Zootaxa, Taxonomy of Serpulidae (Annelida ... - Magnolia Press

ZOOTAXA 

2036 

Taxonomy of Serpulidae (Annelida, Polychaeta): 

The state of affairs 

HARRY A. TEN HOVE & ELENA K. KUPRIYANOVA 

Magnolia Press 

Auckland, New Zealand

Harry A. ten Hove & Elena K. Kupriyanova 

Taxonomy of Serpulidae (Annelida, Polychaeta): The state of affairs 

(Zootaxa 2036) 

126 pp.; 30 cm. 

16 March 2009 

ISBN 978-1-86977-327-4 (paperback) 

ISBN 978-1-86977-328-1 (Online edition) 

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2 · Zootaxa 2036 © 2009 Magnolia Press 

TEN HOVE & KUPRIYANOVA

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Copyright © 2009 · Magnolia Press 

Taxonomy of Serpulidae (Annelida, Polychaeta): The state of affairs 

HARRY A. TEN HOVE 1 & ELENA K. KUPRIYANOVA 2 

1Zoological Museum, University of Amsterdam POB 94766, 1090 GT Amsterdam, The Netherlands 

E-mail: H.A.tenHove@uva.nl 

2 1 

Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Adelaide SA 5005 Adelaide Australia 

E-mail: lena.kupriyanova@gmail.com, elenak@ynu.ac.jp 

Table of contents 

ISSN 1175-5326 (print edition) 

ZOOTAXA 

ISSN 1175-5334 (online edition) 

Abstract ............................................................................................................................................................................... 4 

Introduction ......................................................................................................................................................................... 5 

Material and methods.......................................................................................................................................................... 6 

Morphology.......................................................................................................................................................................... 7 

The tube ........................................................................................................................................................................ 7 

The general morphology of the body ......................................................................................................................... 11 

The branchial crown................................................................................................................................................... 11 

The operculum ........................................................................................................................................................... 14 

The opercular peduncle.............................................................................................................................................. 16 

The collar and the thoracic membranes ..................................................................................................................... 22 

The thorax .................................................................................................................................................................. 23 

The abdomen.............................................................................................................................................................. 25 

Valid genera with diagnoses and lists of species............................................................................................................... 27 

Apomatus Philippi, 1844 ............................................................................................................................................ 27 

Bathyditrupa Kupriyanova, 1993b ............................................................................................................................. 29 

Bathyvermilia Zibrowius, 1973a ................................................................................................................................ 29 

Chitinopoma Levinsen, 1884 ..................................................................................................................................... 32 

Chitinopomoides Benham, 1927 ................................................................................................................................ 32 

Crucigera Benedict, 1887 .......................................................................................................................................... 36 

Dasynema Saint-Joseph, 1894 ................................................................................................................................... 36 

Ditrupa Berkeley, 1835 .............................................................................................................................................. 39 

Ficopomatus Southern, 1921 ..................................................................................................................................... 41 

Filograna Berkeley, 1835 .......................................................................................................................................... 42 

Filogranella Ben-Eliahu & Dafni, 1979 .................................................................................................................... 44 

Filogranula Langerhans, 1884 ................................................................................................................................... 44 

Floriprotis Uchida, 1978 ............................................................................................................................................ 45 

Galeolaria Lamarck, 1818 ......................................................................................................................................... 49 

Hyalopomatus Marenzeller, 1878 .............................................................................................................................. 50 

Hydroides Gunnerus, 1768 ......................................................................................................................................... 52 

Janita Saint-Joseph, 1894 .......................................................................................................................................... 55 

Josephella Caullery & Mesnil, 1896.......................................................................................................................... 57 

Laminatubus ten Hove & Zibrowius, 1986................................................................................................................ 59 

Marifugia Absolon & Hrabĕ, 1930 ............................................................................................................................ 59 

1. Faculty of Education and Human Sciences, Yokohama National University, Tokiwadai, Hodogaya, Yokohama 240-8501, Japan 

Accepted by P. Hutchings: 19 Dec. 2008; published: 16 Mar. 2009 3

Membranopsis Bush, 1910......................................................................................................................................... 62 

Metavermilia Bush, 1905 ........................................................................................................................................... 62 

Microprotula Uchida, 1978........................................................................................................................................ 64 

Neomicrorbis Rovereto, 1904 .................................................................................................................................... 64 

Neovermilia Day, 1961 ............................................................................................................................................... 66 

Nogrobs de Montfort, 1808........................................................................................................................................ 68 

Omphalopomopsis Saint-Joseph, 1894 ...................................................................................................................... 69 

Paraprotis Uchida, 1978 ............................................................................................................................................ 70 

Paumotella Chamberlin, 1919 ................................................................................................................................... 71 

Placostegus Philippi, 1844 ......................................................................................................................................... 74 

Pomatoceros Philippi, 1844 ....................................................................................................................................... 75 

Pomatoleios Pixell, 1913 ........................................................................................................................................... 77 

Pomatostegus Schmarda, 1861 .................................................................................................................................. 78 

Protis Ehlers, 1887 ..................................................................................................................................................... 78 

Protula Risso, 1826.................................................................................................................................................... 81 

Pseudochitinopoma Zibrowius, 1969a ....................................................................................................................... 83 

Pseudovermilia Bush, 1907 ....................................................................................................................................... 85 

Pyrgopolon de Montfort, 1808 ................................................................................................................................... 86 

Rhodopsis Bush, 1905 ................................................................................................................................................ 88 

Salmacina Claparède, 1870........................................................................................................................................ 89 

Semivermilia ten Hove, 1975 ..................................................................................................................................... 91 

Serpula Linnaeus, 1758 .............................................................................................................................................. 93 

Spiraserpula Regenhardt, 1961 ................................................................................................................................. 95 

Spirobranchus de Blainville, 1818............................................................................................................................. 96 

Tanturia Ben-Eliahu, 1976......................................................................................................................................... 98 

Vermiliopsis Saint-Joseph, 1894 .............................................................................................................................. 100 

Vitreotubus Zibrowius, 1979b ................................................................................................................................... 103 

Invalid genera (as Serpulid) ............................................................................................................................................ 105 

Key to serpulid genera (described before 2008) ............................................................................................................. 107 

Acknowledgements ......................................................................................................................................................... 109 

Glossary ........................................................................................................................................................................... 110 

References ....................................................................................................................................................................... 113 

Abstract 

The Serpulidae are a large group of sedentary polychaetes inhabiting calcareous tubes. The relationships within the group 

are poorly understood and taxonomy of the group is very confused which is a major obstacle to accessing their 

phylogeny. This review provides up-to-date information on the current state of taxonomy of Serpulidae sensu lato (not 

including Spirorbinae). The morphology of the group is reviewed with special reference to the features that can provide 

characters for future phylogenetic analyses. Scanning electron micrographs illustrate the structure of the chaetae and 

uncini. The list of 46—in our opinion valid—genera is accompanied by detailed generic diagnoses, species composition 

and distribution (checklist), and remarks on major taxonomic literature. A taxonomic key to the genera and a list of 

invalid genera with synonymy is also provided. 

Key words: Annelida, Polychaeta, Serpulidae, taxonomy, morphology, SEM ultrastructure of chaetae and uncini 



Introduction 

The family Serpulidae is a discrete group of sedentary calcareous tubeworms within the large clade Sabellida, 

which shares a presence of radiolar crown and separation of the body into thoracic and abdominal regions, as 

divergence from the usually rather uniformly segmented motile polychaete form. The views on the 

relationships within Serpulidae have undergone many changes over the years (see Kupriyanova et al. 2006 for 

the details). The Serpulidae Rafinesque, 1815 had been traditionally divided into subfamilies Serpulinae 

Rafinesque, 1815 (although probably in most papers attributed to MacLeay, 1840) and Spirorbinae 

Chamberlin, 1919 until Rioja (1923) established the subfamily Filograninae. Pillai (1960) included 5 

brackish-water serpulid genera in the subfamily Ficopomatinae but ten Hove & Weerdenburg (1978) revised 

the group and placed all its genera in the genus Ficopomatus. Uchida (1978) created 11 sub-families and 

numerous new genera, but his scheme, strongly criticized by ten Hove (1984) has not been accepted widely. 

Pillai (1970) elevated Spirorbinae to the family Spirorbidae, but later a number of authors suggested that 

Spirorbidae are more closely related to Serpulinae than to Filograninae (ten Hove 1984, Fitzhugh 1989, Smith 

1991, Rouse & Fitzhugh 1994) and that the maintenance of the family Spirorbidae is not justified. Recent 

phylogenetic analyses confirmed the position of Spirorbinae as a subfamily of Serpulidae (Kupriyanova 2003, 

Kupriyanova et al. 2006, Lehrke et al. 2007, Kupriyanova & Rouse 2008). Ten Hove (1984) regarded the 

Filograninae as paraphyletic and a morphology-based cladistic analysis of some Serpulidae (Kupriyanova 

2003) supported his conclusions. Moreover, the most recent phylogenetic analyses of Serpulidae using 18S 

ribosomal DNA (Lehrke et al. 2007) and another using combined molecular and morphological data 

(Kupriyanova et al. 2006) suggested that both traditionally formulated sub-families Serpulinae and 

Filograninae are not monophyletic. Kupriyanova et al. (2006) refrained from revising the serpulid 

classification and suggested that a major revision of serpulid taxonomy is needed based on more genera than 

used in their study. 

The major obstacle to a comprehensive phylogenetic analysis of the Serpulidae remains the state of its 

alpha taxonomy. It is almost proverbial to say that serpulid taxonomy is very confused and most currently 

recognized serpulid genera have long and convoluted taxonomic histories. Within Serpulidae, specific 

identification has traditionally been based on a combination of characters such as morphology of the 

operculum and opercular peduncle (if present), degree of development of the collar and thoracic membranes, 

structure of collar chaetae and tube and, to a lesser degree, structure of chaetae and uncini. Serpulid genera 

have been described on the basis of unique characters or on unique combinations of characters (even on 

absence of characters) rather than on presence of shared derived characters. Although traditionally only few 

characters have been used in serpulid taxonomy, variability of these characters remains largely unstudied. 

There have been very few reviews of serpulid taxonomy. The very first revision (Mörch 1863) was 

followed by early reviews by Saint-Joseph (1894), Bush (1905), and Pixell (1912, 1913). Chamberlin (1919) 

gave a key to the serpulid genera without attempting to revise the family, and so did Southward (1963), half a 

century later. Fauchald (1977) compiled a list of generic diagnoses and a key to genera for all polychaetes, 

including serpulids and spirorbids. In addition to the Spirorbidae, he acknowledged 331 species of serpulids, 

divided into 3 sub-families; the Serpulinae with 44 genera, the Filograninae with 5 genera, and the 

Ficopomatinae with 5 genera. Of these 54 genera, 22 were monotypic and another 13 had only 2 species. 

Uchida (1978) provided a systematic review of the group with a description of new species and new genera, 

but gave no key. He mentioned only 233 species, as compared to the 331 of Fauchald (1977). Of the 61 genera 

distinguished by Uchida (1978), 26 were monotypic, and 15 had only two species. No attempts to review 

Serpulidae have been made ever since and now, thirty years later, Fauchald (1977) still remains the most 

commonly used source of information on the generic composition of serpulids. During the last three decades 

serpulid taxonomy underwent significant changes, with numerous taxa being synonymized, older diagnoses 

emended and extended, new species described and about 10 genera added. 

TAXONOMY OF SERPULIDS: STATE OF AFFAIRS 

Zootaxa 2036 © 2009 Magnolia Press · 5

Material and methods 

The aim of this review is to provide up-to-date information on the current state of taxonomy of Serpulidae 

sensu lato. Although the position of Spirorbinae within Serpulidae has been determined (Kupriyanova 2003, 

Kupriyanova et al. 2006, Lehrke et al. 2007), spirorbins are not included in the present paper because 

composition and phylogenetic relationships within this monophyletic group recently have been treated 

elsewhere (Macdonald 2003). The morphology of serpulids (and variability of morphological characters) is 

reviewed with respect to features that can be used as characters in forthcoming cladistic analyses. “Not 

observed” in the diagnoses below indicates that no data have been given in the literature and material either 

could not be (re-) examined by us, or was not preserved well enough. 

Since a mere literature compilation would not be sufficient when dealing with a group with such a 

complex taxonomic history, we examined with use of light microscopy representatives (mostly previously 

unpublished material) of all genera currently considered valid in Serpulidae sensu lato. It should be noted that 

some of the characters are subject to interpretation, changing gradually rather than in distinct steps. Moreover, 

while structure of chaetae and uncini do provide important characters for serpulid taxonomy, many existing 

descriptions, especially the early ones, were published with very sketchy line-drawings of chaetal structures 

made under a compound light microscope. These illustrations often do not provide adequate details of chaetal 

ultrastructure, and even can give a wrong impression when compared with images done with scanning 

electron microscopy (SEM) (ten Hove & Jansen-Jacobs 1984: 147; compare for instance Fauvel 1927 fig. 

121q with Breton & Vincent 1999 fig. 10). Therefore, chaetae and uncini of at least one representative of the 

genus were re-examined with SEM, enabling to catch the dentition of uncini in a dental formula, see glossary. 

Note that SEM photographs of many currently known serpulids have never been published before. Existing 

descriptions of two monotypic genera, Chitinopomoides and Paumotella, were that incomplete that full 

redescriptions of their type-species have been included. 

Authors’ names and year of publication for valid serpulid taxa can be found in the Table of Contents and 

in the relevant sections and lists of species. For the remaining taxa, this information is given with their first 

occurrence in the text. 

The material examined for this review is deposited in the following museums: 

BMNH collection number of the Natural History Museum, London, United Kingdom, formerly the 

British Museum of Natural History 

DIZMSU Department of Invertebrate Zoology, Moscow State University, Moscow, Russia 

HUJ the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Biological Collections, Israel 

LACM-AHF Los Angeles County Museum of Natural History, Allan Hancock Foundation, California, 

USA 

MCZ Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard University, Cambridge, USA 

NHMW Natural History Museum Vienna, Naturhistorisches Museum Wien, Vienna, Austria 

QM Queensland Museum, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia 

RMNH collection number of the Nationaal Natuurhistorisch Museum Naturalis, Leiden, the 

Netherlands, formerly the Rijks Museum voor Natuurlijke Historie 

SAM South Australian Museum, Adelaide, Australia 

SIO RAS Shirshov Institute of Oceanology, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia 

USNM collection number of the Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History (NMNH), 

Washington, formerly United States National Museum 

ZMA Zoological Museum of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands 

ZMH Zoologisches Institut und Zoologisches Museum, Hamburg, Germany. 



Morphology 

The tube 

Whereas tubes of the closely related sabellid family are constructed of mucus and muddy or sandy sediments 

(e.g., Bonar 1972; with the exception of the calcareous tube in the sabellid Glomerula Nielsen, 1931 

(including Calcisabella Perkins, 1991), e.g., Vinn et al. 2008), all serpulids build tubes of crystalline calcium 

carbonate and a mucopolysaccharide matrix using calcium glands located on the collar (e.g., Neff 1968, 1971, 

Nott & Parkes 1975, Vovelle et al. 1991). Tube additions are molded by the collar folds when the worm is in a 

feeding position, at the entrance of the tube. The resulting tube shape depends upon the degree of rotation of 

the worm within the tube and upon the morphology of the collar folds themselves (Faouzi 1930, Hanson 

1948b, Hedley 1956a, b, 1958). 

In spirorbins the tubes are coiled either dextrally or sinistrally in a tight flat spiral (the character that gave 

the name to the group) and are usually completely attached to the substrate (Helicosiphon Gravier, 1907 is an 

exception having the tube with erect distal end). In serpulins the tube shape is quite variable and coiling, when 

present, is irregular (maybe with the exception of Nogrobs grimaldii (de Montfort, 1808), but the tube of this 

taxon starts and ends with a straight part). In almost all serpulids the tubes are attached to the substrate by at 

least the proximal older parts. The only known exceptions are the free-living Ditrupa (Fig. 1A), and maybe 

Bathyditrupa, Nogrobs grimaldii, and Serpula crenata (Ehlers, 1908; possibly including S. sinica Wu & Chen, 

1979). Very likely larvae of these taxa settle on a pebble or a shell (as observed for D. arietina by Charles et 

al. (2003) and for S. crenata by ten Hove & Ben-Eliahu, unpublished), and break free later. Some serpulids 

have tubes attached to the substrate throughout their entire length (e.g., Pomatoceros triqueter (Linnaeus, 

1758)) while others have free erect distal parts (e.g., Hyalopomatus spp.). The direction of tube growth is 

apparently affected by environmental conditions (e.g., Knight-Jones 1981). Serpulids are able to deal with 

high rates of sedimentation by changing the shape and direction of tube growth (e.g., Hartmann-Schröder 

1967, 1971). Standing erect tubes are observed in waters with low current and high sedimentation rate; the 

most extreme example being that of Serpula israelitica Amoureux, 1976, with up to 10 cm long erect tubes 

embedded in sand (ten Hove, 16 June 1982, observation on Van Veen grab sample, CANCAP Expedition VI, 

Sta. 111, South of Santa Luzia, 55–62 m, sand). Tubes completely attached to the substrate may be indicative 

of water movements (currents, tides) with low rates of sedimentation (Kupriyanova & Badyaev 1998). A high 

density of tubes may result in the distal parts growing away from the substrate (e.g., Jackson 1977, Table 3). 

Tubes of some taxa, such as Floriprotis (Fig. 1E) and several Spirobranchus spp. (Fig. 1D) may be completely 

embedded in scleractinian corals (see review by Martín & Britayev 1998, Ben-Tzvi et al. 2006). These are not 

boring organisms, but settle on a dead coral part and become overgrown later. 

The importance of tubes in serpulid taxonomy is underestimated and adequate descriptions and figures are 

mostly absent in Recent descriptions. In some genera (e.g., Hydroides) the tube morphology is too uniform for 

general taxonomic use, but locally some Hydroides species can be recognized in the field by their tubes. In 

other genera (such as Filogranula, Pyrgopolon, Pseudovermilia) the tubes provide excellent diagnostic 

characters. 

Tube shapes. In external cross-section, tubes of many serpulids are circular or sub-circular when a 

flattened area of attachment is present. However, in some taxa the tube cross-sections may be notably 

triangular (Pomatoceros, Pomatostegus, Placostegus, Pseudovermilia, Fig. 2E) or sub-triangular with one 

major longitudinal keel (Laminatubus alvini ten Hove & Zibrowius, 1986). Tubes of Galeolaria having two 

major longitudinal keels can be considered as trapezoidal. Bathyditrupa hovei Kupriyanova, 1993b and 

Nogrobs grimaldii are unusual in having tubes rectangular in cross-section. Within a single tube changes may 

occur from trapezoidal to polyangular (Pyrgopolon differens (Augener, 1922): ten Hove 1973 Pl. IIB) or from 

triangular respectively trapezoidal/semicircular to circular (e.g., Pseudovermilia occidentalis (McIntosh, 

1885); Hydroides brachyacanthus Rioja, 1941a: ten Hove 1975 Pl. VII g, k; Imajima & ten Hove 1984 fig. 5). 



FIGURE 1. Serpulids in their tubes. A—Ditrupa arietina, in situ, tubes not attached to substrate, from Madeira Island 

(photo P. Wirtz), B—Filograna implexa, in situ from Portugal, Sesimbra (photo P. Wirtz), C—Serpula vittata, from 

Australia, Queensland, Lizard Island (photo G. Rouse), D—Spirobranchus gardineri, from the Seychelles Exp. oceanic 

reefs, Amirantes, Alphonse Atoll, SE part of lagoon, 7º03'S, 52º44'E, 4–6 January 1993; patch reef and reef flat, 4 m, 

near Sta. 787 (photo J. Randall), E—Floriprotis sabiuraensis, from Indonesia, North Sulawesi, tube embedded into coral 

(photo M. Boyer), F—Placostegus sp., in transparent tube, from Australia, Queensland, Lizard Island, branchial crown 

and operculum missing, orange belt of thoracic eyes is well seen (photo G. Rouse). Abbreviations: op—operculum, 

te—girdle of thoracic eyes. 



FIGURE 2. Variability of serpulid tube morphology. A—Rhodopsis pusilla, tube with brood chambers from Japan, 

Okinawa (photo E. Nishi), B—Spiraserpula caribensis, aggregations (pink/purple) mixed with Homotrema rubens 

(Lamarck, 1816; red) and some filogranids (white) from the Netherlands Antilles, Curaçao, St. Jorisbaai, about 100 m 

from sea; from undersides of boulders and large metal poles in surf (legit & photo H. A. ten Hove), the insert shows a 

single Spiraserpula caribensis tube from the Netherlands Antilles, Curaçao, Zakitó (legit and photo H.A. ten Hove), 

C—Internal colouration of Spirobranchus giganteus tube, the Netherlands Antilles, Curaçao, Bullenbaai, E, near 

swimming pool, 28 April 1970; sandflat, 5–6 m, from living Millepora, legit H.A. ten Hove, St. 2048A (photo C. 

Roessler), D—Galeolaria caespitosa aggregation from Australia, Sydney, Balmoral (photo N. Tait), E—Tubes of 

Pseudovermilia occidentalis (triangular) and Hydroides bispinosus (enrolled on itself) from the Netherlands Antilles, 

Curaçao, Bullenbaai, near swimming pool, from rusted can in sand, Sta. 2048 (legit & photo H.A. ten Hove). 



The inside of the tube, the lumen, is even more underexploited as a character than the outside. The internal 

cross-section of the tube lumen in serpulids is mostly circular. However, in species of the genus Spiraserpula 

Pillai & ten Hove, 1994, the lumen can also be oval with a “waist”, the cross-section is like a ∞ without the 

middle line dividing it in two parts (Fig. 7E). Such a lumen shape is a result of the internal tube structures 

(ITS) in the form of ridges and crests that are known only for this genus. There is a single observation of a 

Protula species with a dorso-ventrally compressed lumen (Netherlands Antilles, Curaçao, Piscadera Bay, 20 

m, reef, 12 Jan. 1990, ten Hove unpublished). Finally, two series of small pits in the substrate-side of the 

lumen have been described for Spirobranchus corrugatus (see ten Hove & Nishi 1996). 

Tabulae or transverse tube elements (Fig. 7C) may partition the oldest parts of the tube as response to tube 

damage in Pyrgopolon, Pomatoceros, Spirobranchus, and Serpula (e.g., Lamarck 1818: 362, McIntosh 1923 

fig. 168, Mörch 1863: 349, ten Hove 1973, ten Hove & van den Hurk 1993: 27), and rarely so in Hydroides 

(Perkins pers. comm.; Breton & Vincent 1999 fig. 14), as well as in Crucigera, Ficopomatus, Hyalopomatus, 

and Neovermilia (present paper). 

Attached parts of the tubes are often flattened and may contain alveolar structures as for instance in 

Filogranula, Pomatoceros, Semivermilia, and Spirobranchus (e.g., Bianchi 1981 figs 32c, 36a, 42b, 43b; 

McIntosh 1923 fig. 169–170; Thomas 1940 Plate 1 figs 2, 3). According to Thomas (1940: 7) it is probable 

that alveoles are left to economize the amount of material used. 

The ornamentation of the external tube surface of the serpulid tubes is variable within populations and 

may be quite elaborate (e.g., Janita fimbriata, see Bianchi 1981 fig. 39), but most typically consists of 

longitudinal and transverse elements (see Bianchi 1981 fig. 6 for possibilities). Serpulids may have a single 

major prominent longitudinal keel (as in Pomatoceros or Laminatubus, e.g., ten Hove & Zibrowius 1986 fig. 

1) or two identical major keels may be present (as in Galeolaria, e.g., Dew 1959 figs 11, 12), even though 

such keels may be indistinct as in some Hydroides spp. In other cases, the major longitudinal keel is 

supplemented by secondary more subtle ones (compare Pomatoceros triqueter with P. lamarckii in Bianchi 

1981 figs 42a, b, 43a, b). Finally, a number of longitudinal keels may be present (Metavermilia multicristata, 

Serpula vermicularis, e.g., Bianchi 1981 figs 29, 13). The keels may either be sharp (Semivermilia 

agglutinata: Bianchi 1981 fig. 33) or smooth (S. pomatostegoides: Bianchi 1981 fig. 34), straight (Hydroides 

uniformis Imajima & ten Hove, 1986 fig. 1) or wavy (as in Semivermilia crenata: Bianchi 1981 fig. 31), or in 

the form of longitudinal rows of larger denticles and smaller tubercules (Spirobranchus lima: Bianchi 1981 

fig. 40). 

Transverse tube ornamentation includes simple growth striations such as in Protula, circular growth rings 

(Josephella marenzelleri: Bianchi 1981 fig. 50), flaring smooth trumpet peristomes directed toward the distal 

end of the tube as seen in Ficopomatus enigmaticus. The most complex denticulate peristomes are found in 

Filogranula stellata, F. calyculata, and F. gracilis (e.g., Bianchi 1981 figs 35–38). 

A combination of numerous longitudinal keels and transverse ridges may form structures as in 

Metavermilia arctica Kupriyanova (1993d fig. 1K) or Vermiliopsis labiata (see Imajima 1977 fig. 4). Tube 

ornamentation in the free distal and attached proximal parts of one tube may differ (e.g., Filogranula 

annulata: Bianchi 1981 fig. 37, Placostegus incomptus Ehlers (1887 pl. 60 fig. 8) or Pyrgopolon differens (ten 

Hove, 1973 pl. IIb)). Tube ovicells used for brooding such as found in Rhodopsis (Fig. 2A), Chitinopoma, and 

Pseudovermilia (Fig. 7D) are also a form of tube ornamentation. 

The tube wall is usually uniformly opaque, but in species such as, for example, Ditrupa arietina and 

Laminatubus alvini, the walls consist of two distinct layers: an inner opaque and outer hyaline layer; the latter 

may cause a shiny surface in tubes of e.g., Bathyvermilia and Serpula crenata. A hyaline granular overlay is 

present in tubes of Spiraserpula species (see ten Hove & Pillai 1994), as well as in Serpula oshimae and S. 

hartmanae, in Hydroides mongeslopezi and also in an undescribed species of Apomatus (ten Hove unpubl.). It 

may have been overlooked in other taxa. Placostegus (Fig. 1F), Vitreotubus, and Neomicrorbis have entirely 

transparent tubes, and this situation also may occur in some spirorbins (e.g., Paradexiospira vitrea (Fabricius, 

1780) and Protolaeospira striata (Quiévreux, 1963)). Scanning electron microscopy observation of some of 

these tubes (ten Hove & Zibrowius 1986) suggested that transparency is caused by preferred orientation of 



large crystals in the structure of the tube, while small, disorderly arranged crystals give an opaque appearance. 

Most recently, Vinn et al. (2008) described up to four different layers found in 34% of serpulid tubes, based on 

SEM and they also found a positive correlation between regular crystal orientation and tube transparency. 

Aggregated tubes. Serpulids like Salmacina, Filograna, and Filogranella build characteristic open 

aggregates made of numerous tiny branching tubes (Fig. 1B). Nishi (1992c) illustrated that the “colonies” are 

the result of combination of asexual budding and gregarious larval settling. Asexual reproduction also leads to 

a chain of tubes in Filogranula (cf. ten Hove 1979: 286) or a network of branching tubes in Josephella 

marenzelleri and Rhodopsis pusilla (see George 1974, Ben-Eliahu & ten Hove 1989, Nishi 1992c, Nishi & 

Yamasu 1992). Asexual reproduction also has been reported for Spiraserpula (Pillai & ten Hove 1994 fig. 

16B). These “colonies” are different from dense aggregations such as found in Galeolaria caespitosa (Fig. 

2D), Ficopomatus enigmaticus or some or some Hydroides spp. resulting from gregarious larval settling only. 

For a review of serpulid “colonies” see ten Hove & van den Hurk (1993). 

Tube colour. Serpulid tube colour is most commonly white, however in some species completely or 

partly pink, bluish, orange (e.g., Spirobranchus, Serpula and one Hydroides), or purple (Fig. 2B), as well as 

mustard (both Spiraserpula), or even white with dark-brown cross-striation as in Serpula vittata (as S. 

palauense Imajima, 1982 fig. 2m; Fig. 1C). Sometimes inner tube parts can be coloured as in tropical 

Spirobranchus spp. (ten Hove 1970, Smith 1985, Fig. 2C). In individual tubes of small Serpula spp. colour 

can change from pink to white in a few millimeters near the entrance of the tube (ten Hove unpublished). 

The general morphology of the body 

Serpulids (and sabellids) have a body that is clearly divided into three regions: branchial crown, thorax, and 

abdomen (Fig. 5A–D). The branchial crown is composed of a number of radioles each bearing a double row 

of ciliated pinnules. One of the radioles is usually transformed into the opercular peduncle (Fig. 5C, D, pd) 

and distally bears the operculum (Fig. 5B–C, op). The base of the branchial crown is surrounded by the collar, 

which continues as the thoracic membranes, a structure found only in serpulids. The border between thorax 

and abdomen is marked by chaetal inversion, with the dorsal notochaetae and ventral comb-shaped 

neurochaetae (uncini) of the thorax changing places such that abdominal uncini become dorsal (notopodial) 

and abdominal chaetae become ventral (neuropodial) in the abdomen. 

Although serpulids are often very brightly coloured and the colour of the animals indeed may be useful in 

the field (Fig. 1), as a taxonomic character the type of colouration is of little use as colour is rapidly lost in 

preservatives, particularly in alcohol. The colouration may also be a subject to significant interspecific 

variability (e.g., in the Spirobranchus corniculatus complex: Fosså & Nilsen 2000: 140, 147; Song 2006, as S. 

giganteus). It may even vary within a single specimen, for instance, in Spirobranchus the colour of both lobes 

of a branchial crown may be so different as blue and red (ten Hove unpubl.). Føyn & Gjøen (1953) describe a 

Mendelian pattern found in the colouration of branchial crowns of Pomatoceros triqueter, with 2628 brown, 

218 blue, and only 2 orange branchial crowns. 

The branchial crown 

The branchial crown, used for feeding and respiration, with each radiole bearing rows of paired ciliated 

pinnules is a distinct feature of sabellids and serpulids. The crown is considered to be prostomial (cf. Segrove 

1941). The radioles of the branchial crown are attached to paired lobes (Fig. 6F, bl) located laterally on both 

sides of the mouth. The branchial lobes are completely separate from one another in serpulids, but are fused 

together in some sabellids (e.g., Chone Bush, 1905 and Sabella Linnaeus, 1767, see Fitzhugh (1989)). 

The number of radioles used to delineate some taxa (e.g., Salmacina tribranchiata) is an unreliable 

character. In individual species, the lower limit of the number of radioles has no value, since all juveniles have 



fewer radioles than adults. The upper limit is possibly an exponent of size, possibly genetically determined. 

However, the variation within individuals of larger species (e.g., Spirobranchus and Protula) is enormous. 

Kupriyanova (1999) showed that within some Serpula species number of radioles (as well as number of 

opercular radii) is directly correlated with animal size. 

The bases of the radioles in some sabellids and serpulids may be joined with an inter-radiolar membrane 

(Fig. 3A, E, mb). In serpulids, the inter-radiolar membrane is very high in Pomatoleios and it unites radioles 

for up to half of their length in Pyrgopolon. The membrane is also well developed in Spirobranchus (and may 

bear processes in some Spirobranchus spp.), Pomatoceros, Pomatostegus, Galeolaria, Dasynema, and 

Neovermilia. It is also commonly found in species of Serpula, Spiraserpula, and Crucigera, but is very rare in 

Hydroides (see Bastida-Zavala & ten Hove 2002). The membrane is absent in the serpulid genera 

Ficopomatus, Filograna, Pseudochitinopoma, Pseudovermilia, Salmacina, and Vermiliopsis. 

Eyes. Photoreceptors may be found not only in the anterior region but almost anywhere in annelids, 

including Sabellida, from ephemeral eye-spots on epitokous segments (notably in Eunicidae) to those on 

pygidia (e.g., Fabricia Blainville, 1828; Augeneriella Banse, 1957 (both in Fitzhugh 1989)). The serpulids are 

no exception to this plasticity, as e.g., shown by the girdle of thoracic (peristomial?) red-pigmented ocelli in 

Placostegus (Fig. 1F, te). One difficulty is that the eyespots may disappear in preservative in a comparatively 

short time. In the diagnoses given below, “presence” or “absence” has been observed in fresh material; “not 

observed” indicates that no data have been given in the literature and material could not be (re-)examined by 

us. Another difficulty is that there has been no consistent terminology, “eye” or “eyespot” can have any of the 

meanings given below. 

Prostomial ocellar clusters. Many serpulids possess a pair of brain-associated clusters of ocelli in the 

prostomium, apparently the continuation of the larval “eyes” (Smith 1984a, b). For instance, more than 20 

preserved specimens of Filograna implexa showed 2 rows of 4–6 pigmented cells in the prostomial area, 

presumed to be prostomial “eyespots”, however without lenses; on the other hand, more than 20 nonoperculate 

specimens of Salmacina spec. from Marseille lacked pigmented spots in the prostomial area (ten 

Hove & Pantus 1985). Metavermilia multicristata has prostomial “eyes” (Zibrowius 1968a: 86, 128, as 

Vermiliopsis), presumably simple ocelli. On the other hand, in fresh M. multicristata specimens from the 

Seychelles “eyespots” were invisible (ten Hove unpublished). 

Branchial eyes. In serpulids, most photoreceptors are associated with the branchial crown (including the 

operculum), and these could be termed collectively “branchial eyes”. Apart from ultrastructural differences, 

and although intermediate types do occur, photoreceptors may roughly be grouped into three groups for which 

we propose the following “standard” terms: 

Ocelli: single eyespots with (or without a single lens). These may occur on the axis of radioles (e.g., 

Vermiliopsis spp., some taxa of the Spirobranchus tetraceros-complex), but also near the inter-radiolar 

membrane (Fig. 6D), on the peduncle or the operculum (e.g., a hundred or more ocelli, not rigidly patterned, 

on the ventral rim of the opercula of Pomatostegus stellatus and Spirobranchus corrugatus). 

Ocellar clusters: loose, bulging groupings of approximately 2–20 ocelli, generally with as many lenses. 

Occurrence on various radioles (notably Apomatus spp.), or peduncle (e.g., Semivermilia pomatostegoides, on 

border between peduncle and opercular ampulla). Dasynema chrysogyrus has 5–6 pairs of ocellar clusters, 

with 2–11 lenses each (Imajima & ten Hove 1984). Uchida (1978) reports Microprotula ovicellata as having 

8–11 pairs of “eyespots” (ocellar clusters) on each radiole, and a red "eye" (probably a simple ocellus) in the 

base of each branchial tuft. 

Compound eyes: more or less rigidly patterned groupings of ocelli (Fig. 6A). In the Spirobranchus 

giganteus-complex sensu lato, for instance, there are 600–1000 lenses in a compound eye, located at the base 

of each branchial lobe (Fig. 6E), proximally on the first left and right radiole. These might very well be 

capable of receiving visual impressions in a similar way as in crustaceans (Smith 1984a). The radii of the 

opercular funnel in Hydroides lambecki and of the operculum of Pyrgopolon ctenactis show circular 

groupings of 20–30 red pigmented bulging structures (Fig. 6B), which certainly are very reminiscent of small 

compound eyes. The knobs at the base of the radioles in Protula balboensis (illustrated by Monro 1933 fig. 



30A) most probably too are a series of large ocellar clusters or small compound eyes, as is evident from 

syntypes (BMNH 1933:7:10:265–266) and additional material in LACM-AHF (present paper). 

Some interesting literature observations could not be confirmed by us. For example, Protula intestinum is 

reported to have two elliptical compound eyespots at both sides of the head by Radl (1912: 246, as P. protula), 

but we cannot confirm this observation. In Protula spp. we found scattered single ocelli along the rhachis, 

radioles with two rows of single red ocelli (“eyespots”), to radioles with up to 9 bright red transverse bands, 

marking paired bulging ocellar clusters (Fig. 6F). Janita fimbriata is reported as sometimes with stalked 

“eyes” on the base of the pinnules (as Omphalopoma spinosa by Langerhans 1884, fig. 45a; by Fauvel 1927, 

Rioja 1931, both as Omphalopomopsis); these presumably ocellar clusters could not be found by us in 

preserved material. 

Field notes on about 80 serpulid taxa made by one of us (HAtH) also show no overall consistent patterns. 

For instance, in Crucigera tricornis observations are contradictory, from a single medial row of transparent 

lenses on the rhachis of each radiole in one specimen to the same plus a row of bulbous bright red spots, 

presumably large ocellar clusters or small compound eyes, above the inter-radiolar membrane in another. 

There are indications that occurrence of photoreceptors may be dependent on the (dorsal to ventral) position 

of radioles in the branchial crown as exemplified by the different observations in Spiraserpula paraypsilon, 

where there are up to 6 eyespots (type not specified) at the base of radioles, however, neither in dorsal-most 

radiole nor in the 3 ventral radioles, while in other specimens no lenses were seen (not looked for in the 

correct position?). 

In conclusion, compiled data from the literature and field notes, altogether from almost a hundred species 

in 30 genera, show no consistent patterns. Moreover, eyespots and eyes are difficult to find in preserved 

material. These characters have not been systematically studied in most serpulids nor mentioned in taxonomic 

descriptions. They may be useful in some taxonomic decisions, but need more consistent study. 

Stylodes. An unusual feature found on serpulid radioles is external unpaired finger-like stylodes (Fig. 

14A), an autapomorphy found in the serpulid genus Dasynema only (Imajima & ten Hove 1984); paired 

stylodes are known in the sabellid genera Pseudobranchiomma Jones, 1962 and Branchiomma Kölliker, 1858 

(e.g., Tovar-Hernández & Knight-Jones 2006, figs 1C–F). 

The radiole arrangement. In most small serpulids, radioles are arranged in two semi-circles when 

outside the tube in the feeding position (Hartman 1969 frontispiece, present Fig. 1E). Depending on the length 

of branchial lobes, short pectinate arrangement (as in Semivermilia spp.: Zibrowius 1968a Plate 4 fig. 26) and 

long pectinate arrangement (Pseudovermilia occidentalis: ten Hove 1975 Plate II f) of radioles is possible in 

serpulids. Spiralled arrangement of radioles occurs when the ventral margins of the branchial lobe continue to 

grow, adding radioles and spiralling along the inner margin of the crown. In some large serpulids, especially in 

the large species of the genus Spirobranchus, the crown is a pair of beautiful spiralled cones (hence the name), 

the arrangement that is responsible for the common name “Christmas-tree worm” for Spirobranchus (Fig. 

1D). Some Protula species, such as the huge Protula bispiralis (including P. magnifica (Straughan, 1967b)) 

also have distinctly spiral branchiae. Perkins (1984) and Knight-Jones & Perkins (1998) suggested that 

spiralling of branchiae is an exclusively size-related phenomenon. However, Fitzhugh (1989) pointed out that 

whereas in juveniles of some sabellid species the branchial base is semi-circular and begins to spiral ventrally 

with increase in size, other small species of the same genus never exhibit spiralling when mature. 

Filamentous tips. Long filiform ends of radioles (filamentous tips) are sometimes mentioned in serpulid 

descriptions, however, there has been no systematic documentation of these structures across the group. 

Bastida-Zavala & ten Hove (2002) distinguished 4 size classes of filamentous tips in Hydroides. They found 

the character to be variable on the infraspecific level: 4 taxa showed filamentous tips in a single size class, 12 

in two, 6 in three, while in one species the size ranged through all 4 sizes, from absent to very long. 

Mouth palps. The presence of filiform dorsal mouth palps is a character not commonly used in serpulid 

systematics (ten Hove 1973). These processes are held facing anteriorly and ventrally across the mouth into 

the centre of the branchial crown on each side. Although considered to be typically absent by some authors 

(Day 1967, Pettibone 1982), these palp-like processes are likely to be a consistent feature of serpulids, albeit 



inconspicuous in larger species. Orrhage (1980: 155–156) distinguished three types of palps: 1) lip associated 

radioles (Sabella, Potamilla Malmgren, 1866, Euchone Malmgren, 1866, Chone); 2) lip associated pinnules 

(Potamilla, Euchone, Chone, Pomatoceros, Ditrupa, Hydroides, Placostegus, Serpula, in the latter almost 

invisible); 3) de novo outgrowths of the dorsal lip (Apomatus, Protula, ?Filograna). Unfortunately Orrhage 

studied only a few genera, but apparently in serpulids all “palps” may not be homologous. As opposed to 

these dorsal palps, ventral mouth palps have been reported for Pseudovermilia madracicola and Rhodopsis by 

ten Hove (1989) and Ben-Eliahu & ten Hove (1989). However, re-studying the types of P. madracicola, it 

becomes apparent that the palps are attached to the dorsal lip (which already could be suspected from ten 

Hove’s figure (1989 fig. 23)), and that it having been attributed to being connected to a ventral lip is incorrect. 

In absence of well preserved material of Rhodopsis we have not been able to check the position here, but we 

would not be surprised if the same applies to the “ventral” palp of Ben-Eliahu & ten Hove (1989). “Not 

observed” in the diagnoses below indicates that no data have been given in the literature and material either 

could not be (re-) examined by us, or was not preserved well enough. 

The operculum 

A modified radiole, the operculum, serving as a tube plug when a worm withdraws into its tube, is generally 

present in serpulids (Fig. 4A–F), but is always absent in sabellids and sabellariids. The opercular structure in 

serpulids has traditionally been considered one of the most important taxonomic characters. 

Some serpulid taxa are non-operculate: Salmacina, Protula (Fig. 5A, 6F), Protis, Filogranella (Fig. 6C), 

Floriprotis (Fig. 1E), and Microprotula. However, Salmacina and Protula are practically indistinguishable 

from the nominal operculate taxa Filograna and Apomatus (Fig. 5B) respectively. As a consequence, some 

authors considered Apomatus to be a synonym of Protula, and mentioned individual specimens of what was 

considered to be Protula tubularia with soft globular opercula (Zibrowius 1968a, Hong 1984, Bianchi 1981). 

However, based on the examination of thoracic blood-vessel patterns in over a hundred specimens ten Hove & 

Pantus (1985) regarded operculate and non-operculate forms found in the Mediterranean as belonging to two 

different genera, Protula and Apomatus. Differences have been elucidated in a key by Ben-Eliahu & Fiege 

(1996: 27). Whether P. tubularia really shows operculate and non-operculate individuals remains unclear. 

Normally non-operculate species may include operculate individuals and normally non-operculate genera 

may include operculate species, as mentioned for Protis (by Kupriyanova 1993b, Ben-Eliahu & Fiege 1996, 

Kupriyanova & Jirkov 1997) and for Paraprotis (by Imajima 1979). Normally operculate genera occasionally 

include non-operculate species (e.g., ten Hove 1989: 136, Fiege & ten Hove 1999 for Spirobranchus 

nigranucha, Lechapt 1992 for Neovermilia anoperculata, Knight-Jones et al. 1997 for Hyalopomatus 

cancerum). In Vermiliopsis striaticeps, the functional operculum is accompanied by a rudimentary operculum 

on a normal pinnulate radiole, or a modified, almost smooth radiole on the opposite lobe (Bianchi 1981 fig. 

26). Ludwig (1957) showed that if the operculum in Vermiliopsis is amputated, a new one is formed at the tip 

of the opposite radiole. Apomatus spp. also may have a slightly modified radiole, a pseudoperculum, opposite 

the functional operculum. Protis polyoperculata has up to 6 opercula, some of them smaller, which probably 

can be classified as pseudopercula. 

The serpulid genera Crucigera, Hydroides, Serpula, and Spiraserpula are uniformly characterized by a 

pseudoperculum (Fig. 5C, ps), a club-shaped underdeveloped operculum carried on short modified 

(rudimentary) radiole on the opposite side of the opercular crown. The pseudoperculum can develop into a 

functional operculum if the latter is shed or lost (Okada 1932, Schochet 1973a, b). Sometimes, two functional 

opercula can be found simultaneously, for example, in Hydroides bioperculate forms are not uncommon 

(Zeleny 1902, Ichikawa & Takagaki 1942, Schochet 1973a, b, ten Hove & Ben-Eliahu 2005), or some taxa 

from that group may have two rudimentary opercula only. For instance, in a population of Hydroides 

spongicola, 75%–95% of the individuals possess two small pseudopercula instead of one functional and one 

rudimentary operculum; a similar phenomenon has been reported for populations of Crucigera inconstans 

(see ten Hove & Jansen-Jacobs 1984: 164). 



Throughout Spiraserpula, there is a trend of opercular loss. In S. massiliensis, for instance, Pillai & ten 

Hove (1994: 53) found 12 operculate specimens and 25 non-operculate ones, although mostly two 

pseudopercula are present. The trend culminates in some specimens of S. paraypsilon, where even the 

pseudopercula may be lost (Pillai & ten Hove 1994). 

One wonders if this loss of a functional defence mechanism has some relation to the gain of an alternative 

defence mechanism such as grab-footholds in the tube for Spiraserpula; the extremely irritating chemical 

defence mechanism of the host sponge Neofibularia nolitangere (Duchassaing & Michelotti, 1864) as extra 

protection for Hydroides spongicola; the occurrence deep down branches of species of Acropora Oken, 1815 

protecting S. nigranucha against predation; and the symbiotic Floriprotis may have extra protection of its host 

corals. Knight-Jones et al. (1997) also suggested that in serpulids secondary loss of the operculum could be an 

adaptation to certain environmental conditions, such as low oxygen concentration in some habitats. 

Opercular structure and reinforcement vary widely from simple vesicular and lacking any reinforcement 

(Apomatus (Fig. 5B), some Hyalopomatus (Fig. 3C), some Metavermilia spp. and Protis) or spoon-shaped 

(Filograna implexa)), to very elaborate ones. Quite commonly, serpulid opercula are reinforced with flat or 

slightly concave chitinous endplates (Bathyditrupa, Ditrupa, some Filogranula spp., Janita, Marifugia, 

Placostegus, Pseudochitinopoma, and Chitinopoma) or elongated distal caps (Vermiliopsis (Fig. 3F), 

Semivermilia) with or without distal thorns (Pseudovermilia, some Metavermilia spp.). Ficopomatus and 

Rhodopsis show a large number of chitinous spines sometimes imbedded in or inserted into a chitinous base. 

In Bathyvermilia, Dasynema, and Vermiliopsis labiata the chitinous endplates are additionally reinforced by 

encrusted calcareous deposits. Several serpulid genera have opercular reinforcements in the form of 

calcareous endplates (Pomatoleios), sometimes adorned with non-movable horns of varying complexity 

(Pomatoceros, Spirobranchus: Fig. 3E, 4A). The two species of Galeolaria (Figs 2D, 4B) are the only 

serpulids that have opercula armed with very elaborate movable calcareous spines. In the genus Metavermilia 

a range of opercular forms is found (see Nishi et al. 2007), from a spherical soft operculum in M. inflata, to an 

inverse conical ampulla with a horny distal cap in M. multicristata, with a complex multi-tiered chitinous 

structure in some other species such as M. acanthophora (Fig. 4C). Another multi-tiered opercular 

reinforcement in Pomatostegus spp. forms one of the most complex opercula known in Serpulidae (see 

Imajima 1977 fig. 7). 

Finally, calcareous opercular reinforcement is extreme in Pyrgopolon (Fig. 6B, including Sclerostyla, and 

the nominal fossil genera Hamulus Morton, 1834 and Turbinia Michelin, 1845), where both the operculum 

and opercular talon (reaching deep into the peduncle) are entirely calcified (ten Hove 1973). Calcareous talons 

are otherwise only found in spirorbins (e.g., Bianchi 1981 figs 54, 56, 58, 64) and Neomicrorbis (present 

paper); Pillai (1965 fig. 22H) and ten Hove (1973 fig. 43) report small talons in Pomatoleios, however, these 

do not reach beyond the opercular ampulla. 

The nature of opercular reinforcement is still unclear in some serpulids, for example, in Laminatubus and 

Neovermilia globula (Fig. 4E) the opercular distal cap is made of stouter material than the proximal soft 

bulbous part (ampulla), however, without either calcareous or chitinous reinforcement. It might be a thickened 

cuticle similar to that found in the opercula of Serpula (Thorp et al. 1991) and Crucigera. 

The funnel-shaped opercula of Crucigera, Hydroides, Serpula, and Spiraserpula are very distinct in being 

composed of numerous fused radii (Figs 3A, D, 4F, 5C). While in species of Serpula and Spiraserpula the 

opercular funnel is simple, it possesses basal bulbous processes in Crucigera and is armed with a distal 

verticil of chitinous spines in Hydroides (Fig. 4D). The basal processes of Crucigera (Fig. 3D, bk) are thought 

to be homologous to the proximal funnel of Hydroides by ten Hove (1984). The similar basal knobs in the 

operculum of Janita (Fig. 24A) may be a convergent development. The calcareous long stalked funnel-shaped 

operculum of Pyrgopolon (Fig. 6B) appears superficially similar to the funnels of the Serpula-group (e.g., Fig. 

5C), but this similarity is of a convergent nature. 

Ontogeny of operculum and peduncle. Which radiole is ontogenetically modified into the peduncle has 

been a matter of debate. Pillai (1970) argued that the opercular peduncle of spirorbins is a modified second 



adiole, whereas, in his opinion, it always is the first radiole in serpulins. He suggested, therefore, that 

spirorbin operculum is not homologous to the serpulin operculum. 

However, to determine which radiole is modified into the peduncle, ontogenetic studies are needed, and 

these do not give a clear-cut answer. According to the embryological literature, the operculum is formed from 

the 3 rd radiolar bud dorsally (e.g., Zeleny 1905 for Hydroides; Segrove 1941 for Pomatoceros; Vuillemin 1965 

for Ficopomatus and spirorbins). Salensky (1884) is less clear for spirorbins, but contrary to Vuillemin (1965) 

seems to indicate an origin from the second dorsal bud. According to Matjašič & Sket (1966), in Marifugia, 

the operculum even may be formed from the 4 th radiolar bud dorsally. However, it cannot be excluded that the 

differences in specifying the buds are due to confusion between radiolar and pinnular buds, such as the later 

lip-associated pinnule (see different types of mouth-palps, p. 13). Another explanation for the differences in 

numbering might be found in Smith (1985: 148): “The operculum arises completely independently of the 

existing radioles. It starts as a small bud at the left side of the prostomium between radioles 2 and 3 [in Smith’s 

perception radiole 1 becomes the dorsal palp of the mouth], but dorsal to them [thus outside the normal range 

of radioles], in what is essentially the dorsal position. This bud grows out into a cylindrical opercular stalk 

with distal swelling, … From the outset it is devoid of pinnules and no corresponding opercular stalk is found 

on the right side.” 

Partly based on the papers above, ten Hove (1984) argued that the peduncle in serpulids is actually the 

modified second dorsal-most radiole, but in large-bodied serpulids the peduncle migrates during development 

in such a way that it appears to be formed from the first radiole (or even completely outside the branchial 

crown, such as the position in Pomatoceros). 

Ten Hove (1984, 1989) distinguishes between indirect and direct opercular ontogeny. In some serpulids 

(Hydroides, Serpula) juveniles develop an operculum on a pinnulated radiole; later, the peduncle loses its 

pinnules and becomes smooth (= indirect development, e.g., Mörch 1863, ten Hove & Ben-Eliahu 2005). 

When a functional operculum is lost, the rudimentary operculum develops into a functional one. Direct 

development means that the peduncle and operculum develop directly from a knob, without a pinnule-bearing 

stage (Segrove 1941: Pomatoceros; Vuillemin 1965: Ficopomatus, spirorbins; Matjašič & Sket 1966: 

Marifugia; Smith 1985: 148 Spirobranchus). In the event of damage, a new operculum is regenerated from the 

same peduncle (e.g., ten Hove 1970, figs 122, 123). Marsden & Anderson (1981) gave a figure of the 

metamorphosing larva of Galeolaria; unfortunately they do not specify which of the 3 pairs of buds figured 

will be the later operculum, but the figure does not essentially differ from that of Pomatoceros in Segrove 

(1941 text/fig. 20). Most probably the opercular development in Galeolaria is direct, from a bud without a 

pinnulate stage, just as in Pomatoceros, Marifugia, Ficopomatus, and spirorbids. 

The opercular peduncle 

In some serpulid taxa, the branchial radiole that bears the operculum is identical to the other radioles 

(Filograna, Apomatus, Josephella (Fig. 3B; however, not in Josephella populations from the E. 

Mediterranean (Ben-Eliahu & Payiatas 1999)) and in Protis). In most serpulids the operculum is borne on a 

distinct peduncle (Fig. 3A, C, D, E, F). The peduncle may gradually merge into the basal fleshy part of the 

operculum (Figs 3E, 5C), or be separated from it by a more or less clear constriction (Fig. 3F). 

Morphologically, an opercular peduncle is usually inserted more or less below and between the first and 

second normal radiole, outside the line of radioles (Fig. 3F). In some genera, the peduncle is located at the 

base of branchial crown, covering several radioles (Pomatoceros, Spirobranchus, and Galeolaria). In other 

taxa, such as Semivermilia, Metavermilia and Bathyvermilia, the peduncle is clearly positioned as the second 

modified radiole (ten Hove 1975). In small specimens/species the insertion of peduncle may be very difficult 

to observe. In Semivermilia pomatostegoides the peduncle is either the second radiole, or inserted below and 

between first and second. 



FIGURE 3. Morphology of serpulid anterior ends, removed from tube unless stated otherwise. A—Serpula jukesii, from 

Edithburgh, South Australia, B—Josephella marenzelleri, in tube, from Australia, Queensland, Lizard Island, 

C—Hyalopomatus sp., hydrothermal vents, North Fiji Basin, D—Crucigera tricornis, from Australia, Queensland, 

Lizard Island, E—Spirobranchus tetraceros, from Australia, Queensland, Lizard Island, F—Vermiliopsis glandigeruspygidialis-complex, 

branchial lobe with operculum, from Australia, Queensland, Lizard Island (all photos G. Rouse). 

Abbreviations: op—operculum, mb—inter-radiolar membrane, bk—basal knobs, pd—peduncle, dp—endplate of 

operculum, dw—distal peduncular wing, cn—constriction between operculum and opercular peduncle. 



FIGURE 4. Opercular variability in Serpulidae. A—Operculum of Spirobranchus coronatus, from Australia, 

Queensland, Lizard Island, showing calcareous endplate and branching calcareous spines, B—Operculum of Galeolaria 

hystrix, from South Australia, Edithburgh, with elaborate calcareous plates and numerous movable spines, C—Multitiered 

operculum of Metavermilia acanthophora, from South Australia, Edithburgh, D—Operculum of Hydroides 

tuberculatus, from Australia, Queensland, Lizard Island, E—Operculum of Neovermilia globula in tube, from South 

Australia, Edithburgh, F—Frontal view of Serpula jukesii operculum, from South Australia, Edithburgh, showing 

numerous radii (all photos G. Rouse). 



FIGURE 5. General morphology of serpulids removed from their tubes. A—Lateral view of Protula sp., removed from 

tube, Australia, Queensland, Lizard Island (photo G. Rouse), B—Lateral view of Apomatus sp., removed from tube, Cape 

Verde Islands, SE of Cima, 14º57'N, 24º39'W, 165 m, hard bottom with some yellow calcareous sand, van Veen grab, 

CANCAP St. 7.030 (photo F. Verbiest), C—Lateral view of Serpula vermicularis, removed from tube, Cape Verde 

Islands, SW of Ilha do Maio, Pta Inglez/Pta Preta, 15º07'N, 23º14'W, 69 m, calcareous nodules, CANCAP Sta. 7.058 

(photo F. Verbiest), D—Vermiliopsis glandigerus-pygidialis-complex, missing branchial lobe and operculum (shown in 

Fig. 3F), from Australia, Queensland, Lizard Island (photo G. Rouse). Abbreviations: op—operculum, br—branchial 

crown, ap—apron, th—thorax, ab—abdomen, tm—thoracic membranes, gp—glandular pad, pd—peduncle, lcl—lateral 

collar lobes, vcl—ventral collar lobe, ps—pseudoperculum. 



FIGURE 6. Serpulid eyes. A—Spirobranchus corniculatus, details of compound eye, Australia, Townsville, 10.1984 

(photo R. Smith), B—Pyrgopolon ctenactis, with compound eyes on opercular brim, Netherlands Antilles, Curaçao, 

Boca Hulu, SE, 14.09.1970. Reef, little sand; 28–30 m. From limestone and corals, St. 2041C (legit & photo H.A. ten 

Hove), C—?Filogranella elatensis, branchial crown lacking eyes, Cape Verde Islands, SW of Ilha do Maio, Pta Inglez/ 

Pta Preta, 15º07'N, 23º13'W, 70 m, calcareous red algae, 1.2 m Agassiz trawl, 25 July1986, CANCAP St. 7.046 (photo F. 

Verbiest), D—Serpula jukesii, branchial crown showing single eyespots at base of radioles, Australia, Queensland, 

Magnetic Island (photo R. Smith), E—Spirobranchus cruciger, showing red compound eye at base of radioles, Israel, 

Elat in front of Marine Biology Laboratory, 1993 (photo U. Frank), F—Protula sp., with red ocellar clusters on radioles, 

Cape Verde Islands, S of Branco, 16º38'N, 24º41'W, 159 m, 1.2 m Agassiz trawl, CANCAP Sta. 7.152 (photo F. 

Verbiest). Arrows point to the eyes. Abbreviation: bl—branchial lobes. 



FIGURE 7. Serpulid morphology (continued). Omphalopomopsis langerhansii, holotype, a—tube fragments (photo H. 

Zibrowius), B—Operculum with calcareous endplate and opercular peduncle (photo H. Zibrowius), C—Tabulae in 

Pyrgopolon ctenactis tube, the Netherlands Antilles, Bonaire, Santa Barbara (near Hato), 25 June 1970; basis of reef, 41 

m; from dead and living corals, Sta. 2112Ja (legit & photo H.A. ten Hove), D—SEM showing external tube structures 

(ovicells?) in Semivermilia sp., Australia, Queensland, Lizard Island, E—SEM micrograph showing internal tube 

structures in Spiraserpula lineatuba from Australia, New South Wales, Sydney, Long Reef, legit Straughan, det. H.A. ten 

Hove, exchange from Australian Museum W 4019, ZMA V.Pol. 3450, F—SEM micrograph of morphallaxis 

(transformation abdominal segments into thoracic ones) during asexual budding in Salmacina from Hawaii, Pearl 

Harbor, Middle Loch, rust bucket, Waikiki of Ingerson, legit R.E. Brock, 12 April 2000 (ZMA stub H94, photo H.A. ten 

Hove). 



Peduncular shape. Normally, the opercular peduncle is lacking pinnules and it is 1.5–3 times thicker than 

normal unmodified radioles. One of the notable exceptions is the genus Hyalopomatus, with the peduncle as 

wide as the normal radioles (Fig. 3C). However, a number of serpulids, such as Paraprotis pulchra, 

Filogranula exilis, Nogrobs grimaldii, and Bathyditrupa hovei, possess pinnules on the operculum-bearing 

peduncle. Filogranula species other than F. exilis typically have smooth peduncles, although Zibrowius 

(1968a) mentions that a pinnulated peduncle may occasionally occur. In Nogrobs grimaldii and Bathyditrupa 

hovei, an inverse conical opercular ampulla is reinforced with a chitinous endplate as in many serpulins, and 

the peduncle, though pinnulated, is very thick and is clearly a modified radiole (Fauvel 1909, Kupriyanova 

1993b). A peduncle without pinnules is smooth in most genera, but it is clearly wrinkled in Neovermilia 

globula (Fig. 4E) and Janita fimbriata. 

In cross-section, the opercular peduncle is most often cylindrical or slightly sub-cylindrical, but in some 

serpulids (e.g., Pomatoceros), it is nearly triangular. It is flattened in Bathyditrupa, Dasynema, Janita, 

Neovermilia, and Pomatostegus. The genus Metavermilia has a very characteristic flat ribbon-like peduncle 

(Fig. 4C). 

Peduncular distal wings. Below the operculum, the peduncle may be modified to form distal wings 

(Pomatoceros, Spirobranchus, Galeolaria, Pomatoleios, and Pomatostegus). These wings can be narrow, 

spine-shaped (Pomatoceros), or wide and flattened (Galeolaria) and running the entire length of the peduncle 

(Pomatostegus). In some Spirobranchus species, the wings are rounded, entire, in others they are distally 

digitated (Fig. 3E, dw) or crenulated. It is unclear whether small latero-dorsal distal “winglets” found on the 

peduncle of Dasynema, Neovermilia (Fig. 4E) and the syntypes of Vermiliopsis glandigerus are homologous 

to the larger wings described above or are caused by flattening of the peduncle. 

Peduncular proximal wings. Dasynema, Paumotella, Vermiliopsis glandigerus (as observed by us in the 

syntypes, though not explicitly mentioned by Gravier 1906), and V. leptochaeta show a long, one-sided lateral 

extension along the basal 2/3rds of the peduncle, which also might be termed a wing. In Vermiliopsis 

striaticeps, the presence of this proximal wing appears to be size related, being absent in small specimens, and 

present in large ones. The character is not always mentioned in existing descriptions. However, being 

unpaired and basal, the proximal wing most probably is not homologous with the distal ones discussed above. 

The collar and the thoracic membranes 

Collar. The base of the branchial crown of sabellids and serpulids is surrounded by a membranous peristomial 

collar, which is absent in sabellariids. The collar in serpulids is usually trilobed, sub-divided into one medioventral 

and two latero-dorsal lobes (Fig. 5D, lcl, vcl). Commonly, the medio-ventral lobe is wider and longer 

than the lateral ones. The medio-ventral lobe may have an additional incision as in Floriprotis and Tanturia, 

thus making the collar quadrilobed. Also, the ventral lobe may bear an additional tongue with 2 lateral 

incisions, thus making the collar pentalobed as in Janita fimbriata. Rarely, the serpulid collar is non-lobed as 

in Ditrupa, Ficopomatus, Paraprotis, and Bathyditrupa. The collar edge is normally smooth in most serpulids 

(see note under thoracic membranes). 

Tonguelets. Small tongue-shaped outgrowths, tonguelets, located between the dorso-lateral and ventral 

lobes of the collar are present in Spirobranchus, Pyrgopolon (ten Hove 1970, 1973 fig. 35, as Sclerostyla), 

Pomatoceros (termed lappets: Thomas 1940 pl. I fig. 5) and Pomatoleios. According to ten Hove (1973), they 

are not found in Ditrupa, Hydroides, Ficopomatus, Pomatostegus, Serpula, and Vermiliopsis. Thomas (1940: 

9, 39) hypothesizes a possible sensory function, since a nerve is seen to enter each tonguelet. 

Collar segment. In almost all Sabellida, the first chaetiger is the collar segment lacking neuropodial 

uncini and bearing only notopodial chaetae (termed collar chaetae). It appears that uncini are secondarily lost 

in the collar segment, the biramous condition being original in Polychaeta and Oligochaeta. Mainly because 

the first chaetiger in Ditrupa bears both chaetae and uncini, ten Hove & Smith (1990: 103) argue that it is not 

the collar segment, but actually the second segment. Secondary loss of collar chaetae has been reported to 



occur incidentally in Pomatoceros, Spirobranchus, and Pyrgopolon (ten Hove 1970, 1973, as Sclerostyla). 

Collar chaetae are absent in the genera Ditrupa (see above), Marifugia, Placostegus, Pomatoleios, and 

Rhodopsis), however, juvenile specimens of Pomatoleios sometimes do bear collar chaetae. Placostegus spp. 

have a girdle of ocelli (Fig. 1F) resembling a compound eye in the first segment (e.g., Langerhans 1884: 275). 

Thoracic membranes. The latero-dorsal collar lobes continue into the thoracic membranes (Fig. 5C, D, 

tm), a feature found only in serpulids, thus, the presence of thoracic membranes is a synapomorphy for the 

family (ten Hove 1984 fig. 4). It should be noted that spirorbin taxonomists (e.g., Knight-Jones & Knight- 

Jones 1977 fig. 1b) do not distinguish between thoracic membranes and the collar, they use the term “collar” 

collectively for both. The degree of thoracic membrane development varies significantly within the 

Serpulidae. The membranes may be very short, ending at the first (Ditrupa, Josephella, Rhodopsis) or the 

second thoracic chaetiger (Chitinopoma, Pseudovermilia, Semivermilia). In some serpulids thoracic 

membranes reach the mid-thorax (e.g., Pomatostegus, Vermiliopsis (Fig. 5D, tm), some Metavermilia), while 

in others they continue throughout the length of the thorax and end posterior to the last thoracic segment 

(some Spiraserpula and Metavermilia spp.). Thoracic membranes continuing past the end of the thorax often 

fuse over the first abdominal segment(s), forming a ventral apron (e.g., Serpula (Fig. 5C, ap), Hydroides, 

Protula (Fig. 5A, ap), Galeolaria, Ficopomatus, Spirobranchus, and Pomatoceros). Aprons tend to be absent 

in juvenile individuals of a species. Ben-Eliahu & Fiege (1996) regard the presence of an apron to be a full 

expression of a size-related character in Protis. 

In Serpulinae, margins of thoracic membranes are fused dorsally only in Ficopomatus uschakovi. In 

Spirorbinae the fused condition is more common, occurring in the nominal genera Neodexiospira Pillai, 1970, 

Romanchella Caullery & Mesnil, 1897, and Velorbis Knight-Jones & Knight-Jones, 1995. The genus 

Floriprotis shows pockets on the inside of the thoracic membranes (see remarks Floriprotis). 

The thorax 

Number of chaetigers. The number of thoracic chaetigers is fairly constant in most serpulid taxa and 

traditionally constitutes an important character in serpulid taxonomy. In most genera, the thorax of adults 

consists of 7 thoracic chaetigerous segments (Fig. 5A–D), including the collar segment lacking uncini (thus, 6 

thoracic uncinigerous segments), although juvenile specimens may have fewer chaetigers (e.g., Semivermilia 

cribrata and S. pomatostegoides with 5–6 chaetigers, present paper). Some serpulid taxa have 5 chaetigerous 

segments (Bathyditrupa, Josephella, Tanturia), 6 (Laminatubus, Hyalopomatus (Fig. 3C)), 9 (Protula setosa, 

?Filogranella prampramiana) or even more (Filogranella, Fig. 18A, see below). In spirorbins the number of 

thoracic chaetigers generally varies from 3 to 5 (Knight-Jones & Knight-Jones 1977, Bianchi 1981), but 

Neomicrorbis (Fig. 29A) has 5–6 chaetigers. Sabellidae usually display a distinct constancy of 8 thoracic 

segments, even though deviations from this number have been noted as an intraspecific phenomenon 

(Fitzhugh 1989). 

Some serpulid taxa have a variable number of thoracic chaetigers, such as Filograna and Salmacina (6–12 

segments); Filogranella (11–14); Nogrobs, Rhodopsis (4–6); and Spiraserpula (5–11). This situation can be a 

result of asexual reproduction, where numbers of thoracic chaetigers in clones of Salmacina are congruent 

with those of their ancestors, as demonstrated by Vannini & Ranzoli (1961). Moreover, some genera with an 

otherwise fixed number of thoracic segments (7) occasionally show species with a variable number of 

thoracic segments: for example, three Hydroides species (H. bisectus and 2 as yet undescribed species) have 

7–9 chaetigers (Imajima & ten Hove 1989: 13), three species of Serpula (S. israelitica, nanhaiensis, oshimae) 

have 9-12, while Vermiliopsis notialis has only 5 thoracic chaetigers. 

Thoracic chaetae. The terminology relating to the structure of serpulid chaetae has been inconsistent. 

Various interpretations of their shape by earlier taxonomists are most likely due to the fact that many details of 

chaetal structure are near the limits of the optical resolution of a compound microscope. In the last two 

decades, wide use of scanning electron microscopy in zoological research allowed clarification of even the 

smallest chaetal structures. 



Notochaetae of thoracic chaetigerous segments are usually termed simple capillary and narrow limbate 

(or hooded) chaetae in all serpulids and sabellids. Under the high magnification of a compound microscope a 

distal hood (or limbus) looks like a transparent finely striated blade structure (e.g., Fig. 33A, C). However, 

with SEM it is obvious that the limbus (or hood) in fact consists of a large number of fibers, more loosely 

packed than in the shaft, ending in tiny needle-shaped teeth (e.g., Figs 37A, 50A). Moreover, the usual 

thoracic chaetae (including collar chaetae, if any) are all limbate, but of two sizes: the smaller being called 

capillary, but clearly “limbate” as well. We have not specified this again in the generic diagnoses, and referred 

to them as “limbate”. 

In posterior thoracic segments (usually from the third backwards), these limbate chaetae (of two sizes) can 

be supplemented in some species by special chaetae termed “Apomatus” chaetae (Figs 10A, 11B, 12E, 14C, 

18C, 19B, 24C, 25A, 28B, 30C, 33B, 37E, 41A, 44B). These chaetae are typically sigmoid to sickle-shaped 

with a proximal denticulate zone (looking like fine striation under a compound microscope) and a long flat 

curved blade with a row of blunt regular teeth. In the spirorbin literature (e.g., Knight-Jones 1981) sigmoid 

chaetae of both thorax and abdomen are called “sickle-chaetae”. However, the proximal denticulate zone is an 

order of magnitude shorter in abdominal sigmoid chaetae; therefore we propose to restrict “sickle-chaetae” to 

abdominal chaetae, to discern them from the thoracic Apomatus chaetae. Sometimes these Apomatus chaetae 

are almost straight. 

The bundle of collar chaetae may contain special chaetae in addition to simple limbate ones. These special 

chaetae have a more-or-less distinct boss at the base of the distal limbate blade. Like the “hoods” of the 

limbate blades, the basal bosses are made of fibres, ending in tips forming teeth. Depending on the number 

and size of the teeth in the boss, four types of special collar chaetae have been distinguished in serpulids. 

1. Bayonet-type chaetae generally have one or two (sometimes more) large proximal bosses at the base of the 

distal limbate zone: Serpula (Fig. 46A), Spiraserpula, Crucigera (Fig. 13A), Hydroides (Fig. 23A), and 

Floriprotis (Fig. 20A), sometimes small auxiliary teeth present. 

2. Fin-and-blade chaetae have the basal boss (“fin”) made of relatively few teeth of intermediate size; the 

basal fin may or may not be separated by a toothless zone (a gap) from the distal blade: Chitinopoma (Fig. 

11A), Chitinopomoides (Fig. 12A), Filograna (Fig. 17A), Filogranula (Fig. 19A). 

3. Spirobranchus-type chaetae have a proximal boss consisting of very numerous tiny hair-like spines: 

Spirobranchus (Fig. 47A) and Laminatubus (Fig. 26A). 

4. Ficopomatus has unusual collar chaetae, with coarse curved teeth alongside the distal part of chaetae (Fig. 

16A). 

Thoracic uncini. The uncini are arranged side by side in a single row in a torus, transverse relative to the 

long axis of the body, with the dentate distal edge of the uncini directed anteriorly. Thoracic uncinigerous tori 

generally are positioned along the lateral side of the thorax, but in some taxa they are widely separated in 

front, gradually approaching one another posteriorly, so that the posterior thoracic tori may touch each other, 

forming a triangular depression on the ventral side of the thorax. In other taxa (e.g., Neovermilia globula) 

thoracic tori are completely shifted to the ventral part of the thorax. Some species of Protula may completely 

lack thoracic uncini (e.g., P. bispiralis and, occasionally, P. intestinum as well (Fauvel 1927)). 

Serpulid uncini are flattened comb-shaped structures with a number of curved teeth on their edge. Each 

uncinus in our view possesses four characters: 1) the number of teeth visible in profile (from 4 to well over 

30); 2) the (maximum) number of teeth in a transverse row; 3) the shape of the anterior-most tooth (“fang” or 

“peg”); 4) overall shape of the edge of the uncinus. Depending on the number of vertical rows of teeth in the 

uncini they are termed saw-shaped (one row of teeth along the edge, e.g., thorax Hydroides), saw-to-raspshaped 

(from 1 tooth on edge distally to a row of 5 teeth proximally above the peg, e.g., Filogranula, dental 

formula P:5:3:3:2:1:1:1:1:1:1:1:1:1, Fig. 19C, Semivermilia) or rasp-shaped (several rows of teeth along the 

entire edge, e.g., Hyalopomatus) (ten Hove 1975, ten Hove & Wolf 1984). In some taxa, thoracic uncini 

normally have teeth in a single row (saw-shaped, e.g., Figs 23B, 38B, 46B). However, towards the end of a 

row uncini occasionally may change from saw-shaped to saw-to-rasp-shaped, in which case the distal tooth 

(teeth) may be single, while the teeth proximal to the fang may be in 2–3 rows or uncini even change to 



completely rasp-shaped (Knight-Jones & Fordy 1979 figs 73, 77, for spirorbins). Also, juvenile specimens of 

otherwise “saw-shaped” species may show rasp-shaped uncini (see also Ben-Eliahu & Fiege 1996). Finally, 

the shape of the uncini may change from saw-shaped to rasp-shaped from the anterior to the posterior thorax 

(this is a more or less normal situation in the abdomen). This especially is the case for juvenile specimens of 

otherwise saw-shaped taxa because posterior chaetigers are formed later in ontogeny; however, it may be a 

specific character in other taxa as well. 

The shape (profile) of a serpulid uncinus is roughly triangular or rectangular; these uncini never have the 

long proximal handles typical for some sabellids (Fitzhugh 1989). A serpulid uncinus roughly consists of the 

outer surface with the teeth, the lower base embedded into the torus, the anterior side below the main fang or 

peg (the breast sensu Fitzhugh 1989), and the posterior side (straight as in Spirobranchus, concave as in 

Protula, convex as in Serpula). The shape of the uncinus appears to be a character related to the number of 

teeth, and it is difficult to observe unless the uncinus is removed from the tissue and mounted in a flat 

position. 

The shape of the anterior tooth of uncini is believed to be of taxonomic importance (e.g., ten Hove 1975); 

this structure is usually referred to in earlier publications as being either simple or bifurcate. However, SEM 

examinations here reveal that ultrastructure of the anterior tooth is very variable. The serpulid anterior tooth is 

simple pointed (acute) and termed a fang in such genera as, for example, Filograna (Fig. 17B), Hydroides 

(Fig. 23B), Neovermilia (Fig. 30A, B), Salmacina (Fig. 44C), and Serpula (Fig. 46B). 

However, what -depending on the orientation of the uncini on the slide- under a compound microscope 

appears to be a bifurcate or blunt anterior tooth may in fact be gouged, that is, a bluntly truncate flattened 

structure with lateral edges curved underneath (e.g., Pomatoceros, Fig. 35B, Pseudovermilia, Fig. 41B, and 

Spirobranchus, Fig. 47C). Examination with SEM shows that blunt (not pointed) anterior teeth of serpulid 

uncini may also be either flat, rounded, spatulate (as in Galeolaria, Fig. 21 B, C), rectangular or even 

trapezoidal in appearance (Ficopomatus, Fig. 16D), bilobed to quadrilobed (as in Hyalopomatus marenzelleri, 

Fig. 22B, C); or truncated, rounded or indented anteriorly (Chitinopoma Fig. 11C, Pyrgolopon, Fig. 42A, B, 

Vermiliopsis, Fig. 49C); or elongated, blunt, rounded to squarish, with transverse rows of teeth continuing 

over almost its entire length (Apomatus, Protula, Fig. 8A, 39A). For all these “wedge” shaped, not acute 

anterior teeth, we propose the collective term peg. 

The abdomen 

Number of segments. The abdomen consists of numerous segments, the number of which is very variable 

depending on size and age; it can be as low as 10 in small spirorbins and serpulins to over 200 segments in 

large species of Spirobranchus (e.g., S. corniculatus, S. giganteus) and Protula (P. bispiralis, P. pacifica). The 

maximal number of abdominal chaetigers is a function of age, but may well be genetically defined too. 

Several anterior abdominal segments may lack chaetae and uncini, forming a so called achaetous 

abdominal zone. Some taxa have a glandular zone on the dorsal side of the last abdominal segments called the 

posterior glandular pad (Fig. 5D, gp). Its function is unknown, it might be involved in closing off damaged 

posterior tube parts, though a positive correlation between the glandular pad and occurrence of tabulae (see p. 

10, Tube shapes) has not been found. The pygidium is usually bilobed and bears a terminal slit-like anus. 

Abdominal chaetae. After the achaetous region, if present, each anterior and middle abdominal segment 

bears a dorsal uncinigerous torus and a ventral bundle of chaetae. Abdominal chaetae are normally less 

numerous per bundle than the thoracic ones. The simplest forms of abdominal chaetae are capillary (Fig. 

23D), nearly capillary (e.g., Hyalopomatus, Fig. 22D), or acicular (Paumotella, Fig. 33F). 

The term “trumpet-shaped chaetae”, commonly used by various authors to describe the abdominal chaetae 

in the genera Crucigera (Fig. 13D), Hydroides (Fig. 23C), Serpula (Fig. 46D) and Spiraserpula, is 

misleading. Although the distal parts of these chaetae, when examined under a compound microscope, are 

widened into what in profile looks like a chalice or trumpet edged with apparently two rows of thin teeth, 



examination with SEM shows that these chaetae are not hollow as the name might suggest, but rather flat, 

with a single row of marginal acute teeth. The second row of teeth observed under a compound microscope is 

an optical (refractory) illusion. Therefore, following ten Hove & Jansen-Jacobs (1984), where a more 

extensive discussion can be found, they are termed here flat trumpet-shaped chaetae. 

Truly trumpet-shaped chaetae, however, are distally hollow, with two parallel rows of sharp denticles, 

extending into a long lateral spine; they may be smoothly bent (e.g., in Ficopomatus Fig. 16C; Galeolaria Fig. 

21E), or abruptly bent (e.g., in Pomatoceros Figs 35C, D; Spirobranchus Fig. 47D). Fauvel (1927) used the 

term “en cornet comprimé à longue pointe latérale” for the latter, but used “geniculate chaetae” for 

Ficopomatus. In dictionaries, geniculate generally is defined as “having a knee-like joint” or “bent sharply”. 

In its first meaning this term is slightly misleading for this type of chaetae since a joint between the proximal 

and distal part of the chaetae is absent in all serpulid chaetae. “Bent sharply” applies to part of these 

abdominal chaetae. Again, it is extremely difficult to see with a compound microscope whether such chaetae 

have a single or double row of teeth bordering the blade (Fauvel 1927: 348; our observations). Therefore it is 

not surprising that in older literature true trumpet chaetae have been lumped together with the completely 

different flat geniculate abdominal chaetae. For instance Dew (1959) used the same term “geniculate” for the 

abdominal chaetae of Galeolaria and Neovermilia globula (as Vermiliopsis), both with, in our terminology, 

“true trumpets”, as well as for Metavermilia acanthophora (as Vermiliopsis), with “narrow flat trumpets”. 

Bianchi (1981) generally used “genicolate” consistently for truly trumpet chaetae, but also for Josephella, 

which has flat narrow geniculate abdominal chaetae as defined below. 

In reality, “geniculate” chaetae in our narrowed definition (flat geniculate, not hollow) possess a capillary 

proximal shaft and a bent blade, sometimes only bent slightly so (Day 1967: 799, geniculate setae have 

gradually tapering blades set at a slight angle to the shaft); the blade has a single row of blunt rounded to sharp 

denticles along its edge. These “flat geniculate” chaetae are not uniform in their structure and depending on 

the shape of the distal blade the following types can be distinguished: 

a) sickle-shaped: fairly straight to weakly sickle-shaped abdominal chaeta with long concave edge bordered 

by very regular rounded teeth (“en faucille” sensu Fauvel 1927; e.g., Apomatus, Fig. 8E, Ben-Eliahu & 

Fiege (1996) fig. 9D, and Protula, Fig. 39B); however, see ten Hove & Pantus (1985). 

b) flat triangular, with a knee-like bend and with dentition on the outside of a wide triangular distal blade (e.g., 

Chitinopoma, Fig. 11E; Filogranula, Fig. 19E). 

c) flat narrow geniculate, as above b), but with the blade not so sharply bent and more elongated (e.g., 

Filograna, Fig. 17C; Josephella, Fig. 25D; Salmacina, Fig. 44D; Vermiliopsis, Figs 49E, F). 

d) retro-geniculate chaeta, as c) above, but with a recurved hook on the outside (anterior side) of the knee, 

directed proximally (e.g., Protula balboensis Monro, 1933 and Neomicrorbis, Fig. 29F). 

Abdominal chaetae usually become progressively longer towards the pygidium, and the posterior 

abdominal chaetae tend to be either true capillaries (e.g., Hydroides, Fig. 23D) or elongated and “unbent” 

modified chaetae. If capillary chaetae of the most posterior abdominal segments are at least an order of 

magnitude longer than the chaetae of anterior and middle abdominal segments, they are referred to as “long 

capillary chaetae”. 

Abdominal uncini. In lateral view, anterior abdominal uncini in serpulids are usually similar to thoracic 

ones, but may be slightly smaller. However, the shape of the edge of the uncini (saw- and/or rasp- shaped) 

may vary strongly according to their position in the abdomen. Zibrowius (1968a) suggested that presence of 

rasp-shaped uncini in the abdomen was of prime importance for generic classification of serpulids. However, 

rasp-shaped uncini are almost invariably found in the most posterior and thus, in the youngest, segments. 

Since polychaetes increase body length by addition of segments posteriorly (e.g., Parapar et al. 1993), this 

uncinal variability implies that serpulids can shed or resorb their juvenile rasp-shaped uncini and replace them 

with saw-to-rasp-shaped uncini and finally with saw-shaped adult uncini as they grow. Thus, when examining 

specimens, consideration should be taken of their ontogenetic state, the size of the individual. 



Valid genera with diagnoses and lists of species 

The Serpulidae sensu lato, but excluding spirorbins, currently contain about 350 nominal species in 46 “valid” 

genera (see below); of which 19 include only one species (e.g., Chitinopomoides, Paumotella, Microprotula) 

and/or are known from one or two records only. Others (e.g., Bathyditrupa, Bathyvermilia, Laminatubus) are 

found only in abyssal locations. Whether serpulid genera constitute monophyletic groups remains unknown, 

so no assumption of their monophyly has been made here. Instead, the serpulid taxa that are currently 

recognized as valid by us are listed below; in some cases, considered as “valid” only because some have not 

been formally synonymized or are too poorly described to synonymize here. A list of invalid serpulid genera 

with their synonyms is given separately. Each generic diagnosis is accompanied by the list of “valid” species 

with notes on their distribution. Generic remarks concern the current state of the taxonomy and major 

taxonomic studies. 

1. Apomatus Philippi, 1844 

(Fig. 8) 

Type-species: Apomatus ampulliferus Philippi, 1844 

Number of species: 7 

Tube white, opaque, circular in cross-section, keels and collar-like rings absent. Granular overlay may be 

present. Operculum a soft membranous vesicle without endplate borne on unmodified pinnulated radiole. 

Opercular constriction may be present. Pseudoperculum may be present on unmodified radiole. Arrangement 

of radioles in semi-circles (may be up to ¾ of a circle), maximum number up to 40 per lobe in larger species. 

Inter-radiolar membrane present. Branchial eyes present in the form of ocellar clusters. Stylodes absent. 

Mouth palps present. 7 thoracic chaetigerous segments. Collar trilobed with smooth edge. Thoracic membrane 

long, forming ventral apron across anterior abdominal segments. Tonguelets between ventral and lateral collar 

lobes absent. Collar chaetae limbate, of two sizes (thus, in the classical terminology capillary and limbate). 

Apomatus chaetae present (Fig. 8C, D). Thoracic uncini saw-to-rasp-shaped with approximately 30 teeth in 

profile, up to 3 (exceptionally 4) teeth in a row above and continuing onto peg; anterior peg very long, blunt, 

almost rectangular (Fig. 8A, B). Ventral thoracic triangular depression absent. Abdominal chaetae sickleshaped 

with finely denticulate blades (Fig 8E, F); uncini rasp-shaped with approximately 30 teeth in profile. 

Short achaetous anterior abdominal zone present. Posterior capillary chaetae present. Posterior glandular pad 

present. 

Remarks. A controversy exists whether Protula and Apomatus should be regarded as separate genera (ten 

Hove & Pantus 1985) or synonymized under Protula (Kupriyanova & Jirkov 1997). The genera are separated 

mainly by the presence (Apomatus) or absence (Protula) of a soft vesicular operculum on an unmodified 

radiole. Hanson’s (1948a) study on the pattern of blood vessels showed that P. tubularia, A. ampulliferus, and 

A. similis are similar to each other, but dissimilar to P. intestinum. She proposed that these genera should be 

fused. However, ten Hove & Pantus (1985) studied over a 100 fresh specimens and found consistent 

differences in blood-vessel patterns between operculate and non-operculate specimens. They suggested that 

Protula and Apomatus are valid genera and that Hanson (1948a) mistook an Apomatus specimen that 

incidentally lost its operculum for P. tubularia. This controversy is yet to be resolved, probably with the aid of 

molecular genetics. 

1. Apomatus ampulliferus Philippi, 1844 Mediterranean, Atlantic 

2. Apomatus elisabethae McIntosh, 1885 New Zealand 

3. Apomatus enosimae Marenzeller, 1885 South Japan, South China Sea 

4. Apomatus geniculata (Moore & Bush, 1904), incl. A. timsii, North Pacific, Japan to California 



FIGURE 8. SEM micrographs of chaetae in Apomatus ampulliferus. France, Marseille, 200 m, legit F.J.A. Pantus, ZMA 

V.Pol. 3812. A—uncini of 4 th thoracic chaetiger, B—anterior abdominal uncini, details of peg, C—details of Apomatus 

chaetae in 7 th thoracic chaetiger, D—details of Apomatus chaetae in 4 th thoracic chaetiger, E—middle abdominal chaetae, 

F—details of E. 



5. Apomatus globifer Théel, 1878, Arctic, Norway; probably see A. similis 

6. Apomatus lilliei Benham, 1927, North Cape, New Zealand 

7. Apomatus similis Marion & Bobretzky, 1875, Mediterranean Atlantic; probably includes A. globifer 

2. Bathyditrupa Kupriyanova, 1993b 

(Fig. 9) 

Type-species: Bathyditrupa hovei Kupriyanova, 1993b 


Tube free, curved but not coiled, white, opaque, rectangular in cross-section; collar-like rings absent. Granular 

overlay absent. Operculum inverse conical, with brown chitinous endplate, flat or slightly concave. Opercular 

ampulla gradually merges (constriction absent) into thick, rather triangular peduncle with pinnules, but 

without wings. Peduncle inserted as the second dorsal radiole on one side. Pseudoperculum absent. 

Arrangement of radioles semi-circular, up to 6 per lobe. Branchial eyes not observed. Inter-radiolar membrane 

and stylodes absent. Mouth palps not observed. 5 thoracic chaetigerous segments. Collar non-lobed, short, 

with entire edge. Tonguelets absent. Thoracic membranes short, ending at second thoracic segment. Collar 

chaetae limbate (Fig. 9A). Apomatus chaetae absent (Fig. 9B). Thoracic uncini saw-to-rasp-shaped, with up to 

4 (?6) teeth in a row above peg, with about 15 curved teeth in a row in profile (Fig. 9D). Anterior peg bifurcate 

in high-power microscopy, but clearly gouged when studied by SEM (Fig. 9E). Thoracic triangular depression 

absent. Abdominal chaetae all capillary (Fig. 9C), posterior ones slightly longer; abdominal uncini raspshaped 

(Fig. 9F). Achaetous anterior abdominal zone short, just one or two segments. Posterior glandular pad 

absent. 

Remarks. This abyssal species had only been reported from the Kurile-Kamchatka trench (Kupriyanova 

1993b). We studied 2 additional specimens from the North Pacific Ocean, collected by the R/V Vityaz, Sta. 

3151, near the Emperor Seamounts, 44°28'3'' N 170°07'0''E, grab, 5237 m, ZMA V.Pol. 5326; Sta. 4370, NE 

off Hawaii, 26°04'2'' N, 153°49'3'' W, grab, 6050 m, ZMA V.Pol. 5325. The characteristic feature of the genus 

is a free, unattached tube similar to that of Ditrupa, but rectangular in cross-section and without an outer 

hyaline layer (see The tube, p. 7). It is probably synonymous with Nogrobs fide Jäger (2004: 140), see 

remarks below (p. 69). 

Bathyditrupa hovei Kupriyanova, 1993b, Kurile-Kamchatka trench and North Pacific Ocean; abyssal. 

3. Bathyvermilia Zibrowius, 1973a 

(Fig. 10) 

Type-species: Bathyvermilia challengeri Zibrowius, 1973a 

Number of species: 5. 

Tube white, opaque, circular in cross-section, longitudinal keel may be present. Collar-like rings present. 

Granular overlay absent. Operculum sub-globular, with simple flat to slightly conical chitinous endplate, 

which may be encrusted by calcareous deposit. Peduncle cylindrical, smooth or wrinkled, without distal 

wings; inserted as second dorsal radiole on one side, constriction present. Pseudoperculum absent. 

Arrangement of radioles in semi-circles, up to 35 per lobe. Inter-radiolar membrane absent. Branchial eyes not 

observed. Stylodes absent. Mouth palps may be present. 7 thoracic chaetigerous segments. Collar trilobed 

(may be non-lobed) with entire edge, tonguelets absent. Thoracic membranes variable, ending at 2 nd —7 th 

thoracic segment. Collar chaetae limbate. Apomatus chaetae present (Fig. 10A). Thoracic uncini saw-shaped 



(Fig. 10B), with few teeth (6 to 10). Anterior fang simple, pointed. Abdominal chaetae flat, narrow geniculate 

with blunt teeth (Fig. 10D); abdominal uncini saw-shaped, except in a few far posterior segments, with raspshaped 

uncini (Fig. 10C). Short achaetous anterior abdominal zone present. Posterior capillary chaetae 

present. Posterior glandular pad present. 

FIGURE 9. SEM micrographs of chaetae in Bathyditrupa hovei, ZMA V.Pol.5325 . A—collar chaetae, B—fourth 

bundle of thoracic chaetae, C—anterior abdominal chaeta, D—third row of thoracic uncini, E—gouged pegs of posterior 

thoracic uncini from below, F—first row of abdominal uncini. 



FIGURE 10. SEM micrographs of chaetae in Bathyvermilia kupriyanovae. USA, off California, 34°41' N, 123°08' W, 

4100 m, legit K.L. Smith, R/V New Horizon, det. H.A. ten Hove, Natural History Museum of LA County, USA. 

A—details of Apomatus chaetae of 4 th thoracic chaetiger, B—uncini of 4 th thoracic chaetiger, C—posterior abdominal 

uncini, D—detail of middle abdominal chaeta. 

Remarks. Zibrowius (1973a) established the genus Bathyvermilia for the deep-water Vermiliopsis 

langerhansi Fauvel, 1909 and the newly described Bathyvermilia challengeri (new name for Placostegus 

ornatus not Mörch, 1863 but sensu McIntosh, 1885). Later, three species (see list below) were added. 

Zibrowius (1973a) provided a table summarizing the differences for the genera Bathyvermilia, Metavermilia, 

Pseudovermilia, and Vermiliopsis, previously all united under Vermiliopsis. 

1. Bathyvermilia challengeri Zibrowius, 1973a, Mid Pacific; abyssal 

2. Bathyvermilia islandica Sanfilippo, 2001, Iceland; bathyal-abyssal 



3. Bathyvermilia kupriyanovae Bastida-Zavala, 2008, off California; bathyal 

4. Bathyvermilia langerhansi (Fauvel, 1909), Atlantic; bathyal-abyssal 

5. Bathyvermilia zibrowiusi Kupriyanova, 1993b, Kurile-Kamchatka trench; abyssal. 

4. Chitinopoma Levinsen, 1884 

(Fig. 11) 

Type-species: Chitinopoma fabricii Levinsen, 1884 = junior synonym of Vermilia serrula Stimpson, 1854. 

Number of species: 3 (possibly 4) 

Tube white, opaque, with single longitudinal keel, triangular or sub-triangular in cross-section, with brood 

chambers. Hyaline granular overlay absent. Operculum inverse conical, with chitinous endplate. Peduncle 

cylindrical, smooth, without distal wings, constriction present; inserted as second dorsal radiole on one side. 

Pseudoperculum absent. Radioles arranged in semi-circles, up to 7 radioles per lobe, inter-radiolar membrane 

absent. Branchial eyes and stylodes absent. Mouth palps not observed. 7 thoracic chaetigerous segments. 

Collar trilobed with entire edge, tonguelets between ventral and lateral collar lobes absent. Thoracic 

membranes short, ending at second thoracic chaetiger. Collar chaetae fin-and-blade, fin well separated from 

blade, and limbate (Fig. 11A). Apomatus chaetae present (Fig. 11B). Thoracic uncini saw-shaped, with about 

12 teeth (Fig. 11C); anterior peg simple, rounded. Thoracic triangular depression absent. Abdominal chaetae 

with large flat triangular denticulate blade (Fig. 11E); uncini rasp-shaped (Fig. 11D). Achaetous anterior 

abdominal zone absent. Posterior capillary chaetae absent. Posterior glandular pad absent. 

Remarks. The partial revision of the genus by Zibrowius (1969a) showed that the brooding Chitinopoma 

serrula is a species widely distributed in the Arctic and boreal North Atlantic. Later, brooding C. arndti 

Zibrowius, 1983 was added and C. rzhavskii (Kupriyanova, 1993a) was transferred from Filogranula 

(Kupriyanova et al. 2001). However, various forms of brooding of embryos, the main character distinguishing 

Chitinopoma from Filogranula, are very common for small serpulid species (Kupriyanova et al. 2001). 

Additional studies are needed to determine whether these two genera should be synonymized. Probably the 

nominal taxon Ficopomatus capensis Day, 1961 belongs here as well (fide ten Hove & Weerdenburg 1978: 

101). 

1. Chitinopoma arndti Zibrowius, 1983, St. Paul, Amsterdam Island, southern Atlantic 

2. ?Chitinopoma capensis (Day, 1961), South Africa 

3. Chitinopoma rzhavskii (Kupriyanova, 1993a), Kamchatka 

4. Chitinopoma serrula (Stimpson, 1854), Arctic, North Atlantic. 

5. Chitinopomoides Benham, 1927 

(Figs 12, 51A–D) 

Type-species: Chitinopoides wilsoni Benham, 1927 


Tube white, opaque, triangular in cross-section, with a smooth longitudinal keel and sometimes 2 poorlydefined 

smooth ridges along the sides. Tube with irregularly placed former peristomes, questionably with 

brood care function. Granular overlay not observed. Operculum fig-shaped with bilaterally symmetrical 

concave chitinous endplate. Peduncle smooth, subtriangular in cross-section, without distal wings; inserted 

just below and between 1 st and 2 nd radiole (=second radiole). Pseudoperculum absent. Arrangement of radioles 

short pectinately, up to 10 pairs of radioles. Inter-radiolar membrane absent. Branchial eyes unknown. 

Stylodes absent. Mouth palps not observed. 7 thoracic chaetigerous segments. Collar trilobed with entire edge, 



tonguelets between ventral and lateral collar lobes absent. Thoracic membranes short, ending at second 

chaetiger; no apron. Collar chaetae fin-and-blade (Benham (1927): “with a large knob and few proximal 

additional teeth below the limbate zone”, Fig. 12A), and limbate. Apomatus chaetae present (Fig. 12E). 

Thoracic uncini saw-shaped with about 12 teeth, anterior peg blunt, seemingly bifurcate (slightly gouged?) 

(Fig. 12B). Triangular depression absent. Abdominal chaetae flat geniculate with large distal triangular blade 

(Fig. 12D). Abdominal uncini all rasp-shaped (Fig. 12C), with more teeth in posterior segments than in the 

anterior ones, with at least 12 teeth seen in profile. Achaetous anterior abdominal zone absent. Posterior 

capillary chaetae short, glandular pad present. 

Remarks. Chitinopomoides wilsoni was previously known from a single specimen dredged in the Ross 

Sea. Zibrowius (1969a) re-examined the specimen and expanded Benham’s description of the chaetae and 

uncini. However, as the collar chaetae of the specimen were all broken, Zibrowius could not re-examine their 

structure and thus, generic justification of Chitinopomoides was questionable. A redescription (below) based 

on new unpublished material allowed us to elucidate the ultrastructure of collar (and other) chaetae with use 

of SEM. A possible relationship with other genera will be discussed in (a) forthcoming paper(s) by us. 

Chitinopomoides wilsoni Benham, 1927, Antarctic. 

Chitinopomoides wilsoni Benham, 1927: 156–158, Pl. 5 figs 162–173 [McMurdo Sound, 366 m, British Antarctic “Terra 

Nova” Exp. Sta. 348, BMNH 1928:2:29:174]; Hartman 1966: 129–130, Pl. 43 figs 4–7 [same, no new data]; 

Zibrowius, 1969a: 9–10, fig. 3 [re-examined holotype]; Fauchald, 1977: 144 [generic diagnosis]; Uchida, 1978: 74 

[name in list]. 

Material studied. Antarctica, Davis Sea, Wilkes Land, Burton Island, 66°32.94’S, 93°90’E, 80 m, Deep 

Freeze III, legit R.R. Starr, Sta. 5, Russian St. Mirny, 29.I.1958, det. H.A. ten Hove 1971 (3 thoraxes, 3 

abdomens, 1 small spec., tubes, USNM 51505, ZMA V.Pol. 3166); Ross Sea, Victoria Land, Robertson Bay 

area, 77°26’S, 169°30’E, Deep Freeze I, legit Wiston-W.H. Littlewood, R/V “Edisto” 1955/56, Sta. 8, 

9.II.1956, USNM 51506, det. H.A. ten Hove 1971 (1 broken specimen); Argentina, Ushuaia, 54°48’S, 

68°19’W, 18 m (10 Faden) legit H. Mag. Samm. 122, don. W. Michaelsen, det. H.A. ten Hove 1982, ZMH P- 

17557 (2 spec., tubes, separated from ZMH V 4963, Serpula spec., det. Augener 1921). 

Description. TUBE: white, up to 1.4 mm wide with lumen of maximally 0.8 mm. Triangular in crosssection 

when attached, to almost semicircular when free; may bear wide, three-lobed, collar-like peristomes (2 

mm across, Fig. 51A), not unlike those figured for Pseudovermilia conchata (ten Hove, 1975 pl. VIIIe, h). 

Smooth undulating medial keel present. Entire tube-wall (approx. 0.28 mm thick) appearing opaque in 

stereomicroscopy, though thin (0.03 mm) outer and inner layers are slightly more transparent, milky. 

BRANCHIAE: each lobe with 9–10 branchial radioles, arranged short pectinately or almost semi-circular, 

not connected by branchial membrane. Rachis of radiole rounded triangular in cross-section, extended into 

flange to which pinnules are attached. Pinnules all more or less equal in size; terminal filament about twice as 

long as pinnule. Mouth palps not observed. Pair of prostomial eyes not observed. Branchial eyes not observed. 

Stylodes absent. 

PEDUNCLE: smooth, subtriangular in cross section, inserted at left side just between first and second 

normal radiole, slightly wider than these. The distal part of the peduncle gradually swelling to about 1/2 the 

width of the opercular ampulla, separated from the latter by a clear constriction. Peduncular wings absent. 

Pseudoperculum absent. 

OPERCULUM: fig-shaped, bilaterally symmetrical, with a distal concave endplate, almost an oblique 

funnel reaching halfway down into the ampulla (Fig. 51B–D). Distal plate chitinous, without ornamentation. 

Length of the operculum about 1.8 mm, width 1.4 mm. 

COLLAR and thoracic membranes: collar low, with laciniate edge; continuous with thoracic membranes, 

ending at chaetiger 2 (1 st row of uncini). Pockets in thoracic membranes absent. Pairs of wart-like 

protuberances of collar chaetiger absent; tonguelets between ventral and lateral collar lobes absent. 



FIGURE 11. SEM micrographs of chaetae in Chitinopoma serrula. Greenland, det. H. Zibrowius, ZMA V.Pol. 3832. 

A—details of fin-and-blade collar chaeta, B—details of Apomatus chaetae of 4 th chaetiger, C—1 st row of thoracic uncini, 

D—middle abdominal uncini, E—middle abdominal chaetae. 



FIGURE 12. SEM micrographs of chaetae in Chitinopomoides wilsoni. Antarctic, ZMA V.Pol. 3166. A—fin-and-blade 

collar chaeta, B—1 st row of thoracic uncini, C—abdominal uncini, D—middle abdominal chaeta, E—“capillary” and 

Apomatus chaetae of 4 th thoracic chaetiger. 

THORAX: with collar chaetiger, and 6 uncinigerous chaetigers. Collar chaetae of two types: fin-andblade 

and hooded (limbate). Subsequent chaetae hooded, of two sizes. Apomatus chaetae from chaetiger 3 

onwards. Uncini along entire thorax saw-shaped, with 12 curved teeth, with blunt, apparently bifurcated peg 

(dental formula P + 12). 

ABDOMEN: abdominal chaetigers up to 62 at least (broken). Anterior uncini rasp-shaped, with peg and 

12 teeth when seen in profile; posterior uncini with up to 5 teeth in a row. Chaetae flat geniculate. Short 

capillary chaetae and glandular pad present in about 12 posterior chaetigers. Pygidium bilobed. 

Size: length up to 24 mm. Width of thorax up to 0.8 mm. Branchiae and operculum accounting for 1/5th 

of entire length. 

Colour: no records. 

Ecology: no data except for depth, 18–366 m. The USNM material was removed from tubes of Serpula 

narconensis by H. Zibrowius. 



Remarks. All literature records are based on the same specimen, the holotype. Our seven additional 

specimens are all broken (or juvenile), but none of the thoraxes still have significant parts of the abdomen 

attached, at most 1 or 2 chaetigers; the numbers of abdominal chaetigers (40, 45, 53, 62) as counted on the 

loose abdomens thus probably represent almost complete counts. The specimen collected on 9.II.1956 showed 

eggs in its abdomen. 

6. Crucigera Benedict, 1887 

(Fig. 13) 

Type-species: Crucigera websteri Benedict, 1887 


Tube white or yellowish, opaque, circular to semi-circular in cross-section, with or without longitudinal keels 

and/or peristomes; tabulae may be present. Granular overlay absent, but outer layer may be shiningly hyaline. 

Operculum soft, funnel shaped, formed of fused radii. Base of funnel with 2–4 finger-like bosses. Peduncle 

smooth, cylindrical, without wings, separated from operculum by constriction; inserted proximal from first 

and/or second dorsal radiole on one side. Pseudoperculum present. Arrangement of radioles in two half to 

complete circles, up to 50 radioles per lobe in larger taxa. Inter-radiolar membrane present. Branchial eyes 

may be present. Stylodes absent. Mouth palps absent. 7 thoracic chaetigerous segments. Collar trilobed, 

tonguelets between ventral and lateral collar lobes absent. Thoracic membranes long, forming apron. Collar 

chaetae bayonet-shaped and limbate (Fig. 13A). Thoracic chaetae limbate, Apomatus chaetae absent (Fig. 

13B). Thoracic uncini saw-shaped with 5–7 teeth, including simple pointed anterior fang (Fig. 13C). 

Triangular depression present. Abdominal chaetae flat trumpet-shaped, with denticulate edge (Fig. 13D). 

Abdominal uncini saw-shaped with 4–6 teeth anteriorly (Fig. 13E); rasp-shaped with 2–4 rows, 7–8 teeth in 

profile posteriorly. Long posterior capillary chaetae present. Achaetous anterior abdominal zone absent. 

Posterior glandular pad absent. 

Remarks. The genus, with 5 species, was thoroughly revised by ten Hove & Jansen-Jacobs (1984). 

However, Kupriyanova et al. (2008) demonstrate that the traditional genera Crucigera and Serpula most 

probably are paraphyletic. 

1. Crucigera inconstans Straughan, 1967b, Queensland, New South Wales, Western Australia 

2. Crucigera irregularis Bush, 1905, Arctic North Pacific, Kamchatka to Washington State 

3. Crucigera tricornis Gravier, 1906, widely distributed in the Indo-West Pacific 

4. Crucigera websteri Benedict, 1887, Gulf of Mexico, Caribbean, Brazil; Pacific Colombia, California 

5. Crucigera zygophora (Johnson, 1901), North Japan, Arctic North Pacific, Kamchatka to Washington State. 

7. Dasynema Saint-Joseph, 1894 

(Fig. 14) 

Type-species: Serpula chrysogyrus Grube, 1876 


Tube white, opaque, with some orange, semi-circular in cross-section, with peristomes and (5) irregular 

longitudinal keels. Hyaline granular overlay of the tube absent. Operculum with fleshy globular ampulla 

proximally, calcium carbonate infested chitinous cone distally. Peduncle smooth, without pinnules, broadly 

flattened, with unpaired basal wing for 2/3 rds of its length and paired small distal wings, separated from 

ampulla by constriction; inserted at the base of branchial crown below and between 1 st and 2 nd radioles. 

Pseudoperculum absent. Radioles arranged in two semi-circles and connected by short inter-radiolar 



membrane. Radioles with ocellar clusters and unpaired outwardly directed stylodes, up to 15 radioles per lobe 

(Fig. 14A). Mouth palps not observed. 7 thoracic chaetigerous segments. Collar trilobed, tonguelets absent. 

Thoracic membranes ending at 5 th chaetiger, no apron. Collar chaetae limbate (Fig. 14B). Apomatus chaetae 

present (Fig. 14C). Thoracic uncini saw-shaped (Fig. 14D), with numerous (approximately 17) teeth, anterior 

peg blunt (not gouged or pointed). Triangular depression present. Abdominal chaetae (Fig. 14E) flat narrow 

geniculate with blunt teeth along blade (Vermiliopsis type). Abdominal uncini saw-shaped anteriorly, with 

11–12 teeth, posteriorly rasp-shaped with 2–4 rows of teeth, 14–15 teeth in profile (Fig. 14G). Achaetous 

anterior abdominal zone absent. Posterior capillary chaetae present, very long (Fig. 14F). Posterior glandular 

pad present. 

FIGURE 13. SEM micrographs of chaetae in Crucigera websteri. Australia, Queensland, Lizard Island, legit & det. E. 

Kupriyanova. A—bayonet collar chaeta, B—thoracic chaetae, C—thoracic uncini; Crucigera zygophora (Johnson, 

1901), Canada, British Columbia, Barkley Sound, legit T. Macdonald, det. E. Kupriyanova, D—flat trumpet-shaped 

abdominal chaetae, E—anterior abdominal uncini. 



FIGURE 14. SEM micrographs of Dasynema chrysogyrus. Australia, Queensland, Lizard Island, legit & det. H.A. ten 

Hove. ZMA V.Pol. 4540. A—Branchial crown with stylodes (st), B—bundle of collar chaetae, C—details of thoracic 

chaetae (“limbate” and Apomatus), D—thoracic uncini, E—anterior abdominal chaetae, F—posterior capillary 

abdominal chaeta, G—middle abdominal uncini. 



Remarks. This relatively poorly known monotypic genus is recorded from the Indo-West Pacific (see 

Imajima & ten Hove 1984, Nishi 1993). Its characteristic feature, outwardly directed stylodes on the radioles, 

is unique for serpulids. Paired stylodes are found elsewhere only in the sabellid genera Branchiomma and 

Pseudobranchiomma. See also discussion by Imajima & ten Hove (1984). 

Dasynema chrysogyrus (Grube, 1876), Japan, Philippine Islands, Ponape, Indonesia. 

8. Ditrupa Berkeley, 1835 

(Fig. 15) 

Type-species: Dentalium subulatum Deshayes, 1826 = junior synonym of Dentalium arietinum Müller, 1776; designated 

by Bush 1905: 223. 


Tube free, tusk-like, not attached to substratum, circular in cross-section, open at both ends, broadening 

anteriorly though exterior tapers just prior to tube mouth. Outer layer hyaline or white, inner layer opaque. 

Granular overlay of the tube absent. Operculum inverse conical with chitinous endplate. Peduncle cylindrical, 

smooth, without wings, gradually merging into operculum, no constriction; it is positioned as first dorsal left 

radiole. Pseudoperculum absent. Radioles arranged pectinately; up to 15 radioles per lobe. Inter-radiolar 

membrane, branchial eyes, and stylodes absent. Pair of filiform mouth palps present. 6 thoracic chaetigerous 

segments. Large entire (non-lobed) collar continuous with short thoracic membranes, ending at first chaetiger 

(second thoracic segment); tonguelets absent. Collar chaetae absent (see Collar segment, p. 22). First 

thoracic chaetiger biramous (see Collar segment, p. 22) with limbate chaetae (Fig. 15A, B) and with uncini; 

sometimes with special chaetae (see remarks). Apomatus chaetae absent. Thoracic uncini saw-to-rasp-shaped 

(dental formula P:2:2:2:1:1:1:1:1:1:1:1:1:1:1:1:1:1:1:1:1:1:1:1:1 or P:3:2:2:1……1) or rasp-shaped; about 25 

teeth in profile, with 2 or 3 teeth in a row above peg (P); peg blunt, curved upwards and gouged underneath 

(Fig. 15C). Triangular depression absent. Abdominal chaetae and certainly posterior ones thin, almost 

capillary, with very faint narrow geniculate tip (to completely capillary in D. gracillima). Abdominal uncini 

rasp-shaped, with 20–25 in profile, up to 8 teeth in a row above peg; anterior peg blunt, almost rectangular 

(Fig. 15D). Achaetous anterior abdominal zone absent; however, anterior half of abdomen with uncini only. 

Posterior capillary chaetae present. Posterior glandular pad absent. 

Remarks. The genus is found living unattached (Fig. 1A) in soft sediment marine environments around 

the world. Like many serpulid genera, Ditrupa has a history of taxonomic confusion to the extent that its tubes 

were included in the Mollusca by some authors. The generic diagnosis was emended by ten Hove & Smith 

(1990). An unattached free tube similar to that of Ditrupa is known only in two (?three) other serpulids, 

Bathyditrupa hovei and Serpula crenata (possibly incl. S. sinica). Unlike the circular in cross-section tubes of 

Ditrupa, those of Bathyditrupa and S. crenata are rectangular to multi-angular in cross-section (see The tube, 

p. 7). 

Ten Hove & Smith (1990: 113, 115) describe 2 populations of Ditrupa gracillima in which the first 

thoracic chaetiger shows special chaetae, one almost geniculately terminating in an oblique frayed narrow 

limbus, the other stoutly acicular. In view of the limited distributions of these two forms they question 

whether these populations might be in the process of speciation. 

1. Ditrupa arietina (Müller, 1776), Northern Norway to Azores and Canary Islands, Mediterranean 

2. Ditrupa gracillima Grube, 1878, widely distributed in Indo-West Pacific. 



FIGURE 15. SEM micrographs of chaetae in Ditrupa arietina. Canary Islands, SW of Palma, 28°39' N 17°58' W, 60-80 

m, legit H.A. ten Hove, ZMA V.Pol. 3559. A—chaetae of 4 th chaetiger, two sizes, B—chaetae of 1 st chaetiger, two sizes, 

C—uncini of 1 st thoracic chaetiger, D—anterior abdominal uncini. 



9. Ficopomatus Southern, 1921 

(Fig. 16) 

Type-species: Ficopomatus macrodon Southern, 1921 


Tube white (exceptionally orange), opaque, circular to triangular in cross-section, keels, peristomes, and 

tabulae may be present. Granular overlay of the tube absent. Operculum a bulbous fleshly ampulla, uncovered 

or covered with either a chitinous, non-calcified endplate or with numerous chitinous spines in the distal 

tissue. Peduncle smooth, sub-triangular, with dorsal groove, without distal wings, gradually merging into the 

opercular ampulla; inserted just below left branchial lobe, near medial line. Pseudoperculum absent. Radioles 

arranged in semi-circles, up to 11 per lobe, not united by inter-radiolar membrane. Branchial eyes, stylodes, 

and mouth palps absent. 7 thoracic chaetigerous segments. Collar non-lobed, with entire edge, tonguelets 

absent. Thoracic membranes long, forming ventral apron across anterior abdominal segments. Dorsal edges of 

thoracic membranes fused in F. uschakovi. Collar chaetae coarsely serrated (Fig. 16A) and limbate. Apomatus 

FIGURE 16. SEM micrographs of chaetae in Ficopomatus enigmaticus. The Netherlands, Vlissingen, Keersluisbrug 

near power station, legit H.A. ten Hove, ZMA V.Pol. 3069. A—details of Ficopomatus collar chaetae, B—uncini of 4 th 

thoracic chaetiger, C—posterior abdominal chaeta with double row of teeth (hollow tip), D—detail of peg, uncini of 4 th 

thoracic chaetiger. 



chaetae absent. Thoracic uncini saw-shaped (Fig. 16B), rarely partly rasp-shaped, with 6–12 teeth; anterior 

peg flat trapezoidal, blunt, with numerous tiny auxiliary teeth above peg (Fig. 16D). Triangular depression 

absent. Abdominal chaetae truly trumpet-shaped, smoothly bent, with denticulate edge (Fig. 16C); uncini 

saw- or rasp-shaped. Achaetous anterior abdominal zone absent. Posterior capillary chaetae and glandular pad 

absent. 

Remarks. Ten Hove & Weerdenburg (1978) revised in detail the monotypic brackish-water genera 

Mercierella Fauvel, 1923, Sphaeropomatus Treadwell, 1934, Mercierellopsis Rioja, 1945, and Neopomatus 

Pillai, 1960 and synonymized them under Ficopomatus Southern, 1921. It should be noted that Pillai (2008) 

reinstated the genus Neopomatus, based on the autapomorphy of thoracic membranes joined over the dorsal 

thorax, for its single species uschakovi. In Ficopomatus species there is a continuous series in opercular 

development from unadorned ampulla without any endplate to a fully developed chitinous plate, even with 

spines (ten Hove & Weerdenburg 1978). The nominal species Ficopomatus capensis Day, 1961 more 

probably should be placed in Chitinopoma (fide ten Hove & Weerdenburg 1978: 101). 

1. Ficopomatus enigmaticus (Fauvel, 1923), worldwide subtropical-temperate, Northern and Southern 

Hemisphere; brackish 

2. Ficopomatus macrodon Southern, 1921, India, Sri Lanka; tropical; brackish 

3. Ficopomatus miamiensis (Treadwell, 1934), Gulf of Mexico, Caribbean; SE Gulf of California; tropical; 

brackish 

4. Ficopomatus talehsapensis Pillai, 2008 Taléh Sap, Gulf of Thailand; tropical; brackish 

5. Ficopomatus uschakovi (Pillai, 1960), Africa, Indo-Pacific; tropical; brackish. 

10. Filograna Berkeley, 1835 

(Fig. 17) 

Type species: Filograna implexa Berkeley, 1835 


Worms form open aggregates consisting of large numbers of small whitish tubes, circular in cross-section. 

Granular overlay and keels absent. A pair of membranous spoon-shaped opercula on first unmodified 

pinnulate radioles. Radioles arranged into semi-circles, up to 4 radioles per lobe. Branchial eyes absent. Interradiolar 

membrane and stylodes absent. Prominent prostomium with ocellar clusters. Mouth palps present. 

6–12 thoracic chaetigerous segments. Collar trilobed, tonguelets between ventral and lateral collar lobes 

absent. Thoracic membranes long, forming apron. Collar chaetae fin-and-blade (Fig. 17A) and limbate. 

Apomatus chaetae present. All uncini rasp-shaped with up to 10 teeth in profile, 2–4 teeth in a transverse row; 

anterior fang pointed (Fig. 17B). Triangular depression absent. Achaetous anterior abdominal zone present, 

short. Abdominal chaetae flat narrow geniculate with rounded teeth along edge (Fig. 17C). Long posterior 

capillary chaetae and glandular pad absent. 

Remarks. The genus Filograna has been attributed by e.g., Mörch (1863; as Filigrana) and Hartman 

(1959) to Oken (1815). However, Oken used filograna as species name in the combination “Clymene 

filograna, Serpula filograna”; the species name was elevated to generic rank by Berkeley (1835). The 

nominal genera Filograna and Salmacina are distinguished mainly by the presence of two (rarely one) 

membranous opercula in the former and absence of an operculum in the latter. Some authors consider them 

distinct genera (Iroso 1921, Fauvel 1927, Pillai 1960, Straughan 1967b), whereas others treat them as a single 

species (McIntosh 1923, Faulkner 1929, Day 1955, 1967). More recent authors (Nelson-Smith 1967, Gee 

1963, Zibrowius 1968a, 1973b, Uchida 1978, Kupriyanova & Jirkov 1997) regard operculate and nonoperculate 

forms to be separate species within the genus Filograna. Nogueira & ten Hove (2000) gave an 

extensive discussion and synonymy and adapted the heuristic view that the operculate cold-temperate Atlantic 

Filograna better be kept separate from the non-operculate ubiquitous Salmacina. 



Filograna implexa M. Berkeley, 1835. Weymouth, English Channel, UK; cold temperate-subtropical Atlantic, 

Mediterranean; other locations doubtful. 

FIGURE 17. SEM micrographs of chaetae in Filograna implexa. United Kingdom, Orkney Islands, Head of Work, 22 

m, legit M.J. de Kluyver, ZMA V.Pol. 3767. A—fin-and-blade collar chaetae, B—1 st row of thoracic uncini, C—middle 

abdominal chaetae, imprint of tip. 



11. Filogranella Ben-Eliahu & Dafni, 1979 

(Fig. 18) 

Type-species: Filogranella elatensis Ben-Eliahu & Dafni, 1979 

Number of species: 1, maybe 3 

Tubes white, opaque, circular in cross-section, with 5 longitudinal keels; peristomes absent. Granular overlay 

of the tube absent. Operculum and pseudoperculum absent (but see Remarks). Radioles arranged in semicircles, 

up to 9 per lobe. Inter-radiolar membrane and stylodes absent. Branchial eyes absent. Prominent 

prostomium with ocellar clusters. Mouth palps absent. 11–14 thoracic chaetigerous segments (Fig. 18A). 

Well-developed trilobed collar continuous with thoracic membranes ending in mid-thorax, around 5 th –6 th 

thoracic chaetiger. Tonguelets absent. Collar chaetae limbate (Fig. 18B). Apomatus chaetae present (Fig. 

18C). Thoracic uncini saw- to rasp-shaped with about 16 teeth in profile and up to 4 teeth in a row above peg. 

Triangular depression absent. Abdominal chaetae flat sickle shaped with blunt teeth on the edge (Fig. 18E). 

Abdominal uncini rasp-shaped with > 20 teeth in profile, up to 7 teeth in a row; anterior peg blunt, slightly 

gouged underneath (Fig. 18D). Achaetous anterior abdominal zone short. Posterior capillary chaetae present. 


Remarks. Filogranella forms aggregations that resemble those of Filograna, but worms and their tubes 

are larger. However, Filograna differs from Filogranella in having fin-and-blade collar chaetae with proximal 

denticulate wing well separated from the distal limbate zone, a pair of well-developed thoracic membranes 

with apron, and rasp-shaped thoracic uncini (Ben-Eliahu & Dafni 1979). Filogranella aggregations have been 

mentioned from various locations around the world in diving guides (e.g., Allen & Steene 1994, 1996, Colin 

& Arneson 1995, Gosliner et al. 1996, Weinberg 1996, Debelius 1998, Fosså & Nilsen, 2000: Red Sea, 

Indonesia, Philippines, Caribbean). Some colonies have specimens with opercula with flat chitinous 

endplates, on a flat peduncle (more or less like that of Metavermilia) inserted as the second dorsal radiole. We 

suspect it is a complex of related species that needs to be sorted out. Vermiliopsis prampramiana Augener, 

1918, regarded to be undeterminable by Zibrowius (1973b), might belong here by its general chaetation 

pattern and 9 thoracic chaetigers. Neovermilia aberrans Rullier & Amoureux, 1979, might rather belong in 

this genus. 

1. ?Filogranella aberrans (Rullier & Amoureux, 1979), Brazil 

2. Filogranella elatensis Ben-Eliahu & Dafni, 1979, Elat, Gulf of Aqaba; Indo-West Pacific, Central Atlantic, 

Caribbean; probably more than one species 

3. ?Filogranella prampramiana (Augener, 1918), Gold Coast, Africa. 

12. Filogranula Langerhans, 1884 

(Fig. 19) 

Type-species: Filogranula gracilis Langerhans, 1884 


Tube white, opaque, with elaborate peristomes; keel present. Granular overlay absent. Operculum with 

chitinous endplate, may have additional spines in the center. Peduncle cylindrical, smooth, without wings 

(however, see Remarks); inserted as second dorsal radiole on one side. Opercular constriction present (but for 

F. stellata, absent). Pseudoperculum absent. Radioles arranged in semi-circles, up to 7 per lobe. Inter-radiolar 

membrane and stylodes absent. Branchial eyes may be present. Mouth palps not observed. 7 thoracic 

chaetigerous segments. Collar generally non-lobed (may be trilobed) with entire edge, continuous with short 

thoracic membranes, ending at second thoracic chaetiger. Tonguelets absent. Collar chaetae fin-and-blade 

(Fig. 19A) and limbate. Apomatus chaetae present (Fig. 19B). Thoracic uncini saw- or saw-to-rasp-shaped 



with 12–14 teeth in profile, up to 5 teeth in a row above anterior peg (P), blunt, gouged underneath (e.g., 

dental formula P:5:3:3:2:1:1:1:1:1:1:1:1:1, Fig. 19C). Triangular depression absent. Abdominal chaetae short, 

flat triangular with wide distal denticulate blade (Fig. 19E); abdominal uncini rasp-shaped (Fig. 19D). 

Achaetous anterior abdominal zone present. Long posterior capillary chaetae present. Posterior glandular pad 

absent. 

Remarks. Zibrowius (1983) and Kupriyanova (1993a) remark that the genera Chitinopoma and 

Filogranula are very similar in general structure of the operculum, chaetal structure, and length of the thoracic 

membranes. See also comments to Chitinopoma. Filogranula exilis is unusual as it shows a pinnulate radiole 

functioning as peduncle. 

1. Filogranula annulata (O.G. Costa, 1861), Mediterranean, Portugal 

2. Filogranula calyculata (O.G. Costa, 1861), Mediterranean, Lusitania, Mauretania 

3. Filogranula exilis Imajima, 1979, Japan, Seychelles 

4. Filogranula gracilis Langerhans, 1884, Eastern Atlantic, Hawaii? 

5. Filogranula revizee Nogueira & Abbud, 2009, South Brazil 

6. Filogranula stellata (Southward, 1963), Mediterranean Atlantic 

13. Floriprotis Uchida, 1978 

(Fig. 20) 

Type-species: Floriprotis sabiuraensis Uchida, 1978 


Tube white, opaque, circular in cross-section, normally completely embedded into living corals; granular 

overlay absent. Operculum and pseudoperculum absent. Radioles arranged (semi-circular to) short 

pectinately, up to 20 per lobe. Inter-radiolar membrane present. Stylodes absent. Branchial eyes absent. Mouth 

palps absent. 7 thoracic chaetigerous segments. Collar trilobed with entire edge, tonguelets absent. Thoracic 

membranes long, apron present. A pair of pockets on the inner side of each thoracic membrane, between the 

second and third thoracic segments. Collar chaetae bayonet, with elongate rounded teeth at base of very short 

blade (Fig. 20A), and limbate. Apomatus chaetae absent. Thoracic uncini of Serpula type, with 4–5 teeth and 

pointed fang (Fig. 20B). Triangular depression present. Abdominal chaetae flat trumpet-shaped with 

denticulate edge as in Serpula (Fig. 20D). Abdominal uncini similar to thoracic ones, saw-shaped with 4–5 

teeth anteriorly, but rasp-to-saw-shaped (dental formula F:1:1:2:3:3:3:4:3) posteriorly (Fig. 20C), with 1 tooth 

proximally above fang (F) to 3 (exceptionally 4) teeth per row distally, 7–8 teeth in profile. Achaetous zone 

absent. Long posterior capillary chaetae present. Posterior glandular pad absent. 

Remarks. The species is an obligate symbiont of corals in the Indo-West Pacific (Uchida 1978, Bailey- 

Brock 1985, Nishi 1992b). The chaetation pattern of this species is very similar to that typical for Crucigera- 

Hydroides-Serpula-Spiraserpula group and, as it was suggested by its author, F. sabiuraensis is likely to be 

closer to that clade than to Protis. 

The unusual characteristic feature of this monotypic genus is the presence of pockets in the thoracic 

membranes, however, see Remarks following Serpula. Bailey-Brock (1985) noted that one Floriprotis 

specimen from Fiji did contain eggs in pockets with a few eggs under the overlapping flaps of thoracic 

membranes, but whether these eggs were fertilized remains unknown. Thus, there is no hard evidence that the 

pockets are used for incubation. 

Another special feature according to Uchida (1978, Plate V A) would be the presence of wart-like 

protuberances laterally in the collar segment. However, though never reported before, wart-like protuberances 

are found in some larger species of Hydroides and Serpula and in Protis hydrothermica (ten Hove & 

Zibrowius 1986, fig. 6q); the character had not been noted before in these taxa. 



FIGURE 18. SEM micrographs of Filogranella elatensis. Israel, Elat, 10 m, legit J. Dafni, det. H.A. ten Hove, ex HUJ, 

SAM E3661. A—Lateral view of thorax, B—bundle of collar chaetae, C—thoracic chaetae of 4 th chaetiger (Apomatus 

and “limbate”), D—anterior abdominal uncini, E—anterior abdominal chaetae. 



FIGURE 19. SEM micrographs of chaetae in Filogranula stellata. United Kingdom, Outer Hebrides, Mingulay Reef, 

Biosys 2006, 56°80’53.5”N 7°44’19”W, 127 m, det. H.A. ten Hove. A—fin-and-blade and “limbate” collar chaetae, 

B—Apomatus chaetae, C—thoracic uncini, D—abdominal uncini, E—anterior abdominal chaeta. 

Floriprotis has been reported from southern Japan (Uchida 1978, Nishi 1992b) and Fiji (Bailey-Brock 

1985) and Indonesia (herein). At least some of the latter material, however, shows abraded Serpula-type collar 

chaetae (e.g., Nishi 1992b fig. 2C) rather than the typical Floriprotis bayonets (e.g., Uchida 1978 Pl. V C; 



Bailey-Brock 1985 fig. 13e; this paper), and either a pair of small pseudopercula or even a half developed 

Serpula-type operculum. The presence of warts on the collar segment makes this material even more 

confusing, all should be rechecked and variability (if any) of collar chaetae and (pseud)opercula should be 

documented. 

Floriprotis sabiuraensis Uchida, 1978, Japan, Indonesia, Fiji. 

FIGURE 20. SEM micrographs of chaetae in Floriprotis sabiuraensis. Indonesia, Ambon, 03°39' S, 128°3' E, inner bay 

West of Halong, Snellius II Expedition, 2-15 m, legit H.A. ten Hove, ZMA V.Pol. 3801. A—bayonet collar chaeta, 

B—uncini of 1 st thoracic row, C—posterior abdominal uncini, D—anterior abdominal chaetae. 



14. Galeolaria Lamarck, 1818 

(Fig. 21) 

Type-species: Galeolaria caespitosa Lamarck, 1818 


. 

FIGURE 21. SEM micrographs of chaetae in Galeolaria caespitosa. Australia, Sydney, Port Jackson, intertidal, Th. 

Mortensen's Pacific Expedition 14-16, exchange Zoological Museum Copenhagen, ZMA V.Pol. 3637. A—bundle of 

collar chaetae, B—detail of thoracic limbate chaeta, C—1 st row of thoracic uncini, D—anterior abdominal uncini, 

E—details of anterior abdominal chaeta with a hollow tip. 

Tube white or pink, opaque, with 2 longitudinal keels, trapezoidal in cross-section. Granular overlay absent. 

Operculum rather flat ampulla with distal calcareous plate, armed with elaborate movable spines. Peduncle 



thick, triangular in cross-section, with distal wings; inserted almost medio-dorsally, covering the base of up to 

3–4 dorsal radioles; constriction absent. Pseudoperculum absent. Radioles arranged almost in spirals (1.25 

whorl), up to 42 per lobe. Stylodes and branchial eyes absent. Inter-radiolar membrane present. Mouth palps 

absent. 7 thoracic chaetigerous segments. Collar trilobed, collar edge entire, smooth, occasionally with frilly 

edge (G. hystrix). Tonguelets absent. Thoracic membranes forming apron. Collar chaetae small, limbate (Fig. 

21A). Apomatus chaetae absent. Thoracic uncini saw-shaped with 7–10 teeth, anterior peg stout, rounded to 

spatulate (Fig. 21C). Triangular depression absent. Abdominal chaetae true trumpet-shaped, smoothly bent, 

with two rows of denticles separated by a hollow groove and extended into a long lateral spine (Fig. 21E). 

Abdominal uncini with 11–15 teeth, anterior peg stout, rounded (Fig. 21D), posterior ones rasp-shaped with 

2–3 rows. Long posterior capillary chaetae absent. Achaetous anterior abdominal zone short (2–3 segments). 


Remarks. The genus Galeolaria is one of the taxa that has been attributed to Savigny by various authors 

(e.g., Fauchald 1977: 144). The Code, however, is very clear on the point of priority of publication, Lamarck 

(1818) precedes Savigny (1820), and is the author of Galeolaria (cf. Fauchald 1992: 2–3). 

The genus Galeolaria is endemic to the southern half of Australia and New Zealand. G. caespitosa is 

gregarious and intertidal, whereas G. hystrix is solitary and subtidal, rarely forming “reefs” (see Smith et al. 

2005). The uncorroborated records of Galeolaria caespitosa from New Caledonia by Fauvel (1947) and of G. 

hystrix from N.W. Spain by Alvariño (1951) are most probably erroneous. 

1. Galeolaria caespitosa Lamarck, 1818, temperate and cold southern part of Australia 

2. Galeolaria hystrix Mörch, 1863, New Zealand, temperate and cold southern part of Australia. 

15. Hyalopomatus Marenzeller, 1878 

(Fig. 22) 

Type-species: Hyalopomatus claparedii Marenzeller, 1878 

Number of species: 11 or 12 

Tube white, opaque, sometimes with external hyaline layer, but granular overlay absent; (semi) circular in 

cross-section. Tabulae may be present. Operculum globular, soft, without distinct endplate or consisting of 

proximal ampulla with slightly chitinized distal cap; well separated from peduncle by constriction; sometimes 

operculum absent. Peduncle very thin, cylindrical, smooth, without wings; inserted outside branchial crown 

proper in front of first dorsal radiole on one side. However, for H. langerhansi we observed “between base of 

first and second radiole”. Pseudoperculum absent. Arrangement of radioles short pectinate, up to 15 pairs of 

radioles. Inter-radiolar membrane absent. Branchial eyes rarely present. Stylodes absent. Mouth palps present. 

6 thoracic chaetigerous segments. Collar trilobed, tonguelets absent. Thoracic membranes short, ending at 

first or second thoracic chaetiger. Collar chaetae fin-and-blade (Fig. 22A), or without gap between fin and 

blade and thus with uniform distal denticulate wing, and limbate. Apomatus chaetae absent (contrary to Ben- 

Eliahu & ten Hove 1989). Thoracic uncini rasp-shaped with numerous small teeth, approximately 20 in 

profile, up to 9 teeth in a row above peg; anterior peg made of two rounded lobes with a shallow incision in 

between, flat or slightly gouged in the middle (Fig. 22B). Triangular depression absent. Abdominal chaetae 

almost capillary with only tip flat narrow geniculate with pointed teeth (Fig. 22D); uncini rasp-shaped, similar 

to thoracic ones, but their anterior peg with 3–4 flat rounded lobes (Fig. 22C). Achaetous anterior abdominal 

zone may be present. Posterior capillary chaetae present. Posterior glandular pad absent. 

Remarks. This genus is poorly known probably because it includes mainly bathyal and abyssal species. 

Zibrowius (1969a) revised the genus to include six species. Kupriyanova (1993c) described three new species 

and provided a key to all species known at that time. More recently, three new species were added to the 

genus, H. variorugosus Ben-Eliahu & Fiege (1996), who also discuss the then known species, the non- 



operculate H. cancerum Knight-Jones et al. (1997) and H. madreporae Sanfilippo (2009), known by tubes 

only. Non-operculate specimens of Hyalopomatus, apparently accidental, were reported in the review by 

Zibrowius (1969a: 13). 

FIGURE 22. SEM micrographs of chaetae in Hyalopomatus marenzelleri. Canary Islands, SE of Lanzarote, 28°45' N, 

13°19' W, 1134-1315 m, legit H.A. ten Hove, RMNH 18332. A—fin-and-blade and “capillary” collar chaetae, B—detail 

of peg in last (6 th ) thoracic uncini, C—posterior/middle abdominal uncini, D—posterior/middle abdominal chaetae. 

1. Hyalopomatus biformis (Hartman, 1960), S. California 

2. Hyalopomatus cancerum Knight-Jones et al., 1997, off Oman 

3. Hyalopomatus claparedii Marenzeller, 1878, Arctic; bathyal 

4. Hyalopomatus jirkovi Kupriyanova, 1993c, Kurile-Kamchatka trench; abyssal/hadal 

5. Hyalopomatus langerhansi Ehlers, 1887, off Cuba; compare H. sombrerianus 

6. Hyalopomatus macintoshi (Gravier, 1911), Antarctic 

7. Hyalopomatus madreporae Sanfilippo, 2009, Mediterranean 

8. Hyalopomatus marenzelleri Langerhans, 1884c, Canary Islands to S. off Ireland, ?Mediterranean 

9. Hyalopomatus mironovi Kupriyanova, 1993, Kurile-Kamchatka trench, off California; abyssal/hadal 

10. Hyalopomatus nigropileatus (Ehlers, 1900c), South Chile, Antarctica 



11. Hyalopomatus sikorskii Kupriyanova, 1993c, Kurile-Kamchatka trench; abyssal/hadal 

12. Hyalopomatus sombrerianus (McIntosh, 1885), off Sombrero, St. Thomas, Caribbean; compare H. 

langerhansi 

13. Hyalopomatus variorugosus Ben-Eliahu & Fiege, 1996, Mediterranean, Atlantic. 

16. Hydroides Gunnerus, 1768 

(Fig. 23) 

Type species: Hydroides norvegicus Gunnerus, 1768 

Number of species: 89 (one with 2 subspecies) 

Tube white (sometimes bluish), more or less circular to trapezoidal (with flattened upper surface) in crosssection, 

peristomes and shallow longitudinal ridges may be present, no distinct keels. A granular overlay may 

be present. Operculum two-tiered, composed of basal funnel of fused radii and distal verticil (crown) of 

chitinized spines. Peduncle cylindrical, smooth, without wings, may or may not be separated from opercular 

funnel by a constriction; formed from second dorsal radiole on one side. Pseudoperculum present. 

Arrangement of radioles in semi-circles, up to 33 per lobe. Branchial eyes absent. Inter-radiolar membrane 

generally absent, rarely present (Bastida-Zavala & ten Hove 2002, mention only one species where it is 

present). Stylodes absent. Mouth palps absent. 7 thoracic chaetigerous segments, exceptionally more (9 in H. 

bisectus Imajima & ten Hove, 1989 and Hydroides sp.2 Bastida-Zavala & ten Hove 2002; 7–9 in H. 

bannerorum Bailey-Brock, 1991). Collar trilobed, tonguelets absent. Thoracic membranes long, forming 

ventral apron. Collar chaetae bayonet-type (Fig. 23A) and limbate. Apomatus chaetae absent. All uncini sawshaped 

with relatively few (up to 7) teeth; anterior fang simple pointed (Fig. 23B). Triangular depression 

present. Abdominal chaetae flat trumpet-shaped with denticulate edge (Fig. 23C). Achaetous anterior 

abdominal zone absent. Posterior capillary chaetae present (Fig. 23D). Posterior glandular pad absent. 

Remarks. Hydroides is the largest serpulid genus with a mainly tropical to sub-tropical distribution. 

Species in the genus are distinguished by well-differentiated opercula and differences in chaetal and tube 

structure. Although a complete world-wide revision of the genus is yet to be completed, Bastida-Zavala & ten 

Hove (2002, 2003) recently published revisions of the Hydroides species from the Western Atlantic region, 

respectively Eastern Pacific region and Hawaii. Also, Bastida-Zavala & ten Hove (2002) provided a detailed 

historical review of taxonomic studies of the genus. 

1. Hydroides alatalateralis (Jones, 1962), Jamaica, Caribbean, Colombian Pacific 

2. Hydroides albiceps (Grube, 1870), Red Sea, widely distributed in the Indo-West Pacific; compare H. 

trivesiculosus 

3. Hydroides ancorispinus Pillai, 1971, Sri Lanka; compare H. malleolaspinus 

4. Hydroides arnoldi Augener, 1918, Annobón, Sao Tome, Congo, Zaire, Ghana, Liberia; NB. part of Augener 

1918, Tebble 1956, and all Uschakov 1970 belongs to H. augeneri 

5. Hydroides augeneri Zibrowius, 1973b, Congo, Dahomey, Ghana, Liberia, Guinea; see remark H. arnoldi 

6. Hydroides azoricus Zibrowius, 1972d, Azores; sometimes confused with H. norvegicus 

7. Hydroides bandaensis Zibrowius, 1972c, Banda Sea; compare H. novaepommeraniae 

8. Hydroides bannerorum Bailey-Brock, 1991, Hawaii 

9. Hydroides bifurcatus Pixell, 1913, Maldives, South Africa, Madagascar, ?Sri Lanka, ?New Caledonia 

10. Hydroides bisectus Imajima & ten Hove, 1989, Okinawa, Japan 

11. Hydroides bispinosus Bush, 1910, Bermuda, Gulf of Mexico, Eastern USA and Caribbean 

12. Hydroides brachyacanthus Rioja, 1941a, Western Mexico to Ecuador, ?Hawaii; circum(sub)tropical 

records from elsewhere probably belong to a complex of species (Bastida-Zavala & ten Hove 2002, 2003) 

13. Hydroides cf. brachyacanthus Rioja, 1941a, Lesser Antilles, Venezuela, South Brazil 



14. Hydroides bulbosus ten Hove, 1990, Gulf of Oman 

15. Hydroides calopoma Zibrowius, 1973b, Annobón 

16. Hydroides capensis Zibrowius, 1972d, Cape, Ghana, Nigeria, Senegal; sometimes confused with H. 

norvegicus 

17. Hydroides centrospina Wu & Chen, 1981b, South China, Tonga; see remarks under H. elegans 

18. Hydroides chilensis Hartmann-Schröder, 1962, Arica, Chile, Colombia 

19. Hydroides cruciger Mörch, 1863, Punta Arenas Pac., Baja California to Colombia, Hawaii; N.B. all 

Caribbean records belong to H. bispinosus and/or H. parvus 

20. Hydroides dafnii (Amoureux, Rullier & Fishelson, 1978), Red Sea; compare H. perezi, tuberculatus 

21. Hydroides deleoni Bastida-Zavala & ten Hove, 2003, Punta San Juanico, Baja California Sur to Ecuador 

22. Hydroides dianthus (Verrill, 1873), New Jersey to Massachusetts, temperate to subtropical Atlantic coasts 

of North America; probably ship-transported to Curaçao, Atlantic coasts of Europe, Africa, and the 

Mediterranean; complicated synonymy, see Zibrowius (1971a) 

23. Hydroides dipoma (Schmarda, 1861), tropical West Africa, South Africa, Suez 

24. Hydroides diramphus Mörch, 1863, St. Thomas, Caribbean, probably ship-transported to a circum 

(sub)tropical distribution; complicated synonymy, see Bastida-Zavala & ten Hove 2002, 2003 

25. Hydroides elegans (Haswell, 1883), Port Jackson, Australia probably ship-transported to a circum(sub) 

tropical distribution; very confused synonymy, see e.g., ten Hove (1974), all (sub)tropical records of H. 

norvegicus belong here; N.B. In tropical Indo-Pacific regions the species can easily be confused with H. 

centrospina, H. longispinosus, H. multispinosus, and H. nanhaiensis 

26. Hydroides elegantulus (Bush, 1910), Bermuda Islands 

27. Hydroides exaltatus (Marenzeller, 1885), widely distributed in the Indo-West Pacific 

28. Hydroides externispina Straughan, 1967a, Queensland, South-Western Japan; compare H. ralumianus 

29. Hydroides ezoensis Okuda, 1934, Northern Sea of Japan, Vladivostok, South China, imported in France 

and Southern United Kingdom, and temperate Australia 

30. Hydroides floridanus (Bush, 1910), Florida, Gulf of Mexico and Eastern USA 

31. Hydroides furcifer (Grube, 1878), Philippines, Palau Island 

32. Hydroides fuscus Imajima, 1976, South Japan, Palau Island, Red Sea, South China 

33. Hydroides fusicola Mörch, 1863, Japan, South China 

34. Hydroides gairacensis Augener, 1934, La Guayra, Venezuela; South Florida to South Brazil, Pacific 

Panama 

35. Hydroides glandifer Rioja, 1941a, Acapulco, West Mexico, Baja California Sur 

36. Hydroides gracilis (Bush, 1905), Pacific Groove, California to Baja California Sur 

37. Hydroides helmatus (Iroso, 1921), Naples, Mediterranean 

38. Hydroides heterocerus (Grube, 1868), Red Sea, Zanzibar, Madagascar, Iranian Gulf, Sri Lanka, ?New 

Caledonia, Lessepsian migrant to the Levant Mediterranean 

39. Hydroides heterofurcatus Pillai, 1971, Sri Lanka 

40. Hydroides homoceros Pixell, 1913, Maldives, Zanzibar, Seychelles, Sudan, Iranian Gulf, Lessepsian 

migrant to the Levant Mediterranean, once mentioned from ship’s hull in Toulon, Mediterranean 

41. Hydroides huanghaiensis Sun & Yang, 2000, Yellow Sea 

42. Hydroides humilis (Bush, 1905), Gulf of California, Baja California to Panama 

43. Hydroides inermis Monro, 1933, Galapagos, North Peru 

44. Hydroides inornatus Pillai, 1960, Sri Lanka, India, Hong Kong; most probably synonym of H. operculatus 

45. Hydroides lambecki Bastida-Zavala & ten Hove, 2003, Curaçao, Caribbean 

46. Hydroides longispinosus Imajima, 1976, South Japan, South China, Ponape, Tonga, Queensland; see 

remark under H. elegans 

47. Hydroides longistylaris Chen & Wu, 1980, South China Sea; compare H. rectus 

48. Hydroides malleolaspinus Straughan, 1967b, Queensland, tropical Australia, Sri Lanka; compare H. 

ancorispinus; not sensu Imajima 1982, see H. novaepommeraniae 



49. Hydroides microtis Mörch, 1863, North America, North Carolina, Gulf of Mexico, Guyana 

50. Hydroides minax (Grube, 1878), widely distributed in the Indo-West Pacific, Lessepsian migrant to the 

Levant Mediterranean 

51. Hydroides mongeslopezi Rioja, 1959, Vera Cruz, Gulf of Mexico, Caribbean 

52. Hydroides monroi Zibrowius, 1973b, Congo, Cabinda 

53. Hydroides mucronatus Rioja, 1959, Veracruz, Gulf of Mexico 

54. Hydroides cf. mucronatus Rioja, 1959; ten Hove, 1984 Caribbean; status uncertain, see Bastida-Zavala & 

ten Hove (2002), probably new (sub?)species 

55. Hydroides multispinosus Marenzeller, 1885, Enoshima, Japan; see remark under H. elegans 

56. Hydroides nanhaiensis Wu & Chen, 1981b, South China Sea; see remark under H. elegans 

57. Hydroides niger Zibrowius, 1971a, Mediterranean 

58. Hydroides nodosus Straughan, 1967b, Queensland 

59. Hydroides norvegicus Gunnerus, 1768, Boreal European species; very confused synonymy, all harbour 

and Indo Pacific records see H. elegans 

60. Hydroides novaepommeraniae Augener, 1925, New Britain, Palau and Truk Island, Philippines, South 

Japan; confused synonymy, see Imajima & ten Hove (1984) 

61. Hydroides ochoterena Rioja, 1941a, Acapulco, Western Mexico to Pacific Colombia 

62. Hydroides operculatus (Treadwell, 1929), probably incl. H. inornatus; Somalia, Moçambique, 

Queensland, Lessepsian migrant to the Levant Mediterranean 

63. Hydroides panamensis Bastida-Zavala & ten Hove, 2003, Pacific Panama, Ecuador 

64. Hydroides parvus (Treadwell, 1902), Puerto Rico, South Florida to Brazil 

65. Hydroides perezi Fauvel, 1918, Iranian Gulf, Red Sea, Tonga; not sensu Straughan 1967b, compare H. 

dafnii, H. tuberculatus 

66. Hydroides plateni (Kinberg, 1867), South Brazil to Patagonia 

67. Hydroides protulicola Benedict, 1887, Cape Hatteras, North Carolina, Eastern USA and northern Gulf of 

Mexico 

68a. Hydroides pseudouncinatus africanus Zibrowius, 1971a, Morocco, Guinee, Senegambia, ?Madagascar 

68b. Hydroides pseudouncinatus pseudouncinatus Zibrowius, 1968a, Marseille, Mediterranean 

69. Hydroides ralumianus Augener, 1927, New Caledonia; compare H. externispina 

70. Hydroides rectus Straughan, 1967b, Queensland, Northern Territories; compare H. longistylaris 

71. Hydroides recurvispina Rioja, 1941a, Acapulco, West Mexico, Gulf of California to Panama 

72. Hydroides rhombobulus Chen & Wu, 1980, South China Sea, Hong Kong; compare H. uniformis and H. 

xishaensis 

73. Hydroides rostratus Pillai, 1971, Sri Lanka; N.B. preoccupied by H. rostratus Iroso, 1921, nov. nom. for 

H. uncinatus Ehlers, 1887, = H. floridanus 

74. Hydroides salazarvallejoi Bastida-Zavala & ten Hove, 2003, Colombia, Caribbean and Pacific Costa Rica 

to Ecuador 

75. Hydroides sanctaecrucis Krøyer [in] Mörch, 1863, St. Croix, Caribbean, both sides of Mexico and 

Panama, ?Hawaii, ship-transported to Singapore and tropical Australia; confused synonymy, see Bastida- 

Zavala & ten Hove (2002) 

76. Hydroides similis (Treadwell, 1929), Baja California to Panama 

77. Hydroides similoides Bastida-Zavala & ten Hove, 2003, Puerto Rico, Caribbean 

78. Hydroides sinensis Zibrowius, 1972c, Yellow Sea 

79. Hydroides spongicola Benedict, 1887, Gulf of Mexico, Caribbean, Bahamas 

80. Hydroides steinitzi Ben-Eliahu, 1972, Suez Canal, Philippines, found once on ship’s hull in Toulon, 

Mediterranean 

81. Hydroides stoichadon Zibrowius, 1971a, Provence, Mediterranean 

82. Hydroides tambalagamensis Pillai, 1961, widely distributed in the Indo-West Pacific 

83. Hydroides tenhovei Bastida-Zavala & de Leon Gonzalez, 2002, Cabo San Lázaro, Baja California Sur 



84. Hydroides trilobulus Chen & Wu, 1978, Guandong, South China Sea 

85. Hydroides trivesiculosus Straughan, 1967a, Queensland; tropical Australia, Tanzania, Red Sea; compare 

H. albiceps 

86. Hydroides trompi Bastida-Zavala & ten Hove, 2003, Baja California to Panama 

87. Hydroides tuberculatus Imajima, 1976, widely distributed in the Indo-West Pacific; compare H. dafnii, H. 

perezi 

88. Hydroides uniformis Imajima & ten Hove, 1986, Solomon Islands, ?Queensland; compare H. 

rhombobulus and H. xishaensis 

89. Hydroides xishaensis Chen & Wu, 1978, Guandong, China; compare H. rhombobulus and H. uniformis. 

FIGURE 23. SEM micrographs of chaetae in Hydroides norvegicus. Norway, South of Island Fosenheia, 63°37’ N, 

9°27’ E, 30 m, Scandinavia Expedition 1961, det. H.A. ten Hove 1969, ZMA V.Pol. 3090. A—details of bayonet collar 

chaetae, B—anterior abdominal uncini, C—middle abdominal chaetae, D—tip of posterior abdominal capillary chaeta. 

17. Janita Saint-Joseph, 1894 

(Fig. 24) 

Type-species: Omphalopoma spinosa Langerhans, 1884, = junior synonym of Serpula fimbriata delle Chiaje, 1822 




FIGURE 24. SEM micrographs of chaetae in SEM micrographs of Janita fimbriata. France, Marseille, det. and don. H. 

Zibrowius, ZMA V.Pol. 3033. A—lateral view of entire animal, B—Spirobranchus type collar chaeta, C—Apomatus 

chaeta, D—anterior abdominal chaeta, E—thoracic uncini, F—posterior abdominal uncini. 

Tube white, sub-circular in cross-section, with 5 longitudinal winding ridges. Granular overlay absent. 

Operculum bell-shaped, ending in simple thick brown concave endplate; opercular base surrounded by three 

fleshy processes, one triangular and two rounded ones, not unlike those figured for Crucigera zygophora by 

ten Hove & Jansen-Jacobs (1984 fig. 9C). Peduncle cylindrical, slightly compressed dorso-ventrally and 

wrinkled; inserted below and between first and second normal radiole (below second in larger specimens). 

Pseudoperculum absent. Arrangement of radioles short pectinate, up to 12 radioles per lobe. Inter-radiolar 



membrane and stylodes absent. Branchial eyes present, reported as stalked eyes at base of pinnules by 

Langerhans (1884 fig. 45a). Mouth palps present. 7 thoracic chaetigerous segments. Collar pentalobate, 

medioventral lobe divided by deep median and two shallow incisions. Tonguelets absent. Thoracic 

membranes short, ending at second thoracic chaetiger. Collar chaetae of Spirobranchus type (Fig. 24B), 

acicular and limbate. Apomatus chaetae present (Fig. 24C). Thoracic uncini saw-shaped with up to 16 teeth, 

anterior peg blunt, questionably gouged (Fig. 24E). Triangular depression absent. Anterior abdominal uncini 

saw-shaped, posterior rasp-shaped (Fig. 24F), with approximately 13 teeth in profile, 3–5 teeth per row. 

Abdominal chaetae flat narrow geniculate, with a more or less crenulated edge to the blade (Fig. 24D). 

Achaetous anterior abdominal zone very short or absent. Long posterior capillary chaetae absent. Posterior 

glandular pad present. 

Remarks. The genus Janita was erected by Saint-Joseph for Omphalopoma spinosa Langerhans, 1884, 

which is a junior synonym of Serpula fimbriata delle Chiaje, 1822 (see e.g., Fauchald, 1977: 144, 

Lommerzheim 1979: 157). There was a considerable confusion about generic attribution of this species, 

generally it has been attributed to Omphalopomopsis. Zibrowius (1972b) points out that the distinction 

between Janita and Omphalopomopsis is justified due to having very different opercula: O. langerhansi has a 

simple globular operculum with a shallow concave calcareous endplate, J. fimbriata has a more complex 

operculum with a deeply cupped chitinous endplate, which has a horny talon into the fleshy opercular ampulla 

(Imajima, 1979). 

It should be noted that Rioja (1923) and Fauvel (1927) mentioned both “Spirobranchus” type and acicular 

collar chaetae for Janita fimbriata (as Omphalopomopsis); (Zibrowius (1968a) on the other hand regarded the 

“acicular” chaetae as misinterpretation of “Spirobranchus” type, observed from the back (not in lateral view). 

Martín (1989) assumed that specimens with acicular collar chaetae and those with “Spirobranchus” type 

chaetae belong to different taxa. Ben-Eliahu & Fiege (1996) mentioned specimens with one or the other type 

of collar chaetae from a single population of what they regard to be J. fimbriata; ten Hove (in Ben-Eliahu & 

Fiege 1996) mentioned a specimen with both types. The phenomenon merits further attention. 

The monotypic genus is distributed in the (sub) tropical Atlantic, Mediterranean (Zibrowius 1972b, 

1973b, Bianchi 1981, Bianchi et al. 1984), and Indo-West Pacific (Imajima & ten Hove, 1984, 1986, ten Hove 

1994). See also remarks following Omphalopomopsis. 

Janita fimbriata (delle Chiaje, 1822), (sub)tropical Atlantic, Mediterranean, Indo-West Pacific. 

18. Josephella Caullery & Mesnil, 1896 

(Fig. 25) 

Type-species: Josephella marenzelleri Caullery & Mesnil, 1896 


Tube white, opaque, circular in cross-section, with small peristomes; tube diameter approximately 0.1 mm. 

Granular overlay absent. Operculum delicate membranous cup with a flat distal surface surmounted by a 

marginal crown of fine teeth joined by a transparent membrane. Peduncle second non-modified pinnulate 

radiole, though Bush (1905) and Ben-Eliahu & Payiatas (1999: 109) mention a non-pinnulate radiole (the first 

as J. humilis). Pseudoperculum absent. Radioles arranged in semi-circles, up to 3 per lobe. Inter-radiolar 

membrane absent. Branchial eyes absent, a pair of red ocellar clusters at the base of collar. Stylodes absent. 

Mouth palps absent. 5 thoracic chaetigerous segments. Collar non-lobed. Tonguelets absent. Thoracic 

membranes short, ending at first chaetiger. Collar chaetae limbate. Apomatus chaetae present (Fig. 25A). 

Uncini rasp-shaped, with 10–12 teeth seen in profile, 4 teeth in a row distally to 7 above peg (Fig. 25B, C). 

Anterior peg gouged, widened into a rectangular to trapezoid base, flat, but with sharp angles that sometimes 

curve underneath (thus giving a bifurcate appearance under compound microscope). Triangular depression 



absent. Abdominal chaetae flat narrow geniculate with pointed denticulate edge (Fig. 25D). Abdominal uncini 

with 9–10 teeth in a row. Achaetous anterior abdominal zone long. Posterior capillary chaetae absent. 


FIGURE 25. SEM micrographs of chaetae in Josephella marenzelleri. France, Marseille, Vieux Port, legit H. Zibrowius, 

ZMA V.Pol. 3030. A—Apomatus and “limbate” chaetae of 3 rd thoracic chaetiger, B—4 th (and last) thoracic row of uncini, 

C—anterior abdominal uncini, D—tip of anterior abdominal chaeta. 

Remarks. This tiny serpulid is known from numerous circum(sub)tropical, temperate locations around 

the world: Australia (Dew 1959), Japan (Uchida 1978, Imajima 1979), Hawaii (Bailey-Brock 1991), Israel 

(Ben-Eliahu 1976), Italy (Bianchi 1981), Cyprus (Ben-Eliahu & Payiatas 1999), Germany (Hartmann- 



Schröder 1971), France (Fauvel 1927, Zibrowius 1968a), west coast of Africa (Zibrowius 1973b), north coast 

of Tunis (Zibrowius 1979a). The species was confused with Rhodopsis (by Straughan 1967a fig. 5i). Ben- 

Eliahu & Payiatas (1999) provided SEMs of Josephella chaetae. Dew (1959) mentioned a single specimen 

with two opercula equal in size. 

Josephella marenzelleri Caullery & Mesnil, 1896, circum(sub)tropical, temperate. 

19. Laminatubus ten Hove & Zibrowius, 1986 

(Fig. 26) 

Type-species: Laminatubus alvini ten Hove & Zibrowius, 1986 


Tube white, more or less triangular in cross-section, with large undulating longitudinal keel; consisting of two 

layers: an inner opaque layer and an outer (not granular) hyaline one. Operculum globular, with bulbous 

proximal ampulla and more or less flattened distal part with thickened cuticle. Peduncle cylindrical, gradually 

merging into opercular ampulla, constriction absent; inserted to left side, proximal from first and second 

normal radiole. Pseudoperculum absent. Radioles not connected by inter-radiolar membrane, arranged into 

slightly ascending spiral of up to two whorls. Up to 33 radioles per lobe. Stylodes and branchial eyes absent. 

Mouth palps not observed. 6 thoracic chaetigerous segments. Collar with medio-ventral and two latero-dorsal 

lobes, continuous with thoracic membranes, forming apron. Tonguelets absent. Collar chaetae Spirobranchustype 

(Fig. 26A) and limbate. Apomatus chaetae absent. All uncini saw-shaped with 5–7 teeth, anterior fang 

simple, pointed (Fig. 26D, C). Thoracic tori converging posteriorly, forming triangular depression. Abdominal 

chaetae long, with hollow trumpet-shaped tip, smoothly bent (Fig. 26D). Posterior chaetae become longer, but 

posterior capillary chaetae absent. Achaetous anterior abdominal zone absent. Posterior glandular pad absent. 

Remarks. The species is a common element of the bathyal hydrothermal vent communities found in the 

Galapagos rift and the East Pacific Rise. 

Laminatubus alvini ten Hove & Zibrowius, 1986, East Pacific, 1–21º N; bathyal. 

20. Marifugia Absolon & Hrabĕ, 1930 

(Fig. 27) 

Type-species: Marifugia cavatica Absolon & Hrabĕ, 1930 


Tube white, opaque, circular in cross-section; irregular longitudinal keel and collar like rings may be present. 

Thin hyaline granular overlay of the tube present. Operculum fig-shaped to inverse conical, with (or without) 

chitinous endplate. Peduncle flattened cylindrical, smooth, without distal wings, gradually merging into 

opercular ampulla; inserted just below and between first and second dorsal radiole on left side (in large 

specimen almost covering base of branchial lobe). Pseudoperculum absent. Radioles arranged in semi-circles, 

up to 6 per lobe. Inter-radiolar membrane, branchial eyes and stylodes absent. Mouth palps not found. 6 

thoracic chaetigerous segments. Collar non-lobed but with low medio-ventral projection. Thoracic 

membranes narrow but forming apron. Tonguelets absent. Collar chaetae absent. Thoracic chaetae limbate, 

Apomatus chaetae absent (Fig. 27A). Thoracic uncini saw-to-rasp-shaped, with about 8 teeth in profile, up to 

4 in a row above blunt almost square shallowly gouged anterior peg (dental formula P:4:3:2:1:1:1:1:1, Fig. 

27B). Triangular depression absent. Abdominal chaetae trumpet-shaped, long, smoothly bent, with hollow tip 

bordered with pointed teeth (Fig. 27D). Posterior abdominal capillaries not observed. Uncini saw-to-rasp- 



shaped; anterior peg simple rounded (Fig. 27C). Achaetous anterior abdominal zone, long posterior capillary 

chaetae and glandular pad absent. 

FIGURE 26. SEM micrographs of chaetae in Laminatubus alvini. Galapagos rift, “Alvin” dive 884, Garden of Eden, 

hydrothermal vent areas, 0°47.69' N, 80°07.74' W, 2482 m, ZMA V.Pol. 3480. A—details of Spirobranchus collar 

chaeta, B—uncini of 4 th thoracic chaetiger, C—anterior abdominal uncini, D—anterior abdominal chaetae, details of 

hollow tip. 

Remarks. Marifugia cavatica is unique in being the world's only fresh-water serpulid, of presumably 

marine origin (Sket 1983), inhabiting subterranean waters of the Dinaric karst of the former Yugoslavia. The 



most recent study (Kupriyanova et al., in prep.) summarises data on ecology, distribution, and reproduction of 

the species and shows its close relationship with Ficopomatus. 

Marifugia cavatica Absolon & Hrabĕ, 1930, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Slovenia to extreme N.E. 

Italy; fresh-water subterranean caves. 

FIGURE 27. SEM micrographs of chaetae in Marifugia cavatica. Bosnia & Herzegovina, Ravno, Zavala, Vjetrenica, 

Ravanjski kanal, legit M. Zagmajster, det. E. Kupriyanova, SAM E3612. A—thoracic chaetae, B—thoracic uncini, 

C—anterior abdominal uncini, D—anterior abdominal chaetae with hollow tips. 



Membranopsis Bush, 1910 

Type-species: Membranopsis inconspicua Bush, 1910 


Tube not known. Specimen without branchial crown, thus all radiolar characters not known. Mouth palps not 

known. 9 thoracic chaetigerous segments. Collar quadrilobed; thoracic membranes wide, forming apron; 

tonguelets between ventral and lateral collar lobes not known. Collar chaetae damaged, apparently limbate. 

Subsequent chaetae limbate. Apomatus chaetae present from 7 th chaetiger onwards. Uncini [along entire 

body?] similar to those in Protula and Apomatus. Abdominal chaetae “curved somewhat in crescent shape 

rather narrow and abruptly tapering toward the tip” [? thus sickle-shaped?]. Achaetous anterior abdominal 

zone, long posterior capillary chaetae and glandular pad not known. 

Remarks. This monotypic taxon is ill-defined and known from Bush’s (1910) very sketchy original 

description only. Based on type comparison (by Gayle Playa, pers. comm.), Membranopsis inconspicua is 

most likely synonymous with Salmacinopsis setosa Bush, 1910, also with 9 thoracic chaetigers, probably a 

Protula species, an opinion shared with Chamberlin (1919a: 479); the latter taxon was referred to Protula 

setosa by Perkins (1998: 95). Since the generic name had not been formally synonymized yet, we mention it 

in this account, without number, but we regard it to be an invalid genus. 

21. Metavermilia Bush, 1905 

(Fig. 28) 

Type-species: Vermilia multicristata Philippi, 1844 


Tube white, opaque, peristomes may be present, as well as several longitudinal keels, sometimes denticulate. 

Granular overlay generally absent. Operculum with chitinous, non-calcified endplate, sometimes with 

complex multi-tiered structures, or endplate may be absent. Peduncle flattened, ribbon-like, without distal 

wings; formed from second dorsal radiole on one side. Constriction may be present. Pseudoperculum may be 

present. Radioles arranged in semi-circles to short pectinate, up to 18 per lobe. Inter-radiolar membrane and 

stylodes absent. Branchial eyes may be present. Mouth palps absent. 7 thoracic chaetigerous segments. Collar 

trilobed, tonguelets between ventral and lateral collar lobes absent. Length of thoracic membranes variable, 

ending at thoracic segments 3–7, sometimes forming ventral apron on anterior abdominal segments. Collar 

chaetae limbate (Fig. 28A). Apomatus chaetae present (Fig. 28B). Thoracic uncini saw-shaped with up to 15 

teeth, anterior tooth blunt, rounded (Fig. 28C). Triangular depression absent. Abdominal chaetae with flat 

narrow geniculate blade with rounded teeth (Fig. 28E); uncini saw- or rasp-shaped (Fig. 28D). Achaetous 

anterior abdominal zone absent. Posterior capillary chaetae and glandular pad present. 

Remarks. The genus Metavermilia was revised and emended by Zibrowius (1971b) for four species; 

since then 10 more species have been added (see Nishi et al. 2007 for history and literature review). 

Specimens of M. acanthophora have a pseudoperculum (as mentioned for AM W3629 by Dew (1959) and 

ZMA V.Pol. 4701); another in the Queensland Museum (G 3905) has 2 opercula, one elaborate with three 

chitinous diabolos and spine, the other simple with a single chitinous endplate with spine. 

1. Metavermilia acanthophora (Augener, 1914), Indo-West Pacific, South Japan to Australia 

2. Metavermilia annobonensis Zibrowius, 1971b, Annobón, Western Africa; records from elsewhere should 

be checked 

3. Metavermilia arctica Kupriyanova, 1993d, off Greenland, off Norway, Arctic Ocean 

4. Metavermilia gravitesta Imajima, 1978, Izu Islands, Japan 



FIGURE 28. SEM micrographs of chaetae in Metavermilia acanthophora. Australia, Queensland, Lizard Island, legit G. 

Rouse and E. Kupriyanova, det. E. Kupriyanova. A—bundle of collar chaetae, B—thoracic “limbate” and Apomatus 

chaetae, C—thoracic uncini, D—anterior abdominal uncini, E—anterior abdominal chaetae. 

5. Metavermilia inflata Imajima, 1977, Ogasawara Islands, Japan; bathyal 

6. Metavermilia multicristata (Philippi, 1844), (sub)tropical Atlantic, Mediterranean, West Indian Ocean 

7. Metavermilia nanshaensis Sun, 1998, China 

8. Metavermilia nates Zibrowius, 1971b, Europa Island, Tanzania; Red Sea, Ponape; Honshu, Japan 

9. Metavermilia ogasawaraensis Nishi, Kupriyanova & Tachikawa, 2007, Ogasawara Islands, Japan 

10. Metavermilia ovata Imajima, 1978, Japan, Seychelles 



11. Metavermilia spicata Imajima, 1977, Japan 

12. Metavermilia taenia Zibrowius, 1971b, Josephine Bank, East Atlantic 

13. Metavermilia truncata Imajima, 1978, Izu Islands, Japan 

14. Metavermilia yamazatoi Imajima & ten Hove, 1989, Okinawa, North-West Pacific. 

22. Microprotula Uchida, 1978 

Type-species: Microprotula ovicellata Uchida, 1978 


Tube white, opaque, circular in cross-section, proximal part irregularly coiled and attached to substrate, distal 

erect and free. Granular overlay absent. Globular ovicells around erect distal part of the tube. Operculum and 

pseudoperculum absent. Arrangement of radioles semi-circular, up to 4 per lobe. Inter-radiolar membrane and 

stylodes absent. 8–12 pairs of red ocellar clusters present on both sides of each radiole. Mouth palps absent. 7 

thoracic chaetigerous segments. Collar well developed, with 4 weakly expressed lobes. Tonguelets absent. 

Thoracic membranes narrow, but forming apron. Collar chaetae limbate. Apomatus chaetae present. Thoracic 

and abdominal uncini rasp-shaped, Protula type, up to approximately 20 teeth in profile, up to 6 in a row; 

anterior peg elongated, blunt, questionably gouged. Triangular depression absent. Abdominal chaetae sickleshaped 

with blunt teeth. Achaetous anterior abdominal zone short. Long posterior capillary chaetae present. 


Remarks. This poorly known tiny species has never been found in the field, the material described by 

Uchida (1978) comes from a population found in a marine aquarium. Some more questionable specimens 

(without typical ovicells) came from “reef rock in aquarium shop in Germany, origin probably Central Indo- 

Pacific” (Fosså & Nilsen 2000: 151, ZMA V.Pol. 4046). The type material was re-examined by EK. The 

species is morphologically very similar to small representatives of the genus Protula (hence the name). The 

major reason of its elevation into a separate genus has been the presence of tube ovicells used to brood 

embryos. Microprotula may not have a phylogenetic basis, as some Protula species do show incubation of 

embryos (Kupriyanova et al. 2001), admittedly not in special brood-chambers but in gelatinous masses. 

Microprotula ovicellata Uchida, 1978, Sabiura, Japan. 

23. Neomicrorbis Rovereto, 1904 

(Fig. 29) 

Type-species: Serpula crenatostriata Münster in Goldfuss, 1831 (fide Regenhardt 1961: 89); a fossil taxon 

Number of Recent species: 1 

Tube transparent (vitreous), circular in cross-section, with numerous longitudinal ridges consisting of small 

denticles (Fig. 29C). Tube spiral, either dextral or sinistral. Granular overlay absent. Operculum with distal 

calcareous plate and large talon projecting into proximal ampulla, merging into peduncle without constriction 

(Fig. 29B). Peduncle second radiole right, two small distal wings. Pseudoperculum absent. Arrangement of 

radioles semi-circular, 10 radioles left, 7 right. Inter-radiolar membrane, branchial eyes, and stylodes absent. 

Mouth palps absent. Number of thoracic chaetigers asymmetric, 5 to the left and 6 to the right (Fig. 29A). 

Collar non-lobed, tonguelets and length of thoracic membranes not known. Collar chaetae fin-and-blade and 

limbate. Apomatus chaetae present in posterior thoracic segments (Fig. 29E). Thoracic uncini saw-shaped 

with 12–15 teeth and rounded peg. Thoracic depression is not known. Abdominal chaetae retro-geniculate 

(Fig. 29F). Abdominal uncini rasp-shaped with 14–17 teeth in profile, 3–5 in a row (Fig. 29D). Long anterior 

achaetous abdominal zone. Posterior capillary chaetae present. Posterior glandular pad absent. 



FIGURE 29. Photos and SEMs of chaetae of Neomicrorbis azoricus. Azores, 37°18'N 24°45.5'W, 610 m, R/V “Jean 

Charcot”, det. and don. H. Zibrowius, ZMA V.Pol. 3905. A—Lateral view of entire animal removed from its tube (photo 

R. Bastida-Zavala), B—operculum (photo R. Bastida-Zavala), C—tube (photo H. Zibrowius), D—anterior abdominal 

uncini, E—4 th thoracic bundle of thin “capillary” and Apomatus chaetae, F—anterior abdominal chaeta. 



Remarks. The diagnosis above is partly based on a personal communication by R. Bastida-Zavala. This is 

a poorly known monotypic genus with unclear affinities. According to Rzhavsky (pers. comm.), Neomicrorbis 

belongs to the Spirorbidae (Paralaeospirinae) because of its incomplete chaetal inversion typical for 

spirorbins. Reproduction is unknown, which makes placement within spirorbins difficult. Zibrowius (1972a) 

regards it as something intermediate between a “serpulid” and a spirorbin. 

Neomicrorbis azoricus Zibrowius, 1972a, Azores, St. Paul Island, West Indian Ocean. 

24. Neovermilia Day, 1961 

(Fig. 30) 

Type-species: Neovermilia capensis Day, 1961 


Tube white, opaque, triangular to subcircular in cross-section, medial keel may be present. Granular overlay 

absent, though hyaline inner (bordering lumen) and hyaline outer layers may be present. Tabulae occasionally 

present. Operculum globular, soft proximally, at most with slightly chitinized, or sclerotized, or calcified cap. 

Operculum absent in one species. Peduncle sub-cylindrical to triangular, wrinkled (annulated), sometimes 

with small distal latero-dorsal “winglets” (flattened parts of the peduncle), constriction present; inserted at 

base of first to fourth normal radiole. Pseudoperculum absent (but see remarks). Radioles arranged in semicircles 

to short spiral (1.5 whorls), up to 50 per lobe. Inter-radiolar membrane present (that is, radioles fused 

basally for about 1/20 th of their length). Stylodes absent. Branchial eyes not observed. Mouth palps absent. 7 

thoracic chaetigerous segments. Collar trilobed, tonguelets between ventral and lateral collar lobes absent. 

Thoracic membranes forming ventral apron across anterior abdominal segment. Collar chaetae limbate. 

Apomatus chaetae absent. Thoracic uncini saw-shaped with 5–6 teeth above pointed anterior fang (Fig. 30A); 

saw-to-rasp shaped in one species. Triangular depression absent, but rows of thoracic tori converge, 

completely touching each other medioventrally. Abdominal chaetae long, trumpet-shaped, smoothly bent, 

with hollow end bordered by two rows of pointed teeth (Fig. 30C). Abdominal uncini similar to thoracic ones, 

with 7 teeth above fang (Fig. 30B). Achaetous anterior abdominal zone absent. Posterior capillary chaetae and 

glandular pad absent. 

Remarks. Ten Hove (1975) tabulated the known species of Neovermilia. Later, two more species were 

described and attributed to this genus, N. aberrans Rullier & Amoureux, 1979 and N. anoperculata Lechapt, 

1992. Uncini of N. aberrans were figured with a bifid anterior peg; contrary to the description, Apomatus 

chaetae are present, and the number of thoracic chaetigers is higher than 7 (Zibrowius, pers. comm.), it might 

rather belong to Filogranella. The taxon anoperculata agrees well with the diagnosis of Neovermilia, but for 

the absence of an operculum and its thoracic uncini which are saw-to-rasp-shaped. One specimen of N. 

globula from Taronga Park checked by one of us (HAtH; Australian Museum) had a pseudoperculum in 

addition to the normal peduncle. 

1. Neovermilia anoperculata Lechapt, 1992, New Caledonia; SEM photos of chaetae in original description 

2. Neovermilia capensis Day, 1961, False Bay, South Africa 

3. Neovermilia dewae (Straughan, 1967b), Heron Island, Queensland, Australia 

4. Neovermilia falcigera (Roule, 1898), Cape Bojador; East Atlantic from off Ireland to North Africa, 

Mediterranean; bathyal 

5. Neovermilia globula (Dew, 1959), Port Jackson, New South Wales, Australia 

6. Neovermilia sphaeropomatus (Benham, 1927), New Zealand. 



FIGURE 30. SEM micrographs of chaetae in Neovermilia globula. Australia, New South Wales, Sydney, Bondi Beach, 

legit G. Rouse, det. E. Kupriyanova. A—thoracic uncini, B—abdominal uncini, C—hollow tip of abdominal chaeta. 



25. Nogrobs de Montfort, 1808 

(Fig. 31) 

Type-species: Nogrobs vermicularis de Montfort, 1808 (a fossil taxon) 

Number of (Recent) species: 1 

FIGURE 31. SEM micrographs of chaetae in Nogrobs grimaldii. Azores, 39°03.5' N, 28°25.5' W, 2440 m, R/V “Jean 

Charcot”, det. H. Zibrowius 1972, ZMA V.Pol. 3906. A—collar chaetae, B—6 th row of thoracic uncini, C—anterior 

abdominal uncini, D—anterior abdominal chaeta. 

Tube free, white, sinistrally coiled, initially cylindrical, then prismatic (quadrangular in cross-section), finally 

with short cylindrical straight distal part. Collar like rings and granular overlay absent. Operculum inverse 

cone (ampulla) with chitinous endplate and central depression. Peduncle pinnulated, without distal wings, 

with outer groove distally, with or without constriction beneath ampulla; inserted as second right radiole, up to 

3 times as wide as other radioles. Pseudoperculum absent. Arrangement of radioles semi-circular, up to 8 per 

lobe. Inter-radiolar membrane, branchial eyes, and stylodes absent. Mouth palps absent. 4–6 thoracic 

chaetigerous segments. Collar non-lobed with entire edge, no clear separation towards thoracic membranes 

that end at second chaetiger. No apron, no tonguelets. Collar chaetae limbate (Fig. 31A). Apomatus chaetae 



absent. Thoracic uncini saw-to-rasp-shaped with numerous teeth (> 12) in profile, 2–3 teeth per row (dental 

formula P:3:3:3:2:2:1:1:1:1:1:1:1:1); anterior peg gouged (Pomatoceros type) (Fig. 31B). Abdominal chaetae 

short, with flat triangular denticulate blade (Fig. 31D). Thoracic triangular depression absent. Abdominal 

uncini similar to thoracic ones (Fig. 31C). Achaetous anterior abdominal zone absent. Long posterior capillary 

chaetae absent. Posterior glandular pad absent. 

Remarks. The diagnosis above is based on the description of the only Recent species thus far described - 

from specimens collected at depths of 1846–1900 m off the Azores. Topotypical material from 2440 m is 

present in the collections of the ZMA (V.Pol. 3906, presented by H. Zibrowius), additional material from the 

Central Atlantic was mentioned by Hartman & Fauchald (1971), they, however, counted 4 thoracic chaetigers 

only. A possible second undescribed species was found at 4124 m south-east off the Galapagos Islands (ZMA 

V.Pol. 3859). Zibrowius (pers. comm.) suspects a total of 4 different species, partly with not coiled 

quadrangular tubes. 

Jäger (2004) synonymized the Recent genus Spirodiscus Fauvel, 1909 with the Fossil Nogrobs de 

Montfort, 1808. Jäger also suggested that the Recent Bathyditrupa hovei might belong to the subgenus 

Nogrobs (Tetraditrupa) Regenhardt, 1961, without further argumentation. 

Nogrobs grimaldii (Fauvel, 1909), Central Atlantic, off Azores; bathyal, abyssal. 

26. Omphalopomopsis Saint-Joseph, 1894 

(Fig. 7A, B) 

Type-species: Omphalopoma langerhansii Marenzeller, 1885 


Tube subcylindrical, white, opaque, with 3 denticulate keels and an occasional low collar-like ring. Granular 

overlay not observed. Operculum bulbous with slightly convex brilliantly white calcareous endplate. Peduncle 

cylindrical, broadening and wrinkled towards opercular ampulla, constriction present; without wings; 

insertion unknown. Pseudoperculum not mentioned in original description, presumably absent. Up to 25 pairs 

of radioles, arranged in two circles/short spires. Inter-radiolar membrane absent. Branchial eyes, stylodes, and 

mouth palps not observed. 7 thoracic chaetigerous segments. Collar trilobed, well developed, especially 

medio-ventrally; thoracic membranes wide till 3 rd segment, further unknown (damaged), apron apparently 

absent. Tonguelets unknown. Collar chaetae bayonet-like with numerous hair-like processes basally, 

Spirobranchus-type and limbate. Apomatus chaetae present. Thoracic uncini saw-shaped, with 7–8 teeth 

above anterior pointed fang. Triangular depression unknown. Abdominal chaetae geniculate, SEM details 

unknown, probably Vermiliopsis-type (then flat narrow geniculate), apparently with almost smooth edge, very 

long posteriorly. Uncini saw-shaped anteriorly with 7 teeth and fang, rasp-shaped posteriorly. Achaetous zone 

not known. Long posterior capillary chaetae present. Posterior glandular pad not observed. 

Remarks. The taxon is known only from the single holotype deposited in the Natural History Museum of 

Vienna, NHMW A.N.14552, Inv. no. 2054 (Fig. 7A, B). The description by Marenzeller (1885) leaves doubt 

about the shape of the anterior uncinal tooth, it may be either pointed as in Hydroides, or blunt as in 

Vermiliopsis. 

Specimens attributed to Omphalopomopsis by Fauvel (1930, 1953) and Pillai (1960) in reality belong to 

Pomatostegus actinoceras (fide Zibrowius (1973b), as P. stellatus). 

Omphalopomopsis langerhansii (Marenzeller, 1885), South Japan, Enoshima, 366 m. 



27. Paraprotis Uchida, 1978 

(Fig. 32) 

Type-species: Paraprotis dendrova Uchida, 1978 

Number of species: 2, maybe 1 

FIGURE 32. SEM micrographs of chaetae in Paraprotis dendrova. Australia, Queensland, Lizard Island, Granite Head, 

from underside of boulders on rock, little sand, subtidally, legit H.A. ten Hove, 18.06.1983, det. D. Makhan. A—bundle 

of collar chaetae, B—thoracic uncini, C—thoracic chaetae, D—abdominal chaeta. 



Tube white, opaque, circular in cross-section, without longitudinal keels. Granular overlay not observed. 

Operculum and pseudoperculum absent (or soft globular operculum may be present on second unmodified 

radiole in P. pulchra). Arrangement of radioles semi-circular or short pectinate, up to 6 per lobe (up to 32 per 

lobe in P. pulchra). Inter-radiolar membrane absent. Branchial eyes (ocellar clusters) present. Stylodes absent. 

Mouth palps absent, but a spiral projection for brood attachment originates from the right side of the mouth. 

Collar non-lobed, tonguelets absent. Thoracic membranes narrowing at third chaetiger but continuing to the 

7 th thoracic chaetiger, a narrow apron is probably present (neither Uchida’s description nor an additional 

specimen SAM E3591 give a definite answer). 7 thoracic chaetigerous segments. Collar chaetae limbate (Fig. 

32A). Apomatus chaetae absent (Fig. 32C). Thoracic uncini of Protis type, saw-shaped with about 10 teeth, 

anterior fang with pointed tip (Fig. 32B). Thoracic triangular depression not observed. Anterior abdominal 

chaetae flat narrow geniculate with a row of sharp teeth along its free margin (Fig. 32D). Abdominal uncini 

similar to thoracic ones but rasp-shaped. Achaetous anterior abdominal zone present, short (2–4 segments). 

Long posterior capillary chaetae present. Posterior glandular pad not observed. 

Remarks. The diagnosis has been taken from Uchida (1978) who in the name for his new genus implied 

some similarity to Protis, mainly in the shape of thoracic uncini and lack of operculum, even though Protis 

has special fin-and-blade collar chaetae and thoracic Apomatus chaetae. Imajima (1979) described a second 

Paraprotis species, P. pulchra from Japan. Both species have a similar chaetation pattern; however, some 

specimens of P. pulchra have a thin globular operculum. Also, P. pulchra has a well developed trilobed collar, 

an inter-radiolar membrane, and uniformly wide thoracic membranes unlike P. dendrova, with its poorly 

developed non-lobed collar, bright ocellar clusters on its radioles but lacking an inter-radiolar membrane, and 

thoracic membranes that narrow at the 3 rd thoracic chaetiger. Spiral brooding projections typical for P. 

dendrova have not been mentioned for P. pulchra. Because of all the differences, P. pulchra very likely does 

not belong to the genus Paraprotis (fide ten Hove, 1984). Nishi (1992b) provided SEM micrographs of 

chaetae of P. dendrova, additional figures are given in this paper (Fig. 32). 

1. Paraprotis dendrova Uchida, 1978, Sabiura, South Japan 

2. ?Paraprotis pulchra Imajima, 1979, Honshu, Japan. 

28. Paumotella Chamberlin, 1919 

(Figs 33, 51E) 

Type-species: Paumotella takemoana Chamberlin, 1919 


Tube unknown. Operculum inverse conical, the distal chitinous endplate slightly depressed, without 

processes. Opercular peduncle smooth, oval (flattened circular) in cross-section, with long basal lateral wing 

(Fig. 51E); insertion just outside radioles, covering base of 4–5 radioles. Pseudoperculum absent. 

Arrangement of radioles in semi-circles, up to 21 per lobe. Inter-radiolar membrane absent. Branchial eyes not 

found in preserved material, stylodes absent. Mouth palps present. 7 thoracic chaetigerous segments. Collar 

trilobed, with entire edge. Thoracic membranes narrowing abruptly between 4 th and 5 th segment, where they 

end; no apron. Tonguelets absent. Collar chaetae limbate (Fig. 33A). Apomatus chaetae present (Fig. 33B, C). 

Thoracic uncini saw-shaped, with 12 teeth above rounded peg (Fig. 33D). Thoracic triangular depression 

present. Anterior and median abdominal regions with stout, moderately curved, acute, slightly compressed 

acicular chaetae (Fig. 33F); posteriorly long capillaries with distal limbus; uncini rasp-shaped, with about 10 

teeth in profile, 2–3 teeth in a row above peg (Fig. 33E). Achaetous anterior abdominal zone short, 2–3 

segments only. Posterior glandular pad absent. 

Remarks. The original description of this monotypic genus is not up to the present standards, a new 

description is given below. The characteristic features of the genus, according to Chamberlin (1919) are the 



abdominal chaetae that are neither denticulate nor geniculate, but acicular, as well as the shape of the 

operculum; however, the latter is not very characteristic, being similar to that of some Vermiliopsis spp., as 

well as that of Ditrupa. 

Paumotella takemoana Chamberlin, 1919, French Polynesia, Paumotu Archipelago. 

Paumotella takemoana Chamberlin, 1919: 481–483, pl. 78 figs 1–5; Southward, 1963: 586 (in key only); Fauchald, 

1977: 145 (opercular peduncle with wings); Uchida, 1978: 71–72 (associated with Vermiliopsis). 

Material studied. French Polynesia, Paumotu Archipelago, Makemo, coral, at bottom of lagoon, 24 m (13 

fm), R/V “Albatross” E. Pac. Exp. 1899–1900 ident. by Chamberlin (further details not present in internet list 

of stations) (holotype, USNM 19432; 2 slides (schizotypes) MCZ). 

Description. TUBE: absent, and not described by Chamberlin either. 

BRANCHIAE: each lobe with 20–21 branchial radioles, arranged in semi-circles, not connected by 

branchial membrane. Radioles too convoluted to observe details of pinnules, terminal filament long. 

Branchial eyes not observed. Stylodes absent. Pair of mouth palps present. 

PEDUNCLE: smooth, flattened circular in cross section, inserted just below left branchial lobe, covering 

base of 4–5 radioles. A single lateral wing along proximal 2/3 rds of peduncle (Fig. 51E), exactly like figured 

for Vermiliopsis leptochaeta Pillai, 1971; showing clear constriction just below ampulla. Pseudoperculum 

absent. 

OPERCULUM: globular to inverse conical with a distal slightly concave chitinous endplate, with smooth 

margin, and with flat central area without further ornamentation (Fig. 51E). Length of operculum and 

peduncle 4–5 mm; opercular bulb 1.4 mm, width 1.8 mm. 

COLLAR and thoracic membranes: collar high, with entire edge; deep incision between ventral and 

lateral collar lobes, the latter continuous with thoracic membranes, ending between chaetiger 4 and 5. 

Tonguelets between ventral and lateral collar lobes absent. Internal pockets in thoracic membranes and wartlike 

protuberances of collar chaetiger as in Floriprotis absent. 

THORAX: with collar chaetiger, and 6 uncinigerous chaetigers. Pair of prostomial eyes not observed. 

Collar chaetae broken off, but according to Chamberlin they are limbate, of two sizes. Subsequent chaetae 

hooded (limbate), of two sizes. Apomatus chaetae occur in addition as well, both in slides of the type (MCZ) 

as well as in rest of holotype (contrary to Chamberlin’s description, and Fauchald (1977). Uncini along entire 

thorax saw-shaped, with 12 curved teeth and rounded peg. Thoracic uncinigerous tori gradually approaching 

one another posteriorly, forming a triangular depression on the ventral side of the thorax. 

ABDOMEN: abdominal chaetigers 56, anterior three achaetigerous. Uncini rasp-shaped, with peg and 10 

teeth in profile, 2–3 teeth in a row. Chaetae faintly curved, rounded acute aciculae, 3–4 per bundle. Long 

capillary chaetae present in 10–15 posterior chaetigers, broken, thus extent not entirely clear. Pygidium 

clearly bilobed. Posterior glandular pad absent. 

Size: length up to 23.5 mm. Width of thorax 2.1 mm. Branchiae and operculum accounting for 1/6 of 

entire length. 

Colour: the general colour is brownish yellow, with the parapodial processes paler. The thoracic collar is 

transparent. The branchiae yellow. Operculum yellow, with the rim black (Chamberlin 1919: 482). 

Ecology: no data except for those in label: coral, at bottom of lagoon, 24 m. 

Remarks. Chamberlin´s original label gives as locality “Takemo”, hence the specific name of the taxon; 

this mistake already was corrected in his paper to the atoll of Makemo. From the fact that Fauchald (1977: 

145) attributes wings to the opercular peduncle, a character not mentioned by Chamberlin, we infer that he 

probably saw the holotype. But for the presence of the absolutely unique abdominal chaetae the taxon could 

easily be mistaken for a species of the genus Vermiliopsis. Uchida (1978: 71–72) also associates the genus 

tentatively with Vermiliopsis sensu lato (his subfamily Vermiliopsinae). Possible relationship will be 

discussed in (a) forthcoming paper(s) by us. 



FIGURE 33. Photos (A–E) and a SEM micrograph (F) of chaetae in Paumotella takemoana. Holotype, USNM and 

MCZ (slides). A—“limbate” chaeta of 6 th thoracic chaetiger, B—Apomatus chaeta of 6 th chaetiger, C—same Apomatus 

chaeta as in B, but different focus, D—lateral view of thoracic uncini, E—frontal view of abdominal uncini, F—acicular 

abdominal chaetae. 



29. Placostegus Philippi, 1844 

(Fig. 34) 

Type-species: Serpula tridentata Fabricius, 1780 

Number of species: 7 (-8) 

FIGURE 34. SEM micrographs of chaetae in Placostegus tridentatus. Norway, Bolsøy galten, S. of Hamarøy, 67°57.0' 

N, 15°23.8' E, 115 m, legit H. Lemche, det. H.A. ten Hove, ZMA V.Pol. 3643. A—1 st row of thoracic uncini, B—anterior 

abdominal uncini, C—anterior abdominal chaeta with a hollow tip. 

Tube triangular in cross-section, with denticulate keels, transparent or semi-transparent, often only attached to 

substratum at the base, collar-like rings absent. Granular overlay absent. Operculum inverse conical, with 

chitinous cup-shaped endplate. Peduncle cylindrical, smooth, without wings, gradually merging into 

operculum, at most with shallow constriction; inserted at base of radioles on one side between first and second 



normal radiole and maximally covering base of first three radioles. Pseudoperculum absent. Radioles arranged 

in semi-circles, up to 24 per lobe; inter-radiolar membrane, branchial eyes, and stylodes absent. Mouth palps 

present. 6 thoracic chaetigerous segments. Collar tri- to penta-lobed, collar edge may be almost laciniate; 

tonguelets between ventral and lateral collar lobes present. Thoracic membranes long, forming ventral apron 

across anterior abdominal segment. Collar chaetae absent; collar region with girdle of reddish ocelli. 

Apomatus chaetae absent. All uncini sub-rectangular, rasp-shaped with > 20 teeth in profile, and up to 8 small 

teeth in a row; anterior peg wide, flat, bluntly truncate, almost rectangular (Fig. 34A). Thoracic triangular 

depression absent. Abdominal chaetae truly trumpet, with distal hollow triangular blade, abruptly bent (Fig. 

34C). Achaetous anterior abdominal zone present. Long posterior capillary chaetae may be present. Posterior 


Remarks. Placostegus is one of three serpulid genera (see also Neomicrorbis and Vitreotubus) with an 

entirely vitreous tube; completely transparent, glass-like in live animals, it may become milky-white semitransparent 

after preservation in formalin. The tube in P. incomptus shows a remarkable dual appearance, 

proximally with closely set transverse ribs, distally smoothly triangular. Fauvel (1927 fig. 128i) and Imajima 

(1978 fig. 9c) mention a chitinous talon projecting from the endplate into the opercular bulb. 

Placostegus has one evident diagnostic autapomorphy—the belt of bright red ocelli in the region where in 

other genera collar-chaetae are found (e.g., Langerhans 1884 fig. 38b, Ehlers 1887 fig. 3, Hartman 1969 fig. 2; 

our Fig. 1F). 

1. Placostegus assimilis McIntosh, 1885, off Bermudas; bathyal 

2. Placostegus californicus Hartman, 1969, Southern California 

3. Placostegus crystallinus (Scacchi, 1836) sensu Zibrowius, 1968a, Eastern North Atlantic, Mediterranean; 

?Red Sea, Indian Ocean, these reports might belong to a different species (Ben-Eliahu, pers. comm.) 

4. ? Placostegus grayi Baird, 1865, no location given; generic status uncertain 

5. Placostegus incomptus Ehlers, 1887, off Cuba; bathyal 

6. Placostegus langerhansi Marenzeller, 1893, Madeira, Canary Islands 

7. Placostegus tridentatus (Fabricius, 1780), Atlantic, Mediterranean, Indo-West Pacific. 

30. Pomatoceros Philippi, 1844 

(Fig. 35) 

Type-species: Serpula triquetra Linnaeus, 1758 


Tube generally white, opaque, though blue, purplish and pink parts may occur; usually with longitudinal 

keel(s), may be with more or less regular series of pits, triangular or sub-triangular in cross-section; granular 

overlay absent. Operculum with inverse conical to rather shallow ampulla, with calcified endplate, sometimes 

bearing spines. Peduncle thick, triangular in cross-section, with distal lateral wings; a constriction between 

peduncle and ampulla may be present; peduncle inserted almost medio-dorsally, covering the base of up to 

three dorsal radioles. Pseudoperculum absent. Radioles arranged in semi-circles and up to 20 per lobe. 

Branchial eyes and stylodes absent. Mouth palps present. 7 thoracic chaetigerous segments. Collar trilobed; 

tonguelets between ventral and lateral collar lobes present. Thoracic membranes long, forming ventral apron 

across anterior abdominal segment. Collar chaetae small, limbate. Apomatus chaetae absent. All uncini sawshaped 

with 10–11 teeth, anterior peg blunt gouged (Fig. 35A, B). Thoracic triangular depression present. 

Abdominal chaetae true trumpet-shaped, abruptly bent, distally with two rows of denticles separated by 

hollow groove (Fig. 35C, D). Achaetous anterior abdominal zone absent. Long posterior capillary chaetae 

absent. Posterior glandular pad absent. 

Remarks. See remarks for Spirobranchus. 



FIGURE 35. SEM micrographs of chaetae in Pomatoceros triqueter. United Kingdom, Liverpool Bay, 53˚50’ N, 3˚50’ 

W, legit S.J. de Groot, ZMA V.Pol. 3201. A—anterior abdominal uncini, B—detail of pegs in last row of uncini, view 

from below, C—anterior abdominal chaetae with hollow tips, D—posterior abdominal chaetae. 

1. Pomatoceros americanus Day, 1973, Beaufort, North Carolina; temperate Eastern USA 

2. Pomatoceros lamarckii (Quatrefages, 1866), Guettary, France; Mediterranean-Atlantic, U.K., English 

Channel 

3. Pomatoceros minutus Rioja, 1941b, Acapulco, West Mexico; Gulf of California, Gulf of Mexico, 

Caribbean to Brazil 

4. Pomatoceros taeniatus (Lamarck, 1818), Tasmania; South Australia, New South Wales, New Zealand, 

South Trinidad Islands; a remarkable and questionable distribution, Trinidad might be explained by a label 

error by Benham (1927, as P. terraenovae) 

5. Pomatoceros triqueter (Linnaeus, 1758), Norway to and including Mediterranean-Atlantic, Black Sea; 

records from other areas questionable. 



31. Pomatoleios Pixell, 1913 

(Fig. 36) 

Type-species: Pomatoleios crosslandi Pixell, 1913, junior synonym of Placostegus cariniferus var. kraussii Baird, 1865 


Tube white or bluish, opaque, triangular in cross-section, with medial keel projecting into flap over the 

entrance. Granular overlay absent. Operculum inverse conical with flat calcareous plate; sometimes with talon 

projecting into opercular ampulla (best seen if operculum is cleared in glycerine). Peduncle thick, triangular in 

cross-section, with distal wings, without constriction, inserted almost medially, slightly left, covering base of 

up to five radioles. Pseudoperculum absent. Radioles arranged in semi-circles, up to 19 per lobe, connected by 

very high inter-radiolar membrane. Branchial eyes present (single ocelli visible in fresh material only). 

Stylodes absent. Mouth palps present. 6 thoracic chaetigerous segments (in juveniles 7). Collar with entire 

edge, tonguelets between ventral and lateral collar lobes present; thoracic membranes forming ventral apron. 

Collar chaetae absent (limbate ones present in juveniles only). Apomatus chaetae absent. Uncini saw-shaped 

with fairly numerous (10–11) teeth, anterior peg wide and blunt, gouged (Fig. 36B). Triangular depression 

present. Abdominal chaetae true trumpet-shaped, abruptly bent, distally with two rows of denticles separated 

by a groove (Fig. 36A). Achaetous anterior abdominal zone absent. Posterior capillary chaetae and posterior 


FIGURE 36. SEM micrographs of chaetae in Pomatoleios kraussii. Madagascar, Tuléar, littoral, det. and don. H. 

Zibrowius, legit J. Picard, ZMA V.Pol. 3068. A—anterior abdominal chaetae with hollow tips, B—thoracic uncini of 1 st 

row. 

Remarks. Opercular talons as reported by Pillai (1965 fig. 22H) and ten Hove (1973 fig. 43) are not 

consistenly mentioned (nor looked for) in the literature. Whether or not the presence of such a talon is a 

character distinguishing between populations or even taxa should be investigated. 

Pomatoleios kraussii is widely distributed in the Indo-Pacific forming intertidal aggregations. The only 

difference between Pomatoceros and Pomatoleios is the more or less consistent lack of collar chaetae in the 

latter. However, collar chaetae may be present in juvenile specimens (Zibrowius 1968a, Crisp 1977, ten Hove 

& Nishi 1996), and occasionally absent in Pomatoceros (e.g., 9 specimens from the Irish Sea, ZMA V.Pol. 

3201) as well as in Spirobranchus (e.g., as Olga elegantissima Jones, 1962), thus this monotypic genus likely 



lacks a phylogenetic basis. See further remarks for Spirobranchus. SEM photos of Pomatoleios are published 

in Fiege & Sun (1999). 

Pomatoleios kraussii (Baird, 1865), South Africa; widely distributed in the Indo-Pacific; Lessepsian migrant 

to the Levant Mediterranean. 

32. Pomatostegus Schmarda, 1861 

(Fig. 37) 

Type-species: Pomatostegus macrosoma Schmarda, 1861, junior synonym of Terebella stellata Abildgaard, 1789 


Tube white, opaque, semi-circular to roughly triangular in cross-section, with up to 5 longitudinal keels; 

granular overlay absent. Operculum a very flat ampulla covered with chitinous disk bearing a column with 

several serrated disks alternating with circlets of spines proximally and closely applied to each disk. Peduncle 

flatly triangular in cross-section with broad latero-distal wings along its entire length; inserted to the left or 

right at the basis of the branchial lobe; from the fact that the first and second radiole separated by the base of 

the peduncle, it is inferred that it is derived from the second normal radiole. Constriction absent. 

Pseudoperculum absent. Arrangement of radioles in (semi-)circles, up to 90 per lobe. Inter-radiolar membrane 

present. Branchial eyes present. Stylodes absent. Mouth palps absent. 7 thoracic chaetigerous segments. 

Collar tri- to penta-lobed, well developed with an entire smooth margin. Tonguelets absent. Thoracic 

membranes short, ending just posterior to the second row of uncini (segment 3). Collar chaetae 

Spirobranchus-type, with basal pilose fin and distal blade, and limbate (Fig. 37B). Apomatus chaetae present 

(Fig. 37E). Thoracic uncini saw-shaped, with 9–13 teeth, anterior peg blunt (Fig. 37C). Thoracic tori meet 

ventrally in larger specimens; in juveniles the ventral space between thoracic tori narrowing towards last rows 

that almost fused, leaving a triangular depression. Abdominal chaetae flat narrow geniculate, with long blade 

(Fig. 37F). Abdominal uncini smaller than thoracic ones, with about 8 teeth in profile, 3 teeth in a row (Fig. 

37D). Achaetous anterior abdominal zone absent. Long posterior capillary chaetae absent, but posterior 

chaetae longer. Posterior glandular pad absent. 

Remarks. According to the recent literature there is but a single circumtropical species, Pomatostegus 

stellatus. However, an unpublished study by P. Valentijn (former student to HAtH, University Utrecht), reinstigated 

two species regarded to be synonymous with the type-species to full specific rank: P. actinoceras, 

from the Indo-West Pacific Region, and P. krøyeri, from tropical Pacific America, leaving a tropical Atlantic 

distribution only for P. stellatus. The latter taxon has been recorded from Atlantic Africa by Augener (1918), 

Amoureux (1973), and Zibrowius (1973b), however, the single specimen studied from Western Africa by 

Valentijn and ten Hove could not be attributed with certainty to either P. actinoceras (likely) or P. stellatus 

(less likely). 

1. Pomatostegus actinoceras Mörch, 1863, Indo-West Pacific, ?Western Africa; generally synonymised with 

P. stellatus 

2. Pomatostegus krøyeri Mörch, 1863, tropical Pacific America; generally synonymised with P. stellatus 

3. Pomatostegus stellatus (Abildgaard, 1789), West Indies; Caribbean; usually including preceding 2 species. 

33. Protis Ehlers, 1887 

(Fig. 38) 

Type-species: Protis simplex Ehlers, 1887 

Number of species: 6 (or 7) 



FIGURE 37. SEM micrographs of chaetae in Pomatostegus stellatus. Cuba, South-East, Isla de la Juventud, Cayo Boca 

de Alonso, 4 m, legit G. San Martin, ZMA V.Pol. 3840. A—“limbate” chaeta of 2 nd thoracic bundle, B—Spirobranchus 

collar chaeta, C—1 st row of thoracic uncini, D—middle abdominal uncini, E—Apomatus chaetae of 7 th thoracic bundle, 

F—anterior abdominal chaeta. 



Tube white, opaque, without keels or flaring peristomes. Granular overlay absent. Operculum absent or one or 

more membranous globular opercula present on normal pinnulate radiole. Arrangement of radioles pectinate, 

up to 20 per lobe. Inter-radiolar membrane absent. Branchial eyes not observed. Stylodes absent. Mouth palps 

absent. 7 thoracic chaetigers. Collar trilobed with entire edge, tonguelets absent. Thoracic membranes long, at 

least to the end of thorax and usually forming ventral apron across anterior abdominal segments. Collar 

chaetae fin-and-blade (Fig. 38A) and limbate. Apomatus chaetae present. Thoracic uncini saw-shaped with 

about 6 teeth, anterior fang simple pointed (Fig. 38B). Triangular depression absent. Abdominal chaetae flat 

narrow geniculate with rounded teeth (Fig. 38D), slightly more triangular blade in P. hydrothermica. 

Abdominal uncini rasp-shaped in all segments, with up to 6 teeth in profile, approximately 5–7 teeth in a row 

above fang (Fig. 38C). Achaetous anterior abdominal zone absent. Long posterior capillary chaetae present. A 

posterior glandular pad may be present. 

FIGURE 38. SEM micrographs of chaetae in Protis arctica. North East off Iceland, 60°33' N, 7°25' W, 1802 m, R/V 

“Ingolf”, det. E. Wesenberg-Lund, redet. M.N. Ben-Eliahu, exchange with Zoological Museum Copenhagen, ZMA 

V.Pol. 3833. A—details of fin-and-blade collar chaeta, B—uncini of 4 th thoracic chaetiger, C—posterior abdominal 

uncini, D—anterior abdominal chaetae. 

Remarks. According to the original diagnosis, the lack of an operculum is considered a characteristic 

feature of Protis Ehlers, 1887. Ten Hove & Zibrowius (1986) reformulated the diagnosis, Kupriyanova & 



Jirkov (1997) further extended it to include individuals with one or more opercula following the description of 

the abyssal P. polyoperculata by Kupriyanova (1993b). Ben-Eliahu & Fiege (1996) and Kupriyanova & 

Jirkov (1997) report both operculate and non-operculate specimens of P. arctica. The nominal taxon 

Salmacina chilensis Gallardo, 1969 better would fit here (or in Chitinopoma). The taxonomy of the genus is 

difficult because chaetae, uncini and tubes are very similar and opercula, if present, are undifferentiated. 

Protis hydrothermica shows two characters not mentioned for the other species: warts between ventral and 

lateral collar lobes (see remarks Floriprotis), and a pair of pockets in the medio-ventral collar. 

1. Protis arctica (Hansen, 1879), Arctic to Central Atlantic, Mediterranean; bathyal; compare P. simplex 

2. Protis brownii (Pixell, 1913), Antarctic; maybe synonym of P. simplex 

3. ?Protis chilensis (Gallardo, 1969), off Punta Patache, Northern Chile; bathyal (fide Nogueira & ten Hove 

2000) 

4. Protis hydrothermica ten Hove & Zibrowius, 1986, East Pacific; near hydrothermal vents 

5. Protis pacifica Moore, 1923, Southern California; bathyal 

6. Protis polyoperculata Kupriyanova, 1993b, Kurile-Kamchatka trench; abyssal 

7. Protis simplex Ehlers, 1887, off Florida, 1500 m; compare P. arctica. 

34. Protula Risso, 1826 

(Fig. 39) 

Type-species: Protula rudolphi Risso, 1826, junior synonym of Serpula tubularia Montagu, 1803 

Number of species: ?23 

Tube white, opaque, may be up to 2 cm across and 40 cm long, (semi-)circular in cross-section, longitudinal 

keels and flaring peristomes absent. Operculum and pseudoperculum absent. Radioles arranged in two semicircles 

to a spire of up to 6 whorls, up to 320 per lobe (P. superba). Inter-radiolar membrane present. Branchial 

eyes may be present. Stylodes absent. Mouth palps present. 7 thoracic chaetigerous segments (however, see 

remarks). Collar trilobed, tonguelets absent. Thoracic membranes long and wide, with undulating edge, 

forming ventral apron across anterior abdominal segments. Collar chaetae limbate. Apomatus chaetae present. 

Thoracic and abdominal uncini rasp-shaped with approximately 30 teeth in profile, up to 6 rows of teeth 

above and continuing onto elongated rounded peg (Fig. 39A, C). Thoracic triangular depression absent. 

Abdominal chaetae sickle-shaped, with finely denticulate blades (Fig. 39B), may be retro-geniculate in some 

taxa. Achaetous anterior abdominal zone absent. Long posterior capillary chaetae present. Posterior glandular 

pad present. 

Remarks. The genus Protula is the most problematic serpulid taxon and it has been pointed out that the 

phylogenetic basis for this genus is ill-defined (ten Hove 1984). The generic characters are based mainly on 

the negative characters, such as lack of operculum, lack of special collar chaetae and any characteristic 

ornamentation of the tubes. Because reliable species-level morphological characters are missing, species in 

the genus Protula have been described based on small differences in the shape of collar, number and 

arrangement of radioles, and even body and tube size. These differences may have been caused by varying 

state of preservation, variation in age, a different way of figuring and interpretation by the authors. Moreover, 

some species distinctions have been based on presumed differences in chaetation. For instance, Uchida (1978) 

relies heavily on literature data on absence or presence of Apomatus chaetae, a character used for generic 

distinction in his “subfamily Protulinae”. However, ten Hove & Pantus (1985) showed that Apomatus chaetae 

are extremely difficult to discern in the thick bundles of limbate chaetae, and if present occur at best in the 

chaetigers 5–7 in the Mediterranean Protula tubularia sensu auct. Within one population, specimens with and 

without Apomatus chaetae may occur, as well as specimens with or without thoracic uncini. Thus, the scanty 

literature data should be viewed with more caution than was done by Uchida (1978). For instance, his genus 



FIGURE 39. SEM micrographs of chaetae in Protula tubularia. France, Banyuls, ZMA V.Pol. 3816. A—thoracic uncini 

of 1 st row, details of pegs, B—tip of anterior abdominal chaetae, C—thoracic uncini of 1 st row. 



Paraprotula was based on the absence of the character “capillary” chaetae in thoracic segments in literature 

descriptions of Protula. However, “capillary” chaetae do occur in all serpulid genera we observed, including 

Protula. A further difference according to Uchida would be the abdominal chaetae, sickle shaped in Protula, 

retro-geniculate (“with a notch at the base of the free margin”) in Paraprotula apomatoides; however, this 

retro-geniculate chaetal type is known from Protula balboensis as well. Therefore we included his taxon 

Paraprotula apomatoides in the genus Protula. The number of 9 thoracic chaetigers, in our opinion, is 

insufficient to maintain a separate genus, Salmacinopsis, for the nominal taxon setosa, it would fit in the 

genus Protula. 

A very necessary revision of the genus should be based upon a comparison of all available types and as 

well as a statistical study of variability and should be confirmed with molecular data. Some of the names 

given below as “valid” had been synonymised in the past, on the misconception that widespread distributions 

of polychaetes were very common. 

1. Protula alba Benedict, 1887, West Indies; perhaps see P. longiseta 

2. Protula alberti Fauvel, 1909, off Azores; bathyal 

3. Protula americana McIntosh, 1885, Nova Scotia, Eastern Canada 

4. Protula antennata Ehlers, 1887, off South Florida; bathyal; compare P. longiseta 

5. Protula apomatoides (Uchida, 1978), Sabiura, South Japan 

6. Protula appendiculata Schmarda, 1861, Jamaica; questionable 

7. Protula atypha Bush, 1905, California, Hawaii; compare P. superba 

8. Protula balboensis Monro, 1933, Gulf of Panama, Pacific Colombia, ?Brazil 

9. Protula bispiralis (Savigny, 1820), widely distributed in the Indo-West Pacific, New Zealand; probably 

complex of species 

10. Protula diomedeae Benedict, 1887, Eastern USA; shelf depths to bathyal; compare P. submedia 

11. Protula intestinum (Lamarck, 1818), Mediterranean-Atlantic, southern U.K. 

12. Protula longiseta Schmarda, 1861, West Indies; compare P. alba and P. antennata 

13. Protula lusitanica McIntosh, 1885, off Portugal; bathyal; indeterminable, specimen lost 

14. Protula media Stimpson, 1854, Eastern Canada, Arctic 

15. Protula pacifica Pixell, 1912, West Canada, North Japan Sea 

16. Protula palliata (Willey, 1905), Sri Lanka, Indo-West Pacific 

17. ?Protula setosa (Bush, 1910), Bermuda Islands; the generic and specific status of Salmacinopsis setosa is 

uncertain, but most probably Protula 

18. ?Protula soofita Ben-Eliahu, 1976, Gulf of Elat (= Gulf of Aqaba); generic attribution uncertain, shows 

affinities with Vermiliopsis as well 

19. Protula submedia Augener, 1906, West Indies; bathyal; compare P. diomedeae 

20. Protula superba Moore, 1909, Gulf of California, California; compare P. atypha 

21. Protula tubularia (Montagu, 1803), England, Atlantic, questionably worldwide 

22. Protula tubularia anomala Day, 1955, South Africa; probably a full species 

23. Protula tubularia caeca Imajima, 1977, Ogasawara Islands, Japan; probably a full species. 

35. Pseudochitinopoma Zibrowius, 1969a 

(Fig. 40) 

Type-species: Hyalopomatopsis occidentalis Bush, 1905 


Tube white opaque, with longitudinal keel, sub-triangular or triangular in cross-section, with occasional 

scooped peristomes (brood-care?). Hyaline granular overlay may be present. Operculum inverse conical with 



FIGURE 40. SEM micrographs of chaetae in Pseudochitinopoma occidentalis. Canada, British Columbia, Barkley 

Sound, legit T. Macdonald, det. E. Kupriyanova. A—fin-and-blade collar chaetae, B—thoracic chaetae, C—thoracic 

uncini, D—abdominal uncini, E—abdominal chaeta with a hollow tip. 

distal chitinous shallow cap. Peduncle circular to rounded triangular in cross-section, about twice as wide as 

radiole, without wings or pinnules, separated from ampulla by constriction; inserted at base of left branchial 

lobe, in front of first radiole or almost midway between branchial lobes. Pseudoperculum absent. Radioles in 

semi-circles to short pectinate arrangement, with up to 10 radioles per lobe, inter-radiolar membrane absent. 

Branchial eyes absent. Mouth palps absent. 7 thoracic chaetigerous segments. Collar trilobed, tonguelets 

between median and latero-dorsal lobes absent. Thoracic membranes short, ending at the chaetiger 2. Collar 

chaetae fin-and-blade, with a distal limbate zone and a proximal wing not well separated (Fig. 40A), and 



limbate chaetae. Apomatus chaetae absent. Thoracic uncini saw-shaped, with about 12 teeth above gouged 

peg (Fig. 40C). Triangular depression absent. Abdominal chaetae hollow trumpet-shaped, narrow and 

smoothly bent, with long lateral tip (Fig. 40E). Abdominal uncini rasp-shaped, with 12–14 teeth in profile, 

3–6 teeth in a row above gouge shaped peg (Fig. 40D). Achaetous anterior abdominal zone absent. Long 

posterior capillary chaetae and posterior glandular pad absent. 

Remarks. Zibrowius (1969a) erected the genus Pseudochitinopoma for Hyalopomatopsis occidentalis 

Bush, 1905 to stress its superficial similarity to the genus Chitinopoma. He tabulated the differences between 

these two genera in the shape of anterior tooth of thoracic uncini, the structure of the special collar chaetae and 

abdominal chaetae, as well as the presence of Apomatus chaetae. However, morphologically, Chitinopoma 

appears to be closer to Filogranula than to Pseudochitinopoma (Kupriyanova & ten Hove in prep.), see 

remarks for Filogranula. Moreover, Kupriyanova et al. (2006) provided preliminary molecular evidence that 

Pseudochitinopoma and Chitinopoma are not closely related. 

1. Pseudochitinopoma occidentalis (Bush, 1905), Prince William Sound, Eastern North Pacific 

2. Pseudochitinopoma pavimentata Nishi, 1999, off Tateyana, Tokyo Bay, Formosa Strait, Japan. 

36. Pseudovermilia Bush, 1907 

(Fig. 41) 

Type-species: Spirobranchus occidentalis McIntosh, 1885 


Tube white (in one species with transverse brown bands), opaque, with longitudinal keel(s), sub-triangular or 

triangular in cross-section; generally with regular ornamentation of ribs, pits, or teeth. Double or single 

brooding scoops may be present. Granular overlay absent. Operculum consisting of bulbous ampulla 

terminated by chitinous endplate or cap, usually with spine(s). Pseudoperculum absent. Peduncle smooth, 

cylindrical, without wings, clearly separated from ampulla by constriction; inserted just below and between 

first and second radiole on one side. Arrangement of radioles pectinate, up to 17 per lobe, inter-radiolar 

membrane absent. Branchial eyes not known. Stylodes absent. Filiform mouth palps present. 7 thoracic 

chaetigerous segments. Collar with unpaired medio-ventral lobe and two latero-dorsal lobes continuous with 

short thoracic membranes, continuing to second thoracic chaetiger. Tonguelets between ventral and lateral 

collar lobes absent. Collar chaetae limbate. Apomatus chaetae present from second or third chaetiger onward 

(Fig. 41A). Thoracic uncini saw-shaped, with 9–17 teeth above gouged peg (seemingly bifurcate). Triangular 

depression absent. Abdominal chaetae flat narrow geniculate, with rounded teeth on edge (Fig. 41D). 

Abdominal uncini rasp-shaped with 9–13 teeth in profile view, up to 6 teeth in a row above gouged peg (Fig. 

41B, C). Short achaetous anterior abdominal zone may be present. Long posterior capillary chaetae present. 

Posterior glandular pad may be present. 

Remarks. The original diagnosis of Bush (1905) was emended by Zibrowius (1970b) and further 

emended by ten Hove (1975). 

1. Pseudovermilia babylonia (Day, 1967), Vema Sea Mount, South Africa 

2. Pseudovermilia conchata ten Hove, 1975, California, Baja California Sur; ? South China Sea 

3. Pseudovermilia fuscostriata ten Hove, 1975, Bonaire, Netherlands Antilles; Caribbean 

4. Pseudovermilia harryi Nogueira & Abbud, 2009, South Brazil 

5. Pseudovermilia holcopleura ten Hove, 1975, Barbados, Caribbean; ?Tonga 

6. Pseudovermilia madracicola ten Hove, 1989, Bonaire, Netherlands Antilles; Caribbean 

7. Pseudovermilia multispinosa (Monro, 1933), Gorgona Island, Gulf of Panama; Florida to South Brazil 

8. Pseudovermilia occidentalis (McIntosh, 1885), Bermuda, (sub)tropical Atlantic, ?Indo-West Pacific 



9. Pseudovermilia pacifica Imajima, 1978, Izu Island, Indo-West Pacific 

10. Pseudovermilia xishaensis Sun & Yang, 2001, Xisha Islands, South China Sea. 

FIGURE 41. SEM micrographs of chaetae in Pseudovermilia occidentalis. Puerto Rico, off Isla Matei, 17°53' N, 60°59' 

W, 20-25 m, legit & det. H.A. ten Hove, ZMA V.Pol. 3138. A—Apomatus and “limbate” chaetae of 4 th thoracic chaetiger, 

B—anterior abdominal uncini, C—posterior abdominal uncini, D—anterior abdominal chaeta. 

37. Pyrgopolon de Montfort, 1808 

(Fig. 42) 

Type-species: Pyrgopolon mosae de Montfort, 1808 (a fossil taxon) 

Number of (Recent) species: 3 

Tube white or pinkish/red, opaque, generally with longitudinal ridges and/or transverse rims; tabulae may be 

present. Cross-section semi-circular to trapezoidal, erect part polygonal. A hyaline, granular overlay may be 

present. Operculum funnel-shaped, with numerous radial ridges on inner side; operculum and peduncle 



FIGURE 42. SEM micrographs of chaetae in Pyrgopolon ctenactis. The Netherlands Antilles, Bonaire, North of Witte 

Pan, legit H.A. ten Hove, Sta. 2117, ZMA V.Pol. 4969. A—middle abdominal uncini, B—same as A, detail of pegs, 

C—1 st row of thoracic uncini, D—detail anterior abdominal chaeta with double row of teeth. 

entirely calcified; with an extremely long calcareous talon embedded into the tissue of the peduncle that is 

inserted medially. Pseudoperculum absent. Radioles arranged in semi-circles, up to 38 per lobe, united by 

inter-radiolar membrane for 1/4–1/2 of their length, surrounding pair of well-developed mouth palps. 

Branchial eyes have not been observed but the brim of the skin around the operculum is scalloped, due to a 

circle of compound eyespots (Fig. 6B). Stylodes absent. 7 thoracic chaetigerous segments, though collar 

chaetae generally missing. Collar with large, bilobed ventral part; tonguelets between lateral and ventral collar 

lobes present. Thoracic membranes very wide anteriorly, narrowing at 3 rd or 4 th segment, and united ventrally 

on first abdominal segment forming an apron. Collar chaetae (if present) Spirobranchus-type and limbate. 

Apomatus chaetae absent. Thoracic uncini saw-shaped, with 8–9 teeth, anterior peg bluntly truncated, 

indented anteriorly (Fig. 42C). Thoracic tori almost touching ventrally in posterior thoracic segments of larger 

specimens, leaving a clear triangular depression. Abdominal chaetae almost capillary, with short hollow 

trumpet-shaped tips, smoothly bent and with double row of pointed teeth extending in long lateral spine (Fig. 



42D). Abdominal uncini rasp-shaped with 8–11 teeth in profile, 2–3 teeth in a row (Fig. 42A, B). Achaetous 

anterior abdominal zone absent. Short capillary chaetae present posteriorly. Posterior glandular pad, if present, 

hardly visible. 

Remarks. Sclerostyla Mörch, 1863 has been synonymized with Pyrgopolon, according to Jäger (1993, 

2004) including the genera Hamulus and Turbinia, known only from the fossil record. This opinion is shared 

by Belokrys (1994). Fossils have been mentioned from the Maastrichtian (Cretaceous) from e.g., the Southern 

Netherlands, Northern Belgium, and the Crimean Mountains. The Recent distribution of the genus is the 

tropical seas of the Americas and is little known because the animals are difficult to find as their tubes are 

usually embedded into substrate. The distinguishing feature (autapomorphy) of the genus is the funnel-shaped 

calcareous operculum continuing into a calcareous peduncle (talon). Opercular talons, but shorter, are also 

known in Pomatoleios and Neomicrorbis. The bright red “glandular fields” around the brim of the operculum 

mentioned by ten Hove (1973 figs 32–33) in the meantime have been found to be compound eyespots (HAtH, 

SEM observations); ten Hove’s (1973) revision still remains the most comprehensive source of information 

about this genus. 

1. Pyrgopolon ctenactis (Mörch, 1863), St. Thomas, Caribbean and tropical Pacific America 

2. Pyrgopolon differens (Augener, 1922), Barbados, Shelf of Surinam 

3. Pyrgopolon semiannulatum (ten Hove, 1973), Barbados. 

38. Rhodopsis Bush, 1905 

(Fig. 43) 

Type-species: Rhodopsis pusilla Bush, 1905 


Tube white, circular in cross-section, thin-walled, not increasing in diameter, distal part sometimes erect, 

unattached, with peristomes; granular overlay absent. Animals with tube diameter < 0.2 mm. Some tubes may 

have one or more unpaired, inverted brood-chambers associated with peristomial rings. Operculum pearshaped, 

laterally compressed, usually with well-developed chitinous plate bearing spines. Opercular plate may 

be deeply infolded and sunk, angled, within the opercular ampulla, then with halves closely appressed; plate 

rarely flat and terminal. Rarely operculum a simple ampulla only. Peduncle smooth, cylindrical, without 

wings, separated from ampulla by constriction; inserted proximal to 1 st radiole on one side. Pseudoperculum 

absent. Arrangement of radioles short pectinate, only 2–3 radioles per lobe. Inter-radiolar membrane absent. 

Branchial eyes not observed. Stylodes absent. Mouth palps present. 4–6 thoracic chaetigerous segments 

present. Collar (tri-)quadri-lobed. Thoracic membranes short, reaching 1 st thoracic chaetiger. Collar chaetae 

absent. Apomatus chaetae present from second chaetiger onward. Thoracic and abdominal uncini rasp-shaped, 

with 6–8 teeth in a row in edge view and about 8 teeth in profile, anterior fang simple pointed (Fig. 43A, B). 

Triangular depression absent. Single capillary chaeta in middle abdominal chaetigers accompanied by single 

flat narrow geniculate chaeta with blunt teeth (Fig. 43C). Achaetous anterior abdominal zone long, followed 

by up to 15 chaetigers. Posterior capillary chaetae present (Fig. 43D). Posterior glandular pad not observed. 

Remarks. This little known species was incompletely described by Bush (1905) from a tiny worm 

collected on corals off Bermuda, characterized by numerous irregular spines in chitinous opercular plate. The 

type material was lost. Ben-Eliahu & ten Hove (1989) designated the neotype and re-described the species in 

detail. They also referred the monotypic Apomatolos Uchida, 1978 to Rhodopsis. 

1. Rhodopsis pusilla Bush, 1905, Bermuda, Caribbean, Mediterranean, Indo-West Pacific 

2. Rhodopsis simplex (Uchida, 1978), Kushimoto, Japan. 



FIGURE 43. SEM micrographs of chaetae in Rhodopsis pusilla. Australia, Queensland, Lizard Island, legit & det. E. 

Kupriyanova. A—thoracic uncini, B—abdominal uncini, C—anterior abdominal chaetae, D—posterior abdominal 

chaeta. 

39. Salmacina Claparède, 1870 

(Fig. 44) 

Type-species: Salmacina incrustans Claparède, 1870 

Number of species: 11 (?10) 

Worms form open aggregates consisting of large numbers of tiny whitish tubes, circular in cross-section 

without further diagnostic features; granular overlay absent. Operculum and pseudoperculum absent, 

sometimes swollen tips of radioles present. Radioles arranged in semi-circles, up to 4 radioles per lobe. Interradiolar 

membrane and stylodes absent. Branchial eyes may be present. Mouth palps present. 6–12 thoracic 

chaetigerous segments. Collar trilobed, tonguelets absent. Thoracic membranes forming apron. Collar chaetae 

fin-and-blade, distal blade well separated from fin, and limbate (Fig. 44A). Apomatus chaetae present (Fig. 

44B). Thoracic uncini rasp-shaped, rectangular to wedge-shaped (triangular) in frontal view, with 2–12 teeth 

in a transverse row, with up to 10 teeth in profile view; anterior fang pointed (Fig. 44C). Thoracic triangular 

depression absent. Achaetous anterior abdominal zone present. Abdominal chaetae flat narrow geniculate 



with pointed teeth along edge (Fig. 44D). Uncini similar to thoracic ones, with more teeth in the transverse 

rows, and squarish peg. Long posterior capillary chaetae and posterior glandular pad absent. 

. 

FIGURE 44. SEM micrographs of chaetae in Salmacina incrustans. Spain, Costa Brava, Playa de San Pol, legit & det. 

H.A. ten Hove, ZMA V.Pol. 3814. A—details of fin-and-blade collar chaeta, B—Apomatus and “capillary” chaetae of 7 th 

thoracic chaetiger, C—uncini of 4 th thoracic chaetiger, D—middle/posterior abdominal chaeta. 

Remarks. See remarks for Filograna, and Nogueira & ten Hove (2000) for a discussion on the Filograna/ 

Salmacina complex. The generic attribution of Salmacina chilensis is doubtful, probably it belongs in Protis 

or Chitinopoma. 



1. Salmacina amphidentata Jones, 1962, Port Royal, Jamaica; Caribbean; ?South China, ?Japan 

2. Salmacina australis Haswell, 1885, Port Jackson, Australia; temperate-cold Southern part of Australia, 

New Zealand; compare S. dysteri 

3. Salmacina ceciliae Nogueira & ten Hove, 2000, Alcatrazes, Sao Paulo, Brazil 

4. ?Salmacina chilensis Gallardo, 1969, off Punta Patache, Northern Chile; bathyal; generic attribution 

doubtful, Protis (or Chitinopoma)? 

5. Salmacina dysteri (Huxley, 1855) Tenby, Bristol Channel, Wales; not “worldwide”, but complex of species 

(Ben-Eliahu & ten Hove, in prep.) 

6. Salmacina dysteri falklandica Monro, 1930, East Falkland Island; collar chaetae aberrant, generic 

attribution questionable 

7. Salmacina huxleyi (Ehlers, 1887), Tortugas; Loggerhead Key, Florida; Bahamas, Caribbean 

8. Salmacina incrustans Claparède, 1870, Gulf of Naples, Italy; “worldwide”; probably complex of species 

9. Salmacina piranga (Grube, 1872), Estreite, Desterro, Brazil 

10. Salmacina setosa Langerhans, 1884, Madeira; West off England; bathyal 

11. Salmacina tribranchiata (Moore, 1923), Santa Rosa Island, South California; British Columbia, ?Japan. 

40. Semivermilia ten Hove, 1975 

(Fig. 45) 

Type-species: Vermiliopsis pomatostegoides Zibrowius, 1969b 


Tube triangular to sub-triangular in cross-section, keels present, otherwise variable; without flaring 

peristomes; granular overlay absent. Operculum inverse conical with chitinous endplate, more often a cap or 

series of diabolo-like plates; sometimes with terminal spine. Peduncle inserted as second radiole, cylindrical 

in cross-section; constriction present. Pseudoperculum absent. Radiolar arrangement short pectinately, up to 7 

radioles per lobe. Inter-radiolar membrane absent. Branchial eyes may be present. Stylodes absent. Mouth 

palps present. (5-)7 thoracic chaetigerous segments. Collar tri- to penta-lobed, tonguelets absent. Thoracic 

membranes end at chaetiger 2. Collar chaetae limbate. Apomatus chaetae present in posterior thoracic 

segments (Fig. 45A). Thoracic uncini saw- to-rasp-shaped; with about 15 teeth in profile view, 1 tooth at the 

apex of the uncinus to 5 teeth in the row above the wide gouged peg (dental formula e.g., 

P:5:3:2:2:1:1:1:1:1:1:1:1:1:1; Fig. 45B). Triangular depression absent. Abdominal chaetae flat narrow 

geniculate, with rounded teeth on edge (Fig. 45D, E); abdominal uncini smaller than thoracic ones, entirely 

rasp-shaped, with about 13 teeth in profile view, up to 8 teeth in a row (Fig. 45C). Achaetous anterior 

abdominal zone, if present, very short. Long posterior capillary chaetae absent. Posterior glandular pad may 

be present. 

Remarks. Within the group of Vermiliopsis-like genera, Zibrowius (1972b, 1973a, b) distinguished 4 

genera (Bathyvermilia, Metavermilia, Pseudovermilia, and Vermiliopsis) and a group of aberrant species that 

he termed ?Vermiliopsis. Ten Hove (1975) erected a new genus Semivermilia for part of the latter (leaving the 

attribution of ?Vermiliopsis glacialis Monro, 1939, V. notialis Monro, 1930, and V. eliasoni Zibrowius, 1970a 

uncertain) and provided a table that allows distinguishing between the five genera above and Neovermilia. 

In small specimens/species, such as Semivermilia pomatostegoides (this paper), and certainly S. cribrata 

(as Josephella carenata Zibrowius, 1968a: 176) the number of thoracic chaetigers may be 5 or 6. Contrary to 

statements in the literature that the peduncle is the first radiole (e.g., Zibrowius (1968a) for S. crenata as 

Vermiliopsis undulata, respectively Zibrowius (1969b) as V. pomatostegoides), we checked material (Canary 

Islands, SW coast of La Palma, Punta del Hombre, 8–12 m, May 29, 1980, CANCAP Sta. 4.D10, ZMA V.Pol. 

4213), and found it to be the second normal radiole, or to be inserted just below the first and second normal 

radiole (thus probably migrated down from the second position). The character is difficult to observe, and may 

be subject to prejudice. 



FIGURE 45. SEM micrographs of chaetae in Semivermilia elliptica. Japan, Shirohama, Seto Marine Biological 

Laboratory, marine aquarium, legit E. Kupriyanova, det. H.A. ten Hove, SAM E3664. A—4 th thoracic bundle, B—uncini 

of 4 th thoracic chaetiger, C—abdominal uncini, D—anterior abdominal chaeta, E—posterior abdominal chaetae. 

1. Semivermilia agglutinata (Marenzeller, 1893), Benghazi, Mediterranean; bathyal 

2. Semivermilia crenata (O.G. Costa, 1861), Mediterranean, Mauretania 

3. Semivermilia cribrata (O.G. Costa, 1861), Mediterranean, Mauretania 

4. Semivermilia elliptica Imajima, 1978, Izu Island, Japan 

5. Semivermilia parapomatostega Wu & Chen, 1981a, South China Sea 

6. Semivermilia pomatostegoides (Zibrowius, 1969b), Tripolis, Mediterranean, Central Atlantic, Indo-West 

Pacific 



7. Semivermilia torulosa (delle Chiaje, 1822), Mediterranean, Mauretania 

8. Semivermilia uchidai Imajima & ten Hove, 1986, Solomon Islands, ?Seychelles. 

41. Serpula Linnaeus, 1758 

(Fig. 46) 

Type-species: Serpula vermicularis Linnaeus, 1767, designated by Heppell, 1963. 


Tube white, pink, orange, or yellowish, opaque; (semi)circular to trapezoidal in cross-section, rarely 

polygonal; longitudinal keels, peristomes, a hyaline outer layer or granular overlay may be present. 

Operculum soft to cartilaginous, funnel shaped with crenulated edge (fused radii). Peduncle smooth, 

cylindrical, without wings; inserted just below and between first and second dorsal radiole on one side. In 

large specimens the insertion outside the normal radioles, seemingly the first radiole. Radioles arranged in 

semi-circles, up to 50 per lobe in larger species. Pseudoperculum and inter-radiolar membrane present. 

Branchial eyes may be present. Mouth palps present, though only to be observed with histological techniques 

(Orrhage, 1980). Stylodes absent. 7 (rarely up to 12) thoracic segments. Collar trilobed. Tonguelets absent, 

though wart-like protuberances may be present at base of cleft between ventral and latero-dorsal collar lobes. 

Thoracic membranes long, forming ventral apron across anterior abdominal segments. Collar chaetae 

bayonet-shaped (Fig. 46A) and limbate. Apomatus chaetae absent. Uncini saw-shaped, with approximately 5 

teeth, anterior fang simple pointed (Fig. 46B). Thoracic triangular depression present. Abdominal chaetae flat 

trumpet-shaped with denticulate edge (Fig. 46D); uncini similar to thoracic ones, smaller, anteriorly sawshaped 

but becoming rasp-shaped towards the pygidium, with up to 12 teeth in profile, up to 8 teeth in a row 

(Fig. 46C). Achaetous anterior abdominal zone absent. Posterior capillary chaetae present. Posterior glandular 

pad absent. 

Remarks. This is another serpulid genus that poses serious taxonomic difficulties. Although attribution of 

any given specimen to the genus Serpula is easy due to a very characteristic funnel-shaped operculum with 

rounded radii (but see below), the number of useful taxonomic characters within the genus is limited and their 

variability is not documented enough to ensure the validity of many described species (see discussion in ten 

Hove & Jansen-Jacobs 1984). Many of the original descriptions are very limited and vague, and the characters 

typical for all species of the genus (such as the presence of bayonet-chaetae and a funnel-shaped operculum) 

have been used for specific diagnoses. As a consequence, the nominal species S. vermicularis has been 

reported from Arctic to tropical conditions, neither ecologically nor biogeographically a likely distribution. 

Some nominal species were based on incomplete or juvenile specimens; juvenile Hydroides species, also 

characterised by an operculum with a single scalloped operculum only, were often attributed to Serpula too 

(ten Hove & Ben-Eliahu 2005). The most commonly used meristic character, the number of opercular radii, 

appears to have limited taxonomic value for discriminating species because of its population and ontogenetic 

variability (Kupriyanova 1999). A much-needed revision of the genus is currently under way (Pillai, pers. 

com.), and the list of “valid” species below is tentative only. Unpublished field notes by ten Hove state that 

some larger Serpula species (i.e. S. cf. jukesii) have thoracic membrane pockets similar to those found in 

Floriprotis, see also remarks to Floriprotis. Finally, a recent study by Kupriyanova et al. (2008) demonstrates 

that the traditional genus Serpula most probably is paraphyletic. 

1. Serpula cavernicola Fassari & Mollica, 1991, Messina, Italy; compare S. vermicularis-complex 

2. Serpula columbiana Johnson, 1901, incl. S. nannoides Chamberlin, 1919, Puget Sound, North-West coast 

of Americas 



FIGURE 46. SEM micrographs of chaetae in Serpula columbiana. USA, Washington State, Puget Sound, San Juan 

Island, Friday Harbor Laboratories, legit & det. E. Kupriyanova. A—bayonet collar chaetae, B—thoracic uncini, 

C—posterior abdominal uncini, D—anterior abdominal flat trumpet-shaped chaetae. 

3. Serpula concharum Langerhans, 1880, Madeira, Atlantic-Mediterranean; other records probably belong to 

different species 

4. Serpula crenata (Ehlers, 1908), Zanzibar, Indo-West Pacific; bathyal; possibly incl. S. sinica 

5. Serpula granulosa Marenzeller, 1885, Kagoshima and Enoshima, Japan, Indo-West Pacific 

6. Serpula hartmanae Reish, 1968, Bikini, Indo-West Pacific 

7. Serpula indica Parab & Gaikwad, 1989, India 

8. Serpula israelitica Amoureux, 1976, Haifa, Levant Basin 

9. Serpula japonica Imajima, 1979, Honshu, Japan; questionably Seychelles 

10. Serpula jukesii Baird, 1865, Indo-West Pacific 

11. Serpula lobiancoi Rioja, 1917, Mediterranean-Atlantic 

12. Serpula longituba Imajima, 1979, Honshu, Japan 



13. Serpula maorica (Benham, 1927), New Zealand; doubtful fide ten Hove & Jansen-Jacobs (1984: 151) 

14. Serpula nanhaiensis (Sun & Yang, 2001), South China Sea 

15. Serpula narconensis Baird, 1865, Narcon Island, Antarctica, subantarctic 

16. Serpula oshimae Imajima & ten Hove, 1984, Indo-West Pacific 

17. Serpula pacifica (Uchida, 1978), Sabiura, Japan; questionable fide ten Hove (1984: 103–104) and Pillai & 

ten Hove (1994: 40, 100) 

18. Serpula philippensis McIntosh, 1885, Philippine Islands; bathyal; questionable 

19. Serpula planorbis (Southward, 1963), Irish Sea; bathyal 

20. Serpula rubens Straughan, 1967b, Queensland, New South Wales, Australia 

21. Serpula sinica Wu & Chen, 1979 (in Wu, Sun & Chen 1979), South China Sea; possibly synonym of S. 

crenata 

22. Serpula tetratropia Imajima & ten Hove, 1984, Palau and Caroline Island 

23. Serpula uschakovi Kupriyanova, 1999, Gilderbrandt Island, Sea of Japan; Moneron, Sakhalin 

24. Serpula vasifera Haswell, 1885, Port Jackson, New South Wales, Australia 

25. Serpula vermicularis Linnaeus, 1767, Western Europe; and probably restricted to this area, not worldwide 

as reported 

26. Serpula vittata Augener, 1914, Sharks Bay, Australia; Indo-West Pacific 

27. Serpula watsoni Willey, 1905, Trincomalee, Sri Lanka; Indo-West Pacific 

28. Serpula willeyi Pillai, 1971, Pearl Banks, Sri Lanka 

29. Serpula zelandica Baird, 1865, New Zealand. 

42. Spiraserpula Regenhardt, 1961 

Type-species: Spiraserpula spiraserpula Regenhardt, 1961 (a fossil taxon) 

Number of Recent species: 18 

Tube variable in colour, from white to orange and mustard, or with pink lateral longitudinal stripes; opaque; 

circular to trapezoidal in cross-section, rarely with small peristomes. Rounded longitudinal keels may be 

present; hyaline granular overlay present. Tube with internal longitudinal keels or other structures (Fig. 7E) 

and/or rows of teeth. Operculum soft, funnel shaped, formed of fused radii, endplate absent. Operculum 

absent in some species. Peduncle smooth, cylindrical, without wings; it is formed from the second dorsal 

radiole on one side. Pseudoperculum present. Radioles arranged in semi-circles, up to 8 per lobe. Interradiolar 

membrane present. Branchial eyes may be present. Stylodes absent. Mouth palps absent. 5–14 

thoracic chaetigerous segments. Collar trilobed, tonguelets absent. Thoracic membranes ending in mid-thorax. 

Collar chaetae bayonet-shaped and limbate. Apomatus chaetae absent. Thoracic uncini saw-shaped, with up to 

7 teeth above anterior pointed fang. Thoracic triangular depression present. Abdominal chaetae flat trumpetshaped 

with denticulate edge. Abdominal uncini similar to thoracic ones, smaller, anteriorly saw-shaped but 

becoming rasp-shaped towards the pygidium, with up to 8 teeth in profile, up to 7 teeth in a row. Achaetous 

anterior abdominal zone absent. Posterior capillary chaetae present. Posterior glandular pad absent. 

Remarks. The genus Spiraserpula Regenhardt, 1961 was previously known only from fossils. Its species 

are closely related to the genus Serpula. Pillai & ten Hove (1994) referred to the genus Spiraserpula those 

Serpula species that lack an apron and possess sharp ridges and spines on the inner walls (“internal tube 

structures”, ITS, Fig. 7E) of their tubes. 

1. Spiraserpula capeverdensis Pillai & ten Hove, 1994, Sao Vicente, Cape Verde Islands, Central Atlantic 

2. Spiraserpula caribensis Pillai & ten Hove, 1994, Curaçao, Netherlands Antilles, Caribbean, Florida, Pacific 

Panama 

3. Spiraserpula deltoides Pillai & ten Hove, 1994, Sumba, Indonesia, Central Indo-West Pacific 



4. Spiraserpula discifera Pillai & ten Hove, 1994, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia 

5. Spiraserpula iugoconvexa Pillai & ten Hove, 1994, North-East Flores Sea, Indonesia, Central Indo-West 

Pacific 

6. Spiraserpula karpatensis Pillai & ten Hove, 1994, Bonaire, Netherlands Antilles, Caribbean 

7. Spiraserpula lineatuba (Straughan, 1967b), Sydney, New South Wales, Australia 

8. Spiraserpula massiliensis (Zibrowius, 1968a), Marseille, France, Mediterranean, Eastern North Atlantic 

9. Spiraserpula minuta (Straughan, 1967b), Port Douglas, Queensland, Australia, Indo-West Pacific 

10. Spiraserpula nudicrista Pillai & ten Hove, 1994, Bonaire, Netherlands Antilles, Caribbean 

11. Spiraserpula paraypsilon Pillai & ten Hove, 1994, Klein Bonaire, Netherlands Antilles, Caribbean 

12. Spiraserpula plaiae Pillai & ten Hove, 1994, Curaçao, Netherlands Antilles, Caribbean 

13. Spiraserpula singularis Pillai & ten Hove, 1994, Puerto Rico, Caribbean 

14. Spiraserpula snellii Pillai & ten Hove, 1994, Taka Bone Rate, Indonesia, Indo-West Pacific 

15. Spiraserpula sumbensis Pillai & ten Hove, 1994, Sumba, Indonesia, Central Indo-West Pacific 

16. Spiraserpula vasseuri Pillai & ten Hove, 1994, Europa Island, the French Southern and Antarctic Lands, 

SW Indian Ocean 

17. Spiraserpula ypsilon Pillai & ten Hove, 1994, Brava, Cape Verde Islands, Central Atlantic, Caribbean, 

Gulf of Mexico 

18. Spiraserpula zibrowii Pillai & ten Hove, 1994, Curaçao, Netherlands Antilles, Caribbean. 

43. Spirobranchus de Blainville, 1818 

(Fig. 47) 

Type-species: Serpula gigantea Pallas, 1766 

Number of species: 20+ 

Tube colour white, blue, pink or salmon, inside and/or outside. Tube typically (sub)triangular in cross-section, 

with median keel, rarely (sub)circular. Granular overlay absent. Operculum with inverse conical to rather 

shallow ampulla, covered by calcified endplate, with or without group of spines, sometimes branching. 

Peduncle broad, thickly triangular in cross-section, with distal lateral wings; inserted at base of branchial 

crown just left of medial line (formed between first and second normal dorsal radiole on left side, see 

Ontogeny of operculum and peduncle, p. 15). above. Pseudoperculum absent. Operculum rarely lacking. 

Radioles may be arranged in a clear spiral of up to 8 whorls, but in most small species as well as in 

Spirobranchus tetraceros arranged in a circle. Up to 50–60 pairs of radioles in larger species. Inter-radiolar 

membrane present. Branchial eyes may be present; stylodes absent. Mouth palps present. 7 thoracic 

chaetigerous segments. Collar trilobed (exceptionally pentalobed). Tonguelets present. Thoracic membranes 

forming ventral apron across anterior abdominal segment. Collar chaetae bayonet-like, with numerous hairlike 

processes on its basal portion (Spirobranchus chaetae, Fig. 47A), and limbate. Apomatus chaetae absent. 

All uncini saw-shaped (9–25 teeth), incidentally with 2 teeth above peg (Fig. 47B); anterior peg blunt, clearly 

gouged underneath (Fig. 47C). Ventral ends of thoracic uncinigerous tori widely separated anteriorly, 

gradually approaching one another towards the end of thorax, thus leaving a triangular depression. Abdominal 

chaetae true trumpet-shaped, abruptly bent distally, with two rows of denticles separated by a hollow groove 

and forming long lateral spine (Fig. 47D). Achaetous anterior abdominal zone absent. Chaetae becoming 

increasingly longer posteriorly, but posterior capillary chaetae absent. Posterior glandular pad absent. 

Remarks. Species of this genus commonly occur in subtropical and tropical waters, but their taxonomy is 

confused because of significant variability in the opercular morphology. The major difference between the 

genera Pomatoceros, Pomatoleios and Spirobranchus is in the collar chaetae that are absent in Pomatoleios, 

simple limbate in Pomatoceros, and special with a knob consisting of numerous hair-like teeth in 

Spirobranchus. However, collar chaetae are occasionally absent in Pomatoceros and Spirobranchus and 

present in juvenile Pomatoleios. 



FIGURE 47. SEM micrographs of chaetae in Spirobranchus giganteus. The Netherlands Antilles, Curaçao, Piscadera 

Baai, outer bay, piling, iron & wooden poles, 0-1 m, legit P. Wagenaar Hummelinck, ZMA V.Pol. 3021. 

A—Spirobranchus collar chaeta, B—middle abdominal uncini, C—detail of gouged anterior peg of thoracic uncini, 

D—posterior abdominal chaeta with a hollow tip. 

Although Spirobranchus has special collar chaetae, the range of chaetal forms in what traditionally is 

included in Spirobranchus is quite wide and includes species with almost simple limbate chaetae. Moreover, 

the sperm morphology of Spirobranchus and Pomatoleios is very similar (Nishi 1992a). Thus, although it is 

very likely that the three genera are synonymous, for the purpose of this review we have treated them as 

separate taxa. 



A schematic presentation of the Spirobranchus giganteus-complex in its largest sense is given in Fiege & 

ten Hove (1999). According to Marsden (1992), the two morphotypes described by ten Hove (1970) as S. 

polycerus and S. polycerus var. augeneri are reproductively isolated, they thus probably should be regarded as 

full species. 

1. Spirobranchus carinifer (Gray, 1843), New Zealand 

2. Spirobranchus corniculatus (Grube, 1862), Java, Indonesia, Indo-West Pacific; part of a complex of 

species, often as S. giganteus 

3. Spirobranchus coronatus Straughan, 1967b, Queensland, Fiji, Seychelles; compare S. tetraceros 

4. Spirobranchus corrugatus Straughan, 1967a, Queensland, widely distributed in Indo-West Pacific 

5. Spirobranchus cruciger (Grube, 1862), Red Sea, Indo-West Pacific; part of S. corniculatus-complex, often 

as S. giganteus 

6. Spirobranchus decoratus Imajima, 1982, Palau Islands, widely distributed in Indo-West Pacific 

7. Spirobranchus eitzeni Augener, 1918, Cameroon, tropical East Atlantic 

8. Spirobranchus gardineri Pixell, 1913, North of Madagascar, widely distributed in Indo-West Pacific; 

maybe complex of 2 species 

9. Spirobranchus gaymardi (Quatrefages, 1866), unknown type locality, widely distributed in Indo-West 

Pacific; part of S. corniculatus-complex 

10. Spirobranchus giganteus (Pallas, 1766), West Indies, widely distributed in tropical Western Atlantic; not 

in Pacific, where specimens belong to the S. corniculatus-complex 

11. Spirobranchus incrassatus Krøyer [in] Mörch, 1863, Puntarenas, Colombia, tropical American Pacific; 

part of S. giganteus-complex 

12. Spirobranchus latiscapus (Marenzeller, 1885), South Japan, widely distributed in Indo-West Pacific 

13. Spirobranchus lima (Grube, 1862), Adriatic Sea, Mediterranean; records from elsewhere are incorrect 

14. Spirobranchus maldivensis Pixell, 1913, Maldive Islands, Indian Ocean, Central Indo-Pacific; compare S. 

latiscapus 

15. Spirobranchus nigranucha (Fischli, 1903), Ternate, Indonesia, Indo-West Pacific 

16. Spirobranchus paumotanus (Chamberlin, 1919), Paumotu Islands, widely distributed in Indo-West Pacific 

17. Spirobranchus polycerus (Schmarda, 1861), Jamaica, Caribbean; probably “var. augeneri ten Hove, 1970” 

is a full species 

18. Spirobranchus polytrema (Philippi, 1844), Mediterranean, Atlantic; records from Indo-West Pacific 

probably complex of species by themselves 

19. Spirobranchus spinosus Moore, 1923, Sta. Barbara Isl., California; belongs to S. giganteus-complex 

20. Spirobranchus tetraceros (Schmarda, 1861), New South Wales, circumtropical complex of species; 

Lessepsian migrant to Eastern Mediterranean and ship-transported to Senegal (Zibrowius, pers. comm.). 

44. Tanturia Ben-Eliahu, 1976 

(Fig. 48) 

Type-species: Tanturia zibrowii Ben-Eliahu, 1976 


No details of tube available, tiny specimens (0.9–2.17 mm in length) were extracted from vermetid reefs. 

Operculum globular to inverse conical, with flat to convex chitinous endplate. Peduncle smooth, without 

distal wings, inserted as second radiole; constriction absent. Pseudoperculum absent. Arrangement of radioles 

in semi-circles, up to 3 per lobe. Inter-radiolar membrane and stylodes absent, branchial eyes not observed. 

Mouth palps unknown. 5 thoracic chaetigerous segments. Collar trilobed, with 2 deep lateral incisions; 

tonguelets absent. Thoracic membranes unknown. Collar chaetae fin-and-blade, with well-separated distal 



limbate zone and proximal wing (Fig. 48A), and limbate. Apomatus chaetae present from 3 rd chaetiger on (Fig. 

48B). Thoracic uncini saw-to-rasp-shaped with about 15 teeth in profile, up to 4 teeth in a row above peg 

(dental formula P:4:3:3:1:2:1:1:1:1:1:1:1:1:1:1, Fig. 48C); peg bifurcate under compound microscope but 

blunt, almost trapezoidal in SEM. Triangular depression absent. Abdominal chaetae with flat triangular blades 

with blunt teeth (Fig. 48E). Abdominal uncini rasp-shaped, with 7 teeth in profile, up to 8 fine teeth in row 

above blunt apparently bifurcate (gouged?) anterior fang (Fig. 48D). Achaetous anterior abdominal zone 

present. Posterior capillary chaetae absent. Posterior glandular pad not observed. 

FIGURE 48. SEM micrographs of chaetae in Tanturia zibrowii. Israel, Gulf of Aqaba (Elat), Sinai coast, infauna of 

Dendropoma, paratype, exchange with HUJ, ZMA V.Pol. 4668. A—fin-and-blade collar chaetae, B—thoracic chaetae, 

C—thoracic uncini, D—abdominal uncini, E—abdominal chaeta. 



Remarks. This monotypic genus is known only from 14 specimens (type series) collected from vermetid 

reefs near Elat, Red Sea. 

Tanturia zibrowii Ben-Eliahu, 1976, Elat, Gulf of Aqaba, Sinai coast. 

45. Vermiliopsis Saint-Joseph, 1894 

(Fig. 49) 

Type-species: Vermilia multivaricosa Mörch, 1863, new name for Vermilia infundibulum sensu Philippi, 1844 

Number of species: 13 (-19) 

Tube white, opaque, circular to sub-quadrangular in cross-section; generally with 3–7 longitudinal keels and 

peristomes. Granular overlay absent. Operculum an inverse conical ampulla, with flat to conical chitinous 

endplate, sometimes a partitioned cap. Peduncle wrinkled, cylindrical, separated from opercular ampulla by a 

constriction; without distal wings, but a proximal wing may be present. Peduncle ontogenetically formed from 

second dorsal radiole on one side, but in adults at base of branchial crown covering 3–6 normal radioles. 

Pseudoperculum generally absent (but present as under-developed second radiole in V. striaticeps). Radioles 

arranged in (semi-)circles, up to 20 per lobe. Inter-radiolar membrane absent. Branchial eyes (single 

pigmented ocelli) along dorsal side of rhachis. Stylodes absent. Mouth palps may be present. 7 thoracic 

chaetigerous segments present. Collar trilobed, tonguelets absent. Thoracic membranes short, continuing to 

3 rd –5 th thoracic chaetiger. Collar chaetae limbate (Fig. 49A). Apomatus chaetae present. Thoracic uncini sawshaped 

with up to 10–15 teeth above blunt indented peg (Fig. 49B, C). Triangular depression present. 

Abdominal chaetae flat narrow geniculate, with a more or less crenulated edge (rounded teeth) to the blade 

(Fig. 49E, F). Abdominal uncini rasp-shaped, anterior peg blunt (Fig. 49D). Achaetous anterior abdominal 

zone absent. Long posterior capillary chaetae present. Posterior glandular pad present. 

Remarks. As early as 1776 a summary description of Serpula infundibulum was given by Martini (1776: 

359, pl. 12 fig. 1). “Serpula Infundibulum. Tubulus vermicularis testaceus, in formâ infundibulorum triplici 

gyro convolutus”. From his description and figure it is impossible to decide whether this tube belongs to the 

genus Serpula s.str., Vermiliopsis s.str., or Dasynema. His material “a nice group of Eastindian seatophus [= 

tuff] obtained in an auction” apparently has been lost, it was not found in the musea in Copenhagen and Berlin 

where some of Martini's mollusks still are. The species was subsequently mentioned by various authors (e.g., 

Gmelin 1791, Lamarck 1818, Philippi 1844, Chenu 1842–55), generally miscited as S. infundibulum Gm., 

although Gmelin explicitly refers to Martini in his 13 th edition of Systema Naturae. 

Mörch (1863: 389) apparently thought that Philippi's (1844: 193) “Vermilia infundibulum Gm.” was not 

the same as Martini's species, since he proposed a new name Vermilia multivaricosa Mörch for Philippi's and 

other Mediterranean records of this nominal species. Unfortunately Mörch does not give reasons why, and 

except for a listing as extant species (p. 453) Serpula infundibulum Martini is not discussed further by him, 

though he reidentified some other “Serpula infundibulum” as vermetid or probable Hydroides species. 

Although Vermilia multivaricosa has been used in the literature about 20 times, the great majority (150 

records) of the authors still used the name Vermiliopsis infundibulum, generally attributed to Philippi (1844), 

probably to indicate that they wanted to confine the name to Mediterranean-Lusitanian material. 

Saint-Joseph (1894: 262) erected a new genus Vermiliopsis to contain a number of Vermilia species, the 

first he included was Vermilia multivaricosa Mörch, 1863. This species was subsequently formally designated 

as type species of the genus Vermiliopsis by Bush (1905: 223), in line with Saint-Joseph's intentions. 

Many species included in Vermiliopsis by various authors, catalogued by Hartman (1959, 608–609), in the 

meantime have been referred to the above mentioned genera Metavermilia, Bathyvermilia, Pseudovermilia, 

Semivermilia, and Neovermilia by Zibrowius (1971b, 1973a) and ten Hove (1975). The traditional 

“Vermiliopsis infundibulum Philippi” from the Mediterranean as for instance in Fauvel (1927: 362–363) and 



FIGURE 49. SEM micrographs of chaetae in Vermiliopsis. V. infundibulum. France, Marseille, legit & det. H. 

Zibrowius. ZMA V.Pol. 3041. A—“limbate” collar chaetae of two sizes, B—1 st row of thoracic uncini, C—uncini of 4 th 

thoracic chaetiger, details of blunt indented pegs, D—posterior abdominal uncini. Vermiliopsis sp., Cayman Islands, 

Little Cayman, legit Paul Humann, det. T. Perkins and H.A. ten Hove, ZMA V.Pol. 3807, E—anterior abdominal chaeta, 

F—middle abdominal chaeta. 



Zibrowius (1968a: 121–124) was found to contain two different species “Vermiliopsis infundibulum Philippi 

s.str.” and Vermiliopsis striaticeps Grube, 1862 (Zibrowius 1973b: 44–45, ten Hove 1975: 57–58; Bianchi 

1981: 74–75). Apparently both the genus Vermiliopsis and the species infundibulum are ill-defined, and 

designation of a neotype is unavoidable. The binomen Vermiliopsis infundibulum generally has been used for 

Mediterranean-Lusitanian forms, and only rarely for Indo-Pacific forms which normally are identified as 

Vermiliopsis glandigera Gravier, 1906 or Vermilia/Vermiliopsis pygidialis Willey, 1905. The origin of 

Martini's specimen is ill defined at least, maybe even doubtful (obtained in an auction). In view of the 

Preamble of the International Code of Nomenclature, the object of it being to promote stability, it appears 

fitting to choose a neotype from the Mediterranean to preserve a well known name. This, however, should be 

done in the context of a much-needed revision of the problematic genus, and falls outside the scope of present 

account. 

According to Zibrowius (1973a), Vermiliopsis sensu stricto is characterized by a peduncle formed from 

the first dorsal radiole. On closer inspection (by us) it appeared to be derived from the second, covering 

radioles 1–4. There is one species, V. labiata, where the distal chitinous plate of the operculum is reinforced 

with calcareous matter like a coral-theca. 

The attribution of the taxa Vermiliopsis (?) eliasoni, glacialis, and notialis to this genus has been 

questioned by Zibrowius (1968b, 1970a). V. prampramiana, from the Gold Coast (Africa), is regarded to be 

undeterminable by Zibrowius (1973b), however, see remarks Filogranella. 

1. Vermiliopsis annulata (Schmarda, 1861), Jamaica, Caribbean; complex of at least 2 species, with the next 

taxon 

2. Vermiliopsis cf. annulata sensu ten Hove & San Martín (1995), Caribbean; see above 

3. ? Vermiliopsis eliasoni Zibrowius, 1970a, Banc Joséphine, Central Atlantic; generic attribution uncertain 

4. ? Vermiliopsis glacialis Monro, 1939, Antarctic; bathyal; generic attribution uncertain 

5. Vermiliopsis glandigerus Gravier, 1906, Red Sea, Indo-West Pacific; part of complex with V. pygidialis, V. 

infundibulum 

6. Vermiliopsis infundibulum (Philippi, 1844), Mediterranean, North Atlantic; part of complex with V. 

pygidialis, V. glandigerus 

7. Vermiliopsis labiata (Costa, 1861), Mediterranean, tropical Atlantic, Indo-West Pacific 

8. Vermiliopsis leptochaeta Pillai, 1971, Sri Lanka; part of complex with V. pygidialis, V. glandigerus 

9. ? Vermiliopsis longiseta (Bush, 1910), Bermuda Islands; questionable 

10. ? Vermiliopsis minuta Straughan, 1967a, Heron Island, Queensland; doubtful, maybe composite 

11. Vermiliopsis monodiscus Zibrowius, 1968c, Mediterranean, North Atlantic 

12. Vermiliopsis multiannulata (Moore, 1923), South California to the Galapagos; part of complex with V. 

glandigerus, V. infundibulum 

13. ? Vermiliopsis notialis Monro, 1930, South Georgia, (sub)antarctic; generic attribution uncertain 

14. ? Vermiliopsis producta (Benham, 1927), New Zealand; status uncertain 

15. Vermiliopsis pygidialis (Willey, 1905), Sri Lanka, Indo-West Pacific; part of complex with V. glandigerus, 

V. infundibulum 

16. Vermiliopsis spirorbis (Langerhans, 1884), Madeira; part of V. infundibulum-complex 

17. Vermiliopsis striaticeps (Grube, 1862), Mediterranean, Atlantic 

18. Vermiliopsis torquata Treadwell, 1943, Hawaiian Islands; part of complex with V. glandigerus, V. 

infundibulum 

19. Vermiliopsis zibrowii Nogueira & Abbud, 2009, South Brazil. 



46. Vitreotubus Zibrowius, 1979b 

(Fig. 50) 

Type-species: Vitreotubus digeronimoi Zibrowius, 1979b 


FIGURE 50. SEM micrographs of chaetae in Vitreotubus digeronimoi. Indian Ocean, East Amsterdam Island, 37°47.20' 

N, 77°38.98' E, 1680-940 m, R/V “Marion Dufresne” cruise MD 50, don. & det. Zibrowius, ZMA V.Pol. 3907. 

A—chaetae of 7 th thoracic bundle, two sizes, B—Spirobranchus collar chaeta, C—middle abdominal uncini, 

D—posterior abdominal uncini, E—abdominal chaeta with a hollow tip. 

Tube entirely vitreous, more or less quadrangular in cross-section by its two ample undulating lateral keels, 

and with a dorsal row of teeth. Granular overlay absent. Operculum inverse conical with chitinous diabololike 

endplate. Peduncle smooth, cylindrical, merging gradually into operculum, without wings, inserted as 

first radiole (at base of left branchial lobe, in line with first radiole). Pseudoperculum absent. Arrangement of 

radioles short pectinate, up to 11 per lobe. Inter-radiolar membrane and stylodes absent. Branchial eyes not 

observed. Mouth palps present. 7 thoracic chaetigerous segments. Collar trilobed. Medial lobe of collar with 

scalloped edge and lateral projections, separated from lateral lobes by deep incision (tonguelets absent), latter 

continuous with thoracic membranes extending all along the thorax, but narrow in the posterior segments, 



FIGURE 51. Drawings of serpulids redescribed herein. Chitinopomoides wilsoni, USNM 51505. A—tube, 

B–D—opercula, B–C—lateral and dorsal view of same specimen, D—lateral view of second specimen. Paumotella 

takemoana, holotype. E—lateral view of operculum, peduncle and its insertion. 



forming ventral apron. Collar chaetae Spirobranchus-type (Fig. 50B) and simple limbate. Apomatus chaetae 

absent. Thoracic uncini saw-shaped with 6–7 teeth above pointed fang. Triangular depression present. 

Abdominal chaetae true trumpet-shaped, with two rows of pointed teeth bordering hollow groove and 

extended into a long lateral spine (Fig. 50E). Abdominal uncini saw-shaped with about 6 teeth anteriorly (Fig. 

50C), rasp-shaped with about 10 teeth in profile, 3–4 teeth in a row posteriorly (Fig. 50D). Achaetous anterior 

abdominal zone absent. Posterior capillary chaetae absent, but geniculate chaetae long at the end of abdomen. 


Remarks. The monotypic genus was originally described from fossil records and Recent material from 

the bathyal zone of the Azores and the Indian Ocean (Zibrowius, 1979b), more recent records are given by ten 

Hove (1994). It has a very characteristically shaped transparent tube. 

Vitreotubus digeromimoi Zibrowius, 1979b, Central Atlantic, Indian Ocean; bathyal. 

Invalid genera (as Serpulid) 

Actinocerus (error pro –ras Bronn, 1835) Quatrefages, 1866 Mollusca* 

Amphiserpula Uchida, 1978 see Serpula 

Anatomus Montfort, 1810 not spirorbin but Mollusca: Scissurellidae 

Anisomelus Templeton, 1835 indeterminable, depositfeeding, not serpulid 

Antalium not Garsault, 1764 (Mollusca), sensu Guettard, 1770 see Serpula 

Apomatolos Uchida, 1978 see Rhodopsis 

Apomatopsis Saint-Joseph, 1894 see Apomatus 

Bonhourella Gravier, 1905 see Ditrupa gracillima Grube, 1878 

Bunodus Guettard, 1770 (Mollusca), erroneously mentioned as synonym of Protula 

Calcareopomatus Straughan, 1967a see Neovermilia 

Clymene Oken, 1815 see Hydroides and Filograna 

Codonytes not delle Chiaje, 1828 (Bryozoa), sensu de Quatrefages, 1866 see Hydroides 

Conchoserpula Blainville, 1818 erected for Serpula triquetra Linnaeus, see Pomatoceros 

Conopomatus Pillai, 1960 see Spirobranchus 

Crinoserpula Uchida, 1978 see Serpula 

Crosslandiella Monro, 1933 see Pseudovermilia 

Cymospira Blainville, 1828 see Spirobranchus and Pomatostegus 

Cystopomatus Gravier, 1911 see Hyalopomatus 

Dipomatus Ehlers, 1913 see Serpula 

Ehlerprotula Uchida, 1978 see Protula 

Eucarphus Mörch, 1863 see Hydroides 

Eupomatus Philippi, 1844 see Hydroides 

Filigrana Mörch, 1863 see correct spelling Filograna 

Filipora Fleming, 1825 variant spelling Filopora, see Filograna 

Glomerula Nielsen, 1931 (incl. Calcisabella Perkins, 1991) see Sabellidae** 

Glossopsis Bush, 1905 see Hydroides 

Helena Castelnau, 1842 see Serpula 

Hyalopomatopsis Saint-Joseph, 1894 see Hyalopomatus and Pseudochitinopoma (occidentalis) 

Isovermilia Rosenfeldt, 1979 error for Semivermilia 

Lemintina Risso, 1826 (Mollusca), erroneously mentioned as synonym of Protula 

Membranopsis Bush, 1910 see Protula 

Mercierella Fauvel, 1923 see Ficopomatus 

Mercierellopsis Rioja, 1945 see Ficopomatus 



Miroserpula Dons, 1930, variant spelling Microserpula, 1931 see Chitinopoma 

Neopomatus Pillai, 1960 see Ficopomatus, and note p. 42 

Olga Jones, 1962 see Spirobranchus 

Olgaharmania Rioja, 1941b see Hydroides 

Omphalopoma Mörch, 1863 type species undeterminable (fide Zibrowius 1973b), other taxa see Filogranula, 

Janita, Omphalopomopsis 

Paraprotula Uchida, 1978 see Protula 

Paraserpula Southward, 1963 see Serpula 

Paravermilia Bush, 1905 see Vermiliopsis 

Philippiprotula Uchida, 1978 see Protula 

Piratesa Templeton 1835, indeterminable 

Pixellgrana Uchida, 1978 see Protis 

Placostegopsis Saint-Joseph, 1894 see Placostegus 

Podioceros Quatrefages, 1866 see Pomatoceros 

Polyphragma Quatrefages, 1866 see Hydroides 

Pomatoceroides Munier-Chalmas in Ferronière, 1901 is chironomid larva (fide Zibrowius, Botosaneanu & ten 

Hove 1995) 

Pomatoceropsis Gravier, 1905 see Spirobranchus 

Pomatoceropsis Holly, 1935 homonym of Pomatoceropsis Gravier, 1905 also see Spirobranchus 

Pomatocerus Mörch, 1863 variant spelling of Pomatoceros 

Protoplacostegus Bush, 1905 see Placostegus 

Protohydroides Uchida, 1978 see Hydroides 

Protoserpula Uchida, 1978 see Serpula or Spiraserpula (fide Pillai & ten Hove 1994: 40, 100) 

Protulopsis Saint-Joseph, 1894; re-instated Uchida, 1978 see Protula 

Pseudopomatoceros Holly, 1936, erected for homonym Pomatoceropsis Gravier, see Spirobranchus 

Pseudoserpula Straughan, 1967b see Spiraserpula and Crucigera 

Psygmobranchus Philippi, 1844 see Protula 

Salmacinopsis Bush, 1910, ill-defined but referred to Protula by Perkins (1998: 95) 

Sclerostyla Mörch, 1863 see Pyrgopolon 

Schizocraspedon Bush, 1905 see Hydroides 

Semiserpula Imajima, 1979 homonym of the fossil genus Semiserpula Wetzel, 1957; Recent species placed in 

Serpula 

Siliquaria not Bruguière, 1789 (Mollusca, Siliquariidae) sensu Lamarck, 1818, confused, partly siliquariid 

mollusc (Pyxipoma), partly indeterminable polychaete 

Sphaeropomatus Treadwell, 1934 see Ficopomatus 

Spiramella Blainville, 1828 see Protula 

Spirodiscus Fauvel, 1909 see Nogrobs 

Stoa de Serres, 1855 questionable vermetid (or spirorbid) 

Subprotula Bush, 1910 confused, type-species questionably see Vermiliopsis, other taxa see Protula 

Temporaria Straughan, 1967b see Spirobranchus 

Vermilia Lamarck, 1818 confused, V. rostrata see Spirobranchus, other taxa referrable to Vermiliopsis sensu 

lato, Pomatoceros, Hydroides, and even to vermetid gastropods 

Zopyrus Kinberg, 1867 see Serpula 

*The genus Actinoceras Bronn, 1835 has been mistakenly attributed to Mörch, 1863 by e.g., Hartman (1959: 568). 

However, the genus was erected for nautiloid molluscs from the Silurian-Carboniferous, not for a serpulid. Mörch (1863: 

400) mentioned Actinoceras Bigsbyi Chenu, 1859 as a synonym of the serpulid Pomatostegus actinoceras Mörch, 1863; 

in reality Chenu (1859: 64–65, fig. 230) depicted a fossil siphon of a nautiloid, probably correctly under the genus 

Actinoceras, which indeed shows a superficial resemblance to the operculum of the recent serpulid P. actinoceras. 



** According to Ippolitov (2007: 260), the name Glomerula Nielsen, 1931 should be “unavailable according to 

ICZN 13.3)”. No further explanation is given by Ippolitov. If he is referring to Article 13 (iii), the full text of that is: 

“Article 13. Names published after 1930.- (a) Names in general.- In addition to satisfying the provisions of Article 11, a 

name published after 1930 must be either . . . (iii) proposed expressly as a replacement fro a pre-existing available 

name”. Nielsen (1931: 85) defines the genus Glomerula in a key, and (p. 88) attributes a single species (Serpulites 

gordialis von Schlotheim, 1820) to his genus. Nielsen, who did not give any explanation for his action at all, either 

replaced the generic name Serpulites, a name explicitly unavailable according to “Article 20. Genus-group names ending 

in –ites . . . given to fossils.”, or he simply placed the species gordialis in a new genus. Both ways we do not see conflict 

with the Code, certainly not with 13 (iii), and in our opinion the name Glomerula is available, though not being a 

serpulid. 

Key to serpulid genera (described before 2008) 

Although we have included the most obvious exceptions to the generic diagnoses with a double, even 

sometimes treble pathway (e.g., Hyalopomatus (in part)), it is impossible to provide for every exception. For 

instance, juveniles may show fewer thoracic segments than adults, while the adult number of segments has 

been used in this key. The genera Pomatoceros and Spirobranchus occasionally show specimens without 

collar chaetae, which then would key out with Pomatoleios. Specimens with two minute pseudopercula 

instead of one pseudoperculum and a full grown operculum have been reported for all genera of the Serpulaclade. 

A generic name found with this (any) key always should be checked carefully against its diagnosis. 

Spirorbins have been included as category only. 

1 Body symmetrical ..................................................................................................................................................... 2 

- Body asymmetrical ................................................................................................................................................. 49 

2 (1) Operculum present.................................................................................................................................................... 3 

- Operculum absent .................................................................................................................................................. 40 

3 (2) Collar chaetae absent ............................................................................................................................................... 4 

- Collar chaetae present ............................................................................................................................................. 8 

4 (3) Opercular peduncle without wings ........................................................................................................................... 5 

- Peduncle with wings ............................................................................................................................... Pomatoleios 

5 (4) Tube free (see 30 as well), tusk-shaped, smooth, thoracic membranes short................................................ Ditrupa 

- Tube otherwise, mostly attached to the substrate ..................................................................................................... 6 

6 (5) Operculum inverse conical, with brown(ish) endplate lacking spines ..................................................................... 7 

- Operculum pear-shaped, laterally compressed, and if bearing chitinous plate at all, than with multiple spines ...... 

................................................................................................................................................................... Rhodopsis 

7 (6) Tube (semi) transparent, apron present, collar region with reniform band of reddish ocelli ..................Placostegus 

- Tube white opaque, apron absent.............................................................................................................. Marifugia 

8 (3) Opercular peduncle with well developed membranous distal wings........................................................................ 9 

- Opercular peduncle without well developed distal wings ...................................................................................... 12 

9 (8) Collar chaetae few, fine and capillary..................................................................................................................... 10 

- Collar chaetae numerous, Spirobranchus-type ...................................................................................................... 11 

10 (9) Operculum with calcareous endplate, sometimes with non-movable spines........................................ Pomatoceros 

- Operculum with elaborate calcareous movable spines ............................................................................. Galeolaria 

11 (9) Operculum with calcareous endplate, sometimes with non-movable spines.......................................Spirobranchus 

- Operculum with chitinous column bearing several serrated disks .......................................................Pomatostegus 

12 (8) Pseudoperculum (rudimentary operculum) present................................................................................................ 13 

- Pseudoperculum (rudimentary operculum) absent ................................................................................................ 17 

13 (12) Collar chaetae simple, peduncle with distal latero-dorsal winglets, opercular ampulla slightly chitinized distally. 

.................................................................................................................................. Neovermilia globula (in part) 

- Collar chaetae simple, peduncle without winglets, opercular ampulla with brown horny distal cap ........................ 

................................................................................................................................Vermiliopsis (in part, striaticeps) 

- Collar chaetae simple and fin-and-blade-type, one to six vesicular opercula ......... Protis (in part, polyoperculata) 

- Collar chaetae simple and bayonet-type ................................................................................................................. 14 



14 (13) Operculum two-tiered (in mature specimens), with proximal funnel of fused radii and distal verticil of spines .... 

....................................................................................................................................................................Hydroides 

- Operculum a simple funnel made of fused radii..................................................................................................... 15 

15 (14) Tube with internal structures ................................................................................................................ Spiraserpula 

- Tube without internal structures ............................................................................................................................. 16 

16 (15) Basal processes on opercular funnel absent ..................................................................................................Serpula 

- Basal processes on opercular funnel present ..............................................................................................Crucigera 

17 (12) Collar chaetae coarsely serrated and simple......................................................................................... Ficopomatus 

- Collar chaetae fin-and-blade and simple ................................................................................................................ 18 

- Collar chaetae simple only ..................................................................................................................................... 29 

18 (17) Colonies of branching tubes, 2 membranous spoon-shaped opercula on pinnulated radioles ..................Filograna 

- Tubes do not form colonies of branching tubes, opercula otherwise...................................................................... 19 

19 (18) 7 thoracic segments ............................................................................................................................................... 20 

- Less than 7 thoracic segments ................................................................................................................................ 27 

20 (19) Operculum and peduncle not calcified .................................................................................................................. 21 

- Operculum and peduncle calcified ......................................................................................................... Pyrgopolon 

21 (20) Opercular base surrounded by three fleshy processes..................................................................................... Janita 

- Opercular base without fleshy processes ................................................................................................................ 22 

22 (21) Tube transparent .....................................................................................................................................Vitreotubus 

- Tube opaque............................................................................................................................................................ 23 

23 (22) Anterior tooth of thoracic uncini a pointed fang, operculum with calcareous endplate ............ Omphalopomopsis 

- Anterior tooth otherwise ......................................................................................................................................... 24 

24 (23) Anterior peg of thoracic uncini bifurcate, gouged................................................................................................. 25 

- Anterior peg of thoracic uncini simple, rounded .................................................................................................... 26 

25 (24) Operculum with flat to hollow endplate, abdominal chaetae flat triangular ..........................................Filogranula 

- Operculum with conical endplate, abdominal chaetae hollow trumpet shaped ......................... Pseudochitinopoma 

26 (24) Posterior glandular pad absent............................................................................................................. Chitinopoma 

- Posterior glandular pad present....................................................................................................... Chitinopomoides 

27 (19) 6 thoracic segments .............................................................................................................................................. 28 

- 5 thoracic segments ...................................................................................................................................... Tanturia 

28 (27) Thoracic membranes long, apron ........................................................................................................ Laminatubus 

- Thoracic membranes reaching segment 2............................................................................. Hyalopomatus (in part) 

29 (17) Opercular peduncle pinnulate................................................................................................................................ 30 

- Peduncle smooth, without pinnules ........................................................................................................................ 34 

30 (29) Peduncle non-modified radiole, tube attached ...................................................................................................... 31 

- Peduncle modified, thicker than normal radioles, tube mostly free ....................................................................... 33 

31 (30) Operculum delicate membranous cup with a flat distal surface surmounted by a marginal crown of fine teeth 

joined by a transparent membrane, 5 thoracic chaetigerous segments Josephella (in part) 

- Operculum simple membranous vesicle, 7 thoracic segments .............................................................................. 32 

32 (31) Thoracic uncini saw-shaped with pointed fang ........................................................................................Paraprotis 

- Thoracic uncini saw-to-rasp-shaped with elongated peg............................................................................ Apomatus 

33 (30) 5 thoracic segments ..............................................................................................................................Bathyditrupa 

- 6 thoracic segments....................................................................................................................................... Nogrobs 

34 (29) Stylodes present ....................................................................................................................................... Dasynema 

- Stylodes absent........................................................................................................................................................ 35 

35 (34) Abdominal chaetae short stout curved spines ........................................................................................Paumotella 

- Abdominal chaetae otherwise................................................................................................................................ 36 

36 (35) Opercular peduncle flat, ribbon-like, 7 thoracic segments.................................................................. Metavermilia 

- Opercular peduncle flat, ribbon-like, 11–14 thoracic segments ...............................................Filogranella (in part) 

- Peduncle cylindrical or sub-cylindrical .................................................................................................................. 37 

37 (36) Peduncle with latero-dorsal winglets, apron present, Apomatus chaetae absent .................................. Neovermilia 

- Peduncle without winglets, thoracic membranes not forming apron, Apomatus chaetae absent .............................. 

...............................................................................................................................................Hyalopomatus (in part) 

- Peduncle without winglets, thoracic membranes not forming apron, Apomatus chaetae present ......................... 38 



38 (37) Thoracic uncini saw shaped with blunt anterior peg, thoracic membranes ending at segment 3–5 ..... Vermiliopsis 

- Thoracic uncini saw shaped with pointed fang, thoracic membranes ending at segment 2–7, depending on species 

............................................................................................................................................................. Bathyvermilia 

- Thoracic uncini rasp-shaped with broadly gouged peg, thoracic membranes ending at segment 1 .......................... 

.....................................................................................................................................................Josephella (in part) 

- Anterior peg of uncini bifurcate, gouged, thoracic membranes ending at segment 2 ............................................ 39 

39 (38) Arrangement of radioles long pectinately; thoracic uncini saw-shaped...........................................Pseudovermilia 

- Arrangement of radioles short pectinately; thoracic uncini saw-to-rasp-shaped...................................Semivermilia 

40 (2) Special collar chaetae present ................................................................................................................................. 41 

- Special collar chaetae absent .................................................................................................................................. 45 

41 (40) Special collar chaetae bayonet-type, thoracic uncini with 5–7 teeth only............................................................ 42 

- Special collar chaetae fin-and-blade, thoracic uncini with more than 7 teeth ........................................................ 43 

- Special collar chaetae Spirobranchus-type ..................................................... Spirobranchus (in part, nigranucha) 

42 (41) Internal tube structures present, pockets of thoracic membranes absent................................ Spiraserpula (in part) 

- Internal tube structures absent, pockets of thoracic membranes present.................................................. Floriprotis 

43 (41) Forms open colonies consisting of large number of tiny tubes ................................................................ Salmacina 

- Solitary tubes .......................................................................................................................................................... 44 

44 (43) 6 thoracic segments ............................................................................................Hyalopomatus (in part, cancerum) 

- 7 thoracic segments............................................................................................................................. Protis (in part) 

45 (40) 7 thoracic segments ............................................................................................................................................... 46 

- More than 7 thoracic segments ............................................................................................................................... 48 

46 (45) Apomatus chaetae absent; brooding appendage in branchial crown; abdominal chaetae narrow geniculate ........... 

...................................................................................................................................................................Paraprotis 

- Apomatus chaetae absent; no brooding appendage in branchial crown; abdominal chaetae hollow trumpet shaped 

...........................................................................................................................Neopomatus (in part, anoperculata) 

- Apomatus chaetae present, no brooding appendages in branchial crown............................................................. 47 

47 (46) Tube ovicells absent ......................................................................................................................................Protula 

- Tube ovicells present .............................................................................................................................Microprotula 

48 (45) 9 thoracic segments .............................................................................................................Protula (in part, setosa) 

- 12 or more segments ...............................................................................................................................Filogranella 

49 (1) Less than 5 thoracic chaetigers, tube regularly coiled................................................................................ spirorbins 

- Five or more thoracic chaetigers............................................................................................................................. 50 

50 (49) Thorax with 5–6 chaetigers, operculum with calcified endplate, tube regularly coiled..................... Neomicrorbis 

- Thorax with 5–14 chaetigers, operculum not calcified or only pseudoperculum/a, tube irregularly coiled ............. 

................................................................................................................................................ Spiraserpula (in part). 

Acknowledgements 

This work was supported by the Australian Research Council grant DP0558736. Thanks are due to Elly 

Beglinger and Dr. Dirk Platvoet (both ZMA) and the staff of the Adelaide Microscopy for their help with 

SEM. Over the years we have studied material from all the museums mentioned in the introduction, we are 

very grateful to all staff involved in the time consuming loans, registrations of new material, or help in the 

collections. This study would not have been possible without the help of many colleagues who over the years 

shared material, literature, and unpublished observations. We both feel privileged to have been allowed to 

share ideas and forces in the past and present with so many colleagues in and outside joint publications, of 

which some can be found in the References. 

Specific thanks are due (in alphabetical order) to Dr. R. Bastida-Zavala (Universidad del Mar, Puerto 

Angel, Oaxaca, Mexico), for providing details of Neomicrorbis; to Dr. M.N. Ben-Eliahu (the Hebrew 

University of Jerusalem, Biological Collections, Section of Aquatic Invertebrates) for making available type 

material of the genera Tanturia and Filogranella and for assisting in obtaining live Filogranella; to Dr. J. 

Dafni for assistance in obtaining live Filogranella; to Dr. E. Nishi (Yokohama National University) for 



hosting EK’s trip to Japan and to both Dr. Nishi and Mr. K. Nomura (Kushimoto Marine Park Center) for 

assisting in obtaining live Floriprotis sabiuraensis; to G. Playa (at that time The Florida Marine Research 

Institute, St. Petersburg, Florida, USA) for unpublished data on Membranopsis and Salmacinopsis; to Dr. H. 

Uchida (Kushimoto Marine Park Center) for making available the type material of Microprotula ovicellata; to 

P. Valentijn (then University Utrecht) for the use of his unpublished Master’s thesis; to Dr. H. Zibrowius 

(Station Marine d’Endoume, Marseille) for use of his unpublished data. 

For permission to use their photographs thanks are due to, in alphabetical order, R. Bastida-Zavala, M. 

Boyer, U. Frank, E. Nishi, J. Randall, C. Roessler, G. Rouse, R. Smith, N. Tait, F. Verbiest, P. Wirtz, H. 

Zibrowius; many of them assisted too in other ways such as being buddies in diving and other fieldwork. 

Dr. M.N. Ben-Eliahu and Dr. D. Fiege (Forschungsinstitut Senckenberg, Frankfurt/M., Deutschland) are 

thanked for their critical, detailed and very helpful reviews of the manuscript. 

Last, but certainly not least, we thank the countless persons who over the years contributed as students, 

acted as diving buddies, or more in general helped us with fieldwork, collecting and with working up the 

material which was the basis of this overview. 

Glossary 

Essentially adapted from Fauchald (1977), ten Hove & Jansen-Jacobs (1984), Glasby et al. (2000), Rouse & 

Pleijel (2001), and Bastida-Zavala & ten Hove (2002), this glossary aims to standardize terminology by 

using preferential and more precisely defined terms. Preferential terms are given in bold. 

abdomen: body region posterior to the thorax. 

achaetous: without chaetae. 

acicular chaeta: stout, projecting chaeta. 

annulated: ringed or marked with transverse grooves. 

ampulla: proximal living part of operculum, mostly bulbous, distally often covered by calcareous or 

chitinous plate. 

Apomatus chaeta: sigmoid to overall sickle shaped thoracic chaeta, with a proximal denticulate limbate zone 

and distal zone with fine rectangular teeth (compare sickle-chaeta). 

apron: thoracic membranes joined ventrally past the last thoracic chaetigers, across anterior abdominal 

segments. 

basal membrane, basal web, see preferred term: interradiolar membrane. 

bayonet chaeta: special chaeta in first thoracic chaetiger of overall bayonet shape: collar chaeta, generally 

with one or two (sometimes more) large proximal bosses (or “teeth”) at the base of a distal limbate zone. 

biramous: parapodium consisting of two (chaetae bearing) parts, a ventral neuro- and a dorsal notopodium. 

blade: distal, seemingly flat portion of a chaeta (see, however, hooded (capillary) chaeta). 

boss: small projection or knob-like process in collar chaeta. 

branchiae: see branchial crown 

branchial crown: a bilaterally symmetrical branched structure formed by prostomial palps. In serpulids 

consisting of two lobes, each with a number of (branchial) radioles bearing pinnules; often including an 

operculum with peduncle on one lobe and sometimes also a pseudoperculum on the opposite lobe. 

branchial eyes: all photoreceptors of the branchial crown (and operculum). 

branchial filament, see preferred term: radiole. 

branchial membrane, see preferred term: interradiolar membrane. 

capillary chaeta: slender, often long, chaeta tapering to a fine point; in the literature the term has been used as 

collective term for elongate, needle-like chaetae of otherwise variable shape and ontogeny. See explanation 

hooded as well. It is very unlikely that the “capillaries” of a thorax are homologous with the types of 

“capillaries” as occurring in the posterior abdomen of various genera. 



chaeta (pl. chaetae): chitinous bristle protruding from an epidermal pocket in the body wall. 

chaetal inversion: in Serpulidae (and Sabellidae) the thorax bears chaetae dorsally (in notopodia) and uncini 

ventrally (neuropodial); in the abdomen the position of chaetae and uncini is reversed. 

chaetiger: segment bearing chaetae. 

collar segment: first chaetiger, with an anterior collar, an encircling fold or flap covering the base of the 

branchial crown (see thoracic membranes too). Usually longer than other thoracic chaetigers; uniramous, 

lacking uncini. 

compound eye: a more or less rigidly patterned groupings of ocelli. 

constriction: narrowing of the opercular peduncle or a transverse groove, at basis of funnel or ampulla. 

crenulated: having a margin with small, low, rounded teeth. 

crown: see branchial crown. 

cuticle: thin, non-cellular protective layer produced by, and overlying, the epidermis; probably not chitinous 

but consisting of scleroprotein. 

dental formula: notation showing the distribution of teeth on the crest of an uncinus, first used by Ben-Eliahu 

& Dafni (1979). For instance: F + 4 means Fang + 4 teeth (seen in profile), alternatively F:1:1:1:1; P + 10 

means Peg + 10 teeth (seen in profile), which may be detailed as P:1:1:1:1:1:1:1:1:1:1 if saw-shaped, 

P:3:2:2: 1:1:1:1:1:1:1 if saw-to-rasp-shaped, P:4:4:4:4:4:4:4:4:3:2 if rasp-shaped. 

dentate: toothed. 

denticulate: with small teeth. 

entire edge (margin): smooth edged, without projections. 

eye, eyespot: photoreceptor or light-receptive organ, usually occurring on prostomium, but may occur on the 

pygidium or almost anywhere along the body. 

fang: sharply pointed anterior (or primary) tooth of uncinus. 

filamentous: shaped like a filament or fine thread. 

filiform: thread-like, very slender. 

fin-and-blade chaeta: collar chaeta with basal boss (“fin”) made of relatively few teeth of intermediate size; 

the basal fin may or may not be separated by a toothless zone (a gap) from the distal blade. 

flat-trumpet-shaped chaeta: chaeta with a thin, flat distal part with small teeth on its edge. 

funnel: descriptive term used to indicate the inverted cone-like proximal part of the operculum in Hydroides, 

the ditto distal part in Crucigera, and the entire operculum in Serpula. 

geniculate: “having a knee-like joint” or “bent sharply”. In serpulids traditionally used for a variety of bent 

chaetae, see discussion and specification of types of chaetae in the introductory part of this paper. 

glandular pad: glandular zone on the dorsal side of the last abdominal segments in some serpulids. 

hooded (capillary) chaetae, hooded (limbate) chaetae: type of thoracic chaetae, stiff, elongate, narrowly 

hooded and tapering to a fine point (usually called “limbate”), or slender, elongate, very narrowly hooded 

and tapering (usually called “capillaries”). These chaetae consist of densely packed fibrils; distally they 

seem to have a limbus or flat blade, which on close inspection is an outer layer where the fibrils are packed 

less tightly than in the central axis (or shaft), enveloping 1/2 to 2/3 of the axis. 

internal tube structures: in the narrow sense, ridges and crests inside Spiraserpula tubes; in a wider sense, 

any internal structure such as the small pits in the substrate-side of the lumen in Spirobranchus corrugatus. 

interradial groove: groove on outside of a funnel, marking radius insertion (Serpula-clade). 

interbranchial membrane, preferred term: interradiolar membrane. 

interradiolar membrane: thin membrane connecting basal parts of radioles in some Sabellida. 

lappet: lobe or flap-like projection. 

limbate: condition of chaetae, in which a longitudinal flange appears to be present; however, this is an artifact 

of light microscopy, see hooded. 

limbus: flattened distal border of chaetae, longitudinal flange (Latin = edge, border), however, see hooded. 

mouth: anterior opening of the alimentary canal; in serpulids also used for anterior opening (or entrance) of 

the tube. 



mouth palp: filiform projections of the dorsal lip of the Sabellida mouth. 

neurochaeta: chaeta of a neuropodium. 

neuropodium (pl. neuropodia): ventral branch or ramus of a parapodium. 

notochaeta: chaeta of a notopodium. 

notopodium (pl. notopodia): dorsal branch or ramus of a parapodium. 

ocellar clusters: loose groupings of approximately 2–20 ocelli, generally with as many lenses. 

ocellus (pl. ocelli): single eyespot with (or without a single lens). 

operculum (pl. opercula): tip of modified radiole used to plug the tube when the worm is retracted. 

opercular plate: terminal reinforcement of opercular ampulla, often chitinous or calcareous. 

opercular stalk, see preferred term: peduncle. 

palmar or palmate membrane, see preferred term: interradiolar membrane. 

parapodium (pl. parapodia): fleshy lateral projection from a body segment which usually bears chaetae. 

pectinate: comb-like; with series of projections like the teeth of a comb. In serpulids an arrangement of 

radioles. 

peduncle: modified radiole bearing the operculum. 

peduncular wings: collective term for all flattened lateral wing-like appendages of peduncle. 

peg: wedge shaped, not sharply pointed anterior tooth of uncinus 

peristome: collar-like widening of tube (former tube-mouth). 

peristomium: pre-segmental region of the body surrounding the mouth (alimentary canal). 

pinnules: small paired side branches of the radioles, giving each radiole a feathery appearance. 

primary tooth, see fang. 

prostomium: anteriormost, presegmental region of body, bearing the branchial radioles and sometimes eyes. 

pseudoperculum (pl. pseudopercula) [variant, but not preferred spelling pseudo-operculum]: modified 

radiole (generally the second dorsal one), generally without pinnules; can develop into a new functional 

operculum when the functional operculum is lost. 

pygidium: post-segmental terminal body-part surrounding the anus. 

radiolar crown, see preferred term: branchial crown. 

radiolar web or webbing, see preferred term: interradiolar membrane. 

radioles: pinnulate filaments of branchiae, used for respiration and feeding. 

radius (pl. radii): radial projection of the funnel (Serpula-clade). 

rasp-shaped uncinus: uncinus with two (biseriate) or more rows of teeth (multiseriate), see dental formula. 

reniform: kidney-shaped. 

rudimentary operculum, see preferred term: pseudoperculum. 

saw-shaped uncinus: uncinus with only one row of teeth (uniseriate), see dental formula. 

segment: one of the serially repeated units comprising the trunk; often separated internally by septa or 

dissepiments. 

seta (pl. setae), see: chaeta, term preferentially adopted by the 1 st International Polychaete Conference in 

Australia. 

shaft: proximal part of a chaeta. 

sickle-chaeta: a recurved abdominal chaeta with tiny dentition on the inside of the curve. N.B. used in 

spirorbin literature for both thoracic Apomatus chaetae and abdominal sickle-chaetae 

spinule: each of the tubercular or tooth-like projections of a spine in the verticil of the genus Hydroides. By 

their position relative to the axis, spinules may be internal, lateral, or external. By their position along the 

spine they may be proximal, medial, or distal. 

Spirobranchus-type chaeta: bayonet-like collar chaeta with a proximal boss consisting of very numerous 

tiny hair-like spines. 

stylode: finger-like outward projection of radioles in some Sabellida. 

tabulae: transverse internal tube elements partitioning off the oldest parts of the tube, generally as response to 

tube damage. 



thoracic membranes: thin folds on both sides of thorax, extending from dorsal part of collar to lateral and/or 

ventral side of posterior thorax. N.B. Thoracic membranes have been included in the the term collar by 

some spirorbin taxonomists. 

thorax: anterior region of the body behind the head. 

tonguelet: special form of lappet, between dorso-lateral and ventral lobes of the collar in some serpulid 

genera. 

torus (pl. tori): transverse elevation of parapodium surrounding the uncini. 

transversal ridge: annular elevation of tube, less pronounced than peristome. 

triangular depression: depressed area between thoracic uncinigerous tori when gradually approaching and 

almost touching one another posteriorly and ventrally. 

trumpet chaetae: abdominal chaetae in e.g., Serpula, Hydroides, formerly thought to be hollow (like a 

trumpet; in French “soies en calice comprimé”); however, more recently proven to be flat, not hollow at 

all. See preferred term: flat-trumpet-shaped chaetae. 

truly trumpet-shaped chaetae: distally hollow chaetae, with two parallel rows of sharp denticles, extending 

into a long lateral spine. 

unciniger: segment carrying uncini. 

uncinus (pl. uncini): deeply embedded comb-shaped chaeta with only its dentate edge protruding from the 

body wall; uncini usually arranged in tori, elevated rows transverse to the axis of the animal. 

uniramous: parapodium with only one (chaetae bearing) part. 

verticil: distal part of operculum in Hydroides. 

verticil spine: any of the radial elements, generally around a central disc, together forming the verticil in 

Hydroides. 

wing: in the genus Hydroides used in the restricted sense of lateral and flat expansion of verticil spine. 

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