectures. At least 90% of students attend lectures through the 

Internet and repeat important parts once or twice while studying online. There 

are few project-type studies or team-based studies since most lectures are produced 

with the production tool. 

F) Mobile Devices 

○Mobile learning ― which uses a cellular phone or PDA ― is not a new type 

of lecture or contents; rather, the existing contents has simply been converted into 

a mobile format. Since 96% of the population in South Korea uses the Internet 

and cellular phones, mobile learning has spread widely and is receiving favorable 

responses. 


70 

60 

50 

40 

30 

20 

10 

0 

57 

32 

8 

3 

25 

21 


49 

40 

35 

5 5 

60 

21 20 

2006 2007 2008 2010 

Fig. IV-1 Changes in the Educational Media of KNOU 

10 

Multimedia 

D. Evaluation System of KNOU 

○KNOU is a four-year university providing higher education that confers regular 

bachelor’s degrees equivalent to those given by traditional universities. The number 

of new students reaches 70,000 each year, and students are not required to take 

the national qualification test such as the National Scholastic Achievement 

Examination as required by traditional universities. KNOU is relatively open with 

regard to entrance requirements compared to traditional universities. This serves 

the purpose of providing a neglected segment of the population the opportunity 

to receive higher education, yet it can also cause deterioration in the quality of 

higher education. KNOU is maintaining a graduation rate of around 27% through 

its comprehensive academic affairs management. This is the opposite situation of 

Korean university culture where admission is difficult but graduation is virtually 

assured for most students. This unique feature of KNOU has been recognized by 

society as a means of managing higher education quality. 

○The evaluation system of KNOU was developed through the two-year college phase 

(1972-1983) and the four-year university phase (1992-present). The student achievement 

evaluation system for each subject is divided into an evaluation conducted 

during the middle of the term (offline examination, substitute examination for off- 

TV 

WBI 

Audio

line classes, midterm examination, assignment examination), final examination, and 

practical examination. Most subjects evaluate student achievements through midterm 

and final examinations except those subjects that use the results of experiment 

and practical evaluation. 

○Subjects other than experiment- and practice-oriented subjects are divided into offline 

and online subjects depending on whether or not the subject has an offline 

examination. The full mark for each subject is 100, with 30 points allocated to 

the midterm examination and 70 points to the final examination except for experiment- 

and practice-oriented subjects. The midterm examination is divided into an 

offline examination, substitute examination for offline classes, and assignment examination, 

all of which are counted as 30 points. 

○Status of each examination is: 

- Offline Examination 

∙ The instructor for the offline face-to-face lecture provides the examination; it 

covers more subjects than the online examinations, which consist of a midterm 

examination and assignments. Average marks garnered by KNOU students at 

the offline examination are in the high 27s and low 28s. Compared to other 

intermediate evaluations, the rate of students taking the offline examination is 

slightly lower; this is related to the rate of students attending offline classes. 

This is probably due to students applying for the offline class ― which requires 

8 hours of attendance in each term ― who could not attend the class for the 

examination. 

∙ “Substitute examination” is available for students who cannot attend offline 

classes. The rate of students who take the substitute examination for offline class 

was relatively lower than that for taking the offline examination, with the average 

mark 7-8 points lower than the offline examination. Presumably, students attending 

offline classes are likely to spend more time on exam preparation and get 

higher marks in the more difficult substitute examination ― which is a paper-based 

examination consisting of 15 multiple-choice questions, each of which 

is worth 2 points. There is also a clearer distinction of correct/wrong answers 

than in the offline examination where students take the examination directly under 


the supervision of the instructor, yet instructors can also be assumed to be more 

lenient in the offline examination. 

- Online Examination (Midterm Examination, Assignment Examination) 

∙ At least 81% of students participate in the midterm examination consisting of 

subjective questions, with students getting an average of 26 points out of 30. 

Relatively more students took the midterm examination for the second term than 

the first term between 2005 and 2007. The average mark for the midterm examinations 

― which is an essay examination ― was higher than that for the substitute 

examination for offline classes, which is an objective examination, but 

lower than that for offline classes. 

∙ For the assignment examination, students are asked to submit their assignment 

related to the subjects they studied in the course for the instructor’s evaluation. 

More students are participating in the assignment examination than the midterm 

examination; the average mark of 27 is also very high. 

- Final Examination: The final examination consists of multiple-choice questions 

divided into a 35-question examination and a 25-question examination; subjects 

that use practical evaluation are excluded in the final examination. Since the examination 

is carried out in a strict offline examination ― in fact, there has been no 

suspicion about evaluation scandals, etc., despite the fact that it is part of distance 

education ― it serves an important role in the management of KNOU’s education 

quality. A total of 70 points are allocated to the final examination excluding 30 

points for the midterm examination. The average graduation rate is 27%, which 

is the lowest in South Korea. 

- Practical Evaluation: In practical subjects, the mark is given based on the results 

of practical evaluation instead of midterm and final examinations; 100 points are 

allocated as full marks in the practical evaluation. 

- Summer/Winter-Term Evaluation: This is an irregular term offered for students 

who received an F for a certain subject in the term or who wish to improve 

their marks from C or below. KNOU offers subjects recommended by each department 

in the summer/winter term, usually about 12 subjects in both summer and 

winter. The examination is normally made up of 40 or 50 multiple-choice questions 


that add up to 100 points. 

E. Student Support System 

○KNOU supports students throughout the entire learning cycle from entrance admission 

to graduation. The support systems available to students are: support for students 

with disabilities and programs guiding students through the essential learning 

methods required for studies in higher education. Such student support systems 

are great examples of the unique characteristics of KNOU. 

○According to a survey conducted in 2004, however, more students were dissatisfied 

(22%) than satisfied (18.5%) with the student counseling service provided by the 

department. In particular, 23% of the students were dissatisfied with the orientation, 

whereas 26% were satisfied. Thus, the support programs appeared to have failed 

in fulfilling all the students’ expectations. This stems from the difficulty in suitably 

providing services to 180,000 students through a small staff of instructors, tutors, 

and employees. 


Cycle 

Entry 

Stage 

Table Ⅳ-2 Student Support in KNOU 

Support Index Support Status 

Comprehensive plan for applicant marketing is not 

Before Entrance: Guide for 

available. 

Applicants 

Website for admission guide for applicants is available. 

Entrance-Registration Issue of ID and provision of basic information 

Information No management system for unregistered applicants 

Orientation 

Financial Support 

Distribution of orientation materials at the level of 

Student Affairs Office/Student Union 

Guide to curriculum and academic affairs management 

Scholarship Benefits for Students with Disabilities 

The tuition fee itself is affordable. 

Tuition fee waiver or reduction is given to 50,000 

students per year. 


Adaptation 

(Socialization) 

Stage 


Stage 

Service for Students with 

Disabilities 

Introduction to Higher 

Education 

Academic Affairs 

Information 

Support for Media 

Utilization 

Introduction to 

Curriculum 

Provision of Learning 

Materials 

Advice on Study Design 

Student Counseling 

Introduction to 

Assignments-Examinations 

Textbook Purchase Service 

Tutoring 

Diagnosis of Learning 

Status 

Administrative-Learning- 

Technical Support of 

Regional Campuses 

Support for Study Group 


Partial development of a service system for supporting 

students with disabilities 

Textbook for students with visual impairment 

Learning to Learn (LTL) Program 

Student support service of tutors and senior student 

mentors (introduction to student life) 

Introduction to each facility through website and 

booklet 

Guidelines for each lecture media; manual on how 

to use media 

Individually carried out through professor/teaching 

assistant/Student Union 

Internet learning materials, special lecture in the 

KNOU Weekly, online materials replacing offline 

classes, etc., supported by instructor 

Individually carried out by the Student Service Center 

and Student Union 

Individually carried out by the Institute of Distance 

Education/Student Service Center 

Support through professor/teaching assistant 

Can be ordered through the Korea National Open 

University Press website 

Deliver contents of lecture through tutor for each 

department. 

Tutoring at regional campuses and online tutoring 

for graduate school 

N/A 

Provision of library, reading room, and seminar room 

Prizes and achievement award for excellent study 

groups

Graduation/ 

Post- 

Graduate 

Stage 

F. Evaluation and Tasks 

Library Service Development of e-Library system including e-Book 

Diploma and License 

Service 

Provided upon graduation 

Provision of Career and 

Graduate School 

Information/Counseling 

Development of career guide program, individually 

carried out 

Introduction to Intensive 

None 


Alumni Association Independently operated by each department 

○It is no exaggeration to say that KNOU is South Korea’s center for lifelong higher/ 

distance education. The tradition was started in 1972, when learning opportunities 

were provided to a neglected segment of the population. The large number of 

graduates (450,000), and the low tuition fee prove that KNOU is an unparalleled 

institution. For KNOU, introduction of the Internet and e-Learning was a huge 

challenge that involved changing the established structure. From 2004 to 2009, 

KNOU converted itself into a Mega-University through ICT; as a result, e-Learning 

became its primary media. Implementation of the quality management system in 

2007 that uses instructor-evaluation and self-evaluation is expected to accelerate 

this conversion. 

○Lifelong education in South Korea is used as a supplementary measure for existing 

education. This is also applicable to higher learning, i.e., e-Learning is used as 

a supplementary tool rather than as a complete alternative option. It stays at the 

level of simply converting unilateral offline lectures into online lectures to extend 

educational opportunities instead of highlighting the characteristics of e-Learning 

such as the development of critical thinking skills based on interactivity. Given 

such conditions, KNOU will have to diversify its educational methods–for example, 

high-quality interactive lectures for a small number of students seeking a 

higher level of learning such as the honor program ― beyond inexpensive public 

education. 


IV-2 Cyber University 

A. Definition 

Cyber University refers to a type of the higher education institutes specified in Item 

5, Article 2 of the Higher Education Act (2007). Students can learn by educational 

service through the Internet without the limitations of time or space; the institution 

confers bachelor’s degrees or associate’s degrees to students who earn the required 

credits. But the term of Cyber University has been used from the beginning of 

e-Learning. 

B. Related Laws and Regulations and its Change 

1) Distance University in Lifelong Education Act 

The basis for the establishment of Cyber University was the Lifelong Education Act, 

at the beginning in 2000. But it was called Lifelong Education Institutes in the Form 

of Distance University (Abbreviation: Distance University)” according to Clause 3, 

Article 33 of the revised Lifelong Education Act. Based on this Act, 9 universities 

opened in 2001, 6 universities in 2002, 1 university in 2003, and 1 university in 

2004, in total 17 distance universities opened until 2008. 

2) Cyber University in the Higher Education Act 

As the Article related “Cyber University” added into to the Higher Education Act 

in 2007, the legal base for establishment of Cyber University was changed from 

Lifelong Education Act to Higher Education Act. After this settlement, only school 

foundations are able to establish a cyber university, which could meet the requirements 

for teaching facilities required by the establishment of a cyber university as 

specified in the Higher Education Act. And existing Distance University can be converted 

to Cyber University in the Higher Education Act by their request, if they 

meet the requirements 

With this change, 11 out of 17 existing distance universities were converted into 


cyber universities in 2009 in the Higher Education Act, and 4 more distance universities 

were changed also in 2010. On the other hand, 2 new cyber universities 

were established according to the revised Higher Education Act in 2008-2009. 

C. Status of Cyber University: Foundation, Entrance, Enrollment, Graduates 

There are 17 cyber universities based on the Higher Education Act and 2 distance 

universities based on Lifelong Education Act in 2010. But we have information about 

16 cyber universities and 2 distance universities, because one university has started 

advertising for students in 2010. As of April 1, 2009, 18 universities admitted 27,960 

new students; 80,606 students enrolled. There are also 7,290 part-time students enrolled 

through the Credit Bank System. The number of graduates increased by 16,000 

compared to last year, and the cumulative number of graduates is 57,946. 

In aspects of student’s educational background, the portion of student with degree 

of High School by all new students decreased from 84% in 2002 to 57% in 2009, 

whereas the portion of college graduates increased sharply from 5.2% to 30.5%. 

However, the portion of new student with bachelor’s or master’s degree is less than 

10% over last 8 years. However, overall the data show the portion of students without 

bachelor’s degrees is 90%. 

Division 

Bachelor’s 

Course 

EducationalFoundation 

Table Ⅳ-2-1 Status of Cyber Universities in 2009 

Founding 

Organization 

Kyunghee 

University 

System 

Kwangdong 

School 

Young Gwang 

School 

(Including the Converted Ones Approved until Oct. 30, 2009) 

Name of 

University 

Kyunghee Cyber 

University 

Gukje Digital 

University 

Daegu Cyber 

University 

Foundation/ 

Conversion 

(initial) 

2010 

Entrance 

Quota 

Students 

Enrolled 

Total Student 

(part-time student 

included.) 

2009(2001) 3,000 9,138 9,201 

2009(2003) 750 2,009 2,211 

2009(2002) 1,500 3,233 3,469 


Associate 

Degree 

Course 

Educational 

Foundation 

Dongseo 

Academic 

Institute 

Dongwon 

Scholarship 

Society 

Shinil School 

Daeyang 

School 

Wongwang 

School 

Digital 

University of 

Korea 

Bongam School 

of Education 

Hanyang 

School 

Hwashin 

School 

Seoul School 

of Performing 

Arts 

Open Cyber 

University 

Seoul Digital 

University 

Hanmunhwa 

School 

Yeungjin 

Educational 

Foundation 

16 Bachelor’s Degree Courses, 

1 Associate Degree Course 

Busan Digital 

University 

Cyber Hankuk 

University of 

Foreign Studies 

Seoul Cyber 

University 

Sejong Cyber 

University 

Wongwang 

Digital 

University 

Digital 

University of 

Korea 

Korea Cyber 

University 

Hanyang Cyber 

University 

Hwashin Cyber 

University 

Digital Seoul 

Culture Arts 

University 

Open Cyber 

University 

Seoul Digital 

University 

Global Cyber 

University 


2009(2002) 1,000 2,253 3,099 

2009(2004) 1,600 4,699 4,728 

2009(2001) 2,900 8,344 8,412 

2009(2001) 1,460 4,357 4,407 

2009(2002) 1,500 3,371 3,386 

2009(2001) 2,500 7,057 7,156 

2009(2001) 1,650 4,892 4,968 

2009(2002) 3,000 10,174 10,228 

2009 360 76 82 

2010(2002) 990 2,961 4,227 

2010(2001) 1,000 2,242 12,267 

2010(2001) 3,000 10,330 3,230 

2010 490 - 1,295 

Total: 16 26,700 75,136 2,917 

Yeungjin 

Cyber 

College 

2010(2002) 800 2,213 2,613 

27,500 77,349 87,896

Table Ⅳ-2-2 Status of Lifelong Education Facilities in the Form of Distance 

University in 2009-2010 

Division Founding Organization 


Course 

Associate’s Degree 

Course 

School 

Foundation 

School 

Foundation 

Kyungbuk 

School 

Hanminjok 

School 

Name of 

University 

Youngnam Cyber 

University 

World Cyber 

College 

Foundation 

2010 

Entrance 

2009 N of 

Students 

2001 600 964 

2001 1,300 2,293 

1 Bachelor’s Degree Course and 1 Associate Degree Course 1,900 3,257 

Table Ⅳ-2-3 Number of Graduates of Cyber University over the Last 3Years 

Number of 

Degrees Issued 

(Cumulative 

Total) 

Division April 1, 2007 April 1, 2008 April 1, 2009 

Bachelor’s Degree Program 20,538 34,963 49,251 

Associate’s Degree Program 5,081 6,674 8,695 

Subtotal 25,617 41,637 57,946 

Table Ⅳ-2-4 Educational Background of Students (April 1, 2009) 

Year Enrollment 

2002 

2003 

2004 

2005 

2006 

2007 

2008 

2009 

9,920 

10,987 

10,459 

14,620 

18,138 

16,789 

21,001 

22,814 

High School 

Graduate 

84.0 

86.7 

74.2 

64.1 

66.6 

61.4 

59.9 

57.2 

Educational Background of New Students (%) 

Qualification 

Examination 

3.4 

3.8 

11.3 

2.9 

11.3 

7.7 

4.7 

4.0 

College 

Graduate 

5.2 

4.4 

6.9 

19.3 

14.7 

18.5 

23.8 

30.5 

University 

Graduate 

6.9 

4.0 

6.6 

12.1 

6.4 

9.1 

9.9 

7.0 


Graduate 

Average 69.3 6.1 15.4 7.8 1.5 

90.8% 

0.5 

1.1 

1.2 

1.6 

1 

3.3 

1.6 

1.3 


D. Teaching and Learning Methods 

Most of the e-Learning contents have been produced in video files or flash-typed 

multimedia files and then delivered with streaming service. e-Learning contents are 

uploaded in the e-class on LMS/LCMS. Students are asked to study that contents 

and carry out the tasks assigned to them such as discussion and other learning 

activities. One credit consists of 50 minutes of class time for 15 weeks; 50 minutes 

of e-class time is recommended to involve the at least 25 minutes long in the case 

of teacher‘s lecture video files. The remaining 25 minutes are for student’s online 

learning activities. For this online activity, A course includes tutorial, problem-based 

learning activity, discussion, project which students should do. 

Most cyber universities have their own LMS/LCMS (Learning Management System); 

LMS is usually integrated with their school affairs management system. To support 

the interaction, recent LMS/LCMS starts to provide applications for synchronous interaction 

in addition to the bulletin boards, which could support asynchronous 

interaction. Achievement evaluation must be done strictly and accurately with online 

and off-line midterm/final test, assignments, participation into online discussion, etc. 

For the equity and security of evaluation, the system requires students to use a digital 

certificate to log on to the system; But some cyber universities, however, prefer faceto-face 

examinations at the end of semester, like face-to-face educational contexts. 

E. Summary and Prospects 

Since the foundation in 2001, cyber universities have been making progress in all 

aspects of e-Learning and organization management like contents development, managing 

the learning process, strict evaluation etc. They now have 22,814 new students, 

80,606 students enrolled in degree programs (a total of 87,896, including part-time 

students), and 57,946 graduates a year. However, a few issues need to be discusseded. 

First of all, the complexity and confusion in the national laws and regulations that 

have drawn criticism since the establishment of the Cyber University were eliminated 

to a certain degree. Nonetheless, the opinion, which the quality of e-Learning is still 

dubious and the ethical foundation are still week, exist. Therefore, to overcome these 


isses, we need to cultivate ethical consciousness of students and to change our learning 

culture in addition to improving quality. And the evaluatiion of cyber university needs 

to be through an evolutional process for quality improvement, also. 

IV-3 Distance Graduate School 

A. Definition 

Distance Graduate School refers to graduate school that confers master’s degrees 

through e-Learning. According to Higher Education Act, Distance Graduate School 

is classified as a type of special graduate school (Articles 29 and 29-2 of the Higher 

Education Act), which is aimed for satisfying the needs of adult’s lifelong education 

at the post-college education level. In addition, Distance Graduate School is the most 

popular ways to get the master’s degree through e-Learning. The Ministry of 

Education, Science, and Technology (MEST) should be authorize its foundation. It 

needs as same facilities as Cyber University does. All the learning activity and most 

of them are carried out in cyber space and most of contents delivery is through 

internet. Distance Graduate School can provide research courses additionally, also. 

B. Related Laws and Regulation 

Distance graduate schools have been established since 2000. The legal basis for its 

foundation was the Higher Education Act, but the criteria for facility and operation 

was defined to follow the regulations about “lifelong education facility in the form 

of distance university” in the Lifelong Education Act. So only the university based 

Higher Education Act could establish distance graduate schools at the beginning. 

Therefore, according to these regulations, five distance graduate schools were established 

in traditional universities (Sookmyung Women’s University, Joongbu University, 

Sejong University, Sungkyunkwan University, and Hanyang University) and one distance 

graduate school was established in Korea National Open University in 2001- 

2007. But now, because of the legal changes in 2007, distance graduate schools 


can be established in Cyber University in Higher Education Act, too. Hanyang Cyber 

University had a permission to found a distance graduate school in 2009; it opened 

in 2010. 

On the other hand, the existing graduate schools belonged to traditional university 

can run their educational programs by e-Learning. Because, according to Article 22 

of Higher Education Act, any existing graduate schools at traditional university are 

allowed to run their courses in every type of class, for example, night classes, summer/winter 

classes, broadcast and communication-oriented classes, and field classes according 

to their school’s regulations. And Article 29 of the Higher Education Act defines that 

the graduate schools can run non-degree research courses in addition to degree courses. 

So, As of 2010, distance master’s courses using e-Learning categorized into 4 types 

by its belongings; 1) one distance graduate schools at Korea National Open University, 

2) 5 distance graduate schools at traditional universities, 3) 1 distance graduate school 

at a cyber university, and 2 online programs at existing graduate schools 

C. Status of Cyber Graduate School; Establishment, Entrance, Enrollments, Graduates 

Distance graduate school is classified as a special graduate school under the Higher 

Education Act. As of 2009, there were 7 distance graduate schools including 5 at 

face-to-face universities, 1 at Korea National Open University, and 1 at Cyber 

University. Graduate School at Korea National Open University is a national; the 

other 6 schools are privately owned (refer to ). Following Table shows 

the Titles, Entrance quota (2010), available Majors, Foundation Year, and Number 

of Graduates. The entrance quota was 1,260 students in2009; it increased to 1,550 

ones in 2010. Most of e-Learning courses or curricula at distance graduate schools 

are in the field of business administration, education, and social welfare (refer to 

). 

On the other hand, Online master’s programs are established at Ajou University 

Graduate School of Business Administration and Hankuk University of Foreign 


Studies College of Business Administration; the institutions running research courses 

are Sogang University, offering a short-term online MBA course, and Ajou University 

Graduate School of Business Administration, offering the AICPA online research 

course (refer to ) 

Table Ⅳ-3-1 Courses Offered at Distance Graduate School 

(Estimated in February, 2010) 


Name of 

University 

Korea 

National 

Open 

University 

Sookmyong 

Women’s 

University 

Joongbu 

University 

Sejong 

University 

Sungkyunk 

wan 

University 

Hanyang 

University 

Hanyang 

Cyber 

University 

Title of Graduate 

School and Website 


http://grad.knou.ac.kr/ 

Distance Graduate 

School 

http:// 

egrad.sookmyung.ac.kr 

Cyber Graduate School 

http:// 

cyber.joongbu.ac.kr/ 


of Industry eMBA 

http://www.emba 

.ac.kr 


school(iMBA) 

http://www.imba.ac.kr 

Graduate School of 

Clinical Nursing 

http:// 

hydng.hanyang.a 

c.kr 

Distance Graduate 

School 

http:// 

gs.hanyangcyber.ac.kr 

Entrance 

Quota 

400 

200 

280 

120 


Majors Open 

Public Administration, Management, Computer 

Science, Lifelong Education, Early Childhood 

Education, Home Economics 

Business Administration for Elderly Distance 

Education and Technology Children’s Culture 

Contents, Early Childhood Education, Cos- 

metic and Beauty 

Education Admin. and Management. Educat- 

ional Technology, Science and Technology 

Education, Education Counseling and 

Psychology Social Welfare 

Real Estate Management, Hotel and Tourism 

Management e-Business, Marketing, 

200 Business Administration 

60 

290 

Total 7 1,550 

Science of Clinical Nursing for Hospice 

Science of Clinical Nursing for Senior Science 

of Senior Welfare 

Graduate School of Business Administration 

(MBA, Green-Tech MBA, Hotel and 

Tourism MBA, ITMBA, Media MBA) 

Graduate School of Human Services (Child and 

Family Studies, Counseling Psychology) 

Graduate School of Real Estate (Real Estate 

Industry and Law) 

Sep. 

2001 

Mar. 

2002 

Mar. 

2002 

Sep. 

2002 

Mar. 

2003 

Mar. 

2005 

Mar. 

2010 

N of 

Graduate 

926 

(Feb. 

2009) 

― 

― 

― 

― 

80 

(Aug. 

2009)

Table Ⅳ-3-2 Status of Online Master’s Courses and Research Courses 

at Existing Graduate Schools 

Online 

Master's 

Course 

Online 

Research 

Course 

Name of School 

Ajou University 

Hankuk University 

of Foreign Studies 

Ajou University 

Sogang University 

D. Summary and Prospects 

Type and Name of 



Business Administration 

College of Business 



Business Administration 



Available Subject 

Online MBA (General Business 

Administration Major), e-Business 

Strategy MBA, Insurance MBA 

International Finance MBA Online 

Program 

AICPA Online Research Course 

Short-Term Online MBA (SHAPE) 

Operation 

Period 

March 

2000~2006 

March 2005 

~ Present 

2000 ~ 

Present 

2006~ 

Present 

Distance Graduate School is established in 2001 in KNOU for the first time. Now 

we have seven Distance Graduate Schools in Korea and a total admission quota is 

over 1,500. In addition, we have online program for master’s degree and research 

students in the existing graduate schools, as existing traditional graduate schools can 

open e-Learning course according to Higher Education Act. 

But we have still some issues to be discussed and solved. First, there are some opinions 

that the quality of master’s degree by e-Learning is doubtful or uncertain. For 

that reason, there is some discrimination, e.g., some national licenses or certificates 

are not conferred to the graduates of Distance Graduate School. Moreover, the curriculum 

of Distance Graduate School has to be composed of 5-term. These regulations 

mean that e-Learning is inferior to face-to-face education. If we put ourselves in 

another’s place, however, this is a double restriction based on uncertain fact. 

Therefore, we need to retouch those regulations for growth of adult education. And 

Schools may have to try their best to improve the Quality of teaching and learning 

and considere the ethical issues more seriously, too. 


IV-4 e-Learning for Enhancing Vocational Competency 

A. e-Learning in Public servants training 

1) Related Laws and Regulations 

“Public servants training” refers to the recurrent education for public servants working 

in national and provincial government, organizations affiliated with government, and 

state-invested entities. Public servants training schedule is provided at the beginning 

of every year in accordance with the Public Servants Cyber Training Guide as specified 

in Article 1 of the Public Servant Education and Training Act, i.e., “Public 

servants should be educated and trained to develop their attitude, skills and competencies 

for doing their jobs and tasks effectively.” e-Learning was applied to all 

the public servant training from the second half of 2001 in accordance with the 

“Public Servant Cyber Training Guide” established by the Ministry of Government 

Administration and Home Affairs. In addition, most public organizations introduced 

e-Learning to their system according to the e-Learning Industry Development Act 

and its Enforcement Decree from 2004. 

2) Status of e-Learning in Public servants training 

e-Learning in Public servants training is actively used in the Central Personnel 

Committee, Seoul Metropolitan Government, and Gyeonggi-Do Provincial 

Government etc. In addition, public enterprise likes Korea Electric Power Corp. is 

using e-Learning in their training. Because the e-Learning Industry Development Act 

and its Enforcement Decree recommended that the public institutions use 20% of 

their training program in the way of e-Learning. Therefore, the scale of e-Learning 

use is continuously increasing 

The e-Learning expenditure in the public sector was KRW 137.5 million in 2006, 

KRW 163.3 million in 2007. Even though there is no much data about the budget 

of 2010, the budget is being estimated quite big than 2007. Therefore, a ratio of 

e-Learning in the training program of public institutions increased each year from 


43% in 2005 to 56.9% in 2007. The ratio of e-Learning courses to total courses 

of public institutions training in 2007 was 21.6%. 

Table Ⅳ-4-1 Ratio of e-Learning in the Training Program of Public 

Institution (2006~2007) 

Division 2006 2007 

Central Government Agency 

Provincial Government Agency 

Government Enterprise 

Government Corporation 

Office of Education District 

State-Funded Body 

State-Invested Body 

Metropolitan Government Agency 

43.8 

38.3 

9.5 

38.7 

100 

65.6 

78.6 

63.6 

71.4 

41.4 

55.6 

55.6 

100 

69.6 

87 

100 

Increase and 

Decrease (%) 

27.6 

3.1 

46.1% 

16.9 

― 

4.0 

8.4 

36.4 

Total 47.9 56.9 19.0 

3) Status of e-Learning Use in COTI 

The Central Officials Training Institute (COTI) offers e-Learning courses for national 

government officials in accordance with the Public Official Training Act 

and Cyber Training Guide of the government. COTI opened the Cyber Training 

Center and developed 8 coursewares in 2000; it started to operate courses in 

2001. COTI is in charge of developing, managing, and sharing courseware each 

year. COTI developed 8 courseware in 2001, 8 in 2002, 12 in 2003, 8 in 2004, 

5 in 2005, and 8 in 2006. And they ran 50 blended courses in 2007. The number 

of shared courses between institutions increased from 9 courses in 2002 to 92 

courses in 2006. The total number of e-Learning grew from 16,982 in 2005 to as 

many as 36,593 in 2006. 


Table Ⅳ-4-2 Status of Central Officials Training Institute 


(*unit: KRW 100 million) 

Division 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 

e-Learning Budget(*) 654 1,637 1,359 1,222 1,197 

N of 

Organizations 

e-Training 

Blended 


35 56 91 

No Data 

99 93 

Number of e-Learning Course 

Newly developed 

4 9 7 8 10 

Number of 

Courses 

e-Training 170 195 742 727 817 

Blended 


17 11 10 10 16 

As provincial government, Seoul (Seoul Human Resource Development Center, 

SHRDC) and Gyeonggi-do (Gyeonggi Women’s e-Learning Center) are known for 

the most active local government for using e-Learning. SHRDC offers over 200 online 

courses, and approximately 40,000 people completed the courses. The provinces ran 

146 courses and 30 courses among them were approved of by the Korea Educational 

Contents Certification Council (KECCC) 

B. e-Learning in Teacher Training 

There are two kinds in teacher training; qualification training and elective job training. 

e-Learning is usually used for elective job training. For enhancing the effectiveness 

and efficiency of training, blended training is being recommended. Blended training 

means the combination of face-to-face and distance training like e-Learning. 

Therefore, e-Learning in teacher training is called “Distance Educational Training 

(DET) for Teachers.” DET involves e-Learning and blended training, if more than 

a half of it is carried out through e-Learning. 

1) Types of Distance Educational Training Providers 

The legal basis for the accreditation of the distance educational training center is

Clause 2, Article 2 of the Regulation on the Training of Teacher, etc. (President 

Decree). There are two types of Distance Educational Training Providers; 1) Private 

type: Distance Education Training Center (private institute, public institution, affiliated 

institute with university), 2) Public type: Provincial Education Center 

(organizations affiliated with municipal/provincial education office, Korea National 

Institute for Special Education). If a private training center wants to provide DET, 

it has to be authorized by the Minister of Education, Science, and Technology (MEST) 

as Distance Education Training Centers (DETC). On the other hand, public provincial 

Educational Training Centers do not have to be authorized by MEST. However, every 

course and curriculum, in both types of training center, has to be evaluated and 

approved by MEST. The evaluation criteria of distance training contents are as 

follows. 

Table Ⅳ-4-3 Evaluation Criteria for Distance Training Contents 

Evaluation Area Criteria Points 

Needs Analysis Analysis of Learning Environment 

Suggestion of Learning Goal, Learning Course for 

4 

Instructional Design 

Different Level, Selection of Learning Element/Data 

Composition and Organization of Screen, Interface 

and Progress 

33 

Contents Design 

Selection of Contents, Organization of Contents, 

Difficulty, Workload 

40 

Teaching-Learning 

Strategy 

Teaching-Learning Strategy, Motivation Strategy 8 

Interactivity Between Learners and Contents 4 

Student Evaluation 

Appropriateness of Evaluated Contents, Evaluation 

Method, Application of Evaluation Tools 

7 

Feedback Provision of Evaluation Results 2 

Sharing/Distribution Metadata 2 

Ethics Issue of Ethical Value Pass or fail 

Copyright Application of copyright Pass or fail 

Total 100 


2) Status of Distance Education Institutes and Users 

In December 2000, 21 institutes was authorized by the MEST at first, this figure 

has increased to 39 institutes in 2001, 56 institutes in 2005, and 69 institutes in 

2008. But the number of institute is not on big increase. But the number of users 

of distance educational training has been increasing annually on a large scale. The 

number of users was 1,830 in 2000, increased to 160,000 in 2006 and 217,000 in 

2007. By the way, the observable thing is that the number of DETC of each sector 

(private, affiliated with university, municipal) is changed to be similar, but discrepancy 

in the number of user gets bigger. For example, 79.3% of the user used certified 

distance training institutes, and the other 20.7% used provincial education centers 

in 2007. According to the internal survey of the Korea Education & Research 

Information Service (KERIS), the cumulative number of people who took distance-training 

course until 2007 was 530,000. 

Table Ⅳ-4-4 Number of Distance Education Institutes 

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 

Private(Certified) 5 10 18 19 21 20 22 24 24 

Affiliated with 

University(Certified) 

14 17 18 16 18 17 19 21 23 

Municipal 2 12 15 17 18 19 20 20 22 

Total 21 39 51 52 57 56 61 65 69 

Fig. Ⅳ-4-1 Status of Distance Education Institutes in graph 


Table Ⅳ-4-5 N of Users of Distance Educational Training 

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 

Certified 1.830 18,820 24,786 50,367 68,273 83,475 116,255 172,597 

Municipal/ 

Provincial 

0 26,633 18,397 19,306 23,723 29,630 46,692 45,030 

Total 1.830 45,453 43,183 69,673 91,996 113,105 162,947 217,627 

Fig. Ⅳ-4-2 Status of Distance Teacher Training in graph 

3) Status of Contents Development and Curriculum 

According to the 2008 survey, 431 Courses (contents) were applied for evaluation, 

72% of which were authorized until 2007; the authorization rate for recent 4 years 

(2003~2007) was 80%. The most popular courses were foreign language courses 

(23.5%) and humanities (counseling) courses (19.9%). The e-Learning use rates of 

schoolteachers (elementary, middle, high) were 95.2%, 92.9%, 90.5%, and 54.8% 

of kindergarten teachers has used, too. The percentage of each subject courses per 

all courses was as Fig. [Ⅳ-5]; English (35%), Video/Multimedia (16.7%), Pedagogy 

(14.2%), and Counseling Psychology (8.9%), etc. 


Fig. Ⅳ-4-3 The percentage of each subject courses offered (Oct., 2008) 

C. Internet-based Distance Education and Training (IDET) project 

1) Related Laws and Regulations and Projects 

Internet-based Distance Education and Training (IDET) is the name designated to 

e-Learning in the Vocational Competency Development by the Ministry of Labor. 

e-Learning was introduced to the vocational training program of the Ministry of Labor 

in 1999; it was revised into the Internet-based Distance Training System (January, 

2002). “The Internet-based Distance Training Course Review Project” and “The 

Distance Training Institute Evaluation Project” were implemented since 2003. 

Evaluation results have been used for subsidizing training expenses. This is for promoting 

the quality of e-Learning program. 

2) Changes of e-Learning Use in Corporate 

As knowledge management in organizations is getting more important, the role of 

e-Learning is becoming a part of the knowledge management system instead of simply 

delivering the knowledge. As a result, corporate e-Learning became a vital cog in 

the knowledge management system, which connects performance and training such 

as the sharing and distribution of knowledge, enhancement of work efficiency, creation 

of new knowledge, and cultivation and evaluation of competent people. Recently, 


e-Learning is becoming the axis of a development of knowledge network at the national 

level. 

3) Status of Internet-based Distance Training Support 

The scale and status of corporate e-Learning is difficult to measure. However, we 

could know the number of Internet-based Distance Education and Training Institutes 

and Number of Courses. Vocational training facilities, training corporations/organizations, 

schools under the Higher Education Act, lifelong education facilities, all 

kinds of educational organizations like private institutes could be Internet-based 

Distance Education and Training Institutes. There were 144 institutes as of 2009. 

The number of institutes fluctuates with demand and market conditions. 

Table Ⅳ-4-6 Number of IDET Institutes and Number of Courses Divided 

by Institute Type 

Division of Institutes 

2006 2007 2008 2009 

Institutes Courses Institutes Courses Institutes Courses Institutes Courses 

Total 122 41,470 145 62,206 147 79,144 141 87,957 

VCDT Facilities 25 13,491 28 17,951 25 20,430 23 18,682 

VCDT Corporation 0 0 1 8 1 15 0 0 

VCDT Organization 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 

School Under the Higher 

Education Act 

1 1 1 5 1 6 1 5 

Lifelong Education Facilities 58 23,313 77 37,055 85 51,032 86 61,866 

Institute 0 0 0 0 1 4 1 14 

Business Owner/Business 

Organization, Other Facilities 

33 3,164 32 4,050 25 3,752 23 3,026 

Others 5 1,501 6 3,137 9 3,905 7 4,364 

(VCDT: Vocational Competency Development and Training) 

The support scale to the IDET program has tendency to concentrate on manufacturing, 

finance and insurance, information and communications, wholesale and retail, con- 


struction, electricity/gas/steam and waterworks, health/social welfare services, transportation, 

specialized occupations, science, and technological services, in that order. 

The number and amount of support provided to Internet distance training programs 

are increasing each year. In 2009, approximately 1.85 million cases and KRW 95 

billion were supported. The business category that received the largest amount of 

support was manufacturing (approximately KRW 28 billion for 572,767 cases), finance 

and insurance (approximately KRW 20.6 billion for 393,372 cases) and various 

information service businesses (KRW 18.2 billion for 335,488 cases). 

Table Ⅳ-4-7 Status of Internet-based Distance education and Training; 

N of Trainees, Expenses 

Business Category 

Cases 


2007 2008 2009 

Expenses 

(won) 

Cases Expenses Cases Expenses 

Agriculture/Forestry/ 

Fisheries 

246 12,842,700 149 8,625,900 311 16,608,900 

Mining 598 30,921,980 531 23,681,018 217 12,087,500 

Manufacture 543,324 25,116,577,132 415,800 21,908,069,055 572,767 27,990,524,438 

Electric/Gas/Steam, 

and Waterworks 

Sewer, Waste Disposal/ 

Raw Material 

Regeneration/Environment 

72,830 2,481,624,604 76,113 3,273,968,624 74,737 3,390,648,704 

1,107 50,578,840 839 39,511,780 967 52,313,420 

Construction 43,021 2,443,194,203 57,403 3,046,292,900 78,384 4,085,478,849 

Wholesale and Retail 57,822 3,291,229,498 73,859 4,078,786,192 97,002 5,337,388,891 

Transportation 22,931 1,142,653,275 24,588 1,303,396,358 53,859 2,705,924,944 

Lodging and 

Restaurants 

Publication/Video/ 

Broadcast and 

Communication/ 

Information Services 

7,102 401,903,457 9,529 473,238,813 14,073 712,448,376 

190,918 12,081,949,459 219,174 13,117,876,230 335,488 18,222,734,606 

Finance and Insurance 239,456 12,828,009,631 364,919 20,233,117,710 393,372 20,632,470,566 

Real Estate/Lease 7,321 487,655,846 6,767 462,784,180 14,467 919,008,808

Specialized, Science and 

Technology Services 

Business Facilities 

Management and 

Business Support Services 

Public Administration, 

National Defense and 

Social Welfare 


28,473 1,556,566,335 34,931 1,952,410,459 43,773 2,312,805,272 

15,103 850,986,603 19,750 1,057,725,340 20,394 981,825,040 

58,390 2,932,932,774 20,744 1,331,323,072 22,527 1,164,076,630 

Education Service 20,793 950,068,502 48,124 2,227,808,632 48,918 2,305,562,354 

Health, Social Welfare 

Services 

Arts, Sports, 

and Leisure Services 

Association, Organization, 

Repair, and Personal 

Services 

Domestic Employment/ 

Unclassifiable 

Production 

27,127 1,629,407,453 26,605 1,637,484,620 49,897 2,758,214,152 

4,896 259,596,510 16,272 868,101,672 16,206 827,525,760 

5,773 307,241,448 13,749 644,532,656 13,820 610,597,612 

6 405,500 3 230,600 13 817,500 

International and 

Foreign Institutes 

0 0 0 0 0 0 

Total 1,347,237 68,856,345,750 1,429,849 77,688,965,811 1,851,192 95,039,062,322 

The number of people using IDET increased to 2.05 million in 2008, only to decrease 

to 1.73 million in 2009. Nonetheless, the figure is approximately 3 times larger than 

2005(620,000 cases) (). The rate of students completing IDET program 

was at around 70% in 2003, 86% in 2004, 87% in 2009. The number of overall 

users per session in commissioned training was smaller than that in self-training, 

but the completion rate was higher. 

5) A Center for Evaluation and Support to IDET Institutes and Contents 

Evaluation of IDET institutes and their contents using the e-Learning system have 

been started since 2003. To carry out this task exclusively, e-Learning Center was 

established under the Korea Research Institute for Vocational Education & Training 

(KRIVET). This center established e-Learning Plan (November 2003) for improving 


the system and infrastructure, cooperating with the Federation of Korea e-Learning 

Companies, Human Resources Development Service of Korea, and Korea Research 

Institute for Vocational Education & Training. 

D. Issues and Suggestions 

First, the use of e-Learning in Public Servants Training relies heavily on the institutional 

and financial support of the government according to the e-Learning Industry 

Development Act. Now we have some tasks related to enhancing the quality of it. 

For this, the government has to elaborate the quality control indicators and system. 

And the related company have to develop excellent contents as well as efficient learning 

management system, which has important tools for quality learning. Moreover, 

the providers have to develop excellent curricula and and manage the learning process 

effectively. 

Second, e-Learning for teacher training is expected to grow, as the teacher training 

turned to be mandatory since 2007. However, e-Learning for teacher training have 

to focus on enhancing teachers’ teaching skills. For this teachers need more opportunity 

to contemplate their teaching activities and discuss actively with their 

colleagues. Therefore, we have to design training program more creatively, which 

uses freely all type of teaching methods like seminar, forum, etc. However, the 

e-Learning guide of MEST is limited to deliverable ready –made contents. 

Third, e-Learning in business has made great progress thanks to the financial support 

and educational expenses refund by Internet-based Distance Education and Training 

Act. This tendency will be continued for a few years. And e-Learning in continuing 

education is expected to grow for some time along with the increase of demand 

for lifelong education, too. 

In conclusion, we are at the turning point of new e-Learning concept for cooperation 

and diversity. Therefore to ensure the expecting groth of e-Learning, we have to 

plan for higher level of e-Learing for experts, which involves more participations, 


more interations, and more coopreation and collaboration, and implement in due 

sequence. This could not be achieved under the concept of e-Learning by principle 

of economy of scale. 

References 

Korea Communication Commission, Korea Internet & Security Agency (2009). 2009 

Survey on the status of internet use 

Ministry of Knowledge Economy, Korea Institute for Electronic Commerce (2009). 

2009 Survey on the Status of the e-Learning Industry 

IV-5 e-Learning for All 

A. Air and Correspondence High School 

1) Overview 

○Air and Correspondence High School was established in accordance with Article 

51 of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act, Article 94 of its Enforcement 

Decree, and Presidential Decree on the Standards for the Establishment of Air 

and Correspondence High Schools and its Enforcement Regulation. Correspondence 

High Schools were established in affiliation with 11 public high schools in Seoul 

and Busan in 1974; currently, 40 Correspondence High Schools have been established 

in affiliation with public high schools around the country. 

○The Correspondence High School was established to provide those who could not 

enter high school or who had to give up their studies in the middle of the program 

for financial and other personal reasons the opportunity to receive secondary educa- 


tion through courses provided via broadcast and communication (distance classes), 

offline classes, and personal feedback from tutor to complete high school. 

Fig. Ⅳ-7 Vision of Air and Correspondence High School 

Source: Korea Education Development Institute Air and Correspondence 

High School (www.cyber.hs.kr) 

○As shown in [Fig. Ⅳ-7], Air and Correspondence High School’s vision is to develop 

a cyber lifelong learning system for implementing e-Learning that is available 

to anyone, anywhere, anytime. With ease and convenience, it seeks to expand opportunities 

to receive secondary education for the 8.2 million people who have 

been deprived of an education as well as to embody an educational welfare policy 

at the national level. 

○The primary goal of the Correspondence High School is to produce a competent 

workforce. The school is determined to produce able workers by coping with the 

rapid changes in economic, social, and cultural conditions as well as the advancement 

of science and technology. The second goal is to provide an opportunity 

to receive a secondary education. The school is committed to providing this opportunity 

to those who could not enter high school due to financial conditions, etc. 


The third goal is to enhance the level of national education. Finally, the school 

is determined to spread and establish the concept of lifelong education, thereby 

further enhancing the national level of education. 

○82% of all students are adults 20 years old or older, with 18% of school age. 

The Correspondence High School is established only as an affiliate of a general 

high school offering a regular curriculum, and teachers are accessed from the high 

school to which the Correspondence High School is affiliated. 

○The number of school days in a year is used in 240 broadcast and information 

and communication-oriented distance classes and 24 offline classes. Broadcast and 

information and communication-oriented distance classes are provided through radio 

and Internet, but radio classes will not be available after 2009; distance classes 

will be provided exclusively through the Internet beginning in 2010. The 

e-Learning phase of the Correspondence High School’s curriculum began development 

in 2004 and is provided to students through the Internet cyber education 

system. 

○Like regular high schools, the Correspondence High School offers a three-year 

program; after completing the three-year program, students of the Correspondence 

High School will receive the same diploma as regular high school students. The 

academic schedule of the Correspondence High School is the same as regular high 

school except 80% of the curriculum of regular high school takes place online. 

The class consists of broadcast and information and communication-oriented distance 

classes, offline classes, and correction instruction. 

2) Status of School and Students 

○As of 2009, the Correspondence High School was established in 40 high schools, 

with Gangwon-do having the largest number of Correspondence High Schools (7), 

and Daegu, Ulsan and Jeju Island having the smallest number (1). Forty 

Correspondence High Schools nationwide are operating 404 classes: 137 classes 

in the 1 st year, 135 in the 2 nd year, and 132 in the 3 rd year. Schools in Seoul 

operated the largest number of classes with 90 in 5 schools; Jeollabuk-do offered 

the smallest number of classes with 12 classes in 2 schools. 


Fig. Ⅳ-8 Status of Classes in Correspondence High School in Each 

Region (First Term, 2009) 

Source: Korean Educational Development Institute Air and Correspondence High 

School Management Center (2009) 

○Among the 4,454 graduates of Correspondence High School in 2009, 1,724 (38.7%) 

entered a university or college. shows graduates who entered university/college 

by type of school. Most of the graduates (934 out of 1,724, 54.2%), 

entered a 2-year college. 

Table Ⅳ-25 Students Entering University/College After Graduation 

Division 2-Year College Distance University 4-Year University 

Number of Students (%) 934 (54.2%) 552 (32.0%) 238 (13.8%) 

Source: Korean Educational Development Institute Air and Correspondence High 

School Management Center Website (www.cyber.hs.kr) 

○Air and Correspondence High School provides information on entrance to 4-year 

universities, 2-year colleges, occupation/major tests, learning style tests, and guidelines 

to each subject to support students wishing to enter a university or college 


after graduation. 

○Dividing the 15,040 students into 5-year increments, students 16-19 years old 

formed the largest group (2,639 students, 17.5%), followed by those students 45-49 

years old (15.7%) > students 50-54 years old (13.0%) > and students 40-44 years 

old (12.4%). The distribution of ages showed that students 40--50 years old formed 

the largest group (48%); 28.2% of students were in their 40s, and 19.8% were 

in their 50s. 

Fig. Ⅳ-9 Ratio of Enrolled Students by Age (First Term, 2009) 

Source: Korean Educational Development Institute Air and Corres- pondence 

High School Management Center (2009) 

3) Status of Air and Correspondence High School Cyber Education System 

(2005~2009) 

○Revision of Guidelines Related to e-Learning and Research Efforts 

- The Air and Correspondence High School (“Correspondence High School”) was 

established in affiliation with 11 public high schools in Seoul and Busan in March 

1974 to provide those who could not enter high school or who had to give up 

their studies in the middle of the program for financial and other personal reasons 

the opportunity to receive secondary education and to produce competent people 

capable of contributing to enhancing the level of national education and national 

development. The number of schools increased to 50 in 1987, only to drop to 38 


in 2007 due to the social tendency of favoring higher educational background 

and economic recession. The number increased slightly to 40 as another Correspondence 

High School was established in Howon High School in Euijeongbu-si, 

Gyeonggi-do in 2008; currently, 40 schools are in operation. 

- The Korean Educational Development Institute Air and Correspondence High 

School Management Center pursued the “Correspondence High School Cyber 

Education System Development Project” with support from the Ministry of 

Education, Science, and Technology and municipal/provincial education offices 

in 2004 to realize a school for open lifelong education providing quality e- 

Learning-based educational opportunity to the people neglected in terms of 

education. The center also reorganized laws and systems to provide the basis for 

conversion into an e-Learning-oriented school. They enabled students to complete 

a high school program through e-Learning by converting the radio-oriented unidirectional 

education using public broadcasting system into a cyber education system 

capable of interactive education and from the teaching methods specified in the 

“Presidential Decree on the Standards for the Establishment of the Air and 

Correspondence High School and its Enforcement Regulation” enacted in March 

2006 to the “class based on broadcast and information and communication 

facilities.” 

- The center also revised or newly established Correspondence High School-related 

regulations and policies of all municipal/provincial education offices concerned 

from 2006 to 2007 to provide the legal basis for transforming the Correspondence 

High School into a cyber education system with regard to the organization of 

curriculum, school management, and assignment of teachers. 

- A number of research studies were done to enhance the appropriateness, efficiency, 

and suitability of innovations in the operating system and teaching-learning system 

to successfully transform and institutionalize the cyber education system of the 

Correspondence High School. Studies conducted in 2005 focused on the development 

of the online/offline school operation model and its application in the field 

since the cyber school management system was introduced in 2005; studies carried 

out in 2006 focused on the development of the Correspondence High School in 


connection with the national e-Learning policy and enhancement of sustainability 

of cyber schools. Studies conducted in 2007 focused on the connection between 

the Correspondence High School and lifelong education institutes through conversion 

from the affiliated form of school into an independent form as well as 

measures for operating professional subjects to satisfy the learning desires and 

needs of adult students. Studies underway since 2008 are focusing on developing 

ways of operating the Correspondence High School based on the cyber education 

system. These studies also examine ways of providing support for those who are 

deprived of educational opportunities through the current Correspondence High 

School system such as persons with disabilities, North Korean defectors, children 

of multicultural families, as well as students who dropped out of the Correspondence 

High School course. 

Table Ⅳ-26 Correspondence High School e-Learning-Related Studies 

No. Year Title of Study Research Director 

1 2005 

Study on the Method of Air and Correspondence High School Cyber 

Academic Affairs Management 

Kim Jeong-gyeom 

2 

Study on the Restructuring of Air and Correspondence High School 

2005 

Curricula 

Kim Jae-chun 

3 2005 Study on the Cause of Dropouts in Air and Correspondence High Schools Lee Jong-tae 

4 2006 

5 2006 

6 2006 

7 2006 

8 2006 

9 2007 

Study on the Method of Certifying the Quality of Middle School Academic 

Ability Recognition Program Through e-Learning 

Study on the Establishment and Operation of Air and Correspondence 

Middle Schools for the Legislation of Laws Related to the Establishment 

of Air and Correspondence Middle Schools 

Study on the Method of Ethnic Education for Koreans Based Overseas 

through Cyber Education of the Air and Correspondence High School 

System 

Study on the Development of Air and Correspondence High Schools 

in Connection with the National e-Learning Policy 

Study on the Measures for Enhancing the Substantiality of Academic 

Affairs Management for Air and Correspondence High School s 

Study on the Operation of Professional Curriculum for Air and 

Correspondence High Schools 

Jeon In-sik 

Jo Seok-hun 

Kim Gyeong-geun 

Yang Heui-in 

Kim Jeong-gyeom 



10 2007 

Study on the Establishment of Independent Air and Correspondence 

High Schools 


Jeong Yeong-sik 

11 

Study on the Development of Curriculum for Domestic Science and 

2008 

Commercial Subjects 

Sim Ung-gi 

12 2008 Study on the Development of Curriculum for Industrial Subjects Yang Heui-in 

13 2008 

14 2009 

15 2009 

16 2009 

17 2009 

18 2009 

19 2009 

Study on the 2-Phase Development of the Cyber Education System for 

Air and Correspondence High Schools 

Development of Specialized School Curriculum for Air and 

Correspondence High Schools 

Measures for Diversifying Air and Correspondence High School 

Management for the Bracket Deprived of Education 

Study on Remodeling the e-Learning Contents of Air and Correspondence 

High Schools 

Search of Measures for Integrating the Air and Correspondence High 

Schools and Credit Transfer System 

Measures for Operating the Basic Learning Programs for the Air and 

Correspondence High School System 

Measures for Supporting Students Who Gave up Their Studies Using 

the Air and Correspondence High School System 

Jeong Yeong-sik 


An Seong-hun 

Sim Ung-gi 

Jeon In-sik 

An Seong-hun 

Jeon In-sik 

○Status of e-Learning Lecture Contents Development 

- The Korean Educational Development Institute Air and Correspondence High 

School Management Center has been promoting the Correspondence High School 

Cyber Education System Development Project to develop the educational contents 

required for operating the high school curricula since 2004; the center has developed 

2,159 lectures for 50 subjects for the high school curriculum in the last 

5 years (refer to ). The center also selected 16 optional subjects 

that the school cannot offer due to the difficulty in finding teachers even when 

there is demand from students (e.g., Spanish I, Russian I, Arabic I, German I, 

French I, Japanese II, Career and Occupation, International Geography, Economic 

Geography, Discrete Mathematics, English Writing, Traditional Ethics, Political 

Science, Economics, Earth Science II, and Chemistry II) and developed 765 lectures 

to provide access to the Correspondence High School contents to regular 

high school students as well.

- The center also provided online educational opportunities to learn specialized and 

discretionary activities in 2008 by developing 68 new lectures under the four subjects 

of “Health and Disease Control,” “Challenge! Microsoft Office Applications,” 

“Telling World Story through Pictures and Videos,” and “Jive to Enjoy Life!” 

In addition, the center developed 136 new lectures for English I and Mathematics 

I in 2008 and 136 new lectures for English II and Mathematics II in 2009 as 

per the revised curriculum. 

Table Ⅳ-27 Status of Educational Contents for the Correspondence High School 

Division 

Subject 

2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 Total 

Lectures 

Subject 

Lectures 

Curriculum 

Before the 

Revision 

After the 

Revision 

7 238 10 442 9 374 

2 136 2 136 

33 

4 

1,571 

272 

Rare and Optional 

Subjects 

9 459 4 204 3 102 16 765 

Basic Subjects 2 136 

Specialized/ 

Discretionary Activities 

4 68 4 68 

Total 16 697 14 646 12 476 2 204 2 136 59 2,812 

Subject 

○Status of e-Learning Lecture Operation 

- For students who are not furnished with the equipment required for e-Learning, 

the center decided to phase out radio lectures by withdrawing the 3 rd year program 

in 2008, 2 nd program in 2009, and 1 st year program in 2010, instead of withdrawing 

the lecture immediately in 2008, when the full-scale cyber education system was 

launched. This was to give students the option of radio or Internet lectures. 

Accordingly, students in the 1 st and 2 nd year were able to choose either radio 

or Internet lectures in 2008. The status of Internet lecture users is presented in 

, showing that 90.8 percent used Internet lectures in 2006; however, 

Lectures 

Subject 

Lectures 

Subject 

Lectures 

Subject 

Lectures 


the ratio increased to 96% in 2007, 98.7 percent in 2008, and finally 100% in 

2009. 

Table Ⅳ-28 Status of Internet Lecture Users Among Correspondence High 

School Students 

City/ 

Province 

Seoul 

Busan 

Daegu 

Incheon 

Gwangju 

Daejeon 

Ulsan 

Gyeonggi-do 

Gangwon 

Chungcheongbuk-do 

Chungcheongnam-do 

Jeollabuk-do 

Jeollanam-do 

Gyeongsangbuk-do 

Gyeongsangnam-do 

Jeju Island 

Number 

of Users 

1,205 

256 

199 

240 

196 

110 

51 

338 

253 

161 

190 

144 

122 

320 

295 

101 

2006 2007 2008 2009 

Rate 

(%) 

94.1 

90.1 

99.5 

100.0 

97.0 

90.2 

33.6 

98.5 

81.1 

97.0 

84.4 

100.0 

95.3 

83.3 

100.0 

80.8 

Number 

of Users 

2,378 

559 

420 

472 

396 

334 

252 

789 

642 

373 

367 

255 

299 

766 

586 

256 

Rate 

(%) 

96.1 

98.1 

99.8 

100.0 

98.8 

100.0 

78.0 

100.0 

98.8 

99.5 

86.2 

93.1 

99.3 

97.0 

95.6 

82.3 


Number 

of Users 

2,325 

593 

424 

450 

380 

344 

334 

821 

551 

364 

431 

260 

281 

775 

460 

334 

Rate 

(%) 

98.7 

99.8 

99.8 

100.0 

100.0 

100.0 

100.0 

81.9 

98.7 

98.9 

100.0 

100.0 

99.6 

100.0 

76.0 

100.0 

Number 

of Users 

3,321 

903 

552 

658 

524 

569 

456 

1,533 

942 

542 

680 

406 

472 

1,046 

891 

519 

Rate 

(%) 

100.0 

100.0 

100.0 

100.0 

100.0 

100.0 

100.0 

100.0 

100.0 

100.0 

100.0 

100.0 

100.0 

100.0 

100.0 

100.0 

Total 4,181 90.8 9,143 96.0 9,127 96.1 14,014 100 

- The contents of the Correspondence High School is also provided to ordinary 

students in the form of open lectures through the school’s cyber education system, 

specifically through the Center for Teaching and Learning operated by the Korea 

Educational Development Institute; all contents is available to all high school students 

in South Korea. All lectures were prepared with subtitles, thereby enabling 

persons with hearing impairment to use the contents. The Korea National Institute 

for Special Education added sign language to the Correspondence High School 

contents and serviced them through “Eduable.”

- In 2007, the center developed a contents-sharing system to allow institutes other 

than the Correspondence High School to use the contents freely. The Education 

Office of the Jeju Special Self-Governing Province opened a special course designed 

for students who could not complete the common curriculum for citizens 

due to transfer or return from overseas in the contents-sharing system in 2007 

and offered the Internet course to 79 people (by subject). In 2008, 68 students 

applied for the course through the Education Office of Jeollanam-do; they are 

studying the common curriculum for citizens via the Internet. In 2009, 52 more 

students were given access to the common curriculum for citizens using the contents-sharing 

system through the Education Office of Jeollanam-do, Education 

Office of Jeju Special Self-Governing Province, and Seoul Jeongmin School. The 

details on schools using the contents-sharing system and the number of students 

who applied for the courses offered are presented below . 

Table Ⅳ-29 Status of Applicants for the Common Curriculum Completion Program 

Year Institute Concerned Subjects Offered Number of Students 

2007 

2008 

2009 

Education Office of the Jeju Special 

Self-Governing Province 

11 79 



11 99 

Education Office of Jeollanam-do 11 68 

Education Office of Jeollanam-do 11 21 



7 26 

Seoul Jeongmin School 29 5 

○Status of Student Management and Utilization 

- The use of the cyber education system of the Correspondence High School is 

increasing annually as shown in [Fig. Ⅳ-10]. The average number of monthly 

users by year was 18,120 in 2005 and 28,618 in 2006, only to increase rapidly 

in 2007, 2008, and 2009 to 105,876, 100,427, and 98,112, respectively. The aver- 


age number of accesses each month was 26,697 in 2005, 71,565 in 2006, and 

174,521 in 2007, rapidly increasing by 2.5 times to 442,442 in 2008. Access was 

concentrated on March and April. 

Fig. Ⅳ-10 Status of Correspondence High School Cyber Education 

System Utilization 

B. Credit Bank System 

1) Overview 

○The Credit Bank System confers bachelor’s degrees according to Article 9 of the 

Act on accreditation, etc., to those who have high school diplomas or who are 

recognized to have the same academic ability as a high school graduate after having 

certain credits recognized in accordance to related laws and the satisfaction of 

requirements. The requirements for obtaining the degree are presented in . Applicants must have at least 140 credits (60 credits in their major, 30 

liberal arts credits) to obtain bachelor’s degrees, 120 credits (54 credits from their 

major, 21 liberal arts credits or more) for 3-year associate degrees, and 80 (45 

credits from major, 15 liberal arts credits or more) credits for 2-year associate 


degrees. 

Required 

Credits for 

Completing 

one Degree 

Table Ⅳ-30 Required Credits for Getting Degrees 

Liberal Arts 

Major 

Total Number of 

Required Credits 

Bachelor’s 

Degree 

30 Credits or 

More 

60 Credits or 

More 

140 Credits or 

More 

Source: National Institute for Lifelong Education (2009). 

Associate’s Degree 

Two-Year Three-Year 

15 Credits or More 21 Credits or More 



2) Obtaining Credits 

○As shown in [Table Ⅳ-30], the Credit Bank System recognizes learning experiences 

equivalent to the level of higher education as credits, such as the completion 

of subjects recognized as credits, completion of school courses recognized as credits, 

completion of part-time courses, passing the Bachelor’s Degree Exam for 

self-educated man, completion of exemption courses, acquisition of national technical 

qualification, retention of important intangible cultural assets, or initiation for 

such assets. 

Fig. Ⅳ-11 Sources of Credits in the Credit Bank System 

○Subjects recognized as credits are the courses offered at lifelong vocational education 

institutes such as lifelong education centers affiliated with universities, ex- 


clusive vocational schools, and private institutes evaluated and recognized as 

credits. Courses are offered by 503 educational and training institutes around the 

country as of January 2010; 23 distance education institutes offer courses that can 

be fully completed online and recognized as credits (4.6%). 

○Completion of School Course Recognized as Credit refers to courses provided by 

a traditional university or college; those who had to stop their studies in the middle 

of the term for various reasons can have their learning experiences recognized 

as credits through the credit bank, with courses for acquiring credits of traditional 

universities mostly provided offline excluding cyber universities. 

○Part-Time Course allows students to participate in higher education through the 

part-time system of regular universities or colleges instead of undergoing the regular 

entrance procedure; anyone with a high school diploma can take courses for 

a maximum of 12 credits for each term at a university offering a part-time program. 

The part-time program operated in cyber universities consists of online distance 

courses, but part-time programs offered at traditional universities are blended courses 

combining online and offline classes. 

○The Credit Bank System recognizes success in examinations granting bachelor’s 

degrees for self-educated man and successful completion of exemption courses 

as credits; along with a certain level of credit for national technical qualifications 

and national qualifications, such as the license for industrial engineers. The system 

also recognizes the learning experiences of retainers, learners, and initiators of 

important intangible cultural assets as credits to promote important intangible cultural 

assets and cultivate competent people for the succession and development 

of traditional culture. 

○Accreditation of credits through the Bachelor’s Degree Exam for self-educated man 

and license acquisition allows the learner to engage in self-directed study and pass 

certain examinations to earn credits. The exemption course for the system of granting 

bachelor’s degrees for self-education through the certification examination 

grants credits by completing the course offered at an institute instead of applying 

for and passing the test for the corresponding subjects. It is offered as an offline 

course. The program that recognizes the experience of initiation in important in- 


tangible cultural assets as credits is provided through offline courses. 

3) Status of Online Education of the Credit Bank System 

○Currently, 503 institutes are cooperating with the Credit Bank System, 28 of 

which offer distance education and 23 operate the educational program entirely 

in distance education format; five other institutes offer both online and offline 

classes. Students can study without the limitation of time and space purely 

through the distance learning program in 23 distance education institutes (refer 

to ). 

Table Ⅳ-31 Status of Educational Training Institutes by Type of Education 

Method of the Credit Bank System (as of January 2010) 

Type of Education Method Number of Institutes Rate 

Offline Educational Training Institutes 475 94.4% 

Combined Educational Training Institutes 

(offers both online and offline classes) 

5 1.0% 

Online Educational Training Institutes 23 4.6% 

Total 503 100.0% 

Data: National Institute for Lifelong Education (2010). 

○The number of institutes providing distance education and number of subjects operating 

with the Credit Bank System is continuously increasing. shows 

the distance education institutes and subjects they operate in 2009 and 2010. Eleven 

distance education institutes operated 149 subjects in the Credit Bank System in 

2009; currently, 23 institutes operate 306 subjects in 2010. The number of participating 

institutes and subjects has doubled since 2009. 


Table Ⅳ-32 Status of Distance Education Institutes Participating in the 

Credit Bank System in 2009 ~ 2010 

2009 2010 

Distance Educational 

Institutes 

Distance Educational 

Courses Offered 

Institutes 

Courses Offered 

11 149 23 306 

Data: National Institute for Lifelong Education (2010). 

○ shows the number of students and number of subjects offered at 

the institutes in the Credit Bank System during the first term of 2009. A total 

of 352 institutes in the Credit Bank System offered courses during this period 

with 10,351 subjects covered; the total number of students was 129,817. Eleven 

institutes or 3.1% of the 352 institutes provided distance courses covering 123 

subjects or 1.2% of 10,351 subjects; the number of students in the online course 

was 24,641 or 19% of 129,817. This shows that about 20% of students using 

the Credit Bank System chose distance training to complete credit courses. 

Table Ⅳ-33 Status of Educational Institutes Participating in the 

Credit Bank System in 2009 (as of April 2009) 

Institutes Actually Operated 

Distance Educational Training Institutes 

Offline/Blended Educational Training 

Institutes 

Total 

Number of 

Institutes 

11 

(3.1%) 

341 

(96.9%) 

352 

(100.0%) 

Source: National Institute for Lifelong Education (2009). 


Subjects 

Operated 

123 

(1.2%) 

10,228 

(98.8%) 

10,351 

(100.0%) 

C. Military e-Learning Credit Recognition Program for Soldiers on Duty 

1) Overview 

A) Organizer and Contents of the Project 

Number of 

Users 

24,641 

(19.0%) 

105,176 

(81.0%) 

129,817 

(100.0%)

○Based on the Master Plan for Military Human Resources Development, the learning 

infrastructure development project was carried out in 2006; the cyber knowledge 

and information network (Internet PC room) was installed inside the unit, becoming 

the starting point for promoting the military credit recognition program. The 

Military e-Learning Portal System was developed in September 2006 to provide 

a learning environment within the military. 

○The military authority extended the time given to soldiers for self-improvement 

on Saturdays while they off duty 10-20 hours a week to provide an environment 

for soldiers to access the information they need at any time or to study with educational 

contents as a way of self-improvement. 

○Against this background, the Military e-Learning Credit Recognition Program is 

developing learning contents for soldiers to complete courses at universities or 

other institutes they attended through the distance learning system and to complete 

courses even while they are on duty along with portal site management evaluations. 

- The full-scale program was launched with the policy presentation held at the 

National Defense Hall with officials from the Ministry of National Defense, 

Military Mutual Aid Association C&C, and officials from universities in August 

2006; the military and universities improved technical aspects and school systems 

through a number of workshops and seminars along with the reorganization of 

regulations and laws, and Gangwon University, Konyang University, Kyungsang 

University, Yeungnam University, Chonbuk National University, and Jeju National 

University participated in the pilot program in September 2007. 

- In November 2007, the Ministry of Defense, the Ministry of Education, Science, 

and Technology, and a number of Korean universities signed the agreement for 

the recognition of credits obtained during military service; Wonkwang University, 

Inha University, and Chonnam National University joined the project in March 

2008, bringing the total to nine universities. 

○The Military e-Learning Credit Recognition program is becoming more popular 

through the regional university e-Learning support center development projects 

based on the Ministry of Education, Science, and Technology’s “e-Campus Vision 

2007.” 


- The Regional University e-Learning Support Center Development Project was established 

to correct the imbalance in education between universities and regions 

through e-Learning and cultivating the workforce required for regional strategic 

projects. One center was constructed in each region, with 10 centers constructed 

between 2003-2007 as presented in (Ministry of Education, Science, 

and Technology, 2007). 

Table Ⅳ-34 Status of University e-Learning Support Center Development 

Region Area 


Year of Designation and 

University 

1 Seoul Region 

Entire Seoul 

Metropolitan Area 

2007, Hanyang University 

2 Incheon/Gyeonggi Region Incheon, Gyeonggi-do 2007, Inha University 

3 Gangwon Region Gangwon-do 2005, Gangwon University 

4 Chungcheongbuk-do Region Chungcheongbuk-do 2006, Cheongju University 

5 

6 

7 

Daejeon/Chungcheongnam-do 

Region 

Daegu/Gyeongsangbuk-do 

Region 

Busan/Ulsan/ 

Gyeongsangnam-do Region 

Daejeon-si, 

Chungcheongnam-do 

Daegu-si, 

Gyeongsangbuk-do 

Busan-si, Ulsan-si, 

Gyeongsangnam-do 

8 Jeollabuk-do Region Jeollabuk-do 

9 

Gwangju/Jeollanam-do 

Region 

Gwangju-si, 

Jeollanam-do 

10 Jeju Island Region Jeju Island 

2007, Chungnam National 

University 

2005, Yeungnam University 

2004, Kyungsang University 

2006, Chonbuk National 

University 

2005, Chonnam National 

University 

2003, Jeju National 

University 

○This project was primarily promoted through the Regional University e-Learning 

Support Centers; these centers are making great contributions to the spread of the 

military e-Learning credit recognition program through the sharing of e-Learning 

contents and the exchange of credits between local universities and key universities 

in each province.

B) Status of the Military e-Learning Credit Recognition Program 

○The Military e-Learning Credit Recognition Program started with a pilot program 

in the 2 nd term of 2007 by opening 55 courses at five universities including 

Gangwon University. One hundred thirty four soldiers participated in 32 courses, 

with 94 soldiers earning credits (40 students enrolled at Yeungnam University participated 

in a free course without credit). 

University of 

Education 

Number of 

Users 

Courses 

Offered 

Number of 

Students Who 

Completed the 

Course (%) 

Table Ⅳ-35 Status of Pilot Program in the 2 nd Term of 2007 

Kangwon 

National 

University 

Konyang Kyungsang 

University University 

Participating Universities 

Yeungnam 

University 

Chonbuk 

National 

University 

Jeju 

National 

University 

Total 

41 2 25 40 22 4 134 

16 1 5 5 4 1 32 

34 

(83%) 

2 

(100%) 

16 

(64%) 

15 

(68%) 

3 

(75%) 

70 

(74%) 

- The pilot program held in the 2 nd term of 2007 suggested issues such as insufficient 

PR, insufficient number of subjects and participating universities, and security 

issues concerning the cyber knowledge and information network (announced by 

the Army Headquarters). 

- Moreover, amendment of school rules, expansion of the number of courses, and 

improvement of learning environment were requested. 

○Starting with the pilot program in 2007, 9 universities joined the program in the 

first term of 2008 and offered 114 courses; 207 soldiers participated in 70 courses 

through e-Learning. 


Table Ⅳ-36 Status of Military e-Learning Course in the 1 st Term of 2008 

Number of 

Courses 

Applied 

Number of 

Applicants 

(Person) 


Number of 

Incompletes 

(Person) 

Completion 

Rate (%) 

1 

Kangwon National 

University 

22 48 8 83 

2 Konyang University 2 11 1 91 

3 

Gyeongsang National 

University 

6 28 2 93 

4 Yeungnam University 5 17 1 94 

5 

Chonbuk National 

University 

4 12 3 75 

6 

Cheju National 

University 

1 5 1 80 

7 Wonkwang University 12 12 1 92 

8 Inha University 17 60 3 95 

9 

Chonnam National 

University 

1 14 0 100 

Total 70 207 20 90 

○In the second term of 2008, public relations activities were actively carried out 

among all the armed forces and universities; 25 universities joined the military 

e-Learning credit transfer program, 825 courses were opened, and 814 soldiers 

attended 125 courses. 

- The number of soldiers who acquired the credit in 1 year after the pilot program 

increased six times. However, these figures are small considering the number of 

universities offering e-Learning courses. 

- As shown in , the number of universities participating in e-Learning 

and the number of applicable courses are increasing alongside growing participation 

by soldiers.

Table Ⅳ-37 Status of e-Learning Lectures Offered in the 2 nd Term of 2008 

Courses 

Applied 

Courses 

Offered 

Number of 

Applicants 

Number of 

Completes 

Completion 

Rate 

1 

Kangwon National 

University 

18 26 70 55 79% 

2 Konyang University 4 4 26 23 88% 

3 

Gyeongsang National 

University 

7 7 58 48 83% 

4 Yeongnam University 10 16 38 36 95% 

5 Chonbuk University 5 5 43 41 95% 

6 

Cheju National 

University 

5 17 31 24 77% 

7 Wonkwang University 14 24 38 34 89% 

8 Inha University 19 19 101 86 85% 

9 Kyungsung University 6 6 30 21 70% 

10 Kyungwon University ― 1 ― ― ― 

11 

Kongju National 

University 

3 3 45 35 78% 

12 Daegu Arts University 1 1 1 0 0% 

13 Daejeon University 1 1 46 ― ― 

14 Tongmyong University 6 6 30 23 77% 

15 Masan University 1 1 4 1 25% 

16 Busan Digital University ― 98 ― ― ― 

17 Busan Info-Tech College 1 1 7 3 43% 

18 Seoul Digital University 2 382 2 2 100% 

19 Woosuk University 9 16 18 11 61% 

20 

Wonkwang Digital 

University 

― 177 ― ― ― 

21 Chung-Ang University 2 2 36 36 100% 

22 

Changwon National 

University 

5 6 23 18 78% 

23 Cheongju University 1 1 17 16 94% 

24 

Chungnam National 

University 

2 2 36 35 97% 

25 Hanyang University 3 3 114 ― ― 

Total 125 825 814 548 84% 


C) Status of Contents Development and Management for the Military e-Learning Credit 

Recognition Program 

○The e-Learning service offered by universities to recognize the credits obtained 

during military service consists of contents developed for enrolled students or exclusively 

for students on leave of absence from military service and serviced 

through the school’s e-Learning Management System (LMS). 

○Status of Subjects Offered and Applied in Each University 

- shows the lectures offered through the military e-Learning program 

and lectures actually operated; 337 lectures were offered by universities through 

the military e-Learning program and 225 lectures, 67% of which were actually 

operated through student applications. 

Table Ⅳ-38 Ratio of Lectures Operated in the Military e-Learning 

Program (excluding Digital University) 

Term Subjects Offered Subjects Operated Ratio Remarks 

February 2007 

55 

32 

58% 

January 2008 

114 

70 

61% 

February 2008 

168 

123 

73% 

Total 

○Tuition Fees 

337 225 67% 

- shows the tuition fees for one credit. A total of 12 out of 23 

universities offered one credit course for KRW 20,000-30,000, with 10 other universities 

offering the course for KRW 50,000-90,000. 

No. Tuition 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

Table Ⅳ-39 Tuition Fees of Each University 

20,000~30,000 

30,000~50,000 

50,000~70,000 

70,000~90,000 

90,000 or More 


Number of Universities 

(Excluding Hanyang University, Daejeon University 

12 

0 

5 

5 

1 

23

E) Status of Military e-Learning Credit Recognition 

○The types of military service are classified into army, navy, and air force under 

the Ministry of National Defense, alternative services including riot police and 

conscripted policemen under the National Policy Agency, and public interest service 

personnel under the Military Manpower Administration. Among the soldiers 

who used the military e-Learning program in the second term of 2008, 751 belonged 

to the Ministry of National Defense; 16 were riot or conscripted policemen, 

and 47 were public service personnel. 

○Since the program started with soldiers under the Ministry of National Defense, 

over 92% of the participants in this program were soldiers of the army, navy, 

and air force under the Ministry of National Defense. The service later expanded 

and covered a greater variety of military services. Currently, there are discussions 

among the authorities concerned as to whether the service shall be expanded 

to cover government-issued firefighters under the National Emergency 

Management Agency and correctional institution guards under the Ministry of 

Justice. 

Table Ⅳ-40 Status of Soldiers registered for Courses by Organization 

Organizations Divisions Registrants 

Ministry of National Defense Soldier 749 

Military Manpower Administration Public Service Personnel 47 

National Police Agency Riot Police/Conscripted Policemen 16 

Ministry of National Defense Lieutenant Junior 2 

Total 814 

○As shown in , 84% of the students who applied for credit courses 

through the military e-Learning program in the second term of 2008 successfully 

completed their courses (excluding 106 students who participated in the non-credit, 

pilot course). 


Table Ⅳ-41 Status of Credits Obtained by Soldiers in Each Organization 

Divisions 

Total 

Registrants 

Registrants for 

Accredited Courses 

(Except Pilot Program) 


Registrants 


the Courses 

Completion 

Rate 

Soldier 749 593 490 83% 

Public Service Personnel 47 45 45 100% 

Riot Police/ 

Conscripted Policemen 

16 15 12 80% 

Lieutenant Junior 2 1 1 100% 

814 654 548 84% 

○Credits Obtained through the Program 

- The number of soldiers applying for the military e-Learning program has increased 

annually. The table below shows a 200% increase in each term (refer to ). 

- The course completion rate for the second term of 2007 was low (around 75%), 

but improved to 90% by the first term of 2008; an 80% or higher rate was recorded 

in the second term (this excludes those who participated in the free, non-credit 

course at the pilot school held in the second term of 2007 and the second term 

of 2008 since they were non-credit courses.) 

Table Ⅳ-42 Courses Completed in Each Term 

Registrants for 

Accredited Courses 

(Pilot Program) 

Students 


the Course 

Completion 

Rate 

2 nd Term, 2007 94 (40) 70 74% 

Increase in Registration 

Compared to the 

Previous Term 

1 st Term, 2008 207 187 90% 154% 

2 nd Term, 2008 654 (160) 548 84% 393% 

Total 955 805 84%

D. e-Learning for Expanding Educational Opportunities for Educationally Alienated Classes 

○According to the “2007 Korea Informatization White Paper,” the national informatization 

level of Korea is ranked 3 rd in the world; it recorded the highest-speed 

Internet subscription rate in the world and landed the 5 th spot in terms of rate 

of Internet users per population. However, there is a serious information divide 

between age groups and classes despite this world-class advancement in the prevalence 

of information technology. 

○Information alienation brings with it social discrimination and exclusion since the 

alienated have fewer opportunities to participate in necessary economic, political, 

cultural, and social activities and to receive IT training to cultivate the basic ability 

to use the computer and the Internet to utilize e-Learning. 

○According to the Korea Internet and Security Agency’s data (2008), 1 out of 4 

(25.2%) people in the entire population of South Korea (primarily socially alienated 

classes such as senior citizens and persons with disabilities) does not benefit by 

e-Learning, e.g., are incapable of using the Internet, as of the end of 2006. 

○To resolve this issue, a number of departments of the South Korean government 

collaborated and established the Master Plan for the Elimination of the Information 

Divide. According to the 2 nd Master Plan for the Elimination of Information Divide, 

they vowed to enhance the informatization level of the alienated class compared 

with the entire population to up to 80% by 2010. 

○For the sake of providing e-Learning for the class of people deprived of educational 

opportunities such as senior citizens, the illiterate, farmers, and fishermen, the government 

is promoting the improvement of basic computer skills under the title 

“IT Training.” 

○According to this IT training plan for the neglected class, IT training will be provided 

to 5 million people including persons with disabilities, those who are in 

low-income brackets, middle-aged and senior citizens, farmers, and fishermen by 

2010. 


Table Ⅳ-43 Annual IT Training Plan for the Neglected Class by Year 

(Lifelong Education-related IT Training) 

2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 Total 

Persons with 

Disabilities 

77,000 82,000 82,000 82,000 77,000 400,000 

Low Income Bracket 150,000 150,000 150,000 150,000 150,000 750,000 

Middle-Aged/ 

Senior Citizen 

500,000 610,000 630,000 630,000 630,000 3,000,000 

Farmer/Fishermen 165,000 175,000 170,000 170,000 170,000 850,000 

Total 892,000 1,017,000 1,032,000 1,032,000 1,027,000 5,000,000 

1) IT Training for Senior Citizens 

○Due to the considerably low birth rate and unusually rapid aging of society, the 

size of the senior population is expanding each year. To cope with the growing 

senior population, South Korean society is preparing conditions under which the 

senior population can be independent and productive members of society. 

○One of the important roles of the senior population living in a knowledge and 

information-based society is the ability to utilize information. Accordingly, the 

South Korean government has been offering courses on computer and Internet applications 

to citizens aged 55 years or older since 2000. 

○The IT for seniors program is divided into a basic course and application course; 

each course is 20-30 hours long. The basic course trains senior citizens to use 

the computer and Internet using textbook prepared exclusively for senior citizens, 

titled “From PC to Internet for the S-Generation.” 

○The application course teaches senior citizens to use common computer applications 

such as word processors including Excel and PowerPoint, homepage building applications, 

digital camera applications, and picture editing programs. 

○The IT training courses for senior citizens are mainly offered through post office, 

social welfare halls, senior citizen welfare halls, universities, and the Welfare 

Council for Information and Communication; the number of senior citizens taking 

the course has steadily increased from 23,535 in 2000 to 420,000 in 2007. 


Table Ⅳ-44 Record of IT Training for Senior Citizens 

Private Institute 

Group Training In-Home Training 

Exclusive Training 

Center 

IT Volunteer Corps for 

Senior Citizens 

Total 

2005 38,099 21,274 754 60,127 

2006 57,556 14,066 4,065 75,687 

2007 71,187 4,350 3,825 79,362 

2) IT Training for Illiterate 

○South Korea is gradually turning into a multicultural community. According to 

the Ministry of Justice data from the “Immigration Office/Foreigner Policy 

Statistics 2007,” the number of married female immigrants (foreign women marrying 

Korean men) was estimated to be 97,000, and the number is continuously 

increasing. 

○The 2005 census by the National Statistics Office shows that the ratio of undereducated 

adults or adults without middle school diplomas (2.08 million without 

elementary school diplomas, 3.91 million without middle school diplomas) to the 

population of adults aged 15 years or older was approximately 15.7% or 5.99 

million. 

Table Ⅳ-45 Number of Institutes Participating in the IT Training for 

the Illiterate and Training Records 

(unit: institute, persons) 

Number of 

Institutes 

Number of 

Trainees 

2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 Total 

Illiterate 16 93 148 166 160 160 

Married Female 

Immigrants 

― ― ― 15 25 25 

Subtotal 16 93 148 181 185 185 

Illiterate ― 5,527 11,366 13,787 14,565 45,245 

Married Female 

Immigrants 

― ― ― 913 1,852 2,765 

Subtotal - 5,527 11,366 14,700 16,417 48,010 


○The IT training for illiterate people started in October 2003; there were 185 institutes 

and 48,000 trainees as of December 2007. Since 2006, the training has 

been expanded to cover new information-alienated classes such as married female 

immigrants. 

○The IT training for illiterate people has training centers developed in organizations 

where there is great demand such as educational institutes providing Korean language 

courses to illiterate people and married female immigrants, civic organizations, 

night schools, and religious facilities; fees for the instructor, Internet connection, 

and textbooks are supported. 

Types 

Number of 

Institutes 

Table Ⅳ-46 Institutes Participating in IT-Training for the Illiterate by 

Institute Type (unit: institutes) 

Welfare 

Facilities 

Public 

Institutes 

Night 

Schools 

Religious 

Organizations 


Civic Social Educational 

Others Total 

Organizations Facilities 

29 10 78 20 30 10 8 185 

○The training institute is selected by considering the number of illiterate people 

and married female immigrants in each region, with training institutes consisting 

mostly of night schools, civic organizations, and religious organizations since this 

type of support for illiterate people and married female immigrants had been led 

by private organizations without government support. 

2003 

2004 

2005 

2006 

2007 

Table Ⅳ-47 Regional Training Centers for IT-Training for the Illiterate 

Seoul Gyeong 

gi-do 

1 

18 

21 

24 

22 

6 

17 

20 

24 

25 

InBucheon san 

― 

2 

4 

5 

4 

― 

6 

10 

12 

14 

Gyeong 

Ul- 

sang 

san 

nam-do 

2 

4 

5 

5 

5 

1 

5 

7 

9 

9 

Gyeong 

sang 

buk-do 

― 

6 

13 

16 

15 

Chung 

Daecheong 

gu 

1 

2 

7 

8 

9 

Chung Jeolla Jeolla 

Daecheongbuknam- 

jeon 

buk-do nam-do dodo 4 

8 

10 

13 

14 

― 

5 

8 

10 

10 

― 

― 

3 

3 

3 

― 

9 

14 

17 

18 

― 

1 

7 

10 

11 

Gang 

Gwangju 

1 

6 

10 

11 

11 

(unit: places) 

wondo 

― 

2 

5 

8 

9 

Jeju 

Island Total 

― 

2 

4 

6 

6 

16 

93 

148 

181 

185

3) IT Training for Persons with Disabilities 

○The advancement of an information society is broadening the opportunities for 

persons with disabilities to participate in social and economic activities. 

Information technology helps persons with disabilities to increase their social activities 

and frees them from physical limitations to eliminate the sense of social 

isolation or alienation. Moreover, IT enables the creation of jobs that do not require 

physical strength, thereby providing suitable jobs to improve their financial 

circumstances. 

○The South Korean government has been providing IT training program to persons 

with disabilities from 1999 to improve their capacity to utilize information ― which 

is currently weaker than that of average citizens ― to help them adapt to a knowledge 

and information-based society without fear and participate in social and economic 

activities as human resources that become the source of national 

competitiveness. The goal of the IT training for persons with disabilities is to embody 

the “Digital Welfare Community” where they can enjoy the benefits of information 

technology such as increased income and enhanced quality of life by 

enhancing their awareness of information technology, upgrading their skills in using 

information technology through IT training, and having the same access to information 

as non-disabled persons through technology. 

○IT training for persons with disabilities is provided according to the type and degree 

of disability. It is generally classified into three formats: group training taking 

place in the exclusive IT training center for each type of disability, in-home training 

for persons with serous disabilities and difficulties in moving, and IT professional 

training for those who have talent in information technology. 

○When the program began in 1999, the training was given mostly in the form of 

group training and in welfare facilities and organizations for the disabled; since 

persons with serious disabilities have difficulty joining group training and can consequently 

be alienated from IT training, the in-home training was launched in 2003. 

Since 2004, professional IT training has been provided to persons showing talent 

in information technology to provide them with income opportunities. 


Table Ⅳ-48 Institutes Participating in IT-Training for Persons with 

Disabilities Divided by Region/Disability Type 

(unit: institutes) 

Division Seoul Gyeong 

gi-do 

Physical 

Visual 

Hearing 

21 

6 

2 

7 

1 

1 

In 

cheon 

4 

1 

1 

Bu 

san 

5 

1 

1 

Gyeong Gyeong 

Ul 

sang sang 

san 

nam-do buk-do 

4 

1 

1 

Dae 

gu 

Chung Chung 

cheong cheong 

buk-do nam-do 


4 

1 

1 

2 

1 

1 

20 

1 

1 

6 

1 

1 

4 

1 

1 

Dae 

jeon 

7 

1 

1 

Jeolla 

bukdo 

5 

1 

1 

Jeolla 

Gwang 

nam- 

ju 

do 

6 

1 

1 

7 

1 

1 

Gang 

wondo 

4 

1 

1 

Jeju 

Island Total 

Total 29 9 6 7 6 6 4 22 8 6 9 7 8 9 6 5 147 

○In 1999, only 3,099 people were trained through the program. However, the number 

has increased steadily, reaching 313,749 as of the end of 2007. Records of telephone 

and in-home training, which started in 2004, have also reached a cumulative 

total of 36,874. In 2007, 55,592 were trained through group training, 3,716 through 

in-home training, and 184 through professional training; consultation records 

reached a cumulative total of 18,248 consisting of 12,079 telephone consultations 

and 6,169 in-home consultations. 


Records 

Con- 

sultation 

Records 

Table Ⅳ-49 IT-Training for Persons with Disabilities by Year 

3 

1 

1 

(unit: persons, cases) 

Division 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 Total 

Group 


3,099 10,660 14,397 21,224 20,712 62,722 54,551 56,273 55,592 299,230 

In-Home ― ― ― ― 1,447 2,244 3,142 3,408 3,716 13,957 

IT- 

Professional 

― ― ― ― ― 80 128 170 184 562 

Total 3,099 10,660 14,397 21,224 22,159 65,046 57,821 59,851 59,492 313,749 

Telephone ― ― ― ― ― 608 3,269 7,486 12,079 23,442 

In-Home ― ― ― ― ― 268 2,310 4,685 6,169 13,432 

Total ― ― ― ― ― 876 5,579 12,171 18,248 36,874 

109 

21 

17

4) Information Education for Farmers and Fishermen 

○The Ministry for Food, Agriculture, Forestry, and Fisheries provided IT training 

to a total of 580,000 agricultural people through municipal/county agricultural technology 

centers, local agricultural cooperative association offices, and agricultural 

universities from 1998 to 2007 to eliminate the information divide and cultivate 

the IT-enabled workforce required for incorporating information technology with 

agriculture and agricultural skills development. 

○The IT training for agricultural people in 2007 consisted of 5 courses designed 

by considering the actual circumstances of farming villages and farmers; it was 

implemented through group training, in-field training, and online training. 

Table Ⅳ-50 Curriculum for IT-Training for Agricultural People 

Subject Training Method and Contents Institute in Charge 

Computer and Internet 

Agricultural 


Agricultural 

Management 


Professional Training 

In-Home Training 

of Agricultural Info 

119 

Informatization 

Leader In-Home 


Mobile School IT 


18 Hours/3 Days/No Camp Training, 30 Hours/5 

Days/No Camp Training, Computer, Internet- 

Related Basic and Advanced Courses 

18 Hours/3 Days/No Camp Training, 30 Hours/5 

Days/No Camp Training-Agricultural Information- 

Related Basic and Advanced Courses 

30 Hours/5 Days/No Camp Training (Mid-term 

Course), 60 Hours/3~6 Months/Camp Training, No 

Camp Training (Long-Term Course)-Public Sub- 

scription for Training Institute 

Farm Village In-Home Training, Intensive Training 

on Subjects Requiring Intensive Management 

Farm Village In-Home Training, Computer Utilization, 

Utilization of Agricultural Information 

18 Hours/3 Days/No Camp Training, Farm Village 

In-Home Training, Customized Training 

Online Training Internet Training (Distance Training)-edu.affis.net 

Regional Agricultural 

Cooperative Association, 

Agricultural Technology 

Center 

22 Agricultural 

Info-119s, Agricultural 

Training Center, Etc. 

22 Agricultural 

Info-119s, Universities 

Local Government 

(City/County) 

Agriculture, Forestry, 

Fisheries Information 

Service 

Agriculture, Forestry, 

Fisheries Information 

Service 


○Three hundred and ninety thousand (390,000) farmers received information education 

between 1998-2004, 67,000 in 2005, 63,000 in 2006, and 66,000 in 2007. 

Detailed records of training are presented as follows: 

Table Ⅳ-51 Information Education for Farmers 


(unit: people) 

Division 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 

Basic Level 7,759 7,331 8,157 38,437 35,912 20,126 20,445 7,144 7,047 5,289 

Intermediate Level - - - 14,351 14,161 12,843 13,182 6,607 4,008 4,019 

Mid-Term Course - - - - - - - 1,766 2,139 2,591 

Mid-Term Public 

Subscription Course 

- - - - - - - - - 312 

Professional Level 

Agricultural 

3,544 3,931 1,479 1,093 1,646 2,379 2,039 1,056 359 292 

Information 119 

Service 

600 2,188 10,109 15,077 15,126 13,098 13,190 12,074 10,044 10,044 


Leader 

Public Interest Service 

- - - - 1,374 9,897 16,292 23,943 29,858 32,608 

Project for 


- 23,640 9,120 - - - - - - - 

Mobile School for 

IT Training 

- - 998 2,102 2,288 2,090 1,230 570 512 542 

Self-Training 1,171 2,041 3,298 4,678 9,750 10,838 6,821 8,069 2,915 2,741 

Online Training - - - - - 463 4,153 5,882 6,842 7,814 

Total 13,074 39,131 33,161 75,738 80,257 71,734 77,352 67,111 63,724 66,252 

○Information education for fishermen is being conducted through the distance video 

training service of the Maritime Affairs & Fisheries HRD Institute and 29 Fisheries 

Offices, with the goal of training 100,000 fishermen by 2010. The ultimate goal 

is to eliminate the information divide in fishing villages, which are relatively less 

developed than cities, and to enhance information technology awareness to improve 

the quality of life for the fishermen. Information education for fishermen was im-

plemented in the form of group training by initially gathering trainees at the 

Maritime Affairs & Fisheries HRD Institute located far away since the training 

environment was not available. However, the Fishermen Information Training 

Center having distance video training system were established in 29 Fisheries 

Offices between 2000-2003, thus enabling them to now receive training at nearby 

fishery offices. 

Table Ⅳ-52 Information Education for Fishermen 

(unit: people) 

Subject of Training Courses ~2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 Total 

Group/ 

In-Field 


Fishing People 

Fishing Village 

Instructor 

Basic 


Management 


Instructor 


18,083 3,611 3,802 3,886 2,959 2,985 35,326 

4,846 2,562 2,604 2,420 1,740 1,671 16,843 

181 - - - - - 181 

Total 23,110 6,173 6,406 6,306 4,699 4,656 51,350 



1,304 615 495 571 679 650 4,314 

Fishing People, 

Public Official 

Video 

Meeting 

1,652 3,366 2,921 2,139 490 450 11,018 

Total 6,778 6,900 7,484 7,849 5,267 5,667 39,945 

Total 29,88 13,073 13,890 14,155 9,966 10,323 91,295 

E. Issues and Development Strategies 

○The Correspondence High School ended the radio-oriented teaching method and 

completed the conversion to an e-Learning system. Thus, e-Learning-based classes 

are expected to increase rapidly. Accessibility to contents will increase since all 

contents is open to general high school students in addition to the students of 

the Correspondence High School. 

○Greater accessibility does not necessarily secure the use of contents by people; 

hence the need to produce higher-quality contents and promote PR activities in 


addition to accessibility improvement. 

○The preference for and the forecast of the e-Learning method of the Credit Bank 

System are quite high and positive. However, the intemperate behavior of some 

users who use e-Learning contents as a way of acquiring credits with ease rather 

than as a substantial way of learning are restricting e-Learning contents-based learning 

in the Credit Bank System. Currently, the Credit Bank System is institutionally 

restricting the ratio of e-Learning in the curriculum of regular educational institutes. 

Such restrictive measures are hampering the sharp increase of e-Learning use in 

the Credit Bank System. 

○Considering the fact that a number of educational institutes and learners prefer 

distance education and that they also have a high preference for the e-Learning 

method, securing the quality of e-Learning and learner convenience will continuously 

be an issue for the Credit Bank System. Once quality is secured, the 

number of e-Learning courses offered by the Credit Bank will see a tremendous 

increase. 

○The Military e-Learning system has made great progress; in fact, soldiers can use 

the portal system to develop competencies by learning foreign languages, acquiring 

licenses and even earning credits and accessing external contents since the military 

has the infrastructure for the development of e-Learning projects. More military 

e-Learning classes will be activated when the military is able to find more solutions 

for openness regarding certain security issues. 

○Information education for the aged, illiterate people, persons with disabilities, and 

farmers and fishermen entails a huge effort and budget according to their distinctive 

needs. The success or failure of information education for neglected segments 

of the population depends heavily on government support given the difficulty of 

training many people in a short period, thus incurring considerable time and 

expense. Unless the government extensively increases the corresponding budget, 

information education for the neglected class will not improve to any considerable 

degree. 


V 

2.1 

Suggestions and Remarks for 

the Future 

The rapid growth of e-Learning in South Korea is mainly attributed to the establishment 

of the lifelong education system. Because the first prerequisite of knowledge-based 

society is regarded as the paradigm shift from school-based knowledge 

to the lifelong learning, South Korean government has given time and effort to the 

renovation of educational system. 

Since Koreans have a great desire for the elevation of their social status through 

formal education, lifelong education was developed as a supplement to formal 

education. For example, the Credit Bank System, Correspondence High Schools, 

Korea National Open University, and cyber universities whose function is granting 

degrees are the backbone of lifelong education. E-learning in these field records a 

remarkable development with great interest in the information technology. 

This new form of education involves the transformation of pedagogy itself. Because 

face-to-face lectures are reformatted electronically before delivering to the students, 

course designers should assess the characteristics or traits of students as many as 

possible. The deliberate process of design renders e-Learning to learner-centered or 

individualized. Also, due to the impersonal nature of e-Learning, courses’ contents 

must be enriched to both attract the attention and earn the trust of the public. It 

promotes educational methods and upgrades courses’ contents. 

On the other hand, demands for vocational training for national competency expanded 

along with the incorporation of advanced information technology. e-Learning was 

extended as an advanced educational method for promoting vocational competency 

and educational competitiveness in the context of human capital. 

However, e-Learning often failed to enable learners to sharing and creating knowledge 

by themselves instead of accumulating or adapting knowledge. Although it has great 

potentiality as an educational method, the usage of e-Learning is not passed over 

a face-to-face learning within lecturing courses. Under these circumstances, e-Learning 


in South Korea should address the following issues: 

1. Accessibility to the internet in South Korea is quite high with lesser information 

gap, but teaching and learning style follows old tradition of schooling in spite of 

the cultural campaign of lifelong learning centers. E-learning whose potentiality lies 

in the interactivity should be induced to facilitate multi-way communication especially 

for the alienated segment of people who only use the Internet as consumers. 

2. E-learning in South Korea is regarded as a form of education delivering lectures 

through LMS(Learning Management System). The precondition of LMS based 

e-Learning is the developed technology with high speed communication network. 

It promotes the amount and speed of information and knowledge. However, e-Learning 

in South Korea is mostly confined to the one-way communication without group 

discussion, so it also needed to reconsider the basis of educational philosophy. The 

ideal of e-Learning is a new paradigm of education such as comprehensive learning 

networks characterized by active participation of learners. This will become the foundation 

for u-Learning (ubiquitous learning) as a substantial basis for lifelong learning. 

3. E-learning requires Pan-governmental cooperative system for the effective and efficient 

initiatives. Although South Korea has many legal supporting systems comparing 

to other countries, there is a waste of time and resources to propel e-Learning 

strategies. Therefore, Korea set an example for other countries, building a cooperative 

system between the National Institute for Lifelong Education which is in charge of 

lifelong education and the Korea Education & Research Information Service which 

is in charge of internet-based learning. 

4. An e-Learning network at the international level is necessary for the activation 

for global characteristic of e-Learning. E-learning in South Korea has the limitation 

of being developed only within the country, not making full use of the global applicability 

of internet. The embodiment of e-Learning as a new paradigm beyond the 

existing education system could be the global cooperation through active exchange 

with other cultural areas with different education traditions. 



in Thailand 

06 06

Thapanee Thammetar 

Thapanee Thammetar is the Director of Thailand Cyber University Project 

(TCU), Office of the Higher Education Commission. TCU is an ongoing 

project being carried out according to the National Education Act B.E, 1999 

which put emphasis on expanding educational opportunities for people. The 

TCU acts as a learning resource sharing center and aims to assist all the 

higher education institutes to deliver distance learning via the Internet. It 

also works to ensure that all online courses are of a high quality and meet 

government standards. 

Dr. Thapanee Thammetar received her Ph.D. in Educational Communication and Technology from 

Chulalongkorn University. She is also currently working as a lecturer at the Faculty of Education, 

Silpakorn University. She was a Vice Director of Computer Centre (Educational Information), of 

Silpakorn University during 2002-2008. 

Supannee Sombuntham 

Assistant Professor Supannee Sombuntham is currently an adviser of Thailand 

Cyber University Project (TCU), Commission on Higher Education. She 

served as the director of TCU during 2005- September 2009. TCU is an 

ongoing project being carried outaccording to the National Education Act 

B.E, 1999 which put emphasis on expanding educational opportunities for 

people. The TCU acts as a learning resource sharing center and aims to 

assist all the higher education institutes to deliver distance learning via the 

Internet. It also works to ensure that all online courses are of a high quality and meet government 

standards. 

Prior to working atTCU, Assistant Professor Supannee was a lecturer in Physiology at Department 

of Physiology, Faculty of Phamaceutical Science, Chulalongkorn University during 1974-2005. She 

was also the Deputy Director at the Continuing Education Center, Chulalongkorn University during 

1998-2004. 


Chapter 1 Educational systems 

According to Thailand’s National Education Act of B.E.2542 (1999), Chapter 3 

“Educational System”, Section 15, there shall be three types of education: formal, 

non-formal, and informal. 

1) Formal education shall specify the aims, methods, curricula, duration, assessment, 

and evaluation conditional to its completion. 

2) Non-formal education shall have flexibility in determining the aims, modalities, 

management procedures, duration, assessment and evaluation conditional to its 

completion. The contents and curricula for non-formal education shall be 

appropriate, respond to the requirements, and meet the needs of individual groups 

of learners. 

3) Informal education shall enable learners to learn by themselves according to 

their interests, potentialities, readiness and opportunities available from persons, 

society, environment, media, or other sources of knowledge. 

Educational institutions are authorized to provide any one or all of the three types 

of education. 

Credits accumulated by learners shall be transferable within the same type or between 

different types of education, regardless whether the credits have been accumulated 

from the same or from different educational institutions, including learning from 

non-formal or informal education, vocational training, or from work experience. 

Formal education is divided into two levels: basic education and higher education. 

● Basic education is that provided for the 12 years before higher education. 

● Differentiation of the levels and types of basic education shall be as prescribed 

in the ministerial regulations. 

● Higher education is divided into two levels: lower-than-degree level and degree 

06. e-Learning for Lifelong learning in Thailand 455

level. 

Differentiation or equivalence of the various levels of non-formal or informal education 

shall be as stipulated in the ministerial regulations. 

Compulsory education shall be for nine years, requiring children aged seven to enroll 

in basic education institutions until the age of 16 with the exception of those who 

have already completed grade 9. Criteria and methods of calculating children's age 

shall be as stipulated in the ministerial regulations. 

Early childhood and basic education shall be provided in the following institutions: 

1) Early childhood development institutions, namely: child care centres; child development 

centres; pre-school child development centres of religious institutions; 

initial care centres for disabled children or those with special needs, or early 

childhood development centres under other names. 

2) Schools, namely: state schools, private schools, and those under jurisdiction 

of Buddhist, or other religious institutions. 

3) Learning centres, namely: those organized by non-formal education agencies, 

individuals, families, communities, community organizations, local administration 

organizations, private organizations, professional bodies, religious institutions, 

enterprises, hospitals, medical institutions, welfare institutes, and other 

social institutions. 

Higher education shall be provided in universities, institutes, colleges or those under 

other names in accord with the laws on higher education institutions, those on the 

establishment of such institutions and other relevant laws. 

Vocational education and occupational training shall be provided in educational institutions 

belonging to the State or the private sector, enterprises, or those organized 

through co-operation of educational institutions and enterprises, in accord with the 

Vocational Education Act and relevant laws. 

Ministries, bureaus, departments, state enterprises, and other state agencies shall be 


authorized to provide specialized education in accord with their needs and expertise, 

bearing in mind the national education policy and standard. The criteria, methods, 

and conditions as stipulated in the ministerial regulations shall be observed. 

In addition Thailand’s education in a school-related system, can be explained more 

specifically that education is provided by educational institutions, characterised by 

a class system, and the use of a curriculum specified for the level and type of education, 

so as to develop learners in accordance with curriculum objectives. On the other 

hand, education from the way-of-life learning process is self-learning from various 

sources of knowledge and the environment, which is related to ways of life naturally 

existing or modified to enhance it, 

coupled to service learning. 

Education in a school-related system is divided into four levels: pre-school education, 

primary education, secondary education and higher education. 

1) Pre-School Education is in the form of childcare and the readiness development 

of children in physical, psychological, mental, emotional, personality, and social 

aspects so as to prepare them for higher levels of education. The provision 

of education at this level can be organised in the form of day-care centres, 

kindergarten, or child development centres, depending upon local conditions 

and target groups. 

2) Primary Education aims to provide a basis for learners to retain literacy and 

arithmetic ability, to form a desirable character and encompass morality, ethics, 

basic knowledge and ability. 

3) Secondary Education is divided into two parts, i.e., lower secondary and upper 

secondary education. 

a) Lower Secondary Education aims to promote learners' morality, knowledge, 

ability and skills beyond the primary level. To enable them to identify their 

needs and interests, to be aware of their aptitude both in general and vocational 

education; and to develop their ability for work and occupational practices 

relevant to their age. 


) Upper Secondary Education aims to enable learners to progress according 

to their aptitude and interests, and acquire the basis either for furthering 

to higher education or for working and pursuing a career suitable for their 

aptitude both as entrepreneurs and paid workers. To promote their morality, 

ethics, and social skills necessary for working pursuing, a career and leading 

peaceful social lives. 

4) Higher Education is divided into 3 levels, i.e., lower than Bachelor's Degree 

level, Bachelor's Degree level, and Graduate level. 

a) Lower than Bachelor's Degree Level aims to promote learners' knowledge 

and vocational skills at middle level, including their ability to initiate jobs 

and develop entrepreneurship. 

b) Bachelor's Degree Level aims to promote learners' higher level of knowledge 

and vocational skills in various disciplines, especially the ability to apply 

theories to practices for both academic and professional development. To 

create and disseminate knowledge, to participate in national development 

with relation to economic, social, political, cultural and environmental aspects, 

and to promote the role of the nation in the world community. 

c) Graduate Level aims to promote learners' specialised knowledge and skills. 

To strive for academic progress and excellence, especially in studies, research 

and development of knowledge and technology in science, humanities and 

social sciences. To facilitate the adoption of modern technology and local 

Thai wisdom for economic and social development, instrumental to Thai 

society. 

In addition, education in a school-related system is provided for specific needs and 

target groups, some of which are: 

a. Teacher Education aims to train and develop prospective, as well as practicing 

teachers, who have acquired morality, knowledge, ability and skills in teaching 

and motivating learners to learn; to be mindful of professionalism, spirit 


and responsibility of teachers. To serve as a role model for learners regarding 

social behaviour, life style and preservation of the national language and 

culture; to develop an inquiring mind and engage in the continuous improvement 

of themselves and their teaching capability. To engage in community 

development, as well as in rehabilitation, conservation and enrichment of 

the local and national environment and culture. 

b. Vocational Education aims to enable learners to develop vocational knowledge 

and skills useful for working both as entrepreneurs and as paid workers; 

and to make a decent living. 

Vocational education can be organized in both formal and non-formal systems. 

Vocational education in the formal school system is a development of occupational 

knowledge and skills relevant to each level of education from primary to higher 

levels. It also includes the development of vocational education in the non-formal 

system is short-course training in specific occupations, for those needing to upgrade 

their knowledge and skills of specific vocational skills and expertise which require 

a long period of training from childhood, such as dancing, music and sports. Such 

education can be provided in special institutes created for the purpose, or incorporated 

in the general curricula. 

Special Education aims to enable learners who are physically, mentally, psychologically 

and emotionally handicapped to undertake learning suitable for their conditions 

and capability. On the other hand, it enables geniuses or talented learners to develop 

their aptitude to the fullest potential and maximize their ingenuity. Special education 

can be provided in special institutes or in general educational institutions, from 

pre-school to higher educational levels. 


Chapter 2 



The concept of “lifelong education” began to gain global attention in 1970s. Recent 

developments of the lifelong learning concept have been shaped by the divergent 

principles on education of the two leading international organization in the field: 

the United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), and 

the Organization of Economic Corporation and Development (OECD). 

According to UNESCO, lifelong learning is meant to enhance human development 

and the fulfillment of man. (UNESCO 1972): 

● Educational from now on can no longer be defined in relation to a fixed content 

which has to be assimilated, but must be conceived of as a process in the 

human being, who thereby learns to express himself, to communicate and to 

question the world, through his various experiences, and increasingly-all the 

time-to fulfill himself. (UNESCO 1972) 

The OECD develops lifelong learning from a human capital perspective. This builds 

on the OECD’s recurrent education policy. Lifelong learning is seen as the means 

to upgrade individual’s skill to be compatible with technological development and 

the changing world of work. (OECD 1996) 

As for e-Learning, it will be defined as an online learning via the internet. It is 

a self-paced learning which learners can study at their own capacity and interest. 

Learning contents which consist of text message, pictures, audio, video, and other 

media are delivered via web browser. Students and teachers can communicate via 

tools such as e-mail, web-board, and chat. e-Learning, therefore, enables anyone to 

study anywhere and anytime (Thailand Cyber University Project [TCU] 2006). 


Chapter 3 

Government policy, finance/funding, 

regulation of e-Learning for lifelong 


Lifelong learning is now a current concern for most countries including Thailand. 

The whole spectrum of lifelong learning confirms the important of education and 

training that can ensure sustainable country development. In Thailand, the 1997 Thai 

Constitution and the Thai National Economic and Social Development Plan guide 

the government’s education and training policies. The Constitution specifies that all 

citizens have both the right and the duty to receive education and training, guarantees 

academic freedom and emphasizes the role of the private sector for the provision 

of education at all levels. 

The Ninth National Economic and Social Development Plan confirms that Thai society 

should be grounded in learning and wisdom, providing opportunities for all to 

develop their capacities for thought, rationality, creativity and continuous learning 

in order that citizens can cope with a changing environment. 

The Tenth National Economic and Social Development Plan for the period 2007~2011 

states that the government should provide all persons with physical and mental development, 

knowledge, ability, career skills, and life security, and enable all target groups 

to develop their own potential and strengthen family, community, and society. 

In educational sphere, lifelong learning was introduced in the National Education 

Act of 1999 as a new guiding principle for Thai education that would ensure economic 

competitiveness and ascertain sustainable development. The lifelong learning concept 

became central to the Act. In Section 8, it states: 

● Educational provision shall be based on… (1) lifelong education for all, (2) 

all segment of society participating in the provision of education: and (3) continuous 

development of the bodies of knowledge edge and learning processes… 

The Office of Higher Education Commission Thailand introduces the Second Long- 


Term Plan for Higher Education (2007-2021). The 15-year plan embraces an aggressive 

plan based on a clear understanding of the future trends and responding to 

the dynamism of the world and the surrounding environment. 

The plan aims to upgrade Thailand’s Higher Education sector and increase the quality 

of human resources in order to be equipped with lifelong job opportunities. Also, 

the plan suggests that Higher Education should develop and implement ICT to expand 

lifelong learning opportunity. 

There are 3 dimensions to lifelong learning in Thailand’s higher education policy. 

1) It encourages individuals to continue to learn after their graduation in order 

to keep up with the changing global environment. 

2) Lifelong learning offers a “second chance” to those who “missed out” to 

return to formal education. 

3) Lifelong learning is discussed in relation to adult education, especially for 

the elderly. 

It can be seen that the government has issues several lifelong learning policies. The 

policies appear on the national level policies such as the Constitution as well as 

in the ministry-level plan. This shows that the government concerns about lifelong 

learning which is an important foundation of knowledge-based society that will lead 

to the sustainable development of the country. 

Chapter 4 


e-Learning for lifelong learning 

e-Learning has long been introduced in Thailand. It was implemented as a means 

of expanding educational opportunity for people anywhere and anytime and thus pro- 


moted lifelong learning society. 

The research on e-Learning Implementation of Thai Higher Education conducted by 

Assoc. Prof. Thanomporn Laohajaratsang at Chiangmai University, has surveyed the 

readiness of e-Learning of Thai higher education institutes during 2008-2009. The 

survey findings were gathered from 91 higher education institutes under the Office 

of the Higher Education Commission out of 112 higher education institutes in 

Thailand, or 81.25 percent. The research found the result in the following areas; 

4.1 Computer network connection in educational institutes 

Most higher educational institutes utilize Leased Line network connection, offering 

service in their organization, and have a network connection with a bandwidth speed 

of 2 Mbps or higher. This finding demonstrates computer network technology that 

is applied in educational institutes responding the survey. The technology is qualified 

and ready to serve personnel and students in the organization. 

Table 1 Internet connection in educational institutes 

Detail Percentage (N=91) 

Internet connection in educational institutes 

Dial Up 

11.63 

ISDN 

18.6 

Lease Line 

69.57 

Others 

0 

Band Width 

256 Kbps or lower 

0.99 

256 Kbps-1 Mbps 

1.98 

1 Mbps-2 Mbps 

13.86 

2 Mbps or higher 

82.18 

No connection 

0.99 


4.2 e-Learning usages in educational institutes 

According to the survey, 94.51 percent of educational institutes provide e-Learning 

service in their institute. Among these institutes, 38.37 percent has implemented the 

system for three to five years. 

Table 2 e-Learning usages in educational institutes 

Detail N=91 

Using e-Learning in institutes 

Percentage 

Yes 

86 

94.51 

No 

5 

Period of using e-Learning 

5.49 

Less than 1 year 

12 

11.63 

1–3 year 

24.42 

24.42 

3–5 year 

34 

38.37 

More than 5 year 

19 

22.09 

4.3 e-Learning services in educational institutes 

Most of the institutes have a central e-Learning system and sub-systems for each 

office and department in the institutes. The widely used systems are the Learning 

Management System in freeware form, course homepage or webpage that are devel 

Table 3 Central e-Learning in educational institutes 

Detail Percentage 

Yes 

No 

Having central e-Learning system 


80.22 

19.78

oped by personnel in the institutes as well as the TCU (Thailand Cyber University) 

system and the Commercial Learning Management System. 

Table 4 e-Learning system or Learning Management System in educational institutes 


e-Learning system or Learning Management System used 

Open source (i.e. Moodle, Atutor) 48.57 

System that was developed by personnel in the 

institutes 

20 

Commercial Learning Management System 

(i.e. Blackboard, Education Sphere) 

16.19 

Thailand Cyber University Learning Management 

System (TCU-LMS) 

11.43 

Others 3.81 

4.4 Information about e-Learning courseware usage 

Instructors use e-Learning as supplementary, complementary and comprehensive replacement 

in the percentage of 52.24, 39.55, and 8.21 respectively. 

Table 5 e-Learning courseware usage 


Supplementary 

Complementary 

Comprehensive replacement 

52.24 

39.55 

8.21 

Above is an overview about e-Learning in higher education institutes. As for 

e-Learning for lifelong learning in Thailand, it can be explained as follows. In 

Thailand, there are two public open universities. The two universities are open for 


all, both high school graduates and people in labour market. They enable workers 

who did not have a formal education degree to take an equivalent educational route, 

returning to formal education and get the degree. They also provide the short courses 

for people who need to develop their skills for career. 

Sukhothai Thammathirat Open University is the first distance education university 

in Thailand. It uses several media for providing distance education. The university 

has developed e-Learning courses and provides them online. The courses consist of 

Bachelor’s Degree Programme and Master Degree Programme. Also, it provides online 

certificate degree programme or e-Training for general people who need to develop 

their skills. 

Figure 1 Sukhothai Thammathirat Open University’s e-Learning website 

The second open university is Ramkhamhaeng University. Ramkhamhaeng University 

is the first knowledge supermarket for the high school graduates who need the 

first or second degree. It has developed e-Learning courses and provided them 

online. 


Figure 2 Ramkhamhaeng University’s e-Learning website 

Thai Ministry of Education established the Office of the Non-Formal and Informal 

Education (ONIE) in 1979 as to be the main organization responsible for non-formal 

education and informal education. It has the vision in building up the extensive intellectual 

society by promoting an access of quality lifelong learning among the people 

across the country. 

The Office of the Non-Formal and Informal Education has established regional offices 

which developed their e-Learning in various courses. There are 5 regional offices: 

North, Northeastern, Central, East, and South. They provide e-Training courses for 

developing skills of teachers free of charge. 

The Office of Higher Education Commission established the Inter university ICT 

Network or UniNet and Thailand Cyber University project to provide informal education 

with the use of ICT. 


Chapter 5 

Figure 3 ONIE’s e-Learning website 

Typical e-Learning for lifelong 


This chapter will give detail about a specific example of an organization that provides 

e-Learning for lifelong learning. 

Higher education in Thailand has faced many challenges since 1999. The new 

National Educational Act, which was launched in 1999 (modified in 2002), caused 

many paradigm shifts in educational context, the equal opportunity to learn for all 

students, the learner-centered approached, the establishment of “The Office for 


National Education Standards and Quality Assessment” as quality assurance body 

for all educational levels, and the using of educational technology to enhance the 

effectiveness and efficiency of teaching and learning. On the other hand, the number 

of higher educational institutes has grown dramatically from 24 to 149 universities. 

Thailand Cyber University Project (TCU) is one of the Office of Higher Education 

Commission’s strategies for responding to the educational reform and addresses the 

situation. 

TCU’s missions are to extend the educational opportunity for Thais and other nationalities 

and encourage lifelong learning. By cooperating with all existing universities, 

TCU is providing online distance education in quality ways. It encourages sharing 

of resources to raise the level of quality of online distance education in Thailand. 

Thailand Cyber University Project has set 3 operating strategies and achieved the 

results as follows: 

Strategy 1 Creating the cooperation in learning management among domestic and international 

universities to produce an efficiency and cost-effectiveness of education management 

by sharing personnel, educational resources and courseware. The Thailand 

Cyber University Project has created academic and research cooperation in distance 

education via network system with 39 domestic and international universities and 

institutes and jointly conducted 45 projects. The TCU also expanded its cooperation 

to basic education. 

TCU joined with universities in consortium to establish the Networks for Lifelong 

Learning Project to promote and support the sharing of learning resources and create 

the community of learning. The project includes: 

1) Repository Network System 

2) Wiki 

3) TCUTube 

4) ePortfolio 

5) OpenSource Initiatives 

6) National Knowledge Management 


Strategy 2 Providing distance education via Thailand’s information network system. 

The Thailand Cyber University Project has developed a central e-Learning system 

for Thai higher education that supports the sharing of learning resources effectively. 

The TCU provides “Learning on Demand” service, including 498 courseware (over 

8,500 learning hours), via http://www.thaicyberu.go.th. More than 147,000 users have 

registered and more than 2,000,000 people have studied the courseware. It has produced 

20 classes of graduates in certificate programmes, with more than 7,000 people 

participating. As for formal education, the TCU has cooperated with universities to 

operate one Bachelor’s Degree programme and one Master’s Degree programme 

(these programmes are available in the first semester of academic year 2006). Also, 

it has held workshops on producing e-Learning content and setting up Learning 

Management System (TCU-LMS) to educational personnel. There are more than 

14,000 people attending the workshops. 

Figure 4 TCU’s website 


Figure 5 TCU Learning Management System (TCU-LMS) 

Total of self-paced learning courses classified by ISCED 

Table 6 Number of self-paced learning courses classified by ISCED 

ISCED Number of Courses Percentage 

Education Science and Teacher Training 

Humanities, Religion and Theology 

Fine and Applied Atrts 

Law 

Social and Behavioural Science 

Commercial and Business 

Mass Communication and Documentation 

Service Trades 

Natural Science 

Mathematics and Computer Science 

Medical Science and Health-Related 

Engineering 

Architecture and Town Planning 

Agriculture, Forestry and Fishery 

Other Programs 

9 

30 

2 

11 

40 

59 

22 

15 

24 

92 

14 

133 

6 

33 

8 

Total 498 

1.81 

6.02 

0.40 

2.21 

8.03 

11.85 

4.42 

3.1 

4.82 

18.47 

2.81 

26.71 

1.20 

6.63 

1.61 


The majority age group of students who study in self-paced learning courses is between 

27-39 years old, 39.40 percent. 

Table 7 Number of self-paced course registrations classified by 

student’s age group 

Age group Total Percentage 

0 ~ 19 

20 ~ 26 

27 ~ 39 

40 ~ 46 

47 ~ 57 

>= 58 

11,627 

44,688 

57,993 

14,284 

13,424 

5,167 


7.90% 

30.36% 

39.40% 

9.70% 

9.12% 

3.40% 

Grand Total 147,183 100% 

The majorities of students are studying in Bachelor’s Degree or graduated Bachelor’s 

Degree. 

Table 8 Number of self-paced course registrations classified by 

student’s education level 

Education level Total Percentage 

Primary level 

Secondary level 

Vocational 

Diploma 


Graduate Diploma 

Graduate Diploma 

Higher Graduate Diploma 

Doctoral Degree 

N/A 

4,100 

15,370 

3,752 

4,950 

49,293 

995 

16,025 

1,017 

1,048 

50,633 

2.79% 

10.44% 

2.55% 

3.36% 

33.49% 

0.68% 

10.89% 

0.69% 

0.71% 

34.40% 

Grand Total 147,183 100%

Strategy 3 Conducting research and development of standards and quality assurance of 

distance education via Thailand’s information network system. The Thailand Cyber 

University Project has worked with the joint universities to conduct 10 research projects 

for developing quality system in distance education via network system. Example 

of the research projects are; 

-Research on developing Game Based-Learning 

-Research on National Learning Management System 

-Research on the Survey of e-Learning in Thai Higher Education 

· 

The Direction to the Future: Toward Sustainable Development 

During the first phase of its operation, TCU has conducted the researches on the 

operation function of the organization. The research methodology includes SWOT 

Analysis of TCU, gathering opinions from university staff, and collecting opinions 

of experts. 

After collecting and analyzing information, TCU has reviewed and revised its 

functions. Then, it has created and developed a sustainable model of the operation. 

The main principles of the model are “sustainability and optimal development.” The 

main procedures are “Prototype and Expanding to regional communities.” The model 

consists of four key components which are innovation, continue innovation, improve 

innovation and systematic change. Each component and approaches are presented 

in three phases during the 12 years plan (2005~2017). The first phase has been implemented 

in year 2005~2008. The second phase will be implemented in year 

2009~2012. The third phrase will be implemented in year 2013~2017. 


Figure 6 Model of TCU’s function 

TCU’s main functions during the first and second phases are supporting, enhancing 

facilitating and collaborating. In order to shift TCU’s main function to be regulator 

and accreditor in the third phase. TCU will set up 9 regional e-Learning supporting 

centers according to the regional network centers of CHE. This strategy will lead 

to more cooperation, more sharing and more responsibilities from the university in 

each region. Also, TCU will have a chance to deploy the action plan for increasing 

teacher’s capability to use ICT in education and improving the quality of education. 

The strategy emphasizes on the cooperation between community and private organisations 

to create quality e-Learning programmes for all education levels which include 

lifelong learning. This will lead to sustainable development. 


International Collaboration 

MITOCW 

NIME 

CAT, MICT 

MSแ ใ 

IACE,KERIS 


Universities 

Colleges 

Schools 

National Collaboration 

Business Model for Regional e-Learning Supporting Center 

policy 

Promotion 

Diffusion 

Collaboration 

Co-project 

MOE 

CHE 

Center for Future Education 

Report Report 

Promotion 

Budget 

Core support 

Report 

policy 

T 

C 

U 

Budget 

Plan 

Special support 

Policy Enhance 

RegionalCenters 

a 

b 

c 

d 

e 

f 

Appendix 3 

Core function 

-Support 

-Enhance 

-Collaborate 

-Journal 

Optional function 

Provide 

-Training program 

-HRD 

-Research 

-KM 

-Consultant 

Regional 

Educational 

Institutions 

06. e-Learning for Lifelong learning in Thailand 475 

Communities’need 

Regional critical issues 

Figure 7 Business Model of Regional e-Learning Supporting Center 

The regional e-Learning supporting center will conduct 2 missions. 

1) Main Mission-Receiving policy from the central government and acting as 

a tri-parties to support and promote network cooperation among educational 

institutes at all levels, private organizations, and regional administrative 

organizations in order to support, assist, cooperate and manage knowledge to 

develop the potential and quality of people at all walks of life by utilizing 

information technology to offer quality education that respond to the 

community’s needs, using materials and human resource that are primarily 

invested by the central government. 

2) Regional Mission-Conducting special researching project, offering advice, 

developing and managing knowledge for the region by gathering comments 

and demand from the region to develop people in that region. Submitting an 

annual report to the center. TCU will cooperate between the regional center 

and the Commission on Higher Education.

TCU has been operating for four years. Its mission has been revised and modified 

to respond to the need of more open education to create equal opportunity of education 

of people at all levels. One of the strategies to achieve the goal is to establish 

regional support centers. This is in accordance with the policy of the Commission 

on Higher Education. Universities suggest that TCU should still remain the functions 

in supporting budget, being the center for sharing knowledge for the research and 

development, providing the training for educational personnel, and being the center 

to evaluate the quality of online learning according to international standard. 


In conclusion, Thai government has clear policy supporting the expansion of education 

opportunity and lifelong learning. 

Lifelong Learning has been operating in Thailand with the cooperation from many 

sectors. In the past few years ICT has been implemented in education. E-learning 

has been used to support lifelong learning. Two open universities in Thailand have 

provided e-Learning programmes for people. The Office on the Higher Education 

Commission established Thailand Cyber University Project as a center to support 

e-Learning in higher institutes. For the past few years, TCU has expanded its service 

to other sectors such as private organizations and general people. 

Finally, to operate lifelong learning successfully, it is necessary to have the cooperation 

from stakeholders in the society, including government, private sector, as well 

as general public. 


References 

Commission on Higher Education (2007) 2 nd Long-term 15-Year Higher Education 

Plan (2008-2022). Bangkok 

OCED (1996) Lifelong Learning for All: Meeting of the Education Committee at 

a Ministerial Level, 16-17 January 1996. Paris 

Thailand Cyber University Project (2006) Meaning and Area of e-Learning [Document 

for e-Learning Professional Course]. Bangkok 

Thanomporn Laohajaratsang et al (2010) The research on e-Learning Implementation 

of Thai Higher Education 

UNESCO (1972) Learning to be: the world of education today and tomorrow. United 

Nations

e-Learning for Lifelong Learning in Denmark

You also want an ePaper? Increase the reach of your titles

Delete template?

Save as template?