Vegetation of Southeast Asia Studies of Forest Types 1963-1965

Rom D Number 

Author 

0313 ° D Nnt ScannB[j 

Williams, Llewelyn 

Agricultural Research Division, Crops Research Division 

RBPOrt/ArtiClB TitlO Vegetation of Southeast Asia Studies of Forest Types 

1963-1965 

Journal/Book Title 

Year 

000 ° 

Month/Day 

Color 

D 

Number of Images 

32 ° 

DOSCrlptOn NotOS 

Documents were filed together by Alvin Young under the 

label "Evaluated Effects of Chemicals in SEA". CR 49-65. 

Under ARPA Order No. 424. AD 629181. 

Friday, November 16, 2001 Page 3130 of 3140

Williams, L., 

1965 

Vegetation of Southeast Asia studies of 

forest types 1963-1965 

- AD 629181 

AD 

D/UIMLIMITED 

1 si 

Technical 

Report 

JAN 14 

>' 

distributed by 

Defense Technical Information Center 

DEFENSE LOGISTICS AGENCY 

Cameron Station • Alexandria, Virginia 22314 

UNCLASSIFIED/UNLIMITED

- 

VEGETATION 

OF 

SOUTHEAST ASIA 

STUDIES OF FOREST TYPES 

1963 -1965 

C L E A R I N G H O U S E 

FOR FEDERAL SCIENTIFIC AND 

__ TECHNICAL INFORMATION 

Sairdcojrr" Miorofith* 

Agricultural Ilc'soarch Service 

f.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE 

Under A UP A Order No. t2t 

Advanced Keêurcli Projects Afiency 

DepartnH'iit of Defense

LANK PAG

FOREWORD 

This Report on "The Vegetation of Southeast Asia 1 is submitted 

in accordance vith ARPA Order No. b2k, Progran- Code 

No. 38^0, dated January 30, 1963, to the Agricultural Research 

Service, U. S. Department of Agriculture from the Advanced Research 

Projects Agency, Department of Defense. 

As stipulated, in part, the Order directed the Agricultural 

Research Service to obtain, evaluate, and/or categorize botanical 

information on tne specific composition and physiognomy of forest 

associations of Southeast Asia, essential for the effective interpretetion 

of the reaction of tropical and subtropical plants 

to defoliants. 

To accomplish this, two field missions were undertaken by 

the writer to Thailand during November 1963 to January 19

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 

The task of studying the vegetation of Southeast Asia, and 

the preparation of the accumulated data into a final Report 

would not have been possible without the cooperation of many kind 

friends. It is impossible to acknowledge individually all who 

have assisted in one form or another in this Project. But a word 

of gratitude is due to Mr. T.W. Brundage, director, Lieut. Col. 

W. R, Scheible, Captain John Kelly, Jr., and other staff members 

of the Bangkok office of Advanced Research Projects Agency, who . 

arranged travel and other facilities during the two field missions 

carried out in 1963-6U and 196^-65. 

Acknowledgment is made of the fine cooperation given by Mr. 

Dusit Banijbhatana, Director-General of the Royal Forest Department 

of Thailand; Mr. 1>=n Smitinand, taxonomist in the Forest 

Department; and the Divisional, Provincial and other forest officers 

contacted in the interior in the course of the field investigations. 

To Professor Thiera Komkris, Dean of the School of 

Forestry at Kasetsart University, I owe gratitude for permitting 

Professor Preecha Charenmayou to accompany me, as interpreter 

and assistant, on most of the field trips conducted during December 

1964 to February 1965. Mr. Preecha's familiarity with the 

vegetation of Thailand and his many personal contacts in the interior 

were of invaluable aid in the pursuit of the field studies. 

I am also indebted to the National Agricultural Library of 

the Department of Agriculture, particularly the Beltsvillc Branch, 

in making available the large number of references reviewed; and 

to the Photo Laboratory at the Plant Industry Station, Beltsville, 

for preparing the series of photographic prints reproduced. 

And finally, I am grateful to the staff members of the Crops 

Research Division for their cooperation, and particularly to 

those who have persevered to prepare this and other, progress, 

reports related to the Project. 

ii

TABLE OF CONTENTS 

PART 

I 

Page 

Foreword — i 

Acknowledgements •-- ---. —,— ti 

Southeast Asia - Summary —--—------_. —.___--__—>_-_ 1 

Thailand .- Field investigations 5 

Classification of Tropical forests 9 

Criteria for classification 11 

Climax "o.*mations 

Ik 

Southeast Asia - Forest types — 17 

Evergreen forests —---' :___:. 17 

Deciduous forests . 33 

Ground studies of Thai forests 1*4 

Aerial studies of tropical forests — • hC 

Tests with defoliants in Thailand — 56 

Hazardous vegetation ; £8 

Southeast Asia - Physiographic, climatic and other 

features 61 

Thailand' 

ul 

Vietnam - - 71 

Cambodia 82 

Laos — 85 

Southeast Asia, Puerto Rico and Texas - Analogous 

features 88 

Southeast Asia - Forests, illustrations 99 

PART II 

Figure 

MAPS and ILLUSTRATIONS 

1. Southeast Asia - map --i 101 

2. Physiographic regions of Thailand - map 102 

3. Mountain ranges and river system of Thailand. - map - 103 

iii

Figure 

Page 

U. Mean monthly rainfall range of Thailand - map ------ 

5. Mean monthly temperature range of Thailand - mup --- 105 

6. Areas investigated in Thailand by author on 

ground and aerial surveys (1963-6^, 196^-65) - map - 106 

7. Soil types of Thailand - map ----------------- — - — 107 

0. Distribution of major forest types of Thailand -map- 108 

9. Distribution of Evergreen forest in Thailand - map - 109 

10. Distribution of Deciduous forest in Thailand - map - 110 

11. Principal forest zones of Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia 

- map —------ .-.__------------- ---------- - — 110 

12. The central plain northeast of Bangkok (aerial) ---- 111 

13. Rice paddies between Bangkok and Saraburi (aerial — 112 

Ik, Stand of 'tanna* or toddy palm (Bcra-ssus fj.abellifer) 

near Nakhon Pathom, Thailand ----------------------- 113 

15. Rice paddies between Kcnkaen and Udon, northeast 

Thailand ......... - ................................. 113 

16. Fruit trees, especially 'mango* (Mangifera indica), 

'tamarind' (Tamarindus indica) and 'phutsa 1 

(Zizyphus spp.J, protected in rice paddies. Central 

Thailand — .......................... - .............. 

17. 'Yang khao' (Pi p te r o car pus alatus ) , one of the tallest 

and most widespread trees in Thailand ------- 

18. Crown of "yang khao' (Dipterocarpus alatus ) -------- 115 

19. Land cleared for rice paddies and orchards, near 

Nakhon Nayok (aerial)---------------------------- — 115 

20. Rain forest, Kachawng, ôuthern Peninsula ----------- 116 

21. Close-up of Rain forest. Kachawng, southern 

Peninsula ------------------------------- - ----------- 116 

22. Moist forest on slope of Khao Sa Bap, southeastern 

Thailand -• ------------------------------------------ 117 

23. Woody vine or liane. Mukdahan, eastern Thailand ---- 117 

24. Undergrowth in Evergreen Moist forest. Khao Sa Bap, 

southeastern Thailand --• — ------------------------- 118 

25. Hill or Upper MoJ.st forest. Pbu Phan, northeastern 

Thailand ....................................... — - 118 

26. Hill or Upper Moist forest, Salween river basin, 

northwest Thailand (aerial) - ----------------------- 119 

27. Oblique view of Upper Moist Evergreen forest. Khao 

Yai National forest (aerial) ----------------------- 119 

28. Evergreen Moist forest, northwest of Nakhon Nayok, 

central Thailand-------- ..... - .................. ---- 120 

29. Upper Moist Evergreen and Lower Montane forests, 

Khao Yai National Forest ----- - -------------- - ------ 120 

30. Profile of Lower Montane fores v. Khao Yai National 

Forest — .......................................... - 121 

iv

Figure 

Page 

31. Oblique view of Upper Moist Evergreen forest. 

Khao Yai National Forest (aerial) 121 

32. Second growth in Hill Evergreen forest. Khao Yai 

National Forest — - 122 

33. Second growth, in Moist Semi-Evergreen forest, Dalat 

region, South Vietnam 122 

3^. Aroids in moist sites. Saigon to Dalat road 123 

35« Hill Moist Evergreen forest on Bolovens plateau. 

Southern Laos -— — .--- .. 123 

36. Forest-clad slopes of Doi Inthanon, northern Thailand 

(aerial) 

l,2'i 

37« Upland Moist Evergreen forest in northern Thailand, 

us seen from Doi Sutep 

12'» 

38. Semi-Evergreen forest between Thoern and Ban Hong, 

northwestern Thailand —• 125 

39• Upland forest on upper slopes of Doi Sutep, 

northern Thailand, showing patches cleared for 

shifting agriculture 125 

ko. Riparian or Gallery forest. Phibun Mangsahan, 

eastern Thailand 126 

1*1. Gallery or riverain forest. Mae Hoi, northern 

Thailand — 126 

42. Riparian vegetation in Upper Moist Evergreen 

forest. Khao Yai National Forest 127 

43. Riverain vegetation along Khwae Noi river, western 

Thailand — - 127 

44. Dry Evergreen forest. Mukdahan, eastern Thailand - 128 

45. Dry Evergreen forest, with Lowerstroemia calyculata 

trees as dominant. Cambodia 128 

46. Transition from Gallery to Temperate forest. Doi 

Sutep, northern Thailand 129 

47. Mountain range of Chiengdao, northern Thailand 129 

48. Plateau of Lang Bian, Ualat region, South Vietnam 

130 

49. Pine forest. Manline, Dalat region, South Vietnam- 130 

50. Stand of 2-uoedled pine (Pinus merkuaii). Dalat 

region, South Vietnam 131 

51. Stand of Pine. Klang Yang, South Vietnam 131 

52. Two-needled Pine tree (Pinus rnerkusii). Phibun 

Mangsahan, eastern Thailand 132 

53- Pseudo-steppe with 3-needled Pine (Pinus khasya). 

Tranninh, northern Laos —.___! 132 

54. Temperate FVergreen forest. Doi Inthanon, northern 

Thailand -- .-- 133 

55. Oak-chestnut forest. Doi 3uter>, northern Thailand- 133 

56. Mossy forest. Inthanon mountain, northern Thailand 

-----, *- I'j4 

57. Mangrove forest. Khlung, southeast Thailand 13'i 

58. Mangrove forest at high tide. Khlung, southeastern 

Thailand — —r- 135

Figure 

Page,, 

59« Open stand of Mangrove forest. Khlung, southeastern 

Thailand — 135 

60. Mangrove forest arouad islands in Phuket bay, 

southwestern peninsular Thailand (aerial) 136 

61. Mangrove forest. Khlung> -southeastern Thailand 

(aerial) —-—— 136 

62. Stand of Nlpa palm (Nipa frutleans), mixed with 

mangrove. Khlung, southeastern Tliailand (aeriaJL)-- 137 

63. Nipa pains (Nipa fruticans) and rice paddies. Khlung, 

southeastern Thailand (Serial) — 137 

6U. Nlpa palm (Nipa fruticans) at Prakhan, mouth of 

Chao Phraya river, Thailand 138 

65. Stand of 'cajeput 1 tree (Melaleuca leucadendron). 

Chantaburi, southeast Thailand 138 

66. vYeshwater swamp. Lake Nong Han, northeastern 

Tnailand - - 139 

67. Lov oblique view of lowland Semi-Evergreen forest. 

Khao Yai National Forest (aerial) - 139 

68. Oblique view of lowland Semi-Evergreen forest. 

Khao Yai National Forest (aerial) 

69. Stand of 'tabaek 1 trees (Lagerstroemia calyculata). 

Khao Yai National Forest ----- ---" 

70. Mixed Semi-Evergreen forest. Phibun Mangsahan, 

eastern Thailand 

• 

71. Teak forest. Between Loei and Phetchabun, northern 

Thailand (aerial) 

1'H 

72. Cutover TeaJc forest. Chiengdao, northern Thailand - Ih2 

73. Teak tree (Tectona grandis). Sayok Forest Station, 

Khwae Noi river --•—- Lh2 

Ik. Teak plantation. Mae Thak, northern Thailand — l'*3 

75. Teak logging camp and forest. Paklay, northern 

Laos - - 1U3 

76. Mixed Deciduous forest. Phu Phan, northeast Thailand 

1^'t- 

77. Mixed Deciduous forest. Tak, northwestern Thailand 

Ihh 

78. Semi-Evergreen forest, with 'phai-pa 1 "bamboo 

(Bambusa arundinacea) in second growth. Tak, northwestern 

Thailarid 4 '• 

79. Mixed Deciduous forest. Near Tak, northwestern 

Thailand —.—---, 

80. 'Krabak 1 tree (Anisoptera cpchinchinensis). 

Phibun Mangsahan, eastern Thailand ---. 

81. 'Krang 1 (Flcuo altissima). Tak, northwestern 

Thailand 

• 

82. Base of 'krang' tree (Flcus altissima). Mukdahan, 

eastern Thailand ** 

83. Crown of 'krang 1 tree (Flcus oltlssima). Mukdahan, 

eastern Thailand — 

vi

Figure ,_ . Page 

8't. Basal part of trunks of Lagerstroejnia calyculata 

and Bombax (Galmalia) .insigne. Mukdahan, eastern 

Thailand "- -- 

85- Mekong river at Nakhon Prianom, northeastern Thai-- 

land - 

86. Dipteroearp forest showing clearings made by Lua 

Hill tribe in valley bottom for shifting agricultural. 

Between Mue Hongson and Mae oaring . 

(aerial) 

l'»9 

87. Dry Dipterocarp forests. Between Mae Hongson and 

Mae uariunr (aerial) 

I'i9 

88. Dry Dipterocarp forest, Borabue, northeast Thailand 

150 

89. Open Mixed forest, with bamboo slopes north of 

Chahtaburi, southeast Thailand 150 

90. Dry Dipterocarp forest. Along highway from Phibun 

Mangsuhan to border of south Laos — 151 

91. Vegetation, /nostly second growth, near border of 

south Laos. Fast of Phibun Mangsahan -• 151 

92. Dipterocorp forest on plateau of Quiriron, 

Cambodia - 152 

93- Burned over Dipterocarp forest. Cambodia 152 

9**- Forest road between 3ala Dar and Sopheas, Cambodia 

153 

95- Forest road between Sola Dar and Sopheas, Cambodia 

• 153 

96. Thorn forest. Nakhon Phanom, northeast Thailand — 

97. Thorn forest. Kanchansburi, western Thailand 

98. Long, sharp spines of "khiet* (Randia dunetorurn), 

a shrub characteristic of Thorn forest 155 

99- Beach forest. Huay Yang, central peninsular Thailand 

155 

100. Casuartna trees planted for windbreak and to check 

erosion. Huuy Yang, central peninsular Thailand — 156 

101. Bamboo and fast-growing 'ngiu* (Bombax malabariciuTi). 

Khwae Moi river, western Thailand ~-'-T 156 

102. Bamboo brake (Dendrocalamus strictus). Tak, northwestern, 

Thailand -" 157 

103. Farm houses surrounded by banboo and fruit trees. 

Near Saraburi, central plain (aerial) 157 

10 1 *. Bamboo raft flouting down Khwae Noi river 156 

105- Ground fire passing through bamboo brake. Mae Sod, 

northwestern Thailand 158 

106. Wooded savanna. Hakhon Phanom, northeast Thailand 

—. — --— 159 

107. Wooded savanna. Vietnam 159 

108. Grass savanna. Ranong, southwest peninsular Thailand 

- 160 

vii

Figure 

109. Wooded savanna. Thaknek, Mekong basin, central 

Laos — 

l6o 

110. Wooded pseudo-steppe. Thakhek, Mekong basin, 

central Laos 

'—• 

111. Wooded limestone butte. Krabi, peninsular Thailand 

—-—-—--——.---.-— — -»--— .--_._-_-._,- 

112. Limestone bluff. Khampaeng Phet, northwest Thailand 

162 

113. Second-growth, with ground cover composed mainly 

of 'kha-luang 1 grass (imperata cylindrica). Near 

Pranburi, upper Peninsula —---— 162 

11U. 'Ya-su'a mop 1 (Eupatorium odoratum), an exotic 

weed widespread in Southeast Asia 163 

115• A toll grass, 'phong 1 (Saccharum spontaneum), 

prevalent along paths, roadsides and in clearings 

in Southeast Asia 163 

116. *Rok *(Calotropis gigantea), a milky weed common 

along roadsides 

.___--, 

117. Tall, dense growth of weeds and grasses prevalent 

along roadsides in Southeast Asia 

.118. Deforested slopes covered with weeds and rough 

grasses. Tranninh, northern Laos * 165 

119. Ilill tribe village. Yankar mountain, south 

Vietnam - -V 165 

120. Pard rubber plantation, showing dense, moist 

ground cover. Chantaburi, southeast Thailand —— 166 

121. Field team conducting studies of -forest types 

in Thailand 166 

122. Dipterocarp forest between Konkaen and Kalasin, 

northeast Thailand > 167 

123. Members of Thai field team studying plants in 

transect. Phu Phan, northeast Thailand. 167 

124. Technicians taking soil samples in study site. 

Phu Phan, northeast Thailand + — 168 

125. Dry Mixed Deciduous forest. Phu Phan Forest 

Reserve, northeast Thailand ----— — — ——— 168 

126. Secondary growth in Dry Deciduous forest. Phu 

Phan, northeast Thailand ---• 169 

127. Rice paddies in northeast Thailand. Soil is impoverished, 

subject to flash floods. Borabue ---- 169 

128. A farmhouse, near Sakhon Nakhon, northeast Thailand 

• 170 

129. Dry Evergreen forest. Test cite near Pranburi, 

upper peninaular Thailand 170 

130. Inspection trail at tcct site. Near Pranburi, 

upper Peninsula 171 

131. Trail opened in test site to set up cameras. 

Near Pranburi, upper Peninsula — 171 

viii

Figure 

Page 

132. Desiccating effect of chemicals on vegetation. 

Near Pranburi, upper Peninsula 172 

133. 'Ma-kok' trees (Spondias pinnata) defoliated 

with chemicals. Tent site near Pranburi, upper 

Peninsula — 172 

13'u Plants in undergrowth capable of surviving effect 

of chemicals. Test site, Pranburi, upper Peninsula 

- 173 

135« Japanese botanist, member of Joint Kyoto University 

- Chulalongkorn University Expedition in 

Rain forest. Kachawng, south Peninsular Thailand 

—- 173 

136. Member of Joint Kyoto University - Chulalongkorn 

University Expedition weighing litter in Rain 

forest. Kachawng, south Peninsula Thailand 

PART III 

Bibliography - Annotated 175 

General Index 288 

ix

BLANK PAGE

Summary 

This Report treats with the vegetation and other natural features 

of Cambodia, I&cs, North and South Vietnam, and particularly 

those of Thailand. The vegetation of Thailand, in general, is representative 

of the countries drained by the Mekong -river and its 

tributaries. 

Part I contains a discussion of the systems, propose1 by 

various ecologists or phytogeographers, to classify tropical vegetation. 

The principal forest types of Thailand, and applicable to 

Southeast Asia in general, are described. 

The entire region lies between the Equator and the Tropic of 

Cancer. Although politically independent, and divided economically, 

the countries of Southeast Asia, under consideration, exhibit considerable 

analogies from the standpoint of physiography, climate, 

soils and especially the vegetation. 

The five countries combined have a total area of approximately 

505,000 square miles, almost equivalent to twice the size of Texas, 

pr 1U6 times the size of Puerto Rico. With an estimated total 

population of 56,500,000, "& ne average density is about-112 inhabitants 

per square mile. 

From the earliest times the Indo-China Peninsula, so called 

because of its position between India and China, has been peculiarly 

subject to foreign intrusion. Successive waves of Mongols have 

broken over it from the north; Dravidians from India colonized it; 

Buddhist missions from Ceylon have penetrated it; and it has been invaded 

by buccaneers from the islands to the south. Race fought 

against race, and tribe against tribe. Dominant powers rose and declined. 

Civilizations developed, flourished and faded. Out of many 

races and diverse elements - Thais, Lao, Khmer, Mon, Annamese, 

Malayans, Chinese - a series of nations evolved. They are fundamentally 

alike, but differ in many essentials. They have striven 

during centuries for mastery over each other, as well as over the 

many minor tribes and clans who lead a precarious, sometimes nomadic, 

existence in their midst. 

Unlike its neighboring countries, Thailand, throughout modern 

history, has been an independent nation, a kingd.om with no colonial 

ties. Tor--this reason the Thais proudly refer to their country as 

•the 'land of free men 1 .

Formerly, Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia collectively formed the 

French Union of Indochina, as it was known in official documents, 

or simply Indochina. This large area occupies the eastern portion 

of the Indochina Peninsula in Southeast Asia, situated between 

parallel 8° 30'and almost 20° N, and meridians 100° to 109° 30' E. 

Indochina was established by France as a single political 

entity towards the end of the 19th Century. Up to that time this 

large territory was not united, by any political or administrative 

ties, but represented an assemblage of different states and Geographically 

diverse ureas. 

Under French rule, Indochina consisted of 5 territories or 

protectorates; Tonkin, currently a part of North Vietnam; Annam, 

in central Vietnam, divided betweer .forth and South Vietnam; Cochin- 

China, now forming a part of South Vietnam; Cambodia; and Laos. 

When Indochina lost its cohesion, in 1946, it was divided alonrj 

geographical and ethnical lines into the independent states: Laos, 

in the northwest, with an area of approximately 89,000 square miles; 

Cambodia, in the southwest, covering an area of about 70,000 square 

miles; and Vietnam, in the east, with a total area of approximately 

126,000 square miles. In 195^, & t the Geneva Conference, Vietnam 

was separated into the Republic of South Vietnam, the region couth 

of the 17th parallel, as distinguished from the Communist-dominated 

State of North Vietnam, north of-the parallel. 

The great majority of the inhabitants of Southeast Asia are 

farmers and peasants. It is estimated that up to 85 or 90 percent 

of the national income of each of the five countries is derived from 

agricultural, crops and forest products. Approximately 65 percent 

of the land, under permanent cultivation, is u&,ed for fee production 

of rice. Other natural products or crops c.f importance include: 

timbers, especially teak from northern Thailand, bamboos, rattans, 

Para" rubber (Hevea bras il tens is) from plantations, lac and cassava 

(Manihot), for domestic use and for export, and corn, oeans, peanuts, 

cotton arid kenaf fiber, tobacco, vegetables, fruits and other nrorvu:c>. 

As in most Asiatic countries the diet consists principally or 

plant foods, especially rice. '•' -, also figures prominently i :> the 

diet of ail classes. 

The general physiography of southeast Asia is that of' .nonitain. 

ranges, with peaks upwards of '.,;> 00 i't. (2,000 m.) in altitude, Interspersed 

with mountain ';or;;os 5 plateaus and /-rcat plains. 

The region is drained by numerous rivers, nost of which i'low 

in a southerly or southeasterly direction, and their estuarier; i'c>m 

extensive deltas. The largest of these, and the longest in iSouthear.t 

Aîa, is the Mekong, flowing tlirou^'i pLateaus and plains of vt;stc;rn

Laos. It enters Cambodia before it reaches the Mekong delta of 

South Vietnam. Through North Vietnam flows trie Red""*iver, so called 

from the red color of the silt carried by its waters from the mountains 

of Tibet, and forms the Tonkin delta. In Thailand, the Chao 

Phraya river and its tributaries drain the great central plain, to 

form the Menara or Chao Phraya delta, south of Bangkok on the Gulf 

of Thailand. 

Although the Indochina Peninsula projects far down into the 

tropical oceanic zone, the climate of Southeast Asia is influenced 

to a large degree by its position as a part of the great continental 

mass of Asia. This is indicated by the prevailing winds, with accompanying 

changes in humidity and aridity. Proximity to the sea 

and regional relief also cause variations and modifications in the 

climate. 

The monsoon is the dominating climatic factor. Monsoons are 

essentially seasonal winds blowing from one direction during part 

of the year, and from another direction during the remaining months. 

Throughout the region these winds result from the interaction of 

two maritime air masses - the southern tropical, moving toward the 

Equator in the Southern Hemisphere, and the northern tropical, movjng 

towards the Equator in the Northern Hemisphere. In brief, the 

r.iorvooon is largely the result of the differential heating of land 

and vrnter, producing alternating dry and rainy seasons. 

Based on a series of analogies, the countries of Southeast Asia 

may be considered a unit. The presence of mountain ranges, which 

intercept r.oisture-laden winds, results in a wide pattern of annual 

rainfall, with the dominance almost throughout of alternating rainy 

southwest r.ionsoon, arid dry northern or northeastern monsoon. Except 

in mountainous areao, the temperatures are fairly high throughout, 

with no frost at lower elevations. The varying distribution of rainfall 

during the year is highly significant, being particularly 

noticeable in North Vietnam, Laos and Thailand. 

Covered mostly by tropical vegetation, Southeast Asia is separated 

from India and Burma by mountain ranges; from China and the 

Himalayas, on the north, with their essentially temperate flora; 

while the vegetation of the southern Peninsula of Thailand, with 

almost year-round precipitation, closely resembles the vegetation 

of sections of Malaysia. While the five countries show appreciable 

diversity in the vegetation cover, the principal analogy and unifying 

factor is the widespread occurrence of certain tree species, 

particularly those of the wood-oil family (Dipterocarpaceae). In 

addition to Malaysia, Southeast Asia is apparently the major natural 

range of this larê and important family, represented by several 

genera and numerous species. 

The forests of Southeast Asia may be segregated into 2 broad 

classes: Evergreen and Deciduous forests. In Thailand these may 

be divided into-12 principal forest types, most or all of whi'h are

also represented in each of the adjoining Mekong basin countries. 

These are:-(a) Evergreen - separated into Rain, Moist, Dry Evergreen, 

Montane, Coniferous and Swamp, including Mangrove; (b) Deciduous - 

classified as Mixed, Dipterocarp, Beach', Thorn, Bamboo and Savanna. 

Observations made on the ground and from the air, on the effect 

of chemical defoliants on vegetation, conducted near Pranburi, upper 

peninsular Thailand, under the direction of the Biological Laboratory 

at Fort Detrick, Maryland, are discussed briefly. 

Attention is drawn to some of the most prevalent plants in 

Thailand, with wide distribution in Southeast Asia, and which are 

considered hazardous, providing ideal sites for ambush along roadsides 

and in forest clearings. 

Stress is placed on the use of aerial surveys and photo sampling, 

as a tool to supplement ground investigation or to expedite the 

evaluation of the type of vegetation prevailing in a given area. 

There is a review of field studies which have been in progress 

throughout Thailand during the last 2 years by a Thai field team to 

prepare profiles of tree stands, in order to determine the structure 

and species composition of various forest associations, ranging from 

the canopy to the ground cover. At the same time, soil samples are 

gathered at different horizons for analysis. 

A comparison is made between the major aspects of the topography, 

climate and vegetation of Southeast Asia, Puerto Rico and Texas. 

A series of maps illustrates the various forest zones investigated, 

and the distribution of Evergreen and Deciduous forests occurring 

in Thailand. One map indicates the range of the principal forest 

types in North and South Vietnam, Cambodia and Laos. 

Part II contains a series of 125 ground and aerial photographs, 

most of which were taken by the author during thG recent field 

assignments. These illustrate the principal forest types in Thailand, 

which are representative of similar formations in the adjoining Mekong 

basin countries; some of the most frequent weed plants in Southeast 

Asia, providing sites for ambush in clearings and along highways; 

aerial photographs of some of the major forest types in Thailand, 

taken immediately following ground studies; and views of the effect 

of chemical defoliants on vegetation near Pranburi, upper Peninsular 

Thailand. A limited number of forest types occurring in South 

Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia are also illustrated. 

• Part III contains an annotated Bibliography, of almost 80O 

titles, referring to forests, forest products, agricultural crops, 

and other resources of Southeast Asia, with emphasis on Thailand.

THAILAND 

Field Investigations 

During a period of five and a half months, from November 6, 

1963 to January 17, 19&* and from December 17, 196^ to February 

27, 1965, the author made a total of 28 trips overland and 9 aerial 

surveys throughout Thailand (see Fig. 6), from the border of Burma, 

on the west and northwest, to the Mekong river in the east and northeast; 

in the Chantaburi-Khlunfi-Trat region in the southeast; and 

from the southernmost section of the Peninsula, along the Malaysian 

border in the southwestern section.and the Kra Isthmus as far 

north and northwest as Nan, Phyao, Chiengdao, and Mae Hongson, near 

the border of upper Laos, Shan States and Burma, respectively. 

Briefly, the regions and forest types investigated were: 

GROUND STUDIES: 

Central Region 

The vegetation along the Paholyothin-Friendship Highway, from 

Bangkok to Saraburi, Nakhon Katchasima, KonKaen, Udon and Ncngkhai 

on the upper Mekong river, in the northeast. 

In the Khao Yai National Forest, on the Korat Plateau - forest 

types, varying according to altitude, from Lowland and Mixed 

Deciduous, Hill Evergreen, to Lower-Montane forest. 

Dominant vegetation, such as fruit trees and palms, - in rice 

paddies, between Saraburi and Ayuthia, in the central plain. 

Eastern .Region 

The areas around Saraburi, Nakhon Nayok, Chachensao, PrachinburjL, 

Kebinburi, Aranyaprathet, eastward to the border of Cambodia - 

where Pry Dipterocarp i'orest predominates. 

The region around Surin, Ubon, Phibun Mangsahan, toward the 

border of southern Laos - also mostly a Dry Dipterocarp forest. 

Southeastern Region 

From Prakan and the delta of Chao Phraya river, south of Bangkok, 

eastward to Rayong, Chantaburi, Khlung, Trat, to the border of 

southwestern Cambodia - to study Mangrove forest,. stands of Nipa 

palm, and Beach forest. 

Slopes on Khao Sa Bap, northeast of Chantaburi - Upper Moist 

Evergreen forest.

Northeastern Region 

The Korat Plateau from Nakhon Ratchasima to Konkaeo, Udon and 

Nongkhai, on the upper Mekong river - Mixed Deciduous and Dry 

Dipterocarp forests. 

The region of Konkaen, Udo.n, Kalasin, Borabu-, Phuphan Mountain, 

Sakhon Nakhon to Mukdahan ai:d Nakhon Phanom on the Mekong river - 

Dry Dipterocarp, Mixed Decidunus, Hill Evergreen and Thorn forests. 

Northwectern Region 

Region of Nakhon Pathora, Uonpong, Kouchanaburi, and along the 

Khwae Noi river to Thakanom, on the border of Burma - stands of 

Borassus palm, Thorn forest, Bamboo brakes and Mixed Deciduous 

forest. 

Area around Saraburi, Lopburi, Nakhon Sawan, Tak, Thoern - Bamboo 

brakes, Mixed Deciduous forest, with Teak being dominant, and 

Dipterocarp forest. 

Northern Region 

From Thoern to Lampang, Ngao, Phy«o, Prae, Nan, Lampun, Chiengmai 

and Chiengdao - Mixed Dry and Moist Deciduous, mostly Teak, 

forests-. 

Mountains Doi Sutep, Doi Puy, and Doi Chiengdao - study of Hill 

Evergreen forest on slopes, and Pine forest on summit. 

Peninsular Region 

Northern: 

From Ratburi, Phstb ... to He a Hin - stands of Borassus palm, 

Deciduous forest, Thorn forest, Bamboo brakes and other 

secondary grovth. 

Pranburi - Teet site area 

on vegetation. 

Central: 

to observe effect of defoliants 

From Prachuap Khirikhan to Churaphon - study of Beach arid Mixed 

Deciduous forescs. 

Region of Kra Isthmus to Ranong - Mangrove forest, stands of 

Nipa palm, Savanna and Rain forest.

Peninsular Region - continued: 

Southwest: 

Region of Ranong, Chaklee and Takuapa - Rain forest, Mangrove 

forest and Savanna. 

Region of Krabi and the island of Phuket - Moist Evergreen 

and Mangrove forests. 

South: 

From Trang, Kach^wng, Patalung to Haadyai - Rain and Moist 

Evergreen forests. 

Area around Songkhla - Mixed Deciduous and Littoral forest. 

AERIAL SURVEYS: 

Central Region 

Khao Yai National Forest, Kbrat Plateau, in central Thailand - 

Lowland Deciduous, Hill Moist Evergreen and lower-Montane forests. 

Eastern Region 

Mountain ranê between east-central Thailand and western Cambodia - 

Upland Rain or Moist Evergreen forest. 

Between Aranyaprathet and Ubon, in eastern Thailand - mostly Dry 

Dipterocarp forest. 

Southeastern Rep;ion 

Following the southeast coast from Bangkok to the -southwestern 

border of Cambodia - aerial observations of Mangrove forest, 

especially in the region of Khlung and Trat. 

Northeas tern Re gion 

From Bangkok to Nakhon Ratchasima, Sakhon Nakhon and Nakhon Phanom, 

BS far as the middle Mekong basin - mostly Dry Uipterocarp forest 

in the northeast. 

From Konkaen to Udon and Non^khai, following the course of the 

upper Mekong river to Chiangkhan, southward to Ix>ei and southeastward 

to Konkaen - aerial survey of Dry Dipterocarp, stands of 

Pine on the tablelands around Loei, and Dry Dipterocarp forest,. 

« "" 

Konkaen northwestward to Loei - over Dry Dipterocarp, Mixed Deciduous. 

Teak and Pine forests, thence southward by way of Phetchabun to 

Bangkok. 

. • • - . - . • • 7

North and Northwest , 

From Bangkok northward, following the central plain to Nakhon 

Sawan, Phitsanulok end Uttaradit; thence over 'Peak forest to 

Larapan and Prae; northwestward over Hill Evergreen, Dry and 

Moist Deciduous forests, and stands of Pine to Mae Hongson; 

northeastward over Dipterocarp forest to Chiengmai; southwestward 

over Dipterocarp and Teak forests to Mae Sariang and Mae 

Sot; iind along the basin of the Khwae Yai river to. Nakhon Fathom 

and Bangkok. 

Peninsular Region 

From Songkhla, in the southern Peninsula, westward over Moist 

Evergreen forest of Kechawng; Mangrove forest along the coast 

of Krabi, around Phuket and other islands in the southwest, and 

the Kra Isthmus, farther north; Hain forest in the Takuapa - 

Chaklee - Kanong area; and Mixed Deciduous and Hill Evergreen 

forests along the eastern slope of the Tenasserim Range. 

Over the test site at Pranburi - to evaluate the effects of 

chemical defoliants on vegetation.

CLASSIFICATION OF TROPICAL FOREST TYPES 

With Special Reference to 

SOUTHEAST 

ASIA 

The classification of vegetation has long been a fertile ground 

for discussion and speculation. This is because plant-cover, even 

in its simplest manifestation, is a complex variable owing to the 

many interrelated factors that control its distribution. 

The flora and vegetation of much of the world, especially of 

temperate regions, are well known. Considerable information is 

available on the operation and effect of the environment on the 

vegetation of many of those areas, and which makes classification 

possible. But in many tropical forest regions the technical problems 

of descriptions and identification are great. Usually thera 

is little information available on the influence of the climate, soil 

and. other factors on the vegetation. So that rnuch data still remain 

to be assembled before a standard system of classification of tropical 

forest types can be established, which would be applicable tc 

widely separated area, such as Southeast Asia, Tropical America or 

Central Africa. 

.Several systems have been suggested or adapted for the classification 

of vegetation. Such plant geographers as Drude (1890), 

Gauscen (1933), Cain (lyuU), and Good (19^7) are concerned mainly 

with the distribution of individual species and the relative coincidence 

of members of the same flora in certain areas. 

The need for a physiognomic an opposed to taxonomic description 

of vegetation was recognized by Schimper (1903), the renowned plant 

physiologist and geographer, and later by Warming (1909), who desscribed 

equivalent formations based on similarity in appearance and 

function of..botanicolly unrelated dominant or characteristic species. 

These criteria represent an appreciation of the vegetation in general 

and not of flora. The system advanced by Riibel (1930) covers the 

most important types of plant associations, and makes possible their 

subdivision into many fades, but it does not depend upon botanical 

classification of dynamic status. The main criteria he considers 

are woodiness, leaf-uhape, type and deciduousness. 

A radical departure from toxonomic thinking in descriptive ecology 

was also made by Raunkiaer (193M> to whom the concept of life-forms 

must be credited. Several authors have modified somwhat the system 

proposed by Rauiikiaer, but on the whole the original framework hes 

been retained. Its object is to provide a small number of categories 

into vhich all plants can be fitted according to their apparent 

morphological-physiological response to the unfavorable season,

According to Raunkiaer, leaves can be classified according to size, 

shape, venation, mode of development and other criteria. 

Burtt Davy (1938), confronted with the difficult problem of 

establishing a preliminary classification of tropical vegetation; 

where detailed surveys and complete floristic inventories are unavailable, 

revised Schimper's and Warming's physiognomic systems, 

the method proposed by Tansley and Chipp (1926), .and that addpted 

by Champion (1936) for India, Burtt Davy's system on the 'Classification 

of Tropical Woody Vegetation Types' was later modified and 

simplified by Richards, Tansley and Watt (1939). 

Beard (19^1), i-.i his treatment of "The Natural Vegetation of the 

Windward and Leeward Islands', deals with the classification of 

plant communities on a regional basis, and considers the natural 

distribution of plant communities, regionally constant characters of 

physiognomy and composition and life-forms as important criteria. 

Barbour (19^2) discusses the primary forest types of tropical 

America, in an attempt to clarify their nomenclature, and to indicate 

their distribution and economic importance. 

Kuchler (19U, 19^9), inspired by climatologies! classifications, 

especially Koppen's (19^3), was led to formulate a syste-j, in which 

he uses a series of symbols which coild be combined to show the most 

important features of any vegetation type. The symbolism proposed 

is essentially aimed at small-seal^ mapping. Therefore, it applies 

to an overall description of regional vegetation rather than to a 

detailed characterization of individual plant communities. 

Holdridê (19^7) constructed a chart which differentiates the 

vegetation of dry land areas of the world into 100 closely equivalent 

formations separated by temperature, precipitation and evaporation 

lines of equal value. The chart is designed to make broad divisions 

and to show actual relations between climatic vegetation formations. 

The comprehensive treatment of the 'Tropical Rain Forest 1 by 

Richards (1952) contains a detailed discussion of associations and 

consociations and other phases of the climax Rain forest and other 

forest types. 

Dansereau (1953) maintains tl.at quantitative representation is 

the important criterion in the description of vegetation, and that 

a long list of species, ar.a a complete enumeration of the flora, are 

of little value. Instead, the dominant and other characteristic 

species must, be recognized, because of. their physiognomic prominence 

and their indicator value. A knowledge of tne flora provides a 

classification of species into floristic elements of common origin. 

Information on the vegetation, on the other hand, permits an entirely 

different classification based on ecological requirements and the 

usual role of the.plants in the landscape. Dansereau proposed a 

10

system based predominantly on structure, rather than a knowledge of 

the taxonomic identity of the plants composing the respective communities. 

No casual factors need be considered, such as particular 

edaphic or climatic conditions. The principal objective is to devise 

a means of recording and plotting vegetation. 

• Criteria For Classification 

In the United States the prevailing practice is to separate forest 

types by factors of composition, whereas European Geologists and 

foresters rely more upon climatic and edaphic factors In the United 

States a 'forest type 1 has been defined as a descriptive term used to 

group stands of similar characters as regards con-.position and development, 

owing to given physical and biological factors, by which they 

may be differentiated from other groups or stands. The term suggests 

a repetition of the same characters under similar conditions. 

In order to establish a broad classification of tropical vegetation, 

applicable to the vegetation of Thailand or to Southeast Asia in general, 

important criteria for consideration are: 

Habitat: This involves the primary factors of the environment, 

namely climatic, physiographic, edaphic (soil and subsoil) and biotic 

(felling, clearing, grazing, or burning). 

The origin of the vegetation of any given habitat is very complicated. 

This is well illustrated by the range of plant associations 

occurring in Thailand, Vietnam or Puerto Rico. The presence or absence 

of a plant species is determined not by a single environmental 

factor, but a series of combinations is usually involved. Some of 

these are favorable for the plant, others may be unfavorable. A plant 

rarely, if ever, grows in an environment where all conditions are 

favorable for its optimum development. A number of local or environmental 

combinations exist, such as local variations in rainfall, 

atmospheric and soil moisture, range of daily or seasonal temperatures, 

velocity of wind, character of soils and intensity of light. In 

addition, erosion and rock decomposition, and the destruction or 

changing of old habitats may change the environment of the plant. 

The primary cause for the presence of a plant association may depend 

on factors which are active now or have been operative in the 

past. This is well illustrated in Thailand, as elsewhere in Southeast 

Asia, where changes have taken place in the distribution of 

plant life. The destruction of the original growth over large areas, 

as a result of man's activities during a period of many centuries, 

has resulted in the modification of the original plant associations, 

and the development, for example, of bamboo brakes and other secondary 

growth. 

Each plant species requires a more or less definite combination of 

11

conditions favorable for the germination of its seeds and the eventual 

development of the seedlings. These conditions are precipitation, 

atmospheric and soil moisture, temperature, soil, light, air movement, 

and very often association with certain other organisms. If the 

variation of any one or more of these factors exceeds the tolerance 

of the plant, its seeds fail to germinate or the seedlings may not 

attain maturity. Therefore, each combination of envirorimental 

characters makes possible the growth of certain species arid the exclusion 

of others. 

Each habitat has certain environmental factors which the vegetation 

itself cannot change materially. Such factors are temperature 

regulated by broad climatic conditions; rainfall influenced by 

climatic and physical agencies; and wind regulated by location and 

topography. However, these factors are but a part of the environment. 

This is subject also to modifications brought about by the growing 

plents themselves. Large plants intercept and reduce the amount of 

light so necessary for the development of their own seedlings and 

other small plants in the ground cover. They may also modify the 

wind currents, increase the atmospheric moisture and thereby reduce 

temperature. They modify the soil both physically and chemically by 

means of their roots and by the accumulation of decaying material. 

Thus, plants not only alter the environment but become a part of it. 

That the physical and vegetation features of the environment are 

interrelated in the development of plant life in any region is clearly 

indicated when a habitat is disturbed. The destruction of the original 

vegetation, whether by the action of man. or by forces of nature, 

is usally followed by the development of a new formation of plant 

life. Sites in a primary forest when felled are soon populated by 

fast growing plants, usually entirely different from the original 

growth. A teak forest in northern Thailand, when cutover, is soon 

invaded by certain species of bamboo, and which later are difficult 

to eradicate. However, the Mangrove woodland of Southeast Asia, and 

of other tropical regions, is an exception to this rule, in that it 

is an edaphic community, immersed at high tide and regenerates itself 

soon after cutting. 

Physiognomy; By this is meant all the characters which contribute 

to the appearance and structure of a plant community. The physiognomy 

of a forest depsnds upon the stature, spread, and life-form of the 

species composing it. In a tropical forest, physiognomy includes 

such features as the number of stories and the height of the respective 

story in a particular forest type. We may distinguish horizontal 

structure, or spacing, and vertical structure, which corresponds to 

stratification. The canopy of the forest nay either be open or closed, 

and the constituent trees may stand at certain distances apart. The 

primary characteristic of all but the simplest communities is their 

stratification. The layering or stratification of a forest may be 

sharply or poorly defined. In the Rain or Moist Evergreen forest 

12

there are usually three stories, of tall trees to shrubs, in addition 

to a ground cover of grasses, herbaceous plants, cycads and ferns. 

In the Dry Dipte,rocarp forest of Southeast Asia, on the other hand, 

the trees are of uniform height, widely apetced, have little or no 

undergrovth, so that stratification is not veil demarcated. 

In addition to the stature and general, habit of the trees, additional 

characters, considered as life-forms and often present in 

tropical forests, include; type of branching; plank buttresses; 

presence of stilt roots, pneumatophores or 'breathing roots', viiicb 

may be erect or knee-shaped; thorns on trunks and/or branches; characteristics 

(color, thickness, scaliness) of the bark; exudations, 

if present; and succulent stems or leaves. Other special life-forms 

that may be present are: woody vines or lianes, palms, cycads, rattans, 

pandans and epiphytes. 

Other salient features of a life-form are: whether a tree is 

Evergreen or Deciduous; and the thickness and especially the size of 

the leaf. The latter factor is indicative of habitat, and can be 

determined by assigning it to one of Raunkiaer's 'life-size classes' 

(see Bibliography). 

Ploristics; The floristic composition of a plant community is 

b«vsed on assembling and identifying as many as possible of the plant 

species present. It involves the accumulation of precise information 

on the species present in a community, and some quantitative estimate 

of basal area, cover and density. Generally, it is possible to evaluate 

the physiognomy of a forest type from its floristic composition, whereas 

the contrary is usually not possible. 

Climate: Despite existing deficiencies in accurate and consistent 

classification of the major forest associations on a regional or 

world-wide basis, there is an unmistakable relationship between climate 

and vegetation. That climate has a decided influence on the type and 

distribution of vegetation has attracted the attention of ecologists 

and plant geographers for more than 50 years. 

The distribution of natural vegetation types in the tropics is influenced 

in large measure by rainfall, its amount, distribution, •timing 

and intensity. Schimper (1903) maintained that a broad clinatiovegetative 

community can be segregated, on the basis of precipitation, 

into & series of progressively drier formations in conformity with increasing 

latitude. 

In general, precipitation, and particularly the rainfall pattern, 

are functions of latitude. The inner tropics are usually very wet, 

with little or no seasonal changes. The middle latitudes have less 

rainfall.> usually in alternating wet and dry seasons which may occur 

twice annually. The outer tropics are still drier, most frequently 

with a single wet and dry-season each year. The rainless period increases 

steadily in length and severity until forests finally give 

13

way to sterile deserts, which border almost every tropical belt. 

Thus, according to Schimper, tropical vegetation may be classified 

around a central belt of wet, luxuriant Evergreen forest occurring 

within a few degrees north and south of the thermal Equator. 

This core is bordered on the north and south by increasingly drier 

forests, becoming more markedly deciduous and open in character as 

we move away from the Equator. Wet Evergreen forest gives way progressively 

to less raesophytic Serai-Evergreen, Moist Deciduous, Dry 

Deciduous, Open V.'oodland and Savanna, and finally culminating in 

Semi-arid Thorn and Scrub forests at the lower moisture limits for 

tree vegetation. 

Although moisture appears to be the dominant factor controlling 

plant life iu the tropics, temperature should not be discounted entirely. 

In the tropics the daily variation in temperature is frequently 

greater than the seasonal variation of the mean. This is 

of importance as it may affect the seasonal phenomena or rhythms in 

tropical plants. In the United States as in other temperate regions, 

leaf-production, leaf-fall, flowering, fruiting, and growth of plants 

are taken for granted, and we tend to regard these phenomena as depending 

upon seasonal changes of temperature and light. In the 

tropics many plants also show periodic rhythms, although some .appear 

to be continuously active while others behave irregularly. Regular 

periodic behavior is also exhibited by plants in tropical regions 

where there is a sharply contrasted wet and dry season. This is 

more surprising in tropical climates where there is precipitation 

almost throughout the year, and wjth only a very limited range in 

seasonal variation of temperature. In such cases the native inhabitants 

may be scarcely conscious of seasonal change, but depend 

on the seasonal behavior of plants to provide them with a timetable 

for their agricultural operations. 

Climax Formations and Types 

The classification of the vegetation of Thailand, and of the 

adjoining countries, may be based on climatic Climaxes or Formations. 

By Climax is meant a plant community that appears to be stable in 

terms of historic time. 

A saraple plot of forest growth may be regarded as an Association, 

sometimes called a Stand, which is the fundamental floristic 

unit of Vegetation. This may be dominated by two, several, or 

many species. When dominated by a single species it is termed a 

Consociation; by several species as an Association. A particular 

forest may be a typical example of a Consociation or an Association, 

or it may deviate from the more prevalent type. The criterion 

is the presence of certain dominants and a particular flora or 

the total flora present. The component species, especially the

dominants of certain Consociations or Associations may agree in lifeforms, 

although the species and even the genera may be totally different. 

This general agreement in life-form indicates similar habitat, 

and especially similarity of regional climate. Associations showing 

such similarity may be grouped in a larger unit, the Formation. In 

other words, a Formation is a group of Associations which resemble 

each other more closely, in general physiognomic and in climatic or 

edaphic habitat, than to any other group of Associations. A formation, 

or Forest Type, is a mature, integrated community, controlled 

by the prevailing conditions of climate and occasionally of soil. 

Some plants, such as Mangrove species, are restricted to one 

type of Formation and environment. Other plants overlap and flourish 

in two or more forest types, as in the case of Teak (Tectona grandis). 

in northern Thailand > where it thrives both in Moist Deciduous and. Dry 

Deciuuous forests. 

Dominants, in the ecological sense, are members of a plant community 

which exert a determining or controlling influence on the 

rest of the vegetation constituting it. In other words, it applies 

to layers of vegetation in their relationship to, and their effect 

upon, other layers. Trees forming the canopy of a closed forest are 

typical dominants of a community, because in their absence much of 

the subordinate vegetation, or the lower stories of the forest, would 

probably not exist. In the dense Rain or f-toist Evergreen forests, 

for example, the tallest plants of the entire community are capable 

of modifying or reducing the amount of light that reaches the lower 

layers, and at tho same time increase the humidity in 'the air. 

Likewise, the subordinate stories or layers have their dominants - 

low trees, tall shrubs or palms - which also have a similar influence 

on the vegetation below each corresponding layer. 

The tallest plants of some complex communities, however, are not 

necessarily the controlling factors. For example, as in the open 

Pipterocarp forest, when trees are scattered, they do not effectively 

modify or reduce the amount of light reaching the lower layers. Thus, 

very often the main controlling layer of the forest community is the 

pomparatively low stratum of trees whose crowns are 20 to 40 feet 

(6-12 m.) above the ground, rather than the much taller, but more 

scattered, trees reaching up to 100 (30 m.) or more feet. 

Widely scattered trees in a savanna have little or no effect on 

the grdrsses and other plants that constitute the ground layer, and 

therefore they are not the true dominance of the savanna. It is the 

tall grasses, particularly, which actually exercise a cortrolling 

effect on any plants of lower stature growing in-b«tve*n them. Nevertheless 

trees growing in a savanna are often spoken of as 'dominants', 

because they are usually the tallest and most conspicuous plants preoent. 

The term 'Physiognomic Dominant 1 is best applied to conspicuous 

trees which give character to the savanna. Since the tall grasses 

share in this characteristic feature they are physiognomic dominants 

as well as true dominants of the ground layer. 

15

In the silvicultural sense Dominant trees of a forest canopy are 

those whose crowns are more than half exposed to full illumination, 

while the crowns of Sub-dominant trees are less than half exposed to 

full light. Trees whose crowns are entirely shaded are referred to 

as Suppressed. This usage may thus be applied to the actual development 

of an individual tree. 

Isolated trees whose crowns rise above the general canopy ara a 

constant feature of several types of tropical forests. They are 

clearly Dominant in the silviculture! sense, but not in the ecological, 

since they exercise no general controlling influence on the 

forest. The terra 'Predominant' is sometimes applied to them. 

Since this may imply a specially high degree of dominance, the term 

'Emergent' is considered preferable. Emergent trees may be considered 

collectively as forming a discontinuous or extra layer above the 

general tree canopy. 

Within an area of uniform climate, however, soil or other natural 

factors may have been at work to prevent the development of the 

typical climatic vegetation. . Here the essential habitat and lifeforms 

of the dominants are determined by such edaphic or biotic 

factors. Different Consociations and Associations which are influenced 

by these factors and agree in life-form, are known as Edaphic 

or Biotic Formations. A typical example of the former (edaphic) is 

Mangrove forest, occurring in deltas and around the estuaries of 

rivers in southeast and peninsular Thailand, along the coast cf Cambodia, 

and Ilorth and oouth Vietnam. 

Formations with characteristic life-forms and strikingly similar, 

and are obviously influenced by similar climatic pattern, are formed 

throughout tropical regions, no matter what part of the world they may 

occur, Lon,

may prevail In widely separated regions. Fur the more, the forest 

types should be readily recognizable both on the ground and to a 

certain degree from aerial observations, preferably at medium altitudes 

(1,000 to 5,000 feet). 

It is usually customary to assign names to Formations or Types, 

based on their physiognomy or habitat, such as Evergreen forest, 

Deciduous, Gallery or Riparian, or Swamp forest. Whatever terra is used, 

it should be short, descriptive, applicable over wide areas, readily 

understood and easily translated into other languages. 

FOREST 

TYPES 

of 

S 0 U THEAST 

ASIA 

Although the Conifers, so characteristic of temperate Evergreen 

forests, are represented in Thailand and the other Mekong basin 

countries by species of Pinus, Dacrydium, Podocarpus and Cunningharcia, 

actually they constitute only a small fraction, less than 1 percent, 

of the forests of that region. Broadleafed species, represented by 

numerous genera, are dominant almost everwhere. So that the classification 

of the forests of Southeast Aisa into Coniferous or Softwood 

and Broadleafed or Hardwood species, is not considered applicable. 

A more practicable method is to segregate the forests of those 

countries into two broad categories: (a) Evergreen forests, which 

include the Conifers; and (b) Deciduous forests. 

The forests of Thailand may be assigned to about twelve Climax 

Formations or Types, all or most of which also occur in North and 

South Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia. These primary types may be furthered 

divided into Sub-types or Sub-climax communities, according to 

variations induced by such factors as micro-climate, and localized 

edaphic or biotic conditions. 

EVERGREEN FORESTS 

(1) RAIN FOREST: (See Figs. 20, 21) 

Synonyms: 

Tropical Rain forest, Evergreen Rain forest, 

Tropical Wet Evergreen forest, Wet forest, 

Wet Evergreen forest, Tropical Evergreen 

forest, Broad-leaved Evergreen forest; 

Evergreen forest and the Foret dense humide 

of French ecologists. 

Of the several terms applied to this Type, the rather long 'Tropical 

17

Broad-leaved Evergreen forest 1 seems to be the most appropriate. 

The designation 'Evergreen forest 1 is not entirely applicable, because 

it would also include Coniferous forest. 'Rain forest 1 , although 

descriptive of t}he cause of the Type rather than of the Type 

itself, is also acceptable because it is concise, readily understood, 

and in general use in tropical regions. 

Several factors are essential for the development of the Rain 

forest. The major features are discussed briefly on the following 

pages. 

Climate: The prevailing climate in the Rain forest is marked 

by relatively high temperatures. Variations in temperature are remarkably 

slight on a diurnal, seasonal or geographical basis. According 

to readings taken at typical sites, the mean annual temperature 

is said to be about 79° K. (26°C.). Soil temperatures are equally 

constant. Low temperature appears to be the major factor setting 

the altitudinal limit of the Rain forest. It is essentially frostfree 

except along its upper altitudinal border. 

Rainfall: Rainfall is high. In areas with optimum Rain forest 

there is no narked seeronal drought, but precipitation la scattered 

throughout the year. Actually there are only limited areas in the 

humid tropics which are truly non-seasonal. Wet and dry seasons 

usually alternate. Tnis factor, in turn, may influence seasonal 

rhythms in flowering, production of young leaves, and other phys\ological 

processes. Unlike the temperature range, annual precipitation 

is highly variable both diurnally and seasonally, as well as geographically. 

In acme favorable distribution patterns, annual precipitation 

of 63 inches (1,600 mm.) might be considered as absolute 

minimum, whereas in the southwestern Peninsula of Thailand, 79 inches 

(2,000 mm.) is regarded as a typical minimum. At Takuapa, in the 

southwestern section of the Peninsula, the maximum may reach 10A 

irches (i»,170 mm.), and in some years even more. Some areas with 

annual precipitation above the minimum indicated may have drought 

periods, especially in regions where there is high evaporation. 

Therefore, the seasonal pattern is highly important, for true Rain 

forest cannot exist in an area where there is a well-defined and a 

prolonged dry period, lasting 2 or more months. 

Humidity; In addition to high temperature and abundant rainfall, 

Rain forest areas are characterized by uniformly high humidity. This 

seems to be at or near the saturation point at night, and remains 

high during most of the day, even during the dry season. This factor 

may coinpensate for lower rainfall at certain periods in some areas. 

Humidity tends to increase vith elevation. For example, along the 

upper slopes and ridges of mountains, humidity may remain constantly 

close to saturation. 

Wind; This is an important factor.in humid areas.where its effect 

on evaporation rate and resultant drying of the atmosphere could be

critical. In general, wind velocities appear to be lover, and violent 

winds are usually less frequent in such tropical areas as 

Southeast Asia, than in temperate zones. In many parts however, 

thunderstorms, preceded by squalls of strong winds, are common, resulting 

in the felling of individual trees or stands. 

Radiation: Dayldght radiation averages 10 to 12 hours in Rain 

forest areas, with a. slight annual variation. There is usually a 

high degree of cloudiness, which is greatest in the wet season. In 

addition to the presence of impurities in the air, such as dust and 

smoke from brush fires, the total amount of bright sunshine may be 

small. Radiation appears to be less intense at ground level in the 

Rain forest than in correspondingly high forests of temperate regions. 

Soils; The soils of Rain forest are very variable in structure 

and in physical and chemical properties, but the majority share certain 

similar characteristics. They are red or yellow, lateritic, loamy 

or clayey in texture, although the upper layers may be 'sandy. They 

are invariably acid, with relatively low humus content, and are often 

deficient in plant nutrients. These qualities are influenced by the 

powerful action of major climatic factors, particularly heavy rainfall 

and high temperature. Abundant precipitation produces an almost 

continuous downward movement of water in the soil, resulting in heavy 

leaching. High and relatively uniform temperature are also a major 

factor in the breakdown of leaf litter and other forest debris, in 

addition to the action of micro-organisms. Termites and ants also 

contribute to the destruction of dead roots and other woouy residues. 

Under the influence of such dominant habitat factors, mature 

soils show a wide range in character, which in turn ia reflected in 

vegetation. The physical conditions are of great importance, expet:ially 

those which control the soil moisture absorbed by the plant 

and the supply of oxygen to its roots. It is conceivable that, in 

addition to the influence of temperature and rainfall, soil factors 

are the most important element which contribute to the occurrence of 

Rain forest, and 'that edaphic conditions are chiefly responsible for 

its absence in areas which otherwise would be suitable. 

Physiognomy; Among outstanding features of the optimum Rain 

forest of humid areas, such as those found in limited parts of Southeast 

Asia, the most evident are the richness of the flora, and that 

the overwhelming majority of dominant plants are trees and shrubs, and 

many of the climbing plants and some of the epiphytes are also 

ligneous. The trees are extremely numerous in species and varied in 

size. The average height of those forming the canopy seldom exceeds 

150 ft. (k6 ra.), and usually ranges between 90 and 120 ft. (30-UO ra.). 

A few trees in Southeast Asia, such as Jelutong (Dycra costulata), in 

southern peninsular Thailand and Malaysia, or a species of Koorapassja 

in Sarawak, Northern Borneo, and Malaya, may exceed 200 feet in 

height. .

The Rain forest is a community with a large series of co-dominants., 

or sometimes there may be only one or two dominants. While rich in 

spocies, the trees are remarkably uniform in their general appearance 

and physiognomy. Among dominant trees the boles are usually straight, 

rather slender in relation to their height or compared with the girth 

of some large trees in higher latitudes, and are generally clear of 

branches for JO to 90 feet (22 to 28 m.). Their crowns are relatively 

restricted, of variable form frcrn \vide-spreading, round or umbrellashaped 

to narrow and irregular. Plunk buttresses, flange-like outgrowths 

at the base, are characteristic of Rain forest trees, and 

which are less developed, cometimes absent, in other Forest Types. The 

bark may be thin to thick, smooth or rough, scaly with deep fissures, 

plates or conspicuous lenticcls. 

The type and density of foliage are variable in the Rain forest. 

The majority of mature trees, as well as seedlings and shrubs have 

large, leathery, dark green leaves, with entire or nearly entire margins. 

The Rain forest nay contain some deciduous or partially deciduous 

trees, but to all intents and purposes it is constantly evergreen. 

So that the term 'Evergreen 1 applied to this forest type is 

redundant, as there is no Deciduous or Semi-Evergreen Rain forest. 

Compound leaves predominate in the upper stories, simple leaves are 

frequent in the lover scory. Most of the trees and shrubs have inconspicuous 

flowers, often whitish or greenish. Large and strikingly 

colored floverv. are somewhat rare. The forest interior is usually' 

gloomy, althou ;ri when the sur. is shining the floor may be dappled 

with sun-fieeke. To some the Rain forest; gives the impression of the 

vault or cathedral aisles. The uniform and generally somber hue of 

tre leaves contribute in part to the monotonous character of this 

forest. 

Unlike forests in Temperate regions, in the Rain forest there 

is r.o vell-de"i;:C!i periodicity of new leaf crop, flowering, fruiting, 

or leaf sr.e 1/ !i.'i ~. It is a perpetual midsummer, although there are 

•period.: cf r.oxlrvir. flower in ;, during which more species are in flower 

than at; cl*:cr li.re:*, ay well Uo ueasoris of maximum production of 

ycu;v; leaves. . rr the moat part, pltv.-t growth and reproduction arc 

ccr.tir.uoJ3, ar.:t .iome flnw^rs nnu/or fruits can be found at any tir.e. 

Thi:; is a direct Iriflucnê of ':lin;ite, characterized by high temperature 

and hu-.iuity, and ;-;li ,r:t seasonal variation. 

Owing to t'ê treat ra:;gc i:; tlie height of trees, the Hair, rorest 

is usually stratified or multi-layered in structure, itost often there 

are three layers, in additicr. to a lower layer of shrubs ana a -round 

cover of herbs. Ir: comparison with the number of woody species, life • 

i'crno such a^ palms and paruiano (i'andanus) are less abundant, but 

bar.ooos and rattans (Calanu:;) arc frequent. KtossetJ, liverworts, 

lichenu and epiphytes, including a variety of orchids, arc also generally 

abur.'lrnt, growing on trie trunks, .branches and in the crotches • 

of trees arid J;irub3, in addition to ferns and flowering plants 

ccvcrir.- the ground. The abundance of climbers, especially stout 

20

woody lianes, is another characteristic feature of this forest. Their 

massive stems (See Fig. 23 ), often of great length, cling closely 

to tree trunks or hang loosely like cables from the topmost branches. 

Ranre ; There are only limited areas in Southeast Asia with high 

precipitation, exceeding 150 inches annually, and uniformly scattered 

throughout the year; where atmospheric moisture ranges up to 90 pepcent; 

with a narrow diurnal or seasonal fluctuation in temperature; 

and where insolation or radiation is not high. Consequently, the . 

true Rain forest is of limited extent and distribution in Thailand, 

Vietnam, Cambodia and Laos. 

In Thailand Rain forest attains its optimum development along 

the southwest coast of the Peninsula, especially in the Chaklee moun- . 

tains south of Ranong; around Takuapa, where the highest annual rainfall, 

exceeding 200 inches, in Thailand has been recorded; and in 

isolated sites in the mountain ranges extending close to the border 

of Malaysia. Stands of this forest type occur also in the southeast 

in the mountain ranges of Khac Sa Bap and Khao Ban That, boraenng 

Cambodia. Additional scattered sites, similar in structure and lifeform, 

and to some degree in floristic composition, are found in 

isolated sites in the Khao Yai National Forest, in the central region 


In Cambodia the true Rain forest, as distinguished from the Moist 

Evergreen forest, has long been exploited to a considerable extent 

for timbers. So that today this dense forest is reduced to areas in 

the Cardamom and Elephant mountains in the southwest. 

Likewise, in part owing to extensive and intensive exploitation 

of timbers over a period of many centuries, and the widespread practice 

of shifting agriculture, Rain forest forms only a minor fraction 

of the vegetation in North Vietnam and in the southern section of 

South Vietnam. Annam, in central Vietnam, has long been considered 

the principal forested area and source of useful timbers in *ât 

divided country. We have no record of true Rain forest in Lac .. 

Economic Importance.; Unlike the Diptorocarp or Teak fore.cs, or 

Savannas, which are burred over annually, Rain forest is usually not 

(affected by fire, or to any appreciable extent by shifting agriculture. 

Snail patches, of k to 6 acres, are cleared in the forest to grow 

crops for subsistence, and then abandcnc.-d after 2 to U years. Great 

areas have been cleared, hovevor, in southern peninsular Thailand, 

as well as in South Vietnam. and Cambodia to establish plantations of 

Para 1 rubber (Heyea brasiliensis) . 

In general the Rain fore/it is an important source of raw 

of commercial importance, some of which figure in international trade. 

These include a variety of timbers; gums and resins; rattan; edible 

fruits and other minor products* 

21

Timber species of commercial importance in the Rain forest of 

Thailand include: 

Afzelia bakeri 

Afzelia xylocarpa 

Ailanthuii fauveliana 

Amoora polystachya 

Anisojptera cocninchinensis 

Anisoptera glabra 

Artocorpus calophylla 

Artocarpus lakoocha 

Balanocarpus heimli 

Calophyllum floribundun 

Calophyllum inophyllum 

Calopliyllum pulcherrimm 

Cecrela toona 

Cjnnamomun iners 

Cotylelobium lanceolatum 

Dalbergia cochinchinensis 

D ipterocarpus alatus 

Dipterocarpus baudii 

Diptorocarpua costatus 

Dipterocarpus dyerii 

Dipterocarpus /;randiflorus 

Dipterocarpus incanus 

Dipterocarpus kerrii 

Dipterocarpus kunstleri 

Dipterocarpus pjlosus 

Diptero carpus turbinatus 

cochinchinensis 

Hopea ferrea 

Hopea odorata 

Hopea pierrei 

Ifopea re cope i 

Lagers troemi a balansae 

Lagerstroemia calyculata 

Lager stroemia I'los-reginae 

Litsea prandis 

Mcisua ferrea 

Michelia charnpaca 

Par ashore a stellata 

Phoebe panicuiata 

Sand or i cum inciicum 

Shorea cochincnir.ens is 

Shorea curtisji 

Chorea glauca 

Shorea gratissima 

Shorea guiso 

Shorea hypochra 

Shorea parvil'olia 

Shorea veisneri 

Vatica cinerea 

Vatlca wallichii 

Many minor forest products obtained from the Rain forest include: 

Rattans (Calauus species), which Tarnish splints exported for the 

manufacture of cane-seats and backs of chairs. The core remaining 

after the rigid outer part has been removed is used for making reed 

furniture and li^ht-weight baskets. Selected canes, for making walking 

sticks known as Malacca canes, are derived from Calanug scipionum, 

growing in southern peninsular Thailand. Rattans are also utilized 

extensively for lashing logs into rafts. Considerable quantities of 

rattans have long been exported to Singapore, the center for this 

forest product from various countries of Southeast Asia. 

Dammar resins are obtained from several species of the wood-oil 

family (Dipterocarpaceae), especially Balanoearpus hgjmii, Anisoptera 

spp., and Shorea hypochra. The best dammar, known as 'white dammar 1 

and used in the manufacture of high grade varnish, is furnished by 

Balanocarpus tie imii . 

Gamboge gum, the product of Garoinia hanburyi, is a bright yellow 

resin of appreciable commercial importance, used especially as a 

coloring agent. 

22

woody lianes, is another characteristic feature of this forest. Their 

massive stems (See Fig.23 ), often of great length, cling closely 

to tree trunks or hang loosely like cables from the topmost branches. 

Range; There are only limited areas in Southeast Asia with high 

precipitation, exceeding 150 inches annually, and uniformly scattered 

throughout the year; where atmospheric: moisture ranges up to 90 P 6^ 

cent; with a narrow diurnal or seasonal fluctuation in temperature; 

and where insolation or radiation is not high. Consequently, the 

true Rain forest is of limited extent and.distribution in Thailand, 

Vietnam, Cambodia and Laos. 

In Thailand Rain forest attains its optimum development along 

the southwest coast of the Peninsula, especially in the Chaklee mountains 

south of Ranongy around Takuapa, where the highest annual rainfall, 

exceeding 200 inches, in Thailand . has been recorded; and in 

isolated sites in the mountain ranges extending close to the border 

of Malaysia, Stands of this forest type occur also in the southeast 

in the mountain ranges of Khao Sa Bap and Khao Ban That, bordering 

Cambodia. Additional scattered sites, similar in structure and lifeform, 

and to some degree in floristic composition, are-found in 

isolated sites in the Khao Yai National Forest, in the central region 


In Cambodia the true Rain forest, as distinguished from the Moist 

Evergreen forest, has long been exploited to a considerable extent 

for timbers. So that today this dense forest is reduced to areas in 

the Cardamom and Elephant mountains in the southwest. 

Likewise, in part owing to extensive and intensive exploitation 

of timbers over a period of many centuries, and the widespread practice 

of shifting agriculture, Rain forest forms only a minor fraction 

of the vegetation in North Vietnam and in the southern section of 

South Vietnam. Annam, in central Vietnam, has long been considered 

the principal forested area and source of useful timbers in that 

divided country. We have no record of true Rain forest in Laos. 

Economic Importance: Unlike the Dipterocarp or Teak forests, or 

Savannas, which are burned over annually, Rain fox'est is usually not 

•affected by fire, or to any appreciable extent by shifting agriculture. 

Small patches, of

Timber species of commercial importance in the Rain forest of 

Thailand include: 

Afzelia bakeri 

Afzelia xylocarpa 

Ailanthus fauveilana 

Amoora polystachya 

Anisoptera cochinchinensjs 

Anisoptera glabra 

Artocarpus calophylla 

Artocarpus lakoocha 

Balanocarpus heimii 

CalophylluT! floribundun 

Calophyllum inoph.yllu.ii " 

Calophyllum pulcherrirr.um 

Cedrela toona 

Cinnamomum iners 

Cotylelobium lanceolatum 

Dalbergia cochinchinensis 

Dipterocarpus alatus 

Dipteroearpus baudii 

Dipterocarpus costatus 

Dipterocarpus dyerii 

Dipterocarpu 

Dipterocarpus incanus 

Dipterocarpus kerrii 

Dipterocarpus kunstleri 

Dipterocarpus pilosus 

Dipterocarpus turbinatus 

Fagrafa cochin o h inens is 

Hopea ferrea 

Hopea odorata 

Hopea pierrei 

Hopea recopei 

Lagerstroeîia balansae 

Lagerstroenia calyculata 

Lagerstroemia flos-reginae 

Litsea grandis 

Mesua ferrea 

Michelia chanpaca 

Paras'norea stellata 

Phoebe paniculata 

Sandoricun ir.dicum 

Shore a cpohir.c:iinensis 

Shorea curtisij. 

Shorea glauca 

Shore a gratjssir.a 

Shorea guiso 

Shorea hypochra 

Shorea parvii'olia 

Shorea veisneri 

Vatica cinerea~ 

Vatica wallichii 

Many minor forest products obtained from the f:ain forest include: 

Rattans (Calamus species), which furnish spliats exported for the 

manufacture of cane-seats and backs of chairs. TV:a core remaining 

after the rigid outer part has been removed is used for making reed 

furniture and light-weight baskets. Selected canes, for making walking 

sticks known as Malacca canes, are de7ived from Calamus scipionum, 

growing in southern peninsular Thailand. Rattans are also utilized 

extensively for lashing logs into rafts. Considerable quantities of 

rattans have long been exporied to Singapore, the center for this 

forest product from various countries of Southeast Asia. 

Dammar resins are obtained from several species of the wood-oil 

family (Dipterocarpaceae), especially Balanocarpus beimii, Anisoptera 

spp., and Shorea hypochra. The best daramar, known as 'white dammar 1 

and used in the manufacture of high grade varnish, is furnished by 

Balanocarpus heimii. 

Gamboge gum, the product o:' Garcinia hanburyi, is a bright yellow 

resin of appreciable commercial importance, used especially as a. 

coloring agent. 

22

Gutta-percha of an inferior grade, an insoluble gutta gum .obtained 

from the tall 'ma-sang 1 tree (Palaquium obovatum), of the Sapodilla 

family, was formerly extracted in considerable'quantities in southeastern 

and peninsular Thailand. It has the unusual property of 

being an excellent insulator for heat and electricity. At one time 

it was used on a considerable scale for coating submarine cables, 

as its composition remains unchanged almost indefinitely when -submerged 

in water. 

An oleo-resin, obtained by tapping various trees of the wood-oil 

family (Dipterocarpaceae), especially Dipterocarpus alatus, D. turbinatus 

and D. pilosus, is used locally for making torches, for caulking 

canoes, as a varnish and to water-proof pails. 

Jelutong gum, also an insoluble gum, is extracted from a large 

tree, Dyera eostulata. growing sporadically in southern Peninsula, 

and Malaysia, for use as a base in the manufacture of chewing gum. 

Cardamoms are derived from the fruits of several species of 

Amomum. The best grade is obtained from Amomum krervanh, cultivated 

on a limited scale in the Chantaburi province, southeastern Thailand. 

An inferior grade known as bastard cardamom, is derived from the 

fruit of A. villosum and A. xanthioides, the main source of which is 

in the northeastern part of the country. Cardamoms have long been 

known in world trade for use in medicine and for flavoring food. 

Incense wood is produced from several species of trees, especially 

Mansonia gagei, Aquilaria crassna, and Aquilarja agallpcha. The 

heartwood of the last-named species furnishes the so-called "eagle 

wood', used for burning as incense, to make joss sticks and in the 

manufacture of perfumes. 

Eanboos have an extensive and versatile utility, including the 

building of homes, in the manufacture of paper pulp, and for living 

fences and windbreaks. In coastal areas of Thailand they are widely 

\ used for stakes to construct fish traps. From the west coast of the 

Peninsula there has long been a considerable export of bamboos to 

Java and Sumatra, where they are utilized for making frames to cure 

tobacco leaves. 

Chaulmoogra oil is derived from th-5 seeds of Hydnocarpus kurzii. 

A similar oil is also obtained from H. anthelmintica. In Thailand, 

as elsewhere, chaulmoogra oil has long been used in the treatment of 

leprosy. 

Corypha leaves, obtained from the 'Ian' palm (Corypha umbracu- 

1ifera), are popularly used in preparing Buddhist script anc in the 

manufacture of hats. 

A number of trees and other plants furnish edible fruits, 

23

including 'durian 1 (Durio spp.} £u;d 'phuagtha-lai 1 or 'sam-rqng 1 , 

obtained from Sterculia lychnophora, and which is much esteemed 

in confectionery. 

(2) MOIST EVERGREEN.FOREST 

This type resembles the Rain forest in general physiognomy, 

life-forms, and in having a 3-strata structure, with a dense undergrowth 

(Figs. 22, 25, 26). Some ecologist make no distinction between 

Rain forest and Moist Evergreen forest, but combine them 

under the term Wet Evergreen forest. The dominant tree species are 

somewhat of lower stature than those in the climax Rain forest. 

They are generally up to 90 or 110 ft. (30 or 35 m.) in height, with 

straight trunks, and a continuous canopy of green foliage of varying 

hue. The ground cover contains many species of herbaceous plants, 

ferns, rattans (Calamus) and palms. 

The annual rainfall in this type is lower than in the Rain 

forest, ranging between 60 and 80 inches (1,500-2,000 mm.), and 

supplemented by ample soil and atmospheric moisture. Unlike the 

absence of a dry period in the Rain forest, the seasons are sharply 

defined into dry and rainy periods of about equal duration. This is 

perhaps the principal and essential difference between the Rain and 

Moist Evergreen forests. The diurnal and seasonal fluctuation in 

temperature is slightly more pronounced than in areas with Rain forest. 

This forest type may be segregated into Lowland Moist Evergreen, 

and Hill or Upper Moist Evergreen forest, occurring on the slopes of 

hill and mountain ranges at elevations up to 2,500 or 3*000 ft. 

(800-1,000 m.). Moist Evergreen forest is widespread in Thailand, 

Vietnam, Cambodia and Lacs, and corresponds to what French ecolegists 

or foresters describe as 'forets denses 1 . 

In Thailand, Moist E\ergreen forest occurs in the southern 

section of the Peninsula; on the flanks of the Tenasserim range, in 

the west bordering Burma; in the Khao Yai National Forest in the 

central region; along the slopes of the Khao Sa Bap and Khao Ban 

That mountains in the southeast; on the island of Ko Chang, with an 

altitude up to ^50 • " 650 ft. (150-200 m.), also in the southeast; 

the Pokadien mountains In the Loei region, in the north, at altitudes 

up to 3,000 ft. (1,000 m.); i- sections of the Phu Phan mountain between 

Kalasin and Sakhon Nakhc.;, in the northeast; and on the upper 

slopes of Chiengdao and other mountain ranges in northern Thailand. . 

One of the best examples of Lowland Evergreen forest is that of 

Kachawng, a forest reserve between Trang and Patalung, in the 

southern Peninsula. It resembles in many respects the Rain forest, 

farther west, around Takuapa, in southwestern Peninsula. Large trees 

with long boles, and often with buttresses, composing the canopy in 

the Moist Evergreen forest of Kachawng include: Hopea cdor*»ta, 

Anisoptera curtisii, Sandoricum indicum, Sterculia campanulata,

Parkia speeiQsa, Hopea ferrea,Alstonia scholaris, Palaquium obovatum, 

and species of Artocarpuf, Afzelia,Palbergia, Tntsia, lageVstroemla, 

Vattea* The family Dipterocarpaceae is represented by Dipterocarpus 

alatus, D. turbinatus and D. gyandiflorus .,and the genua Shorea by 

S. gratissima, S. glauca, S. pArvifolia and S. sericea* 

As in the Rain forest,the majority of trees have dark green, leathery 

leaves. Generally the flowers are inconspicuous. Some of the 

trees are deciduous at one time or another, but the forest is constantly 

evergreen, and there is no well-defined period of flowering 

or fruiting. 

In the second story., trees of the Laurel (Lauraceae), Myrtle 

(Myrtaceae) and Custard-apple (Annonaceae) families are well represented, 

intermingled with such palms as Arenga pinnata and Livistona 

speciosa,, and woody vines or lianes, mostly of the families 

Leguminosae and Bi^noniaceae. 

The undergrowth is dense, somewhat difficult to penetrate, with 

many shrubs, particularly of the families Rubiaceae (coffee) and 

Acanthaceae, ferns, and such herbaceous plants as species of Alpinia, 

Amomum and Zalacca. 

A typical Hill or Upper Moist Evergreen forest occurs in the 

Khao Yai National Park, in central Thailand, ranging in altitude from 

.750 to 2,5OO ft. (250-800 m.). The physiognomy or life-forms of 

this excellent forest resemble those of the Lowland Moist Evergreen 

forest at Kachawng, except that many of the tree species are entirely 

distinct from those at Kachawng, in southern peninsular Thailand. 

Dominant trees in ^his forest are DipterocaiTUs costatus, D. gracilis, 

and D. turbinatus. Other representative trees include species of 

Ficus, Altingia, Aromadendrpn, Cedrela, Poupatria, Anthocephalus, 

Carallia, Antiaris, Sapium, Lithocarpus, Persea, and Schefflera. 

Trees in the substory include: Camellia confusa, Eugenia siamensis, 

Helicia javanica, and Maesa ramantorcea. Palms are elso represented 

in the understory by Caryota urens, Arenga saccharifera and Livistona 

speciosa. Rattans include species of Daemonorops and Calamus. 

Among woody vines are species of Toddalia, Bauhinia, Mucuna and Entada. 

The following partial list of genera, represented mostly by 

medium to large trees recorded in a small area, is indicative of 

the diversity and richness of the floristic composition of the 

Moist Evergreen forest at Kachawng, southern peninsular Thailand, 

at altitudes of ^50 to 650 ft. (150-200 m):

Acacia 

Adenanthera 

Adina 

Aglala 

Alangium 

Alstonia 

Anisoptera 

Anthocephalus 

Ardisia 

Arenga 

Artabotrys 

Artocarpus 

Baccaurea 

Ba«busa 

Barringtonia 

Bouea 

Calroius 

Carallia 

Cedrela 

Ceriops 

Chasalia 

Cinnamomum 

Clerodendron 

Cratoxylon 

Crypteronie. 

Curcilago 

Dalbergia 

Desmodium 

Dialium 

Dillenia 

Dioscorea 

Diospyros 

Dipterocarpus 

Dryopteris 

Duabanga 

Durio 

Erioglossura 

Erythroxyloa 

Eugenia 

Fagraea 

Ficus 

Gnetum 

Grewia 

Helicia 

Heterophragma 

Hopea 

Hydnocarpus 

Intsia 

Lagerstroemia 

Lansium 

Linociera 

IJLtsea 

Livistona 

Macaranga 

Mangifera 

Melodorum 

Meraecylon 

Mesua 

Michelia 

Morinda 

Murraya 

Hyricaria 

Myriopteron 

Ktyristica 

Nauclea 

Neolitsea 

Nephelium 

Heuropeltis 

Oncosperma 

Oroxylon 

Padbruggea 

Paederia 

Palaûiuia 

Parkia 

Pentapetes 

Phoebe 

Pithecelobiura 

Plancbonella 

Pothos 

Premna 

Pterospermum 

Pygeum 

Quercus 

Sandoricum 

Saraca 

Schefflera 

Seme carpus 

Shore a 

Sindora 

Sonneratia 

Sterculia 

.Streblus 

Syzygium 

Tetracera 

Tetrameles 

Tournefortia 

Vatica 

Vitex 

Walsura 

Zanthoxylum 

Zollingeria 

(3) DRY EVERGREEN FOREST 

This forest type is composed of small to medium-sized trees. Their 

trunks are straight or twisted, seldom exceeding 12 inches (30 cm.) 

in diameter, and many species have stiff leathery leaves. There are 

few scattered large trees among them; woody vines are abundant, but 

herbaceous ground cover is somewhat sparse. 

Representative of the Dry Evergreen forest is the Gallery forest, 

or woodland along or close to rivers and streams (Riparian or 

Riverain forest). Although the annual precipitation may be low, as 

in the northeast, the moisture in the soil along the river banks is 

sufficient to sustain a constantly evergreen growth. Some of the trees, 

'of course, are deciduous. 

26

This forest type is rather widespread in Thailand, found in 

such areas as around Pranburi, in the upper Peninsula; at Prachuab- 

Khirikhan, in the central Peninsula; in the area of Mukdahan and elsewhere 

in the northeast; Pokadien, in. the region of Loei, in the north; and 

especially along banks of rivers or streams scattered throughout the 

country. 

Woody species occurring in this type of forest vary from one 

region to another. For example, in the Pranburi area, a dominant 

plant is Streblus zeylanicuro, constituting about 50 percent of the 

vegetation. Other trees in this dry forest include species of Vitex, 

Diospyros, Fieus, Eugenia., Aglaia, v/alsura, Hopea, Spondias, Salmalia, 

and Cratoxylon. 

Some of the trees and shrubs in the uuderstory are thorny* Woody 

constituents are species of Hydnocarpus, Murraya, Atalantia, and 

Taxotrophis. Rattans (Calamus) may also be present. Bamboos face represented 

Uy Bambusa arundJnacea, Dendrocalamus strictus and species 

of C-lgantochl "â. 

Semi-Evei-green forest; This subtype also has a wide distribution 

in Thailand. The trees are of medium stature, ranging from ^'5 "to 

60 ft. (15-20 m.), although some emergent species may attain 90 ft. 

(30 m.). Usually they have straight trunks, with a diameter of 12 to 

2k inches (30-60 cm.). The majority of the trees shed their leaves, 

at some period of the year, but in general this subtype has a Semi- 

Evergreen appearance. 

Typical of a Semi-Evergreen forest is found around Tak, in the 

northwest. Important constituents of this subtype in that area are: 

Afzelia xylocarpa, Alangium salvifolium, Cassia garrettiana 'and £._ 

siaraea, Chukrasia velutina," Dal berg ia cultrata, Dillenia sp., 

Dipterocarpus tuberculatus, Eryxhrophloeum teysmsjinii, Garuga pinnata, 

Hopea odorata, Lagerstroemia I'lo.i-regina, Michelia champaca, Pterpcarpus 

macrocarpus, Terminalia tom'antosa and Vitex putescens. 

MONTANE FOREST 

Changes in vegetation, corresponding to increasing altitudes, are 

just as striking in the moist tropics as they are in temperate regions. 

As we ascent a forest-clad mountain slope, such as in northern Thailend 

for example, there is a decided change in the fioristic composition 

and structure of the vegetation. .The luxuriant Rain and 

Moist Evergreen forests are gradually replaced by trees of entirely 

different, species olio, even genera, and generally of smaller dimensions. 

The Montane forest commences at an altitude of approximately 

3,000 ft. (1,000 ra.) and extends to the cre^t of high mountains to 

at about 8,000 ft. (2,^00 ra.). In-between the Upper Moist Evergreen 

forest and the Montane forest there is usually a transitional belt of 

'27

forest; The Montane forest may be subdivided into: (a) Lower 

Montane; and .(b) Upper Montane. 

(a) Lover Montane; A typical example of this sub-type is found ' 

in the Khao Yai National Forest, central Thailand (Fig. 30), on fairly 

steep, veil-drained slopes and plateaus, at elevations of 3,000 to 

U,500 ft. (950-1,1*00 m.), and where the annual rainfall ranges up to 

approximately 120 inches (3,000 mm.). The forest is moderately tall 

ranging up to 60 or 75 ft. (20-25 ra.). Most of the trees have rather 

small crowns with slender branches. Their trunks are likewise more 

Slender than those in ths Rain or Moist forests, straight to fairly 

so, closely spaced, and usually without buttresses, a life-form that 

is characteristic of the Wet Evergreen forest. Woody vines are present, 

but bamboos, rattans and palms are few or absent. Herbaceous 

plants are also sparse. 

Dominant trees in the Lower Montane of the Khao Yai Forest are 

oak (Quercus) and chestnut (Castanopsis)(Fig. 30). Of the oaks, the 

most common species is Quercus flourii and of the chestnut, Castanopsis 

acumjnatissirsa. Associates of these trees are: Llthocarpus spicatus, 

Schina tfallichii, Dacrydium elatum and •Podocarpus neriifolia. This 

forest type also covers the plateaus along the summit of the range. 

There, in addition to oak species, trees of the genera Schima and 

Pacrydium appear to be dominants. Small patches of sphagnum bogs 

are found on the plateau, surrounded by trees of small stature, such 

as species of Plea, with their trunks and branches covered with mosses, 

influenced by the humid atmosphere. 

(b) Upper Montane: This forest subtype is found in northern 

Thailand, on the slopes and summit of such mountain peaks as Doi 

Sutep, Doi Inthanon and Doi Chiengdao, in the region of Chiengraai 

(Figs. 55, 56). 

The east slope of Doi Sutep, which has an altitude of 5,^50 ft. 

(1,676 m.), is covered by Dry Dipterocarp forest up to about 2,300 ft. 

(700 ra.). Between 2,300 and 3,200 ft. (700-1,000 m), the vegetation 

is an intricate mosaic of Dry Dipterocarp and Mixed Deciduous forests, 

mixed with species of temperate evergreen belt. The forest is composed 

mostly of species of oak (Quercus)and chestnut (Castanopsis). 

Oak trees attain a height of 50 to 65 ft. (16-20 m.), ana about 12 

in. (30 cm.) in diameter. A thin layer of humus and thick litter 

accumulate on the forest floor, but the undergrowth is poor, mostly 

composed matter of the ubiquitous 'khno-lan^1 grass (Imperata cylindrica). 

The southern and southwestern slopes of Doi Sutep, up to the summit, 

are occupied by low evergreen trees, such as species of Quercus, 

Helicia, Castanopsis, lAtho-arpus, Dalbergia, PhyLlanthus, Camellia 

and Molanorrhoea. The ground cover is a dense fjrowt.h of roujh grass. 

This is probably secondary growth, as a result of shifting agriculture.

Above U,000 ft. (1,200 m.), on the upper slopes near the summit 

of Doi Sutep and Doi Pay the Oak-Chestnut belt is replaced by the 

3-needled pine (Pinus khasya). Small ferns and the 'kha-luang 1 grass 

(Imperata) are the most-frequent components of the ground cover. 

On the summit the trees are dwarfed, with twisted trunks, and are 

seldom more than 25 to 30 ft. (6-10 m«) tall. Mosses and other 

epiphytes cover their trunks and branches. During February the white 

flowers of a species of Rhododendron ere conspicuous in the canopy. 

Other noteworthy plants are an epiphytic Va^cinium, and a species of 

Oneturn. with reddish'fruit and edible seeds, growing on tree trunks. 

(5) CONIFEROUS FORESTS 

As indicated, Conifers do not form an integral part of the vegetation 

of Southeast Asia, constituting, for example, less than 1 

percent of the total forested area of Thailand (Fig. 8). 

Two species are the most frequent and characteristic, namely the 

3-needled jPinus khasya, with furrowed bark, and the 2-needled Pinus 

merkusii, with scaly bark (Figs. J*9, 5^). Both species are found 

in Thailand, particularly in the north; in northern and central Laos; 

in the mountainous northern region of North Vietnam, and in isolated 

upland areas of central and southern South Vietnam, Small stands 

are also found in central and southeastern Cambodia. 

u As a forest type in Thailand, these pines are concentrated in 

the northern mountain ranges surrounding Chiengmai, where they form 

almost solid stands over a large area. In this region, they are 

found at altitudes between 2,000 and 4,000 ft. (600-1,200 m.), and 

even as high as 5,200 ft. (1,600 m.) on the mountains Doi Sutep, Doi 

Puy and Doi Inthanon, west of Chiengmai; also on the summit of Doi 

Chiengdao, northward in the direction of Fang. On the plateau of Bo 

Luang, southwest of Doi Anka at an elevation of 3,000 to ^,000 ft. 

(910-1,200 m,), there is also an extensive, pure stand of pine, 

surrounded by Moist Deciduous forest. To the west, towards the 

border of Burma, they occur in abundance between Chiengmai, Mae Hongtion 

and Mae Sariang. To the east, pines are dominant on the plateaus 

of the Pokadien mountains, in the region of Loei. They are also 

found as low as 1,300 ft. (^00 m.) in the province of Phetcbabun. The 

3-needled pine (P. khasya) is found in the upper altitudes, while the 

2-needled P. merkusif (Fig. 52) grows at lower elevations, even mixed 

at times with Mixed Deciduous forest. 

In addition to pines, other genera of Conifers are represented 

in Southeast Asia. In Thailand, for example, there are k species of 

'Podpearpus. Although widely distributed they are nowhere abundant. 

One species, P_. imbricatus, grows in Evergreen forest in the province 

of Chantaburi, in the southeast. Podocarpus 1atifoila grows in the 

region of Mae Hongson, in the northeast; and Podocarpus neriifolia 

29

has a wide distribution, occurring around Chiengmai and Chiengrai, 

in the north, and in the region of Ubon, eastern Korat plateau. 

Another species of Conifers found in Southeast Asia is Cunninghamia 

sinensis, growing naturally in South Vietnam and in South 

.China. 

(6) SWAMP FORESTS 

Vegetation in swamp lands is a characteristic feature of the landscape 

in Southeast Asia, as in other tropical regions. This shows 

a gradation from the Mangrove woodland around deltas and river 

estuaries alo..-s; the coast, in which the soil is saline for a considerable 

distance inland, caused by the tide which brings in salt 

water, to vegetation found in brackish water, and finally the type 

occurring in freshwater swamps. 

Consequently, Swarap forests may be segregated Into the subtypes; 

(a) Mangrove woodland; and (b) Freshwater woodland. 

(a) Mangrove Forest; This is a plant community controlled primarily 

by edaphic, or soil, factors (Figs. 57-63). In one sense, 

it is a specialized plant community forming a belt of varying width 

along the banks of deltas, shores, rivers and islands below high 

tide mark. This woodland is the result of constantly changing conditions 

brought about by the accumulation of alluvium deposited by 

streams and rivers, by tidal movements of salty or brackish water 

around estuaries as well as inland for appreciable distances up* 

stream, and by the effect of wave action along seacoasts on the deposition 

of silt, sand and mud. 

Under such specialized conditions, the effect of climate on the 

development of Mangrove forest is less marked than on other forest 

types, such as the Rain or Moist Evergreen forests, for exanple. 

Also, in general, the level of the ground is gradually rising and 

slowly moving farther away from the sea, as accretion seaward takes 

place, resulting from the continuous deposition of silt carried by 

rivers, especially in areas with high rainfall. As a rule, the soil 

along the margin of Mangrove forest usually contains a high clay 

fraction, is often compact, bluish and has low organic content. 

The Mangrove forest is composed of about 20 species of trees and 

shrubs forming a characteristically 1 dense, seemingly impenetrable, 

tangled evergreen mass of low forest, ranging in height fror. 6 to 

t'O ft. (2-18 m), occasionally more.*. The dominant species have 

specialized life-form features and structural adaptation to withstand 

periodical flooding and physiological dryness, and salinity 

of the water. For example, RhizopiOra candelaria, common in Southeast 

Asia, has stilt roots; species of Bruguiera have'knee 1 roots; 

30

while those of Sonneratia, Avicennia and Xylocarpus send up asparaguslike, 

pointed pneumatophores. Some dominant species are also characterized 

by a tendency toward vivipary, in which case their seeds 

germinate before falling. > 

Another outstanding feature of Mangrove forest is the zonation 

of the different tree species, with definite delineation of the dominants 

in strips or narrow belts, more or less parallel to the shore 

line. This zonation is especially observable from the air. In 

Southeast Asia, for example, Sonneratia alba, is the pioneer tree in 

the Mangrove forest. Later, it becomes mixed with Avicennia along 

the seaward margin. Hhizophora trees are on somewhat higher ground, 

while species of Bru.niiera aevelop on the landward margin, often 

extending to the extreme tidal limit of the swamps, 

Rc-nge; The coastline of Thailand measures more than 1,250 miles 

(2,000 km.) in length. A great part of this is flanked by stands of 

Mangrove of variable extent. The total area of this swamp forest is 

estimated at 725 square miles (1,620 sq. kms.). Of these, 286 square 

miles are located along the southeast coast, as far as the Cambodian 

border, and especially in the region of Khlung and Trat; and 1*39 

square miles along the east and west coasts of the Peninsula, with 

the greatest concentration in the Kra Isthmus, and extending for 

about -500 miles from Ranong in the southwest to Krabi, including 

the several islands in the Phuket bay, to the Malaysian border. 

Appreciable stands of Mangrove, composed of tall trees, grow 

along the coast of Canbodia. In South Vietnam extensive stands, 

covering about 1,600 square miles, are found along the south coast 

fiom Pointe de Canau to Cap Saint Jacques (Fig. 11). In North Vietnam 

the Mangrove forest covers a much smaller nrea, of about 360 square 

miles, confined to the coastal area northeast and southwest of 

Haiphong. 

Economic Importance: Because of the series of products obtained 

from the Mangrove forest, it is of considerable importance in the 

local economy of Southeast Asia, as In other tropical countries, In 

Thailand, it ranks next to Teak in importance. Several tree species 

are important sources of firewood. The one long in demand for charcoal, 

furnishing the best quality, is Rhizophora conjugata. In 

Vietnam, owing to long and extensive exploitation, this tree is now 

becoming scarce, ar.d io being replaced by Bruc;uiera parviflora. 

Timbers useful for rafters and general house construction are 

furnished by: Rhjlzophora conjugata, Lumnitzera coccinea, Bruguiera 

gyranorrhiza.and Carapa pbovata. Bruguiera parviflora and Avicennia 

marina furnish poles for fish traps. Lumber, of small dimension, is 

cut from Avicennia marina and Lumnitzera coccinea. Timbers furnished 

by Bruguiera gysmorhiza, Excoecaria agal.l.ocha and Lumnitzera conjugata 

are used for piling in heavy construction. 

31

Nipa Pain Association: Nipa (Hipa fruticons), or 'chak' as it 

is known in Thailand, is a palm with short, prostrate trunk, and 

pinnate leaves up to 15 or 20 ft. (5-6.5 ra.) in length (Fig. &0. 

In Thailand, as in the neighboring countries of Southeast Asia, it 

occurs around the coasts, often forming rather extensive, dense 

pure stands on the landward side of Mangrove forest, in the neighborhood 

of estuaries end streams. It attains its best development 

in sites with freshwater as well as in areas where the water is 

slightly saline. For this reason, the Nipa palm frequently grows 

in association with some of the trees characteristic of the Mangrove 

woodland. 

The Nipa palm plays a very important part in local economy. The 

leaves are used for thatch, and for this purpose it is often planted 

to supplement the supply from spontaneous or natural stands. The 

leaves are cut and plaited to make partitions for houses or to roof 

boats. In addition, they are used for such other purposes as umbrellas, 

sun hats, raincoats, coarse baskets, mats and bags. In Thailand the 

unopened leaves are used for cigarette-wrappers. The endosperm, 

covering the young unripe seed, is slightly sweet and edible, and is 

much sought in January and February. The hard mature seed seemjto 

have no particular use, although dome consideration has been given 

to crushing it for animal food, or as material for the manufacture 

of buttons. 

(b) Freshwater Swamp; The most characteristic tree in Freshwater 

swamps in Southeast Asia is the 'cajeput 1 or paper bark tree 

(Melaleuca leucadendron), of the Myrtle family (Fig. 65). Known in 

Thailand as ''hied 1 , 'samed 1 or 'samet 1 , and 'tram' in Vietnam, it is 

a small to medium-sized tree, from 10 to 30 ft. (3-10 m.) in height. 

It often forms small stands in wet soil and even in stagnant water, 

on the landward side of, but not mixed with, Mangrove woodland. 

Some ecologists consider this association to be the climax of the 

Mangrove formation. It is a vigorous and resistant tree, crowding 

out other plants, and cannot be easily exterminated by cutting or 

burning. 

Cajeput is rather widely distributed in Southeast Asia. In 

Thailand it is found scatteringly along the southeast coast, especially 

between Chontaburi and Trat. Small stands are found in the 

Peninsula, particularly in the Kra Isthmus, and elsewhere in plains 

and low valleys behind the coast. These are protected for the sake 

of the firewood they provide, when Mangrove is not available. 

Its reddish-brown wood, resembling oeech, is hard and durable 

when in contact with wet ground or sea water. For these reasons it 

is used for posts, piling and boat building. The leaves and young 

twigs yield a volatile or essential o:.I, which is transparent, of a 

greenish color, and has a strong, pungent- rdor, similar to camphor 

or cardamom oil. In Malaysia, Indc.vr-if 1 . H;KJ South China, this oil 

is one of the most popular household medicines. 

; 32

On the landward margin of Mangrove forest, a familiar plant is 

a fairly tall fern, Acrostichum aureum. It grows as scattered individuals, 

in sites Where the soil is somewhat dry, because of exposure 

to wind and sun and less impregnated with salt. But if Mangrove 

trees are cleared, and the site is slightly above sea level, 

this fern soon develops in crowded masses, 3 feet (l m.) pr more 

in height, and forming almost pure stands of several acres in extent. 

It is frequent in coastal areas of Thailand as well as in other regions 

of Southeast Asia. It is also found in Puerto Rico and elsewhere 

in the New World. 

Patches of freshwater swamps ara found in the southern Peninsula 

of Thailand. One of the most common trees scattered in such 

sites is Alstonia spathula, a small tree, usually with a twisted 

trunk, of the Dogbane family (Apocynaceae). 

One of the most characteristic trees, in Southeast Asia, in 

areas periodically inundated around lakes or along the banks of certain 

rivers, is Homonoia riparia. This is also of small dimensions, 

usually densely spaced, and forming a continuous dark green canopy. 

It is widely distributed in Thailand from Mae Hongson, in the 

northwest, to Trat, in the southeast, and as far south as the Malaysian 

border. It is one of the most frequent woody species around the 

Great Lake or Tonic* Sap of Cambodia. 

Grassy Swamps; In sections of northeastern Korat, long drought 

and occasional flash floods hinder the development of forest giwth. 

As a result, extensive grass-covered plains, or 'thung 1 , develop 

which, during the dry season, are reminiscent of dry steppes. Short, 

slender grasses predominate, which are sparse, and are not nutritious. 

During the dry period the water level in the lakes and in the 

deeply cut meandering stream beds is 15 to 20 ft. (^.5-6.5 m.) below 

the level of the plains. In the rainy season, however, the river 

beds and lakes quickly fill and flood over wide expanses, acquiring 

the appearance c. p an inland sea. The stream channels are indicated 

by low trees, shrubs and clumps ot' bamboos growing along the natural 

levees. Here and there, in lc w elevations, stands of trees, mostly 

DipterocarpUB oDtusii'oliua, appe:.vr aoove the flood waters. 

Freshwater swamps are found around lake Nong Han, at Sakhon 

Nakhon (Fig. 66), and near Borabue (Fig. 127), in northeastern Thailand; 

also the lake at Phyao, in the north; and near Nakhon Savan, in 

the central plain. 

DECIDUOUS FORESTS 

Synonyms: Monsoon forests; Seasonal

Deciduous forests are those in which some or all the trees shed 

their leaves, either entirely or in part, and usually during some 

period of the dry season. Some Evergreen trees, of course, are 

mixed with the Deciduous. Some trees, also, form new leaves before 

the old ones are shed. 

The term 'Monsoon forest' is used in Southeast Asia for this type. 

There it is readily understandable, as the forest is influenced to 

a great measure by the periodic entry of dry and rainy seasons, controlled 

by the shift of the prevailing winds at more or less definite 

periods of the year, and which are often accentuated by the trend of 

mountain ranges. The term 'Deciduous' perhaps is mere descriptive 

of the type. But because such factors as rhythm of leaf production, 

leaf shedding, flowering and fruiting are largely influenced by 

climatic conditions, the designation 'Seasonal 1 also appears to be 

applicable. 

The character of Deciduous forests varies appreciably, especially 

according to the total amount of available moisture. They range 

from moderately dense to open stands, and are composed of one or, at 

the most, two stories. Often there is a thicK underbrush of shrubs 

and undershrubs and herbaceous plants, some of which are thorny. 

Woody vines and creepers are relatively scarce. Grasses are usually 

abundant, in addition to small palms) wild pineapples and cycads. 

The layer of humus and litter is usually fairly deep. 

Deciduous forests thrive on a variety of soil types, on plains 

as well as on hill slopes. They are not selective as to site and 

elevation, although they seldom reach an altitude of 3*000 ft. 

(900 m.). 

They arc usually less complex than the Evergreen Rain or Moist 

forests. The trees vary in dimensions, according to site and soil 

conditions, from small to moderately tall, and at times attain large 

girth. Their root system is well developed and often deep. Usually 

the trunks are not heavily buttressed, are of moderate taper, and 

good form. The branches are often stout, rather wide spreading, and 

the crowns are irregular in shape to rounded. Twigs may be unarmed 

or furnished with thorns, and often bear many epiphytes. The bark 

is sometimes thick and deeply furrowed. The leaves, usually abundant* 

vary in size from medium sized to large and are often coriaceous. 

Neither the flowers nor the fruils have special distinguishing 

characteristics. The wo^s are extremely variable in-properties. 

Some show concentric growth rin,^$, caused by partial or complete interruption 

of growth during the dry season. Many of the timbers are 

important in local economy, and others are suitable for export. 

Ground-to-jrround, iir-to-ground and ground-to-air visibility is 

usually satisfactory -*n this forest. Ground mobility, also, is not 

a serious probleui. 

Deciduous forests may be separated into 2 broad types: Mixed 

Deciduous; and Deciduous Dipterocarp forest.

(7) MIXED DECIDUOUS FOREST 

This forest type is veil distributed throughout continental 

Thailand, especially in the north and northeast (Figs. 67-69, 79). 

It is among the most valuable assets of Thailand, as a source of 

timbers, particularly teak. Bamboos also occur in abundance, constituting 

important articles for domestic use and for trade. Some 

species develop readily when, the forest is cutover, or when clearings, 

are made for shifting agriculture. 

Mixed Deciduous forest nay be divided into 2 subtypes: 

Mixed Deciduous; and (b) Dry Mixed Deciduous forest. 

(a) Moist 

(a) Moist Mixed Deciduous forest: This subtype occurs in wellwatered 

areas, with an annual precipitation of 50 to 80 inches 

(1,270-2,030 mm.), and where the onset of the dry season is marked, 

at. least, by a brief leafless period. The total amount of rainfall 

is probably less important in the development of this forest suotype 

than its seasonal distribution, and the length and severity of the 

dry season. 

This forest is fairly dense and tall, but is less luxuriant than 

the Rain forest. It shows a definite tendency toward dominance by 

a single family or genus. Sometimes it may be characterised by a 

single or few gregarious species, as in the case of teak (Tectona 

grandis),, which is dominant in certain areas. In parts of northern 

Thailand, for example, teak constitutes a high proportion of the 

Moist Deciduous forest, and is considered the country's most valuable 

timber (Figs. 71-74). It is estimated that the Teak forests 

of Thailand cover about 25,000 square miles (65,000 sq. kms.). In 

addition, there are approximately 5,000 sq. miles (13,000 sq. tons.) 

of Mixed Deciduous forest, as in the northeast, in which Teak trees 

are absent. 

(b) Dry Mixed Deciduous forest: In this subtype are grouped 

forests with less than 50 inches (1,270vmm.) of annual rainfall, 

mostly in the rainy season, followed by 6 or more months of dry to 

very dry season. Most of the rain falls in heavy showers with quick 

runoff, and therefore has less effective soil penetration. In 

general, this forest is definitely less luxuriant and less complex 

than the Rain forest or even the Moist Mixed Deciduous forests. It 

is relatively simple in structure, with a single story, but occasionally 

with two stories, and dominant tr.;es measure from 50 to 75 feet 

(16-22 m.) in height. The canopy is often uneven, not dense, and in 

some areas with open-spaced trees and shrubs. Many of the trees have 

a straight, clean trunk of fairly large dimension; others are twisted, 

with low branches and flat or umbrella-shaped crown. Both trees and 

shrubs are leafless during the dry season, .although some evergreens 

may be present. The leaves range in size from small, finely-pinnate 

or simple digitate to larê and leathery. Woody vines, epiphytes 

and ferns are few. Stilt roots and plank buttresses are almost 

35

completely absent. The undergrowth consists of bamboos, especially 

Bambusti arundinacea and Dendrocalamus strictus; and a grass cover up 

to 3 feet (1m.) tall, composed mainly of species of Andropogon. 

The dominant and most characteristic tree in the Dry Mixed Deciduous 

forest in northern Thailand, especially around Lampang, Ngao 

and Prae, is Teak (Tectona grandis). Trees commonly associated with 

Teak in this forest are: Acacia catechu, Anogeissus 1atifolia, Cassia 

fistula, Terminalia tomentosa, Pterocarpus macrocarpus, and species 

of Dalbergia and Diospyros. 

The Dry Mixed Deciduous forest yields a series of timbers in 

addition to certain minor forest products. Among useful timbers, in 

addition to Teak, are: Adina cordifolia, Afzelia xylocarpa, Dalbergia 

barjenais^ D. dongnaiensis and D. Oliverii, Erythrophloexim succirubrum 

and E. teysmanj-i, Diospyros mollis, Nauclea orientalis Pberocarpus 

macrocarpus, Tetrameles nudiflora, Vitex peduncularis, and Xylia kerrii. 

Minor foreFt products furnished by this forest type include: 

tannin from species of Terminalia, Anogeissus, Acacia and Diospyros. . 

Cut'jh, also a tanning material, is obtained from Acacia catechu, and 

myrobalan from Terminalia chebula. A red dye is> extracted from 

sappan wood (Caesalpinia sappan); a yellow olye from Curar.ia ,iavanensis; 

and a fast, shiny-black dye from the fruit of Diospyros rnollis.- 

A large proportion of the population in Southeast Asia lives within 

the range of Deciduous forests. Most of the food crops, including 

vegetables and citrus fruits, as well as such fiber-yielding plants 

as cotton and kenaf are grown in the type of land where this forest 

flourishes. 

(8) DECIDUOUS DIPTEROCARP FOREST 

This forest type occupies vast tracts in northern, central and 

northeastern Thailand, out is sparse in the Peninsula. It covers 

about 57,000 square miles (lU2,OCO sq. kms.), equivalent to about 

45 percent of the country's total forested area. In Vietnam, Laos 

and Cambodia, likewise, it is the predominant and most extensive forest 

type. In general appearance it is of open nature, with trees mostly 

small to medium in size. It corresponds to what French ecologists 

and foresters, who have studied the vegetation of Indochina, classify 

as 'forets Claires'. The soils are generally sandy, gravelly, or 

lateritic, and have a profound influence on the nature and composition 

of this forest type. 

The tree species are more or less mixed, although there is a 

tendency towards gregariousness, with dominance by one or a few tree 

species. Dipterocarp trees which predominate in thio forest include: 

Dipterocarpus intricatus, D. obtusifolius and D. tuberculatus, Pentacme 

siamensis and Shorea obtusa. 

36

The Deciduous Dipterocarp forest is of economic importance as a 

source of commercially useful timbers, such as: Afzelia xylocarpa, 

Bipterocarpus alatus, Irvingia malayana, Sindora siamensis, Terminalia 

tomentosa and Shorea floribunda. 

The constant demand for durable timbers for railroad ties and 

feeavy construction, for domestic use and for. export, causes a heavy 

drain on this forest capital. In addition, the Deciduous Dipterocarp 

forest furnishes posts for fences and firewood. 

Minor forest products obtained from this forest include: dammar, 

a soluble resin, from Shorea obtusa and Pentacne siamensis; wood-oil, 

tzsed for torches, from Dipterocarpus alatus, D. o'btusifolius and D. 

Ititricatus; seeds of nux-vomica from a small tree, Strychnos nuxwomica, 

which contain between 1.21 and 1.81 percent of strychine; 

parinarium oil, used for waterproofing locally-made umbrellas, is 

obtained from seeds of Paxinarium annamense, scattered throughout 

ssprtheast Thailand; and a viscid oleo-resin from Melanorrhea usitata, 

used as a varnish to cover lacquer ware, so popular in Thailand. 

Dry Dipterocarp Forest; This subtype, which may also be called 

Bwarf Dipterocarp forest, occupies regions where the annual precipitation 

is low, the physical conditions are such that only a fraction 

of the rainfall becomes available to the trees, or the soil may be 

sso impregnated with soluble substances as to produce halophytic con-' 

dLitions. 

In Thailand, Dry Dipterocarp forest is frequent along the margin 

csf the western plains, around Banpong and Kanchanaburi, and in the 

bmsin of the Khwae Noi and Khwae Yai rivers; along the border of the 

tapper plain, in the region of Tak; between Thoern and Lampang, in 

tribe north; in the triangle between Chiengmai, Mae Kongson and Mae 

Sariang, in the northwest; in the Korat plateau, in the northeast; 

aad in the region of Surin and Ubon, in the east. 

In areas where this forest subtype flourishes, the upper soil 

laorizons have suffered accumulative weathering. In many sites they 

fcsave a laterite horizon, sometimes exposed at the surface, or else- 

•wiiere it may be deep. The presence of this forest usually indicates 

previous sandy soils, subjected to long drought and are poor in plant 

mitrients. As a result, the trees are usually stunted, measuring 15 

to 30 feet (^.5-9.5 m.) tall. In some aread, such as between Thoern 

and Lampang, they may be even smaller, averaging from 10 to 15 feet 

(3-4.5 m.) in height. 

This forest subtype is a form of transition between the Deciduous 

forest and Thorn forest. The trees may have upright trunk or it may 

fee twisted, and often with a thick, deeply furrowed bark, and large, 

leathery leaves. During the dry season the tree trunks, branches and 

Jteaves are r.Mckly covered with red dust, especially along the roadsides, 

giving rise to the term 'pa daeng 1 (red forest), by which this 

37

forest subtype is generally known in Thailand (Fig. 90). The 

flowers are usually small but brightly colored, and the flowering 

period is short. Fruits are abundant; the seeds nave a high germination 

rate, and are viable for long periods. The woods vary in 

density, and are often higher than average in weight, hardness, 

durability and richness of color. 

Dominant and characteristic trees in this forest are: Dipterocarpus 

tuber'julajms, furnishing timber for house posts; and D. obtusifolius, 

its large leaves in some areas utilized for thatch and temporary 

walls or partitions. In drier zones, with poor soils, these 

are replaced by Pentacme siamensis and Shorea obtusa. In the Korat 

plateau, where the soil is mostly sandy with occasional outcrop of 

basalt, Shorea obtusa and its associates grow on sterile sandstone, 

whereas in basaltic soil Pentacme siamensis shows a significant increase 

. 

As a rule the stands of trees, generally, are so distributed 

that their crowns rarely touch. Also, the foliage is sparse so that 

even at the height of the wet season the sun's rays penetrate to the 

ground, and much of the rain that falls soon evaporates. The ground 

cover is composed of coarse grasses, including the frequent 'kha-luang' 

(Imperata cylindrica), intermixed with a cycad. Of baraboos present 

in some areas, tne most frequent are: the slender 'mai ruak 1 (Thyrsos- 

•cachys siamensis), and the armed "phai-pha 1 (Bambusa arundinacea). 

Ground-to-ground and air-to-ground visibility, as well as ground 

mobility, are generally satisfactory in this forest. 

(9) THORN FOREST 

This forest type is rather extensively developed in Thailand, 

as in the other Mekong basin countries (Figs. 96-97). It occurs in 

areas with very low annual precipitation, usually 40 inches (1,000 nnu) 

or less, high temperatures, and long periods of drought. It is found 

in infertile, almost bare, sandy soils. The vegetation is composed 

of dense clumps of small trees, shrubs, bamboos and occasionally cacti. 

Many of the characteristic plants in this growth are armed with sharp 

spines (Fig. 9&), whence the term Thorn forest. Such thorny plants 

are frequently abundant on plains and well-drained slopes, along 

trails, and in the vicinity of habitations, whereas plants without 

thorns are relatively few or absent in ouch sites. One probable 

reason i'or this is that buffalo or ox-drawn carts move constantly 

along these trails, and it is only the armed plants that are able to 

withstand or lo survive excessive browsing by cattle. 

In Thailand Thorn forest is abundant in the upper Peninsula; 

in the region of Banpong and Kanchanaburi, in the west; and scattered 

throughout central Thailand and the Korat Plateau in the northeast. 

Characteristic trees, all of which are deciduous, Ln this forest type

include: Bornbax (Salmalia) insigne, Zizyphus cambddiana, Azadirachta 

indica, Terminal la glaucifolia, Vitex sp., Spondias pinnata, Churasia 

velutina and Croton hutchinsonianus. Dominant" shrubs are: 

Randia dumetorum, with very long, sharp spines; Feronolla lucida, a 

slender shrub with small, but very sharp thorns; FlacourtTa Inttica; 

and a species of Bauhinia. 

These trees and shrubs are intermixed with certain species of 

bamboos. Tne most frequent of thece, forming dense, almost impenetrable 

brakes up to 15 or 20 ft. (^.5-6.5 ra.) tall, in the thorny 

'phai-pha 1 (Bambusa arund inacea). Another frequent bamboo, generally 

in small but fairly tall clumps, is 'mai ruak 1 (Thyrsostachys siaraensis), 

which is often planted around farmhouses for live fence. Cacti, especially 

species of 'prickly pear 1 (Opuntia), may also be present. 

Identical plants constitute the Thorn forest of South Vietnam, Cambodia 

and Laos. 

Ground-to-ground and air-to-ground visibility is favorable in 

this type of vegetation, although ground mobility would be somewhat 

hampered by the dense clumps and the spines present on many of the 

plants dominant in this growth. 

(10) BEACH WOODLAND 

On open sandy shores of Thailand, as in other countries of the 

Indo-China peninsula and elsewhere, there is usually a formation of 

low-growing, trailing, herbaceous plants. The most constant, and 

often the dominant, plant is Ipoemoea pes-caprae, which is of pantropical 

distribution. Other common plants in this formation are 

species of Canavalia, of the bean or pulse family, and Spinlfex. 

These plants are halophytic, thriving in soil with high saJt content, 

and are not harmed by occasional submergence. 

On several stretches of shore around the Gulf of Thailand there 

is a gradual transition from the Pes-caprae formation to a dense, 

woody type of vegetation on higher elevation, beyond tidal reach, 

consisting of shrubs and small to medium-sized trees, mostly deciduous. 

The trees in the littoral woodland are frequently felled 

for firewood, or cleared for agricultural purpose and for the planting 

of coconut, so that this forest type is best developed only in 

thinly populated areas. 

A stretch of undisturbed Beach Woodland occurs at Huay Yang, between 

Frachuab-Khirikhan and Chumphon, along the east coast of the 

Peninsula. This woodland forms what appears to be an almost solid 

wall behind the low-growing plants on the foresh./re (Fig. 99). But 

in some sites the trees may be in scattered groups with intervening 

small, open spaces suggesting a savanna, covered with rough grasses, 

mostly Imperata cylindrica. The trees measure up to 40 or 50 ft. 

(12-16 m.) in height, are closely spaced and the undergrowth is 

39

somewhat difficult to penetrate. Their trunks are often gnarled, 

and the bark is scaly, rough. The wood is usually heavy, hard and 

durable. 

Dominant trees in this vegetation are: Manilkara. hexandra,, alco 

Terminalia pierrei and T. mucrcnata, Odina wodier,~~Crirtoxyl.on formosun, 

Garcinia cornea, Pterospermum semisagittatum, Diospyros variegata and • 

—' g.hretibides, and Cordia dichotoma. 

Inland from the Beach woodland at Ifuay Yang, the evergreen Acacia 

coinosa. forns a dense, continuous stand. This small, leguminous tree 

is of secondary growth, developing readily where clearings have been 

made in the inland forest, bordering the Beach woodland. It merges 

into a Mixed Deciduous forest, or Dry Evergreen growth along streams 

or in sites where there is more abundant soil moisture. 

In addition to the above-named trees, other woody species in the 

inland Deciduous forest are: Dipterocarpus alatus, Afzelia xylocarpa, 

DialJura cochinchinensis, Lagerstroemia tomentosa, Melanorrhea usitata, 

Fagraea eachincninese, Garcinia cornea, Mangifera cnloncura, Bombax 

1 Salmal i a) i n s igne, Erythrophloeum succirubrum, otereospermum t'imbriatum, 

Spondias pinnata and Wrightia tomentosa. 

Other constant and characteristic trees along the coasts are: 

the cosmopolitan Terminalia catappa, Calophyllum inophyllum, Barrington 

i a 3pp., and a pand'an'" (Pandanus tectorius)", widely distributed in 

Southeast Asia. Casuarlna equi£êTi7olia 'is also planted or grows 

spontaneously, especially on rapidly accreting shores, at river 

estuaries and on sand spits (Fig. 100). Another species of Cauuarina, 

C. junghuhniana, is often planted with _C. equisetifolia, as windbreak 

along seashores. Most of these trees seldom occur inland, although 

some of them are not tolerant of saline water. 

(11) BAMBOO BBAKES 

Bamboos represent one of the most gregarious plant associations 

in Southeast Asia. They occur in Thorn, Moist Mixed Deciduous, Dry 

Misted Deciduous, Dipterccarp, as well as in Wet or Moist Evergreen 

forests, forming an important component of the vegetation of Southeast 

Asia as in other tropical regions. Because of similar topography, 

soil and climatic conaitions, bamboos are widespread and 

abundant in Thailand, North and South Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia. 

In a particular bamboo brake there is usually one predominant species, 

but the general structure, and habit of the formation remainj the 

same. 

In Thailand, the following genera are represented: Bambusa^, Cephalostachyum, 

De nd r o eal amus, Gigantochloa, Ox yt e nan t he r a and TiiyrjpstacMiys"Individual 

species have well developed habitats, and for 

this reason they may be taken as indicators of different forest types. 

For example, Bambusa blumenea is frequently grown along canals, .or

1 , and around farmyards; the arneci Bambusa arundjnacea 

occurs on rich moist soil, such as or. alluvTal stretches along 

streams, as well as on poor soil, Rtich as we find in northeastern 

Thailand; 0/ylenanthera albo- eillata -rows on low plateaus or hills, 

on satvty or lateritic aoilu; l)enar o calamus strictus does well in 

Mixed Deciduous forest or in open areas on stony hillsides, extending 

into drier conditions nixed with otht..- bamboo species; 

Thyrspstachy s sj/imerrGij-': is alfjo frequently planted as live fence 

and around farmyards, and is especially common in Thorn forest, on 

dry well-drained slopes and in impoverished soils. 

Dry bamboo forest is moot extensively developed in the upper 

I'eninG'ila and in the west and northwest in the basin of the Maeklon^ 

river, formed by trie unio.-i of the Khuae Yai and Khwae iloi. These 

two tributaries flow southeasterly froi.i the herder cf Burr.a, have a 

wide ran.ê of water level, characteristic of rivers influenced by 

the monsoon. i)vri;v; the dry season when the water is shallow, 

stretches alorv; the banks below the hi.;h water level are covered with 

shrubs or low trees, especially "onionoia riparla and Eugenia ripiccla 

(ri>*> 

!; 3), whiiih are submerged during the rainy season and when the 

rivers are flooded. A belt of 'rnai phai 1 (Bambusa arundinacea) marks 

the hi^h water level. Its lony. Rracefia c-alns, -KJ to 50 feet (12-16 m.) 

Ion-, often extend over the water (Fir;. 101). Scattered among these 

bamboo brakes are medium-aized to tall trees normally found in Dry 

Evergreen or deciduous forests. The bamboo brakes extend for a considerable 

distance from the streams, coveririr; plains of aggradation, 

foothills and higher lyin~ flats. Away fror. the rivers, or. dry, infertile 

joils, 'nai ruak' (Th.vr son t a c hy s siamensis', oecor.es dominant, 

occasionally :n.l::ed v/ith such Dipterojaro trees as I'er'.tacmq siar.ensis 

an '* j]]£££ a ££±li£^' ^r' 1Ci ^°^ - n these bamboo brakes is almost bare of 

unier ;rc'.t;!, anr! '.luring tlie dry season it is covered with dry bamboo 

leaves. 

'Mai r.iak 1 (Thyrso.jtach.vs stamenîa) is also widespread in the Korat 

plateau and alon/^ the western margin of the central plain of Thailand, 

^roviiv: in small clumps an.i is cfton planted around farmhouses for 

windbreak and .live fences (Ki~. 103). In scr.e zones this is replaced 

by 'mai pah" (Oxyi-.enanthera ri.i;:rc>-cillata), vhile in parts of northern 

Thailand 'mai lai* (pxyter.anthera albo-ciliata) is a dominant species. 

Bamboos, especially BtuTi_bus_a arundinacea, Dendrpoalamus str ictus and 

T l-.yr s o a t a c hy s sj. amen sis, form extensive brakes in the undergrowth in 

outover areas in the Teak forest of northern Thailand. To obtain 

natural regeneration o." forest trees it is necessary to cut the bamboo 

repeatedly. Frequent .cutting and maintenance of suitable overhead 

canopy, particularly on unfavorable soils, causes the bamboo to 

deteriorate or leads to its complete eradication. Chemical sprays 

have been tested, with-satisfactory Jesuits, to control bamboo under 

such conditions. 

Clearing of Hain or Moist LVerrjreen forests also creates conditions 

'+1

favorable for the establishment of bamboo brakes. This appears to 

be the case in the development of brakes of Oxytenan thera albo-ciliata 

along the Khwae Noi and Khwae Yai rivers, in western and -northwestern 

Thailand. Here scattered solitary trees of the tall 'yang' (Dipterocarpus 

alatus) and 'inthanin 1 (Laserstroemia. flos-x-egiane) still romain 

as remnants and indicators of the original Moist Livergreen 

forest, which prevailed in such sites. 

Bamboos are ready colonisers, and when not wanted they are difficult 

to eradicate although, as indicated, they can be controlled to 

some extent by chemicals. Many bamboos, also, are fire resistant. 

Following clear cuhting of Teak forest, for example, or by burning, 

the land is soon restocked by bamboo which produces new culms from 

the perennial subsurface rhizomes. Certain bamboo species also invade 

clearings which have remained fallow following shifting cultivation, 

or the 'rai' system, widely practiced in Southeast Asia. Because 

of the vigorous growth of their rhizomes, they discourage or 

suppress other species of bamboo, even some of the more common hardy 

weeds, including the ubiquitous Eupatorium odoratum or Imperatu cy_- 

lindrica, as well as tree species. 

The growth of a bamboo formation is generally uniform, and usually 

reaches its maximum height in a very short period. Pejuvenatior. 

of the formation is continuous, year after year, by means of seedlings 

or young culras from the sane plant. A typical bamboo in tne dry forest 

blossoms after a vegetative growth of 20 to 30 years. Soon after 

flowering and seeding old culms of most species wither, then break off 

and fall as a result of decay. This usually occurs in the wet reason. 

The stand may regenerate from seedlings vhich develop in the succeeding 

rainy season, or sometimes from new culms sprouting from underground 

rhizomes. Thus, a rhythm of death and regrowth characterizes the 

bamboo formation. 

In the local economy of Southeast Asia bamboo is considered, 

next to rice, the staff of life. In many areas it is one plant material 

that is sufficiently cheap and plentiful to fill the tre-nendous 

daily requirements. It figures so prominently that the majority of 

the people would be destitute without it. The almost infinite uses 

of this versatile plant range from providing shelter, in the -form of 

cncap, rapidly built homes, to numerous articles in daily use, including 

food such as fresh or preserved young shoots, and materials 

for fishing, or for the manufacture of paper pulp. 

Once establishes under favorable environmental conditions, bamboo 

requires little '-v M attention beyond occasional thinning to keep 

the clumps in vigorous condition. It requires no elaborate or costly 

machinery to harvest, transport, or to manufacture the many objects 

that fill the endless needs of the natives. Living bamboo, such aii 

ThyrsoGtac hys siamensls, with suitable growth and it; small clumps, 

is planted for fences around corrals, and for fishing poles. Almost 

every farmhouse, hamlet or village in the great central plain of •

Thailand is surrounded by the tall, graceful Bambusa blumcnea, 

which provides shade or serves as windbreak (Fig. 1037Îts culms 

are used for making furniture and household utensils; for building 

granaries and bridges; rain gutters and water-conducting pipes. 

Coarse strips of the culms also are woven into crates for snipping 

pigs, poultry and garden produce; excelcior-like scrapings s«jrve for 

stuffing pillows and mattresses, for caulking boats and to strengthen 

plaster; coarse fiber is used for cordage and for making sandals; 

refined, processed fiber yields collulose for paper and rayon; poles 

of various dimensions are used for making ladders, rakes, tool handles, 

stakes to support trees, and other articles. 

A large number of people in Thailand,and in the adjoining countries, 

eke a living from fishing, especially during the offseason between 

the planting and harvesting of paddy rice. By virtue of its 

versatility, bamboo supplies many of the fisherman's needs. It is 

used for making traps, weirs, sluices, poles for hook-and-iine fishing 

and for punting, and to stretch nets for drying, also for spears, 

floats, trays to dry fish, and baskets to transport them. 

(12) SAVANNA 

The term 'savanna' is a vernacular term, probably of Carjb origin. 

Tropical savannas, such as we find in Southeast Asia, are usually 

dominated by grasses, with an. admixture of herbaceous plants, and 

with or without widely dispersed shrubs and small trees. Voody species, 

however, are seldom absent. Compaied with regions of Tropical America, 

with similar climate, there is a comparative scarcity of grassland 

fir open wooded savanna jn Southeast Asia. 

In Thailand stretches of open flat or rolling grassland savanna 

tire found south of the Kra Isthmus in the region of Ranong, on the 

western sidn of the central Peninsula (Fig. 108). There the grass 

is low, mixed with small herbaceous plants, and occasional tufts of 

small shrubs. Some of these grass savannas are dominated by the 

widespread 'kha-luang 1 grass (imperata cylindrical). They are apparently 

secondary grasslands which have developed after the clearing of 

patches of Evergreen or Deciduous forests for shifting agriculture, 

followed by repeated annual burning. 

Another type is wooded savanna (Fig. 106). This is more widespread 

in Thailand than open grass savanna. Stretches of this type 

occur in the eastern region, arouivi Surin, Ubon, Fhibun Mangsahan, and 

towards the .border of south Laos; in the northeast between Konkaeri, 

and Kalasin and nâr Nakhon Phanom; northward from Konkaen to Udo.n, 

as far as Nongkhai in the upper Mekong river; and in the north, in 

limited areas between Tak, Thoern and Lampang. Other areas of wooded 

savanna ere found in the west on rolling hills around Banpong, Kanchanaburi, 

and in the basin of the Khwae Noi and Khvae Yai rivers; 

and farther to the northwest between Mae Sariang and Mae Hongson.

These wooded savannas are Influenced by the T.ionroon climate, The 

soil is usually improverished. Consequently, ^he trees are of small 

dimensions, usually not exceeding 30 ft. (10 ni.) in height, and 

thc-ir crowns seldom touch. They are dominated by members of the woodoil 

family (Dipterocarpaceae), especially Shore a obtusa, Pent aone 

siar.er.rrio, and Dlpterocarpiis obtusifolius. 'LTfe""êneraT landscape 

often has a park-like appearance. 

These savannas are burned over annually, but several of the trees, 

as wel] as Gone grasses, particularly Impcrata cylint'.rira, and cer- • 

tain herbaceous plants, Including Hupatorium odoratu:n, are capable 

of surviving jround fires. If recurrent fires were eliminated, resulting 

in t.he gradual restoration of the soil to its original condition 

of fertility, it is possible that the open rprassland savanna, 

a's well as wooded savanna, would be replaced by a Deciduous type of 

forest, especially the Dry Dipterocarp forest widespread in northeastern 

Thailand. Where the savanna woodland extenas to streams or 

rivers, the hij.'.h soil moisture content close to or alonn the banks 

is sufficient to support a Krinînf, or Gallery forest, of the Dry 

'Sver^reon type, already discussed. Because of the open nature of s. 

savanna, whether grassland or wooded, ground-to-ground anri ai r- t,op.round 

visibility is usually most favorable. Ground mobility also 

is satisfactory, since the soil usually forms a hard pan during the 

dry season. 

GROUND STUDIES OF GTRUCTLTHE O. ;1 

THAI FOixb'STS 

About the middle of 19^3 the Bangkok of'jce of AHPA's Research 

and Development ield Unit arranged, on contract basis, with Mr. Tern 

orut.inand, forest botanist of the Hoyal Forest Department of Thailand, 

to organize a field team, with the objective of making profiles and to 

assemble, data on the principal types of forests in Thailand. The team 

recruited is composed of p our or more forest rangers, mostly graduates 

of the Forestry School at Kasetsart University, accompanied by technicans 

to gather soil samples, and others to serve as assistants and 

drivers (i iG. 121). 

Under the direction of I,t. Col. V.'.R. Scheible (U3AF) of ARPA, this 

project commenced in Aufûst 1 C XX3 w i"th the study of selected sites in 

the Kliao Khieo forest, in the Korat area of central Thailand. Since 

that time a larê series of profiles has been made, covering almost 

the entire country. Two weeks are usually spent in a selected area, 

to prepare profiles and to gather data -and plant materials. These 

are evaluated later during a period of one or two weeks at the Forest 

Department in Bangkok, immediately following each field trip. 

briefly, the procedure followed is to select a representative plot 

of about two acres in a particular type of forest. A rectangular 

strip is staked in the sample plot. The width of the transect is 

kh

usually 30 ft. (10 m.). rê length varies from 120 ft. (40 m.) upwards, 

depending upon the type and density of the forest, .and the 

number of species encountered within the plot. In a Dipterocarp 

forest, which is relatively homogeneous, the length may be only 90 ft. 

(30 m.); in a Dry Evergreen forest, 120 ft. (-'-0 m.); while in an Everyrsen 

Rain or Moist forest, which is more complex and with many 

varied species, the length should be at least 180 ft. (60 m.). 

All trees, shrubs, vines, palms, bamboos, ferns, rattans and herbaceous 

plants in and around the transect site are identified botan- 

Ically as far as possible, and recorded on the spot (Fig. 123). A 

record is also made of useful, edible or hazardous plants. Herbarium 

materials are collected from nlarvbs which cannot be identified 

immediately, anu are deposited at the Thai Forest Department for 

later determination t A record is also made of data relating to the 

forest community - its physiognomy, structure, location, altitude, 

exposure, aspect, drainage and Glope of the plot. The position of 

each tree on the fcase line, in the transect, and its distance from 

thf. base are determined and listed; also the height and girth of 

trunks, width of crown and anr^le of branches are reported; and density 

of foliage of individual tree is evaluated. These data are reproduced 

in a profile diagram drawn to scale. At the same time notes 

are token on the nature, amount and depth of litter. Samples of top 

and sub-soils are collected, for mechanical and crx nical analysis 

(Fif 1 ;. 12H), accompanied by a record of depth, color and texture of 

respective samples taken from different horizons in the transect. 

Another phase of the project, designed to neet military requirements, 

is to determine ;ro!ii:d-tc-,;jround. and ^round-tn-air visibility. 

Several methods have oeen considered. One simple system adopted, 

to evaluate horizontal visibility in a sample plot, i for a man to 

:stand in a selected spot, while a second man paces in a straight line 

alone one of the cardinal poir.ts through the underbrush until he is 

no longer visible. This is. repeated on the other cardinal points. 

The extreme distance at; which the person or object is visible in 

each direction is recorded to compute the average. This is taken as 

the index i'or that forest community and at t ;% at particular time of day, 

To evaluate ,ground-to-air visibility, or penetrability through trio 

canopy, a series -of olack-rind-'.' 1 ute photot i ;rapp.s are taken at each 

sample plot. The equipment used is a Kodak K

A large number of such profiles have been made throughout Thailand, 

covering the principal forest types and subtypes occurring in 

that country, and which are typical of the other Mekong basin countries. 

When these field studies are completed the considerable -amount 

of data gathered on the various forest assocatiom or types will have 

to be categorized and prepared into a final report. /Then completed, the 

project fulfills important phases of military science, such as the 

problems of mobility, defoliation, perceptibility, by providing more 

precise information on the physiognomy and composition of diverse 

forests scattered over the major portion of Thailand. In addition, 

this information will be of considerable scientific value, contributing 

to a better knowledge of the floristic composition and structure 

of diverse forest associations occurring in Thailand-and for 

comparison with the vegetation of the adjacent Makong basin countries. 

AERIAL STUDIES uF TROPICAL FORESTS 

In former years forest inventories were carrie jut entirely 

on the ground. However, the value of aerial surveys, either to supplement 

ground studies or to expedite the task of making forest inventories, 

has aroused considerable interest among foresters and in the 

forest industry during the last '(0 years. 3in.ce the second World War, 

in particular, aerial photographs have been uaed on an increasing 

scale in the United States, Canada, Europe; and other countries, and 

are already established as a method to cor duct inventories and 

ecological studies of forests. There are regions in North America 

where coasiderable saving has been achieved by the U.S. Forest Service 

through the use of aerial photographs, for example to spot insect 

infestation, and thereby reducing expensive ground work. 

As already pointed out, a characteristic feature of certain 

forest types, such as the Rain or Moist Evergreen ; forest of Southeast 

Asia, as in other tropical regions, is their complex nature, 

composed of numerous species ranging from tall trees, to shrubs, 

woody vines, palms, low herbaceous plants. Tropical forests consist 

of a large variety of plant communities. It is particularly 

important to reduce the ground work in tropical forests, where such 

task is both laborious and expensive in time and money because of 

the nature of the forests, the climate, and often lack of communications. 

For these reasons, it is anticipated that increasing importance 

will be attached to aerial photography as a means of expediting 

the study of tropical forests or at least to complement 

ground studies. 

Pnoto sampling in Thailand: Accompanied by Lt. Col. W. R. So 

Col.Prasart Mokhaves, and Dr. L. T. Burcham of ARPA, and Mr. Tem 

Smitinand of the Thai Royal Forest Department, a brief reconnaissance 

was made in a helicopter, in November 1963, of the Khao Yai National 

it 6

Forest, covering an approximate area of 350 square miles in south- "*" 

western Korat. 

A few days previously, Mr. Tern and I made a ground survey of a 

section of this forest, to identify and to determine the characteristics 

of dominant or most frequent trees at increasing altitudes 

in Lowland Moist Evergreen or Deciduous .stands to Hill Moist Evergreen 

and Sub-Montane forest on the upper slopes and summit of the 

Khao Khieo range. 

With this first-hand information available we were able to recognize, 

when flying over the forest at altitudes of 1,000 to 3,000 

feet, certain tree crowns in the canopy; to delineate the transition 

from the Lowland to Hill Evergreen forest; and to observe the gradual 

merging of the Hill Evergreen into the Sub-Montane forest along the 

summit of the range. 

Further aerial observations of forest types and to locate individual 

tree species were made on a subsequent trip, in December 1963, 

from Bangkok across the Korat plateau, over Konkaen, Udon, and 

Sakhon Nakhon to Nakhon Fhanom on the Mekong river, in the northeast. 

Five more extensive flights were made during January and February, 

1965, in twin-engined 'Beechcrafb 1 planes leased from CAT by ARFA. 

On January 19, accompanied by Captain John Kelly, Jr., and Mr. 

Christman of ARPA, and Pilots Ziml and Le Tender, we flew northward 

over the central plain in the direction of Nakhon Sawan, Pitsanuloke 

to Lampang, over large extensions of Mixed Deciduous forest in which 

Teak predominates; then continued northwestward to Mae Honsong, observing 

large tracts of Dry Dipterocarp and Pine forests, and southward 

to Mae Sariang, before proceeding northeastward to Chiengrrai to refuel. 

We then continued southwestward to make aerial obi" erv at ions of 

large tracts of Dry Dipterocarp forest towards Mae Sariang, thence to 

the Salween river basin on the border of Burma, long an important 

source of Teak, before turning southeastward along the Khwae Yai 

river basin to Nakhon Fathom and Bangkok. 

On January 26, with pilot Herzig, I flew from Songkla in the 

southern Peninsula, over Moist Evergreen forest between Patalung and 

Kachawng; extensive Mangrove stands around Krabi and the islands in 

the Phuket area, in the southwest; thence northward over stands of 

Mangrove and Nipa palm in the Kra Istlimus; and extensive Deciduous and 

Moist Evergreen forests covering the flanks of the mountain range 

along the border of southeastern Burma. 

On January 28, we followed closely the southeast coast, around 

the island of Koh-Chang, almost to the Cambodian border, to make 

observations on the density and height of Margrove forest. The objective, 

also, was to ascertain whether it is possible to identify 

from the air the individual tree species that constitute the mangrove

woodland, from such features as the varying hue and density of their 

foliage; as well as to determine air-to-ground visibility in this 

special type of forest, which is of considerable importance, militarily, 

as a potential staging area. This aerial survey of Mangrove 

forest was concentrated around Khlung, Trat and the island of 

Kohchang. We then continued northward over Moist Evergreen forost, 

covering the mountain ranges between Thailand and Cambodia, in the 

direction of Aranyaprathet, Soon after leaving Aranyaprathet we 

had a mishap, when the tip, about 8 inches long, of one of the propellers 

broke off, but fortunately it did not damage the fuselage. 

We flev eastward, on a single motor, for a considerable distance 

over open Dipterocarp forest unlil we reached Ubon, where we landed 

safely. On the return journey we passed again over large extensions 

of Dipterocarp forest, in the east, and the upper Moist Evergreen 

and Lower Montane forests in the ;Chao Yai area of Kovat. 

On February 3> we flew in the CAT spray plane, piloted by Captain 

Herzig, from Bangkok over the large Hill Evergreen Moist forest in 

the Khao Yai National Forest, and Dipterocarp forest extending beyond 

Konkaen, in the Korat plateau. 

On February 6, we continued over the Pine forest characteristic 

of the high plateaus around Loei, in the northeast, Teak forest in 

the region of Lomsak and Phetchabun, and finally southward across the 

central plain to Bangkok. 

On February 9, accompanied by Dr. Robert A. Darrow, in charge of 

studies being conducted with defoliants by the Biological Laboratory 

at Fort Detrick, Maryland, an aerial inspection ras made of the test 

site near Pranburi, upper Peninsula, to observe the effects of chemicals 

on vegetation, especially from the standpoint of desiccation, plant 

survival and regrowth, and as a means of improving air-to-ground visibility. 

The weather and visibility during all flight periods were good to 

excellent. However, from early February until the end of the dry 

season visibility from the air is reduced somewhat, because of a heavy 

pall of blue-gray haze, rising from forest fires, to clear patches 

for tilling, and the burning of straw in harvested rice paddies, which 

hovers constantly over the countryside. 

Comments: Photographs, several of vViich are reproduced in this 

Report, were taken with hand-held cameras. Black-and-white panatomlc-x 

and panchromatic film (with x2 yellow filter), as well as colored 

film (Kodachromc- K-2 with haze filter) were used for comparative pui>pose. 

It was found that, as a rule, color film gives a better rendition 

than black-and-white; a more satisfactory resolution in bringing out 

densi-cy and hue of the foliage; color of bark; size and form of crowns,

trunk or branches; and in a clearer delineation of the zonation of 

forest types. 

The best time to take aerial photographs in Thailand, and probably 

elsewhere in Southeast Asia, is during the Dry Season, from 

the middle of November to the end of March. -This is the time, also, 

that all the forests are in their driest state. The most satisfactory 

interpretation is obtained from photographs taken either 

vertically, or better still at an oblique angle of about 30°, 

opposite to the direction followed by the plane; and at a speed of 

l/250th or l/500th of a second, depending upon the film-speed, and 

at an altitude of 1,000 - 2,000 ft. (300-600 m.), determined by 

weather conditions and the amount of haze in the atmosphero, which 

naturally affects the depth of visibility. 

It is usually possible to distinguish between forest and nonforested 

areas in aerial photographs, Mangrove, marshland and 

swamp forests can be classified into types, and the subtypes can 

also be recognized. This alone is a decisive advantage in making 

ecological observations or an inventory of forests, because it permits 

concentration of the ground work. 

Investigations have shown that in mangrove or swampland forests, 

stands of Rhizophora, nipa palm (Nipa fruticans), and nibung (On-- 

cpsperma filamentosa) can be identified from the air (Figs.''60^53) • 

Likewise pure stands of Melaleuca leucadendron have been identified 

in marshland forest. It should be emphasized, however, that these 

trees grow in pure or almost pure stands. Except in a few instances, 

individual tree species in certain types of forests, such as Rain or 

Moist Evergreen,can not be identified since they ore-not recognizable 

by their particular size and/or appearance. 

O.f dryland forests, such obvious types as Savanna and Dry Dipterocarp 

forest^, Lowland and Hill forests can be recognized. But in 

dense Evergreen Rain or Moist forests progress in identification of 

individual tree species is not as yet successful. In such forests 

there are extensive areas that look practically homogeneous, and one 

type merges into another without any marked zonation or sharp line of 

demarcation. Consequently their classification is often difficult. 

The principal characteristics which are possible to evaluate from 

aerial photographs are tree height, crown diameter of certain species, 

and crown coverage. 

The information obtained from aerial photographs is either directly 

visible from them or can be assessed indirectly. The sum of the 

factors of the environment that influence tree growth is measurable 

on aerial photographs, to the extent that the key factors of the 

environment can also be recognized. As indicated, tree growth is a 

function of local climate and soil. Local climate and soil moisture, 

in turn, are apt to be closely related to the topography, and topographical 

data can be classified accurately from the stereoscopic image.

Much progress has also been made in the identification of soils 

from aerial photographs. For tropical forests, however, site classification 

from photographs taken from the air is still largely an unexplored 

matter. Additional research is necessary to determine what 

other characteristics can oe interpreted from aerial photographs. 

Individual tree species have certain characteristics. Often 

these features are clearly descernible from the air, at a resaone.ble 

altitude. For example, such tall trees as certain species of Dipterocarpus 

or Lagerstroemia have straight, light-colored trunks, 

which stand out conspicuously (Figs.67,68)>even when surrounded by 

a carpet of foliage of varying shade in the most dense forest. Under 

magnification, the round bole of 'y an G' or Vyang-khao' (Dipterocarpus 

alatus) is readily distinguishable from the fluted trunk of 'tabaek' 

ftagerstroemia calyculata), for example. Fig trees (Fi3us) normally 

have a widespreadirig, umbrella-shaped crown, and corpulent branches. 

These features are brought out clearly in colored photographs taken 

from the air. Teak trees (Tectona ^randis) can be readily spotted 

from the air when in flower, between July~15 and August 15, or in ti:e 

dry period, especially during the latter part of January and February, 

from their grayish trunks and their almost entirely leafless crowns 

(Fig. 71). Para 1 rubber (Keyed) plantations can be distinguished by 

the regular form of planting, usually in a small rectangular pattern; 

in January by the yellowish color of old leaves about to fall; or 

later by their gray, leafless branches and slender, light-colored 

upright trunks. Such trees as species of Salmalia (Bnrnbax) and 

But.ea are conspicuous, at a htight of 3,000 ft. (i,000 m.) or even 

higher, by their mass of deep salnon-pink flowers. Otner trees, like 

Afzelia xylocarpa, can be spotted from the air by the size or color 

of their fruit, or the form of the crown. 

Contrary to expectation, the Mangrove forest, as seen from the 

air, is not a dense, impenetrable canopy (Figs. 61-63). Air-to-ground 

visibility in this fairly low forest is satisfactory, and solitary 

huts or craft can be spotted from the air, reflected against the 

water showing through the vegetation. Also, the donation of trees 

(Gonneratia, Aviccnnia, Rhizophora, etc.) from the sea-front towards 

the interipr is better defined in colo: film than in tlack and white. 

Moving or even still objects, such as vehicles on the highways, 

people working in rice paddies, or small craft or buffaloes in the 

khlongti, can be readily spotted in colored air photographs. 

To gain the optimal use of aerial photographs in tropical forestry, 

it is essential that the forester or ecologist should be able to 

identify the dominant tree species. In dense Rain forest, individual 

tree npecieu usually are not identifiable from the air or discernable 

from aerial photographs taken at the ucual scale. Forest type mapping 

with aerial photographs has been done on a large 3cale in the Amazon 

valley in Brazil, but to identify the tree species ground work was 

still necessary. 

50

Perhaps the most important factor in aerial photography of tropical 

forests is the utilization of hue or tones to make spectrephotometric 

measurements. The best results are obtained when few 

trees are to be identified. In the tropics the great majority of 

tree species are bread-leaved, and are more difficult to distinguish 

from one another than from coniferous trees. There is also an intraspecies 

variation in the hue of foliage. Owing to wide variations 

between them, methods based on tonal differences of foliage through 

the use of various film filter combinations are likely to be of 

small importance in species identification from aerial photographs. 

Difficulties involved in species identification are not reduced by 

xhe fact that in the dense tropical forests not all the trees are 

visible or identifiable in aerial photographs. This may be solved 

et first by concentration on the dominant trees forming the canopy, 

and by deducing from that other subordinate plants associated with 

them. 

Aerial photographs are also excellent in surface area assessment, 

in survey work to indicate roads, drainage and major topographical 

features. 

In the final analysis, an aerial reconnaissance is less expensive, 

without sacrificing accuracy, than a ground survey. It involves only 

a fraction of the time spent in conducting on-the-spot study of the 

saiue area by a team of forest-botanists and their assistants, who 

have to be transported to and from the area, housed, fed, and ncved 

around on the site. Combined aerial and ground data continue tc be the 

best means to conduct ecological studies or forest surveys. Considerable 

research still needs to be done to determine all the 

characteristics of tropical forests. 

Additional Studies in Northern Thailand: During 1955, while on 

an assignment with the Royal Forest Department of Thailand, Loetsch 

made an aerial inventory of the Teak forests of northern Thailand. 

The most important facts determined were that teak, grows scatteringly 

among other species in Mixed Deciduous forest, which has a rather low 

stock per unit area, and that, communications to the mountainous 

forests are generally very poor. The census started in 195'' -incl the 

results for the five of the provinces, representing the heart cf the 

teak-bearing area and yielding about 60 percent of teak production 

in Thailand, were completed in June 1957. 

Aerial photographs were taken on an average scale of 1: ; .8,OCO 

for the o.rea below 3,000'ft. (1,000 m.) above sea level. Teak does 

not generally occur above 3.000 ft., so that a contour line of 3>000 

ft. was marked on-all the photographs of the northern provinces. 

The area was thus divided into two main parts: that below 3>CCO ft.; 

and the other.above 3,OCC ft. The sampling technique was aimed at 

determining tne proportions of the area of the strata recognizable 

on the photographs. 

51

The following strata, according to Loetsch can be recognized 

from the photographs: 

Below 3,000 ft; 

(a) Mixed Deciduous forest - This is a Teak-bearing forest. 

There is, however, a rather high percentage of this forest type 

which does not contain any Teak. In the true teak-bearing-sites, 

the tree seldom occurs in pure stands but is scattered among other 

species. Unfortunately, the bulk of the photographs were net taken 

during the flowering season, July and August, when it is possible 

to spot teak trees. On some photographs it was possible to distinguisn 

between the substrata teak-bearing and the non-teak-bearing Mixed 

Deciduous forests. 

(b) Semi-Evergreen forest - large trees of the genus Hopea and 

Dipterocarpus alatus could clearly be recognized as white spots on 

small-scale photographs. 

(c) Dry Dipterocarp type - A rather poor, low forest, but important 

for the production of fuelwood. Severely .overworked areas 

could clearly be distinguished from old clearings or second growth. 

Both of the lower strata do not contain any large trees, but differ 

from each other in the tint of the ground on the photographs. Old 

clearings were originally mostly Mixed Deciduous forest. 

(d) Permanent non-forested area. 

Abov*; 3,000 ft: 

At this elevation the forest is inaccessible, and mostly of Hill 

Evergreen or Savanna forest types, mixed with some Conifers on the 

mountains and Semi-Evergreen forests in the valleys. These forests 

are of importance for ths conservation of the country's water supply. 

The degree of destruction inflicted by hill tribes, for shifting 

agriculture, and annual burning could be seen in the photographs. 

Aerial Inventory of V.-.etnam: Prior to 1939 the French Military 

Air B'orce made a number of aerial, surveys of the vegetation in the 

delta regions of Cochinchina, now part of South Vietnam, and in the 

Tonkin area of North Vietnam; also along certain river basins, par-; 

ticularly the Mekong, and around the Great Lake in Cambodia. A 

total of 72,000 photographs, on a scale of I: 1 *,000, -were taken. Unfortunately 

they were destroyed during a bombardment in 19^ 5 • 

At the end of World War II, the British Royal Air Force conducted 

a series of aerial missions in southern Indochina and along 

the coast of Annam. The scales used were mostly 1:20,000 and 1:56,000. 

T:ie qj.ality of the photographs was variable, as climatic conditions 

were often cloudy. Also, since the scale was small the photographs

were of little practical value for the interpretion of vegetation. 

The negatives were retained by the Royal Air .Force, and photographic 

copies are not obtainable except by rephotographing the original 

prints deposited in the files of the Geographical Service of Indochina, 

stationed at Dalat. 

At the request of the Geographical Service of Indochina, additional 

aerial surveys were made during 19^8-50, using a scale of 

1:20,000, over certain parts of the country. In general the photographs 

were good. 

In 1952 the Geographical Service organized the photographing of 

a large section of Indochina, on a scale of 1:1*0,000. This was 

undertaken by the Photometric Service of the National Geographic 

Institute of Paris (l.G.W.), with good results. Unfortunately, the 

scale adopted was only for cartographic purpose, too small for 

fcrestiy use, and indicated only the first stratification of broad 

forest formations to determine their boundaries. 

Aerial Photography la North Borneo; According to Francis and 

Wood, during the period 19^5 to 195U nearly the whole of North 

Borneo was covered by Royal Air Force aerial photography. Flying 

conditions were seldom ideal and the varying quality of the photographs, 

together with their small scale (1:25,000 end 1:30,000), 

greatly restricted the amount of desirable information obtained 

from them. 

These photographs were used at the headquarters of the Forest 

Department in Sandakan to prepare vegetation naps on a scale of 

1:50,000. The prime purpose of the maps was to show the extent of 

commercial forest in the colony. At the same time different vegetation 

types, distinguished with reasonable accuracy from the area, 

were plotted on the maps. Broadly classified as forests of commercial 

value, other non-commercial vegetation, and vegetation resulting 

from man's activities, these were separated into 16 

vegetation types, arranged under 6 main headings. 

A. Salt Water Swamp Forest - (l) Mangrove; (2) Nipa; and 

(2) Mixed Coastal Forest. 

B. Transitional Forest - (k) Casuarina Fringe,- (5) Nibong 

palm, Coastal Padang and other Beach Forest. 

C. Inland Forest - Drained - (6) Traes with large crown; 

(7) Trees with medium crown; (8) Trees with small crown; 

(9) Montane forest and similar growth. 

D. Inland Forest - subject to Flood - (10) Trees with large 

crown; (11) Trees with medium crown; (12) Trees with small 

crown. 

53

E. Ajreas under Cultivation - (13) Estate and permanent native 

cultivation; (1*0 Shifting cultivation and associated 

secondary growth, 

F. Cleared Land - (15) Herbaceous growth and lalang - drained; 

(16) Herbaceous growth subject to flood. 

Identification of Tree Species in the United States; In a paper 

presented in Washington, D» C., on March 25, 1963, Heller, Doverspike 

and Aldrich (Research foresters, Forest Insect Laboratory, Forest 

Service, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Boltsville, .Maryland) discussed 

a study conducted near Ely, in July I960, and repeated in the 

cummer of 1Q62, to determine the best film and scale combination for 

identifying tree species. Forest photo interpreters, report the 

authors, have recognized for some time their inability to identify 

individual tree speci.es on small scale aerial photographs (1:15,8^0 

or smaller). With experience and knowledge obtained by photo scrutiny, 

interpreters can new separate forest stands into broad species 

(lasses, but they can seldom determine the species of individual 

tree images. 

The terrain of the test site is rolling, interspersed with lakes 

and was previously glaciated. Forests cover about 85 percent of 

the land area. A boreal area was chosen for the study because fewer 

species needed to be compared. Fourteen important tree species were 

selected on 29 separate locations. Nineteen replieaces were taken 

of 8 of the most important species, and fewer replicates of the other 

o species. The trees involved were species of Abies; Acer, 'êtula, 

Larix, ricea, Pinus, Populus, Sorbus, and Thuja. 

In gathering ground data, trees were identified in the field on 

large-scale (1:1,000)black and white prints made f-'om color transparencies. 

To prevent possible bias, ground identifications were 

made by one of the authors who did not ttxke the interpretation test. 

A detailed description was made of each tree species selected, including 

d.b.h., weight, crown class, site class, and other associaled 

features. Only dominant, codominant, and intermediate crown-cla&o 

trees were included, since overtopped trees are not visible on air 

photographs. 

To collect air data, a Hulcher 70-mra camera with a 150-mm (5-91 

inches) focal length lens wad used. The films used were: Super 

Aiiscochrome (General Aniline and Film Corp.), with an ASA rating of 

125 for color; and Plus X Aerographic (Eastman Kodak), with an AGA 

rating of 80,for the black and white photographs. 

Photographic scales were approximately 1:396G> 1:15$*, and 

1:1168. Tnese scales correspond to units of area measurement commonly 

used by forestrs in the United States. White panels were 

placed on the ground to provide identification of each of the 29 

-locations on the photos while the pictures were being taken.

It was decided to determine whether morphological features, such 

as crown apexes and crown margins, which may be associated with tree 

form and growth, would help increase interpreter accuracy. The foliage 

density was classified as thin (less than 25 percent), medium 

(26 to 75 percent), and dense (more than 75 percent). A set of terma 

was devised to relate the foliage arrangement of the species being 

considered to the shape of the images found on the large-scale aerial 

photographs. The interpreters examined sample trees to define these 

foliage and branching characteristics and to write specifications 

as to how each species looked on aerial photographs. A Munsell gray 

scale was used on the panchromatic prints to correlate tone with each 

species. 

The panchromatic photographs were examined with a 2.25 power 

stereoscope mounted on a specially built light table. All interpretation 

data were coded and put on specially designed forms before 

being transferred to IBM punchoards for tabulation and analysis. 

The investigators found that interpretations of color transparencies 

were more accurate than those of black and white prints. 

There was a highly significant difference between the two films. Also, 

accuracy of interpretation was poorer with the small scale than with 

the two larger scales. Differences in interpretation were highly 

significant between all scales on panchromatic film. For the color 

transparencies, the two larger scales were almost equally accurate, 

and both were significantly better than the 1:39^0 scale. 

The authors came to the conclusion that color film is superior 

to panchromatic film for use in identifying individual tree species, 

This may be ascribed in part to the fact that people are accustomed 

to seeing and identifying objects not only by shape and form but 

also by the color. A ripe tomato is distinguished from the vine by 

its color rather than its shape, and cotton can be graded by the degree 

of lightness and yellowness of the fiber. A forester trained 

to recognize trees by certain features also has an associated color 

for that tree in his mind. When he is trained to recognize the tree 

on aerial color photographs, he is equipped with one more dimension 

with which he is familiar. Thus, it requires more training for an 

interpreter to be able to recognize objects by tones of gray than 

by the normal colors with which he associated the object. In panchromatic 

interpretation he must learn to relate the tone of the 

image to color, and by associating its form and texture he can 

identify the object. 

Tree species were identified accurately enough on the large 

scales of color film to suggest the possibility of using them on 

actual inventory problems. Further study of hardwoods, especially to 

associate their crown and foliage characteristics with age and physiographic 

features, should be helpful in improving identification 

of these tree species. 

55

According to the authors, perhaps the (greatest contribution to 

species identification that color film makes is the hue-chroma combination. 

It is interesting to note that before taking the test, 

most of the interpreters had a preconceived notion that tree images 

would appear green or blue green with a few green yellows. The 

data showed, however, that most of the species were tallied as 

yellow to green yellow and that only two approached a green hue. 

On the basis of the test, accurate identification of individual 

tree species requires color film at a photo scale of 1:1584 or 

larger. Even on color film, the 1:3960 scale produced fairly low 

accuracies of interpretation (63 percent). 

The cost of using color film at large scales should be little 

more than that required for panchromatic film. While color film 

costs five times as much as panchromatic film, the important point 

is that film cost is only a small part of the total cost of aerial 

photography. When aircraft costs, standby time for the flight 

crew, elimination of the need for prints, and reduction of photo 

handling by interpreting color film in rolls are considered, the 

extra cost of color film is minor. Increased interpretation accuracy 

on color film would counterbalance any slight increase in 

cost. 

Additional references to aerial photography of tropical and 

temperate forests are listed in the Bibliography (Part III). 

TESTS WITH DEFOLIANTS IN THAILAND 

In November 19^3, accompanied by Colonel Niyom of CBTC, Lieut. 

Lloyd Wax, attached to the Biological Laboratory at Fort Detriek, 

Maryland, and a forest ranger from the Thai Forest Department, we 

inspected a portion of the 1,500 acre test-site near Pranburi, upper 

Peninsula. At that time a series of trails had been opened, to 

facilitate penetration into the area. Aerial spraying had not yet 

commenced. 

In early Februiiry 1965, Dr. Robert A. Darrow, of the Biological 

laboratory at Fort Debrick, Maryland, who has charge of the tents, 

invited me to accompany him on a one-day survey of the site. 

In the morning we inspected several trails opened to make closeup, 

visual studies of the effect of chernictals on different plants, 

and to determine the species that had survived or showed semblance of 

regrowth. Cross trails had also been opened to set up a series of 

cameras, at intervals of about 50 feet, to obtain a photographic record 

of the penetration of successive applications, and to determine 

the resultant effect on the vegetation. 

56

In the afternoon, we made a series of runs, in the plane used 

for spraying, over various plots in the test-site, to observe from 

the air the effect of defoliants on the vegetation, especially to 

improve air-to-ground visibility. 

Chemical defoliants modify the gemeral appearance of vegetation 

(Fig. 130), induce desiccation of stems, branches and bark, and 

result in the partial or complete shedding of leaves (Pig. 133). 

The vegetation assumes an over-all light grayish tone (Fig. 13U). 

TL»ere is improvement in ground-to-ground visibility. However, the 

dried stems of shrubs and trees which remain st&nding continue to 

provide some cover for ambush. An enemy can still be camouflaged 

to blend with the changed color of the vegetation, which wouM make 

detection even on the ground, and especially from the air, difficult. 

When seen from an altitude of upwards of 1,000 feet, the grayish . 

treated swaths are sharply defined from the untreated strips in between. 

There is a decided improvement in air-to-ground visibility, 

especially at an olitiude of 1,000 to 2,000 ft., as a means to spot 

objects moving on the ground. 

The most widespread and tallest plant pests in Thailand, Vietnam 

and adjoining countries are: Eapatorium odoratum, known in Vietnam 

as 'yen-bach 1 ; jjnperata cylindrica, called 'tranh* in Vietnam, or 

'kha-luang* in Thailand; Saccharum officinarum, 'nia 1 ; and a species 

of grass, Ueyraudi£>. The first two-named are especially common along 

roadways, trails, in foi*est clearings, and in fact almost everywhere 

where there are open sites. They grow up to 2 or k feet all, and 

provide ideal sites for arnbush, even where a helicopter may land. 

These plants can, no doubt, be controlled effectively or eradicated 

by the application of chemicals. 

. When we realize the great expanse and wide diversity of vegetation 

in Vietnam, Thailand and in the adjoining countries we recognize the 

complex and difficult problems.involved in attempting to blanket a 

large area with defoliants. It seems that the application cf such 

chemicals would be most practical to suppress or to eradicate the tall 

grasses, especially Iraperata cylindrica and such veeds as Eupatorium 

odoratum, common along highways, railroads, canals, streams and 

rivers, in forest clearings and savannas. Defoliants could be applied 

to suppress undergrowth in rubber plantations; weeds around airports 

and especially landing sites used by helicopters; storage areas; 

around hamlets; and particularly around troop concentrations and 

military camps. 

57

HAZARDOUS VEGETATION 

From the military standpoint, tre most critical forest types 

in Thailand, and in the other Mekong basin countries, are thq taJ.l 

Evergreen Rain and Moist forests on dry land, and the coastal Mangrove 

swamp forest of smaller stature. 

The continuous, dense canopy of the Evergreen Rain and Moist 

forests, in which the trees are of large dimensions, often with 

massive plank buttresses, many large woody vines and in particular 

the generally dense undergrowth difficult to i^n^trate, provide 

ideal sites for hiding. Mobility is a difficult problem in these 

forests. Ground-to-ground visibility is low, usually limited to 15 

or 20 feet. Ground-to-air visibility may be fair to good, depending 

upon the depth and continuity of the canopy, but air-to-ground 

visibility is fair to nil. 

On the other hand, while the Rain or Moist Evergreen forest is 

ideal for shelter and ambush, a guerrilla fighter, like the Viet 

Cong, as a rule does not relish remaining for long periods in this 

deep forest. The most/serious problem is survival, especially the 

procurement of a steady supply of food. Second in importance is 

the problem of health, especially when such pests as leeches, malariacarrying 

mosquitoes and other insects are prevalent. Thirdly is the 

depressing atmosphere of the dense forest, which may have a demoralizing 

and psychological effect on some, when exposed to it for long 

periods. People accustomed to working in open areas, such as rice 

fields, do not care to work in the forests. Likewise, in Vietnam 

as elsewhere, people who have lived in the plains do not want to move 

to the highlands, and vice-versa. Even the Chinese, as I once found, 

do not relish such experience. 

Plants furnishing edible fruits, seeds, tubers, are somewhat 

limited and uncertain. Many fruits are often high on trees, difficult 

to gather, while others ripen only at irregular intervals. So that, 

as a rule, a guerrilla fighter prefers to remain inside but near the 

perimeter of the forest, within a distance of 1 or 2 niles from the 

periphery, in open sites in the r orean or rubber plantations, in 

open gras&covered areas, where v.-:re Is usually the 'kha-luan/f grass 

(T'.npgrata oylindrica) tall .•.vu.-.i.-'n :"or hiding, or better still near 

abcxfes, villages or towns, /r-.er^ food resources, especially rice 

and fish, are more readily avaiiaole and easily transported to the 

camp, 

The Mangrove swamp forest is perhaps even more critical, from the 

military standpoint as a staging area, than the tall Rain or Moist 

forest, on account of its accessibility from the sea or by river, ease 

of mobility by water in email craft within this type of forest, and 

its low to fairly low stature. The network of uncharted channels in

a Mangrove swamp facilitates easy, quick movement by canoes and 

other small craft. 

Usually there are houses or hamlets scattered through the Mangrove 

forest inhabited by families -occupied in cutting firewood or 

timber for charcoal, or in fishing. These abodes also provide ideal 

sites for hiding and ay staging areas. 

The Mangrove swamps furnish a constant supply of a wide variety 

of fisb and prawns, which form an important item in the daily 

diet of Southeast Asians of all classes. In addition, there is an 

abundance of fuelwcod for cooking. 

For these reasons, the Mangrove forest is an ideal concentration 

and staging site, just as important as v,he tul.l Evergreen humid 

forest. Constant vigilance, both on the ground and from the air, 

should be maintained in this forest. Although ground-to-ground 

visibility may be somewhat low in the Mangrove forest, air-to-ground 

visibility is better than in the Evergreen Rain or Moist forests, because 

of its lower stature and more uniform nature. 

It seems that the best craft to patrol the Mangrove swamp and 

forest is a small launch of shallow draft, propelled by an outboard 

motor with a long shaft. This appears to be the most practical and 

economical, able to penetrate shallow waters, where an outboard 

motor, with upright shaft, cannot navigate. 

Bamboos are widespread in Thailand, as in Vietnam, Laos and 

Cambodia. One or two species are grown around farmhouses, hamlets, 

and along canals for live fences and windbreak. Most of these grow 

spontaneously, often forming extensive brakes; some flourish in 

Moist and Dry forests, others in moist sites along the banks of 

streams and rivers, and still others in open arid areas. They appear 

readily when a forest is partially culled or when clearings are 

opened, such as in the teak forest, or where land was once tilled 

and later abandoned. 

'Mai-ruak' (Thyrsostachys sianunsis) grows spontaneously over 

large areas of Thailand, on well-drained slopes and dry or arid 

plains. This slender bamboo and the tall, graceful, unarmed 'maisi-suk 

1 (Bambusa blumenea) are invariably grown around abodes for 

fences and windbreak. 

The most common bamboo, is the armed 'mai pha' (Bambusa arundina.cea). 

It is widespread in Southeast Asia, appearing in thorn 

forest, rice-paddies and formerly tilled land, in cutover forests 

of various types, and along river banks. It often forms tall, dense, 

almost impenetrable brakes. 

Bamboos as a rule are resistant to fire. Their culmns or stems • 

may be damaged cr destroyed, but nev shoots soon appear, and make 

59

apid growth when the wet season begins. Despite the fact tnat most 

species of bamboos respond favorably to chemical treatment, and xre 

easily defoliated, the large calms that remain standing still provide 

some cover for ambush. 

Owing- to their open nature, the Deciduous and Dry Uipterocarp 

forests and Pine forest are not a serious problem from tne military 

standpoint. Ground mobility, and ground-to-ground or air-to-ground 

visibility are favorable. The ground cover, however, is oi'ten composed 

of rough grasses, especially the common 'kha-luang' (Thailand) 

or 'tranh 1 (Vietnam) grass (imperata cylindrica). This widespread 

grass grows from 3 to 6 feet (l-2~~m.) in height, tall enough 

to hide a man lying down, and even to imperil the landing of a helicopter. 

In the upper limit of the Pine forest a low fern (Dryopteris) 

often forms the ground .cover. 

Another very common weed throughout Thailand and Vietnam, where 

it has become a serious pest, is Eupatorium odoratum, known in 

Vietnam as 'yen-bach 1 . It was iniruduceu from this continent about 

50 years ago. Today, in Thailand this plant, often up to 4 or 5 

feet (1.25-1.60 m.) tall, is common almost everwhere. along highways 

and trails, in forest clearings, on the bunds of rice-paddies, and 

appears almost immediately wherever there are foresc clearings, or 

when tilled land remains fallow or when abandoned (Fig. 

Another tall grass of frequent occurrence is a tall cane, known 

in Thailand as 'phong 1 and in Vietnam 'lau 1 (Gaccharura spontaneum ) . 

This grass grows spontaneously, :n clumps upwards of 6 or 9~ feet 

(2-3 m.) tall. Often it grows wi^h such vigor, especially along 

roadsides and in meadows, that it chokes out other plants. Another 

tall grass, usually in slightly moist sites in meadows, is a species 

of Neyraudia, similar to Saccharum spontaneum (Fig. 115). 

These are the most common and widespread weeds in Southeast 

Asia. On account of their height and d°nse clumps some of them form, 

they provide ideal sites for ambush, and should be eradicated or 

destroyed as much as possible along roadways or trails, stream banks, 

air-fields and strips around military bases and troop concentration. 

Another potential site for ambush are Para" (Hevea) rubber plantations,. 

especially where the undergrowth is aot controlled or out 

down to the ground (Fig.l2o). 

i 

Around farmhouses and hamlets, two plants commonly grown as cashcrops 

are cassava or manioc (Manihot eaculenta), known as 'man-samrong' 

(Thailand) or 'mi' (Vietnam); and castor bean (Ricinus communis), 

in Thailand called 'la-hung 1 and in Vietnam 'thau-dau 7 . Both are of 

low stature, up to 9 or 12 feet (3-4 m.) in height. Cassava has .a 

slender stem, forms a dense, dark green canopy, and provides good cover 

for ambush. The large tubers are edible when processed and are the 

source of tapioca of commerce. 

60

PHYSIOGRAPHIC, CLIMATIC AND OTHER FEATURES 


Although they are politically independent, and divided, economically, 

the five countries of the Mekong basin are similar in many 

aspects, especially from the standpoint of inhabitants, physiography, 

climate, soils and vegetation. The mountain ranges, which 

intercept moisture-laden winds, influence the climate, resulting 

in a wide pattern of annual rainfall, with the dominance almost 

throughout of alternating rainy, southwest monsoon, and dry northern 

or northeastern monsoon. The varying distribution of rainfall during 

the year is highly significant, and is particularly noticeable in 

North Vietnam, Laos and Thailand. The temperatures are fairly high 

throughout, except in mountainous areas, with no frost at lower 

elevations. 

THAILAND 

Thailand lies between the parallels of 5° and 21 N. latitude 

and between the meridians of 97° and 106° E. longitude. It has a 

total area of about 200,000 square miles (511,936 square kilometers), almost 

equal to Texas, France, or approximately 60 times the size of 

Puerto Rico. The country is bounded on the north by upper Burma, 

the Shan States, and northern Laos; on the east and northeast by 

central and lower Laos and by Cambodia; on the west by central and 

lower Burma; and in the extreme south by Malaysia. Its long coast 

lines are flanked on the southeast and eastern Peninsula by the Gulf 

of Thailand, and on the western side of the Peninsula by the Andaman 

Sea. It has a long frontier, of about 1,^00 miles (2, 2'fO kms.), 

with its neighbors, which naturally is difficult to patrol effectively 

along the entire length. 

Thailand has been a constitutional monarchy since- 1932, but 

the divisions of administration have not. been greatly changed from 

the old regime. The internal administration is centralized under the 

Minister of Interior in Bangkok. For administrative purpose the 

country is divided into 71 'changwats' or provinces, each under the 

control of a commissioner, who is directly responsible to the Minister 

of Interior. Each changwat is subdivided into 'amphurs' or districts. 

The amphiir, in turn, is subdivided into 'tambons 1 or villages, and 

the tarnbon is made up of 'mu bans' or hamlets. A hamlet is a 

collection of 10 or more houses or about ICO people who elect their 

own elder or 'Phuyai Ban'. The duties of the elder are to report cases 

of crime to the headman of the village, and to maintain a register of 

the x:ople in his hamlet. 

According to the 19^4 census, Thailand has a population of about 

2't-,000,000. Approximately 80 percent of these are Thais; 15 percent 

6.1

Chinese; and the remaining 5 percent includes Malaysians, Cambodians, 

Laotians and other groups. About 90 percent of the people live in 

comaimities of less than 5>000 inhabitants. 

The Thais are primarily engaged in agricultural pursuits, inhabiting 

the thousands of small villages, concentrated mostly along 

highways and the network of canals find rivers. Most of the positions 

in the Government, police, and military organizations are held by 

Thais, although the Chinese minority is active and influential in the 

economic life of the country. It is estimated that about 50 percent 

of the 3 1/2 million Chinese reside in the Bangkok-Chao Phraya area, 

while the remainder are scattered throughout the country in commercial 

centers, market towns, and large villages. 

Physiographic Regions 

In general there are three major physiographic types: highlands, 

plains, and plateaus, which grade ipto one another and support mc.-e 

or less distinct types of vegetation. The highlands comprise several 

mountain ranges, in general extending from north to scuth .along the 

entire western length of the country (Fig. 3)- The central region is 

occupied ty a great alluvial plain of deltaic form with the base at 

the Gulf of Thailand and its apex in the Uttaradit area. The northeastern 

part of the country includes an extensive plateau, flanxeci 

by Fountains along its western and southern borders. 

Based on land forms, which also coincide with the classification 

of cxLimate and vegetation types, Thailand may be divided into five 

physiographic regions (Fig. 2): (l) the northwest highlands; (2) the 

Chow Phraya or central plain; (3) the Korat plateau; (h) the Chantaburi 

region; and (5) the Peninsular region. 

As elsewhere in Southeast Asia, the climate of Thailand is controlled 

by the seasonal monsoon modified by local topography. Two 

broad types of climate prevail: that of the Rain forest and that of 

the Monsoon forent or Savanna (Figs. ^,5). Optimal Rain forest climate 

is characterized by uniformly high temperature and lieavy rainfall 

distributed throughout the year with no distinctly dry season. 

The Monsoon or savanna climate, en the other hand, has less prc-- 

cipitation and is divided into wet arid dry seasons. 

Owing mainly to the modifying influence of topography, five 

climatic zones are also recognized: northern Thailand, comprising 

•che eight provinces from Uttaradit northward; the central plain, 

corresponding +.0 the area south of Uttaradit to the head of the Gulf 

of Thailand, and including the area north of Prachuap-Khirikhan, in 

the upper Peninsula; northeast Thailand, which embraces the entire 

Korat plateau; the southeast region along the Gulf of Thailand; and

the section of the Peninsula south of Prachuap-KMrikhan. These 

aroas correspond roughly to the principal physiographic provinces 

indicatedt 

(1) Northern Highlands 

General features: This region is hilly, in parts mountainous, 

and is the area in which teak forest flourishes (Figs. 37, 38). It' 

is bounded on the north by the Dan Lao range, which forms the dividing 

line between the Salween and Mekong river basins. On the west, the 

Thanon Thong Chai range extends southward from the northwest frontier 

to link up with the Tenasserim range. This, in turn, continues southward 

to form the backbone of the Peninsula. On the south this region 

borders the northern limit of the vast alluvial plain of the Chao 

Phraya basin, while on the east it is flanked by the ranges of Luang 

Phrabang and the Phetchabun ranges. Within this region the series of 

hills and mountain ranges, running remarkably parallel to one another, 

form the headwaters of the principal rivers - Ping, Wang, Yom - converging 

near the town of Paknampo to form the Chow Phraya, the largest 

river in Thailand, which meanders through the thickly popxilated central 

plain. 

Climate: Because of the mountainous nature of the North, 

the variations in elevation impose a so-called mountain climate, characterized 

by extremes in temperatures (Fig. 5). The lowest recorded 

temperature is 37° F. (2.8°C.) in January, and the highest 

103° (39.5°C.). Rainfall is generally moderate but of long duration, 

being more or less periodic in distribution. Under the influence 'of 

the southwest monsoon, a wet season prevails from the middle of May 

to October. The coolest and driest season lasts from October through 

February, and the hot season extends from March to mid-May. Fog is 

most frequent in March and April when it sometimes lasts through tLe 

entire day. Tne period from October to February, before the peak of 

the hoi, season, is considered the jest for making ground surveys and 

aerial photographs. 

(2) The Oontral or Chao Phraya Plain 

General features; This vast plain occupies the central part 

of Thailand. It is bordered by a piedmont belt on the west, east and 

north, arid by the Gulf of Thailand on the south. This central plain 

is about 187 miles (300 kilometers) long from north to south and 

ranges from 30 to 93 miles (50 to 150 kilometers) in width from east 

to west. It is a deltaic plain, built up ( by the accumulation of alluvial 

Materials, eroded by streams and rivers > from the northern highlands. 

Dotting the plain are numerous isolated hills whose bases have been 

buried by alluvium. The rocks are similar to those of the bordering 

mountains. The plain commences at about latitude 18° north where the 

rivers flowing from the north emerge from their valleys and f:L> ally 

unite at Paknampo, to form the Chao Phraya. At Chainat, head of the 

delta, about 30 miles (50 km,) farther south, the Chao Phraya 

63

Mfurcates and flows south for some 56 miles (90 km.) to the Gulf 

of Thailand. Near Ayuthya the Choo Phraya is joined by the Pa Sak 

river, vhich has its source near Phetchabun and drains the western 

slopes bordering the Korat plateau. . 

The central plain also receives the drainage of the Mae KLong 

and Ban Pakong rivers. The latter has its source near the border 

of Cambodia, and drains the region between the southern edge of the 

Korat plateau and the Chantaburi mountains, 

The southern part of the plain is flat, and the rivers are linked 

by a network of man-made canals, 'khlongs 1 (Figs. 12,13), used for 

irrigation, drainage and transport. This plain is the rice bowl of 

Thailand, and is considered the most important section of the country. 

Because of its agricultural wealth, it supports the greatest concentration 

of population with the highest standard of living of any 

region of the country. 

During the rainy season great quantities of silt are carried by 

the rivers flowing through the Chao Phraya plain and ore deposited 

in the flat rice-growing areas, thereby enriching the soil. Still 

more silt is carried seaward where it is deposited around the delta 

of the Menam or Chao Phraya and the estuaries of other rivers and 

in mangrove swamps. It is estimated that in thio ,viiv>:>r the coastal 

land, along the north coast of the Gulf of Thailand, is increasing 

at the rate of 12 to 15 feet each year. 

Climate; The climate of the central plain is of tropical 

lowland savanna type, with an average annuel rainfall of 52.42 inches 

(1,3^ mm.)» The division of seasons into vet and dry periods is 

the .iame as in northern Thailand. The maximum monthly rainfall falls 

in September. The recorded average monthly precipitation is 11.10 

inches (28^.7 mm.) with the minimum in December of Ut-5 inches 

(37 iura.}. Temperature variations is the same as in northeastern 

Thailand. The extreme recorded diurnal range has reached 79-5° F. 

(26.'t°C.). Fog is common between January and March, but generally 

it occurs only during the early hours of daylight. Ground surveys 

can be carried out from the end of October and aerial photography 

is best done at the end of the rainy season in October and 

November until March or early April. 

(3) Northeast or Korat Plateau 

General JTeatures: This is a saucer-shaped plateau sloping 

gently to the southeast, with a strip of somewhat swampy area to the 

northeast. It is bordei:...' on the north and east by the Mekong river 

(Fig. 85); on the west by tne Phetchabun mountains and the massive 

flat-topped peaks of Dong Phraya Yeng; and on the south by the San 

Kamphaeng range and the Dong ftek escarpment. The plateau derives 

its name from the old town of Korat, now officially known ar, Nakhon 

Ratchisima, the largest commercial center in the region.

The general surface is gently undulating with scattered low 

hills and shallow lakes. Large areas are flooded during the wet 

season, but during the dry season the region suffers severely for 

lack of water. The soils for the most part are thin and poor in 

vegetation (Figs. 126, 12). 

Two rivers, the Mun and,the Cliee, have thoir sources on the 

western flank and flow parallel across the tableland. They join 

near Ubon, close to the border of southern Laos, and then fall into 

the Mekong. A great portion of the area is covered with Deciduous 

Dipterocarp forest, forming an important source of timber for railroad 

ties and firewood. 

The northern and western borders of the plateau range from ^50 

to 600 feet (137-183 m.) above sea level. At the city of Ubon the 

altitude is reported to be about 150 feet ( J *6 m.). The many flattopped 

peaks in the Dong Phraya Yen mountains rise to altitudes of 

about £,500 to ^,000 feet (760-1,220 m.), while the Dong Rek escarpment 

is generally about 1,500 feet (^5't ra.), and in places rises 

to 2,200 feet (670 m.). From this scarp the land falls sharply toward 

the Cambodian plain, but northward the slope is gradual to the 

Mu-i River. 

At the northeastern edge of the plateau there is a belt 30 to 

iiO miles (50-96 kms.) wide which drains into the Mekong river. In 

this strip the largest fresh-water lake in Thailand, Hong Han, is 

located on the outsKirte of Sakhon Nakhon (Fig. 66). This lake, 

with an area of about 64.3 square miles (lo square kilometers), 

empties into the Mekong by way of the Nam Kam river. The belt is 

also drained oy numerous other streams tributary to the Mekong. 

CljjTiate: The savanna type climate of this region is siir.iJa^ 

in temperature and rainfall'to that of northern Thailand. Since 

this region is a plateau, relief has less effect on t,ne climate than 

it has in northern Thailand. The rainy season coincides with the 

southwest monsoon, which becomes more vigorous and brings torrential 

rainfall, especially when typhoons from the South China Sea pass 

over the region, usually during June through September. The recorded 

monthly extremes 01 rainfall in this region range from 0.2 inches 

(5.3 :nm.) in January to 9«7 inches (2'ih mm.) in toy. The highest 

temperature of record is 109° F. ('J3.0°C.) in April aau the lowest 

is 'tl°F. (5«1°C.) in January. The dally range of temperature :nay 

also be more extreme than elsewhere in Thailand. The distribution 

of seasons is about the same as in northern Thailand. 

('•) Southeastern Region 

General features; The Chantaburi area, in the southeast, is 

separated from the Korat plateau, on the north, by the valley of the 

Ban Pakong river. On the west it is flanked, by the Chao Phraya plain;

on the south by the Gulf of Thailand; and on the east by a mountain 

range, Khao Banthat, - extending along the border of VJestern Cambodia. 

The region includes a well-dissected upland In the northern and 

central ports, and by a coastal plain in the south and west. It is 

drained by numerous streams, till flowing in a southerly direction. 

Moist Evergreen forests, on the mountain slopes (Fig. 2), and 

Mangrove forests along the coast (Pigs. 58, 59) are the characteristic 

vegetation in this area. The principal rivers are the Mae Warn Char.- 

taburi, Prasae, Wen, and Trat. The principal mountain peaks are Khao 

Khieo in the weat, with an altitude of about 2,C3 ft. (SCO n.); Khao 

Soi Dao, altitude 5,200 ft. {l,&;0 m.); and Khao Sa Bap, altitude 

3,030 ft, (933 m.), northeast of Chantaburi. 

Climate: In some sections the climate of the southeast is 

somewhat of the tropical rain forest type, and, is similar to that along 

the west coast of the Peninsula. The wettest period lasts for 6 months 

extending from May to October. Precipitation at Chantaburi is greatest 

in July and least in February, with an annual average of 97-2 inches 

(2,1*91+ mm.). Temperatures are generally high and uniform. The highest 

recorded temperature is 10l°F. (38.8°C.) and the lowest 5^.5° F. 

(12.5°C.). Seasonal variations are similar to those in central Thailand, 

with the main difference that the rainfall is more abundant 

and well distributed. The period between November and April is best 

for ground surveys. 

(5) Peninsula 

General features: The physiographic features of the Peninsula 

include both plains and highlands. Plains flank the coastal areas 

and highlands form the backbone of the region. The total length of 

this region is about h6f) miles (750 'cm.), and the width ranges from 

about 10 to 125 miles (15 to 200 km.). The mountain range trends from 

north to south and is formed of short ridges arranged in echelon. 

Between these ridges there are small plains and valleys which are 

considerably dissected. 

Along the western side of the Peninsula the Tenasserim range extends 

southward until it separates into two ranges in the trough of 

the- Kra Isthmus or Pak Chan river. The western range lies in Burmese 

territory, and the eastern in Thailand. The eastern range extends 

couth of the Kra Isthmus to Ranong and skirts the Indian Ocean 

to the bay of Phuket. The main range of the Peninsula again starts 

anew to the north of Nakhon Srithamarat, extending in a southerly 

direction to the province of Satun. In the area between this main 

range and the island of Phuket there are isolulc^ button and peaks 

rising sheer from the surrounding lowland. One such peak, Khao 

Phanom Bencha, attains an altitude of about ^,500 ft. ^1,370 m,), 

but for the most part the buttes are only a few hundred feet high 

(Fig. 111). i; 

I! 

South of Songkhla there are three other ranges running north and ! 

66

south. The highest peak is near Betong, bordering Malaya. In 

addition, there are other small, subsidiary ranges, chief of which 

are the limestone ridges of Phatalung and Phangna. 

The east and west coastlines of the Peninsula differ from each 

other. The eastern shoreline is smooth, regular, with long beaches 

like those at Prachuap-Khirikhan, Nakhon Srithar.arat, Songkhla and 

Patani. The only exception is the delta at Surat-thani. A plain, 

ranging from 6 to 21 miles (10 to 35 km.) in width, extends inland 

from the coastline. Conversely, the western shoreline is irregular, 

much indented with estuaries and fringed with islands, such as those 

in Phuket bay. The mountains extend down to the sea in many places. 

Beaches are small and few, but mangrove swamps are numerous. The 

lower course of the Pak Chan river has the appearance of a drowned 

valley, giving evidence of a submerged shoreline, and its banks are 

lined with Mangrove forest. Remains of buried mangrove trees, exposed 

in hydraulic mining at depths well below the present level, 

are found along the shoreline In the provinces of Takuapa and 

Phuket. 

On the east coast there are few bays> and islands are limited in 

number. The west coast is much indented. There are a number of large, 

forest-clad t rocky islands such as Yao, Lanta, Phra Thong, Linbong, 

and Tarutao. The largest and most important of these islands is 

Phuket, center of the tin industry, and has an area of about 220 

square miles (590 sq. km.). 

The island of Ko Si Chang, near the northeast section of the Gulf 

of Thailand, forms a natural sheltered anchorage for large steamers 

which cannot cross the bar at the estuary of the Chao Phraya. The 

largest island along the coast is Kohctxang, in the east, with an area 

of about 70 square miles (18.1 sq. km.) and a peak which rises to almost 

2,100 ft. (6UO km.) above sea level. In the vicinity of the 

muddy estuaries of Mae Nam Prasae and Mae Nam Wen mangrove swamps 

abound, but elsewhere along the coast there are many white sandy beaches, 

and occasional stretches of beach forests and narrow belts of Casuarina 

trees. 

Climate; The climate of southern Thailand is the tropical rain 

forest type, although somewhat modified by the monsoons. It is 

characterized by uniformly high temperatures, two periods of greater 

rainfall, and rain at other times is distributed throughout the year, 

so that there is no well-marked and prolonged dry season. However, 

many local modifications occur, depending on whether the windr blow 

from the ocean or from the land. The highest annual rainfall., 257.0"} 

inches (6, 60b mm.), was recorded at Takuapa, in the southwest, and 

the lowest of record is 50.70 inches (1,300 mm.). The temperature 

on both coasts is uniform. The annual temperature ranges between 

80° if. (26.7°C.) and 83.4° F. (26 C.). The highest temperature recorded 

is 103° F. (39«3°C.) and the lowest, 63° F. (17°C.). The wet 

67

season lasts from May to October and has two peak periods -one during 

the northeast vnqnspon and the other during the southwest monsoon. 

The cool season, from November to mid-February, Is rharartterized by 

a smaller temperature range than that of other seasons. The hot season, 

during March and April, is milder than in central Thailand, because 

of the modifying influence of sea breezes and proximity to the 

ocean.. January to April is the best period for ground and aerial 

survey. 

Soil Types 

According to World Soils Geography Unit, SCS, USDA (unpublished 

report, May 1962), the soils of Thailand may be segregated into five 

aoil associations (Fig. 7): (l) Latosols and li-cnosols on mountains 

and steep hills; (2) Latosoli. and associated soils on plains and 

hills; (3) Sandy ferr-uginous latosols, commonly with laterite, chiefly 

on plains and low hills; ('*) Dark tropical clay soij^s on nearly flat 

alluvial plains; and (5) alluvial soils. 

Latcsols are the most extensive soils in the country. Typically, 

they -ire friable acid clays arid usually reddisn in color, although in. 

•many zones yellow and brown colors predominate. Most latosols are 

wo-Li arained and permeable. They are highly leac.'.ed and consequently 

are low in plant nutrients. For sustained high crop yields, tne 

application of fertilizers, particularly those containing phosphates, 

ana practices conducive to ouilding up organic natter, are highly 

desirable and even necessary for some crops'; 

Lithosols in Thailand are shallow, stony, gravelly, steep and 

are entirely unsuited for agriculture. Likewise, the association of 

iatosols with litnosols is (generally unsuiter, for cultivation, principally 

because of steep slopes. The best use for the soils of this 

association is for tree planting, although sizeable tracts that are 

not, too steep could be utilized for pasture. 

Latosols on plains and hills are dominantly reddish loams. These 

soils could be more extensively cultivated than at, present, and expanded 

for crops now grown, chiefly rubber, pine-apple, sugarcane, pepper and 

otrier food crops. 

oandy ferruginous latosois occur extensively on plains in the Korat 

region, on tne cuter fringes of tne central plain and in parts of the 

Kra Peninsula. Jri general, these are very infertile soils. Many contain 

Jatorite of concretionary or platy iron-stone material, which 

would interfere with the deep penetration of pla r it roots. For t'r.e 

most part, these soils are in open forest. In depressions and stream 

valleys, where water relationships are favorable, wetland rice is 

grown. 

v or good yields, manure or commercial fertilizer is highly 

effectivi:. 

68

Dark tropical clay soils occur chiefly in the Bangkok plain and 

In the southern part of the Kra Peninsula. These are acid clays, 

developed mainly frora alluvium. They are difficult to work because 

they are plastic and sticky when wet and harden when dry. These 

soils are productive. Yields could be increased, however, by fertilizing 

and skillful management. The soils are used intensively for 

wetland rice. In the Bangkok area they are planted for vegetables, ornamental 

plants ind orchards. Kast of Lopburi these soils are 

associated with -j-avy clay soils developed from igneous rocks. These 

soils are very acid and extremely infertile,, Additional associated 

soils, entirely unsuited for agricolture, are saline clays and permanently 

wet soils, such as in mangrove swamps along sections of the 

coast. 

Alluvial soils occur throughout Thailand, but are most extensive 

in the northern inter-mountain valleyc, in the Korat plateau, upper 

central valley and the Kra Peninsula. These soils range in texture 

from loam to eandy clay, in color from reddish brown to dark gray, 

and with poor to good drainage, depending upon distance from the 

stream. In most intar-mountain valleys these soils are productive 

and intensively cropped. Elsewhere, particularly in the northeast, 

their productivity is rather low and the pattern of cultivation is 

generally the growing of wetland rice intermingled with scrub and 

forest. Although alluvial soils are among the more productive in 

Thailand, crop yields could be improved by irrigation and application 

of fertilizers. 

Thai Forests 

Thailai.d is essentially a forest country. Of its total estimated 

area of 200,000 sq. miles (511,900 sq. tons.), approximately 60 percent, 

equivalent ''• s 120,000 sq. miles, is covered with some type of 

vegetation (Fig. b). With diverse climatic and topographical patterns, 

tliree broad zones are outstanding for their distinctive landscapes; 

the Evergreen Rain or Moist forests of the southeast and 

southern Peninsula; the dry to arid Korat plateau of the northeast; 

and the mountainous northern and northwestern region, covered by a 

series of veretatio- types, from Dry Dipterocarp, Teak, Oak to Pine 

forests. The vegetation of Thailand shows some interesting features. 

For example, numerous plant elements from the eastern Himalayas and 

Assam appear along the mountain ranges on the western border, extending 

to Malaysia, There is a corresponding northward extension of the 

flora characteristic of Malaysia into the southern part of the 

Peninsula. Curiously enough many species found in the south Peninsula 

also ";row in the southeastern region. 

IT wo exclude that part of the Peninsula south of about 

10 N, the 1'lora of Thailand is fairly homogeneous, and is characteristic 

of the entire; Southeast Asia from the Bay of Bengal to the Gulf 

of Tonkin. The flora ,of Thailand shows a considerable amount of

endemism, with about 20 percent of the species, so far known, found 

only in Thailand. The most .:oraion forest type is the 'pa den/:; 1 or 

red "orest, an open Deciduous forest of small to nediun sized trees 

covering about 1*5 percent cf the total forested area. In this the 

dominant trees and widespread species include Jhorea obtuse, and 

Per.tacme siamenais, both belonging to the wood-oil family (Dipterocarpaceae")"! 

From the commercial standpoint, the leading!; forest types in 

Thailand are the Evergreen Rain or Moist i'orests and the Mixed Deciduous 

forests. 

The Evergreen forests, including Pines and Mangrove, represent 

about 30 percent of the total forest*. In the ;e, che 'yan^' o* 

'ytng-khao 1 tree (Dipterocarpus alatua'; is outstanding and often 

predominates. But there are vast areas of Rain or Moist forests 

characterized by other Dipterocarps, such as pj.pterocarpus pilosus, 

D. co^tatus, Kopea odorata, Cctylelobium lance datum, Anisoptera 

coc'ninchinensis. as well as -nany species of other families. 

The filxed Deciduous forests, especially in the north where Teak 

(Tectona ^randis) is predominant, are of prirr.e importance. Up to 

10 or 1$ years a,~o, the annual production of Teak was hir.her than 

that of all other species combined. But the ever-increasing deme-id 

for timbers forced a steady rise in the exploitation of otner species. 

So chat in recent years the felling of non-teak species nas exceeded 

that of teak, Ar.on,^ these r.ay be mentioned: Dal hernia cochinoni ne n sis 

(Rosewood), Afzella xylocarpa, Xylia kerrii, Dipterocarpus axutus. and 

a hcst of others. 

The Royal r orest Department of Thailand was orcani,ed towards the 

end of tr.e last century. Thai foresters are trained at the forestry 

School at Prae. in the north, and some continue further studies at 

Kasetsart University in Bangkok. 

The PAC mission to Thailand, in 19^8, made soveraj. recommendations, 

including: the reorganization and strengthening of the Forestry Department; 

increase in the field staff; an aerial survey of the 

country; reservation of all forests important to the economy of the 

nation; a preliminary survey of the forest resources; stricter enforcement 

of existing forestry laws and regulations; setting up of 

uniform .-trading rules for exports; undertakinp of a lar,

management based on a sustained yield; recognition of principle that 

all forest products should be used primarily to meet the needs of 

the local inhabitants and only.secondarily to serve agricultural, 

industrial and commercial purposes; surveying marginal forest lands 

and waste lands as a basis for the formulation of an appropriate 

land-use policy; promotion of basic and higher education in forestry; 

study of the utilization possibilities of various timber species and 

other forest products; stimulating forest-mindedness in general;' and 

encouragement of private tree planting. 

VIETNAM 

Vietnam, .embracing both North and itouth, was formerly the territory 

of the three eastern provinces of the French Union of Indochina, 

namely: Tonkin, in the north; Annam, in the center; Cochin-China, in 

the south; and with a total area of approximately 126,000 square miles. 

Under the terms of the Geneva Truce Conference, .held in June 195'*> 

Vietnam was divided at the 17th Parallel, north Vietnam, wi^h an 

area of --'4,000 square miles (Tonkin) and an additional 1",000 square 

milec of Arinam, nort', ol lYth Parallel, v;-as ceded to the Viet Minn. 

The balance, with an are-", of-about 60,000 square miles, including 

south Annan and Cochin-China, now forms tne region referred to, 

politically as South Vietnam. The latter extends northward from 

Pointe cte Cair.au at 10'*° -WK. longitude and 6° iJ. latitude,' on a 

curved sucis up to IOC miles (ioO kms.) v, r ide, and about :;CO miles 

( r )60 kins.) Ion to the 17th Parallel, /'crests of varying density 

and. composition occupy more than 30 percent of this land, extending 

from the seacoast alom,' the Jouth China .-Jea inland to the Annan 

.Mountains. 

The northern and western parts of what was formerly called. Tonkin 

are mountainous and rugged, especially along the Chinese frontier, 

yith r,or.e peaky rising to more than 7,000 .t. (2,100 n»). Prior to the, 

dissolution of the b'rench Union, Tonkin was regarded as the center 

of the mining industry of the entire Indochina, i\irnishing coal, zinc, 

lead, tin, tungsten, copper, bauxite and other mineral deposits for • 

domestic use and for export. 

In the Red Kiver delta rice is cultivated almost exclusively for 

local r.eeci, in addition to corn, sugarcane, tea and coffee. 'Jpper 

Tonkin is the area of large-scale aninal husbandry and forest industry. 

The bulk of the population is concentrated in the Tonkin 

delta. The Ked Hiver and its tributaries constantly deposit alluvial 

material, which makes this region one of the most fertile and most 

densely populated land areas of the entire Vietnam. Soutn of the 

Tonkin delta there are numerous small fertile areas which are also 

thickly populated. 

71

The central region - Annara - is a narrow strip of territory, 

about 60 miles (96 tons.) wide and 600 miles (960 kms.) long. The 

main Annam Mountain chain, with peaks elevating up to 8,000 ft. 

(2,500 m.), falls abruptly eastward to the narrow coastal plain. 

Its rugged, eroded, seaward slop.;:-; are largely not suitable for conventional 

crops. To the west, the Annara Chain slopes gently towerd 

the Mekong River basin in lower Laos. 

Economically, northern Annara is similar to Tonkin, with diverse 

mineral deposits, but these are exploited to u less extent than 

further north. Considerable forest reso'irces are concentrated in 

this area, and the mountain regiors are zones of animal husbandry. 

Southern Annam, now part of South Vietnam, is the principal zone for 

the planting of Para 1 rubber (Hevea brasjliensis), especially where 

red and gray soils are found. As in the north, the bulk of the 

population in south Annam is concentrated in the river deltas, where 

rice is extensively cultivated. 

In South Vietnam the Mekong delta, covered with recent fertile 

alluvium, is intensively cultivated to rice. This area has long 

been regarded as the 'bread basket 1 of Vietnam. Another crop, second 

in importance, is Par£ (Hevea) rubber, from plantation-grown trees. 

Except for the lowland fertile plains of the Mekong and Tonkin 

deltas, and intervening valleys, most of the land area of entire 

Vietnam is not considered suitable for intensive cultivation. Much 

cf the land is mountainous with rugged terrain, and elsewhere the 

drainage is poor. As in Laos, Cambodia and Thailand, farming occupies 

first place in the economy of entire Vietnam. Agriculture is basic 

to other industrial and commercial activities. 

Mekong Delta and Plain: The Mekong, sixth largest river in the 

Far Kast, enters South Vietnam from Cambodia at about 1C! 0 K. longitude 

and 11° N. latitude. Following a series of tortuous stream beds, 

it flows southeasterly for about 12 miles (200 kms.) through several 

channels in the delta region; to fall into the 3outh China Sea. This 

flood plain is approximately 125 miles in width, dividing the ^reste 

areas in the uplands, in the northeast, from about 2,000 square milesof 

Mangrove forest along the coast. Some sections of the plain are 

subjected during the rainy season to inundations by flood vaters, and 

in parts are alternately covered by sea water, brackish and fresh 

water. 

This great plain extends northward for about 560 miles (896 kms.), 

in places crowded to the coast line by mountainous cliffs, and elscr 

where cutting ialand, following the basins of smaller stream;-;. Areas 

along, the seacoast are exposed to wind-blovrn, fine, unite sand, which 

covers fields, villages and highways. In former years windbreaks 

and shelter-belts of Casuarina and Iftacalyptus trees were planted to 

protect the beaches. These dune* are~shifting and cover everything 

in thf.'ir path. Fields once planted to rice arc- now covered to a 

72

depth of 3 feet (l m.) or more in many places. 

Highlands; The Annam Mountains extend on a more or less north 

and south axis for about 625 miles (1,000 kms.). The crest of these 

mountains forms a broken series of perUcs varying in altitude from 

5,0't ft. (1,5'*2 m.) to the highest peak, Ngoc-Linh, 8,251 ft. 

(2,509 rn«) above sea-level, and is located about 60 miles (96 kms.) 

from the coast. 

The plateau of Darlac, a basin with an irregular surrace and 

ranging from 656 to I,o40 ft. (200-500 m.) above sea-level, occupies 

an area of about 5, J »05 square miles, located in the northwest between 

the mountains and the boundary separating South Vietnam from Cambodia. 

The vegetation on this highland is composed mainly of broadleaf trees 

and bamboo, which appear to thrive on dark red soils of lateritJe 

origin. 

Between the plateau of Darlac anrl the lower foothills there is a 

mountainous area, the Plateaux Montagnards du Sud, with an area of 

about 3;800 square miles, and varying in altitude between 3>280 a nd 

6,560 ft. (1,000-2,000 m.). In the cool climate, prevailing at these 

altitudes, two species of pine, (the 2-needied Pinup merkusii and. the 

3-needled P. khasya) constitue the dominant forest growth^ mixed with 

broadleaf trees and banôos in trie lower valleys and ravines (Fig. 11). 

Dalat, the principal city, is located near the center of this area. 

The basic formation of these mountains appears to be principally 

granite and basaltic upheaval. Many rivers and streams have their 

sources in the mountain areas, but none have the magnitude of the 

Mekong. Among the principal rivers that have their source In the 

Annam Mountains and flow west into Cambodia are Se Bang Khan, Nam 

Lieau and Krong Pok. Other smaller streams, originating in these 

mountains, flow eastward into the South China Sea, such as Da Nhim, 

Bai Gun,' Son, Song Kon and Song Ben Hai, the latter separating South 

Vietnam -.Yo:n Cornraunist-controlled North Vietnam, at the 17th Parallel. 

As in the case of most rivers with mountain sources there are 

many rapids and waterfalls cutting through rocky gorges. Extensive 

areas in most of the watersheds hf.ve been denuded of forest growth by 

shifting cultivation. Many of the mountain-born streams carry relatively 

clear wai;er, except during periods of flash floods. 

In the mountainous areas of the interior, distant from the highway, 

there are large extensions of open Dipterocarp forests, composed 

of trees with short boles, and mixed with stretches of savannas. 

These open forest, which French ecologistsclassified as 'forSts claires,' 

grow in soils with hard pan. Other sites formerly cleared for cultivation, 

and later abandoned, are densely populated by encroaching brush vegetation. 

As in Thailand, Laos and Cambodia, shifting cultivation has long been 

widely practiced by the hill tribes. This primitive method is difficult. 

to control in the more remote or inaccessible areas. For this reason 

73

there is urgent need in Southeast Asia, ar> in other tropical countries, 

for measures to control. land use, forest fires, forest cutting and 

land development. 

Climate; As in the adjoining countries of Southeast Asia, the 

climate of Vietnam is a tropical monsoon or seasonal type, with high 

temperatures and generally ample rainfall* The consideraole latitudinal 

and altitudinal range of the country produces noticeable 

climatic variations from one region to another, and the rainfall is 

subject to annual fluctuations. As in Thailand, in South Vietnam the 

rainy season ends in October, followed by a relatively dry, cod 

season from November to March. Along the narrow coastal plains of 

Annan, in central Vietnam, the rainy season may extend into January, 

influenced by the prevailing typhoons. In North Vietnam the total 

annual rainfall averages about 70 inches (1.750 rim.), compared with 

80 inches (2,000 mm.) in South Vietnam, In North Vietnam, however, 

the rainfall is more evenly distributed throughout the year. In addition 

to the rainy season, there is a moderate amount of precipitation during 

the winter or dry months, which is sufficient to produce a second grain 

crop. In South Vietnam, however, it is virtually impossible to obtain 

a second crop, without irrigation, during the dryj cool season on 

account of sparse precipitation. 

In North Vietnam the temperature range during the entire year is 

greater than in the siouth. However, ever, in the. northern part of 

the country, the nean monthly temperature seldom drops below 63° F. 

Population: Official statistics for entire Vietnam are not available. 

Estimates place the total population at between 25 and. 26 

millions, with about I'l- millions in South Vietnam. In recent years 

of conflict the population in the South has been increased by the influx 

of more than one million refugees. These migrants, formerly 

merchants, artisans, industrial workers and miners, have created an 

economic problem in an area where the majority of the inhabitants are 

small -scale farmers. The ye displaced persons from the North, as well 

as those from the Interior of South Vietnam, rely more and more on 

agriculture and the exploitation of forest products to meet their 

necessities. Agriculture, particularly rice growing and rubber tapping, 

provides a ] i veil hood 1'or about 90 percent of tae people. The remaining 

10 percent depend on fishing, forestry and. mining for subsistence, 

The population is unevenly distributed. For economic, social, 

health and now political or military reasons, most of the people prefer 

to live in the plains and. avoid the mountain areas. The result Is the 

concentration of population^ especially in the delta regions. 

The land use and population pattern of North and South Vietnam 

are determined by variations in terrain, climate and soils. In South 

Vietnam, with its great Mekong delta, it is estimated that, about 80 

percent of the land is under cultivation; in the mountainous central

egion, about 20 percent; and in North Vietnam, also in great part 

mountainous, only about 30 percent of the land is cultivated. 

In both North and South the highest concentration of population 

is in the rice-producing areas of the deltas and plains. This ranges 

•frofM .about '-,'^0 innabitants per square mile in the rice land of the 

Mekong delta, to an average of more than 1,500 in the central region, 

and almost 1,800 in the Red river delta of T.orth Vietnam. In other 

areas the population density drops to 20 or 25 inhabitants per square 

mile, while soma comparatively larê zones are totally uninhabited. 

There are several reasons for this diversity, but the predominant 

factor is the deep-rooted attachment to theix- ancestral homeland. 

In funeral the people axe reluctant to leave their relatives, friends 

and the village where their ancestors lived. Also, those accustomed 

to the lowland plains are hesitant to move, even for temporary periods, 

to upland areas. 

Far from beinr* divided into Buddhists and Catholics, the inhabitants 

of Vietnam include an extraordinarily diverse number of tribes and 

faiths. There are one million Montagnards (mountain people) who hav..- 

little resemblance to the more Mongol-looking Vietnamese of the plains. 

There are 3 million Confucianists arid ancestor worshippers, a holdover 

from the 900-year Chinese rule. Taoists number about 500,000. The 

followers of the strange Cao Dai religion who worship Joan of Arc and 

Victor Hu.njo as well as Buddha, number at least a million and a hylf. 

There zire 500,000 members of the Hoa Hao faith, which is a mixture of 

animisn, miracle working and Buddhism. Catholics number a million 

and a half. There are 500,000 other Christians including Baptists, 

Mennonites, Seventh Day Adventists and converts of the Christian 

and Missionary Alliance. Finally there are 500,000 Hindus and Moslems, 

includirg the people of tho non-Mongol Cham tribes. 

The result is that out of the lU million people in South Vietnam 

9 millions are not Buddhists. This leaves 5 million Buddhists, or 

slightly more than 33 percent of the total population. 

Forests: According to French publications there are more than 

1,500 species of woody plants in Vietnam, varying in size from mere 

shrubs to larê trees; from hard-stemmed reeds to pains and bamboos; 

and many species of woody vines or lianes, and herbaceous plants. 

These furnish timbers ana minor forest products of diverse typos which 

hove long played an important part in the local economy as well as 

for export. 

In the aggregate the dense and open forests, savannas, brushland 

and bamboo brakes cover approximately '+0 percent of -cne total area 

of Vietnam. 

In most areas the forests are mixed, represented by a large number 

of species within an area of a square mile. . Kain forests are re- 

.Vxtively limited, while pure stands are few. The nearest approach to 

75

pure types are the pr'.nes, the 3-needled Plnus khasya and 2-needled 

P. merkusii, gro»/in

These areas are now almost entirely rice producing cr covered with 

swamps, with s.iall scattered stands of trees around villages. 

The forests of the high zone cover the provinces of Tayninh, 

Thudaumot, Bienhoa, and the greater part of the province of Baria, 

extending northward into the forests of Binh-Thuan and into Cambodia. 

These forests vary greatly in appearance. They are composed of many 

species of trees, mostly of secondary growth, mixed with bamboos, 

shrubs and woody vines. 

Within this zone there are about 150 small islands, scattered 

through the Gulf of Thailand and the China Sea, .as well as isolated 

mountain forests, with low ele/ation, in the provinces of Chaudoc, 

Longxuyen and Hatien, emerging like islands from t,he basin formed by 

the swamps to the west. These stands include many species which are 

represented in the forests of the eastern provinces. Generally they 

are of smaller dimensions, and therefore differ in appearance. These 

forests have been exploited for many centuries for their timbers, as 

sources of mine-props and for building and repairing boats, so that 

somo species are now rare. 

The forests of the flooded zone extend throughout the region between 

western Vaico and the Gulf of Thailand, with many cultivated 

areas, swamps and fev lov mountains clad with trees similar to those 

in the eastern section. These inundated forests are distributed 

among the provinces of Baclieu, Ra^hgia, Hatien, Soctrang, Chaudoc, 

Giadinh and Baria. 

Part cf this extensive territory is covered with salt water intermittently 

at the period of high tide, or during the equinoxes. 

The salinity of the water decreases with increasing distance from 

the seacoast and finally disappears entirely. This variation in 

salinity is a determining factor on the nature of the vegetation. 

Two distinctive zones are found in the inundated forest: (l) the 

Mangrove forest, requiring salt water for its development, covering 

an area of about 1,800 sq. miles along the coast; and (2) stands 

of the cajeput tree (Melaleuca leucadendron), or 'cay tram 1 , growing 

in fresh water, although it can endure a slight degree of salinity. 

These forests are distinct from one another and from those of the 

east coast in that they consist of a single or a limited number of 

woody species. 

The forests of the west coast, lilê those of the east, have been 

intensively exploited from time immemorial., owing to continued and 

growing denvind for fuel wood. Originally the banks of the rivers 

were flanked far into the interior with a curtain of mangrove trees. 

A-i one time they were protected by law from being cut less than 500 

feet from the banks. When these laws were abrogated the felling of . 

.mangrove trees continued as before. The subsequent filling of river 

bed-" ^tb sand and silt, constant shifting of sandbanks, and changes 

11

in the courses of streams contributed to the disappearance of the 

mangrove forest. These .conditions make navigation difficult, and 

necessitate continual -dredging at considerable expense. Mxn^rove 

forest formerly existing in the provinces of Baria, Bienhoa arid 

Giadinh have been much depleted, but considerable areas still exist 

on the peninsula of Cainau to Pointe fjt. Jacques. 

The villagers consider the forests p.rowin^ in the local domain 

as their property. They install charcoal furnaces, and sell their 

produce mainly to the Chinese. For many years sea-going Chinese 

boats, even from Singapore, have been stopping at deserted points 

alonr, the coast of South Vietnam, to cut down Mangrove trees to 

obtain firewooa, to make charcoal or to gather the bark as a source 

of tannin. 

In addition to such commercially valuable woods as rosewood and 

ebony, the timber wealth of the southern part of South Vietnam is 

represented by species of two families in particular, namely tho&« 

of tbo bean or pulse (Leguminosae) and of the wood-oil (l)ipterocarâceae), 

found throughout the dryland forests. Species of these 

yield, excellent timbers for building and joinery. Other useful 

timbers are furnished by members of the families Lauraceae, Sterculiaceae, 

Verbenaceae and Guttiferae. 

For many years timber operators have experienced increasing 

difficulty in procuring timbers for buildinr,, and have been obliged 

T,O secure supplies in areas remote from shipping points, since ".uitable 

dimensions are no .tonr.er available alon: r , hi^nways and streams. 

In addition to timbers. South Vietnam possesses many minor products 

of plnnt origin. Amonr; secondary products bamboo is tne most 

important, and is considered 'the poor man's prpvindence 1 . It is 

found throughout the forests in the eastern part, represented by a 

number of species and each of whic'.i has special, uses. In Vietnam, 

as elsewhere, bambone are of universal utility, furnishing material 

for rcuildin-* hut.-,, ôokin.'j utensils, Garniture, as well as vases, 

plates and ornaments of varied kind. It Ls utilized for baskets, 

ladders, bridges, irrigation pipes and . ratters. The r.prouts are 

edible. aivJ animals are fond of the you-v, leaves ai.d branches. In 

addition to Ihecf; local uses, certain opeeier. of bamboo aro especially 

suit., oie for pulp and paper manufacture. There arc some 

sT'Ovien of bamboo.}, however, which are veritable forest pests, (level 

-join • innec. Lately after a patch of forest has been felled or 

clearer, choke out almost all other pjani.,-,, and wnen veil established 

are tifficu.lt to eradicate. 

found in Jouth Vietnam as in Thailand, some ;- T ,rowin,3 in tufts and 

otl'.'erv. in 3in;;le stalks, .lone spccu-s are ,aiT,ied with spines, others 

are entirely unar-.ied. , Rattan Ls usca for oordare, and. the stems split 

len-ithv.'ioC are used for basketry anc for making lifjht-v/eif.ht furniture.

The forests of South Vietnam contain several types of woody 

vines or iianes, furnishing cordage. Other plants are sources of 

latex for gutta-gum, such as species of Palaquiura obovaturj, an inferior 

gutta-percha, and dyes. In addition, there are several species 

of palms, some furnishing leaves to thatch huts, to make junk sails, 

hats, and other similar uses. 

Resins, which are natural or accidental exudations of pale 

yellow or amber color, are furniched by species of the wood-oil 

family (Dipterocarpaceae), especially of the genera Hopea and Shorea. 

Exuded alone the trunk, branches and roots, such exudations have long 

been gathered by woodcutters and others without any systematic 

method of tapping, for making torches, to caulk boats and in the 

manufacture of varnishes. 

Wood-oil is Airnished by species of Diptarocarpus, especially 

the tall 'dau' (D. alatus) or known as 'yang-khao 1 in Thailand. This 

product is gathered in a primitive manner during the dry season, by 

making a hollow with a hatchet in the trunk, about 3 feet above 

ground (Fig. 17), "to gather the oil that flows out. When the flow 

ceases the hollow is filled with straw or twigs, which are set on 

fire to induce-the flow of oil. It is difficult to estimate the 

50'eld of oil obtained from an individual tree. The natives claim 

that a 30-year old tree will continue to flow for many years,, and 

that the quantity obtained from a single tree may range up to about 

oO pounds each year. In normal years it was estimated that the 

southern portion of South Vietnam produced in excess of 2 million 

pounds annually of wood-oil. This is used locally for making torches, 

for caulking boats and junks, and for varnishing furniture. 

Forests of Central Vietnam: Toe forest, of Annam, now divided to 

form a section of South Vietnam and a portion of North Vr'etnara, at 

one time covered approximately one half the total area of the former 

French protectorate, or about 15 million acres (23,^0 square miles). 

These forests form a continuation of those of North Vietnam, corresponding 

to what vac formerly known as Tonkin, extending southward into 

South Vietnam, and westward into Laos. They represent an enormous 

timber wealth, containing such rare woods as rosewood, as well as 

ordinary woods, some of them suitable for paper pulp. 

Of broad-leaved trees, species of the wood-oil (Dipterocarpaceae) 

and bean or pulse family (Leguminooae) are îdespread and the most 

valuable. tfhile the Dipterocarps furnish timbers for heavy construction, 

those of the bean family supply fi>*e cabinet woods and 

building timbers, and others for turning, carving and decorative puj>poses. 

There are a number of species of Conifers, especially the 3-needled 

pine (Pinus khasya) ar.d the 2-neerfled pirie(P. r.erkusii), scattered 

over thousands of acres (Vies. 48-51). But some of the stands occur 

79

in remote regions with few roads and sparse population. In many 

areas their exploitation has been hindered also by high cost of 

logging and problems of transportation. In addition to pines other 

Softwoods, such species as Chanaecyparis, Cunninghamia, Taxu's and 

Thujopsis, fire x'ound. These Coniferous forests occur either In 

pure stands or mixed with other timber aperies. The province of 

lixn^ Bian is said to contain extensive stands of pine, with a potential 

annual production estimated at one time to be between lU and 

21 million cubic feet. But these forests also are difficult of 

access. 

A (treat amount of timber nas been wasted over the decades in the 

forests of .^south Annan. Tall timber trees normally have a larje 

base, wnicn makes cutting difficult and slow. Woodcutters saw these 

treed at a height of 5 to 7 feet above the ground, so that there is 

much waste. Much damage has also been done to seedlings in removing 

heavy lots from the forest, usually hauled by buffaloes. Similar 

waste hru; til so been practiced in cutting firewood because, as a rule, 

smaller trees are felled for fuel. 

Most of the burr.in*; of the forests in Annam is donQ, as elsewhere, 

;or shiftin: cultivation, the 'rai' system widely adopted throuftnout 

Southeast Asia. In this process thousands of acres of forests are 

burned eacn year, fclloved by planting field crops on a few hundred 

acres. After 2 or 3 crops t'r.e patches are abandoned. Soon the 

ubiquitous lala.ig (imperata) and other --.rasses and weeds develop, 

which are burned rsfjularly each year. In normal time this practice 

is difficult to .'suppress amen..: the tribes in the mountain areas, 

although it can be controlled'to a ; T ,roat extent in tre plains, where 

jeople are in closer contact with authorities. It is reported that 

durir.; a single year t'r.e inhabitants cf a large village may destroy 

a .'or.plete forest within a raoius of is miles. Bamboo brakes are 

• .Lso o.estrcyod by fire. The effect of deforestation is evident in 

Central Vietnam, as s'r.cwn cy a. gradual increase of uncultivated 

land aicr. * the base of the mountains, caused by erosion of soil from 

the bare mountain slopes, filling up the beds of streams, and with 

consequent floods. 

In addition to timbers, the forests of the Anr.am region, or 

central Vietnam, yield a series of minor products, includin;- bamboos, 

rattans, resins, nrns, tancark, fiber.:, oil-producing seeds, car- 

..'a-r.oms a;\;i vines, wnich in t,r.e agrj.ro :Mt,e :-,ave coon an appreciable 

.-icnr^c c:' revenue. Toprinr of plr.e 'r resin has oecn ^na-rio-i o n . 

'for :*,ai'," yoai's ii 1 v - .e reoer"."es of !Io:ui •-'.lai, in Lar.~ bia:i and '-it 

" N 'U:i >:v",:'.. ut t u .o tax;:.in:', .::' the proo'-i^T; has been hampered ov the 

-'.iV.'io.al 1 ..;' c f .;cc-irin- labrr ar.d material. The results have not al- 

•.s'ay..-> bee: o;-'tirel;- 3ati.ifa;tory. 

.''cre^~:| oi" 'lorth Vietp^'.: It v/a.3 estimated oy the •i« % renah Forest 

CL'fiJor... •,.!\at tnc : oreatc'fjrTirea of fcrr.or 1'onkin, now part of ilorth 

Vlcti'.a:-., amouiited to about o. >V'j,OCO acres, nr 13,5CO square'miles. 

The ..'cv-ôts GJ'. t.io w'r.cle have been very mu'h depleted, with bare 

cG

mountains covering vast areas. The primary forests have been uevasted 

over a period of several centuries n;ô, othei's durin,* the 

rrench occupation. The total area designated as forests induced 

moh forest land not capable of restoration by means of natural or 

artificial reseeding or replanting. In addition^ it included areas 

of marginal land, planted to rice, and forests parceled out to the 

natives to exploit minor products, 

The trees in Tonkin, in upper North Vietnam, for the most part 

are broad-leaved, mixed with'Conifers, mostly Pines, in some rerrions. 

Pure stands of pine, of one or more species, are rare. As r.any as 

50 different species of broad-leaved trees are /jenerally found on a 

single acre. But the forests have lost their original character, 

as the result of extensive felling over a period of several centuries. 

Primary forests are found only at hi;-n elevations, from 2, 300 to 

it,900 feet (700-1,500 m.), and even higher. In the valleys and 

plains the forests have also been devastated, and now furnish only 

Inferior, undesirable timbers. i.Ven second-growth has disappeared 

over vast areas, giving place to brush and grass-covered savannas. 

Undoubtedly, primary forests covered much of the lower regions 

of Tonkin at one time, but these vere progressively cleared for the 

planting of field crops. 3uch tropical families as Dipterocarpaceae, 

Anonaceae and Sterculiaceae are now represented by only a limited 

number of woody species. Genera typical of temperate regions, such 

as oak (Quercus), chestnut (Gastanops is), maple (AcerX ash (Frax_inu_s), 

magnolia, and others appear in the .highlands. There are species with 

hard and soft wool. The softwoods usually develop in secondary forest 

growth following fire, fellinc or clearing. For the most part the 

trees are of much smaller dimensions than those ^rowinr, in the Rain 

or Moist forests of Thailand, or those found in the hichlands of 

central Vietnam and Cambodia. 

The effects of excessive deforestation in upper North Vietnam is 

.obown in the regimen of streams. River-beds are closed with rocks 

and. sandbanks. The action of torrents is evident on the mountain 

.slopes as well as in the cultivated valleys. Sand, c~ravel and even 

rocks are carried alon^ . y rushing waters, forming deposits of detritus 

which damage rice planting in the upper valleys. 

Timbers graded as first and second class in Tonkin include: 'îe' 

and. 'soi' (Quercus and Pasania spp.) of the oak family; 'cyp* (Para- 

.Ghorea sp. and Dip to roc arpu s tonkinonsis); 'tau 1 (Vatica tonkinensis); 

* cham 1 (Canarium tonkinenGe, C. ni^rum, C. copaliferun); 'boo.e' 

(3tyrax torkinense); also Melia spp; P>-yeum arbpreun, Toona febrjfur.a, 

Upondias tonkinensis, Mallotus cochinchincnsis, Casesalpinia sappan 

and Maucloa purpurea. These genera are represented also in Thailand. 

81

CAMBODIA 

Cambodia is em ancient country named after Kambu, the mythical 

founder of the Khmer race who inhabit it. The country has suffered 

many vicissitues in its long history, and has seen the'rice and fail 

of diverse civilizations. It cane under French domination in the 

19th century when it was incorporated as a part of the French Union 

of Indochina. Only since World War II has it emerged as a newly independent 

kingdom, following the breakup of the Union. 

Bordered on the north b> Laos, on the west by Thailand, and on 

the east and southeast by South Vietnam, it has an area of about 

66,800 square miles, roughly the size of the State of • V.'rxshin^lon or 

South Dakota. It is a relatively compact country, extending about 

350 miles (560 kms.) from east"bo west, and in Its north-south axis 

it varies from 150 miles (250 kms.) in the east to 280 miler, (460 kms.) 

in the west. The central plain, an alluvial plateau bordering on the 

Mekong river and Tonic* Sap (Great Lake), covers about three-fourths 

of the country. To the south and west there is- a hi^h plateau, 

flanked by the E3.epha.nt Mountain Chain extending to the Gulf of Thailand. 

In the west and north the.Cardomora and Dan.^rek Mountain 

ranges extend along the border of Thailand. Tlie Moi plateau, to the 

east, is inhabited by more than 50,COC primitive hill people. 

The Mekong river enters Cambodia from southern lads and traverses 

the country in a southerly direction before it enters Couth Vietnam. 

Tonl^ Gap, or Great Lake, is an important geographical feature. Once 

an arm of the sea, this lar.3e like is now linked with tne Mekong 

river by a channel at Phno:. Penh. During the rainy season, the waters 

of the Mekong flow into .this lake and increase its area to about 770 

square miles. In the cury season, however, the current i^ reversed 

and the lake is reduced to approximately 100 squre miles. This is 

surrounded, by wet, fertile .lanu adniraoly auited for rice cultivation. 

The lake teems with fish, so that ar. extensive fishing industry uat; 

developed in the area. 

Population; The population of Cambodia is estimated to be about 

5 mULlicns and is said to be increasing at the rate of 2.2 percent 

per annum. The population density, of about 75 inhabitants per 'square 

mile, is low for this part of the world, and the country is considered 

to be underpopulated. More than cO percent of the inhabitants arc 

of Cambodian or Khmer stock{ 6 percent, Vietnamese; 5 percent, 

Chinese; and an unknown number of Chamo (Cambodian Moslems) and hill 

tribe people. Europeans, mostly French, formerly numbered about "Ive 

thousand. The heaviest concentration of population is in the river 

areas. The Provinces of Kandal, which includes the capital Phnom 

Penh, Kompong Cham, and Prey Venn have the densest population. 

Although they still represent only a small percentage of the population, 

the Vietnamese have been immigrating into Cambodia since the 

b2

17th century. They have not been completely assimilated and still remain 

as a separate '-roup. 'They are influential in the urban areas as 

skilled artisans and small merchants, but in rural areas they have ' 

become successful f

The remaining 22,000 square miles are covered by open to fairly open 

Forest, of the Seasonal or Deciduous type, in which most of the trees 

shed their leaves during the dry season. Because of poor ooil conditions 

iii nany areas, the dominant trees belong to the wood-oil family 

(lUpterocarpaceae), composed of species similar to those in eastern 

Thailand. 

The forests may be segregated broadly into three types: (a) inundated 

or riparian forests: (b) seasonal or deciduous and secondgrowth 

forests; and (c) dense forests. 

(a) Forests flooded over periodically contain only inferior tree 

species, mingled with woody vines and rattans (Calamus). As in the 

case of vegetation around hamlets, these have been much cutover durin:j, 

the years, since the rich r.oil in these sites has always been 

much in demand for agriculture, especially for rice planting. Because 

of the difficulty to supervise ai: efficient and methodical exploitation 

of these forests, they were much nc,;lected by the French forest administrators 

of the protectorate. 

(b) Seasonal or Deciduous forests; the principal species are: 

'pli'.U.e!'.' (An icoptera cochin c h ine nr is); 'sokram 1 (Xylia dolabriformis); 

'thbeiv;' (PLpterooarpus obtusifollus); 'trach 1 (Dipterncarpus in- 

Iriâtus); c.nd 'khlon,^~ (Dip to ro carpus tubcrculatus'), ^rowinc scatterin-] 

y and with littlQ or no unaer-^rowth. 

:-ro.n August to November the ground is covered with tree seed-lines, 

apron tin.;; amoung tho grasses. During January, at the beginning of 

the dry season, the younc; plants and grasses are destroyed by fires 

set oy the natives. These periodic fires injure the soil, destroy 

the youn plants, and often dana-'ie irreparably the larger trees, so 

that natural regeneration is difficult. 

(c) The dense forests, cr remnants of these, are located in the 

districts of Stun;;-Tren

in Thailand and Vietnam. Bat these have not been exploited on a 

scale comparable to Thailand. 

Rubber; Cambodia raiLks as an important producer of Pard" rubber 

(Hey eg, brasiliensis), tapped from trees grown on large plantations, 

which were formerly all French-owned. In an attempt to encourage 

participation of Cambodians in this economic product, in recent years 

the government has been promoting a small-holder rubber program 

among individual farmers. 

More than 90 percent of the estimated 92,TOO acres planted to 

rubber trees is located in the northern and southeastern sections of 

the Kompong Cham Province, where soil and climatic conditions are 

especially suitable for this introduced tree. Possibilities for 

increased rubber production exist aloo in the red soil areas of Dattambang 

and Kratie Provinces. 

Rubber production amounted to 38,000 tons in .1959, and -'.0,985 

tons in 19'*). Virtually the entire output is exported, principally 

in the form of smoked, crepe and latex rubber, with about 50 percent 

of the annual production, during those years, shipped to the United 

States. 

LAOS 

This landlocked country extends along the main ridge of several, 

mountain chains that form the watershed of the I.ndo-Cnina Peninsula 

of Southeast Asia. Its present frontiers were established in 1893 

wi.en t. n e country became a r'rencb protectorate. Tne r'rench called the 

country Laos (pronounced La-os). and the inhabitants were designated 

a.s Lao 'Iu-o, not Laotians). 

On ius western flank Laos borders Thailand for about 1,OCC 

riles (1,'JOG kms.), with the Mekong river forming more tiiar, 500 

miles (t'OO kms.) of the boundary. On the east it has a long border 

v'ith iiorth and South Vietnam; to the north it adjoins Burma and the 

Y.;nnan Province of Mainland China; and on the south is flanked oy 

Cambodia. The total area of the country is approximately 91,500 

square miles, roughly the size of the States of Pennsylvania aid [Jew 

York combined. 

Laoe is tha largest in area, but 1,1 KJ least populated, of t'ne 

territories that formerly constituted Indochina. Its Ion,: axis in 

about bOO miles ( f }

The country may be divided into three topographic regions: (a) 

Upper Laoc, mainly ru.êd mountain chains arid /~orê-like valleys, 

with some pe.-iks attaining a height exceeding u,OOC feet (2,500 rn.); 

(b) sloping taolelands that border the Annamite Chain in Lower Laos; 

and (c) lowland valleys of the Mekong river and its tributaries. 

The Mekong river, which has lon^ played an important role in the 

life of the Lao people, flows for several hundred miles, in a broad 

valley along the western border and throu ^h northern I/aotian territory. 

It constitutes the country's main artery of communication. 

During low water the river is shallow, but at the nei ; ;ht of the rains 

it rices more tnan 20 feet (6 m.). (3ee I'!;. 0.} 

Soil fertile enough to support intensive agriculture is limited 

to the river valleys and on the Boloven Plateau near the Cambodian 

border. The people's life is closely tiea to agriculture and rice 

is largely cultivated for domestic needs. 

Population: No accurate data are available regarding the population 

figure of Laos. Lucent official estimar.es ranê from 1.5 to 

3 millions. The sparse copulation is unevenly spread, with the 

greatest concentration in the basin of the Mekong, and is comprised 

of many tribal groups with d.ivercent backgrounds, r'or administrative 

purposes they are classified into two principal groups: (a) Lao, 

probably descended from tribes whose origin way Thai, account for 

approximately 42 percent of the total population. The related Thai, . 

representing about 15 percent of the population, have a somewhat 

similar ethnic heritage. These people inhabit the plains, living in 

densely populated villages, and their livelihood depends entirely 

on rice growing. Their predominant, religion is Buddhisn. (b) Lao- 

Theung, who live mostly in the hiJls and mountainous area, constitute 

about 29 percent of the population. With inheritance stemming from 

several different ethnic cultures, these upland tribes include the 

Kha, IvJec, Yao, Phouthai and Lu. They inhabit the forests of the hip,h 

plateaus and mountains, and practice ohe shifting system of agriculture, 

by burning cff hillsides to secure tillable land and seek new 

fields, when soil exhaustion makes old oites undesirable (Fig.118). 

l.'n these snail patches they yrow annual crops, upland rice and other 

food prouuce, as well as opium poppy. 

Ir: audition, tribes of proto-Malayan stock or Indonesian descent, 

live under primitive conditions scattered in the mountains and forests, 

Foreigners who reside in the towns a:id conduct most of the banking 

and -commerce ircl'.-de Vietnamese, Chinese, Cambodians, Indians and 

Pakistanis. 

It is impossible to determine the -exact numoer of inhabitants by 

region, out the following figures indicate the approximate density 

of the population. In mountain regions there are roughly 5 inhabitants 

per square mile; while in the plain regions the average is 

about 39 inhabitants per square mile.

ClImate; Laos has a tropical, climate with two distinct seasons: 

a rainy period from May or June to October, regarded as the season 

to till the land; and a dry cool season, from November to February, 

prolonged into a warmer summer period from March to May. Humidity 

is high throughout the year, and the heat is oppressive and enervating 

in the lowlands. 

The climate of Vientiane, the administrative capital, is rather 

-*• well defined seasonally, characterized by 5 or 6 months of heavy 

rainfall. The average is between 11 and 12 inches per month during 

the rainy southwest monsoon period, from May to September or October 

inclusive. This is followed by 5 or 6 months of drought, with a 

«. monthly average of about one-half inch of rain, falling on an 

average during 2 days a month. 

April is the hottest month, with an average maximum of 93° F. 

(3^°C.), and an average minimum of 72.5°F. (22.5°C.). The coolest 

month is January, when the average maximum temperature drops to 

83°F. (28.3°C.) and the average minimum to 57°F. (lU°C.)- In the 

spring there are strong winds from the south, which occasionally 

cause damage to buildings and trees. 

At Vientiane temperatures range from 70° to 90° F.(£1° to 32 C C.), 

although temperatures under 50°F. (10°C.) and above 100°F. (37.8°C.) 

have been recorded. 

Throughout Laos, the temperature and rainfall vary somewhat from 

pla.ce to place. On the plateaux of Boloven and Trari-Ninh the winter 

colu may be severe enough to damage local crops. Temperatures frequently 

fall below freezing at elevations around ^,000 ft, (1,300 m.) 

in Xieng Kliouang Province. 

Forests: Studies on the vegetation of Laos have been made principally 

by French ecologists and foresters. Howevar, these investigations 

have been carried out only on a limited scale, so that 

only meager information is available on the specific composition and 

precise distribution of the various forest types in Laos. 

It is estimated that the forests of Laos cover approximately 

62,000 square miles, or equivalent to about two-thirds of the total 

area of the country. All forest land is owned by the government, but 

parcels may be leased to private firms. As in adjoining countries, 

shifting cultivation accompanied by periodic fires is practiced 

throughout the years by hill tribes inhabiting the mountains and 

plateaus. This has resulted in extensive destruction of valuable pri- 

-r mary forests. In addition, uncontrolled exploitation of commercial 

timbers and minor forest products has long been conducted in a wasteful 

manner. 

With similar topography, climate and soils, the forest types of 

. I.eos are closely similar to those of continental Thailand, with 

87

Mixed Deciduous ar.r. Dipterocarp forests being predominant. For example, 

a domjnant tree in the northwestern section adjoining Thailand, 

between Vientiane arid Luang Prabang, is Teak (Tectona grandis), 

which is alao found in fcnc neighboring regions of northwestern ana 

northern Thailand. It is estimated tliat there are about 173,000 

acres 01" this valuaole timber in the Jaraboury region of northwestern 

Laos. 

Farther east in Upper Laos, from Paksane northward toward Xieng 

Khouang, there are stands of the 2-neectled Pine (Pinus mcrku!.,ii), 

which is also found in northern Thailand. This pine I'orest extends 

into the uplands northeast of Thakhek towards the oorder of North 

Vietnam (Fig. 11). 

Still farther north, along the border between Laos and the northwestern 

part of North Vietnam, a frequent and characteristic tree is 

'bo de 1 (Styrax tonkinensis). In the uplands along the border of 

North Vietnam, atso, there is a species of oak (Quercus), as well as 

such trees as Aglaia gigantea and oindora tonkinensis. Fartner south, 

'trac 1 (Palbergla, •-;ochinehinensis) is a frequent tree, much valued 

for its timber". All these genera are represented in eastern and 

northern Thailand. 

While the forest types of Upper Laos are comparable to northern 

Thailand, those of Central and Lower laos resemble i he forests in the 

region of Nakhon Phanorri, Mukdaban and Phibun Mangsal-an, in northeastern 

and eastern Thailand, adjacent to the Mekong river. In 

these areas there are extensive areas of open Dry Dipterocarp forest, 

mixed with localized stands of Mi'-:ea Evergreen forest, and occasional 

small patches of oavanna. 

ANALOGOUS FEATURES 

o f 

SOUTHEAST ASIA, PUERTO RICO AND TEXAS 

To estaolish analogous features of the vegetation in widely separated 

areas with such extreme climatic conditions, ranging from 

tropical, subtropical to temperate, that prevail in Southeast Asia, 

Puerto Hieo and Texas, consideration should be given to topography 

and soil types. These factors, as we have indicated, influence considerably 

the types of vegetation that prevail in these divei-gent 

regions. 

Area: The five countries of Southeast Asia under review have a 

total area of about 500,000 square miles; Puerto Rico covers 3j'*23 

square miles; and Texas, 262,'^00 square miles. 

68.

Topography: The general physiography, of Southeast Asia is that 

of mountain ranges, with peaks upwards of 6, 5CX) feet (8, OCX) n.) in 

altitude, deep gorges, plateaus and great plains. The entire region 

is drained by numerous rivers, most of which flow in a southerly or 

southeasterly direction, and their estuaries form extensive deltas. 

Puerto Rico contains three physiographic regions: (a) a central 

mountainous core of vdicanic origin; (b) an, elevated area of coral 

limestone, formerly marginal marine deposits, surrounding the mountain 

ranges; and (c) the northern and southern coastal plains. Few 

countries of comparable size are so well-watered as Puerto Rico. 

Within its mountainous area there are many swift-running streams, 

flowing through deep gorges and s-oeep-sloped valleys. It is reported 

that the island has about 1,300 small and large streams, of which 

the Rio de la Plata, about 4 5 miles (72 kmsi) long, is considered the 

largest. Except for small boats, these rivers are navigable only in 

their tidal reaches. 

On a broad basis, there are three major physiographic conditions 

in Texas: (a) mountains and basine of the Trans -Pe cos; (b) fairly 

level plains as exemplified by the lur;n plains and Gulf prairies; 

and (c) rolling or irregular topography as typified by the rolling 

plainn. South Texas plains, Hill country ov Edwards plateau, anc'. 

East timberlands. 

The principal mountains of TVâs are in the Trans-Pecos region 

where the Rocky Mountain system crosses over from New Mexico to Old 

Mexico. The highest point is Guaxielupe peak, 8,751 feet (2,650 m.). 

The Baleones Escarpment provides a rather distinct dividing line betvcen 

the eastern Kdwards plateau and the South Texas plains and 

Rlack.1 and 3. Another prominent physiographic feature is the Cap Rock 

Escarpment, separating the high and rolling plains. Ms ly streams 

dissect the 3-uate, flowing irregularly from the northwest to the 

Gulf Coast. 

Climate: In Southeast Asia the climate is controlled by the 

seasonal monsoon, modified by local topography. Two broad types of 

climate prevail: that of the Rain forest and of Savanna. The optimal. 

Rain forest climate is characterized by a uniformily high temperature 

and rainfall distributed throughout the year, with no prolonged dry 

season. The tropical Savanna climate, on the other hand, .has less 

precipitation, varying up to 80 inches, with distinct rainy and dry 

seasons of almost equal duration. This is modified regionally under 

the influence of topography. • The prevailing winds in Thailand are 

the southwest monsoon, which corresponds to the wet season, and the 

northern or northeast monsoon, during the dry season. 

Owing mainly to the modifying influence of topography, five types 

o** climate are recognized In Thailand: (a) Northern region, with a 

monsoon climate influenced considerably by local elevation, producing 

a so-called mountain climate, with temperature extremes ranging from 

89

37 n J\(2.8°C.) to 103°F. (39-5°C.). Rainfall is moderate, but of 

long duration. (b)'The northeast or Korat Platetu has a tropical 

savanna climate, and is little affected by topographic relief, since 

this is mostly a plateau. The highest temperature record is 109°^' 

(^2.3°C.). Recorded monthly extremes of rainfall r»r.ge from 0.2 inches 

(f>.3 nn.) to 9.7 inches (2 4 < : '9 mm.), at times even 170 

inches (-4,318 mm.). The Minimum average annual rainfall of 37 inches 

(9-*0 rn.), is recorded at CTudnica, on the southwest coast, while 21 

inches (533 mm.) has been r.-jcoraea as the absolute minimum in recent 

yeara. 

Ir. Texas precipitation records rave been maintained by the U.S. 

Weather Bureau for about 1C.X3 years. Most of the precipitation falls 

as rain, but there are locations, in Wc^t Texas, vhere snowfall contributes 

significant amounts of moisture. The warmest part is in the 

Lower .-

forcing its impact. 03, tbe vegetation. . Climatic zones ir. Texas -have 

been characterized: as arid or semi-arid and humid cr sub-humid, 

even though the State lies within temperate latitudes. 

Soil s ; There is a considerable diversity of soi_ types in the 

various regions of Thailand. The characteristic: soils of the northvest 

highlands are shallow and stony, interrupted by loamy, recent 

alluvial soils. The soils of the Kcrat plateau, ir. t:.e northeast^ 

arc either fine sandy loam, quartzitio and siliceous sandstone, or 

laterite, interspersed occasionally with alluvial ..lore-sits, especially 

near the Mekor..^ river. The central plain has dark heavy clay with 

profiles not veil developed. T.'.e southeastern region around Chantaburi 

and 'frat has a variety of soils from fine oar.a;' lean to very 

coarse sand, generally at the foot of granite hills. Ic the Peninsula 

the soils are rather complex and interspersed witri fi.io sandy loam, 

characteristic of that of Roi-ct in the northeast, as veil as loams 

typical of the Chiengmai region, in the north. There are also coastal 

soils with aanay -ridges, alternating with strips of lev clay. 

The soils of Puerto Rico also show considerable variation. In 

SO.T.C areas tr.ey have been derived by erosion, and uistributod for the 

nest part by water. On mountain slopes, as in the southern part, 

plants often .;rou between loose rooks or appear to sprir.j from rock 

'crevices, in vnich their roots are firmly embedded. Jhis condition 

results in soils of differing depth, ran:*in;^ up to thick deposits 

occurring in alluvial coastal plains. The soils also vary in the 

amount of moisture they contain, some bein^ very moist, others are 

dry. In some coastal areas, such as the region of Gu;*:uca ir, the 

southvesb, the soils are saline. On hill slopes the soils are more 

cr less -calcareous. On eruptive ro'chy hills and mountains and in 

granite and sr.ale aroas they are often predominantly clay. Alcnj 

river banks, especially in the northern coastal plains, the soj.ls arc 

almost pure sand or gravel, as also in the coastal beaches and dunes. 

Tne soils of Texas in general have been influenced oy relatively 

rec.cnt Ceno::oio clay ann sana sedinents in 'the eastern and western 

thirds of the State. The central region has been affected by interrr.ediate-a.-'.e 

limestone, marls, saro'--. and clays of the Vezczoic and 

F-ileozoic eras. In addition, minor outcrops of olaor recks occur in 

the Trans- Pecos. Alluvial soils occur alone most o:" the streams and 

major river systems. 

Vegetation; The three regions, especially Southeast Asia and 

Pue r to " R i oo , are rich in. plant species. In Thailand it is reported 

that there are about 10,000 species of plants, ran.:ir.j from small 

herbs Lo jjiant trees in the Hair, forest; and about 1,'x-O woody 

species in Vietnam. In Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islar.ds there 

are several thousand plants, including 500 species of woody plants 

from tall trees in the Evergreen Moist forest to dwarf species in 

the upland Montane forest and in arid regions. Approximately - ! ;,5GO 

species of plants are recorded in Texas. 

91

Coniferous forests, especially species of pines, are found in 

Southeast Asia, but they constitute only a minor part, less than 

1 percent in fhailand, of the total forests. There are two species 

of pines (Pinus) in Thailand, which are also found in adjacent 

countries to the east, growing at medium to high elevations, where 

they sometimes form almost pure stands. Pine is not native to Puerto 

Rico, although several species have been introduced into the island 

and grown successfully. In Texas, 6 or 7 speeias of pines form an 

important element of the vegetation, especially in the Pineywoods 

area in the eastern part, at elevations of 200 to 500 ft. (60-lpO mm.). 

These include: loblolly (Pinus taeda), shortleaf (P. echinata), 

longlepf (P. palustris) and slash pine (P. cari'oaea). 

Several species of oak (Qaercus spp.) are of common occurrence, 

mixed with other species, in the Montane forest of northern Thailand, 

as well as in Vietnam and in the adjoining countries. Oaks, also, 

constitute a major element in the vegetation of Texas. About 35 

species are represented in the State, in addition to a large number 

of varieties. Along with hickory, maple and pine, oaks are dominants 

in the Pineywoods area of eastern Texas. 

The forests of Southeast Asia may be divided into two broad clashes: 

Evergreen and Deciduous. The same general classification may be 

applied to Puerto Rico. 

In Thailand 12 forest types are recognised, all or raost of which 

occur in the other Southeast Asiatic countries. The Evergreen forests 

include: Rain; Moist; Dry Evergreen; Montane; Coniferous; Swamp, which 

includes Mangrove woodland; and Deciuucus forests, separated into 

Mixed Deciduous, which may be further divided into Moist Mixed and 

Dry Mixed forests; Deciduous Dipterocarp forests; in addition to Beach 

forest, Bamboo brakes, and Savanna. 

Most of these formations are represented in Puerto Hico. Although 

the forest types in the two respective regions nay differ in species 

composition, they exhibit analogies in physiogncny and lire-forms. 

In Texas there are four major plant forr.ations; Grassland; Deciduous 

forest; V/oodland; and Desert-scrub, Representative associations 

in the grassland formation are mixed-prairie, coastal prairie, and 

desert plains. The short-grass area cf the Texas high plains may be 

regarded as a grazing disclimax to miêd-prairie. The dominants of 

the Deciduous forest are oak and hickory. The woodland climax formation 

is represented on the Edwards plateau and ir. the Davis and Guadelupe 

mountains a.s pinon-juniper association. The arid section may be 

classified as desert-scrub. 

In Thailand Rain forest is found in the Takuapa region, southwest 

Peninsula, and in isolated sites on the summit of the mountain 

chains in the southeast, along the Car.bodian border. There the annual 

rainfall sometimes readies in excess of 150 inches. Rain forest ia 

92

found also in western Cambodia in the Cardamom and Elephant mountain 

ranges. There are some isolated stand3 of Rain forest, also, in 

the Annan Mountains of contra! Vietnam, "in Puerto Rico Rain forest 

is confined mostly to the upper sloped of the Luquillo mountain, in 

the northeast. Dominant trees in this forest are Dacryodes, 'tabar.uco 1 , 

associated with Sloanca. On the summit of these ranges in Puerto 

Rico dwarf trees form wnat some call k fcllfin woodland' Ln the Montane 

forest. The same type of forest is found on the summit of mountains 

Irithanon, Gutep, Angka, Puy, and Chienîao in northern Thailand. 

Mossy forest occurs at the upper limit of the Montane forest 

in Thailand as well as in northeastern Puerto Rico. In this forest 

the tree trunks and branches are covered with mosses and lichens, and 

the ground is a moist, sphagnum bog. 

Evergreen Moist forest is wideJy distributed along the lower and 

Middle windward slopes of hills and mountains both in Thailand and . 

.Puerto Rico. Stands of Dry Kvergreen forest are scattered in eastern 

and western Thailand, and along the north coast of Puerto Rico. 

Mixed Deciduous forests are also a common occurrence in Thailand, 

Puerto Rico, as well as in Texas. 

The mountain cabbage or 'sierra' palm (Eu terpe 'glubosa) is a distinctive 

and characteristic feature of the vegetation in upland areas 

of Puerto Rico, often forming extensive stands. In Thailand palms are 

also well represented by several species, but nowhere do they fonr. 

large, dense stands, comparable to the IMerto Rican Euterpe globosa. 

Trees of the wood-oil family (Dipterocarpaceae), represented oy 

several genera, are a dominant and characteristic feature in Southeast 

Asia. In Thailand they constitute about 4^ percent of the total 

forestea area. These trees do not grow naturally, and no attempts 

have been made to propagate them eitner in Puerto Rico or Texas. 

Bamboos, of which there are about 19 species in Thailand, are 

widely distributed throughout Southeast Asia, develop rapjdly and 

form extensive brakes in forest clearings and play a very important 

part in supplying the daily needs of the people. Bamboos are not 

native to Puerto Rico or Texas, but several species have been introduced 

and propagated successfully in Puerto Rico. 

A distinctive topographical character, with a characteristic 

plant cover, are the limestone bluffs, "haystacks' or 'mogotes', 

frequent in northern Puerto Rico. Similar liit.estone buttes, often 

with steep slopes covered with distinctive vegetation are found in 

widely scattered areas of Thailand, especially in the southern 

Peninsula where they form a prominent feature of the landscape 

(Fig. 111). 

Thorn forests are common in cleared land in Thailand, especially 

93

where the annual precipitation is low and the soil is poor. Many 

of the plants, ranging from shrubs to small trees mixed with bamboos 

and cacti, are armed with sharp thorns. A similar formation occurs 

around Guanica, in southwestern Puerto Rico. 

The best analogy, in comparing the vegetation types of Southeast 

Asia and Puerto Rico, is the Mangrove forest, which occurs in both 

hemispheres. This is a special edaphic association, flourishing in 

saline soil in deltas and around the estuaries of rivers. Several 

identical genera grow in this forest type in both regions. While 

Some stands of Mangrove forest in Thailand and South Vietnam may be 

taller than those along the north and south coasts of Puerto Rico, 

their physiognomy and life-forms are closely similar. The canopy 

is uniform and continuous, with foliage of varying shades of green, 

according to species. 

Teak (Tectona grandjs) is a characteristic tree of the Mixed Deciduoua 

forest of northern Thailand and northwestern Laos. This 

commercially valuable timber tree is not native to Vietnam, Cambodia, 

or Puerto Rico, although it has been planted successfully in all 

these countries. 

Numerous species of grasse:;, some forming dominants in the ground 

cover, are represented in 3outheast Asia, Puerto Rico and Texas. 

.Several species are cosmopolitan. In. addition, certain weeus, such 

as KupaLorLum oaoratum, are paritropical, frequent in forest clearir^s 

ana along roadways. 

Many plants, especially those of economic value as source of food, 

fruits, tubers, or planted as ornamental plants, have oeen introduced 

from tropical America into Southeast Asia, and likewise ;'rom Asia to 

Puerto Rico. A lv iong these may be mentioned: corn, tobacco, cotton, 

-assava or manioc (Manihot esculenta), peanuts, ana sucn fruit trees 

as Mango (MangU'cra iridica), tamarini (Taraar Indus indiea), papaya 

(Jarioa papaya), ponuxrosa (gXtgenia .'.amopsTând al.T.endra (Tcrirdnalia 

catrippa)"; in addition to ma:iogany (o..'ielenia mai:a::oni and ^3. :nacropriylla)', 

African ttilip tree (Spatnodea campa:ialata)', and t::e raintree 

\kntc;rplobiurn saman) grown along avenues and in parks. 

A list of plant families common to Southeast Asia, Puerto Rico 

and Texas, and indicative of the similarity of the vegetation of 

these widely separtted regions, follows;

Plant Families 

In 

Southeast Asia, Puerto Rico and Texas* 

Thailand 3. Vietnaia Puerto Rico Texas 

Acanthaceae 

Aceraceae 

Aizoaceae 

Alismaceae 

Amaranthaceae 

Araaryllidaceae 

Anacardiaceae 

Annonaceae 

Apocynaceae 

Araceae 

Araliaceae 

Aristolachiaceae 

Asclepiadaceae 

Balanophoraceae 

Balsaminaceae 

Basellaceae 

Begoniaceae 

Berberidaceae 

Eetulaceae 

Bignoniaceae 

Bixaceae 

Bombacaceae 

Boraginaceae 

Bromeliac"5ae 

Burraanniaceae 

Burseraceac 

Cactaceae 

Campanulaceae 

Cannaceae 

Cappbridaceae 

Caprifoliaceae 

Caricaceae 

Caryophyllaceae 

Casuarinaceae 

Celastraceae 

Chenopodiaceae 

Chloranthaceae 

Combretaceae 

Comme1inace ae 

Conpositae 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

XX 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

A, partial list, selected for their cosmopolitan distribution. 

95

Thai land S. Vietnam Puerto Rico Texas 

Connaraceae X X X 

Convolvulaceae ' X X X X 

Crassulaceae X X X X 

Cruclferae X X X X 

Crypteroniaceae X X • 

Cucurbitaceae X X X 

Cyatheaceae X X X 

• X 

Cyperacsae X X X X 

Diileniaceae X X X 

Dioscoreaceae X X X X 

Dipterocarpaceae 

Droseraceae 

X 

X 

X 

X . X 

Ebenaceae 

Elaeagnaceae 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X X 

Elaeocarpaceae X X X 

Equisetaceae X X X 

Ericaceae X X X X 

Erythroxylaceae ' X X X 

Euphorbiaceae X X . X X 

Fagaceae 

Flacourtiaceae 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Geraniaceae 

Gesneriaceae 

X 

X X 

X 

Gleicheniaceae X X X 

Gnetaceae X X 

Goodeniacease X ' X X 

Gramineae X X X X 

Guttiferue X X X X 

Hamamelidaceae X X X X 

Hernand.laceae X X 

Hippocrateaceae X X 

Hydrophyllaceae X X X 

Hypericaceae X X X X 

Icacinaceae X X 

Iridaceae X X X X 

Juglandaceae X X X x 

Labiatae X X X 

lauraceae 

Lecytliidaceae 

X 

X 

X X 

X 

X 

Leeaceae 

Leguminosae 

X 

X 

X 

X • X X 

Lillaceae X X X X 

Linaceae X , X 

Lobeliaceae X X X X 

Loâniaceae X X X x 

Loranthaceae 

lythraceae 

X 

X 

X 

X 

" 

X 

X 

X 

Magnoliaceae X X X X

Thailand S. Vietnam Pjerto Rico Texas 

Malpighiaceae X X . X 

Malvaceae X X X X 

Marontaceae X X X X 

Melastomaceae X X X X 

Meliaceae 

Meni.spermaceae 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Moraceae X X X X 

Moringaceae 

Musaceae X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Myricaceae X X X 

Hyristicaceae X X X 

Myrsinaceae X X X 

ttyrtaceae X X X 

Naiadaceae X X X 

Nyctaginaceae X X X X 

Nymphaeaceae X X X X 

Ochnaceae 

Olacaceae 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Oleaceae X X X X 

Onagraceae 

Ophioslossaceae 

X 

X 

X 

X 

'< 

X 

X 

X 

Orchidaceae X X X X 

Oxaiidaceae X X X X 

Palaaceae X X X X 

Passifloraceae X X X X 

Pahdanaceae X X X 

Phytolaccaceae X X X 

Pinaceae X X X 

Piperaceae X X X 

Plvunbaginaceae 

Podocarpaceae 

X 

X 

X 

X X 

X 

Polygalaceae X X X X 

Polygonaceae X X X X 

Polypeuiaceae X X X X 

Pontederiaceae X X X X 

Portulacaceae X X X X 

Primulaceae X X X X 

Proteaceae X X X 

Rafflesiaceae X X X 

Ranunculaceae X X X X 

Rhamnaceae X X X . X 

Rhizophoraceae X X X 

Rosaceae 

Rubiaceae 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Rut ace a e X X X X 

Sabiac«!ae X X X 

SaJ.icac.eae X X X X 

Samydaceae 

Sapindaceae 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X X 

Sapotaceae. X X X X 

97

Thailand 

Saxifragaceae 

Schizaeaceae 

Scrophulariaceae 

Simorubaceae 

Solanaeeae 

Sonneratiaceae 

Staphyleaceae 

Sterculiaceae 

Styracaoeae 

Symplocaceaci 

Taxaceae 

Ternstroemiaceae 

Theaceae 

Thymeleaceae 

Tiliaceae 

Turneraceae 

Typhaceae 

Ulmacetie 

Umbelliferae 

Urticaceae 

Vacciniaceae 

Valeriariaceae 

Verbenaceae 

Violaceae 

Vitaceae 

Xyridaceae 

Zingiberaceae 

Zygophyllaceae 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

A 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

y. 

x 

S. Vietnam Puerto Rico 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X X X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X

PART 

II 

FORESTS OF SOUTHEAST ASIA 

MAPS 

ana 

ILLUSTRATIONS 

99

FORESTS OF SOUTHEAST ASIA 

This Part contains II maps and 125 illustrations. Most of 

the photographs were taken by the author, while conducting field 

investigations in Thailiuid during 1963-6^ and 196^-65. 

A series of maps shows the principal physiographic regions, 

mountain ranges and river system of Thailand; and the mean nonthly 

rainfall and temperature range, according to region. 

Several maps indicate the distribution of the forested areas 

of Thailand; the principal. Evergreen and Deciduous forest types 

of that Kingdom; and a composite map of the major forest types of 

Vietnam, J,aos and Cambodia. 

A number of photographs illustrate the characteristics and 

.structure of various vegetation types of Thailand, as being representative 

of similar formations in other regions 01" Southeast 

Asia. 

Several forest types are illustrated by ground and aerial 

photographs, to compare their aspects as seen horizontally and 

vertically. 

A limited number of forest areas or types of South Vietnam, 

Laos and Cambodia are reproduced. 

Sorae of the most common and widespread weeds of Southeast Asia 

are illustrated. These are considered hazardous, as potential 

sites for ambush, because of their prevalence along paths, roadways, 

railroads, canals, on bunds of paddies, In forest clearings 

and second growth in general. 

Photographs taten at the test-site near Pranburi, upper Peninsula, 

show the effect of chemical defoliants on vegetation. 

A few photographs illustrate the predominant forest types and 

general conditions in northeastern Thailand, long considered the 

most backward and vulnerable part of that country. 

Two photographs illust -ate phases of studies being conducted 

by a joint expedition of Kyoto University, Japan } and Chulalonkorn 

University, Thailand, to investigate soil producitivity in Thailand. 

300

^•4''- 

lT».o«n'*V>- M^ 

*"*V

- .

Figure 3.-Mountain ranges and river system of Thailand. 

103

January 

0 100 200 

0-2 2-S 5-8 8-12 12 01 mote 

Af'c-r Umted States Geological Survey, Bulletin 984, 1951 

Figure U.-Mean monthly rainfall of Thailand, on a regional basis. 

10U

C 

F 

-20--w 

rr.":- -•—^ 

l-M-fgpplsy-K' 

f -.-.--!_ j--j 

32'*-ES«ffll9.«' 

B*MMM 

+ 

'mferf 5Mos Gtvhglcal Survey, 8utfefirt $84,1951 

Figure 5.-Mean monthly temperature of Thailand according to region.

[||: /.Iti-ii taht-r*- Ij-lir: . MUT.tx.-ixi -Tint 

Icj-,i i-al ly, •

L A O S 

A N / 1 •*' ^ (, 

THAILAND 

i E a t Np. 

SOILS 

Latosols and Lithosois on 

mountains and sleep hiils 

LJtosols on plains ^nd hills 

Fetfugmous Latosols, 

chieMy on plains and low hills 

Tropica* Clay, on nearly 

Hat alluvial plains 

Alluvial Soils 

Figure 7.-Soil types of Thailand. Adapted from data furnished by Worl-3 

*Soil Geography, U. S. D. A. 

107

^ Xs§&^$$- 

* f^&$. 

' 11 «':•*•'••• ®B**C«

'""} 

Nrfm (hnh" 7 ' '/ 

r 

-I 

„ s'^.i< 

^. > A 

^* ^-***Z*'*'M. •,.>.L /^- - V 

,„•;:,. 

V 

'• /'/./• n / .v / .1 M 

\ --.- ^ 

A.

~l 

THAILAND 

j ^.(SF »*>" ' ° •« •"> 

•is.»,-.i->i . M A*L A Y A t'— 

Figvre 10.-distribution of Deciduous (Seasonal or Monfjoon) forests 

in 

110

Figure 11..Major forest trpes of Vietnam, Laos and Carabcxlia. 

in

Figure 12.-The Central Plain of Thailand, irrigated by a network of 

rivers and man-made canals, 'khlongs', is one of the most important 

rice-producing areas in Southeast Asia. 

Figure 13.-Rice paddies as they appear during the beginning of the dry 

season, immediately before harvest. Light-colored patches in left and 

right foreground have been harvested. Most of the plants propagated 

around farmhouses are bamboo, especially Bambusa blumenea and •fbyrsostacheys 

siamensjs, fruit trees and banana plants. Between 

and Saraburi, central plain. Nov. 

112

Figure lU.-Bamboos and banana are the most frequently propagated plants 

around abodes. The toddy palm (Borassus flabellifer) is commonly grown 

in rice paddies, forming large stands west of Bangkok and in the upper 

Peninsula. Nov. 1963. 

Figure 15.-Much of the fcrest between Konkaen and Udon in the northeast 

has been cleared for rice paddies. Dominant trees are 'mae yang khao 1 

(Dipteroeorpus alatus), and such fruit trees as mango (Maogifera indica) 

tamarind^Tapiaripdus indica). Jan. 1965. 

113

Figure 3.6.-Fruit-bearing trees, such as 'manô 1 (Mangifera indica), 

'tamarind (Tamarindus indica) and 'phutsa* (Zizyphus spp.), are 

protected in rice paddies. Near Saraburi, central Thailand. 

Nov. 1963. 

Figure 17.-'Mae yang khao ! (Dipterocarpus alatus) is the tallest 

tree left standing in the rice paddies, and is widely distributed 

throughout Thailand. Its trunk yields an oleo-resin. Konkaen 

Korat Plateau, northeastern Thailand. Feb. 

nil

Figure 18.-The tall "yang khao 1 tree (Dipterocarpus alatus) is readily 

distinguished from the air by its tall, straight, light-colored trunk. 

Phibun Mangsahan, eastern Thailand Dec. 1963. 

Figure 19.-Extensive areas of forests have been felled in some areas of 

Thailand, especially in the north, for shifting agriculture, and which 

are later abandoned (top left). Progress is being made in such zones 

to establish stable agriculture for growing rice, fruit trees, cotton, 

tobacco, etc. Near Nakon Nayok, Korat Plateau. Northeastern Thailand. 


115

Figure £0.-Evergreen Rain forest at Kachawng, south Peninsula. Jan. 1965, 

s ->'A%/^C^ 

'i^$E38&5 

*li^s '^l^f^SB^^^fesRk itVa 

-.cv' > s,-'.'P^ị v ,r-"- s> T^V.U^^'CT 

*-:\ -^xî"S»,s^3lte»j 

Figure 21.-Mobility is difficult, and ground-to-ground and air-toground 

visibility is lew in the Rain forest. Kachawng, south 

Peninsula, Thailand. Jan. 1965. 

116

ife," ^'-tf/5fcr~ 

Figure 22.-Evergreen HoiJt. forest on slopes of Khao Sa Bap, southeastern 

Thailand, close to the border of Cambodia. Dec. 1963. 

Figure 23.-Stout voody vines, cr lianes, are characteristic of Evergreen 

Rain or toist forest. Mukdahan, eastern Thailand. Dec. 

117

Figure 2u.-Under f7rowth in bVer.treen J'oist forest of Khao 3a Gap, 

north of Chantaburi, southeastern Tailand. Species of Antomum, 

of the ginger family, are frequent in the ground cover. 

Dec. 

Figure 2^. -Upper or Kill Moist liverêen forest. 

La gerstroenda calyculata in right, foreground. 

northeast Tymiland. Feb. 

ns 

Trunk, of 

Phu Phan,

Figure 26.-Upper or Hill Moist Evergreen forest in Salween River basin, 

'along tjrder of Bxirraa, northwest Thailand. Jan. 1965. 

•Vgrv3«*»vv< - - ' "'- ** :s • r-^.'t

Figure 28.-Evergrten Moist forest fringing the Korat Plateau. In Thai 

land, Evergreen Rain or Moist forest is confined mostly to the southeastern 

and southern provinces around the Golf of Thailand. A stretch 

of Evergreen forest occurs also on the southern and southwestward slopes 

where the Korat Plateau drops into the central plain. In this forest 

type, trees reach 90 to 130 feet (20-^0 ra.) in height, are often buttressed, 

and with dense, continuous canopy, Northwest of Nakhcn Hayek, 

east-central Thailand. 

•Jfcfv 

Figure ,;9.-Upper Moist Evergreen forest in Khao Yai National Forest. The 

canopy and understories are dense, so that horizontal (ground-to-ground) 

and vertical (air-to-ground) visibility are poor in this forest type. 

Such medium-sized trees as species of oak (Quercus), chestnut (Castanopsis), 

Podocarpus, Lithocarpus and Dacrydium occur in the Lower Montane forest 

on the upper slope and on the summit"of Khao Kheo Range (background). 


120

Figure 30.-Profile of Lover Montane forest on upper slopes and platep.u 

in Khao Yai National Forest,at approximately 3,600 ft. (ca. 1,200 m). 

Most common trees are species of Quercus (oak), Gastanopsis (chestnut), 

Lithocarpus, and Dacrydium. Nov. 1963. 

Figure 31.-Oblique view of Upper Moist .Evergreen forest. Canopy is 

continuous, and undergrowth is dense, so that mobility in this forest 

is difficult, and ground-to-ground and air-to-ground visibility is 

poor. KOV. 1963. 

121

&J 

Figiure 32.-ror.-ns, bamboos, especially 

develop in 

Ix)ver slopes of Khao Yai National Forest. Dec 

bananar 

Kigure 

ssrîrvS^r 11 se J3.-tiecondary grovtn, 

° i - E composed 

-ôf 

— 

boiiboos 

- «* -« 

and wild 

««, 

banana 

DS 

122

Figure 3^«-Aroids in low znoist sites along road from Saigon to Dalat, 

South Vietnam. Stand of trees of Lagerstroemia arurustifolia in background. 

(Photo by Forest Research Institute, Saigon.) 

Figure 35«-Dense, Upper or Hill Moist Evergreen forest, on Plateau of 

Bolovene (1,200 m), southern Laos. (Photo by Vidal.) 

123

Figvux jj6«-The mountains of northern Thailand are covered with i'orests 

of several types - Dipterocarp forest, and Dry and Moist Mixed forests 

•jontaining Teak, at lower altitudes; Upland Evergreen forest, on the 

middle slopes; and stands of Pine on the summit of the ranges. Doi 

Inthanon, northjrn Thailand. Jan. 1965* 

Figure 37.-Hill or Upland Moist Evergreen forest, mostly undisturbed, 

around Chiengmai in northern Thailand, as seen from tae moantain Doi 

Sutep. The small clearings were made by hill tribe Meow for shifting 

agriculture ('rr-y system). Jan.

Fi/iure 38.-Semi-Evergreen forest between Thoern and Dan Hong, northwestern 

Thailand. Teak ^rows at lower elevations in Mixed Dry 

and Moist Deciduous forests. Jan. 

Figure 39.-Much of the upland forest on the slopes of Doi Sutep as on 

other mountain ranges in northern Thailand lias been cleared for shifting 

agriculture by hill tribes, the Meo, Lisau, Lua and Karens. 

Jan. 1964. 

125

•^fmm 

-> , -.'•v> > »*ij*«':rfftv-fc- 

Figure 40.-Riverain or Gallery forest along banks of streams flowing into 

the Mekong River, eastern Thailand. Average height of canopy in 

this forest is 50 feet (16 m). Undergrowth is moderately dense. East 

ot Phibun Mangsahan, near border of southern Laos. Dec. 1963. 

p 

Figure 41.-Gallery or riparian forest. During the dry season the rainfall, 

over the greater part of central and northern Thailand, is too sparse to 

support Evergreen forest growth. However, the supply of underground 

moisture along streams and rivers is sufficient for the development of 

Gallery forest in narrow belts. Characteristic trees in this forest 

type include Dipterocarpus alatus, D. costatus, and Hopea qdorata. 

I-iae Hoi, nortnern Thailar^L 

126

Figure U2.-Type of vegetation along banks .of streams in Hill or Upper 

Moist Evergreen forest, in the Khao Yai National Forest, Koât plateau. 

LLvistona palm and rattans (Calamus spp.) are especially abundant. 


Figure ^3,-Type of riparian vegetation along the middle and upper Kwae 

Noi River, western Thailand. Bamboos, especially Bambuaa arurtdinacea 

Thyrsostachys siamensis, are abundant along river banks. Dec. " 

127

Figure 44.-Dry Evergreen forest. Undergrowth is fairly dense; horizontal 

and vertical visibility is moderately satisfactory. Mukdahan, aortheastern 

Thailand. Dae. 1963. 

figure 45.-Dry Evergreen forest, with Lagerstroemia calyculata tree be- 

Ing dominant. Cambodia. 

128

Figure 46.-A transition /rcm Evergreen Gallery forest, in foreground, to 

Temperate Evergreen forest, in background. This transition is usually 

found at an altitude of about 3,000 ft. (1,000 m.). On mountain Doi 

Sutep, northern Thailand. 

/>;'••'• , 

*T' :i%' ; -''^"^'-'i'"fj'» T tj':'^V'-*l'!\'''- 

Figure 47.-Mountain range of Chiengdao, northern Thailand. Lower slopes 

are covered with Mixed Deciduous forest, in which Teak (Tectona grandis) 

abounds. Upper Moist Evergreen forest dominates the middle slopes. 

Three-needled Pine (Plnus khasya) occurs on the summit. Jan. 1964. 

.129

130.

Figu,-^ 50,-Two-needled pine (Pinus merkusii) in the re,tjio r a of lauding 

st. ip at Lien Khank, Dalat region, South Vietnam. Note density and 

height of ground cover, composed mainly of grasses. 

Figvtre 51--Open stand of pine on fairly compact soil. Trees are of 

small to medium height and with low branches. Klang Yang, South 

Vietnam. 

131

Figure 52.-The 2-needied Pine tree (Pinus nerkusli) f-row3 at medium altitude, 

and occasionally at low elevation mixed with Dipterocarp and Mixed 

Dcciduouo trees. p hibun Mangsahan, east Thailand. Dec. 1°63. 

**•*--*.-' •* ' V- ; " ^^^fK^-^•' ; > .5;;•;••;;-4'K^-:SKW

Figure 5*4. -Temperate Evergreen forest on the east slope of Doi Inthanon, 

northern Thailand, at an altitude of about 4,000 ft. (1,200 ra.). Stout 

trunks of Terminalia. triptera, in foreground, suggest the transitional 

character of the forest from Subtropical to Temperate forest, wj th 

trunks of 3-needled Pine (Pinus khasya) in the background. 

Lr*, :re r >5.~MpProuf>) and 

c l- c;":trmt (('notanopnis), which "ometiôo occ.ir as pure .'/tTaiTd'-;. In 

well developed oak Vorcat their r.riinkJ arc densely packed and often 

exceed IP incbeu (30 cm.) in diameter. .">r>i o-itep, northern Thailand 

(ca. 1,200 m.). 

133

Figure 56.-Mossy forest on mountain ranges. As in other tro;ical regions, 

Temperate forests in northwestern Thailand are sometimes heavily inhabited 

by mosses, especially on the summit of high peaks and crests. 

This is a sphagnum bog on Inthanon Mountain, northern lliailand. Mature 

Rhododendron trees, growing around the bog,bear, festoons of moss. 

Figure 57.-Mangrove forest, showing uniformity of canopy ani density of 

stand. Pneumatophores of Avicennia in foreground. Khlung, southeastern 

Thailand, near border of Cambodia. Dec. 196U.

Figure 5&.-Mangrove wcodland submerged at high tide. This forest ic an 

important source of fuelwood, charcoal, and tannin, as well as seafood 

for domestic consumption. Khlun^, southeast Thailand. Dec. 19o3« 

Figure 59.-Another view of Mangrove woodland, 

Khlung, southeastern Thailand. Dec. 1963- 

135 

submerged at high tide.

Figure cO.-Mangrove swamp forest covers considerable areas around Krabi, 

Phuket and other islands in southwestern Peninsula of Thailand. 

Feb. 1965. 

Figure cl.-Mangrove forest along southeast coast of Thailand. Different 

tree species forming this forest type can be distinguished by the hue 

of foliage. Khlung, southeast Thailand. Jan. 1965. 

136

**' 

r^- :Â'^T-^ w 

S 1^ '^^^^^>^s- îia 

^,. - -> • ^^'-TCcfV^r/ji'Jy^^ 

V *>~ -;# ^^^^^J^fiS 

,'. .,< '-"- «,*.* J*- F \W •'•t^^tvs&MEiS 

- ^ticans). with rice paddies on right. 

black color of brackish water. Khlung, southeast Thailand Feb". 

137 

Note 

1965.

Figure 64.-Nipa palm (Nipa fruticans) grows in fairly large stands in 

Thailand around the estuary of the Chao Phraya and the deltas of other 

rivers in the Southeast, and in the Kra Isthmus. It occurs also in 

the vicinity of mangrove voodland along the coast of Cambodia and 

North and South Vietnam. 

Figure 65.-Stand of'cajeput'or 'saraet* (IMelaleuca leucadeadron). This 

tree grows in brackish water, and is frequent along the southeast 

coast of Thailand and in the Kra Isthmus. Near Chantaburi, southeast 

Thailand. Nov. 1963. 

138

Figure 66.-Fresh water swamp around Lake NOIW Han. 

east Thailand. Feb. 1965. 

S&kkon Nakhon, north- 

- .• • -,;.- .••,V.* SWM «.--.- -.. 

•'• ' • ' : ••'' . v-">- '*' ->!• ""' "i^J'SJ' v '^» • 

^^^ 

^.^->;^«'-."':-^./'.':.vj--/.rf!. 

Figure 6.-Low oblique view of Lowland Semi-Evergreen forest, with 

Pipterocarpus alatus and Lagerstroemia calycuJLata as dominants. 

Northern margin of Khao Yai National Forest.Nov. 1963. 

139

Figure 66.-Oblique aerial view of lowland Seni-tlver.j-een forest. 

Tall t: ees with straight, light-colored trunks are 'yang khao 1 

(Dipterocarpus alatus) and 'pua'ai-daenp/ (Larerstrcenia calyculata 

and L. balansaej^ IQiao Yai National Forest, Kcrat Plateau. Nov. I',''63. 

Figure' 69.-Stand of Laserstroemia ealyculata trees, recognized by lightcolored 

trunks, in Semi-Evergreen forest. In lowland adjoining Khao 

Yai National Forest. Bee.

Figxire 70.-Mixed Semi-Evergreen forest is found scatterin^rj.y in eastern 

Thailand. Many of the trees have straight, columnar trunks. East of 

Phibun Mongsalân, eastern Thailand. Dec. 1963. 

Figure 71,-Teak (Tectona gr.-^dis) forest - trees with light-colored 

crowns - between Loei and Phet'chabun, northern Thailand. Feb. 19o5«

Figure 2.-Cutover Teak forest (Tectona grandis) at Chiengdao, northern 

Thailand. Jan. 1964. 

Figure 73•-Teak (Tectona grandis) is the most important commercial timber 

tree in Thailand, growing in Moist and Dry Deciduous forests of the 

northern regions. Sayok Forest Station, middle Khwae Noi River, western 

Thailand. Dee. 1963.

Figure Y'i.-Teak plantation (Tectona grand is), about 15 years old, 

Mae Thak, Lampang region, northern Thailand. Feb. ^.965. 

Figure 75.-Logging caarp In. Teak forest. Logs in foreground ready to be 

floated; teak plantation in right background; and teak forest in left 

background. Near Pakluy, northern Laos.

Figure 76.-Mixed Deciduous forest. Undergrowth in this forest type ia 

moderately dense. Phu Phan, northeast Thailand. Den. 1963. 

Figure 77.-Mixed Deciduous forest on slopes around Tak, northwestern 

Tnailand. Dominant species include Xjrlia kerrii, Shore_a obtuaa, 

Lagêrstroemia calyculata and Dipte.roc:arpus tubercalatus. Jan.

'i-ure 'i';: .-Jeni-1'.ver-reer; forest'or. i;lopea ci' Tak, northwestern 7:.ailarid. 

"lie arêd our. oro. 'phni-pria 1 (R;unbu.;a arunnir.acea), is 

abuna ant in this Torent. t>-pe wnei-ever^lcIu-Tn^-i; are r.aae. 

Jan, ].9'..>4. 

-iiro '79.-Mi.xcci IVicr:/.! ;cvis l'crt:f>t ecut 01' Ta'.;, :iorr,'.;',ccte2 

a:; it appe;u's at iioi.-'r.t ol' or/ cea.:o::. r'cb. 19 ;'j.

Figure 80.-Known in Thailand as 'icabak* or 'krabak', Anir.optera cochino_ninensia 

is a characteristic tree in Mixed DeciduousTorest", and 

occasionally associated with Dipterocarp trees. Phibun Man^sahan, 

Thailand. Dec. 1963. 

Figure ttl.-A characteristic tree of Mixed Deciduous forest in Thailand 

is •Jirong', a toll epiphytic fig tree (Ficus altiflaLma). Tak, northwest 

Thailand Jan. 1^

Figure 82.-'Krang' (Ficus altissima), one of the largest fig trees in 

Thailand, is characteristic of Evergreen and Mixed Deciduous forests. 

Mukdahan, northeast Thailand. Dec. 196;}. 

sure 8j.-The lar;;e crown, of 'kran;', 1 , a :'i- tree (Ficua sp.), 

characterized by moderately stout branches, risim; at a r^harp 

an,-le. Mvikdahan, . northeast Thailatri.' Dec. 1963.'

tigure ok. - Lagerstroemia calyculata (left) and Bomb ax (Salmalia) insigne 

(right) are typical trees of Mixed Deciduous forest, thriving in red 

or brovm soils. Near Mukdahan, northeast Thailand. Dec. 1963. 

'vj&i£ 

67.-The Mekong River at Nakhon Phanorr.. with the sicuntains around 

:K, wt»iitt--rn Luos, in background. Dec.

Figure 86.-Dipterocarp forest with rice paddies, planted by Lua hill 

tribe, mostly in valley bottom. Between Mae Hongson and Mae Sariang, 

northwest Thailand. Jan. 1965. 

§##%^ 

%&£'v 

x'^'&rsztt 

:X^&$§*2 

xijw'ii** ; -9 •« j • -°-vt- .< >Ô y -^ '^''i 11 -^^-^^ 

*»«»-*- 

^r ^-.%4^ 

^$^>>^^fî 

lÂr. ^'T- ' o,-. '*-.-y*,^ 

Figure 87.-Dry Dipterocarp forest between Mae Hongson and Mae Sariang, 

northwest Thailand. Jan. 1965.

93 

Figure H8.-i:r;. 

This forest 

Dipterocarp forest at Bcrubue, northeastern Thailand, 

ype is usually burned, over annually. Dec. 19';. 

"i-ure o^.-Cper. Xixeri forest, .1 ::'.>!: 

t.ucerci;lat-;c. •-•it': 1 . oa::-:boo. Cn .:!( 

eaa:,err: 7::a : .Iant:. .";cv. 19^3. 

:.crv..-i 

SOUt-j-

» •*. 

-'- 

Figure 90.-Dry Dipterocarp forest along highway east of Phibun Mangsahan, 

eastern Thailand, near border of southern Laos. Jan. 

Figure 91-Type of open vegetation east of Phibun Mangsahan, near border 

betveen Thailand and southern Laos. Casuarina trees in foreground. 

• Dec. 1963. 

151

Figure 92.-Fairly open Ditperocarp forest, on plateau of yuirirom, 

Caabodia, (Fhoto by Aubreville.). 

r- ^' ,** / . - — 

•*^, •"- X ' • I : V- 

«•. ''- ; fct7 i .'••*. ' .-'>,' 

Figure 93.-Dry Dipterocarp forest as it appears after being burned over. 

Cambodia. (Photo by Allouard.) 

152

Figure 9^.-Forest road on heavy, red volcanic clay as it appeared after 

2 years of use by light vehicles during all seasons, and heavy trucks 

in dry season. Between Sala Dar and Sopheac, Cambodia. 

Figure 95'-Road from Sala Dar to Sopheas, Cambodia, tested for use by 

heavy trucks. (Fhoto by Allouard.) 

153

i'' .*- **«...-> 

-JF«t 

Figure 96.-Thorn forest in northeastern Thailand. This type usually 

develops when the original vegetation is cleared for agx-iculture 

and the land .later abandoned. Nakhon Phanom, close to the Mekong 

River. Dec. 1963. 

Figure 97--Thorn forest of small armed trees and shrubs, mixed with 

bemboos, especially the slender Thyrsos tachys siamensis,' is widespread 

in central Thailand. Kanchanaburi, western Thailand. Dec. 

1963. 

15)4

L~ure 96.-Clo.OG-;.p o;' branc'-er, ot' ; 'k'llet* ("av.'lia ûreter 1 n), a i'requer.t 

u'r.rub or anall tree in L'hoi": forent, Ghowi-i' r the Icrr;, o'-:ai'p 

spines prcier.t or> tre tr irJc anc'i brttns'-.as. Kar.c'ncviahuri, vcstsi'ti 

Thailand. Dec. 1963. 

Figure 99.-Beach forest of medium stature, at Huay Yang, 

peninsular Thailand. Jon. 1965. : 

155 

central

i'lgore 100.-Casuarina trees are characteristic along beaches, and are 

often planted for windbreak and to prevent soil erosion. Huay Yang, 

central peninsular Thailand. Feb. 1965. 

«*t\'.' ; '!W> :'.-,. 

'• PV*1." 'V '"!•, ' :" ,.'" 

• \,x* ;^'V^-tiT**-'*,,. 

.^r^^Vr'i;- .}, V 

•j < W'i'.'j5«4'"-- ! -'C! . -i- ; v»'" 

•t*---j ^-'-^Îf^s^-l -^.r..-v3r^'»«AW- • •£•• / 

Figure 101.-Btunboo brakes, especially the tall, anned Bojnbusa arundinacea, 

and star.do of soi't-wooded 'ngiu' tree (Bpmbax malabaricug) 

are frequent in clearings and along the banks of rivers and streams, 

Middle Khwae Noi River, western Thailand. Dec. 1963. 

156

Figure 102.-Bamboo brake (Dendrocalamus strictus). Mobility in this 

type of vegetation is somewhat difficult. Forest Station near Tak, 

northwestern Thailand. Jan. 19&4-. 

VV 

Figure 103.-Rice paddies northeast of Bangkok. Part of crop (light 

colored) has already been harvested. Hamlets and farm-houses are 

surrounded by bamboos, especially Bambusa blumenea and Thyrsostachys 

siamensis, for windbreak, and fruit trees. Moving objects, can readily 

be detected from the air, whether in harvested or unharvested rice 

patches, and craft traveling on the 'khlongs 1 (man-made canals). 

Near Saraburi, central plain. Nov. 1963. 

137

Figure 10^.-Floating raft of bamboo (BaraMisa aurundinacea.) to Kauchanaburi, 

for the manufacture of paper pulp or for house construction. 

Low tree, In dense stands, along waterline is Homonola riparia. Khwae 

Noi River, western Thailand. Dec. 1963. 

Figure 105.-Ground fire passing through a bamboo brake in flower. Most 

bamboos in Thailand are deciduous, and fire frequently sweeps over 

the litter in the dry season, but rarely damaces livia^ shoots. Mae 

Sod, northwest Thailand. 

-1.56

if.ure iC/j.-v.'ooded savanna with a ^rou'.d cover ox' rou.;,h ^raaaea. Treeb, 

mostly of the Dipterocarp family, measure from 10 uo 30 i\-ct (3-1- n.) 

in heir.ht, and are uaual.ly wj.dely iâê'i. -.e^. o*' ''a!:hon i'nc-.o'-., 

northeastern Thailar-i. Dec. 19-'-'3« 

Figure 107.-A wooded savanna, moutly with deciduous trees, in Vietnam. 

(P'ioto by Institut dec. Kecherchea A^ronorniques et Forestieres de 

1'Indochine.) 

159

108.-Open ..-rass savanna, south of Ranong, southwest Peninsula. 


e 109- -Wooded savanna with ground cover composed ci* an herbaceous 

species (Themeda) and a shrub (Lagerrtroemla macrocarpa). Thakhek, 

Mekong basin, central Laos. (Photo by Vidal.1 

160

Figure 110.-Wooded pseudo-steppe with a douirmut herb, a jpeciea of 

Thcmfcia, and Careya sphaerica tree.

Figure 112.-Limestone bluffs are frequent throughout Thailand. Vegetation 

around the base of these xeric cliffs is composed of small trees and 

shrubs, many of them thorny, and bamboos (Banbusa arundinacea and 

Thyrsostachys siamensis). .Near Khampaeng Phet, northwest Thailand. 

Jan. 

,. . 

Figure 113.-This area near the test-site, for defoliants, was covered 

at one time with forest. With destruction of the original forest. 

'kha-luang 1 (Iraperata cylindrioa) and other grasses and such weeds as 

Eunatorium odoratum soon develop. Kear Pranburi, upper peninsula, 

Thailand. Nov. 1963.

Figure II' 1 .-In deforested areas, abandoned tilled land, or alon:$ roadsides 

an e>;otic weed, Eupatorig-ri odoratu-i, develops .rapidly, and is 

a nerioiiG weed pest throu ;ho'it T: allam 1 as in other j-arts rf Southeast; 

Asia. It La aluo considered hazardous, because it provides sites 

1'or a:.ibush. 

Figure 115,-A tall cane-grass, 'phong' (Saccharum spontaneum), up to 

6 feet ( 2 in) high, is common throughout Tlailand, along roadsides 

• and in clearings; provides potential sites for ambush. Pranburi, 

upper Peninsula. Jan. 19&5- 

16 3

•i '>...; 

Figure 116. - gal o t r op_is gigaptea, known in Thailand as 'ra.s.-dok'; a weed 

common along roadsides. Nakhon Sawan, central Thailand. Feb. 19b5. 

Figure 117.-Dense herbaceous ground cover, espectally of Eupatorium 

odoratum and Imperata cylindrica, that develops in exposed clearings 

and along roadsides. Such vegetation is considered ideal for ambush. 

Phibun Manasahan, eastern Ttiailand. Dec. 1963.

Figure 116.-Deforested land, foreground, cleared for shifting cultivation; 

denuded slopes, in background, covered mostly with 'lalang' grass (Iraperata 

cylindrica). Around Tranninh (alt. 1,200 m), northern Laos. 

(Photo by Vidal.J 

Figure 119.-Hill tribe> ::ap, village in Yankar mountain ran;;e. in upla:1as 

of South Vietnam. 

165

Figure 120.-Para 1 rubber (Hevea brasiliensis) plantation. When the 

ground cover is not cleared or kept low, as shown above, such 

plantations provide ideal sites for ambush, as well as a staging 

area. Chantaburi, southeast Thailand. Dec. 1963. 

Figure 121.-Thai field team, of i'orest rangers and soil technicians, 

conducting studies anu proparin;^ profiles of I'orest types. Near 

• Mukdahan, northeast Thailand. Dec. 19(3.

Figure 122.-Open Dtpterocarp forest, equivalent to the 'ôret claire' 

of French ecolor.ista, between Konkaen and Kalasin, northeast Thailand. 

Dec. 19o3. 

Figure 123.-lumbers uf Thai field team identifying plants in Dipterocarp 

forest. Fhu Phan, northeast Thailand. Dec. 19(>3. 

16

Thailand. Jan. 1965 

serv e, northeast

Figure 12G.-.Secondary growth in Dry Mixed Deciduous forest. Pirn Phan 

Forest Ue^crve, northeast Thailand. Jan. 19^5. 

Figure 127.-Nice paddies. Jn irr;poverished soil and subject to t'laah 

f'locxls, at Borabue. Typical of northGcist Thailar.d. Dec. 1 ( ;63. 

lt-9

fnurrt 128.-Hice -:rcwin,7 and cattle raisin^ are the real:: occupation: 

in northeastern Thailand. A typical farmhouse in c. ho.-u.et near 

Jakncn Nakhon. Jan. I C ,''O« 

Figure 120.-Dry Evergreen forest. Undergrowth is fairly sparse; woody 

vines, or lianes, are frequent; and several trees and shrubs bear 

thorny spines. Section of site near Pranburi, upper Peninsula, before 

tests with chemical application commenced. Nov. 1963. 

170

Figure 130.-Dr. Robert A. Darrow, Biological Laboratory 0.1-. Fort 

Detrick, Maryland, on inspection trail at test site near Pranouri, 

upper Peninsula. Feb. 

Figure 131.-One of a series of trails opened in test site to cct up 

cameras,to record penetration of defoliants and to determine reaction 

of plants to chemicals after repeated spraying. Prar.buri, 

Peninsula. Feb. 19>>5'. 

171

i t -ure 132.-3eot.icn 01' tjst oite, showin/r desiccating eTfoot of aeria) 

oprayin;: on ve-etation. Pranouri, Peninsula. Feb. ISo. 

Figure 133.-'Ma-kok' trees (Spondias pinnata) defoliated as a result 

of aerial spraying with chemicals. Pranburi, upper Peninsula. 


172

.•••••^•^^ •-'-', 

,1. V-7> •v'-'iJi 

• "-'."• • "vT.w V • •• .• /~ J'.7t '••^^ro^

''i-ure 136.- Member of Joint Kyoto University - Cnulaionkcrn iVrlversity 

wei^hir.r; litter in Rain forest at Kachavn.^. south Peninsula, Tr.ailar.rr. 

] 

Deo. 19o3. . 

17-t

CONTRIBUTION TOWARD 

A BIBLIOGRAPHY Or 1 


This annotated Bibliography contains 766 titles that have 

been reviewed in the course of this Project. It covers a 

wide range of subjects, from forest types, major and minor 

forest products, agricultural crops, aerial photography and 

photo sampling as applied to forest surveys and evaluation, 

to subjects of a general nature. These references include 

many of minor importance that were found curing search for 

major publications. This should not be regarded 1 us a complete 

bibliography of Southeast Asia. Additional literature citations 

are included in a majority of the references listed, as 

veil as in published materials on subjects, other than vegetation, 

relating to Southeast Asia. 

I am grateful to the National Agricultural Library, including 

the Branch at the Plant Industry Station, for cooperation 

extended in the prepfa-ation of this Bibliography. Its invaluable 

card cataloj, arranged by author and subject, contains 

references and periodical articles from a very wide range of 

sources. 

An important supplemental source is the Library of Congress. 

Additional references on the vegetation of Thailand, and of 

Southeast Asia in general, are also available in the Departments 

of Botany of the Royal forest Department, Kasetsart and Chulaloukorn 

Universities in Bangkok, as well as in other scientific 

institutions. 

176.

Aga/onoff, V. Sur qiielques sols rouges en Bienhoa

The author was Associate in Anthropology, Peabody Museum, at 

Harvard University. The report deals with factual information on 

conditions in rural*,Si$ja. The data were obtained by the Second 

Rural Economic Survey, and are related to transactions in cash 

and commodities during the period from April 1, 1933 to March 34-» 

1934. The survey was performed under the Joint auspices of the 

Thai Government and Harvard University. 

Andrus, J. R. Basic problems of relief rehabilitation and reconstruction 

in Southeast Asia. Indian' Council of World Affairs 

(New Delhi). Jk pp. Oxford Univ. Press. 19^6. 

Angladette, A. Les Statistiques agricoles en Indochine. France. 

St-*vice colonial des Statistiques. Bull. Mensuel de statistique 

d'outre-mer. Supplement. Se"rie Etudes, No. 14. 16 pp. 

L 1 economic agricole de la Pe*riinsule inaochinoise. 

Colon, du Monde. 10: 1903-1907, 1909- 195 1 *. 

Anon. Thailand cardamoms. • Pharm. Journ, (London) 16: 556, 1657- 

A note on commercial sampJ.es of Auomum eardamomum and A. 

xanthioideg. 

. P'u-erh tea. Kew Bull. Misc. Inf. 1889: .U8-120. 139-1^2. 

1889 

Ėconomic and botanical data on this Thai product, received from 

China, and obtained from Camellia sp., aff. C. theifera. 

b. Thailand benzoin. Kew Bull. Misc. Inf. 1895 (102-103): 

154-155. 1895. 

Concerns 'gum benzoin ' from Luang Prabang, Northeast Thailand, 

later annexed by Indochina; the precise botanical source is not 

stated. 

. Tobacco cultivation in southern Thailand. Ksw Bull. Misc. 

Inf. 1902: 12-14. 1902. 

Concerns culture only. 

. The source of Thailand benzoin. Kew Bull. Misc. Inf. 1912. 

("9): 391-393. 1912. 

Refers to Styrax benzoion on Doi Sutep. 

. Momordica cpehinchinensis. Kew Bull. Misc. Inf. 1920: 6-12. 

1920. • ' ' 

Largely concerns chemical composition of seeds; is similar in 

action to Strychnos; received from Indochina and Szechuan. 

. a. Report of the botanical section. Sept. 1, 1920 to Dec. 

31, 1922. The Record (Thailand) Er^. Ed. [2], Wo. 8: 8-16. 1 folded 

Tiap. (Apr.); [3], No. 9: 3-12. [July]; Thai Ed. 8: 10-20. 1 map; 

9: 3-13. Dec. J'^22. - July 1923-

Part One contains an outline of projected surveys and an account, 

with botanical observations, of the 19^0-21 tour through Makarastr 

and Monthon Bayab. Part Two concerns the 1922 tour in the circles 

of Pitsanulok, Nakawn Sawan and Bayab. Reprinted, with new and 

separate paginations by Ministry of Commerce, Bangkok, Siam. 

b. Kapok. The Record (Thailand) Eng. Ed. [2], No. 8: 17-21. 

(Apr.): Thai fid. 8 (): 21-26. 1923. 

Produced from Bombax malabaricgg- Largely economic notes with 

some botanical data. 

c. Report on the cultivation of 'Miang 1 . The Record (Thailand) 

Eng. Ed. [3], No. 9: 16-20. (July); Thai Ed. 9: 17-22. 1923. 

Largely economic data on the Thai variety of tea (Thea sinensis). 

. Report of a tour undertaken in the circle of Pattani. The. 

Record (Thailand) Eng. Ed. [3], No. 12: 18-24. 1 folded map. (Apr.); 

Thai Ed. pp. 226-232, 1 map. 1924. 

An account with botanical observations. 

. Report on a tour of the botanical section through the eastern 

circles of Tn ail and (Dec. 1923 - Apr. 192*1). The Record (Thailand) 

Eng. Ea. M, No. 15: 157-172. i folded map. (Jan.); No. 16: 217- 

233. 2 r.; Tuai Ed. 15: 206-222. 1 map; 16: 284-296. 1924. 

An account with botanical observations, with summary of tour 

and general notes; general features of the vegetation; and plants 

of economic or potential economic importance. 

a. The Forests of Thailand. Bangkok Times Press, Ltd., 1-43. 

~4~ pi. 1926. 

A general account largely concerned with economic aspects. Compiled 

by the Royal Forest Department. 

b. Report on a tour of the botanical section in the Island of 

Kaw Chang, Cbantaburi circle, lat. 12 N., long. 102.25 E. from 

Sept. 2k to Oct. 5, 1924. The Record (Thailand) Eng. Ed. [5], 

No. 19: 173-177; Thai Ed. 19: 231-235. 1926. 

Includes botanical observations. 

. Report on a tour of the botanical section in the circles of 

Chantaburi and Prachinburi, from Nov. 22 to Jan. 19, 1925. The 

Pecord (Thailand) Eng. Ed. [6], Ho. 21: 337-343; No..22: 387-392; 

Thai Ed. 21: 53-58; 22: 113-119. 1926. 


. a. Report on a tour of the botanica section in the circle 

of Rajburi (Dec. 28, 1925 - Mar. 19, 1926). The Record (Thailand) 

Thai Ed. 24: 152-160: 25: 40-48. 1927. 

Contains summary of tour and general notes on the vegetation 

and economic plants. 

179

. Notes on a camphor-yielding tree from Kanbiiri Province. Tba 

Record (Thailand) Eng. Ed. [7], No. 25: 35; Thai Ed. 25: ^9- 1927- 

Inciudas some botanical notes with reports on composition of 

the oil of Cinnamomum sp. 

c. Note on a camphor-yielding tree from Kanburi Province. Journ. 

Thailand Soc. Nat. Hist. Suppl. 7 (2): 129-130. 1927. 

.Iconomic value of Cinnamomum sp. 

. a. Botanical Section. Report on a tcur in the Province 01 

Prachuap (June 29 - July 16, 1926). The Record (Thailand) Eng. Ed, 

(71, No. 28: 270-27 1 *. 2 pi. 1 map. (Apr.)j Thai Ed. 28: 270-373- 

2 pi. 1 nap. 1928. 

Contains botanical observations. 

b. Report on a tour up the Menam Pasak (Oct. !*-13, 1926.). The 

Record (Thailand) Eng. Ed. [7], No. 28: 275-277. 1 pi; Thai Ed. 

28: 375-377, 1 pi. 1928. 


c. Report on a tour of the botanical section in the Province of 

Chumpawn, Langauan and Surat (Dec. 25, 1926 to Apr. 27, 1927). The 

Record (Thailand) Eng.Ed. [8], No. 29: 31-^3. 3 pi.: No. 30: 132-3M. 

3 pi.: 1 folded map. 1928. 

Contains notes on economic plants. 

Les forets de 1'Indochine. Revue Scientifique. Anne*e 67: 

469-^73. 7 illustr. 1929. 

This is a review of the forests of Indochina. The Forest Service 

was created in 1901, under French direction. By 1929, it had established 

about 50,000 hectares of reservations. Of the three provinces, 

which formed the part of Indochina now known as Vietnaa, 

the forests of Tonkin were considered the most devastated and 

poorest. The forests of Annam, in central Vietnam, on the other 

hand, have long been an important source of timbers and minor forest 

products. 

The forests of Cochinchina, now a part of South Vietnam, may be 

divided into dryland forests, to the East, and periodically flooded 

forests, to tlie West. 

The forests of Cambodia, cover an area of U,000,000 hectares 

(15,kkk sq, mi.); are separated into three major types: (a) inundated 

forest, (b) open forest, and (c) dense forest. 

Laos, although rich in forest types, had not been thoroughly 

studied up to 1929 like those of Annam and, Cambodia. As a xesult 

of shifting agriculture, extensive areas had been cleared of forest, 

and these zones in part had been invaded by palais, and other plants 

of secondary growth. Valuable teak forests, in the northwest, were 

also severely overeat. Laos has long been considered a vast potential 

source of forest products but a program of forest management and reforestation 

still remained to be organized in 1929. 

IbO

. Report on three tours in the province of Nakawn Sritamarat, 

""Songkla, oatul and Patelung. The Record (Thailand) Eng. Ed. 9 (33); 

30-41. 4 pi. 1 map. 1 f. July 1929; 9(34): 139-150, 1 pi. Oct. 

1929; 9 (35): 259-260. 3 Pi. Jan. 1930; 1929-1930. 

These touro were maae during Dec. 21, 1927 - Jot. 31, 1928; 

Mar. 7-16, 1928; and July 11-31, 1928. In the last part there is 

a susmary and description of forest products and crop plants. 

. Report on a second tour of the botanical section in the province 

of Surat (July 11 to Aug. 16, 1927). The Record (Thailand) 

Eng. Ed. [8], No. 32: 316-321. 1 pi. 1929-30. 


. a. Report on a tour in the provinces of Surat, Pang-Nga, Krabi, 

Trang and Patalung (Feb. 15 to May 3, 1930). The Record (Thailand) 

Eng. Ed. 11 (43-44): 211-232. k pi. 1 map (Jan.-Apr.); Thai Ed. 

43-44: 312-336. 4 pi. l map. 

be Report on a tour in the provinces of Krat and Chantabun. (Dec. 

16, 1929 to Jan. 13, 1930). The Record (Thailand) Eng. Ed. 11 

(U2): 147-154. 2 pi. 1 map. (Oct.); Thai Ed. 42: 215-223. 2 pi. 1 

map. 1931* 

Contains botanical observations. 

. a. Report on a tour in the province of Naratiwas. (April 12- 

May 6, 1931). The Record (Thailand) Eng. Ed. 11 (41): 14-19, 2 

pi. 1931. 


b. Report on a tour in the provinces of Korat, Chaiyapum, Kawn 

Ken Loi and Petchabun. Jan. 19 to Mar, 10, 1931. The Record 

(Thailand) Eng. Ed. 12 (1): 9-20. 2 pi. 1 f. July; 12 (2): 128- 

138. 1 pi. [Oct.];Thai Ed. 12 (l): 11-23. 2 pi. 1 f.; 12 (2): 

200-213. 1 pi. 1932. 

. Report on a tour in the provinces of Ranawug, Takuapa, Pangnga 

and Puket. Pec. 19, 1923 \x> Mar. 16, 1929. The Record (Thailand) 

Eng. Ed. 10 (38): 152-164. k pi. 1 map. Oct. 1930: 10 (39): 

235-21*7. k pi. Jan. 1931; Thai Ed. 38: 214-228. k pi. 1 map; 39: 

323-341. 1930-1931. 


.a. Report on a tour in the circles of Ralcorn Rajasl & and Udon. 

The Record (Thailand) Eng. Ed. 12 (3): 209-214, l pi. [Jan.]; 

Thai Ed. 12 (3): 327-332. 1 pi. 1933. 

b. Report on a tour In northeastern Thailand and French Laos with 

an account of a trip froa Prachuab to Mergui. The Record (Thailand) 

Eng. Sd. i2 (4): 317-323; 13 (1): 36-43; Thai Ed. 12 (4): 

479-486. 1933. 

181

An annotated bibliography of the Southwtat Pacific and adjacent 

areas. Volume III. Malaya, Thailand, Indochina, the China 

coast, and the Japanese empire. Published by the Allied Geographical 

Section, Southwest Pacific Area. 19^4. 

Entries on Siara, on pages 39-5U. 

Siamese pla^t names. Part 1. Botanical, names-local name«. 

Tl-26), 1-8, 1-50'+. The Royal Forestry Department, Bangkok. 19^8. 

Arranged alphabetically according to generic names. 

_ . Pins d'Indochine, 1. Fiche Boianique et Forestiere. Bois 

tit Forets des Tropiques 35: 20-2^. 2 diagrams. May- June 19'jU. 

This paper gives a description of 2 species of Pine growing in 

Indochina, namely the 2-needled Pinus merkusii Jungh. & De Vriese 

(£• tonkinensis A. Chev.) and the 3-needled Plnus khosya, Royle 

A. Chev.}. 

The vernacular names of these trees in Tonkin, Annera, Cambodia 

and Laos is given. Descriptions are given of the habitat of the 

respective trees; and their wood structure. 

17)6 second part of the article deals with the industrial and 

commercial phases of these woods: their esthetic features; physical, 

mechanical and technological characters; and their use in 

the European market. 

One plate contains line diagrams, dravn to scale, of a twig with 

needles of P. merkusii; the r.eedles of the two species; cones; end 

seed. The- Second plate showvthe microscopic structure of the wood 

on the transverse, tangential and radial surfaces. 

_ . Use of Rice- fields for fish culture in Thailand. International 

Rice Commission Newc Letter 13: 18-19. March 1955. 

Bice and fish are two inseparable items in the diet of the Thai 

people. 

_ . Presenting Viatnvn. 20 pp. Spec. ed. Published by the Raview 

Horizons, Salmon-Vietnam. 1960. 

Situated between latitudes 8°33 and 23°22 North, Vietnam covers 

a total area of 330,000 sq. kilometers sad is 1,200 kilometers (750 

milee) from north to south. The elongation of its territory over 

15 degrees of latitude gives Vietnam an extremely varied

An ethnographical map of Vietnam shows clearly the great diversity 

of its people. The area inhabited by the Vietnamese ia limited 

mostly to the Mekong Delta, the Red River Delta,.and a very narrow 

coastal atrip. A distinctly larger area ir* the interior is crisscrossed 

by a Kultittulti of ethnic groups, remnants of human migrations 

which, in prehistoric periods, succeeded one another on the soil of 

vhat is now Vietnam. According to their origin, the ethnic minorities 

nay be classified into six main groups: the Khtaers in the 

South; the Chams in the area of Phaurang and Phanri and who are related 

to the Malays; the Mois of Indo-Malayan origin who inhabit 

the entire hinterland of the center and the plateaux north of 

Saigon; and the Thai, the Man and the Meo who inhabit the high mountains 

of the North. Each of these groups is divided into an infinity 

of tribes, many of them quite distinct from the others. 

This is so, for example, in the case of the Man, and is even more so 

evident with the ciour.tain people of the South, whm ethnologists 

group under the convenient name of 'Femsiens 1 . This term is derived 

from the initials PMSI - 'Populations Montagnardes du Sud de 1'Indochine 

1 . These varied elements are numerically only a small proportion 

of the population, contributing only 3 to k percent of the 

total. 

As for the Vietnamese, styled a 'pure race 1 for convenience of 

language, their origin is still uncertain.- It is generally held 

that they came from the southern provinces of China. If the principle 

of a permanence as national heredity is admit'cd, one is obliged 

to put aside the theory that they are distant ancestors of 

the mountain peoples who came down from the high summits to cultivate 

the delta of the Red River, in view of the fact that they 

congregated solely in the coastal regions and in the swampy plains 

of the north and south. Whatever the truth may be, it is certain 

that the Vietnamese race, as it is today with its own peculiar characteristics, 

forms a homogeneous whole, the product of long-past 

mingling of peoples. It may not be possible to make a precise 

scientific analysis of each constituent element - Mongol, Indonesian, 

Indo-Maley, Melanesian and others - but it is undeniable that the 

ire of these elements through the course of centuries has rec-'d 

in a product which has ethnic originality. On that basis 

it has .Just claims to authentic nationalism. 

. La Cultxire du Tabac. Gouvermnaent Ge*ne*rale de 1'Indo chine 

SeVie Saigon. Bulletin No. 6. 11 pp. Saigon. 1918. 

Discusses the cultivation of tobacco in Indochina. 

. Pi'uis khasya Royle. Garaatereo sylvicoles et me'thodes de plantation. 

Bois et Forets des Tropiques. No, 69: 27-32. Jan.-Feb. 

I960. 

A description is given of the morphology of this tree, occurring 

in the mountainous areas of tropical Asia, vhere it grows spontaneously. 

Tnere is also a treatment of its botanical arwi anatonical 

characters; mechanical properties and utilization of the wood; its 

ecology; and plantation methods. 

One diagram and 3 photograpns are included, in addition to 13. 

references. 

183

East Meets West in Thailand. 17 pp. illuatr. Mutual Security 

Agency, Washington, D. C. 

This pamphlet, written in popular style, treats briefly with the 

economy of Thailand, a program for health, rice production, new 

agricultural resources, transportation and industry, development of 

hydroelectric resources, and Thailand's contribution to mutual 

security. 

Le Cambodge moderne. k6 pp. Bar de Presse du Palais Royal. 

1950. 

Direction de la Statistique et des Etudes Economiques (Cambodia). 

Bulletin mensuel de Statistique. Phnom-Penh. 195^. 

Archaruak, T. Papaya culture. Kasikorn 26 (3): 273-282. 1953. 

Aubreville, A. Au pays des aux et des forets - Impressions du Cambodge 

forestier. Bois et Forets des Tropiques. 52: 1*9-56. illustr. 1 

map. March-April 1957. 

Written in non-technical style, this article presents the author's 

impressions of the forests of Cambodia. He describes in brief the 

inundated forest around Tonic* Sap and the basin of the Mekong River; 

and the trees lining the avenues in Phnom Penh, the capital, such 

as kokis (Hopea odorata), tamarind (Tarmarindus indica), cailcedrat 

(Khaya*neg'alensis) and mahogany (Swletenia maerophylla). 

The central part of Cambodia is covered with rice-fields, flanked 

to the northwest and southwest by high ranges of Cardamom and 

Elephant Mountains, separating Cambodia from Thailand. 

On red soils, especially around Kompong Cham, Kompong Thorn and 

elsewhere, a fine dense, moist forest once existed, but this was 

felled some years ago for the planting of Para" rubber tree (Hevfea 

brasiliensis). Moist Evergreen forest is now confined to the 

mountain region along the border with Thailand, in which dominant 

•trees are: Tetrameles nudiflora, Irv.lngia sp., Dipterocarpus dyeri, 

Hopea odorata and Anisoptera cochlnchinensis. 

The 2-needled pine "(Pinus merku'sii) is found occasionally in the 

loi/lands. The dense Dipterocarp forest along the Gulf of Thailand 

and in the Mekong plain, along with pine, resembles the deciduous 

forests of Africa in general appearance. This forest has long been 

exploited for commercial timber, especially Xylia dolabriformis 

and Shorea obtusa. Teak is not native to Cambodia. 

Auriol, R. F. Le riz etye*, sa preparation industrielle et ses sousproduits. 

Indochina. Insp. Gen. de 1'Agric., de 1'Eiev. et des 

Forets. Impr. A. Portail. 41 pp. Saigon. 1937. 

A stud.x oi' rice culture, its industrial processing and subproducts. 

Australian Institute of International Affairs. French-Indochina and the 

French colonies in the Pacific area. A.I.I.A. World Affairs Paper 

No. 2. 32 pp,

Avery, G. TJvaluating understory plant cotrer from aerial photographs. 

In Techniques and Methods of Measuring Understory Vegetation. Proceedings 

of t. .Symposium at Tifton, Georgia, Oct. 1958. pp. T9-8l. 

. Photographing forests from helicopters. Journal of Forestry 

57 (5): 339-342, May 1959. 

. Recent trends in forest photogramraetry. Journal of Forestry 

&> (7): 459-460. July 1962. 

Bakltin, Y.V., and A. Imamliev. Physiological changes in fruit trees 

during chemical defoliation. Plant Physiology 6 (2): 202-206. 

March-April 1959. American Institute of Biological Sciences, 

Washington, D. C. 

Balankura, B. Introducing new insecticides. Kasikorn 23 (2): 9^-96. 

Bangkok. 1950. 

Ballard, G. Le probleme du riz en Cochinchine. Soc. d'Etudes et 

d 1 Inform. Econ. 39 pp. Paris. 1935. 

Bamrurigpol, K. The cost of growing dent corn at Ban Mai Samrong. 

Kasikorn 27 (4): 373-379. Bangkok. 195*1. 

Bandhuvibas, S. Why do we have to increase rubber planting area 

Kasikorn 26 (3): 283-290. Bangkok. 1953. 

Banerji, J. The Mangrove Forests of the Andamans. ^Toc. Fourth World 

Forestry Congress. 3: 425-428; 3 tables. Dehra Dun. 1954. 

Discusses in brief the following phases of this specialized 

forest type: physiognomy of mangrove forest; its general distribution; 

climate; floristic composition; fuel value of mangrove; 

mangrove poles; artificial regeneration; sjj.vicultural characters 

of Bruguiera gymnorrhiza; method of felling; planting; qualities 

°^ Bruguiera poles; and classification of poles. 

The mangrove forests of the Andamans. Tropical Silviculture 

II, 319-324. FAO. Rone, 1957. 

Barnard, R. C. Linear regeneration sampling. Malayan Forester. 13. 

p. 129. 1950. 

., and G.G.K. Setten. Investigation scheme for growth and increment 

studies in Johore mangrove forest. Malayan Forester 16 (4o). 

1953. 

Barnett, E. C. Ihe Fagaceae of Thailand and their geographical distribution. 

Trans. Bot. Soc. (Edinburgh) 33 (3): 327-343..1 map. - 

1942, 

A systematic treatment with keys to genera and species, but there 

is no separate treatment of species. 

185

Bates, M. Observations on tue Distribution of Diurnal Mosquitoes in a 

Tropical Forest. Ecology 25: 2: 159-1'fO. 1937. 

Workers in Brazil and Colombia have long felt that the mosquito 

Haemagogug capricornii might be the cnief vectdr of Jungle yellow 

fever. The Villavicencio area of eastern Colombia is definitely 

of the rain forest type, with a total precipitation of between 160 

to SOO inches (k or 5 m>.) annually. The author gives the average 

temperatires of the general &ca& and the forest temperatures; a 

description of the forest areas in which the studies were made; 

methods of study; distribution of Haemagogus capricornii. 

This vector has been found to be relatively more abundant in the 

forest canopy than at ground level. In captures made at ground 

level, it appears to be more abundant in open and dry sites. Above 

the ground level with maximum density of the forest canopy the species 

is again relatively scarce. 

The zonal distribution of this mosquito is most marked during the 

>ret season, and it becomes relatively more abundant at ground level 

towards midday on a clear day after a succession of clear days, and 

during the dry season. From these data, it would seem that avoidance 

of zones of high relative humidity may be the determining factor in 

the flight orientation of the mosquito. 

Thirteen references are included. 

Baudesson, H. Indochina and its Primitive People (T"iSl. by E. Appleby 

Holt). 328 pp. illustr. E. P. Button & Co. New York. 

This interesting publication, written in popular style, is divided 

into two parts. The first part contains 10 chapters, dealing with 

the iMoi, their industries and occupations; family and social life; 

religious beliefs, rites, and superstitions; art and culture; and 

intellectual life. The second part, with 5 .chapters, treats with 

the social and family life of the Cham, and their rites and superstitions 

. 

Bauer, P. T. The rubber industry: A study in competition in monopoly. 

4o4 pp. Harvard Univ. Press. 1948. 

Bay, J. C. Bibliographies of botany. A contribution toward a bibliotheca 

bibliographica, compiled and anm-tated. Progr. Rei Bot. 3: 331-456. 

1909 İssued by the Association aiternationale des Botanistes. 

Beard, J. S. Climax vegetation In Tropical America. Ecology 25 (2): 

127-158. 23 figs. April .^964. 

This is aimed at correlating the vegetation of Trinidad with that 

of mainland tropical America. Only climax communities are considered. 

The writer classes as 'climax' any community which is apparently 

stable, mature and integrated, and has relegated to the status of 

'serai' any community which is patently in a state of change, development 

or transition. A climax type is relatively permanent under the 

given conditions. The writer treats with: floristic; physiognomic; 

and habitat groups. Beard arranges formations into 5 'Formation 

Series', summarized in tabular form, within each of which there are 

186

structures and life-forme, expressing every degree of transition 

from optimum to extreme adversity for a single major type of 

habitat. The following nanes are suggested: (a) Seasonal for~ 

mation; (b) Dry Evergreen formation; (c) Montane formation; 

(d) Svamp formation; and (e) Marsh or Seasonal-swamp formation. 

Detailed descriptions are given of 2k formations of vhich a 

summary appears in table 1. Tentative correlations with the nomenclature 

of Schimper, Shantz and Barbour are given in tables 

II, III, and IV. An analytical key for the recognition of formations 

in the field is given in table V. Literature cited contains 

43 references. 

Beckett, W. R. D., _et_al. Streblus paper (Streblus asper Lour.). 

Kew Bull. Misc. Inf. 1888: dl-84. 1888". 

Report on its source and manufacture in Thailand. 

Becking, R. W. Forest Photo Interpretation. Commission VII on Photo 

Interpretation, Working Group on Forestry Applications - Annual 

Report 1960. Selected Bibliography. Photogrammetric Engr. 2 

(4): 648-653. Published by the American Society of Photogrammetry. 

1961. 

B&gue*, L. La Premie're Session de la Sous-Commission du Teck de 1'Organisation 

des Nations-Unies pour I 1 Alimentation et I 1 Agriculture a 

Bangkok (Thailand). Bois et Forets des Tropiques. 48: 7-19. 

illustr. 1 map. July-Aug. 1956. 

The first session of FAO Teak Commission was held in Bangkok 

during Feb. 9-18, 195°« Its objective was to promote, on an international 

scale, the study of the many problems related to 

silviculture, use, production, and trade of Teak wood. 

Papers presented by representatives of several countries made 

it possible to obtain a first-hand opinion on the position of Teak 

in the world market. An agenda was prepared for the work so that 

every section could investigate the various problems. 

An excursion organized for the conference, enabled the members 

to obtain a picture of the forest problems prevailing in Thailand, 

especially in those areas where stands of Teak predominate. 

Seller, S., and P. Bhenchitr. A preliminary list of insect pasts and 

their host plants in Thailand. Tech. Bull. 1: 68 pp. Dept. Agr. 

and Fish. Thailand. 1936. 

The chief aim of this publication is to present a preliminary 

list of insect pests and their hosts in Thailand, with notes on 

their injury, miscellaneous foods, and utiliv.at5.on of the host 

plants. Records were kept of the hosts and their insect pests from 

1929 up to the time of publication, and this paper is a summary of 

that work. 

Belshaw, H. I., and J. B. Grant* 

Mission on community organization and 

18

development in South and Southeast Asia. UN Series on Community 

Organization and Development. New York. 1953. 

Bergsmark, D. R. Economic geography of Asia. Prentice-Hall. New 

York. 613 pp. 1935. 

Bernard, H. Pour la comprehension de 1'Indochine et de 1'Occident. 

Cathasia. 196 pp. Paris. 1950. 

Bernard, P. Le probleme economique indochinois. Nouvelles Editions 

Latines. k2k pp. Paris. 193^. 

Bertrand, A. Les produtts forestiers de 1'Indochine. Au Service de 

la Defense Nationale. Gouvernement General de I'Indocbir.e Se'rie 

Saigon. Bulletin No. 13. 18 pp. Saigon. 1918. 

Discusses some of the major tireber species and minor forest 

products of Indochina, 

Bertrand, P. Compte-rendu des travaux au Cabodge, 19^9. Pt. 2. 

Station Pilot-Furms Experimentale de Ve'al-Tra', Battarabang. Archives 

de 1'Office Indcchinois du Riz. No. 33* 60 pp. 1951. 

Les conditions de la culture iu riz dans le Haut-Donnai 

(Vietnam). L'Agron. Trop. : 266-1275. 1952. 

Bhodisaro, C. A method of rice cultivation in southern Thailand. 

Kasikorn 23 (1): 32-3^. Bangkok. 1950. 

Bhojakara, P., and P.O. Kashetra. A compilation of the Results of Experimental 

Work on Rice. 9^ pp. (Mimeographed). Department of 

Agriculture. July 19^7. 

This if. a summary of the results of experimental work on rice, 

at Rangsit farm and elsewhere in Thailand. 

This preliminary report was oubraitted to membei'S of the FAO, 

on the occasion of their visit to Thailand in July 19^7. 

Bisson, R. Influence de la furaure et de la taille de formation sur 

la production du the'ier. L'Agron. Trop. 6: 115-1^6. 

Blanck, E., W. Credner and S.V, Oldershausen. Contributions to the 

knowledge of chemical weathering and soil formation in Siam. An 

English translation ty Robert L. Pendleton of: Bertrange Zur 

Cheirischen Vei*vrLttei*ung and Bodenbildung in Siam. Chemie der Erde 

9, 1+19-^52. 1935. Technical Bulletin No. 2; 60 pp. Department 

of Agriculture and Fisheries, Bangkok. August 1937. 

An interpretation of chemical analysis of the soil samples collected 

by Credner. The views expressed by Blanck differ from those 

advanced in .1935 by Credner. 

Bloembergen, S. A revision of the genus Alangiuu'.., Bull. Jard. Bot. 

Buiterizorg.Ser. III. 16 (2): 139-235. F, 1-10 (Apr.). 1939. 

Includes opecies from Thailand. 

186

Blondel, F. L'erosion en Indochine. Cmptes-rendus 13th Inter. 

Congr. (Paris) 2: Travaux de la Section IX. Librarie A. Colin. 

Paris. 659-666 pp. 1931. 

Blumenstock, D. I., and C.W. Thornthwaite. Climate and the World 

Pattern. Yearbook of Agriculture 19^1. pp. 98-127. figs. 9. 

Washington, D. C. 19fl. 

Three great patterns dominate the earth and are of tremendous 

importance to man - that of cliuate, vegetation and the pattern of 

soils. When the three are laid one upon another, their boundaries 

coincide to a remarkable degree because climate is the fundamental 

dynamic force shaping the other two. The relationships between 

these patterns have been the object of considerable scientific study, 

and some of the results are broadly outlined by the authors. A 

fourth pattern, laid upon the three, is that of human culture, or 

civilization. Although modern man has some freedom to vary this 

pattern because of his control of the other factors, he too cannot 

go beyond certain limits set fundamentally by climate. 

Tills article presents a concise discussion of the climate pattern; 

climate and vegetation; climate and soils; climate and weathering; 

dim/ate, natural erosion, and minor land forms; climate and accelerated 

erosion; climate and land utilization; and climate and landscape. 

Literature cited contains 26 references. 

Boon, D. A. Maatregelen ter verzekering van de productie mogelljikheden 

der bosschen in de B-iitcngewesten. Tectona 31. 829-846. English 

Summary. 1939. 

Boonbongkarn, C. A method of marcoting pepper vico. Kasikora 26 (2): 

225-228. Bangkok. 1953. 

Cultivation and canning of bamboo shoots. Kasikorn 26 (16): 

608-612. Bargkok. 1953- 

_. Pepper growing in Chantaburi. Kasikorn 23: 183-190, 295-303, 

351-357• Bangkok. 195Q. 

. Rice variety trials. Kasttcora 23 (4): 295-303. Bangkok,, 1950 

Boon-long, N. Improving Thai lac industry. Kasikorn 25 (3): 190-198. 


rsoonyaketu, T. The present marketing system of Durlan Suan. ' Kasikorn 

25 (1): 16-23. Bangkok. 1952. 

Bourke-Borrowes, D. Some miscellaneous notes on big trees in Thailand. 

Indian For. 53 (6): 315-32. pi. 6,. (June.) 192. 

Concerns individual trees. 

189

Bourret, R. Etudes ge'ologiques sur le nord-est du Tonkin. Bull, 

du Service Ctfologique de I'lndochine 11, pt. 1. 326. pp. 1922. 

. Etudes ge'ologiques dans la region de Pale-lay, Moyen Laos. 

Bull, du Service Ge'oloîfpie de 1'Indochine 14, pt. 2. .YfS pp. 

1925. 

Bouvier, A. Situation des plantations francaises du the* Indochine. 

Rev. Inter. Produits Colon (Paris), pp. 53-57. Abstr. in L'Agron. 

Trop. 4: 665. 1949. 

Break, C. KLimakunde vori Hinterrindien und Insulinde. In Kbppen, 

W., and Geiger, R., (eds.). Handbiich der KLiraatologie 4, pt. R. 

Transl. by Weather Inform. Branch, Hdqtrs. Array Air Force. March 

1943. U. S. Navy reprint. Washington, D. C. 1941*. 

Braemer, P. Quelques aspects de la riziculture au Tonkin. Proc. 4th 

Pacific Sci. Congr. 4: 529-559. 1930. 

Brandis, D.. An enumeration of the Dipterocarpaceae, based chiefly upon 

the specimens preserved at the Royal Herbarium and Museum, Xcw, 

and the British Museum; with remarks on the genera and species. 

Journ. Linn. Soc. Bat. 31: 1-148. pi. 1-3. 1895. 

Includes eastern Asiatic species. 

Indian trees; an account of trees, shrubs, woody climbers, bamboos 

and palms indigenous or commonly cultivated in the British 

Indian Empire, i-xxiv, 76 pp. 201 figures. 1906. 

A comprehensive manual, Including many species of neighboring 

areas. 

Brown, G. F., S.Buraves, J. Charaljavanphet, N. Jalichandra, W. D, 

Johnston, Jr., V. Sresthaputra and G. C. Taylor, Jr. Geological 

Reconnaissance of the mineral deposits of Tliailand. U. S. Geological 

Survey Bull, 9^4. 184 pp. 20 pi. Si figs. 1951. 

This publication contains a wealth of useful information. For 

the general reader, the first 50 pages are the most useful and 

treat with the geography, physiography, and geology of Thailand. 

The geological map, plate 5, is almost on the same scale as the 

widely-used provisional soil and rock map by 

Brown, F. G. Forest Trees of Sarawak and Brunei. 370 p, Govt. Printing 

Office, Kuchiug. 1955. 

Brown, W. H. and A. F. Fischer. Philippine Mangrove Swamps. Dept. of 

Agric. eud Natural Resources, Bureau of Forestry Bull. 17. Manila. 

1918. 

Brun, W. A,, H.A. Cruzado, and T. J. Muzik. The Chemical Defoliation 

and Desiccation of Tropical Woody Plants. Tropical Agriculture 38 

(1); 69-81. Jan. 1961. 

190

Fifty one different formulations were tested fra* their defoliation 

or desiccation and discoloration effects on 25 species of 

tropical woody plants. Thirty-seven of the formulations acted 

primarily as defoliants and 13 caused dessiccation or discoloration 

of the leaves co which they were applied. 

The most effective defoliant formulations were those containing 

butyne 1,4-diol, tributyl phosphorotrithioite or mixtures of these 

two compounds. Mixtures were found to be more effective than either 

of the components by themselves. One formulation, containing a 

mixture of these two active ingredients, gave an average of 82 percent 

defo.;.Nation one week after application on lu trees tested in 

the Kayaguez area. Although not all formulations weze tested in 

both areas, defoliation appeared to be more easily attained in very 

dry region on tue south coast of Puerto Rico than in mesophytic 

area around Mayaguez 

Of the 13 formulations shoving desiccating activity, tribuhyl 

phosphate clearly st;uids out as the most effective. Within one week 

after its application, tributyl phosphate caused 100 percent desiccation 

or discoloration of the loaves of 14 of the 16 trees tested. 

Experimental evidence was obtained showing that the primary path 

of entry of both defoliating and desiccating formulations was through 

the stomatal openings. 

The effect of brief shower falling shortly after the application 

of defoliants and desiccants was determined. It was found that rain 

falling 5 minutes after the application of tributyl phosphate did not 

reduce its effectiveness as a foliar desiccant. Rain failing 5 and 

30 minutes after the application of tvo different defoliant formulations 

reduced their effectiveness on ore of the two species tested. 

Bruzon, E., and P. Carton. Le climat de 1'Indochine et les typhons de 

La, Msr de Chine. Impr. d'Extreme-Orient. Hanoi. 310 pp. J.930. 

., and A. Ro:ner. Le Climat de 1'ladochine. Haut-Commissariat de 

France o« Indochine. Service M^te'ox'oiogique. Impr. d 1 Extreme- 

Orient. 160 pp. Saigon. 1950. 

Bulletin Economique de I'Indochine. Nos. 128-139. Hanoi - Haiphong. 

1918 - 1919. 

These numbers contain a series of articles, by different specialists, 

on economic c-

Burkill, I. H. .Begonia hanifi'i, a small tuberous species of the islands 

of Lankavi. Journ. Str. Br. Roy. Aslat. Soc. 79: 103-104. 

1 fig. 1910. 

A nev species of Begonia is described. 

. Botanical collectors, collections and collecting areas inthe 

Malay Peninsula, Card. Bull. Straits Settlem. 4: 113.302. 1 nap. 

1927 İncludes notes on some collectors in Thailand. 

. A dictionary of the economic products of the Malay Peninsula. 

2 volumes. (l> i~xl, 1-1220; 2, 1221-2402). London* 1935. 

A comprehensive reference work on economic plants, including many 

products of Thailand. 

., and F, W. Foxvorthy. Notes on Dipterocarps. No. 6* On the 

*"" genus Pachynocarpus. Journ. Str. Br. Roy"Asiat. Soc. 85-86: 271- 

280. f. 1-9. 1922. 

Cites a few species of Vatica and Pachynocarpus from southern 

Thailand. 

Burma Forest Service. Silviculture and management of mangrove forests 

of Burma. Paper presented to the Second Session Asia-Pacific 

Forestry Commission, Singapore. 1952. 

Burtt Davy, J. The classification of tropical woody vegetation-types. 

Institute Paper, No. 13.85pp. Imp. For. Inst., Oxford Uhiv. 1938. 

\ "* 

Butarobnl, C. Baccaurea leaf-eating caterpillar. Ka&ikorn 27 (3): 

251-235. 195*. 

Castor oil plant-pest control. Kasikorn 25 (4): 289-294. 


_. Field crabs. Kasikorn 26 (5): 535-541. 1953. 

Rat control for coconut plantation. Kasikorn 25 (6): 465- 

467. Bangkok. 1952. 

Calder, G.C., V. Narayanaswami, and M.S. Remaswanii. List cf species 

and genera of Indian phanerogams riot included in Sir J.D. Hooker's 

Flora of British India, arranged in alphabetical order. 19O6-1924. 

Bee. Bot. Surv. India 11 (l): 1-157. 1926. 

Supplemental to Hooker's fundamental flora of regions adjacent 

to Thailand on the vest. 

Calder, R. M-m Against the Jungle. 231 pp. George Allen and Unvln, 

Ltd. 195 1 *. 

One chapter is devoted to the work of the World Health Organization 

and JUNICEF in Thailand. 

192

Callard, G. P. L'Indochine: geographic, hlstoire, mise en valeur. 

Edition Notre Do-naine Colonial. 12k pp. Paris. 1922. 

Cambodian Forest Service. Silviculture of the forests of Cambodia - 

mangrove. Paper presented to the Third Session, Asia-Pacific 

Fore."try Commission, Tokyo. 1955. 

Canus, A. Les Chenes. Moriographie du genre QLjercos. 2 volumes. 1 map. 

1: 686 pp. 35 figs.- 193^-38; 2: 830 pp. 59 figs. 1938-39. Paris. 

X93^-39. 

Includes Thai species of oaky. 

Capus, G. La production du the* en Indochine. fx>uv. Ge*n. do 1'Indochina. 

Publ. de 1'Agence Sconomique No. .6» 26 pp. 1930. 

Cardot, J. La culture clu caoutchouc en Indochine et la crise raondiale. 

Gouv. 'Je*n. de I 1 Indochine. Publ. de 1'Agence Economique No. 

27. 21 pp. 1931. 

Carle, E. L. Le riz en Cochinchine. Etude agricole, comraerciale, industrielle, 

avee diverses notes concernant cette culture dans le 

raonde. 346 pp. 1933. 

Carter, A. C. (ed.) The kingdom of Slam. 280 pp. iliustr, G. P. 

Putnam's Sons. 19oU. 

This publication was prepared by officials in various Departments 

of the Thai Government. While it is not intended to present a fall 

description of the country and Its people, the contents are an 

accurate review of conditions n,s they existed 60 years ago. The 

articles were written during 1903 &nd the statistics cited refer 

to the period up to that year. Because of lack of a standard transliteration 

of Thai characters, each author has followed his own 

system. 

Two of the 19 chapters are devoted tc agriculture and forestry. 

Catinot, R,, and G., Ve Saint-Aubin. Utilisation des photographies 

aerie*nnes sans point au sol ea cartographic forestieVe. 3ois et 

Porets des Tropiques. 69: 17-2. iliustr. Jan.-Feb. I960. 

The authors discuss a problem with which investigators of tropical 

forests are much concerned, namely the transformation, without 

the aid of ground reconnaissance, of aerial photographs into 

mans utilizable by foresters, lumber operators and others. Methods 

are outlined, provided at least two astronomical points exist within 

the zone photographed. The cost of application has been worked 

out, and does not seem to be prohibitive in consideration of the 

usefulness of the data which these methods provide. 

., and J. Leroy-Deval. Essai de destruction de la foret dense 

par empoisonment au Gabon. Bois et Forests das Tropiques. 69: 3-25. 

iliustr. Jan.-Feb. 1960, 

193

Tests were made in Gabon, West Africa, on the destruction of 

dense forests by poisoning. At the time it was considered that 

phytohormones seemed to be the most practical substances for poison 

ing trees. The- technique of spraying on the bark p;ave mortality 

rates of 60 to 65 percent, which was regarded, as insufficient. ISiSt 

were made also by spraying the phytohormon.js: on blazes, barked 

ctrips, and on Malay notches, Mortality exceeded bo percent with 

the last two methods. Spraying on Malay notches was preferred as 

being the easiest and cheapest. 

Carton, P. La me'te'orolopie agricole ea Indochine. Impr. d'Kxtreme- 

Orient. 15 pp. Hanoi. 1930. 

Casta^nol, E. M. Comparaison des differents types .de risieres. Bull. 

Kcon. de 1'Indochine. 755B-759B. 1932. 

Le Sol, e*tude the*orique et prptique. 

pp. Hanoi. 19^2. 

Impr. d'Kxtrerne-Orient. 

., and Ho-Dac-Vy. Etude comparative des principaux types de sols 

en place du norl de 1'Indochine. Gouy. (j4n. de 1'Indochine. Inst. 

Rocher. Agron. Compte-Rendu des Travaux. pp. 175-312. 1923-33. 

., and Pham-p;ia-Tu. Etude des textiles du nord de 1'Indochine. 

Archives Inst. Recher. Agron. Iniochins. No. 0.35 pp. Abstr. in 

L'Agron. Trop. 6:537. 1951. 

., and Nguyen Cons; Vieu. Stude de la flore macrobienne des sol-3 

du Tonkin. Archives Recher. Apron, au Ca-abodâ, a^ Iîos et au 

Vietnam. No. 11. 55 PP. 1951. 

. Contribution S. l'e*tude des teri'e-'j i-j\iges basaltiques et dacitiques 

des tiauts-plateaux du snd de 1'Tndochine. Archives Recher a 

Agron. au Cambodge, au Laos et au Vietnam. No. 12. ,l3 pp. 19^. 

Cero, M.M. Preliminary stuOLes of certain physical properties of s-j-\\c 

Siamese Soils. Siaoi Science Bulletin 1 (2): 1-27. Sept. .193'3. 

Tne samples used in this preliminary st.idy wero collected in 

widely scattered parts of Thailand. One table indicates the sticky 

point, rolling-out-limit, and the non-sticky pla.vti ratine of the 

samples. 

. Preliminary survey of the lands and soils in relation to tlie 

cultivation and production of Virginia toiv.oco in Chan^wad Chien,;'- 

rai, Thailand. Thai .Science Bulletin 1 (4): 36 pp. 2 maps, illuavr. 

Oct. .1939. 

This presentation is a comparative description of the lands and 

soils of Changwad Chiengrai in relation to the cultivation of 

Virginia tobacco as covered in the survey of the valley from C'uen.naiai 

to northern border in Araphur Mae Sai. The survey wan oonduo(,•-•.i 

19'*

during April 11 to 18, 1939, in an area of approximately 900,000 

'rai 1 , of which about 5 percent was cultivated to Virginia tobacco. 

Ohanpion, H. G. The effect of defoliation on the increment of Teak 

saplings. Foroot Bulletin No. 89 (Silviculture Series). 6 pp. 

1 table. Delhi. 193^. 

Teak is except ionally liable to defoliation by Lepidepterous 

larvae, particularly by the skeletonising HapalLa machaeralis and 

the defoliating Hyblaea 2H6£a» Instances are: on record of the 

death of saplings from repeated defoliation, but larger trees respond 

by producing successive flushes of new leaves and death rarely, 

if ever, results Croi) the attacks. 

The defoliated plantations are a most depressing sight and 

measures to control the insects appear an urgent necessity. Such 

control measures have been under trial at Nilambur and other sites 

for a number oC years. 

_ 

_ 

. . A preliminary survey of the forest types of India and Burma. 

Ind. For. Rec. 1 (I). .1936. 

. The effect of defoliation on the increment oC teak saplings. 

Forest Bulletin No. 89 - Silviculture series. India. 6 pp. 

Champsoloix, R. La Foret des pays montasuards du tJud Vietnam et ses 

produits. Bois et Forets des Trop. ^0: 3-12, 1955. 

__ . Le Pin a 3 feuilles du Langbian (Finns khasya Boyle). Bois et 

Forets des Tropiques. 57. 3-11. illustr. Jan.-i-'eb. 1958. 

The Pines (Pious) are represented in the uplands of South Vietnam 

by 4 species, including the 2-needled Pinus aerkusii and the 3-needled. 

Pinus khasya. 

These x;wo species occur over large areas in the highlands of 

South Vietnam, and are a source of certain forest products of some 

importance. This article treats almost exclusively wi-sh Pinus khasya. 

It covers n vide oxea of Lanf.bi'ui Mountain, in South Vietnam, "growing 

at altitudes of between 1,000 and 1,700 m. (3,300 - 5,500 ft.). The 

properties of its wood make it particularly suitable for paper-making . 

This was the objective in parceling out the Langbian plantation 

for the production oF billets Tor the paper industry. The author 

describes the ecological characteristics of this pine; the climate 

ami soil in tb^ region of its growth; and its behavior in relation 

to other species. 

Chandravekin, P. Hydroge nation of volatile oil distilled from Gurjun 

balsam. Thai Science Bulletin" 7 (1): 1-6. Bangkok. June 1952. 

This article deals with Gurjun balsar. obtained from the 'yan^' 

tree (Dipterocarpus alatus ) , a liquid containing volatile oils 

and resins. Its general properties are given. Nine references are 

included.

Chapman, V,J. The application of aerial photography to ecology as 

exemplified by the natural vegetation of Ceylon. Indian Forester 

73 (7): 287- 31 1 *. 19^7. 

In this paper an attempt is made to give a brief account of 

some of the different vegetation types of Ceylon as seen from the 

air and on the ground. Points of interest that arise from air 

photographs are indicated, especially where they can be of definite 

ecological value. This study can only be regarded as preliminary 

in nature because time factor did not permit more detailed work. 

Some conclusions may have to be modified, but the general interpretation 

probably will remain valid. 

Charoenrat, S. Weeds in floating rice field. Kasikom 25 (4): 306-3!! 


Charuprakorn, S. Papaya latex. Kasikorn 23 (1): U6-55. Bangkok. "1950. 

Chatot, J. La culture du cafe* en Indochine. Inrpr. d 1 Extreme-Orient. 

pp. Hanoi. 1939. 

Chepsithar, S. Thailand's teak exports. 

Journal 9 (3): 3. 1955. 

Bangkok Chamber of Commerce 

Chevalier, A. Premier inventaire des bois et autres produits forestie*res 

du Tonkin. Extrait du Bulletin Economique de 1' Indochine, Nouvelle 

SeVie, Nos. 131-132, Juillet-Octobre 1918 et No. 137, Juillet-Aout 

1919. 22 pp. Hanoi- Haiphong. 1919. 

The first part is devoted to a discussion of the forests as 

they existed up to 1919, and those of the future, in relation to 

their composition, production, conservation, management and exploitation. 

The second part contains a brief description of the principal 

woods of Tonkin, arranged according to family, genus and species* 

and their respective vernacular names. 

The third part is a treatment of such secondary forest products 

as bamboos; palms; tannin-producing plants; dye sources; resin and 

turpentine sources; wood-oil and resin from Dipterocarps; lac; 

oleo-resin and Canarium; liquidarabar; benzoin; indigenous rubber 

sources; forest resources for the manufacture of paper pulp; forest 

oil seeds; essential oil plants; vocd and bark for mucilage; wild 

tea; and other forest resources. 

The report concludes with 2 tables. One indicates the density 

of selected woods from Tonkin, with their botanical identification 

and corresponding Annamite name; and the other, the density of 

planks cut from logs, 4 years after felling, made at the arsenal 

in Hanoi in 1918. 

Alphabetical lists of the scientific and vernacular names of the 

woods of Tonkin are included. 

. Sur un groupe de plantes insecticides; lee Stemona d" Indochine. 

196

Rev. Bot. Appl. 1: 136-137. 1937. 

Includes references to the occurrence of insecticide! plants in. 

Thailand. 

. La situation de la culture du taba« dans les pays d'Indochine. 

Rev. Inter, de Bot. App. et d'Agr. Trop. 33: 348-353. 1953.. 

Cockerell, T.D.A. The flora of Doi Sutep, Thailand. Torreya 29(6): 

159-162. 1929. 

An account of a botanical trip from Chiengaai up the mountain 

Sutep. 

Collenette, P. A. Physiographic classification of itorth Borneo. Journ. 

Trop. Geography. Vol. 17. pp. 28-33. May 1963. 

The study of the physiography of North Borneo had not received 

much consideration until recent years. Only a decade ago Reinhard 

and Weak observed that "A student of geomorphology vould find North 

Borneo a most interesting country." A few significant facts have 

come to light, but the inaccessability of the country, the lack of 

adequate maps, and perhaps chiefly the fact that the traveller in 

the jungle of Borneo rarely gets a view of the country to be explored, 

render morphological studies very difficult. Since .1.950, 

however, most of the country has been mapped geologically, using 

ground surveys and aerial photographs. The tentative classification 

suggested in this paper is based on such materials, on verbal accounts 

by colleagues in the British Borneo Geological Survey, and x qn ten 

years of personal experience in the country. 

North Borneo is divided into four main physiographic regions: 

the Western Lowlands; the Western Cordillera; the Central Uplands; 

and the Eastern Lowlands. . 

The lowland regions are defined as those areas which arc less 

than 1,000 ft. (300 m.) above sea-level. They include hills, plaino, 

deltas and islands. The western Cordillera consists of a number of 

sub-parallel mountain ranges and associated inter-mountain plains, 

resulting from the folding and uplift of the northern part of the 

tertiary geosyncline of northwest Borneo. The Central Uplands consist 

of a large complex area of rugged terrain, generally more than 

1,000 ft. (300 m.) above sea level. Each region is further subdivided. 

Some of the sub-regions are single morphological entities, 

such as the Kaindangan peneplain; some are groups of similar features, 

such as the Eastern Deltas; and others,such as the JLabuk Highlands, 

are morphologically complex. 

The paper contains 1 figure and 7 references. 

Colwexl, R. N. Use of aerial photographs in forest recreation. Photogrammetric 

Engineering 16 (l): 21-31. March 1950. 

Workers engaged in forest recreation, like those in other fields, 

have only begun to explore the possibilities for making advantageous 

use of aerial photographs. 

197

Cooper, F. G, Munsell manual of color. Defining and explaining the 

fundamental characteristics of color. 35 PP» Published by Munsell 

Color Company, Inc., Baltimore, Md. Oct. 26, 1938. 

This set of student charts contains twenty hues. The colors 

regularly come in separate small envelopes, one for each chart, and 

have been pasted on blank charts . The notation is explained in 

the Manual. 

This booklet contains all of the kOO regular colors of the Munsell 

system. Several series of special colors that do not appear in this 

book are also available from the Munsell Color Company. To protect 

the color chips, each chart is covered with thin cellophane. While 

this changes the appearance slightly, it does not impair the usefulness 

of the book for library references. If color charts are to be 

used regularly in matching particular products, the necessary charts 

may be purchased 'Ji+her separately or in sets. 

Corner, E.J.H. Notes on the systematy and distribution of Malayan 

phanerogams, IV: Ixora. Card. Bull. Straits Settlement. 11: 177-235. 

A systematic treatment of Ixora with a key; cites specimens from 

Thailand. 

__ Wayside Trees of Malaya, Vol. I. 772 pp. 259 text figs. Govt. 

Printing Office, Singapore. (2nd Ed.) 1952. 

This large reference contains descriptions of about 950 species 

of trees growing in gardens, orchards, rice-fields, waste ground, 

along seashores, riverbanks, roadsides and in secondary growth both 

in the lowlands and in the mountains. 

Of approximately 8,000 species of flowering plants in Malay, at 

least 2,500 are trees growing in the forest at H ratio of 100 genera 

to the acre. To describe so many accurately is impossible except in 

hard scientific terms. The author has therefore limited the subject 

to trees commonly found outside the high forest. Forest trees have 

been omitted on principle because they are so numerous and cannot be 

classified without recourse to their detailed botanical structure. 

The greater part of the book deals with flowering plants. Palms, 

cycads, bamboo, pandans and tree-ferns have been omitted. 

The introductory part outlines the method of arrangement and 

selection of Malay names; method of giving specific descriptions; 

how to identify a tree; a key to some common flowering trees; terms 

used; general remarks about trees; and a succint treatise on Malayan 

vegetation. 

The remarks accompanying the descriptions have been limited to the 

biological aspect of trees, and only a passing reference is made to 

their history, cultivation and economic uses, because these have been 

exhaustively compiled by Burkill. 

Drawings are also included of many characteristic fruits. Fallen 

fruits often supply the only ready means of identifying large trees, 

such as oaks, chestnuts, dipterocarps, figs, mangosteens, nutmegs, 

and others.

Couey, M. and Truong-von-Hieu. Etude de quelques characttlres quantitatifs 

en relation avec le facteur rendement chez le riz. Archives 

de 1'Office Indochinois du Riz. No. 34. 90 pp. 1951. 

Le riz. Etude bote.nique, ge'ne'tique, phyaiologlque, agrologique 

et technologique applique"e a 1'Indochine. Archives de 1'Offlee 

Indochinois du Riz. No. 30. 312 pp. 1950. 

Couffinhal, M. La Situation actuelle des Porets de la Cochinchine. 

Gouverneraent Ge'ne'ral de 1'IndochJne Se*rle Saigon Bulletin No. 8. 

30 pp. 

Appendix contains a list of the principal timber species groving 

in the upper altitude of Cochinchina, now part of South Vietnam. 

Craib, W. 5,, and others: Contributions to the flora of Thailand. Kew 

Bull, Misc. Inf. Additaraenta (l) 1912: 144-155. (II) 264-269. 

(Ill) 191j: 65-72. (IV) 199-204. (V) 1914: 4-11. (VI) 1915: 

122-132. (VII) 279-285. (VIII) 1915: 419-433. (IX) 1916: 259- 

269. (X) 1918: 362-371. (XI) 1920: 300-305. (XII) 1922: 165- 

174. (XIII) 225-241. (XIV) 1924: 81-98. (XV) 1925: 7-23. 

(XVI) 367-394. (XVIII) 1926: 154-174. (XIX) 337-363. (XX) 

1927: 56-72. (XXI) 164-174. (XXII) 212-220. (XXIII) 374-395- 

(XXIV) 1928: 62-72. (XXV) 234-237. (XXVI) 1929: 105-U9. 

(XXVII) 1930: 161-174. (XVIII) '5'3-327. (XXIX) 405-427. (XXX) 

191: 206-221. (XXXI) 275-280. (XXXII) 441-448. (XXXIII) 1932: 

137-149. (xxxiv) 276-289, (xxxv) 330-338, (xxxvi) 425-437, 

(XXXVII) 475-486. (XXXVIII) 1933: 18-30. (XXXDC) 1935: 326-33% 

(XL) 1936: 34-47. (XLI) 1937: 26-44, (XLII) 71-75. Figs. 1.2, 

(XLIII) 87-94, (XLIV) 371-392. (XLV) 505-510. (XLVI) 1938: 

24-32. 1 fig., (XLVII) 98-106. (XLVIII) 127-133. (XLIX) 199-2OQ, 

(L) 1^5-454. 1 rig. (LI) 1939: 109-15C. (LII) 456-465. (LIII) 

1940: 180-186. (LIV) 1941: 8-21. 1912-1941. 

Critical notes and new species. This is a continuation of contributions 

by Craib (1911-1912). Parts XVJ and XVII are by D. G. 

Downie and include manuscript descriptions by R,, A. Rolfe. Part 

XXI is by E. T. Geddes. Beginning in 1935 A.F.G. Kerr edited and 

added descriptions to this series after Craib f s death in 1933. 

H, S. Fletcher contributed much of parts XLI and XLII. J.B. Iralay 

contributed Part LI* Various others contributed descriptions. 

Craib, W. G. a. Pittosporopsis kerrii Craib. Icacinaceae. Tribus Icacineae. 

Hook. Icon. PI. 30: pi. 2977. 

Cites Kerr 558, 558 A from Chiengmai. 

k* Murtonia kerrii Craib. Leguminosae. Tribus Hedysaraae. Hook. 

Incon. PI. 30: pi. 2979. 

Cites Kerr 193^ from Chiengmai. 

c * Styrax benzoides Craib. Styracaceae. Hook. Icon. PI. 30: pi. 

2999. '" 

Cites Kerr specimens from Chiengmai. 

. 

• L99

. Orophea pclycarpa and Artabotrys burmanlcus. Kew Bull. Misc. 

Inf. 1915: ^33-533. 

A systematic treatment of these genera, citing Thai specimens. 

. Some new species from Thailand. Gar}. Chron III. 12: 363: 

TDec. 23). 1922. 

Four new horticultural introductions by Kerr: Stephariia erecba, 

.Vetrocosraea kerrii, Didymocarpus waltiana n. sp., described in 

Latin, and Barleria siamensis. 

_ Six new flowering plants from 3iam. Journ. Nat. Hist. Soc. of 

Siam 6 (l): '*3-46. 1909. 

Four Annonaceae, 1 Menisperraaeeae, and 1 Violaceao from collections 

of Eryl Smith are described. 

. Florae Siamenals enumeratio. A list of the plants known from 

Thailand with records of their occurrence. 2 vols. Bangkok. 1 

(Polypetalae) 1-809, index 1-6, 1 folded map. 1925-31; 2 (Gatnopetalae) 

1-^76, 1932-39 (incomplete). The Bangkok Times Press. 

1925-39. 

Contains distribution records, critical notes, local names, new 

varieties, and transfers. As far as completed this was the most 

complete enumeration of Thailand plants up to that time. Edited by 

A.F.G. Kerr after Craib's death in 1933. See also Kerr, A.F.G., 

1925. 

. a. Some new Thailand Begonias. Gard. Chron. Ill 83; 66-67. 

1928 

Ḟive new species described. 

b. Some new Thailand plants. Gard. Chron. III. 83-1^0. New species 

of Sonerila and Chirita - new to cultivation. 1928. 

The Flora and Vegetation of Thailand. Mid-Pacific Mag. 

"fl (U) : 328-335, 1 pl. April 19.31. 

A popular account of Thai plants, chiefly in the Bantôk region. 

.a. Xylia Kerrii Craib et Hutchinson. Leguminosae. Tribus 

Adenantherae. Hook. Icon, Pl; 30: pl. 2932. 1911. 

Refers to Kerr 547 from Chiengami, at foot of Doi. Sutep. 

. b. Phyllatrthodendron roseum Craib et Hutchinso'n. Euphorbiaceae. 

Tribus PhyUantheae. Hook. Icon. Pl. 30: pl, 2935. 1911. 

Refers to Kerr 697 from Chiengraai. 

Contributions to the flora of Thailand. Dicotyledons, Univ. 

Aberdeen Studies 57: 1-210. 1912; (Monocotyledons) 61: ^1 pp, 

1913 

Ṫhis is a republication, with rewritten introductioni increased..-.- 

added bibliography; and an index. 

Craighead, F. C. 

Some effects of artificial defoliation on pine and 

200

larch. Journ. of Forestry 38 (11): 885-888. 19^0, 

Crednar, W. Grundzuge einer Gliederung Slams In seiner TellJ.andschaften. 

Geog. Zeitschrlft 36 (4): 193-211, 273-292. 1930. 

Slam: das Land der Taij eine Landeskunde auf Grand eigeuer 

Reisen und Forschungen. i-svi, 1-422. illustr. 1935. 

The vegetation Is well described la '111. Bie Naturlandschaft. ' 

Includes a bibliography. 

Dal, C. La foret vietnamienne . Rev. Inter, des Prod. Colon, et du 

Mater el Colon. 30: 99-101, 1955. 

Denser, B, H. On the taxonomy and the nomenclature of the Loranthaceae 

of Asia and Australia. Bull. Jard. Bot. (Fuitenzorg) Ser. Ill, 

10 (3): 291-373. Nov. 1929. 

Consists of new systems with keys to genera for Elytranthinae 

and ffypheatinae (-Loranthinae) and nomenclature; includes many 

transfers, historical r.otes, etc. 

The Lorarithaceae of French Indo- China and Thailand. Bull, Jard, 

Bot. (Buitenzorg) Ser. Ill, 16: 1-63 pi. 1. f. 1-3. Sept. 1938. 

A systematic treatment. 

Additions to the Loranthaceae of Thailand, Bull. Jard. Bot. 

CBuitenzorg) Ser. III. 16 (3): 253-26. 1 f. Feb. 1940. 

Additions to the preceding title. 

Dansereau, P.M. Structural Units of Vegetation in Tropical and Temperate 

Climates with Specific Reference to Pacific Areas. Seventh Pacific 

Science Congress. Proceedings Vol. V: pp. 100-112. 4 figs. 2 tables. 

1953 

Ṫhe living environment may be approached in many ways, according 

to the difference In point of view, method and technique. The conclusions 

reflect the differences in purpose. In fact, the geographer, 

ecologist, taxonomist, pathologist, geneticist, and others interested 

in encompassing the living beings within their habitat, apply various 

kinds of classifications. 

A brief discussion is given of floristic systems; life-forms; 

ecological systems; and structural or physiognomic classifications. 

The author discusses a new system based on structure, accompanied by 

diagrams of profiles of plant coniinunities. There Is also a table 

indicating six categories of criteria to be applied in a construe-* 

tional definition of vegetation types, according to this new system. 

The Bibliography lists 25 references. 

Davis, J.H., Jr. The Ecology and Geologic Role of Mangroves in Florida. 

Carnegie Inst. Wash. Publ. Biol. Abstr. 15 (l). 1941. 

201

Deignan, H. G. Siara —land of free men. Smithsonian Institution War 

Background Study No. 8. Washington, D. C. 19^3. 

; The Birds of northern Thailand. Smithsonian Institution 

Mus. Bull. 186, Washington, D. C. 1945. 

_ . Checklist of the Birds of Thailand. Smithsonian Institution 

United States National Museum Bulletin 226. I-X: 3-263. 1 map. 

Washington, D. C. 1963. 

Thi.ri publication includes the scientific names and range of 

1,173 birds of Thailand, and is complete so far as the avifauna 

of that country was known up to 1962. 

Dept. of Agr. and Fisheries. Thailand. Ar.nual reports of the Cotton 

Experiment Station at Klongtan. 1936-37, 1937-38. Bangkok. 1939. 

Dept. of Agriculture (Thailand). Insect pests of Thailand. Tech. Bull. 

No. 5 and Suppl. Bangkok. 1952. 

Dept. of General Statistics (Thailand). Statistical yearbook of tue 

Kingdom of Siam. No. 12. Bangkok. 1926-^7 . 

Dept. of Publicity (Thailand). Present-day Siam. Bangkok. 19^9. 

deYoung, J. £. Demographic trends in Thailand. Report of the 8th 

Pacific Congress, pp. 39^-395. 1953. 

Village life in modern Thailand. Univ. of Calif. Press. 

Berkeley and Los Angeles. 1955. 

This is a synoptic account of the daily activities in a Thai 

village, designed to give the lay reader a picture of how a Thai 

peasant and his family live and work in present-day Thailand. It 

is also intended to show how the life of the peasant has changed 

in the last century, and points out seme of the possibilities for 

the immediate future. 

A bibliography and an index are included. 

Dhibayakalin, L. A peculiar method of growing rice in Aciphur Bang 

Pakong. Kasikorn 23 (2): 86-93. Bangkok. 1950. 

Diels, L. Agape te s hosseanus Diels, n. sp. Repert. sp. Nov. Fedde 1: 

16. 1905. 

_ .a. Rhododendron thailandii Diels, nov. spec. Repert, Sp. Nov. 

Fedde'TT 2"WI 1907 . 

Based on Hosseus 507. 

.hosseusil., Diels, nov. spec., aus Thailand. Repert. 

Sp. Nov. Fedde 4; 289-290. 1907. 


202

Heliciae novae descriptae. Repert. Sp. Nov. Fedde 13*. 527- 

528. 1915. 

Includes Hellcia stricta, a new species from Thailand and China. 

Dilock, P. von S. Die Landwirtschaft in Siam. 215 PP- Leipzig. 1908.. 

A general description of the physiographic regions of Thailand. 

Includes some data on economic botany. 

Dixon, H. N. On the moss flora of Thailand. Journ. Thailand Soc. Nat. 

Hist. Suppl. 9 (1): 1-51- 1933. 

A systematic treatment of new species and varieties. 

. PUrther contributions to the moss flora of Thailand. Journ. 

Thailand Soc. Nat. Hist. Suppl. 10 (l): 1-30. 1935. 

An enumeration of recent collections, largely by Kerr, with 

20 new species. 

. Mosses of Kaw Tao. Journ. Thailand Soc. Nat. Hist. Suppl. 8 

(l): 19-21. 193^. 

A systematic enumeration of a collection by A.F.G. Kerr. 

Doan, K.V. Le pro'uleme des engrais dans la rizicultura du Sud Vietnam. 

Archives de I'Office Indochinois du Riz. No. 36. 38 pp. 1952. 

Dobby, E. H. G. Southeast Asia. Univ. London Press, Ltd. 415 pp. 118 

maps and diagrams. London. 1950. 

The purpose of this publication is to present a picture of environmental 

conditions and human adaptations in Southeast Asia. 

It provides a basic text for the student, as well as general information 

of interest to the sociologist, administrator, politician 

and businessman. It. discusses the physical, environmental and 

social aspects of geography applicable to Southeast Asia and its 

people. 

Dop, P. La vegetation de 1'Indochine. Trav. Lab. For. Toulouse 1. 

Art. 9: 1-16. 1931. 

A concise but good account of the vegetation. 

Douglas, W.O. North from Malaya. Doubleday. 352 pp. New York. 1953. 

Dumont, R. La culture du riz dej^s le delta du Tonkin. Socie*t£ d'E-iitlons 

Ge'ographiques, Maritimes et Colon,iales. 1*35 PP- Paris. 1935« 

Dunn, S.T. A revision of the genus Millettia Wight et Arn. Journ. 

Linn. Soc. Bot. M (20o): 123-243. Nov. 13, 1912. 

Includes citations of specimens from Thailand. 

DuPasquier, R. Amelioration des plantes de grandes cultures. Proc. 

Fourth Pacific Sci. Congr. k: 453-505- .1929. 

203

__ . Les Proble'mes d" utilisation des terrea et leurs solutions en 

ladochine. Archives Inst. Keener, Agron. Indochirie No. 4. 59 pp. 

1950. 

___ . La production du the* dans 1' Union froncaise. Comptes 

Rendus Acad. Sciences Coloniales. 121-125 pp. Paris. 195U. Abstr, 

in L'Agron. Trop. 10: 106. 1955. 

Duranl, C.C.L. Growth of mangrove species in Malaya. Malayan Forester 

10 (1): 3-15. 

Earle, P.M. Geogre.pny of the Southeast Tropics. The Annals of the 

American Academy of Political and Social Science. 226. 1-8. 

March 19^3. 

A brief discussion of the geography of Southeast Asia, treated 

according to countries, with comments on agriculture. 

Edwards, J.P. Growth of Malayan forest trees, as shown by sample plot 

records, 1915-28. Mai. For. Sec. No. 9. pp. 1-151. 1930. 

Egler, F.E. The dispersal and establishment of red mangrove, Rhizcphora 

manfOe, in Florida. Carib. For. 9 (k): 299-310. 19%B~. 

Evans, G.C., T.C. Vhitmore ana Y.K. Wong. The distribution of light 

reaching the ground vegetation in a tropical rain forest. The 

Journ. of Ecol. U8 (l): 193-20U. k text-figs. Feb. 1960. 

In March 1957 a study of light reaching the undergrowth of a 

Tropical Rain Forest wjis made in Bukit Timah Nature Reserve, 

Singapore. A survey of lighting conditions in this forest provides 

data on the occurrence of sunflecks, also on lighting conditions 

when the sun was shining and when obscured by cloud. These data 

were used to determine the pattern of light on sample plots on the 

forest floor under cloudy conditions. It was shown that this pattern 

does not vary appreciably from day to day. 

The daily march of light intensity under cloudy conditions* is 

shown to be affected by two factors - a steadily increasing maximal 

intensity as noon approaches and at the same time an increasing 

number of periods of very low intensity, because of the accumulation 

of dense clouds near midday on the days of observation. 

The pattern on the forest floor under sunny conditions, without 

sunflecks, when compared with that under cloudy conditions is 

shown to be substantially different. 

The problem of taking readings under hazy conditions, when thin 

wisp clouds partly obscure the sun, is considered. These are shown 

to approximate very closely an average to those made when the sun 

was shining but with no cmnflecks. 

The distribution of light reaching the forest floor between the 

three categories of cloudy conditions, hazy conditions and sunny excluding 

sunflecks, and the sunflecks themselves was studied for k 

hours in the middle of the day. The large '•ontribution of sunflecks 

20k

was thus made evident, together with appreciable decre.*ic in intensity 

during cloudy and rainy period at around noon. 

Finally, a comparison was made between lighting conditions on 

two separate sample plots, showing that in the absence of sunflecks, 

substantially more light reached the ground vegetation on 

one plot than oft Jthe o*her, whether under cloudy or sunny conditions. 

The bulk of the sunfleeks contributed roughly equal 

quantities of light to the two plots, with sufficient evidence to 

generalize about the incidence of very bright sunflecks, which 

were of rare occurrence. 

Six references are cited. 

Fair, A.D. No Place to Hide: How defoliants expose the Viet-Cong. 

Armed Forces Chemical Journal 18 (l): 5-6. March 196^. 

This article reviews the use in Vietnam of commercial chemicals 

to defoliate, in the expectation that removal of leaves from 

vegetation will improve vertical and horizontal visibility, for 

ground detection. There is a brief review of the proposals made 

to defoliate areas paralleling roads which the VC harass; for the 

improvement of local security afc field installations, strategic 

hamlets, and outposts. 

Defoliation tests were made in an area of 8,000 acres in the 

Camau Peninsula of mangrove forest, mixed with coconut and nipa 

palm. The chemical used was a specific combination of 2,U-D 

and 2, U,5-T, which was coded 'Purple'. Nipa palm was the most 

abundant of the resistant vegetation. Approximately 60 days were 

required for the full effects of the herbicide to develop. Mangrove 

trees, however, are very sensitive to Purple, ar.tf almost 

complete defoliation took place within less than one week, 

Fall, B.B. The Viet-Minh regime. Cornell Univ. Data Psper No. lU. 

Southeast Asia Program. Dept. Far Eastern Studies. 1

Fletcher, H.R, The Siamese Verbenaceae. Kew Bull. Misc. Inf. 1938. 

(10): 401-445. 1 map. 1938. 

A systematic treatment, including keys and a bibliography. 

. Keys to the Siamese Species of Myrsinaceae. Notes from the 

Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh. 20 (98): 106-120. 1948. 

Keys to the following Thai genera: Maesa, Aegiueraa, Ardisia, 

Labisia, Embelia, Myrsine and Rapanea. 

Food and Agriculture Organization of the Halted Nations. Report of the 

FAO mission to Slam. Washington, B.C. 1948. 

International Rice Commission. Report of the seocud meeting 

of the Working Party on Rice Breeding: Bogcr, Inrtoiieaia, April. 

1951. FAO Developmental Paper No. 14. 82 pv. Rome. 1951. 

_ . Conference de Nuwara Eliya (Ceylan) BUT 1 'utilisation des 

sols tropicaux, du 17 au eeptembre 1951. L'Agron. Trop. 7: 170- 

176. 

_ . Report of the Third Meeting of the International Rice Commission's 

Working Party on Rice Breeding. Bandung, Indonesia, 

May 1952. FAO Agricultural Development Paper No. 30. Rome. 1953. 

_ . Agricultural Survey of Asia and the Far East; development 

and outlook. l6l pp. Rome. 1953. 

_ . Report cf the Special Technical Meeting on the Economic Aspects 

of the Rice Industry. Rangoon. Nov. 11-18. Rome. 1954. 

_ . Report of the Fourth Meeting of the Working Party on Fertilizers. 

Tokyo, Oct. 1954. FAO Agr. Development Paper No. 48. 

1955. 

_ . Timber Trends and Prospects in the Asia-Pacific Region. The 

Role of Bamboo, pp. 91-100. Geneva. 1961. 

This study was prepared Jointly by the Secretariats of the 

Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations and ths 

United Nations Economic Commission for Asia and the Far East. 

Bamboo calls for special attention for two reasons. It is an important 

component of several of the principal forest types in the 

Asia- Pacific region; and secondly, it serves as an alternative to 

other forest products in a wide range of end uses. There are between 

600 and 700 species of bamboo, belonging to 60 genera of the 

grass family (Gramineae). The widespread use of bamboo in some 

countries is in fact one, although by no means the only, reason for 

the low consumption per head of industrial woods. This article 

treats with the distribution and extent of bamboos in the Asia- 

Pacific region; management practices and -yields; "production and 

consumption; utilization; trade in bamboo; prospect^ for bamboo; 

and conclusions. 

206

Forbin, V. Comment le Tonkin lutte centre lea inondations. La 

Nature. 60: 199-20^. Paris. 1932. 

Fosberg, R. R. On the possibility of a Rational General Classification 

of Humid Tropical Vegetation. Proc. Symposium on Humid Tropical 

Vegetation, Tjiawi (Indonesia). 3^-59 pp. Dec. 1958. 

In his introductory remarks, the author observes that classification 

is an orderly arrangement of information designed to 

facilitate thinking, and to aid in locating, communicating, handling 

and utilizing the information. While its units may represent 

real entities one classification itself is a mental construction. 

Hence there may be more than one equally valid and useful classification 

built to handle the same information. 

Surveying the field, it is obvious that much important progress 

has been made in this direction, but in some respects we 

are still groping. Regardless of the magnitude of the task, data 

of significance in tha study and classification of vegetation as 

such seem to fall readily into about trie same general convenient 

but perhaps artificial categories, subscribed to in one formulation 

or another by most students of vegetation. A concise review presents 

the history of classification of vegetation; philosophy of classifaction; 

general method of classification; information and criteria 

considered for classification, such as physiognomy, structure, 

function, composition, dynamics, habitat or environmental relations, 

history, and degree of generalization. The author lists 

25 formations into whl :h tropical vegetation may be segregated. 

A list of 20 references, followed by a discussion are included. 

Foxworthy, F.W. Minor Forest Products of t;he Malay Peninsula. Malayan 

Forest Records No. 2. 151-217. ,192. 

The term 'minor forest products' or 'jungle produce' includes all 

products of the forest other than the sajor products, such as 

timber and firewood. They include a number of materials with low 

unit values, but are generally useful, and with an aggregate value 

often exceeding that of the timber furnished by the forest. 

The different minor forest products of the Malayan Peninsula 

are considered under a series of headings: palms and palm products; 

gums, oils and resins, including gutta percha; wild, rubber; resins, 

oleo-resins and wood oils; bark oils, fruit or seed oils, and 

essential oils; incense woods; tanning oaterials; dye plants and 

dye woods; fiber plants; poisonous plants; a lengthy list of medicinal 

plants; food plants from the forest; and miscellaneous products, 

such as vegetable and animal products. 

Forest Reconnaissance in Malaya. Bnpire Forestry Journal. 3 

(1): 78-79. July 192U. 

Forest work in the Rain forests in the eastern tropics necessitates 

dealing with a large number of forms cr types which are new 

to foresters experienced with temperate climate. 

About 1905, a small coterie of foresters and botanists, working- 

20

in the Philippine Islands, launched a study to develop a system 

of forest reconnaissance, suitable for use in the wet tropics. 

The system, developed by the Forest Department in the Federated 

Malay States, was the Strip Valuation Siu-vey, which involved 

careful recording and evaluation of map notes. It was found that 

a one percent evaluation gave a Very fair notion of the average 

composition of large areas. More detailed examination, was 

necessary of areas less than 10,000 acres, or where very elaborate 

and expensive systems of exploration were contemplated. The 

author described the method used in mapping; in recording evaluation 

of trees; detailed plan of work in the field; and progress 

made in Malaya up to 192U on the survey. 

A summary is given of reconnaissance vork carried out in British 

North Borneo and in the Malay Peninsula and the conclusions arrived 

at. Four tables are included, showing method of recording topographical 

notes; tree measurements; and statistics from block re - 

conr.aissance. 

« 

. Commercial Timber Trees of the Malay Peninsula. I-jtuayan Forest 

Records No. 3. 195 PP- illustr. 1 map. 1927. 

The timber trees of the Malay Peninsula are represented by many 

and imperfectly known species. The need for a manual for use by 

forest officers and others,, as an aid to identify the more important 

trees in the field, had long been felt. The purpose of this manual 

is to present in simple language, th'e distinguishing features for 

each tree-species. A concise summary is .given of the characters 

of each commercially useful tree. 

To accomplish this the author stressed the initial importance 

of becoming acquainted with the species furnishing timbers. Herbarium 

material made it possible to work out the botanical status 

of the respective species, as well as providing a great deal of information 

about their natural distribution and habitat. The relative 

and actual abundance of the different species was also determined. 

A comprehensive chart was prepared to show the known occurrence of 

the different commercial timbers in the various districts. 

Before treating with the general characteristics of individual 

tree species, the author furniched a brief discussion of the geography 

of the region, its climate, soil and topography; also a 

treatment of the types of forests of the Malay Peninsula and their 

specific composition. The forests of Malay may be roughly grouped 

into: littoral, lowland, and mountain or hill forests, eac.n of 

which may be separated into a series of subdivisions. 

There is a short list of references, particularly those furnishing 

descriptions of leaves, flowers ani forests. A key is given 

to the principal timber trees of the Malayan Peninsula 'for use in 

the forest, with emphasis on features most apparent in the field. 

Description of individual species follows a definite order of 

arrangement according to families, based on abundance as indicated 

by the enumeration survey. In each instance the common name most 

generally used, and alternate vernacular names, are given;

distribution; description as an aid to identify the tree in the 

field, based on Its habit, and such characters as the bark, leaves* 

flovers and fruit; seedlings, whenever available; products; sylviculture; 

illustrations of trees, and in some inst«aces close-up 

photographs of the bark, leaves, fruit and/or flowers. 

A general index of family, and botanical and vernacular names 

of the trees described completes the manual. 

Forest reconnaissance in Malaya. Emp. For. Joura. 22 pp. 

192k. 

Commercial timber trees of the Malay Peninsula. Mai. For. 

Rec., No. 3- PP. 78-86. 1927. 

., and D. M. Matthews. Mangrove and Nipa Swamps of British 

North Borneo. Govt. of Br. Borneo Dept. For. BuM. 3. 195 PP- 191. 

.Fromaget, J. Etudes ge*ologique de 1'Indochine 16 (2): 368 pp. 192. 

Etudes ge*ologiques svr lo nor-ouest du Tonkin et le nord du 

Haut-Laos. Bull, du Service Ge'ologique de 1'Indochine 23 (l): 

153 PP. 1937. 

Frontou, G. Travaux sur la culture de la canne asucre au Vietnam. 

L'Agron. Trop. 5: 115-137. 1950. 

Furtado, C. X. Palmae Malesicae: VIII. - The Genus Licuala in the 

Malay Peninsula. Gard.. Bull. Straits Settlement 11: 31-73. 9 

figs. 19UO. 

Includes Thailand species with mention of range. 

Gagnepain, F. J. B. Louis Pierre (1833-1905). Notice necrologique. 

Nouv. Arch. Mus. Hist. Nat. (Paris) k (8): 19-21. 1906. 

Includes a bibliography of the writings of this pioneer plant 

explorer who worked in Thailand and Indochina, 

Un genre me connu: classification des Cissus et Cayratia. Not. 

Syst. (Paris) 1: 339-362. 191.1. 

Cites a few Thailand specimens. 

_ . Arace*es nouvelles Iridochinoises. Not. Syst. (Paris) 9: 

116-lUo. 

Describes many new species from Thailand. 

. Introduction. In: H. Lecomte, Flore gene'rale de I'Indochine. 

__ 

Tome pre*l.J.minaire. pp. 13-19. 

Contains a discussion of vegetation and forests of .Indochina. 

Gaide, L. Les Stations climatiques en Indochine. Impr. d'Extrerae- 

Orient. h$ pp. 1930. 

209

Gairdner, K. G. Notes on the fauna and flora of Ratburi and Petchaburi 

districts. Journ. Nat. His. Soc. Thailand 1 (l): 27-40. 191'+; 

1 (2): 131.156. 1915. 

A floristic description of peninsulatThailand, southwest of 

Bangkok. 

Garabedian, S. A revision of Fmilia. Kew Bull. Misc. Inf. 192U: 

137-lÛ. 192U. 

Includes Thai species. 

Garrett, H.B.G. On hills northeast of Chiengrtai. Journ. Thailand Res. 

Soc. 32 (1): 37-^0. 2 pi. 19^0. 

Geographical notes and comment on an illustration of Rhododendron 

microphyton. 

Garry, R. J. The changing fortunes and future of pepper growing in 

Cambodia. 17: 133-1^2 pp. 7 tables, k figs. May 1963. 

The author traces the history of the growing of pepper (Piper 

nigrum) in Cambodia. A brief review is given of the efforts made 

to grow this crop in new areas of Cambodia, especially in the 

western section. 

Gauchou, M. Le machinisme agricole in Indochine. Machinisme Agric. 

(May) 6-10 pp. Abstr. L'Agron. Trop. k: 33U. 19

The author, Economic Adviser to the government of Thailand and 

the National Economic Council, discusses the genereJ. background 

of Thai economy; agriculture, fisheries and forectry; industry; 

.and the financial structure of the '/hai government. 

Gourgand, E. La situation forestie're du Cambodge en 1918. Governemerit 

Ge'ne'ral de 1'Indochine. SeYie Saigon Bulletin No. 10. 3*+ pp. 

Saigon. 1918. 

A descriptive summary of the forests and forest products of 

Cambodia. 

Gourou, P. Les paysans du delta tonkinois; e*tude de geographic humaine, 

Publications de 1'Ecole francaise d'Extreme-Orient. Vol. 27. 

666 pp. 1936. 

. L'utilization du sol en Indochine francaise. 466 pp. illustr. 

Contains a discussion of the vegete.tion of Indochina. English 

translation issued as land utilization in French Indochina (Inst. 

of Pacific Relations. New York.) 19^5. 3 volumes. 

Gouvernement Ge'ne'ral de 1'Indochine. Congres d'Agriculture Color.iale. 

Se*rie, Saigon. 

Bulletins issued by this organization in l/pl8 contain a series 

of articles, by French specialists, on agricultural and forest products 

of the colony. 

Bulletin No. 1, by M. P. Quesnel, treats with native agriculture 

in Cochinchina (South Vietnam), with reference to the question of 

labor and possibilities of introducing new crops. Bulletin No. 2 

is devoted to the problems of colonizing unused lands. Bulletin 

No. 5, by M. de Flacourt, treats with the possibility of growing 

cotton in Cambodia. Bulletin No. 6 discusses the . c-iltiva-uion of 

tobacco in Indochina. Bulletin No. 7> prepared by Aug. Chevalier 

and others, deals with the cultivation of Para 1 rubber ( Hevea 

brasiliensis) in Indochina. In Bulletin No. 8, Couffinhal discusses 

the forests and natural forest formations of Cochinchina 

(now part of South Vietnam) 50 years ago; exploitable products; 

exportation; forest rewfiueraltb.i; and organization of the Forest 

Service in Cochinchina. Incluaed, as an appendix, is a list of 

the principal tree species in the forests of Cochinchina, with their 

Annamitic names, dimensions and other features, arid their uses. 

Graham, W. A. Siam. A Handbook of Practical, Commercial, and Political 

Information. 591 pp. 1 map. . 99 illustrations. Alexander Moring, 

Ltd. London. 1912. 

This comprehensive publication is divide 1 into 7 parts. Part I 

treats with geography and natural resources - flora, fauna, geology 

and minerals; Part II, races of Siar, Part III, history, 

social organization, education and government; Part IV, industries, 

commerce, trade and treaties, communications ,md transport; Part V, 

211

arts, archaelogy and architecture; part VI, religion; Part VII, 

language and literature. 

The appendices contain a list of animals, plants, minerals, 

trade statistics, tables of currency, weights and measures. A 

bibliography and a genera.! index are ali;o included. 

,,Groff/;;,0. W. Culture and varieties of Siamese pummelos as related to 

introductions in other countries. Lingnan Science Journal 5 (3): 

, l88-2l»7 pp. 10 pi. k tables. Dec. 192. 

The special aims carried out in these investigations were to 

study types and varieties of Siamese pummelos; to obtain data regarding 

their comparative vigor and resistance to citrus canker, 

and other diseases or Insect pests; to determine local cultural 

methods, and possible influences which might account for the 

seedless character of some varieties, including the effect of 

saline or tidal waters,- and finally to secure plants or authentic 

bud wood of the best varieties. 

Ouhler, U. Studies of precious stones in Siam. Siam Science Bulletin 

4(1); 1-39. Bangkok. 19)47. 

A short description is given of the crystal forms, the physical, 

end optical and chemical properties of the various gems occurring 

in Thailand. The second part contains relevant historical and 

modern references to the occurrence of gems In Thailand. The third 

part deals with the special conditions under which gems are treated, 

cut and traded in Thailand. A special chapter deals with synthetic 

corundum. 

A. 

Guibier, J.F.H. Situation des Forets de 1'Annam. Gouvernement Ge'ne'ral 

de 1'Indochine. Se"rie Saigon Bulletin No. 9« U' 4 PP- Saigon. . 

1918 

Ȧ discussion of the forests and forest products of Annara, with 

a descriptive list of woods of potential value suitable for export 

to France. 

Guillain E. The Kingdom of Laos. Eastern World 7(o): 28-29. 1953- 

Haas, F. Some '.k;a-raarine Mollusks from Ncrch.. i est arid ooutr.t-ast .'Jiam. 

Nat. Hist. Bull. .-Han '.iociety. l(l): 21-25, :>opt. l')V . 

While mainly devoted to coll.eoting mammals, the Rush Watkins 

Zoological Expedition to Siam in 19^9 also gathered a series of 

mollusks. Although not new to science, these are of considerable 

interest as being either rare or extend our knowledge of their 

geographical distribution. An annotated list of mollusk species 

collected is included. 

Haderi-Guest, S., and J.K. Wright and E.M. Teclaff (Editors). A World 

Geography of Forest Resources. -J'*6 pp. illus^r. 58 f.\os and diagrams. 

American Geographical Society, Specifu publication No.33. 

195b. 

2L2

This deals in large part with the world's forests as yielding 

materials that man cannot do without. It also considers forests 

as part of the land, as features of the landscape, and indicating 

the relationship of forests to rainfall and temperature, relief 

and soils. 

Six chapters, are devoted to forests and wood products in their 

worldwide aspects, and 25 chapters to the forest situation and 

the problems of particular regions. Chapter 23 is devoted to 

Southeast Asia, with sections treating with the forests and forest 

products of Thailand and Indochina. 

A relected bibliography is included, with * limited list of references 

to forestry according to continent and country. This is 

followed by selected subject bibliographies, including dictionaries 

and glossaries pertaining to forestry, and references to atlases 

and maps. There is a botanical index to tree species mentioned in 

the text, and a general index. 

Haig, I.T., M.A. Huberman nd M.Aung Din. Tropical Silvi.co3.ture. FAO 

Forestry and Forest Products Studies. 1(13). 190 pp., illustr. 1958. 

The proper development and use of tropical forests, covering 

an'area slightly less than one half of the world's forest land, have 

concerned the Forestry Division of the Food and Agriculture Organization 

(PAO) since its inception. These forests not only contain 

an enormous quantity of unused or little used rav materials but 

their proper management also poses some of the rr -S. difficult problems 

in silvicultural techniques as well as in t;;e formulation of 

a sound forest policy. 

This study suras up the status of tropical silviculture with particular 

regard to natural regeneration, as a guide to future efforts 

in developing silvicultural practices. 

The first four pages present a general review of tropical, forests, 

their classification, and a table listing investigations undertaken 

during the past 150 years on climatic-vegetation relationships. This 

is accompanied by a fairly extensive bibliography. 

There is a treatment of Silvics and Silviculture of Major Forest 

Communities, with a comprehensive discussion of Wet Evergreen (Rain) 

forest. A bibliography is also included. 

Major forest types discussed are: Moist Deciduous forest, accf/npanied 

by a list of references: Dry Deciduous forest and its 

occurrence, physical factors, silvical factors, silvicultural practices, 

and a bibliography; the occurrence, physical and silvical 

factors of the Mangrove forest; and soae pertinent data on the 

occurrence of Bamboo and Coniferous forests. 

The final chapter is a discussion of proposed program relating 

to the physical and silvical. features of major climatic forest formations, 

indicating the most important fields of definite value and 

promise for consideration in future programs. 

Hammer, E. J. The struggle for Indochina continues: Geneva to Bandung. 

Stanford Univ. Press. kQ pp. 1955. 

£13

Harvard .University Library. Indochina: selected list of references. 

Harvard Univ. 108 pp. 19^0. 

Heinsdijk, D. Forest type mapping with the help of aerial photographs 

in the tropics. Tropical Woods. 102: 2f-k6 pp. 1 figs. 3 tables. 

Oct. 15, 1955. 

Technically, the construction of topographical maps only by 

ground survey in tropics, covered with dense forests, has become 

definitely obsolete. Aerial survey has largely replaced ground 

survey in these regions. Nevertheless the necessity of making 

forest inventories of email area* without the aid of aerial Photographs 

is still common practice in the tropics. The study of the 

possibilities of replacing forest inventories, at least in part, 

by pure photo-interpretation ia still in its infancy. 

The Forest Service of Guiana has adopted the following systems. 

Detailed topographical maps are first prepared from aerial pictures. 

These are used as basis for forest type maps made by photo-interpretation 

and ground reconnaissance sampling. The forest type maps 

are then used to carry out such detailed inventory as may be 

necessary. 

The Supterintendent do Piano ce Valorizacao Economica da Amazonia 

initiated the inventory and forest research work of the Amazonian 

forests. In this work they are assisted by the Food atid Agriculture 

Organization of the United Nations with a teara of technicians. The 

team has at its disposition numerous trimetrogon-aerial-photographs, 

taken by flyers from the United States of A.nerj.ca. By using these 

pictures to advantage, an attempt is being made to locate valuable 

forests, where better (vertical) aerial survey work is rrifcjst needed, 

and what kind of inventories should next be done. Owing to the 

very simple topography and the large areas where forest t^pes are 

more or less constant in composition, the results of this work are 

very promising. 

literature cited contains 6 references. 

Heller, R.C., G.E. Doverspike and R.C. Aldrich. Indentification of 

Tree Gpecies on large-scale -Panchromatic and Color Aerial Photographs. 

Agriculture Handbook No. 26l. 17 pp. illusbr. Forest 

Service, U. S. Department of Agriculture. July 196^. 

This report describes results of research conducted near Ely, 

Minn., in July 19^>0, and indicates the best type of film and scale 

combination to identify tree species. Tnese results should be 

applicable not only to inventories of timber but also to other projects, 

such as to assess damage to forests by destructive enemies, 

to appraise forest wildlife habitat, or to expedite forest management. 

Data are given on study area and species; methods of obtaining 

data, by gathering ground and aerial information; office procedures 

and photo interpretation: and results obtained. A discussion and 

conclusions are included. 

The authors maintain that color film is superior to panchromatic 

21U

film for use in identifying individual tree species. People are 

accustomed to seeing and identifying objects not only by shape and 

form but also by color. A forester trained to recognize trees by 

morphological features also associates a color with that tree. The 

cost of using color film at large scales should be little more than 

that required for panchromatic film. 

w hile color film costs five 

times as much as panchromatic film, the important point is that film 

cost is only a small fraction of the total cost of aerial photography. 

When we consider equal aircraft costs, the same standby 

time for the flight crew, elimination of the need for prints, and 

reduction cf photo handling by interpreting color film in rolls, 

the extra cost of color film is minor. Increased interpretation 

obtained from color film would counterbalance the slight increase 

in cost. 

Tree species were identified accurately enough on color film 

at large scales to suggest the possibility of using it in actual 

inventory problems. Further study, especially to associate crown 

and foliage characteristics of trees with age and physiographic 

features, should be helpful in improving identification of woody 

species. 

Literature cited contains 9 references. A list of species, 

arranged according to the most frequently identified features on 

color photographs (l:158U scale), is also included. 

• Hertsley, W. B. a. Achilus siamensis Hemsl. Hook. Icon. P1.-2U: pi. 

2370. 1895. 

A new species from Thailand. 

Thail£ind Plants. Kew Bull. Misc. Inf. 1695 (98): 38-39. 

1895 

Ṅotes or collection by F.H. Smiles and description of Achilus 

n. gen. (Zingiberaceae), with A. siamensis n. sp. 

. Phyllanthodendrpn mirabilis Hemsl. Hook. Icon. PI. 26: 

pi. 2563 and 2564. 1899~ 

New genus and species from Thailand, 

Henderson, M.R. The genus Eugenia (Myrtaceae) in Malaya. Card. Bull. 

Singapore 12; (l) : . 292. figs. April 1U9. 

A systematic treatment, including the Thai species. 

Henry, T. A. The treatment of leprosy by vegetable oils. Kew Bull. 

Misc. Inf. 1926: 17-23. pi. 3,^. 1926. 

Includes references to the botanical origin of xhe oils used, 

mostly from Hydnocarpus from Thailand. 

Hesse-Karcegg, E. yon. Urwulder und Nutzbaume der hinterindischen, 

Tropen. Oesterr. Forst.- & Jagdz. 16: 193-195. 1938. 

Hill, A.W. The ênua Strychnos in India and the East, Kew Bull. Misc. 

Inf. 1917: 121-210,pp. 20 figs. 1917. 

215

A revision, including Thai species. 

. New species of Strychnos from Thailand. Kew. Bull. Misc. Inf. 

1925 (10) -.423-^26. * 1925- 

Four new species from Kerr's collections. 

Hillis, W. E. Production of mangrove extract in delta region of Papua. 

Emp. For. Rev, 35 (k)', 420-^36. 1956. 

Hoffet, J. H. Etude ge*ologique sur le centre de 1'Indochine entre 

Tourane et le Mekong (Annam central et Bas-Laos). Bull, du Service 

Ge'ologique de 1'Indochine 20 (2): 15k pp. 1933. 

Hoffet, J.J. Note sur la ge*olcgie du Bas-Laos. Bull, du Service 

Ge*ologique de 1'Indochine 24(2): 22 pp. 1937. 

Hofman, W. Thailand-benzoe. Neue Untersuchungen and Versuch einer 

pharraakognostischen Monographic. 121 pp. 1 text nap. Zurich. 1920. 

Contains historical and botanical data on gum benzoin from a 

species of Styrax. 

Holmes, E.M. The trees yielding benzoin. Pharm. Journ. (London) 

3er. Ill, Ik: 35^-355. 1883. 

Concerns identity of the trees; Thai benzoin is Styrax benzoin„ 

Holland, J.H. Overseas plant products. 279 PP. London. 1937. 

An annotated alphabetical list of products imported into England^ 

with notes on their botanical origin, uses, and place of origin, 

including maoy from Thailand. 

Holttum, R.E. The fern genus Diplazium in the Malay Peninsula. Card. 

Bull. Straits Settlement. 11: 7^-103. figs 6. 19^0. 

Cites specimens from Thailand. 

The Zingiberaceae of the Malay Peninsula. Card. Bull. Singapore. 

13: l-2'»9. figs. 33- 1950. 

A systematic treatment, including Thai species. Figures are on 

unnumbered pai»es. 

Hooker, J.D. On some species of Itnpatiens from Indo-China and the 

Malayan Peninsula. Kew Bull. Misc. Inf.' 1909: 1-12, 1909- 

Includes I. macrosepala from southern Thailand. 

, The flora of British India. 7 volumes. London. 1, i-xi, 1-7^*0. 

1872-75; 2, 1-792- 1876-79; 3, 1-712. 1880-82; k, 1-780. 

1883-85; 5, 1-910. 1886-90; 6, 1-792. 1890-9^; 7, 1-842. 1897. 

A general descriptive flora, including a few species based on 

Thailand records. This is the most comprehensive flora on the area 

west of Thailand.

Hosseus, c.C. Kurzer Bericht von Dr. K. Hosseus Uber den Verlauf 

zweier in das Innere von Thailand ausgefuhrten Studienreise. 

Zeitschr. Ges. Erdkunde Berlin 1906 (3): 190-196. 1906. 

A general account, with botanical observations. 

. Das Teakholz in Thailand. Beih. Tropenpflanz. 8: 378-391. 

3 figs. 1907. 

Notes largely of economic nature. 

. Die aus Thailand bekannten Acanthaceen, Bot, Jahrb. Engler 

Tl (1): 62-73. 1907. 

A systematic enumeration of Aoanthaceae, including many new 

species from Thailand. 

. Eine neue Rafflesiaceen Gattung aus Thailand. Bot. Jahrb. 

Erigler 41 (2): 55-61. 2 plates. 1907- 

Richt'nofenia n. gen., with R. siamensis n. sp. 

. Die Gewinnung des Teakholzes in Thailand und seine Bedeutung 

auf dera Weltmarkte. Jahresb. Verein. Angew. Bot. 4: 1*0-50. 

1907 

Ȯbservations mainly of economic value. . 

__ . Von Bankok nach der Nordgrenze Thailand. Mitt. Geogr. Ges. 

Hamburg 22: 222-224. 1907. 

A summary of a travel lecture with general botanical observations 

. 

. Zwei irrberessante Neuheiten au3 Thailand in Kgl. Bot. Garten 

zu Dahlem. Notizbl. Bot. Gart. Berlin k: 314-318. Oct. 10, 1907. 

Cites new species from Thailand - Aeschynanthus macrocalyx 

Hoya engleriana. 

Leguminosae novae Thailand. Repert. Sp. Nov. Fedde 4: 

""290-291. 1907. 

Bauhinia harmsiana, Indigofera sianensis and Rhynchosia longipetiolata, 

end new species from the author's collections. 

. Eine neue Gesnera;:ee (Didymocarpus aureoglandulosa C.B. Clarke), 

aus Thailand. Repert. Sp. Nov."Fedde 4 ; 291-292. 1907. 

Based on Hosceus 220. 

. Beitrage zur Flora des Doi-Sutap unter vergleichen. Beruchsichtigung 

einiger anderer Hohenzuge Nord-Gaims. Bot. Jahrb. Engler 40: 

Eeibl. 93: 92-99. 1908. 

A general floristio description. 

. Vegetationsbilder auf Thailand. Aus sinem Vortrag im Verein fur 

Naturkunde in Munchen. Globus 96 (10): l4o^L52. figs. 4. 167-170. 

-figs. 7. 1909. 

A general description of the vegetation. 

217

Beitrage zur Flora Thailand. Beih, Bot. Centralbl. II. Abt. 

27 (3): ^55-507. 1910. 

A systematic .enumeration, based on the author's and Lindhardt's 

collections; and includes species listed in Williams, F.N. 1904-05. 

__. D.'.e Vegetation und die Nutaholzer Thailand. Oestrrr. Forst.- 

& Jagdz. 30 & 36. 1910. 

_ . !Jie Bedeutung der Biunbusstande auf Grunr. eigener Studien in 

Thailand. Arch. Anthropol. 3^ (n. ser. 10): 55-73. 1910. 

Die botanischen Ergebnisse meiner Expedition nach Thailand. 

"Beih. Bot. Centralbl. II Abt. 28 (3): 357-^57. 1911- 

A systematic enumeration of 1904-05 collections including 

bryophytes, ferns, and seed plants; several described as new. 

_ . Eeitfage zur Flora von Weuig Djao am Ma Ping in Mittle -Thailand. 

Bot. Jahrb. Kapler 45 (3): 360-374. 1911. 

A floristic description with list of -species of various habitats. 

Eine neue Gen ti ana (G. he sse liana Hoss.) vom Pahombukpebirê 

"72300 m. u d. m. ) auf der siaraenisch-biriiianischc-n Grenze, Report. 

Sp. Nov. Fedde 9: ^65-^66. 19U. 


_ . Finite neue Arten meiner Thailand -Expedition. Repert. Sp. 

Nov. Fedde 10: 61-64. 1911. 

New species: Polyffonum damron»Tiana, Mussaenda ffutepensis, Swertia 

diels;.an".. and Croton hutchinsonianus . 

I>urch konig Tachulalon.^kornn Reich. F)ine deutsche Thailand- 

Expedition. i-xii, 1-219 pp. 125 figs. 1 map. 1912. 

Includes data on the vegetation and agriculture of Thailand. 

_ . Botanische and kolonial wirtschaftliche Studien ubcr die 

Sa-nbuostanie. Beih. Bot. Centralbl. II. Abt. 31 (l): 1-69. illustr. 

1913- 

Contains references to the uses of bamboo in Thailand. 

Howes, F. N. The banana in some tropical eastern countries -- its forms 

and variations. Kew bull. Misc. Inf. 1920: 305-332. pi. 3-9. 1Q28. 

Includes Thai varieties; an index, of varietal names; and an extensjve 

bibliography. 

. Observations on banana.--, in Thailand. Journ. Thailand Soc. Nat. 

Hist. Suppl. 9 (I): 'il- J »8. lo:09. 

A nener'il discussion of varieties used. 

Hubbard, C.3. Ereinocnloa eriopoda E. C. Hubbard, Hook. Isriri. PI. 3U 

(4): pi. 337oTT939. 

A new species from Thailand and Indochina. 

216

Huber:nan, M.A. Bamboo Silvicxilture. Ur.asylva 13 (l): 36.1*3. 3 Tigs. 

1959. 

Throughou; wide areas of the world, bamboos serve a multitude 

of purposes. Rural housing largely depends on them. Palp and 

paper manufacture from bamboos is expanding. This article deals 

with the occurrence of bamboos; physical factors of climate and 

soil; silvical factors, growth habits, and silviculture! practices, 

as developed largely in Asia and tc a lesser extent in Latin America 

and Africa. The author also reviews the research requirements for 

consideration in future programs. 

Selected references on the suoject contain 36 titles. 

Mangrove Silviculture. Unasylva 13 ( ; i): 188-195. 1959. 

The mangrove forest is a community controlled primarily by 

edaphic factors. Such edaphic communities are of varying importance 

throughout the tropics as successions! stages in the development 

of, or in retrogression frorr., the major climax formation communities. 

Although the development of these communities involves such factors 

ad soil, structure, composition, aeration, mineral contents of surface 

and soil water and water movement, including changes in water 

levels, probably the most important is the extreme water regime. 

As a consequence, a number of forest communities have been recognized 

as riparian, gallery, varzea, riverain, periodic or seasonal 

swamp, freshwater swamp, pâty swamp, beach, tidal, and mangrove 

forests. 

In many areas, mangrove forests have greater importance economically 

thp.n other edaphic communities, forming in wide areas an 

important source of timber, fuel, charcoal, posts,, poies, v x tannin 

and other minor forest products. The effects of commercial exploitation 

of mangrove woodland are so marked that, as a result, 

these coastal forests are often better known than other forest types. 

The composition of mangrove forest in both Southeast Asia and 

Puerto Rico, as well as in other regions of the eastern and western 

hemispheres, is essentially similar. All the genera of the western 

mangrove are found in the eastern area, although the species are 

diiferent. In southeastern and southern Thailand, for example, the 

following species have been reported: Rhiz jphora mucronata, R. 

apieulata, Bruguiera conjugata, B. pArvlflora, B. S'axangula, Avicennia 

of f icTnaTi~s7~A~marinaj Cerioos tagal, and others. In Puerto 

Rico, the four principal species are: Rhizophora mangle, Laguncularia 

racemosa, Conocarpus ereeta and Avicennia nitida. 

Kuet, J. Tarif de cubage approximatif des pins sur pied pour les bois 

d'Industrie settlement. Rdserv^ de Kirirom, Cambodge. Non public". 

9 pages. Service des Eaux et Forets du Cambodge. 1950- 

Humbert, H., and F. Gagnepain. Supplement a la Flore Ge'ne'rale de 

1'Indochine. 1:700 pp. illustr. 1938-^6. 

Consists of additions and corrections to, and replacement of, 

parts of contributions by Lecomte and others. 

P1Q

Hutchinson, J. Revision of Aspidopterys. Kew Bull. Misc. Inf. 91-103. 

1 fig. 1917. 

A systematic treatment, including species from Thailand. 

Implay, J. B. New and re-named Siamese Acanthaceae. In W.3. Craib's 

and other - Contributions to the Mora of Thailand. Additamentum 

LI. Kew Bull. Misc. Inf. 1939 (3): 109-150. 1939. 

Indonesian Forest Service. Problems of silviculture and management 

of mangrove forests in Indonesia. Paper presented to the Second 

•' Session Asia- Pacific Forestry Commission, Singapore. 1952. 

Ingram, J. C. Economic change in Thailand since 1850. 251 pp. i map. 

Stanford Univ. Press. 1955. 

This publication contains chapters on: the economy of Sia-n in 

l850j the growth of rice exports; the ro.le of government in the 

rice industry; the growth of other exports; imports and home-market 

industries; currency and exchange; sources of government revenue; 

government expenditures; the development of an exchange economy; 

and recent developments up to 195'*' 

A large selected bibliography, and a general index are included. 

International Bank for Reconstruction and Development. Thailand. Press 

Release No. 22^. Washington, D. C. 1950. 

International Rice Yearbook. World rice production less in 195 1 *-55' 

In Foreign Crops & Markets. Nov. 

Isarasena, M.L.Y. Mechanical rice cultivation. Kasikorn 25 (1): 

Jalavicharana, K. The phosphate insecticides. Kasikorn 25 (-*): 

295-300. 1952. 

Jewesson, R. Some applications of aerial photographs. Technical 

Notes, i'orescry Chronicle $5 (l): 67-71. [ferial No. 1U2. 1959. 

The uae of aerial photography for photograunotric purposes has 

become a standard technique in many phases of forestry. In the 

search Tor more elaborate uses, however, some of the simpler, yet 

equally useful,, purposes have been overlooked or by-passed. Up-todate, 

low elevation photography taken from light aircraft with relatively 

inexpensive aerial camera equipment can be invaluable in 

providing nans..;tvn-Dnt with current information on many phases of 

their operations. 

Johnson, E. W. Aerial photographic site cv:U.aation for long-leaf pine. 

Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin No. 339: PP' 2^-26. April 

1962. 

220

Kaempfer, E. Amoenitatun exotiearum politico-physico-medicarum fascicli 

V, quibus continentur variae relationes, observationes et 

descriptiones rar plates. 75 figs. 1712. 

Contains observations(in Latin) on Thailand with a few references 

to plants. 

The History of Japan; giving an account of the ancient and 

present state of government of that empire—of its tr.etals, 

minerals, trees, plants, animals, birds, and fishes. 2 volumes. I; 

39 pp. 20 plates; 2: 383-612; appendix 75 pp. pi. 21-^5. .1728. 

Contains a few notes on thfc vegetation of Thailand. 

Kanchananaga, T. (Ed.). The commercial and econo.nio progress of 

Thailand, 19'*9« Thai Commercial DeveLopnervfc Bureau. 191 pp. 

Bangkok. 19^9. 

This publication contains a section on forests and forest products 

of Thailand. Additional data covor "eocrraphy, climate, communications 

and transport, and the cooperative movement in Thailand. 

Karam'yshev, V.P. Agriculture in the Democratic Republic of Vietnam. 

106 pp. U.S. Joint Publications Research Service, Washington, D.C. 

Jan, 1961. (Mimeographed.) 

This is a translation of a Russian publication entitled 

T>e.'skve Khoxyastvo Demokraticheskov Respubliki V'etnam' published 

by State Puolishin^ House of Agricultural Literature, Moscow, 

1959• The author visited North Vietnam as a nember of a f,roup of 

Soviet specialists, and bases his report on personal observations. 

There is a discussion of the ar/ricoltural economy of the country, 

its structure and divisions of specialization during the years 

following the dissolution of Indochina as a colony. The author decribes 

in detail the reorganization that has taken place in village 

life; the orsanization and development of labor bripid.es; cooperative 

and state farms; and the Three Year Plan fcr the development and reconstruction 

of the economy during 1956-rO. \ description is given 

of the methods used in cultivating basic agricultural crops, with 

particular emphasis on rice and cotton, in North Vietnam. 

Corunents re,'*ardinf this publication should be directed to:N5oskva, 

B-66, Passmannyv per. d-3, Sel'khozgix. Photocopies cf the translation 

may be purchased from: Photoduplication Service, Library of 

Congress, Washington 25, D. D. 

Katikarn, B. Onion growing. Kasikorn 25 (5): 396-U02. 1952. 

Keith, A. Notes on the Thailand provinces of Koowi, Banrtopan, Fateeo 

ani Charrooon. Journ. Str. Br. Roy. Asiat. 3oc. 2 1 *: 63-73. 1 folded 

map, 1891. 

Deals with peninsular Thailand north of the isthmus of Kra, with

observations on 'The jungle covering 1 

Pateeo'. 

and 'The grass country of 

Kemavanit, C., and P. Sasisonti. Bat guano from Patalung. Kasikorn 

25(3): 267-272. 1953. 

Kendall, R.H., and L. Sayn-Wittgenstein. A test of the effectiveness 

of air-photo stratification. The Forestry Chronicle 37 (3): 338, 

350-355. Dec. 1961. 

A test of the efficiency of different systems of air photo 

stratification was conducted in an area near the Petawawa Forest 

Experiment Station. While stratification, particularly according 

to cover type, height and canopy density, increased the precision 

of the estimated total volume and mean annual increment, this increase 

was not as large as had been expected. The main value of 

air photo stratification may be in furnishing a forest type map 

for management purposes. 

No attempt was made to generalize from the results obtained. 

They are applicable only to the particular forest where the test 

was carried out, 

Kending, H. and B. Sa-ard. Vegetative Propagation of Teak. Unasylva 

1 J * 00 193-19^. 3 figs. I960. 

The authors describe the so-called 'forkert budding' method, 

used extensively for budding rubber (ifevea brasiliensîs). The 

budding test on rubber was conducted at the Huey Tak. teak plantation 

in northern Thailand. It was assumed that this method might also 

be suitable for teak. Approximately 200 successful budygrafts were 

made during the initial investigation. They were watched closely 

during the first growth season and measured each month, and the 

last record was made in December at the end of the rainy season. 

Three buddings died owing to termites, but the rest had reached 

an average height of 1.78. m. Some clones measured 2.68 m., and 

were almost as high as the seedlings growing spontaneously in the 

area surrounding the experimental plots. 

Kernan, H.S. The forests of Vietnam. American Forests 70 (6): 31, 

53-57. June 196U. 

The, Vietnamese are primarily a coastal an,", delta people, catchers 

of fish and growers of rice. Their homes are among endless lagoons 

and tidewater flats and dark, sluggish rivers, between whose 

meaderings they lay out and till their paddies of rice with the intensity 

and precision which that pampered crop demands. In historical 

times, as their driftings can be traced along the western 

rim of the South China Sea, they preferred to settle near the coast 

and avoided the forbidding highland juiv.U es of the interior. While 

rice paddies are troublesome to construct, they respond to attention 

by producing some of the heaviest crops known to man. They demand 

hard, monotonous physical labor. The lowland rice-growers have no 

acquaintance with forests. Bamboo, earth and straw meet their needs 

222

for housing, and village and roadside trees provide fuel. There 

are mangrove stands, but these scarcely give an idea of the uses 

avd appearance of a forest. At high tide they resemble floating 

fvrdens; and at low tide they look like a convention of spiders 

perched on stilt-like legs. 

In the highlands of the interior live tribes of Malayan origin, 

quite distinct from their fellow citizens, the Vietnamese, in language, 

appearance and culture. Their habitual surroundings are 

mountains and, torrents; wildlife and roadless forests. The highlander's 

life requires neither permanent field nor persevering 

labor. He catches fish and game, and roves about looking for 

ground to clear and burn. In the rainy season, he plants his 

fields to upland rice and corn. These crops use up the richness 

deposited by a generation of forest- growth. When they are harveutcd 

the forest again begins the slow, patient task of building 

up the coil. Lowland rice-growers have other ways of keeping their 

fields green and they often condemn this cycle as wasteful and 

destructive. But the mountain people know the restorative power 

of the forest and make use of this power to the fullest extent. 

About the turn of this century Europeans began to arrive in 

these remote highlands with demands for food and industrial products, 

demands which the traditional cycle of field and forest 

proved utterly incapable of meeting. . Thereupon began a series of 

changes that are still in the process of working themselves out to 

some stable and happy conclusion. 

The French colonial administrators recognized no private ownership 

of forest land. To them all land was public domain. They 

did, however, reserve some areas for permanent management, while 

leaving others open for cutting and settlement as need of the developing 

community dictated. Their principal concern was to make 

the forest a source of revenue for the colonial administration. 

In this policy they were successful," and forests of Vietnam helped 

to pay for many of the roads, harbors and municipal works which 

are yet valuable assets to the country. Such financing is certainly 

a legitimate function of the forest in a developing economy. 

However, the temptation to exploit the forest and to neglect research, 

training and forest management was almost overwhelming. 

The colonial, administration made some tnodest bows toward forestry, 

but not enough to compensate for the removal of highgrade timber 

by a concurrent prftgpam of replacement. 

The present (I960) Directorate of Forestry operates very largely 

in the same capacity as did that of the colonial administration. 

First of all, this agency functions to supervise the sale of timber 

from public domain and to collect the revenue from such sales. 

Each year the Directorate auctions off about 70 million board feet 

of timber for about $1,800,000. One-half of this money finances 

the forest administration, and the other half becomes available 

to the national treasury for counter-insurgency effort. In 1962 

the government took a very significant step to aid forestry by 

223

adding a 25 percent severance tax to the sturapage price. These 

extra revenues are reserved entirely for protection and reforastation. 

With them the Directorate began to grow seedlings at/a 

rate that was expected to reach sixty million a year. In carrying 

out this program, the government grants land to those who successfully 

plant trees thereon. This policy is creating private forest 

ownership. 

Kerr, A.F.G. Notes on the pollination of certain species of Dendrob>um. 

Sci. Proc. Roy. Dublin Soc. n. ser. 12 (5): ^7-53. pi. 5,6,' Apr. 

1909. 

Based on native orchids of northern Thailand. 

Contributions to the flora of Thailand.II. Sketch of the 

vegetation of Chiengmai. Kiew Bull. 1911 (l): 1-6. 2 plates 1911. 

_ . Contributions to the flora of Thailand. Notes on Discbldia 

raffle si ana Wall., and Dischidia nucmularia Br. Sci. Proc. Roy. 

Dublin Soc. n. ser. 13 (24): 293-309. pi. 26-31. 1912. 

Morphological and physiological data on Asclepiadaceae of 

Thailand. 

_ . Recent advances in our knowledge of the flora of Thailand. 

Journ. Siain Soc. 10 (1): 13-15. 1913. 

Historical; concerning collectors and publications. 

_. A hybrid Diptero carpus. Journ. Slam Soc. .11 (l): 9-12. 1 

plate. 19iU. 

D. costatus on Doi Sutep. 

__ 

Local plant names. In W.G. Craib, Florae Siamensis enumeratio. 

Part I: -9-14. 1925. 

A discussion of the selection and transliteration of the names 

contributed by Kerr. 

_ . A little known orchid (Pendrobium friedricksianum) . Journ. 

Siara. Soc. Nat. Hist. Suppl. 7 (1): 65-"55T 

A general note. 

_ . Carl Roebelen. Journ. Siam. Soc. Nat. Hist. Suppl. 7 (2): 

132-131*. 1927. 

An obituary of this orchid hunter of Thailand. 

_ . Kaw Tao, its physical features and vegetation. Journ. Siam 

ooc. Nat. Hist. Suppl. 7:137-149. pi. 8-12. l.map, plus 1 folded 

map. 1928. 

A floristic account. 

_ . Fruit and seeds in the drift of Kaw Tao. Journ. Siam Soc. 

Wat. Hist. Suppl. 8 (2): 103-117. 1930. 

22k

A study in plant dispersal with a list of 50 species found and 

a bibliography. 

. Dispersal of fruit by wind. Journ. Siam Soc. Nat. Hist. Suppl. 

~B (3): 216. 1931. 

Notes on Hopea odorata and Pterocarpus sp. 

Notes on introduced plants in Thailand. Journ. Siam Soc. 

Nat. Hist. Suppl. 8 (3): 197. 212. 1931. 3 (U): 33^-335. 1932. 

Notes on various species, 

. A reputed rejuvenator. Journ. Siam Soc. Nat. Hist. Suppl. 

CO: 336-338. 1932. 

A drug from Butea superba. 

. The genus Pamassia in Thf-iland. Journ. Siam Soc. Nat. Hist. 

"Suppl. 9 (3): 327-328. 1 fig. 1931*. 

A note on the occurrence of P. mysprensis in northern Thailand} 

new to the country. 

. An interesting aromatic herb (Arternesia pollens). Journ. 

Siam Soc. Nab. Hist. Suppl. 10 (l):~"ol^>2. 1935. 

A rarely cultivated plant in Thailand. 

. Cleistogamous flower in RueIlia tubercsa. Journ. Siam 

Soc. Nat. Hist. Suppl. 10 (l): 66-67. 1935. 

Observations on the occurrence of this common wayside plant in 

Thailand. 

__• Psilobium siamense, Kerr. Hook Icon. Fl. 3^ (2):pi. 3332. 


. Composition of the dry evergreen forest on O.v Too, Journ. 

Siara. Soc. Nat. Hist. Guppl. 10 (3): 35-38. 1937. 

Quantitative studies with a tabular count of a sample plot. 

This issue was erroneously distributed as Vol. 11, No. 1, but 

corrected later. 

Early botanists in Thailand. Journ. Thailand Res. Soc. Nat. 

Hist. Suppl. 12: 1-27. 1 pi. 1939. 

Historical data. The plate is a portrait of the author. 

• 'toy 9 - mitrata Kerr. Hook. Icon. PI. 35 (1): pi. 3^06. 19^0. 

A aew species from Thailand. 

__. Hoya flagellata Kerr..Hook. Icon. PI. 35: pi. 3^07- 19^0. 


. Motes on the scented woods of Thailand. Nat. Hist. Bull. 

Thailand Res. Soc. 13: 35-Ul. 19^2. 

Botanical, economic and historical data on 11 species.

Itetnircma brae teat a A.F.G. Kerr. Hook. Icon. PI. 35: pi. 

. 

Occurs in Thailand. ' ( 

The genera Hydnocarpus and Tarctktogenos in 3iam. The Record 

(Thailand) Techn. & Sci. Suppl 7: 1-16 1 5 pi. 

Contains an introduction and a review of species, including 

Z* pla- v ipe"tala and T. ilicifolia transferred from Hydnocarpus, with 

keys. Also includes notes on the chemistry of Hydnocarpus and 

Taraktogorios oils by A, Marcan; and notes on clinical benefits 

from the use of oil of Hydnocarpus anthelminthica by J.W. McKean. 

_ ;. Between 1923 and 1933 A.F.G. Kerr, the well-known investigator 

of Thai botany, published anonymously reports of field trips undertaken 

by himself and his party thro\jgh many important regions of 

Thailand. About 18 such reports appeared in rhe Record, published 

by the Ministry of Commerce, Bangkok. Notes on the flora and on 

. landuse of the regions investigated are of much interest, but there 

is seldom any mention of the nature of the soil. 

Kew, Royal Botanic Garden.. Decades Kev^nses Plantai-ura novarum in 

Herbario Horti Regii conservatorura r*ecades XV - XIX. Kew Bull. Misc, 

Inf, 102-120. 3.895. 357-362. 1909. 19-22;; LVIII 275-280; 38l-38b. 

1910. 188-193; 311.3-3^8. 1911; 113-118, 1913. 216-221. 1921; 

75-81. 19£ ; 153-161. 6 plates. 2 figs. 1930; 99-107. 193'* r %0- 

496. 1936. 

Parts listed contain descriptions of new species from Thailand. 

Kharcbanonda, I. Bangkhen pop-corn. Kasikom 23 (3): 205-208. 1950. 

_ . Fertilizer experiments on rice. Kasikorn 23 (3): 157- 159 • 

1950. 

Tomato production in the dry season. Kasikorn 23 (2): 

,113-117. 1950. 

Kiet, Li-Cong. La. vegetation psoriophilc de la presqu'ile de Cam-Rauh. 

Ann. Fac. Sci. Saigon. 367~'i3 i *. 3 maps, diagrams. 16 illuatr. 1962. 

This is a dissertation submitted to tlie Faculty of Sciences of 

Saigon a.n Ccindidature for the Diploma of Higher Studies in Natural 

Sciences. The field study, nade during June 1960 to September 1961, 

involved: (a) the topography and flora of the peninsula cf Cam-Ranli; 

(b) investigation of each plant formation; and (c) the preparation 

of a nap of tho vegetation on a scale of 1:50,000 (Ann. Fac. Sci. 

Saigon 19cl). Transects were made along the length of the Peninsula. 

The thesis is divided into 3 parts. Part one treats! with the 

geography, geology, climate and prevailing winds in the area. The 

second part deals with the vegetation. A. Vegetative formations 

of changing sand 3upes: (a) dunes with Spinifex littoreus Merr. and 

Vitex trifolia var. siroplicifolia Chem.; (b) carpet of Fimbristylis 

sericea 11, Br., Chrysopogori orientale A. Camus, and Sideroxylon mari- 

Pierre; (c) littoral thicket at Longanier; anT (d} transition 

226

formation between littoral -thicket at Lagonier and Vatica forest. 

B. Vegetative formations of fixed dunes: (a) Vatica forest; 

(b) Secondary forest of Vatica tonkinensis Aug. Chev. and Eugenia 

rubicunda Gagn.; (c) dense and open scrub of Sindora coch inchinensis 

II. Ball, and Pcolgpia buxifolia Cagne.; (d) dense and open thicket 

of Rhodamnin, trinervia fll. and Eu£jâ turfosa_Gagn.; and (e) Steppe 

(grass) of Chrysopogou orientale A. Camus and Eremochloa ciliaris 

Merr.j the distribution of Uldenlandia pinifolia 0. Ktze., Polycarpa 

arenaria .Gegn. and Finjbristylis sericea R. Br. C. Vegetation formations 

of moist dunes: (a) Dune formations subject to constant inundation; 

(b) formations subject to daily inundations, such aa mangrove, 

'sandy beaches with Zoysia pungens Willd., Sesuvium portulacastrum 

L. and Guseda australis Miq.; (c) svanp meadows of Nepenthes 

mirabilis (Lour.) Druce and Nepenthes annamensis Macf.; (d) vegetative 

formations on sand exposed to seasonal inundations, such as stands 

°^ Melaleuca leucadendron L., and periodically inundated carpet of 

Leptocarpus disJuactUG Mast. 

The third part is devoted to general conclusions and a summary 

of the studies. This is followed by an alphabetically arranged list 

of most of the spontaneous plants found on the peninsula of Carc-ranh. 

About kQ species remained to be identified at the National Museum of 

Natural History. A list of 26 references, mostly French, is included. 

This is followed by a series of 18 tables, showing the chemical 

analysis of sand specimens; ratio of association of Spinifex littoreus 

and Vitex trifolia var. simplicifolia with local dominance of Pandanua 

reversispiralis at the northern end of the peninsula; and other associations 

in the area under study, including a conrparison between the 

floristic composition of the mangrove forest of Caro-ranh with that of 

Ca-Mau and Cap St. Jacques. 

Killj.p, E. P. list of sedges (Cyperaceae) collected in Thailand by Dr. 

Hugh M. Smit,h. Joura. Siam Soc. 'Nat. .Hist. Suppl. 7 (l): 55-57. 

A systematic enumeration, but none described as new. 

King, G. The species of Ficus of the Indo-Malayan and Chinese covintries. 

Ann. Bot. Card. Calcucta 1: 1-185. 6 plates. 1887-88. 

Kira, T,, and T. Umesas (Ed), Nature and life in Southeast Asia: A preliminary 

survey on the vegetation of Thailand. Vol. 1: 21-157. 

26 tables. 5^ illuatr. Biological Department, Osaka City University, 

Osaka, Japan. 1961. 

This paper presents the results of the preliminary ecological 

study on the vegetation of Thailand, especially of the northwestern 

regions, carried out by the Osaka City University, Bioological Expedition 

to Southeast Asia. 

The field study was made during the four months of travel through 

Thailand during the dry season of 1957-58. Obser/ations were made 

while traveling, chiefly by automobile, from Bangkok to the northwestern 

boundary of Thailand, several brief excursions to the northwest 

highlands, including the ascent of mountain Inthanon, the highest 

227

peak in Thailand, and from Bangkok to Arikor Wat in western Cambodia. 

The authors recognize five principal forest types in northwestern 

Thailand. Structure of .forest coromunities uas analyzed with special . 

reference to stratification and dispersal of individuals and species. 

literature cited contains 64 titles. 

Klayanasuta, W. Banana, var. Kluey Horn Thong. Kasikorn '26 (3): 301-306. 

1953- 

Koenig, J.G. Journal of a voyage from India to Siara and Malacca in 

1779. Journ. Sti% Br. Roy. Asiat. Goc. 26: 58-201; 2: 57-103- 

Includes many botanical observations; This is translated fit on 

his manuscripts in the British Museum, with a biographical introduction. 

. Voyage to Siaa, 1778-79- Koenig's manuscripts at Nat. Hist. 

Mus. London. 3: 59-113; 13: 1-U2. 

. Autograph Journal of Koenig's voyages, with lists and descriptions 

of East Indian (including Siam and Malacca) plants, auimals and a 

few minerals. 21 vols. German & Latin. 1769-05. 

This title is taken frc*n the Catalogue of the Books, Manuscripts, 

Maps and Drawings in the British Museuri (Natural History) 2: if 

__ . Descriptions plantarum et animalium in itinere Siam. Koenig's 

manuscripts in Nat. Hist. Mus. London k: 1-5^. 1779. 

Xranzlin, F. Einige neue Orchidaceen. Report, Sp. Nov. Fedde 7: 38- ) (-l. 

1909 

İncludes file is boma fuerstenbergianutii n. sp, from Siam. 

__ . Sine neue Calantha (C_, hosseusiana) aus Giam. Repert. Sp. Ifov. 

Fedde 7: 82-83. 1909, 

Based on Hosseus' collection. 

_ . Cyrtandreae quaedam novae. Repert Sp. Nov. Fedde 2't-: 21^-223. 

1928 

İncludes Aes chynan thus hosseusiana (n. sp.) from Siam. 

Kridakara, M.C.G. Peanut at Ban£ Bird Farm. Kasikorn 23 (5): 358-371. 

1950. 

Krishnnswamy, V.f>. Problems of silviculture and rcanagement of mangrove 

forests of India. Pnper presented to the .Second Sessic;;. Asia- 

Pacific Forestry Commission, Singapore. 19'- ; 2. 

Silviculture - Natural! regeneration including artificial supplementation 

- Tropica]. Paper presented to the Sixth British Commonwealth 

Forestry Conference, Canada. 10 pp. 1952. 

228

Kulthongkuaffl, S. Preliminary report on use of 2, 1 (~D in preventing 

shedding of cotton bolls. Kasikorn 23 (**•): 258-262. 1950. 

_., arei S. Thongpanchang. Rate of seeding green gram (Mu&go bean)., 

•' Kasitortt 23 (3): 160-163. 1950. 

Kurz, 3. l&jk-jj. Contributions toward a knowledge of the Burmese flora. 

Journ. Asiat. Soc. Bengal. Part, 1. h2 (2): 39-1^1. 18^. Part II. 

W (2): 128-190. 185; ^5 (2): 204-310. 1876: k-6 (2): 1+9-258. l87. 

A critical treatment trithout species descriptions. 

. Forest flora of British Burma. 2 volumes. Calcutta. 1; i-xxx. 

1-5^9; 2: 1-613. Calcutta. 1877. 

A basic flora of Burma. 

Ladejinsky, W. I. Thailand's Agricultural Economy. Foreign Agriculture. 

6 (5): 165-18'+. U.S.D.A. May 19^2. 

The economy of practically all the countries in the Far Eaot and 

in Southeast Asia is essentially agricultural. Thailand is no exception. 

Whereas the agricultural economy of a great number of them 

is diversified, that of Thailan^ is not. Thailand is essentially a 

one-crop country, and rice is the crop. More than 90 percent of all 

the cultivated acreage is under rice, which is also the country's 

principal export product. The large rice output insures the people 

sufficient food, since rice is the principal item in the diet. It 

rust toe noted, however, that while in Asia the absence of famine is 

often an indication of a fair standard of living, it is not so in 

Thailand. The technique of farming there, the disposition of the 

output-, and conditions under which many natives cultivate the land 

are characterized by features that spell a low standard of living. 

A "forief review is given of the physical background of Thailand; 

its people; population density; agriculture; living standards; taxation 

and income; land ownership and tenancy; land utilization; --nth 

a suEsaary and conclusions. 

I^m, II. J. The Sapotaceae, Garcospertaaceae and Doerlagellaceae of the 

Dutch East Indies and' surrounding countries (Malay Peninsula and 

Phillispine Islands). Bull. Jard. Bot. (Buitenzorg) Ser. Ill, 7 

(l-2)r 1-289. f. 1-65. 1920. 


. .Further studies on Malayan Sapotaceae, I. Bull. Jard. Bot. 

CBuitenzorg) Ser. Ill, 8 (M: 38l-^- 29 figs. 1 table. June 1927. 

Includes citation of 'fhai specimens. This is a concise revijion 

of an «arlier paper that did not mention collections from Thailand. 

..^ •_ .• *he Burseraceae of the Malay Archipelago and Peninsula, with 

annotations concerning extra-Malayan species especially of Dacryodes,

Santiria and Canariuin. Bull. Jard. Bot. (Buitenzc'-g) 3er. Ill, 

12 (3/*0: 281-651. pi. 1-lU. 1932. 

Includes many Thai species. 

., and R. C, Bakhuizen van den Brink. Revision of the Verbenaceae 

of the Dutch East Indies and surrounding countries. Bull. Jard. 

Bot. (Buitenzorg) Ser. III. 3 (l): l-llo. Jan. 1921. ' 

A systematic treatment, including keys and citation of Thai 

species. 

Lemarok, J.B.A.P.M. de. Encyclopedic me'thodique. Botanioue. 

1733. 

Includes Cassia siamea, and possibly others. 

Laraington, C.W.A.IT.C.L. Jpurney thi-ough the Trans-Salvin Shan States 

to Ton^-ICing. I-roc. -Hoy. Geogr. 'Joe. (london) 13: 701-722. 2 text 

maps. 1891. 

An account of the author's journey begirding in oiom, with incidental 

botanical observations. 

Landon, F. H. Planting in mangrove forests. Malayan Forester 2 (2): 

13---133. 1933. 

Compilation of volume tables. Malayan Forester 9 (l): 33-36. 

191*0. 

Mangrove volume tables. Malayan Forester 11 (3): 117-120. 

. Tropical rain forest of Malaya. Proceedings of the Fourth 

World Forestry Congress, pp. 106-318. 195^. 

Situated between 1° and 7° north of the Kquator, Malaya has a 

typical equatorial climate, with extremes in the lowland frcm 65° 

to 100° F. Rainfall averages about 100 inches annually and is well 

distributed. 

The soils of Malaya in general are intrinsically poor, arid soon 

loose their accumulated fortuity when the forest is felled. They 

are mostly derived from granite or from quartsite.and schist. 

The Tropical rain forest covers about 30,000 sq_. miles, or 

approximately 60 percent of the country. It includes a.ll the 'forests 

of the Malay Peninsula from sea-leve.T up to about 2,500 feet (800 n.) 

elevation, except for certain edaphic forests, such as mangrove swamp 

forest, beach forest and peat-swamp forest. 

Of the principal timber species, the dominants are Dipterocarps. 

They include such heavy hardwoods as Balanpcarpus heiraiij species of ' 

IJhorea, I lope a, Dryobalanops, and DiptcrocarpuG. Associated species 

are represented by 30 emergent and approximately 300 main story 

species that also yield timber. Among these are species of LXtgonia, 

Calophy3-lum, Dillenia and Durian, and species of the families 

230

Lauraceae, Sapotaceae, Burseraceae, and Myrlsticaceae. 

There is a brief discussion of natural succession and ecological 

development following disturbance; also t'.ie seeding and growth habits 

of the principal species. 

Landon, .K.P. Siara in transition, ix: 328 pp. nap. Univ. Chicago Press. 

. 1939. . 

A survey of cultural trends in the five years since the revolution 

of 1932. 

_ 

. The Chinese in Thailand. 310 pp. Oxford University Press. 

'The. author lived in Thailand from 1927 to 193. He was at various 

times a missionary, school teacher, and editor of a monthly magazine 

which was j-Ublished in Thai and Chinese. He returned to the United 

States to become assistant professor^phiirncphy at Jarlhan! College, 

Indiana. 

This publication eont^tu; ii£ chapters, dealing with ouch topics 

as: the status rf Jhinese in Thailand; Chinese family life; Chinese 

health ±z '.Thailand; Chinese and religion; general trade situation; 

planned economic development and the Chineae; government control of 

immigration, discrimination against Chinese in minor an.1 major industries; 

government control of education; and Chinese in politics. 

Included also are k appendixes, a bibliography and an index. 

_ . Thailand. The Annals of the American Academy of Political and 

Social Science. 226; 112-128. Karen 191*3. 

A treatment of Thailand with reference to races, government, 

social services, communications, agriculture and business, finance, 

Military, and foreign policy. 

Leconte, H. (Zd.) Flore Gene" rale de 1' Indochina. 7 volumes. Paris, incomplete 

in 1951. It 1-1C70. illustr. V/C7-12. 1-1212. illur.tr. 1903- 

21. ^: 1-1279. illustr. 3.922-23. ll - J-1C91. illustr. 1912-36. 5: 1106. 

illustr, 1910-31. 6: 1-12W. illustr. 19C3---2. 7: 1-650. illustr. 

1912-23. 7(2): fasc. 6-9, 1-5^. illustr. 1939- 1*1 (incomplete). 

The most comprehensive flora o." Indochina, including some of the 

areas covered by Craib's Thai flora and funucr.ental to the botany of 

Thailand, 1907- ! !-2. 3upplen-.er.ts by 11. Hunbert and F. Gagnepain, 1933- 

U6. 

Lo veil Id, H. Decades plantarum novarjd Ci-Ciii. Hcpert. Sp. Nov. Fedde 

11: ^92-^96. 1913. 

Includes Persicaria hosseu'ssi n. sp. and P. chincnsis var. s ia • 

n:ense; A new variety from Hosseus 1 Si am ccllecticns. 

Lee, W. Reconnaissance: geological report of the districts of Payap and 

Maharashtra, northern Siam. Thailand Dept. cf State Railways. 1923- 

Le May, R. The Economic Conditions of ;ro-rthenstern 3iam. 172 pp. 

25 tables. 5 illustr., and a sketch-map of northeastern 3iam. Issued 

. by The Ministry of Commerce and Ccmrranicaîcns, Bangkok;. June 1932. 

231

This is a report on the economic conditions in the two northeastern 

circles of Nakon Rajas ima and Udon. 

Up to about 1932 the northeast of Thailand, owing to its remote 

position and difficulties of communication, was still little known 

to the general public. This part of the Kingdom covers about 63, 

sq. miles, or 31.7 percent of the total area of the country. It had 

a population in 1932 of nearly 4 millions, or more than one-third 

of the entire population. 

Various, resources, chiefly agricultural and forest, products, are 

found in the area, and large tracts of land are suitable for rice 

cultivation, plantations and cattle raising. It is only within recent 

years that this region has begun to develop, with the advent of 

railroads and the construction of highways, providing quicker and 

cheaper transportation, with the result that the general economic 

conditions are showing some improvement. 

There is a discussion of the principal industries, namely rice 

growing and cattle raising; and the trade and production of each of 

the 15 provinces within the two circles. A series of tables indicate 

population density; monthly aud annual rainfall; crops under cultivation; 

live stock; trade; etc. 

Lew, G. T. Observations on citrus culture in Thailand. Kasikorn 27 

CO: 381-395. 

Loetsch, F. The effects of shifting cultivation on the Composition of 

Tropical Forest, and the Regime of Rivers - A study of Northern 

Thailand (Title in German). Erdkund 12 (3). Sept. 1958. 

This report treats with factors relating to the long established 

system of shifting agriculture, known as rai in Thailand and Vietnan 

and chan car in Cambodia, and which is widely practiced in Southeast 

Asia and other tropical regions. These include observations on: 

(1) Areas covered by two types of forest: Mixed Deciduous Monsoon 

forest; and Semi-evergreen Broadleaf forest. Of this forested area 

55 percent is considered unproductive. 

(2) In some areas Teak slowly colonizes cutover arena; elaevhere 

it does not colonize cleared sites. Secondary growth is usually 

without Teak. This tree occurs in island- like stands. Under shifting 

cultivation valuable timber land is destroyed. The present area 

of Monscon forest, with Teak, is cbout U5 percent of the original 

stand. 

(3) Of areas above 1,000'm. in altitude, only one- third are unimpaired 

Brcadleaf or Coniferous forests; two- fifths are clearings 

(nomadic); and one- fourth are savannas, resulting from earlier shifting 

cultivation. The practice of shifting cultivation has been on 

the increase during the Irst 25 years. 

Shifting cultivation is of two types: (a) 1-year cultivation; 

and (b) no established cycle, which is destructive to the noil. This 

primitive system also causes extensive damage to valuable timber. 

The author recommends the ela'jnination of shifting cultivation 

from teak forest areas; and that teak planting should be increased. 

232

Love, H. H. Methods used in making and testing a large number pf rice 

selections in Thailand. Intl; Rit-j Goran. News Letter 7: 1-6. 

Sept. 1953. . 

. Rice Improvement in Thailand. Foreign Agriculture 18 (2): 

25-28. illustr. U. G. Dept. Agric, Washington, D. C. Feb. IQ^. 

Dr. Love was engaged from March 1950 as Rice. Breeding Advisor, 

on the Special Technical and Economic Mission to Thailand, 

Thailand, al>out the size of Texas, io ideally suited to, .rice • 

production. Its fertile central flood plain, generally available 

water supplies, favorable climate, stable government, and lack of 

population pressure on land measures are factors that make possible 

a potentially significant increase in rice exports. 

One of the problems investigated was the evaluation of rice 

varieties in Thailand for early, medium, and late-maturing; for 

upland, paddy, and deep-water rice; and for glutinous and Don-, 

glutinous varieties. 

Line selection, for hybridization, was another phase of the 

program. Variety evaluation and selection were continued along 

with hybridization. 

Mabesa, C. The Philippine Forests, with Special Reference to Dipterocarp 

Forests. Tropical Silviculture 3: 57~' 7 . 8 tables. Foreign 

Agricultural Organization. 1958* 

Although the forests of the Philippines are composed of diverse 

timber species, about 75 percent of the volume is represented by 

members of the Dipterocarp or wood-oil' family. Influenced by 

ecological factors, such as altitude, relative humidity, soil 

moisture, exposure to wind and climate and other factors, Philippine 

forests are classified into different types. 

A brief description is given of the occurrence of the following 

forest types: mangrove; littoral or beach; dipteroearp; molave; 

midmountain and mossy; and pine. In the discussion of the composition 

of the Dipterocarp forests, consideration is given to the 

principal timber species and associated woody plants. 

The third section of the publication is devoted to site factors, 

such as: soil; climate; natural succession; ecological development 

following cutting, fire or other disturbance; and animal ecology. 

Under silvics, there is a brief discussion of the seeding and growth 

habits of the principal species. The fifth section treats with 

silviculture, under the heading of harvest cuttings and management 

of stands. 

Section six discusses injuries and protection, in which consideration 

is given to: insect pests, diseases, dasage caused by 

fire, and necessary control measures. 

In section seven, there is a brief account of volume and yield. 

Section eight summarizes progress in current research, as well as 

a review of future planning. 

233

The bibliography contains 12 titles. A list of 231 woody species 

cited in the text is also included. 

Macrnillan, H. F. Tropical planting and gardening with special reference 

to Ceylon. Ed. 4. i-x, l-5uO. illustr. 1935. 

A manual containing useful information on economic plants of 

the tropics, many of which occur in Thailand. 

Macnae, W. Mangrove Swamps in South Africa. J. Ecol. 51: 1-25. Feb. 

1963 

Ṫhe fauna and certain elements of the flora of the coast of 

Natal have been shown to have affinities with the tropical Indo- 

West Pacific. Studies at Inhaca island, off Lourenco Marques 

have indicated that the fauna and flora of the sheltered shores 

of this island are more tropical in affinity than those of the open 

ocean shores. This account of the mangrove swamps in estuaries 

along the shores of Natal and the area,s of the eastern Cap Province 

north of East London proves that tropical elements in the 

fauna can live in the sheltered water of estuaries at latitudes 

where the fauna of the open shores is a distinctly temperate one. 

From a study of aerial photographs of the shores of Gouth 

Africa it becomes clear that mangrove swamps are more rare than 

one might expect. Extensive mangroves occur only at the following 

places: at Kosi Bay close to the Mocambique border, where they 

extend alongside the channels about*1 mile from the mouth; at 

St.-Lucia, close to the old mouth of the Umbolosi river and alongside 

the bridge over the St. Lucia river; at Richard's Bay and 

the mouth of the Umlalazi river, also in Zululand; on a backwater 

of the estuary of the Umgeni river, Durban North; in Durban Bay, 

on Salisbury island and the adjacent mainland they were formerly 

much more extensive> at Isipingo; at the mouth of the Umngazana 

river to the south ot Port St. Johns and at the Umtata river mouth. 

Smaller areas of some significance occur at Sordinana Bay and at 

various localities in Poadoland. To the south of the Umtata river 

mouth there are only isolated clumps of trees at the Bashee and 

Nxanxo river mouths and a stand of occasional trees in a few 

estuaries to the southward. 

Descriptions are given of several mangrove swamps in Natal and 

Pondoland. 

It is demonstrated that in many ways the southernmost, of these 

are more typically zoned than the northern and that the atypical 

zonation is due to the presence of sand which appears to restrict 

the growth of certain species, notably Bruguiera, Rhizophora and 

Ceriops. Under conditions where freshwater influence is" strong, 

Bruguicra predominates and ^rows to 20 m; where the soil is well 

drained Lumnitzera may reach low intertidal levels. 

It is clearly, shown that where mangroves develop into a typical 

mangrove swamp they are accompanied by the same assemblage of 

animals, and that these animals with few exceptions do not extend 

to the south of the southernmost mangrove swanps. Most of these 

exceptions are only loosely associated with the mangroves. The

nangrove fauna, as such, is in fact a fauna of very sheltered 

marine shores and not an estuarine one, i.e. it is not a fauna • 

characteristic of regions with salinity gradients but of regions 

with a variable salinity. 

The article is accompanied by U figures, 2 tables 'and 16 

references. 

Macnae, W., and M. Kalk. The Ecology of the Mangrove Swamps at 

Inhaca Island, Mocambique. J. Ecol. 50: 19-3^ • Feb. 1962. 

This paper discusses the mangrove swamps of Inhaca island, 

Mogambique. These mangroves are among the southernmost in the 

world. Two types of mangrove are recognized, a zoned mangrove 

focused c-i a creek or channel and a longshore mangrove with no 

zonation. Suggested reasons for this lack of zcnation are postulated. 

The zonation of animals is related to that of the plants 

and trees but it is deduced that the animals are only fortuitously 

associated with the mangrove trees and that their distribution as 

well as that of the trees is controlled by (a) level of water 

table; (b) resistance to water loss; and (c) correlated with this, 

the demand for protection from the sun; (d) the degree of consolidation 

of the substratum, and in addition the animals may be 

limited by (e) the availability in the upper layers of the substratun 

of a microflora, a microfauna and of organic debris suitable 

for food. 

Four illustrations arid 2 sketch maps of the nangrove swamp at 

the northern a:^d southern end of the island, ar.d 33 references are 

included. 

Mahaphol, 3. 

Teak in Thailand. Thailand Royal Forest Dept. Bangkok. 

Maliwan, P. i're treatment of rice seedlings in Chandaburi. Kasikorn 

27(2;. 157-159- 195 1 *. 

Manjikul, A. Plant fibres (jute and others) of Thailand. Jour. 

Thailand Res. 3oc. Hat. Fast. Suppl. 12(.): 261-266. pi. 1-5. 19'»0. 

Largely economic data. 

_ . Manures and manuring of pepper. TV^ Natural History Bulletin 

of the Siarn Society lU (2): Ul-Ug. May '1^7. .. 

Discusses the results obtained by applying different types of 

manures. 

_ . Control of rice army worm. Kasikorn 26 (k): U21-U29. 1953. 

Tobacco and derris insecticides. Kasikorn 27 (U): 323-327. 

Marcan, A. The story of drugs with special reference to Siamese medicinal 

plants. Journ. Siam. Soc. Nat. Hist. Suppl. 7(2): 107-117. 

1927. 

235

Markgraf, F. Monographie der Gat tun; 1 ; Gnetum. Bull. Jard^ Bot. 

(Buitenzorg) Ser. Ill, lo(^): 'tOT-511. pi. l-l 1 *. maps .1-8. May. 

1930 

İncludes species from Thailand. 

Marquand, C.V.B. Revision of the Old World species of BuddieJa. Kew 

Bull. Misc. Inf. 1930: 177-208. 1930. 

Marshall, C. Sustained yield management-of the mangrove salt-water 

swamp forests of Fiji. Govt. Press. 'Suva. 1951. • 

Marshall, J.G.F. The Maihongson forests in Slam'. Indian For. 27: 

kf6-'-i8k. 1 folded map. 1901. 

A general description of the Me Lan forest in the Maihongson 

and Muang Heng subdistricts, Chien;7r.ai. 

Maruyama, S. A peace corridor in Indo-China - A proposal. Japan 

Quarterly 10: 166-17'*. 1 map. April-June 19';3. 

Maurand, P. Une Richesse Ifjnore'c:- Ley Jorots de Pine a 2 feui'lles du 

Lan.'^-Bian (Pinus iuerkusii): leur exploitation, leur reccnstitution, 

leurs produits. Conservateur des Perots, Chef de la Section 

de oylviculture du Jud-Inclochinois dc L'Ir.stiuut -ice Recherches 

Agronomiques et Forestiers. Inpri-nerie d 'KxtreT.e-Crier.t. Hanoi. 

1938. 

. L'Indochine forossticre. Happcrt. au Vile Centreu ir.terr.ational 

d'a,.',riculture r.rcpl.-ale en subt.rt'pi -:aie. .-nrio l',«;\ 7 . 1/C pp. 

Lllustr. 1 -,ap. 'land. ls>.^M. 

This uuet'u.L iT^tr'thution, 'ilvldc-i into •„ chapters, ;ieal3 wLt'r.: 

the forest a r:' I:.-: ^-r.inu; forest ex^.lc- Ltatic:i; :lcarl;-'."o - pcr-nar.ent, 

ray system, forest aui brush fires; forest mana.-crr.ent; rarest - - e- 

.generation; v/rovt , tilIzation: "ii-.cr :'rreot ]>rod'.icts; and 'nan..•rove 

•..•codland. 

The publl ::i-/iori -r.nttilr.j n ..er'.o.; of tables; *1 phc tc.;'riphs; 1 

"iap on a scale of 1:2, CLO.CCX'; ;\:v: ar. alphabetical list rf the r.ost 

frequently used vernacular rw:os >::' plants, rr.ostl,,' trên. v. f Indcchir.a 

of ecor.criic'vL value, wit" ••'•••:• tr ^^rresrcn-.tir - uo'.ar.L:nl r.a-ne, 

and Anr.'iimite, >.';i":hc^: ian anu lo.r•'.'. u. narne;; whenever "iva Liable. 

. L'I::clon'r.ine ••crest' 1 ' '^re. .'.-.:: t. Rech. A^rii:. ot i-cr. :e I'Trv'.ochine. 

150 p. :;anci. V •;.. 

"an.^rove i;: disclosed or. pa,--es 137 to 1-1. 

. L'lndccîr.e '/ere s tie re. Institut (iss Recr.er'::".e3 .n~ror;orniqueo 

eT forestieres de I'Indochine. 25 pp. illustr. 3. 'nap. Hunc i. 19^3-' 

This is a revision of the f ':.rst publication, published in 1938, 

by Maurand on the forests of 1'idcchina. As in the original edition, 

this issue contains chapter on the forests of Indochina; their exploitation; 

clearings for agricultural purpose, as well as damage

caused by forest fires; forest management; reforestation; timber 

utilization; minor forest products; and an appendix treating with 

mangrove and post-mangrove formations; muong (Ca/'-sia siamea); arid 

tapping of pine for turpentine. 

A map, on a scale of 1:2,200,000, is included; also an alphabetical 

list of vernacular and corresponding botanicalnames of 

species of commercial value, cited in the text; as well as their 

Annamite, Cambodian or Laotian ncunes when known. 

McClure, F.A. Bamboo culture in the South Pacific. Unasylva (10)3: 

115-116. 1956. 

Bamboo occupies an important part in the human economy of some 

regions, particularly in Southeast Asia and adjacent islands. 

The majority of the people would be utterly destitute without it. 

In vast areas bamboo is the one 'material that is sufficiently cheap 

and plentiful to fill the tremendous local needs. The author reviews 

several factors related to bamboo culture and uses, including 

the utilization of the leaves as a supplementary source of 

fodder and bedding for livestock. 

McFarland, G.- B. Thai-English dictionary. Bangkok Times Press, Ltd., 

Bangkok i-xxi, 1-1019, 1-39, 19 ! +1. 

A separate alphabetical list of Latin na-nea of plants with their 

Thai equivalents is given in the Addenda, en pages lu-39. 

McNeil, Goner T. Machinery for the photo interpreter. Photogrammetric 

Engineering 19(1): 121-12*4. Published by the American Society of 

• Photogrammetry. March 1953. 

Merrill, E. D. An enumeration of Hainan Plants. Lingnan Science 

Journal (Lingnan Agricultural Review) 5 (l&2): 1-186. Nov. 1927. 

Hainan lies just within the tropics between 17° 52° and 20°8 f 

north; its latitude being approximately that of Hawaii and of Cuba. 

It is separated from the Luichow Peninsula on the mainland of 

southeastern China by the shallow Hainan strait, which has a width 

of about 15 miles (2'+ kms.). The island is about 100 miles 

(l60 kras.) long and 90 miles (£h kms.). wide. Its area is approximately 

1*4,000 square miles, or nearly twice the size'of the state 

of New Jersey, and almost exactly that of the island of Formosa. 

The northern half of the island is a comparatively level plain 

broken by occasional lov peaks, sloping gradually up toward the 

ranges of the interior. The southern half is rough and mountainous, 

the various ranges culminating in the Five Finger Mountains (Ng Chi 

Leng), which attain an altitude of about 6,000 feet (1,900 m.). 

An enumeration of the known plants from the island of Hainan is 

included. 

. Plant life of the Pacific World. 295 pp. 256 figs. The 

Macmillan Company, New York. 19'*5. 

This publication, aimed mainly at the needs of the lay reader, 

237

is one of a series describing the natural history and peoples of 

the Pacific Ocean and of its innumer-ible islands, large and small. 

Although more than 50,000 different species, representing 2,500 

genera, of higher plants are now known in the Pacific area, the 

author believes that many thousands still await discovery and study. 

Many regions are characterized by strictly limited and relatively 

few types of plant life, such as the small low islands in the 

Pacific Ocean, and those in the extreme north. Others, such as the 

larger islands in Melanesia, Papuasia and Malaysia, support an extraordinarily 

rich plant life. While many parts of the area have 

been extensively and intensively explored from a botanical standpoint, 

few have been covered by exhaustive descriptive manuals or 

even by published lists of the known species. 

Subjects discussed in the respective chapters are: the safe 

forest and jungle of the tropics; general principles of botanical 

classification; plants of the seashore; mangrove forest; secondary 

forests and open grasslands; primary forest; noteworthy plants of 

special interest; weeds and their significance; cultivated plants; 

jungle foods; problems of Malaysian plant distribution; problems 

of Polynesian plant -.tistribution; the significance of certain local 

plant names; data on specific islands and island groups: and notes 

on botanical history, exploration and bibliography. 

., and E. H. Walker. A bibliography of eastern Asiatic botany, 

i, 719 pp. 2 maps. Published by the Arnold Arboretum of Harvard 

University, Cambridge, Mass. 193&- 

A comprehensive work including the principal references on Siam, 

Indo-China, Burma and India. 

Meslier, A. Les Forets du Tonkin. .3cric Hanoi. No. 13. Congres 

D'Agriculture Coloniale. Gouvernement Ge'ne'ral do 1'Indocnine. 

Hanoi-Haiphong. 19lB» 

Metcalfe, C. R. The structure and botanical identity of some scented 

woods from the East. Kew Bull. Misc. Inf. 193j (l): 3-15. pi. 

1-U. 1933. 

Includes some species native to Thailand. 

Meyer, A. Ueber einige Zusamnenhaen -

Ministry of Agriculture (Thailand). Thailand ar.d her agricultural prolems. 

116 pp., illustr. Bangkok. 19^9. . . 

This booklet was compiled by members of the National FAO Committee 

at the suggestion of the 'Ministry of Agriculture of Thailand, 

as a source of information for those interested in FAO 

and other international organizations. Divided into 12 chapters, 

it contains data on rice culture and rice pests; veterinary work 

and biologies; irrigation in Thailand, aquatic resources and • . 

fisheries; the forest resources of Thailand and their economic importance; 

the cooperative movement in Thailand; Agricultural Institution 

at Kasetsart University; nutrition activities before 

and after the war; malaria and agriculture in Thailand; supplementary 

study on the trend of rice consumption; and the rice trade of Thailand 

. 

A . Thailand and her agricultural problems 159 pp. Bangkok. 

Nov. 19SC. 

This booklet was written and compiled by members of National 

FAO Committee, Ministry of Agriculture, and originally issued in 

Mai'ch 19^9• It was reprinted in Nov. 190, and the data brought 

up to date. 

. Annual reports for the years-19^8 and 1950 to the Food and 

Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Bangkok. 1951* 

__. (Thailand) Annual report for 191*8 to the Food and Agriculture 

Organization. 36 pp. Bangkok. 19^8. 

Divided into 3 sections, with 7 appendixes. Discusses the prevailing 

food and agriculture situation and prospects; per capita 

consumption; imports and exports; principal crops; and livestock 

products. 

. Annual report of the Government of Thailand for the year 

1951-52 to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United 

Nations. 52 pp. Bangkok. (Mimeographed). Bangkok. 1952. 

This report contains information on progress and development in 

agriculture, fisheries, forestry, nutrition, cooperative movement, 

marketing, and a general review of economic situation of Thailand. 

__. Thailand economic farm survey. 269 pp. (Mimeogranhed).. Bangkok. 

1953. 

Some agricultural statistics of the Ministry of Agriculture, 

19V7-51*. Bangkok. July, 1955- 

A statistical review of Thai, agriculture, 195^. Bangkok, 1956. 

_. Unpublished phenological data for various crops. Dept. of Rice 

and Dept. cf Agr. Exper. Sta. Bangkok. 1956. 

239

. Agriculture in Thailand. 231 pp. illustr., with maps. 

Bangkok. Sept. 1961. 

In 19^9 the Ministry of Agriculture issued 'Thailand and 'her 

Agriculture Problems', which was the forerunner of this contribution. 

The objective was to provide information on agriculture in 

Thailand, and to establish a foundation for technical improvement 

on various phases of agriculture within the country. 

This publication, containing 11 chapters, treats with: agriculture; 

rice production and export; other economic crops, such 

as corn, cassava, fiber crops, sugarcane and rubber; aquatic resources 

and fisheries; livestock development and veterinary service; 

irrigation; forest and forestry program; agricultural 

education; health and agricultural development; agricultural cooperatives; 

and rice export of Thailand af-er World War II. 

Ministry of Commerce and Communications, Thailand. The rice industry 

of Siam. 16 pp. Bangkok. 1926. 

A brief treatment of rice and its significance to Thailand; also 

the methods, period of planting, harvesting and marketing of this 

important crop. 

. Lac cultivation and trade in 3iam. 12 pp. Oct. 1926. 

Lac is a product obtained from the lac insect, and contains a 

dye and a resin. Formerly, the lac-dye was utilized as a substitute 

for cochineal. After the discovery of analine, lac-dye 

became of little value, but when a method of using the resin v;as 

discovered, *;he latter became an important article of international 

trade. The most important lac-producing countries are: 

Thailand, India, and the former rYench Indochina. Thailand, supplies 

sticklac or raw lac only, and has been an Important source of this 

cultivated product for many years. Despite competition from synthetic 

products, it continues to be a steady article of expert from 

Thailand. 

. The Record. Vol. 6. July 1926-April 192. Bangkok. 1928. 

Contains statistics on trade, passenger traffic, rice crop and. 

export trade, timber market and tin output. 

. Siam, nature and industry. 1930. 

Chapter ten deals with Flora. 

Mitchell, D.A. Ornamental, roadside, and shade trees. The Malayan 

Forester. 96-1U-'*. April 196U. 

The subject matter of this article is Intentionally limited to 

the low.iands of Malaysia and no consideration is given to species 

juitable for use In the highlands (ca. 3>500 feet and. upward), or • 

to fruit trees. Cursory discussion is given to: collecting seed; 

planting and raising seedlings; transplanting larger trees; care 

and maintenance; availability of seed or seedlings; and suitability

for particular sites or purposes. There is a descriptive list of 

selected species; also an index to vernacular and common names; 

and a list of plants cold in Penang and Singapore. 

Mohr, E.C.J. Soils of equatorial regions, with'special reference to 

the "etherland East Indies. Translated from the Dutch by Robert 

L. Pendleton. Edwards Brothers, Ann Arbor, Michigan. 

Moldenkfc, H.N. The known, geographic distribution of thp members of 

the Verbcnaceae and Avicenniaceae. l-lO-'-t. New '/ork. March 12, 1; 

Includes plants of Thailand. 

An alphabetized list of citations: Part I. A. to H.: l-32c. 

Part II. H.. to L.: 327-652. 19*'i9; Fart III. L. to o.: 

653-978. 19 ; *9; Part IV. S. to z.: 979-130^. i9'*8-**9. 

The author's determinations of specimens by collectors, including 

institutions, some from eastern Thailand; covers Vorbenaceae, 

Avicenniaceae, and Eriocaulaceae. 

. The known geographic distribution of the members of the 

Verber.aceae, Avicenniaceae, Stilbaceae, Symphoremaceae, and 

Hriocaulaceae. 1-215. 19*9. 

Determinations of specimens arranged geographically, incluair.g 

eastern Asiatic localities. 

Moodie, A. W. Working plan for Delta Ferest Division, Maymyo, Burrr.a. 

oupterintendent Gov. Printing. Rangoon. 192 ; t. 

Morar,.c;e, p. Culture de 1'Hevea et du ColoV.Les. Gouvernement Ge*ne*rai as 

1'Indocbine. oe*rie Saigon Bulletin No. 11. 23 pp. Saigon. 1913. 

Discusses the planting of rubber and coconut palm in Cochinchina 

(r.ov part of South Vietnam). 

Moseman, A.H. (Ed.). Agricultural Sciences for the Developing Nations. 

AAA3 Symposium. Vol. 76, 232 pp. illustr., ref. index. Amer. 

Asscc. for the Adv. of Science. Washington, D.C. Oct. 196^. 

Tnis is based on a symposium presented at the Cleveland AAA3 

meeting, December 19^3) to discuss the role of agricultural science 

and technology in the acceleration of economic progress in newly 

developing nations. The 12 chapters present an informed summary of 

the problems and opportunities of technical, economic and educational 

assistance in agriculture, characteristics of agricultural systems 

in emerging nations; research to devise and adapt innovations; 

education and development of human resources; and establishing indigenous 

institutions to serve advancing agriculture. This book 

should be helpful in furnishing background experience for the use 

of agricultural planners in^newly emerging countries. 

Contributors include officers of the Agency for International 

Development, the U. S. Department of Agriculture, Purdue University, 

The Ford Foundation, Ohio State University, Cornell University, The 

University of Chicago, and the Rockefeller Foundation.

Munsell, A.E.G. MunseH Book of Color. Defining, explaining and 

illustrating the fundamental characteristics of color. A revision 

and extension of "The Atlas of the Munsell Color System. 1 Published 

by Munsell Color Company, Inc., Baltimore, Md. ^2 pp., 

charts. 1929. 

A color notation. An illustrated system defining all colors 

and their relations by measured scales of hue, value, and chroma. 

U pp. Tenth edition. 19 1 *6. 

Muschler, R. Labiatae siamenses novae. Repert. Sp. Nov. Fedde k; 

268-270. 1907. 

'Based on Hosseus 1 collection. 

Narkswaski, M. Farm Management Problems in Thailand. World Crops. 

Pages ^55.459. illustr. Dec. 1963. 

Thailand is an agricultural country, with about 85 percent of 

the population engaged in farming. A large proportion of the 

natural income coces from agricultural production and 90 percent 

of exports consists of agricultural commodities. However, an 

economic survey conducted in 1953 reported that the average net 

income of a fanning family was only about U.S. $150.00, and that 

about ^5 percent of this was derived directly from faming. The 

average family size was about 5 persons, and consequently the 

average income per capita was very small. 

There is a need in Thailand for well-trained workers in farm 

management. Althoxigb many preser.t-day workers have years of 

experience in the service, relatively few have sufficient basic 

knowledge of farm management. There is a need to provide training 

for these workers if they are to have p proper approach to scientific 

farm management. At present only Kasetsar J , 'diversity 

offers courses in this field. Thailand still hat, many problems 

in farm management, but progress is gradually being made in 

solving them. 

National Economic Council (Thailand). Monthly Bulletin of Statistics. 

Bangkok, June 1952. (Mimeographed). 

This Bulletin was prepared uncier the supervision of M.C. 

Athipurn P. Ksensri, Director of the Government Statistical Service. 

It contains data on population and other vital statistics; agricul 

ture and fishery; foreign trade; price and cost of living; manufacturing 

production; mining; electricity power; and labor force. 

Neang, S. Contribution a I'e'tude des forets claires des Trois- 

Froatieres. 71 pp. 1952. 

Nelnes, E. Notes on Carex. Key Bull. Misc. Inf. 1939: 657-659. 1939. 

Three new Thai snecies are cited. 

2-V2

Nessel, H. Die Barlappgewachse (Lycopodiacei.e). Eine besehreibende 

Zusammenstellung mit besonderer Bertucksiehtigung ihrer vorietatin 

und forroen. kQk pp. 1 pi., 87 figs. Jena; Gustav Fischer. 1939' 

Includes species from Thailand. 

Nguyen, Van C. 

La Foret vietnamienne et la politique forestidre 

na'tionale. 17 pp. oecretariat d'Etat & 1" Agriculture. Sept. -Oct. 

1959. . - 

This paper traces briefly the history of the forests of Vietnam, 

conceding that little was known up to the Colonial period. It war. 

known, however, that up to that tine about three-fourths of the 

country was covered by forests. But by 1935 only about k2 percent 

of the country was covered by forest £-mwt,':.. 

'Hie author makes a comparison, from the standpoint of economics, 

between forests in temperate and tropical areas. 

Noakes, D.3.P. A yield table for merunti. Malayan Forester 6: 

20^. 1937. 

_ . Mangrove. Proc. Fourth .

This is a compilation of survey data, published materials and 

field reports on Thailand. It font-Tins a discussion of the general 

and comparative geography of Thailand; climate; variations in 

rainfall; floods; droughts; water control systems; climatic classification 

of the natural vegetation of Thailand; economic classification 

of the forests of Thailand; soils and farm-land use of Thailand; 

economic background and principal agricultural products of 

Thailand; agricultural experiment stations and studies of varieties; 

phenology and yield of rice; distribution and production of farm 

crops; local field practices; control of crop pests, crop diseasesj 

and weeds of Thailand. 

Nyyssonen, A. Aerial photographs of tropical ''orests. Unasylva 16 

(1). No. 6k. pp. 3-12, 5 figs. 1962. 

The sum of the factors of the environment that- influence tree 

growth is measurable on aerial photographs to the extent that the 

key features of the environment can be recognized. Tree growth 

reflects thelocal climate and soil. Local climate and soil moisture, 

in turn, are apt to be closely related to the topography. Topographical 

data can be classified accurately from the stereoscopic 

image. 

The following factors are described at sjme length: tree species 

identification; classification of forest cover .types; and quantitive 

estimation of growing stock. Depending upon the quality 

of photographs, such information makes it possible to assess the 

value of aerial photographs as a source of practical information 

for use in forest survey. 

In some cases identification of tree species from aerial photographs 

was remarkably successful, but on the whole the results were 

not adequate. Several successful experiments, however, showed that 

important forest types can be detected from aerial photographs, 

although checking and supplementation from the ground is also often 

necessary. 

Photo-interpretation alone seems adequate for a survey of certain 

forest types. Sometimes this can be accomplished by aircrn.it 

or nelicopter reconnaissance without photography, ût it should 

be emphasised that ground work can not be dispensed with in tropical 

forest surveys. 

The use of eerial photographs has important advantages in forest 

surveys. Above all, aerial photographs enable a study of stratification 

and arrangement of the ground work to be made in the moct 

efficient manner, and are an excellent tool in surface area assessment. 

Photographs are also useful in practical survey work, in • 

delineating roads, drainage, major topographical features and forest 

boundaries. Consequently, combined aerial and ground surveys seem 

to be the best procedure to make forest inventorica. 

A list of references is included. 

Ogawa, H., K. Yoda and T. Kira. 

Nature and Life in Southeast Asia.

Vol I. A preliminary survey on the vegetation of Thailand. 

pp. 21-157. 25 tables. 71 figs, illustr. Osaka City University, 

Osaka, Japan. March 1961. 

This publication represents the results of a preliminary ecological, 

study on the natural vegetation of Thailand, especially of the 

northwestern region, made by the Osaka City University Biological 

Expedition to Southeast Asia during 1957-58. 

Observations were made during four months of travel in the dry 

season. Five principal types of forest vegetation were x'ecognized 

in the northwestern region: l) Savanna forest - Dipterocarp 

savanna and Mixed savanna forest; 2) Tall deciduous or monsoon 

forest; 3) Evergreen gallery forest; k) Subtropical semi-evergreen 

forest ecotone; and 5) Temperate evergreen forest. 

Description of the forests of Burma given by Stamp reveals 

the close resemblance between Thailand and Burma, with respect to 

forest types and their distribution according to climate. Four 

sample stands of forests and. three of grassland vegetation were 

selected for intensive studies of their floristic composition, 

community structure, standing crop and soil organic matter. The 

floristic composition of the four forest stands are described in 

detail, based on a census of all trees taller than breast high. 

Structure of the forest communities was analy/.ed with special reference 

to stratification and dispersion of individuals and species 

over the plots. Eleven sample trees were felled in selected stands, 

and allometric relations between DBH, stem height, D'-H, leaf anount, 

total leaf area, amount of stem and branches, etc., were examined. 

Total leaf area on unit ground surface cr leaf area index (LAI) 

in the forest plots was estimated. Leaves, stems and branches of 

the sample trees, specimens of grasses and shrub shoots, leaf and 

branch litter and half-decomposed organic materials on the ground 

were analyzed separately for their carbon and total nitrogen content. 

The literature cited contains Qh titles. A series of 55 photographs 

of forest formations supplements the report. 

liver. D. Argostemira concirmum Hemsl. Hook. Icon. PI. 2^: pi. 2380. 

1895. 


. Lysimachia grandifolia Hemsl. Hook. Icon. PI. 25: pi. 2*i05. 

1895. 

Native of Thailand. 

'Neil, L.C. Some effects of artificial defoliation on the growth 

of Jack Pine (Pirus banksiana Lamb.). Canadian Journ. Dot. Uo(2): 

273-280. Feb. 1962. 

Young jack pine (Pinus banksiana Lamb.) were defoliated manually 

to measure the effects of defoliation on growth of the species, and 

to determine the relative efficiency of foliage of different ages 

with respect to growth. The removal of 2-or 3-year old foliage had 

no appreciable effect on tree growth, but their joint removal

educed height growth. There was also a reduction in height growth 

by the removal of 1-year old foliage. Current foliage was found to 

be essential for the maintenance of normal height, diameter and 

shoot growth. Its removal induced high bud mortality, the production 

of profuse adventitious growth, and a reduction in the rate of s'-ioot 

elongation. Complete defoliation resulted in the deatu of the tree 

shortly thereafter. Growth reduction resulting from some of the 

treatments following defoliation soon showed infestation by the 

Swaine jack-pine sawfly (:-ieodiprion swainei i'ddd.). ' The results 

are compared with those obtained by several other workers in the 

field. 

O'Neill, H.T., and :-l.J. Nagel. The Minyt hoc cope: an instrument for 

viewing any type of pnotography in gradually decreasing size (or 

scale) for many purposes. Part IV. Instrumental aids in Photointerpretation. 

Fhotogranmetric Engineering. 533-535. June 1057. 

The minythoscope is an Instrument desinr.ed to facilitate observation 

and the comparative study of ocjects as t'.iey become 

smaller in size, in order to discover wr.ttt general principles, If 

any, are involved when details vanish and coalesce into a new but 

often characteristic configuration. 

Orleans, ITinee H.d 1 . Arcur.a Tonkin and Siam. i-xii, -^26 pp. illastr. 

1 folded map. London. It*-A, 

An Anglian translation oy C. 3. Putnam of this traveller's 

account,with botanical cenervations. 

•rom Tonkin to India oy the source of trie Irawa/ii, January 

r 95 - January '96. i-xii, -v pp. illustr. 1698. 

Includes, on pages '*ZO-'-31, a list of plants collected' by A. 

i-'ranchet. 

Gstenfeld, C.H. A list of plants collected in the Raheng District, 

Upper Siam, by Mr. K. Linhard, determined by C.3. Clarke, 3. 

Hieronymuc, 0. Stspf ar.d published by the octanical .'.taseum of 

Copenhagen. Jull. Herb. 2oiss. 3er. II. ; (c}: 7C9-72-*. July 1^05. 

. . A systematic enumeration; includes ferns, seed plants and one 

fur.û:;, with several new species. 

Utricularia duae novae Giamenses. Kecert, 3r. Ilov. .-'edde 2: 

^.^->^. 1900. 

U. si amen sis and 'J. bcsminil'era; new species collected by J. 

Schmidt. 

Oweas, J.3. Better yields with fertilizers. Intl. Rice Ccr.m. "-,'evs 

Utter 7: 7-9- 1953.

Panyalaksana, P. Characteristics of some varieties of rice. Kasikorn 

23 (5): 325-332. 1950. 

_ ., rjid s. Bhakdi. Influence of the time of harvesting on the 

milling quality of paddy. Kasikorn 26 (3): 317-331. 1953- 

Pr-.V'T>uhna, P. Obstacles in increasing the upland crop production in 

"the northeast. Kasikorn 2 (3): 236-238. 

Pasquier, P. Les colonisation des terres incultes. Gouvernement Ge*n£!ral 

» de 1'Indochine. . Bulletin No. 2. 18 pp. Saigon. 1918. 

Treats with the settlement of uncultivated land. 

Patrick, R. A ttoconomic and distributional study of some diatoms from 

* Siara and the Federated Malay States. Proc. .A cad. Philadelphia 

88: 367^70. . 11 plates. 1937. 

Contains an extensive bibliography on paês Ui8-U70. 

Paulson, R. Lichens from Kaw Tao, an island in the Gulf of Siara. 

Journ. Siam. Soc. Nat. Hist. Suppl. 8 (2): 99-101. 1930. 

A list of collections by A.F.G. Kerr. 

Pelzer, K.J. An economic svu /ey of the Pacific area. Part I: Population 

and land utilization. 15 pp. 188 tables.. Inst. Pacific 

Relations. New York. 19141, 

This is cue of a group of monographs designed to bring up to 

date the Economic Handbook of tiie Pacific Area, published by the 

Institute of Pacific Relations in 193'*. 

Pendleton, R. L. Some interrelations between agriculture and forestry, 

particularly in Thailand. Jour. Thailand Research Society' 12 (1); 

33-5. 8 figs. Bangkok. Dec. 3939. 

This paper calls attention to some. of the less well-known facts 

and relationship between forests, climate and agriculture. In the 

humid tropics agriculture and forestry are very closely related, as 

contrasted with conditions in temperate regions where, in some respects, 

horticultural, agronomic and forestry methods and practices 

are relatively distinct. Inasmuch as forestry methods are increasingly 

important in the conservation and management of the soil 

in tropical regions, and the methods of producing certain upland 

crops are not generally understood, it seems worth while to consider 

some of these methods. Certain misconceptions regarding the 

interrelationships between forests and climate are mentioned, because 

of their immediate effect on some agricultural problems. A 

rather different emphasis regarding these interrelationsnips is 

noted, hence some of the statements may seem radical. The purpose 

of the emphasis is to attempt to discount certain conceptions regarding 

the effects of forests which, though generally held, are 

still far from being definitely proved. 

Forests, although they transpire much water from the soil, and 

21*7

may hold back even 20 percent of the rainfall from reaching the soil, 

nevertheless facilitate, thru the production of organic matter, 

moisture percolation into the soil. They also retard the run-off 

of rainwater to such a degree that they render the water which 

actually flows off more useful, as compared with that from slopes 

without forest. This is because the forests contribute to the 

more uniform flow of streams throughout the year> thus preserving. 

the stream channels and other associated benefits. 

Pioneers and primitive peoples have always had dendropnobia and 

have used caingin.'shifting method of agriculture. Practiced to the 

extreme caingin agriculture leads to the extinction of peoples thru 

the development of grassy deserts, and which persist as a result 

of annual burning. Such consequent ,'^rasa lands cannot be cultivated 

with primitive hand tools, the only kind available to these people. 

Annual fires also prevent forest regeneration. 

The caihp;in system can be replaced by horticultural or clean culture 

methods, such as are used in temperate regions with tho use of 

strong plows drawn by draft animals or tractors. 'Jevertheless, such 

types of cultivation encourage soil erosion and rapidly deplete the 

soil. Tropical soils planted to rxibber, tea and coffee, for example, 

have suffered seriously thru the application of these types of cultivation. 

Tropical soils usually are not nearly as ricn as is supposed; 

the prolific ^rowch of the tropical forest is misleading; 

and the deterioration of tropical forest soils after clearing is 

more rapid than that of temperate zone .soils. In the case of soils 

planted to Pard rubber (Hevea), the practice is to use forestry 

methods, by planting permanent cover crops to prevent erosion and 

to conserve fertility. 

If soil fertility is to be conserved and the interests of the 

popxilation are to be served, it is necessary to have a balanced development 

of i'orests and agriculture. Not only are tree products 

as well as annual grains and similar crops essential to man, but 

these crops are dependent upon an extremely thin, easily damaged 

and slowly repaired soil. While soil erosion, if excessive, is 

serious and completely destroys the E.oil, some erosion is necessary, 

nevertheless, to remove slowly the completely weathered out and impoverished 

surface material. 

. Soil erosion as related to land utilization in the hvrr.i'd 

tropics. Proceedings of the Sixth Pacific Science Congress n: 

905-920. 193';. 

Laterite in Slam and Cambodia. Proceedings of the Sixth 

"Pacific Science Congress

Attention is drawn to the fact that training in Soil Science 

in temperate countries is inadequate for the full appreciation, 

proper interpretation and management of tropical soils. There is 

a brief discussion of soil erosion in Thailand. 

_ . Soils of Thailand. Jour. Thai. Res. Soc. Nat. Hist.. Suppl. 

l',.,(2.): ^35-260. 16 figs. 19UO. 

_ . Impressions of the Philippines and the United States: froa 

the notebook of a soil scientist* Thai. Fes. Soc. Bull, (formerly 

the Nat. Hist. Suppl.) 13 (l): 1-20. 9 plates. 19**1. 

This is a generalization and comparison of the soils of the 

Philippines and the United States with those of Thailand. 

_ . Laterite and its structural uses in Thailand and Cambodia. 

Geogr. Rev. 31: 177-202. 63 figs.19!*!. 

_ 

Some results of termite activity in Thailand soils. Thai 

Science Bulletin 3 (2): 29-53. illustr. April 

Much has been published about the destructiveness of termites. 

In many parts of Thailand these ubiquitous insects are of considerable 

benefit to ff-rraers. Millions of mounds built by termites 

furnish the fear,.- rs with small plots of modified soil which, 

•when utilized properly, are useful for the production of tobacco, 

cotton, chillies, vegetables, and mulberry leaves. 

Large quantities cf calcium carbonate, in the form of concretions,. 

resembling xankar, are formed by these insects. The 

characteristics of the termitoriura developed by these insects and 

the importance of the mounds for agricultural production are described. 

_ 

Laterite, or Sila lâeng, a peculiar soil formation. Thai 

Science Bulletin 3 (3-M-* 61-77- illustr. Dec. 

In gradually-sloping land, around the well-watered rice plains 

of Thailand and covered by slow-growing, open forest, the îi is 

light sandy with a layer of 'hardpan' of iron oxides and related 

compounds known as 'Sila laeng 1 . This material is laterite which 

has developed in the soil during the course of many ages. 

The author gives a summary and conclusions on the subject, 

supplemented by 20 references. 

Importance of termites in modifying certain Thailand soils. 

"Journ. Amer. Soc. Agron. 24 (k): 3)10-341*. 3 figs. 191*2. 

This is a summary of the more extensive paper published in Bangkok 

in 19U1. 

Land use in Northeastern Thailand. Geographical Revi'.-w 23 (1): 

~T5-4l. illustr. 1 map. The American Geographical Society of IJew 

York. Jan. 19^3. 

Northeastern Thailand, often known as the Korat Plateau, froa 

2^*9

an old name of the principal town, liakorn Rachasima, lies between 

the great eastward bend of the Mekong River and the Dong Phya Yen 

Mountains. It comprises 167,000 square kilometers (6U,COO square 

miles), or nearly one-third the area of the entire kingdom. The 

author discusses briefly the climate of this northeastern region; 

rocks, soils, and natural vegetation; the people; agriculture; rice 

and rice fields; shifting agriculture; cattle raising and associated 

activities; rice milling; hogs and poultry; fruit and other tree 

crops; benefits of termites; forest utilisation; and sources of 

salt. 

The article is well illustrated. 

. The formation, development, and utilization of the soils of 

the Bangkok Plain. The Nat. Hist. Bull, of the Siam 3oc. 1'* (2): 

1-1*0. 1 map. 7 illustr. May 19'*7- 

The soils of the Bangkok plain exemplify many stages in the 

development of. laterite from riverborne alluvium. ;3ome stages 

are: marine clays, young clays producing good padi, mature, less 

fertile clays, senile unproductive soils and laterite. The rejuvenating 

effects of river action, salt water and of riverborne 

silt on mature and senile soils are evident. 

Bangkok has long been a large consuming center and, until recent 

years, transportation from areas with soils naturally adapted 

to year-round production of fruits and vegetables was not practicable. 

Therefore Chinese methods of diking, draining, arid ridging 

have been extensively used in the Bangkok area to adapt these heavy, 

wet la.,'3 for the growing of vegetables and fruit trees. 

. Impressions of Doi Pulanka. Jour, of the Sian. 3oc. 2: l'tU-lU8. 

7 figs. 19 ;^8. 

Some notes on the Yao and Miao villages, and land utilization on 

this mountain near the border of Laos 

Improving soil productivity in Southeastern Asia and the Indies. 

U.K. Scientific Conference on the Conservation and Utilization of 

Resources. 23 pages. 19^9* (Mimeographed.) 

Discusses the unique methods used by Chinese farmers to make the 

most effective use of the limited amounts of organic substances 

in poor soils in that area. Most of this paper appeared subsequently 

in the Co-op Grain.Quarterly, pages 26-32. 10 figs. Chicago. 1950. 

. Soils and land use in Peninsular Siam. Tech. IVill. Ib. 3« 

17. r-p, 33 figs. Thai Department of Agriculture. 19^9. 

Contains observations on soil profile and land utilization, 

assembled in the course of vaiious field trips throughout peninsular 

Thailand. 

Notes on soils and land utilization in Southeastern Siam; with 

some 'comments upon the improvement of the agriculture of this area. 

Techn. Bull. We, k. 123 pp. 31 figs. Thai Department of Agriculture. 

'1950. 

250

This Bulletin summarizes the observations made and presents descriptions 

of soil profiles gathered in the course of numerous 

field trips during 19;, 5 to 

_. Agricultural ana forestry potentialities of the tropics. 

Agronomy .Journal U (3): 115-123. March 1950. 

A presentation of facts and comparisons. based on extensive 

travel in the tropical regions of Asia and the New World. 

_ . Report to accompany the provisional map of the soils and surface 

rocks of the Kingdom of 3iam. 290 pp. 1 map. Mutual Security 

Agency, United States. Special Technical and Economic Mission to 

Thailand. Jan. 1953. (Mimeographed.) 

This voluminous report complements a -joil map printeu in color 

in order to distinguish and separate the several soil bodies or 

profiles. Seldom does the color of the soil have any relation 

whatsoever to the color which has been uccd to distinguish it on 

the map. liach of the various soil groups and types, in most cases, 

represents a considerable range of soil characteristics. 

Because of a greater or less variability of the map colors and 

between those on the legend 'sample' blocks, soil identifications 

are checked on the map by means of numbers, indicated en or close 

to every soil body and the 'sample' block according to the annotated 

soil legend in which 23 soil types are cited. 

The publication contains a comprehensive discussion of the soils 

and other pertinent data on tha main topographic subdivisions of 

Thailand: the principal river basins; the northern mountains and 

valleys; the Central Valley; and the Korat Plateau. To supplement, 

there are notes of field work undertaken in certain less known 

parts of northeastern Thailand; the Bangkok Plain; southeastern 

Thailand; and peninsular Thailand. 

A brief annotated list of references is included. 

_ . Thailand - Aspects of Landscape and Life. 321 PP« 51 photcs. 

26 maps and charts. Duell, Sloan and Pearce. 1962. 

This well illustrated publication, written with the assistance 

of others and completed after the demise of the author, is one of 

the best sources of information on Thailand. It contains 10 chapters, 

covering such subjects as: the history of Thailand; its 

physiography and geology; soils, natural vegetation and animal 

life; climate and water economy; the agrarian landscape; irrigation; 

rice agriculture and farm systems; subsidiary crops; animal 

husbandry and fishing; utilization of forests; mineral deposits and 

their development; hydroelectric power, and its industrial potential; 

and the manufacturing industry, transportation, communications, 

and trade. 

., and S. Sharasvuana. Analyses and profile notes of scr.e laterite 

soils and soils with iron concretions of Thailand. Soil Science 

5U (1): 1-26. 8 figs. July 

251

Analyses of some Siamese laterites. Soil Science 62 (6): 

423-^0. Dec. 

These two contributions present certain overall considerations 

and relationships between laterites and the parent materials from 

which they have developed. The second paper contains analyses of 

laterites gathered from ancient buildings. Unfortunately the 

methods of analysis were not the most suitable to show their relationship 

to the best advantage. 

Phom-Hoang-Ho. Cay~co mien nam Vietnam (Vegetation of Vietnam). Bo 

Quoc-gia Qiao-Duo. 803 pp. figs. Taxonomic treatment with 

scientific names. Saigon. I960. 

This publication, written in Vietnamese, treats with the plants 

of Vietnam, arranged according to family, with a key to genera, 

and a brief description of the species. A line drawing accompanies 

a large number of the plants described. 

A list of vernacular names, arranged in alphabetical order, 

with corresponding botanical names is included. 

Phananuchorn, P. Forests of Siam and their resources. Siam Today, 

1*7-53. 11 figs. July 1937. 

A general account, largely concerning the exploitation of Thai 

forests. 

Picharn, P.V. List of common trees, shrubs, etc., in Sia-n ... for 

the use of foresters, timber traders and students. 1278 pp. 

Bangkok Times Press. 1923. 

Vernacular and Latin names are given. Printed with vide space 

for insertion of notes. Reviewed by A.F.G. Kerr,with critical 

notes on vernacular names in Journ. Siam. Soc. 17: 21-1-215. 1923- 

Pierre, L. Flore forestiere de la Cochinchine. In volume 1: pi. 

1-96. 1879-83. 2: pi. 97-169. 1883-88. 3: pi. 170-256. 

1888-91. U: pi. 257-332. 1892-95. 5: Pi. 333-^00. 1&95-99. 

Register 1-lU. 1907. 

A folio-sized publication containing plates with descriptive 

letterpress, and illustrating forest plants Issued in 26 fascicles. 

It includes new species based on Sian collections. 

Pilger, R. Zwei neue Bambuseae aus Siam. Repert. 3p. MOV. Fedde 3: 

116-117. 1906. 

Oxybenanthera hosBOuaii and DendrocalEunus nudus; new species 

collected by Hosaeus. 

Piper, C.V., and S.T. Dunn. A revision of Canavalia. Kew Bull. Misc. 

Inf. 1922: 129-1^5.- 1 ir.ap. .1922. 


Pisek, A., and E. CarteLlieri. Zur Kenntnis des V/asserhaushaltes der 

Pflanzen. IV. Jahrb. Wies. Bot., 88, 22. 1931, 1932, 1939- 

252

Polchart, P. Durian orchards in Dhonburi, Kasikorn 26 (6): 505- 

51U. 1952'. 

. Mandarin growing in Dhonburi. Kasikorn 26 (6): 589-59!*. 1953. 

. Making palm sugar in Bangkok. Kasikorn 2 (**): 353-359. 195 1 *. 

Poore, M.E.D. Problems in the classification of tropical rain forest. 

Journ. of Tropical Geography 17: 12-19. May 1963. 

The author points out the many valid systems of classification 

available for any particular range of pnenomena. Each of these 

may be equally suitable for a particular purpose. For example, 

leaves can be classified according to their size, shape, color, 

venation, methods of development and other criteria. There is a 

tendency in Biology to try to arrive at what is known as 't.atural 1 

( classification. The taxonomy of plants or animals has been considered, 

since the time of Darwin, to reflect the relationship of 

organisms by descent, which is synonymous with'a phylogenetlc classification. 

In vegetation it is difficult to establish a classification 

on the principle of descent. Auong various possible classifications 

the most valuable is probably that which reflects most 

faithfully the relationship between vegetation and habitat. Therefore, 

uhe aim of this article is to discuss vegetation, but not 

from the standpoint of the ecosystem or with what Sukachev calls 

the geobiocoenose, which is a combination of the ecosystem with 

the concomitant environment. This is not due to a failure to appre- 

.ciate the value of such synthetic concepts, but it io necessary to 

approach the task with a certain degree of realism. The problems 

of vegetation are sufficiently vast without including other equally 

large and possibly more complex fields of research. 

The author discusses the criteria - habitat, physiognomy and 

floristics - proposed for the classification of vegetation; the 

intrinsic difficulties in the classification and ordinp.tion of 

vegetacion; and stages in the classification of vegetation. 

This paper deals primarily with problems involved in the classification 

of vegetation rather than with the result. Knowledge of 

the Rain forest in Malaya, for example, is more advanced than iii 

many equatorial regions, but basic data on its structure and pattern 

are inadequate. Consequently it is still too early to develop 

methods that are satisfactory and economical to classify forest 

types and to determine their relation to habitat. 

No conclusions were drawn from the .results, but a number of 

possibilities emerged which warrant further study. Preliminary 

results strongly suggested that, at lear.t in the upper stories of 

the forest, there are a number of tree species which are approximately 

equivalent in their habitat requirements at all stages. The 

actual species which reach the canopy in any one plane depends on 

the chances of establishment at the time the t;ap is formed. If 

many species behave in the sams manner it is possible that the best 

means of classifying forast types precisely would oe by other 

vegetational criteria. 

253

A cursory analysis of data gathered in Malaya by the author indicated 

that there are a number of species in each forest type which 

occur constantly in areas of half an acre. Although not all of 

these are emergent or main story species, they may serve as a reliable 

means of defining and identifying various forest types. 

A bibliography of 18 titles is included. 

Prain, D. The genus Chrozophora.. Kew Bull. Misc. Inf. 1*9-120. 1918. 

Includes Thai"species. 

., and I. H. Burkill. Diagnoses specierum novarum generis 

Dioscoreae. Kew Bull. Misc. Inf. 2: 58-66. 1925. 

Includes Dioscorea gracilipes ajid D. calcicola; species new to 

Thailand. 

. The genus Dio_scprea in Siara. Kew Bull. Misc. Inf. 225-245. 1 

fig. 5 maps. 192. 

A critical treatment of 32 species including several new ones. 

. HiP^corea: Section Stenocorea. Kew Bull. Misc. Inf. 88-91. 

1 map. 1931. 

A systematic treatment, including two Thai species. 

. Dioscoreae novae asiaticae. Kew Bull. Misc. Inf. 1933 (5): 

240-246. 1933. 

Includes Dioscorea filicaulis and D. depauperata; new species to 

Thailand. 

Prain, D, and I.H. Burkill. Dioscoreae novae asiaticae. Kew Bull. 

Misc. Inf. 425-42. 1930. 

Includes D. craibiana, a species new to Thailand. 

Prescott, J.A. and K.L. Psndleton. Laterite and Lateritic Soils. 

Commonwealth Bureau of Soil Science, Rothamsted Experiment Station, 

Harpenden. Technical Communication No. 47. 51-pp. illuatr. 

Commonwealth Agricultural Bureaux, Farnham Royal, Bucks., England. 

1952 

Ṫhe term 'laterite' was suggested originally by Buchanan (l807) 

as a name for a highly ferruginous deposit first observed in 

Malabar during his journey through the countries of Mysore, Canara 

and Malabar in 1800-01. In the introduction, the authors trace 

the indefinite and often inexact uses of the term 'laterite'. 

In subsequent chapters there is a treatment of the field charaoteristics 

of laterite; geographical distribution of laterite, including 

its occurrence in Southeast Asia; the origin and nature of 

laterite; and lateritic soils. The authors conclude that, after 

a survey of the literature and historical data relating to the 

origin of 'laterite', the uerni has been used in two different ways. 

An extensive bibliography on the subject is included.

Pugh, M.A. Economic development of Siam. U, S. Department of Commerce 

Bulletin No. 606. ^5 pp. Washington, D. C. 1929. 

This bulletin discusses the principal features of the economic 

and commercial development in Thailand. In its preparation, a review 

was made of annual reports of the various Thai goveramer.t departments, 

records of the official board of corrjnercial development, 

and a series of pamphlets on Thailand printed by the Bangkok Times 

Press during Nov. 1926. 

Purnariksha, R. The 3.1tuation of phosphate fertilizer in Thailand. 

Kasikorn 26 (l): 92-97. 1953. 

. Superphosphate vs. rock phosphate. Kasikorn 26 (6): 627-633« 

1953. 

., and P. Thitatarn. Rice fertilizer trial. Kasikorn 

"25 (2): 158-167. 1952. 

Quackenbush, R.S.,Jr. The development of photo interpretation. 

Manual of Photo Interpretation. Chapter I. pp. 1-9. 1960. 

Queripel, A.L. Introduced plants. Journal Siaa Soc. Nat. Hist. 

Suppl. 8 (U): 335. 1932. 

A brief note on Az&dirachtia indica, grapefruit, and lemon. 

Quesnel, M-.P. L { Agriculture indiye'ne en Cochinchine. Gouvernement 

Ge"ne*ral de 1'Indochine Bulletin No. 2. hj pp. Saigon. 1918. 

A discussion of agriculture among primitive people in Cochin- 

China, now a part of South Vietnam. 

Ramiah, K, Factors affecting Rice production. FAO. Agriculture 

Development Paper No. ^5.

Ratanaprasidhi, M. Forewt- Industries and Forestry of Thailand. 31 PP« 

Royal Forest Department, Ministry of Agriculture. Bangkok. 1963. 

(Mimeographed) 

The forests of Thailand are the source of raw materials for 

various industries. They aay be classified into two main categories: 

major and minor forest products. 

The first part of the paper is devoted to the major forest products 

and treats with timber exploration, production of plywood 

and veneer, chip board, manufacture of furniture, pulp and paper, 

and miscellaneous industries. The second part deals with minor 

forest-products, such as bamboos, rattan, barks, tree exudates and 

dye plants. The third part treats with export and domestic consumption. 

The fourth and fifth parts discuss forestry and related 

problems; and a short treatment of forest protection. 

Raunkiaer, C. The Life Forms of Plants and Statistical Plant Geography. 

The Use of Leaf-Size in Biological Plant Geography, pp. 368-376. 

The Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1934. 

It has Icnf; been known that a series of different adaptations 

in the structure of plants enable them to endure excessive evaporation, 

and thus allow them to live in an environment wit.h intense 

evaporation, or where conditions for absorption of water from the 

ground, either physically or physiologically, are favorable. Examples 

of such structure are: (l) covering of wax; (3,) thick cuticle; 

(3) sub-epidermal protective tissue; (4) water tissue; (5) cover*. 

ing of hairs; (6) covering of the stomata; (7j sinking nf the 

stomata; (8) inclusion of the stomata in a space protected from air 

currents; (9) diminution of the e 1 aporating surface; etc. 

The subject is so complicated that it is difficult to reach an 

exact appraisal of these adaptations in characterizing individual 

plant communities biologically. The fact is that in a community 

which survives dry periods., some species are adapted to their environment 

in one way, others in different ways. We are still unable 

to determine quantitatively the value of individual adaptations or 

the different combinations of adaptations. 

If we examine and compare simple ana compound leaver of plants 

with the same life-forms in the same formations, or more properly 

in the same layer of the formation, for example the upper layer of 

the Deciduos phanerophytic vegetation of woodlands, or the upper story 

of the West Indian Evergreen phanerophytic vegetation, it i.-^ found 

that compound leaves are on an average much larger than simple 

leaves, and which belong to a smaller size class. 

Raunkiaer decided on 6 classes: Leptophylls - 25 sq. mm. or 

0.000024 sq.mm.; Nanophylls - 9 x 25 equal 225 sq. mm.; Mdcrophylls 

- 9 2 x 25 equal 2,025 sq. mm.;' Mesophylls - 93 x 25 equal 18,225 

sq. mm.; Macrophylls equal 9 4 x 2p equal 154,025 sq. mm.; and 

Megaphylls. 

Rawitscher, F., and R.L. Pendletori. Climate of Tropical Forests'and 

Savannas. The Natural History Bulletin of The Siam Society 15 

(1): 89-111. Sept. 1952.-

Under natural conditions the boundaries between tropical forests 

and savannas depend, generally speaking, upon the humidity factor. 

An exact determination, however, of the amount of rain necessary for 

the existence of forests is very difficult. General considerations 

which lead to the establishment of rain factors, aridity coefficients, 

and climatic types of formulae do not include the important physio- 

Ipgical factors of plant transpiration or the existence of subterranean 

water reserves which may be stored at great depths in tropical 

soils. 

The data on water requirements of forests from classical plant 

ecology are based upon the assumption that the present distribution 

of tropical forests and savannas corresponds to the ecological conditions 

of their environment. 'It is known, especially from researches 

in central equatorial Africa, that great areas of savannas, 

now occupying deteriorated soils, were forested in former times. 

More reliable data are obtained from the direct determination 

of transpiration values, which are scarce because of difficulty to 

obtain, or from a computation based on the knowledge of the total 

precipitation and of drainage water of an entire river basin covered 

by equatorial forest. 

The practical importance of such data is emphasized. For example, 

it is possible to distinguish savannas which can be reclaimed. 

A consideration of all the facts involved indicates how this reclamation 

can best be done. It is clear that agricultural methods 

used in temperate regions are inappropriate when applied to tropical 

lowland soils. Such practices disturb the water balance of tropical 

soils, favor serious surface erosion, cause internal, leaching of 

soils, and there is evidence that they produce an irreversible degradation 

of soil fertility. 

Raymond, M. Carices Indochinenses Necnon Siamenses. Memoires du Jordan 

Botanique de Montreal, No. 53. 125 pp. Montreal. Feb. 1959. 

ReinJeing, O.A., and G.W. Gross. The kao pan seedless Siamese pummelo 

and its culture. Philippine Journal Science. 19: 389-^37. 1921. 

Rich, R. W. Aerial photography as a means of measuring plant Tver 

and composition. In Techniques and Methods of Measuring Understory 

Vegetation. Proceedings of a Sympos.ium at Tifton, Georgia, pp. 

79-81. Oct. 1958. 

Richards, P.W. The Tropical Rain Forest - An ecological study. 5^0 pp. 

%3 text figs, and 15 places. Univ. Press, Cambridge. 1952. 

This is probably the most authoritative and comprehensive reference 

on this vast and complicated subject. It contains 17 chapters, 

divided into 6 parts. Part 1 - Treats with structure and 

•physiognomy of the Tropical Rain forest; Part 2 - The Environment; 

Part 3 - Floristic composition of Climax communities; Part 4 - 

Primary successions; Part 5 - Tropical Kain forest under limiting 

conditions; and Part 6 - -Man and the Tropical Rain forest. 

257

A postscript treats with the future of the Tropical Rain forest. 

Included also are a long list cf references; an index of plant 

names; and a general index. 

. The types of vegetation of the humid tropics in relation to the 

soil. Proc. of the Abidjan Symposium U.N.E.S.C.O. pp. 15-23. 1961. 

This is a discussion of: 1) the principal types of vegetation in 

the plains and lower mountain regions of equatorial and subequatorial 

zones and in adjoining tropical axeas, and the soils in which they 

are to be found; 2) characteristics of soils in this climatic zone 

which influence the occurrence of vegetation, and the possible influence 

of the various types of vegetation on the soil; and 3) evaluation 

of the soil in bringing the land under c-xltivation. 

. Plant Life and Tropical Climate. Biometeordlogy. pp. 67-75. 

1962 

Ṫhe absence of a cold season results in plant activities in the 

tropics being limited by lack of water rather than by low temperatures. 

The distribution of natural vegetation types in the tropics 

is thus mainly determined by the seasonal distribution of rainfall. 

Th< effects of excessively high temperatures on plants growing in 

some tropical habitats has been little studied, but the survival of 

some plant species in the same areas seems to be dependent on the 

coo.ling effect due to transpiration. Information on the growth 

rates of plants, apart from a few cultivated species, is surprisingly 

incomplete. Available data indicate that the very high rates 

among some species depend on the rapid development of new leaf area 

rather than on net assimilation rates being higher than those of 

temperate plants. Scanty evidence suggest that the rate of organic 

production by tropical forests is not much higher than in temperate 

hardwood forests. 

In tropical countries, with little seasonal change, plants often 

show regular rhythms of flowering, leaf change, etc., but these may 

be out of phase with the climate. Iên where there are marked wet • 

and dry seasons, plants do not always behave in the way expected. 

For example, seme trees lose their leaves in the wet season, hut not 

in the dry period. Seasonal rhythm in plants seems to be partly 

dependent on internal physiological rhythm and not entirely on the 

external environment. Kven in latitudes where differences in daylength 

are very small, day-length may be an important factor in 

controlling flowering and other seasonal phenomena in plants. 

Literature cited contains twelve titles. 

., A=.G. Tanslqy and A.S. Watt. The recording of structure, liveform 

and flora of tropical forest communities as a basis for their 

classification. Imperial Forestry Institute, University of Oxford, 

Institute Paper No. 19. pp. 3-19. 1939. 

This paper f trims a valuable supplement to Burtt Davy's Institute 

Paper No. 13, published in 1938. It embodies the opinion of a 

258

Committee appointed by the British Ecological Society to report on 

the classification of tropical vegetation. The authors consider that 

a natural scheme of classification should be based on the structure, 

life-for^ and. flora of the component communities, rather than on 

mixed criteria including habitat. They emphasize, also, that 

Associations should be named from species present, 'not from a presumed 

formation to which the Association belongs. 

They have not attempted any reclassification of the Formations 

as outlined in Paper 13, pending the accumulation of r.ore data on 

the subject. They consider that the three main classes of Formation - 

Woodland, Grassland, and Desert - do not require any special term 

by which to designate them, and that the term Formation-type is 

most aptly applied to the aggregate of communities all over the 

world dominated by a distinctive life-form, for example, Rainforest, 

Thorn-forest, etc., while such geographically distinct unit 

of such a Formation-type is recognized as a distinct Formation. 

A useful feature of this contribution is the reduction in number 

of features to be recorded, from 96 proposed in Paper 13 to k2 f on 

the ground that the larger number is likely to deter field investigators 

from attempting any systematic recording of vegetational 

data by the immensity of the task. The object of suggesting so many 

factors was aimed at securing the cooperation of those vho, although 

unable to undertake a definite ecological survey, are interested 

in cognate subjects, such as ornithology, anthropology, 

etc., and which 'nave a bearing on the biotic influences affecting v 

the forest. 

The authors point out that this paper is intended to aid foresters, 

ecologists and botanists interested in tropical vegetation, and to 

stimulate field investigations along definite and uniform lines. 

Ridley, II.N. On the flora of the eastern coast of the Malay Peninsula. 

Trans. Linn. Soc. Bot. II, 3: 267-^08.. pi. 61-66. 1893. 

Concerns Pahang in the Malay States, but includes a few plants 

from adjacent provinces of Thailand. 

. The Scitamineae of the Malay Peninsula. Journ. Str. Br. Roy. 

Asiat. 3oc. 32: 85-l8'j. 1899. 

Includes some Thai species. 

. .New Malayan plants. Jourr.. Bot. Brit. & For. 38. 68-7't. 1900. 

Includes Didymocarpus cyaneus, a new species from Kasum, Thailand. 

. New Malay orchids. Journ. Str. 3r* Roy. Asiat. Soc. 39: 

71-87. 1903. 

Includes some orchids from Langkawi Islands, southern Thailand. 

. New Malayan plants. Journ. Str. Br. Roy. Asiat. Soc. kl: 31- 

51. 190^. 

Includes species from Langkawi Island, southern Thailand. 

259

. The Gesneriaceae of the Malay Peninsula. Journ. Str.'Br. Roy. 

Asiat. Soo. kki 1-92. 1905. 


Ridley, H.N. New and little-known Malayan plants. Series II. Journ. 

Str. Br. Roy. Asiat. Soc. HU; 169-211. 1905. 


. New or rare Malayan Plants. Series III. Journ. Str. Br. Roy. 

Asiat. Soc. ^9: 11-52. 1907; (Series IV) 50: 111-152. 1908. 

Series (V) 53: l-6l. 1910; (Series IX) 75: 5-38. 1917. 

Includes some frori Thailand. 

_. A list of ferns of the Malay peninsula. Journ. Str, Br. Roy. 

"Asiat. Soc. 50: 1-59. 1908. 

A systematic list, including records from southern Thailand. 

.' The flora of the northwestern states, Malay Peninsula. Kew 

Bull. Misc. Inf. 1910: 202-2CX,. 1910. 

A letter to J.D. Hooker concerning a trip to find the division 

between the floras of Malaya and Thailand. 

. Botanical expedition to lower Siam. Gard. Chror;. III. '*9: 

361-363, 383-384. 19-U. 

A general description of the author's field trip in 1910. 

• . The flora of lower Siam. Journ. Str. Br. Roy. Asiat. Soc. 

59: 15-26. 1911. 

A floristic description. 

. An account of a botanical expedition to lower Siam. Journ. 

Str. Br. Roy. Asiat. 3oc. 59: 27-2^3. 1 folded map. 1911. 

Includes an extensive systematic enumeration with many new 

species. 

. The Gymnosperms of the Malay Peninsula. Journ. Str. Br. Roy. 

Asiat. Soc. 60: 53-68. 1911. 


A botanical excursion to Pulau Adang. Journ. Str. Br. Roy. 

Asiat. Soc. 61: ^5-65. 1912. 

An account and enumeration of new plant species. This is one of 

a group of islands west of Langkawi and Terutau, in southern Thailand. 

. Two new orchids from the province of Bandon, S.W. Siam. Journ. 

Fed. Malay St. Mus. 5: 156-157. 1915. 

An enumeration of 8 species from the mountain Kao Nawng, including 

such new species as Coelo^yna tricarinata and Chrysoglossum 

robinsoni!. 

260

_ . The plants of Koh Samu'i and Koh Fennan. Journ. Fed. Malay St. 

Mus. 5: 158-168. 1915, 

An enumeration of collections by H. C. Robinson on these islands 

on the northeast coast of the Malay Peninsula. 

_ . The fern allies and Characeae of the Malay Peninsula. Journ. . 

~- Str, Br. Roy. Asiat. Soc. 80, 139-1-6U. 1919. 

A systematic treatment, including species from Thailand. 

_,_ . On a collection of plants from Peninsular Siam. Journ. Fed. 

Malay St. Mus. 10: 65-126. 1920. 

A systematic enumeration of collections by C.B. KLoss, including 

many new species and varieties from the islands and the west coast 

* between Lat. 7° r.nd 11°N.; includes an article, on pages 66-80, by 

Boden Koss on '3orne account of the journey on which the plants were 

collected 1 . 

_ . Two now Siamese plants, Journ. jvea. Malay bt. Mus. 10: 127. 

1920 

Ṁill Jus a concinna (Annonaceae) and Pachynocarpus prcndiflorus 

(Dipterocarpaceae ) from southwest and peninsular Siam based on F.W. 

Foxworthy's collections. 

_ . New and rare species of Malayan Plants. II. Journ. Str. Br. 

H 0 y. Asiat. Soc. 82: 167-20'-*. 1920; (XII) 66: 292-311. 1922. 

These parts include plants from the Langkawi Islands, southern 

Si am. 

_ . The flora of the Malay Peninsula. 5 volumes. 1: 1-918. fi»s. 

1-75. J Q 22. 2: 1-672. figs. 76-131. 1923. 3: l-'K)5. fics. 132- 

159. 1924. k; 1-383. figs. 160-209. 192U. 5: l-Vfo. figs. 

210-229- 1925. 

The most comprehensive flora on the region of southern Siam, including 

Pattani Circle and parts of Kakorn Srithammarat and Puket 

Circles. The introduction contains data on some collectors in 

Thailand. Reviewed in Journ. Sia/n. Soc. 17: i.,15-216. 1923. 

_ . The ferns of the Malay Peninsula. Journ. Malay. Br. Roy. 

Asiat. Soc. i»: 1-121. 1926. 

A systematic treatment with descriptions and data on distribution, 

but no keys; includes many Thai species. 

, Firmiana and Erythropsis. Kew Bull. Misc. Inf. 193''^ 2lU- 

217. 1936. 

A review of spscies including E. fulgens of Thailand. 

Notes on Xylocarpus. Kew Bull. Misc. Inf. 1938. (7): 228-292. 

T938. : 

Includes X. paryifolius and X. minor recorded as new species 

from Siam.

Robbe, E. Etude des lois d'accroiseement d'un peuplement de Pinus . 

merkusii. $6 pages. Ba'ctylographie'es, non publics. Service des 

Eaux et Forets du Carabodge. 

Expose* critique des travaux & enfcrependre en vue de I'arae'nageraent 

des forets du plateau de Kirirora. 1** pages. 

Rocher, M.L. De I 1 amelioration de la production des forets du Vietnam. 

21 pp. Secretariat d'Etat & I 1 Agriculture. Sept. .1959, 

.This paper discusses the utilization of the forests of Vietnam. 

Brief consideration is given to the problem of human interference 

with the forest cover. There is also a discussion of the climate 

and secondary forests of Vietnam; diverse elements of the Vietnamese 

forests and their role; technique in the production of firewood; 

and production of wood for paper pulp. 

Kock, J.F. The Chaln.oogra tree and some related species: A survey 

conducted in Siam, Burma, Assam, and Bengal. U.S. Dept. Agric. 

Bull. 1057: 1-29. 16 plates. 1922. 

Rolfe, R. A. New Orchid:;. Kew Bull. Misc. Inf. 8^-88; 1906. )\12Jil6: 

1908. 61-66: 1909. 1 $'8-162: 1910. I4l-l't5: 1913. 373-376; 191'*. 

and 199-206: 1924. 

Parts cited contain new .species of plants of Thailand. 

Rollet, B. (Ed.). Direction des Recherches Forestieres. Etudes sur 

les fore'ts claires du Sud de 1'Indochine. Part I: 250 pp.; Part 

2: 99 pp. illustr. maps. 1952. 

The term 'fore'ts claires 1 is applied in a broad sense to open but 

fairly dense forest, also steppes and savannas. These are, respectively, 

rich and poor in woody species, easily penetrable, with 

scant or no undergrowth. Although they are not truly deciduou 

forests, they resemble them on account of their floristic simplicity 

and lack of stratification or a series of understories. 

In the introduction the author discusses the climatic and biotic 

factors that influence this type of open forest. He analyzes the 

open Deciduous forest in seven distinct regions in southern Indochina 

vith emphasis on their origin. He treats in a general way the dominant 

characters from the standpoint of physiognomy, floristics, 

dynamic statistics and economic factors. 

There is a list of the botanical names of plants cited in the 

text, with their corresponding Cambodian and Vietnamese names. 

The second part treats with the study of Deciduous forest of 

South Laos by Ly Van Hoi, entitled 'Etude sur les fcrets claires du 

Sud-Laos'. These observations were made while conducting a forest 

Inventory in the region of Savannakhet and Thakhek, in central Laos, 

on forest types possessing more or less distinct characters, influenced 

by the nature of soil. The result of a floristic study 

aade on an area of 73 hectares is discussed, with data on the climatic 

characters of the region and a plan indicating the location of tree 

counts made. 

262

In a general way, this deciduous forest resembles that of Cambodia, 

with f*n abundance of Dipterocarpua tuberculatus and D. obtusifolius; 

the alr.ost total disappearance of Dipjterocarpus int.rTca.tur.; and a 

scarcity of Pentacnn siomensis. 

In Cambodia the most important tree species, in order of volume 

per unit area (hectare), are: Shorea obtusa, Pentacme siamensis, 

Terminalia tomentosa, Dipterocrrpus intricatus, U, obtusifolius and 

2* tnberciil&tus. In South Laos, on the other hand, the oraer of 

volume is Dipterocarpus tuberculatus, Shorea obtusa, D, Qbtuslfolius,, 

Terminalia tomentosa and Pentacme siamensis. 

A description of the various soil typ«s~is given. This is 

followed by a discussion of the floristics of 135 tree species in 

j tne study area. The families and species in terms of frequency, 

percentage-vise, are listed. 

The second article, in Part II,is by Neang-Sam-ol on 'Contribution 

a 1'Etude des forets claires tie la region des 3 Frontieres, 

accompanied by illustrations. 

Inventories were made in Cambodia on 2k characteristic forest 

types in the region between Kritie* and the three frontiers. The 

first series was conducted in a plain on basaltic and old alluvial 

soils; and the second series at an altitude of 1,600 to 1,900 ft. 

(500 to 600 m.) on basaltic soils. 

The 8 principal and characteristic species of the Deciduous 

forest are: Pentacme siamensis, Shorea obtusa, Terminalia tomentosa, 

Dipterocarpus obtusifolius, D. tubgrculatus and D. i'ntricatus, Pinus 

merkusji and P. khaaya. The first three are the~more resistant to 

fire. Pines either form pure stands or may be mixed with the Diptorocarpu£ 

species. 

The author givas a list of the dominant species in the various 

formations, as well as the approximate- area covered by the various 

forest types in South Vietnam, Cambodia and South Laos. 

' 

. Note sur les forets claires du sud de 1'Indochine. Bois et 

Forets des Tropiques. 31: 3-13. illustr. Sept.-Oct. 1953. 

This contribution is a compilation of conclusions reached following 

an intensive survey of the open forests of 7 distinct areas in 

Cambodia and South Vietnam, and 8 upland regions in southern Indochina. 

This survey was carried out in plots, each of one hectare 

in area. Gregarious species, as well as the comparatively large 

number of scattered species, were studied.. Dominant species were recorded 

in order to define the various types of vegetation. Data 

presented are the result of a statistical analysis of enumeration 

table-; prepared from the systematic sampling. 

The author deals with the quantitative composition of stands, 

particularly from the standpoint of distribution of species and 

according to their diameter. Consideration is given to economic 

factors, in an attempt to assess volumes of standing trees. 

A series of photographs illustrate svich forest types in Cambodia 

as: a semi-dry secondary forest of lagerstroemia between Krek and 

263

a forest reserve at Kalat; and one between Saigon and Dalat 

in South Vietnam. 

. Pour un inventaire forestie"r du Vietnam. Vol. Ill, pp. 639- 

~b66. Bibl. Dehra Dun. 195**. 

. Emploi de photographies aeViennes au 1:^0,000 pour I 1 interpretation 

de la ve*ge*tation et les inventaires forestiers au Vietnam. 

Bois et Forets des Tropiques. 7U: 16-2U. Nov.-Dec. I960. . 

Aeriel photographs (panchro-with yellow filter) were taken to 

evaluate the utilization of soil and to prepare an inventory of 

existing vegetation. 

The tests, on a scale of 1:^0,000, were made in the region of 

Battambang. Korapong-Chain and northwest of Phnora Penh in Cambodia, 

and in the region of Kirirom, Chu-Yang-Sin and Lang-Han in South 

Vietnam. 

It was determined that certain trees are readily distinguishable 

from the air, especially when in flower, such as Laserstroemia which 

is gregarious. Other trees recognizable when in flower are Shorea 

talura, Si. obtusa, and Pentaeme siamensis. Individual species of 

Conifers (Pinus, Podocarpus and Dacrydium) are not identifiable 

from the air, but lowland 2-needled pine (Pinus merkusii), even when 

mixed with Dipterocarpus obtusifolius^ is recognizable. 

Interpretation cf aerial photographs on a scale of l:Uo,000, 

according to the author, is subject to a number of limitations. 

Such interpretation is extremely useful in estimating, an area wibh 

identifiable forest types. On the other hand, the application of 

aerial photographs to prepare tables to estimate the volume of slanding 

timber is subject to objections. 

Three aerial photographs and 2 tables accompany the report. 

Pose, E. Le Nuoe-Man (Eau de poiss

diverse forest products of Indochina and their local utilization. 

, Re*ge*ne*ration naturelle en foret tropioale. Bois et Forets 

des Tropiques. 8 (1*): 368-370. k illustr. .19^8. 

Contains a discussion of the natural regeneration of "dau 1 (Dipterocarpus 

alatus) in Cambodia. 

toyal Forest Department. Siamese Plant Names, Part I - Botanical 

Names - Local Names. 50'V pp. Bangkok. Sept. 19 ; *8. 

The principal object of this publication is to familiarize the 

reader with the botanical names, and their corresponding vernacular 

names, of plants growing in Thailand. In order bo be usable by these 

who are not familiar with the Thai or Siamese language, all the Thai 

characters have been transcribed into Roman characters, following 

the phonetic transcription adopted by the Royal Institute of Siam 

and published in March 1932. 

Plants listed are those whose local names and their 

authentic botanical identity were established at the time of publication. 

. 

Each citation contains: (a) the generic and specific names with 

the author's name included; (b) family; (c) habit of the respective 

plant; (d) local nane or names according to locality; (e) foreign 

names when available; and (f) appropriate synonyms. 

Knowledge of Thai plants, including their corresponding botanical 

and local names, up to the time of publication was largely the 

effort of the late Prof. W.G. Craib' and Dr. A.F.G. Kerr, both of 

whom were responsible for the 'Florae Siamensis Knumeratio'. 

toyal Irrigation Dept. (Thailand). 

1925-26. Bangkok. 192. 

Administration reports for 191 J »-15 to 

. Tank irrigation scheme. Kasikorn 26 (l): 25-37. Bangkok. 1953. 

toyal Thai Navy. Meteorological Dept. Annual meteorological data 1927- 

55. Bangkok. 1955. 

tyan, F.D., and A.F.G. Kerr. Dipterocarpaceae of northern Siam. Journ. 

Siam. Soe. 8 (1): 1-2-. pi. 1-5. 1911. 

Botanical, economi.: and sylvicultural data on species of Dipterocarpus, 

Gnorea and Hopea, with a supplemental list of species. 

Sakamaki, S., and J.A. White. Asia. 528 pp. illustr. Webster Pub. 

Co. St. Louis. 1953. 

This informative publication contains a chapter on the Federation 

of Indochina and another chapter on the Kingdom of Thailand. 

Sakarik, R. Varietal studies of cabbage. Kasikorn 23 (l): 12-23. 1950. 

265

., and P. Tripetch. Liming experiment on peanut. Kasikorn 

23 (3): 199-204. 1950. 

Saman, L. The food value of sweet potato. Kasikorn 26 (6): 569-575. 

1953- 

. Sweet corn. Kasikorn 26 (2): 218-224. 1953. 

Selection of land for planting coconut trees. Kasikorn 

27 (3): 2W-249. 

Salvoza, P.M. Rhizophora. Nat. & Appl. Sci. Bull. Univ. Philippines 

5: 179-237. Pi. 1-9- 1 folded map. 3 figs. 1936. 

Monographic; includes citation of Thai specimens. 

Samapuddhi, K. The forests of Thailand and forestry programs. 

Thailand Royal Forest Dept. $k pp. 8 plates. Bangkok. 1955- 

This handbook describes the nature and character of Thai forests. 

It contains three parts: a general description of the forests of 

Thailand; data relating to timber trade and consumption within the 

country; and the forestry program submitted to the National Economic 

Council for consideration, 

Sampson, A.W. Effect of Chaparral Burning on Soil Erosion and on Soil 

Moisture Relations. Ecology 25 (2): 171-191. 9 figs. 5 tables. 1937. 

The burning of a heavy chaparral cover disturbs abruptly the 

biological and physical equilibrium that existed before the fire. 

Reaction between factors favoring the maintenance of a reasonably 

stable vegetation, and the change in the stability of soil and 

water relations is accentuated. The degree of change in the habitat 

depends chiefly upon climatic factors, character of the vegetation 

and its rate of regeneration, type of soil and topography. If 

erosion is the stronger factor, the eventual result will be the removal 

of top soil, associated perhaps with a change in the rate of 

infiltration and in its waterholding capacity. If, on the other 

hand, factors favoring regeneration are stronger, the area will 

soon progress to pre-fire conditions, accompanied by geologic normality 

in soil erosion, and perhaps by predictable rates of stream 

and spring flow. 

The study supports the conclusion that chaparral and its understory 

vegetation protect the soil effectively against abnormal 

erosion. In turn, this protection may favor the relatively high 

infiltration capacity of the soil. Judging from some measurements 

and extensive observations, the grazing of steep, recently burned 

slopes may measurably increase soil erosion. This conclusion applies 

both to areas of well-formed soils and to lands whose soils are 

somewhat protected from the elements; by a gravelly 'erosion pavement'. 

A somewhat lengthy bibliography completes the article. 

Sampson, A.W., and A.M. Schultz. 

Control of Brush and Undesirable Trees. 

266

Unasylva 10 (l): 19-29; 10 (3): 117-129. 1956. 

Much of the earth's surface is covered with brush. Many of 

the major brushlands of the world are climax; that is, they constitute 

vegetative cover that has changed little in composition 

under prevailing conditions of climate, soil and fire. 

Lrxge-scale efforts to control undesirable woody species has 

awaited mass production of machinery to do the job effectively 

and economically. This modern age of large-scle operations tends 

to overlook, however, that.many small-scale efforts, using homemade 

tools, might do the same job more effectively and more economically. 

In the first part of the paper the authors place major emphasis 

on a consideration of factors determining the kind of equipment to 

be used; degree of brush clearance for economic returns; kind of 

vegetation to be cleared; character and size of stems; density of 

cover; and topography. 

In the second part of the article types of equipment are briefly 

described and illustrated with photographs or drawings. The comparative 

advantages of each piece are enumerated and, so far as 

possible, the approximate cost per acre for certain stipulated 

oondj.c.'.ons are cited. 

A list of vernacular and botanical names of plant species 

mentioned is included. The literature cited contains ^3 titles. 

Dorn, C.C. The Mammals of the Rush Watkins Zoological Expedition 

to Siam. The Natural History Bulletin of the Siam Society 15 (1): 

1-25. Sept. 1952, 

The Chicago Natural History Museum's Rush Watkins Zoological 

Expedition to Siam had as its main objective the securing of a 

habitat group of the Malay tapir. However, about 200 specimens 

of other mammals were collected, representing 27 forms and others 

were seen but not collected. This small collection included an 

undescribed bat and some new locality records. 

The article contains an annotated list of bats collected. A 

list of literature cited is included. See also reference to 

Haas, F., 'Some non-marine mollusks from Siam 1 . 

Ltwongse, Y. S. An outline of rice cultivation in Siara. 10 pp. 

The Ministry of Agriculture. Bangkok. 1911. 

As the trade and commerce of Thailand are mainly connected with 

the rice-growing industry, it i'» often asked how it is cultivated, 

harvested and prepared for the market. 

The process of rice culture is very similar in all rice growing 

countries, but the source of water supply, the nature and elevation 

of the soil, and the climate cause some variations in the 

methods employed. This pamphlet presents some general information 

on the rice industry of Thailand. 

isas, P. My country Thailand - its history, geography and civilization. 

^21 pp.; illustr.; index. Maruzen Co. Ltd. Tokyo. 19^2.

Satow, E.M., C.E.W. Stringer and others. Lao tea (Camellia theifera 

Griff.) Kew Bull. Misc. Inf. 219-222. 1892. 

Correspondence and ; a report on this product of Thailand. , 

Savetanak, S. A study of the effectiveness of Nitragin strain and 

local strain of nodule bacteria. Kasikorn 25 (l); 33-^3- 1952. 

Saxton, W. T. Phases of vegetation under monsoon conditions. Journal 

of Ecology 12 (1): 1-38. World Soils. Jan. 192U. 

Sayn-Wittgenstein, L. Recognition of tree species on air photographs 

by crown characteristics. Forest Research Division Technical 

Note No. 95> 1-56; illustr.; keys. Department of Forestry, Canada. 

I960. 

The characteristics cf tree-form is important in species recognition 

on air photographs. Brief references are made to the 

value of phenology and ecology in species identification. Descriptions 

are given of the appearance of some tree species on air 

photographs, accompanied by elimination keys x'or the identification 

of such species. 

Sayupatham, T. A cogon eradicating grass. Kasikorn 27 (2): 154-156. 

Lime pickles. Kasikorn 23 (6): 1+39-1^3. 1950. 

Scherraerhorn, W. Actual problems in aerial survey. The international 

Training Center for Aerial Survey, Delft. The Netherlands 3eries 

A/B No. 1. Volume 1. 30 pp. I960. 

In this contribution there is a discussion of: (l) the postwar 

years as compared with previous years; (2) the milestones of 

I960; (3) subjects of a planning program for aerial survey; (U) 

application of physics to tha research on and improvement of 

photographs; and (5) consequences of the introduction of digital 

methods in photogrammetry. 

Schindler, A.K. Uber einige kleine Gattungen aus der Verwandtschaft 

von Desmodium Desv. Repert. Sp. Nov. Fedde 20: 266-286. 1921+. 

A" critical treatment; includes some Thai species. 

. Desmodii generumque uffinium species et combinationes novae. 

III. Repert. Sp. Nov. Fedde 23: 353-362. 1927. 

Includes Phyllodium siamense and Pteroloma kerrii; species new 

to Thailand. 

Schlechter, R. Orchidaceae novae et criticae. Repert. Sp. Nov. Fedde. 

2: 81-86, 129-13's 166-171. 1906; 3: 1*5-51. 1906; 3: 275-280. 1907- 

Includes new species collected by Hosseus. 

• *2» 

. Uber Stemona Lour. Notizbl. Bot. Gart. Berlin 9: 190-196. 

268

fig. 7. Dec. 30, 192U. 

Includes S. kerril from Thailand. 

__ fc . Die Gattungen Cymbidiun Sw. and Cyperorchis Bl. Repert. Sp. 

Nov. Fedde 20: 96-110. 192^." 

A clarification with many transfers, including Thai species. 

"__., and 0. Warburg. Asclepiadaceae novae Asiae australis 

et orientalis. I. Reperc. Sp. Nov. Fedde 3: 305-315. .1909. 

Includes Toxocarpus siamensis and Tulophora schmidtii; new 

-•species collected by Schmidt. 

idt, J. Flora of Koh Chang. Contributions to the knowledge of 

the vegetation in the Gulf of Siam. Bot. Tideskr. 2k: 1-13, 

•15-22, 79-125, 157-221. figs. 1-8. 1901; 2U1-280. 1 fig. 329- 

367. 1902; 25: 1.47. 1903; 26: 115-176. pi. 1,2. 190U; 29: 

97-152. figs. 1, 2. 1909; 32: 309-370. 1915-16. 

Includes all material, cryptogams and phanerograms, collected 

by the Danish Expedition to Siam '1899-1900); and an account of 

collections contributed by various specialists. Contains an index. 

La vegetation de 1'ile Koh Chang. Bull. Soc. Geogr. (Paris) 

~H ('0: 275-290. figs. 29-36. 1903. 

A floristic description of the island Koh Chang, off the southeast 

coast of Thailand. 

. Vegetation of Koh Lorn, a small rocky island west of Koh Chang. 

Journ. Siam. Soc. 18: 2^1-2^2. 1 pi. 1925. 

A general description. This is a translation by E. Seidenfaden 

from Danish, with explanation by A.F.G. Kerr. 

idt, M., D. Godard, and P. De La Souchere,, -Soils and Vegetation in 

the Darlac and en the Plateau des Trois Frontieres. Centre de 

Recherches Scientifiques et Techniques. Archives des Recherches 

Agronomiques au Cambodge, au Laos et au Vietnam, 1, No. 1 (8): 8, 

112 pp., illustr.; colored plates; map; table. 1951. 

The characteristics of basaltic coils in the Darlac area vary 

according to the age of lava flows, pluvioraetry and vertical 

variation between topographical level and the water table level. 

Table of soil profiles. 

See also Bulletin Bibliographique Mensuel. Inter-African Information 

on Bureau for Soil Conservation and Land Utilization. 

Oct. 1951. 

mburgk, R.H. The vegetable products of Siam. Technol. 1: 355- 

362. Reprinted in Pharra. Journ. (London). II. 3: 123-128. 1861. 

This is a general account. 

. Siamese products. Technol. 2: UUU-U50. 1862. 

Notes on various products, mostly of botanical origin, with a 

list of 125 plant materials, with their vernacular names, including 

269

woods used mrdicinally or as sources of dyes. 

Latin identifications, 

Contains a few 

. A visit to Xiengmai, the principal city of the Laos or Shan 

States. Journ. Asiat.' Soc. Bengal 32: 387-399- 1864. 

A traveler's account with botanical, observations. Xiengmai is 

now generally spelled 'Chiengmai 1 , largest city in northern 31am. 

. The paper-tree of Siara (Ton-khai), Trpphis aspera. Technol. 

£: 337-339- I86i*. 

A general account. 

Secretariat d'Etat a .1*Agriculture. Causeries sur le Deveioppemer.te 

des Resources Naturelles au Viet Nam. 83 pp. Saigon. Sept.- 

Oct. 1959. 

This publication contains a series of 5 articles by specialists 

on forest policy and forest products oi' Vietnam. The second article 

by Nguyen-van-Chi, deals with the forests in relation to 

forest policy. The fifth article, by Le*on Rocher, treats with the 

alleviation of the exploitation of the forests of Vietnam. 

Sen Gupta, J.N. Problems of silviculture-anl management of mangrove 

forests. West Bengal. Paper presented to the Second Session. 

Asia-Pacific Forestry Commission, Singapore. 1952. 

Services du Protectorat. Activite" colonisatrice du Tonkin: Colonisation 

dans la haute et moyenne region du Tonkin, 1'Indochine. 

Bulletin Economique Ul (U) : ~735-779; illustr. 1938. 

In the vast delta region, covering about one-tenth the area of 

Tonkin and which is now part of North Vietnam, about 8 million inhabitants 

are concentrated. Owing to the agonizing situation of a 

populace attempting to earn a minimum subsistence in a limited area 

with a strange geographical paradox, the authorities of the Protectorate 

have attempted to remedy this disequilebrium. This report 

presents a succint account of efforts mode in the past and the 

project in progress 27 years ago to remedy this critical situation 

through work on the village level and by attempting to increase the 

cultivation of a variety of crops. 

Setten, G.G.K. Growth and yield of Berus (Brugtiiera cylindrica). 

Malayan Forester 16 (2): 7U-8. 1953. 

. The height of buttress structure on trees of meranti tembaga, 

S'norea leprosula. Miq. For. Res. Inst. Research Pamphlet No, 7> 

~ 

Sittisunk, P. Insecticides used in controlling leaf curl disease in 

tobacco.' Kasikorn 25 (5): Vl-500, 1953. 

Sleumer, H. 

Monographic uer Gattung iiyd no carpus Gaertner, nebst 

270

schreibung und Anatomie der Fruchte und Saraen ihrer pharmokog- 

'Stisch wichtigen Arten (Chaulmugra). Bot. Jahrb. Engler 69: 

9 1 *. Pi. 1938. 

A monographic treatment; includes Thai species. 

., El-S. Comparative study of food and population in ten 

ilected countries and territories in South and Southeast Asia. 

* illege Fork, Maryland. 1953. 

E. On a collection of ferns from Kaw Too, Surat. Journ. Siam 

' >c. Nat. Hist. Suppl. 8 (l): 1-9. 1929. 

H.M. An eaible mountain-stream alga. Journ. Siam Soc. Nat. 

*.st. Suppl. 9 (1): 1^3. 1933. 

Relates to Nostochopsis lobatus, eaten in Chiengmai. 

me ire&n-wttLcr fishes of Siam, or Thailand. Smithsonian 

istitution, United States National Museum Bulletin 168. 622 pp. 

plates. 107 figs. Washington, D. C. 19^5. 

This work is based on collections and observations made in 

lailand by the author during 1923 to 193^ > while serving as ad- 

.ser in fisheries to t,huntry were visited, lu.rge collections were assembled and pre- 

:rved, and information was obtained by personal observations or 

trough .interviews with local officials and fishermen. These 

Elections wore supplemented by specimens brought in by various 

.sis-cants in the Bureau of Fisheries of Thailand, as well as 

iterials 'obtained from other sources. 

J.J. Bulb )phyll. urn Thon. Sect. Cirrhope talum . Bull. Jard. Bot. 

litenzorg II. 5: 19-^9. Oct. 1912. 

M.A. Arthur Francis George Kerr. Proc. Linn. Soc. London 15^: 

i5-2B6. 19'

Dipterocarpus obtusifolius is found both in Semi-evergreen and 

Dry Dipterocarp forest; Shorea talura grows in the 3 types; 

Pterocymbium Javanicum thrives in Mixed Deciduous and Serai-evergreen 

forest; and Xylia kerrii occurs prolifically both in Dry 

Dipterocarp and Mixed Deciduous forest types. Tine most valuable 

timber is 'mai phayung 1 (Dalbergia cochinchinensis Pierre), which 

is almost comparable to teak (Tectoria grand is) in value. All but 

2 of the 78 species treated in the paper are well known botanically, 

so that it was considered expedient to omit a detailed description 

of these. A field key is given for the use of foresters and 

others interested in the region. Vegetative characters are largely 

employed, and features of the fruits also have been incorporated. 

This is a contribution from the Forest Products Research Division 

of the Royal Forest Departmant's working program for 1958- 

1959- This is in pursuant of the study of all reserved trees of 

Thailand, as planned by the Forest Department. 

Smythes, B.E. The birds of Burma. Second edition. 1953. 

Contains some notes on the vegetation of Burma. 

Spencer, J. C. Asia - East by South* A Cultural Geography. '53 PP« 

136 figs. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 19!5'». 

This volume treats with cultural geography in its widest interpretation. 

The introductory part treats with the geography of 

Asia. The publication is divided into three parts. The first 

part deals wl^h Systematic Geography; the second, with the regional 

growth of culture; and the third part is for reference purpose, and 

contains a very comprehensive bibliography. One chapter discusses 

the evolution of Thailand, the development of agriculture, subordinate 

elements of the economy,, and the regionalism of modern Thailand. 

Another chapter deals with India, a state of mixed cultures. 

Sprague, T.A. Dolichandrone and MarkhnMa. Kew Bull. Misc. Inf. 

302-31U. 1919. 

A systematic treatment, including Thai species. 

Spurr, S.H. History of Forest Photogrammetry and Aerial Mapping. 

Photogrammetric Engineering 20 (l): 551-5uO. 1Q5'+. 

The future of aerial survey of forests seems assured. In the 

long run, the use of aerial photographs will probably be greatest 

xn everyday forert management (Spurr, 1952). At the moment, however, 

forest inventory techniques still hold the spotlight. Combined 

tie rial-ground inventories are now the rule in forestry. In many 

cases no check on the accuracy of comparative methods has been made. 

Where careful comparisons hava been carried out on a small scale, 

as by Loomis (19'*6), Pope, Cameron and Hill (Spurr, 1952), Welander 

(1952), and Ferree (1953)> the results have come fully up to expectations 

and have justified the present-dav acceptance of aeri-xl photographic'techniques. 

272

_ ^. Forest photogrammetry and aerial mapping. A bibliography, 

1587-1955. School of Natural Resources, University of Michigan, 

Ann Arbor, Michigan. 60 pages (Processed). May 1956. 

_ . Photogranraetry and Photo- Interpretation, - with a Section on 

^ Applications to Forestry. 2nd Ed. kfl pp. 1960. 

ip, L. The vegetation of Burma from an ecological standpoint. 

^ Univ. Rangoon Hes. Monogr. 1: 1-58. illustr. 1925. 

A critical study. 

The aerial survey of the Irrawaddy delta forests (Burma). 

Tjeurn.fclcol. (London) 13: 262-276. pis. 7-12. 1925. 

_ . Asia, a regional and economic geography. Dutton Co. New 

York. 

lecki, M. Accuracy of photogrammetric measurements of tree and 

stand heights. Roczniki, Nauk Lesnych. 13: ^5-55. 1955. 

Published for the National Science Foundation and the Department 

of Agriculture by Centralny Instytut Informacji Naukawo-Technicznej 

I Ekonomicznej, Warszawa, Poland. 1962. 

pf, 0. Capillipedium flaucopsjs Stapf. Grair.ineae. Tribe Andropoconeae/ 

HookT'Incbn. PI. 21: pi. 3085. 1922. 

Occurs in Thailand. 

enis, C.G.G.J.yan. Revision of Symplocos Sect, Cordyloblaste 

(Symploc). Bull. Bot. Card. Buitenzorg III. 17: ^29-^6. Fig-. 1, 

2. 19U8. 

Includes _3- confusa, occurring in Thailand. 

_ . Miscellaneous botanical notes. I, Bull. Bot. Card. Buitenzorg 

III. 17: 383- J 'U. 2 figs. 191*8. 

Refers to Justicia quadrifaria from Thailand. Notes on Malayan 

species of AT alia appear on paês 391-397. 

D. J. ourvey of World Cultures; its peoples, Its society, 

its culture. 35! pp. (Ed. Thomas Fitzsimmons. ) No. 5« 1959 • 

Cambodia became c*r. independent state in 195'* after nearly one 

hundred years as a French protectorate. Strategically located in 

the heart of Southeast Asia, and. poised between two great power ' 

blocs of the modern world, Cambodia and its neighbors, Laos arid 

Vietna.'o, the three states of former. French Indochina come increasingly 

to the center of international attention as armed rebellion 

in Laos threatenes the peace of the wnole area. 

In this volume the complex interaction of old and new is examined 

in detail to high-light the character of the Cambodian 

people and to clarify and to give meaning to the present situation 

and futxire course of the Cambodian stat f .'. 

273

Stephens, W.M. Mangroves: Trees that make land. Smithsonian Report 

for 1962. pp. ^91-6, l| plates. Washington, D.C. 19&3. 

This paper treats, in a semi-popular style, the history, 

habits, and uses of mangrove, with emphasis on red mangrove 

(Rhizophora mangle) and its occurrence in the KLorida Everglades. 

A series of 7 photographs complement the article. 

Stonov, L.D. Defoliants and desiccants. Translated by U.S. Department 

of Commerce- Office of Technical Services. Joint Publications Research 

Service. IkJ pp. Aug. 23, 1962. 

Published by the State Scientific and Technical Publishing House 

of Chemical Literature, Moscow, 1961, this paper discusses materials 

used for the defoliation of cotton leaves, as well as those for the 

preharvest drying or desiccation of a number of grain and technical 

crops. The preharvest removal of cotton leaves makes it possible 

to mechanize harvesting. During the drying of seeds of legumes, and 

sugar beets, corn, millet, rice and other crops prior to cutting, 

the maturing of these crops is accelerated. The brochure is designed 

for 3'.r ocheraists, agronomists, brigade leaders of collective farms 

(col/jrms), state farm directors and workers at the experimental and 

research establishments, as well as for party and economic organizations. 

Strugnell, E.J. Compilation of volume tablss. Malayan Forester *i: 38* 

1936. 

, Volume tables - keruing. Malayan Forester 10: 97. 

Suniraerhayes, V.S. Paphiopedilum callosum. Curtis's Bot. Mag. 16U: 

pi. 9671. 19^6. 

Native to Koh Chang, Thailand. 

. Cymbidium Tracyanum. Curtis's Bot. Mag, 166: pi. 56- 19^9- 

Native to upper Burma, Shan States, and northwestern Thailand. 

Suwan, B.T. The march of Thailand; a survey of various aspects of 

post-war Thailand. Thailand Dcpt. Publicity. Bangkok. 1950. 

Suwonkiri, T. Bread fruit. Kasikorn 26 (2): 176-180. Banôk. 1953. 

, Coffee plantation at Sabajoy. Kasikorn 26 (5): 521-528. 1953.. 

'Ban Ku 1 orange. Kasikorn 27 (5): U33-Utl. 195^. 

Barbara groundnut (Voandzeia aubterranea). Kasikorn 27 (6): 

Suvatabandhu, K. Weedi; in paddy fields. Thailand. Dept. Agri. Tech. 

Bull. ^: 1-21. 1950.

Camphor. Kaoikorn 27 (5): 1+77-^80. 195'u 

jrif.rebel, K.J.G. Estimation of Greenheart - volume from small 

-r scale aerial photographs;. Kmp. For. Rev. 'iO (2): 162-171. 1961. 

Vhe assumption that within each forest type the volume of 

Jreenheart ((/cotea rodiael) per acre is constant has proved to be 

,correct by correlating timber volume measured in the field, with 

t-he areas of Greenheart-bear in;* forest types estimated on a photo- 

Lnterpretation map. 

The regression equation thus produced can be applied to a Green- 

*.eart-forest fror. a photo-interpretation map of another area in. 

order to estimate'the volume of Greenheart in that area without 

:arryin.-; out a field survey. 

Le, W.T. Three new varieties and two new combinations in Citrvr. 

ind related genera of the orange subfamily. Journ. Washington Ac.ad. 

:>ci. 32 (1): 2't-36. Pl. 1,2. 191*2. 

Includes Citrus nacroptora var. kcrrii, a new variety fror. 

Thailand. 

:ton, C.F. Three Malayan species of Bru.viiera. Malayan forester 

•) pp. 131-132. 19-10. 

Forester's "ari'.ial of Dipterocarps. Malayan For. Rec. llo. 16, 

L-xliii. 2'i4 pp.; text figures; biblio > Merest Research Institute, 

K'eponc, Selar.'ôr. 1 ( >'*3« 

The contents are divided into three port;G. Por.t I is a survey 

Df the ';ealoy, history and world distribution, of the .-*enus 'Jipterocarpua; 

distribution of the Pipterpcarpus ia the Malayan Peninjula; 

field observations on Dipterocai"p3; and general references to 

forests of Malaya. 

The second part co-itains keys to î-oups of Malayan nipterocarpus: 

(a) a field key based mainly on characters of trunk and bark; 

(b) based on flowers; (c) and another based on fruits. 

The third part describes specific distribution areas of the 

natural .jroups of the ,;,enua oiiorea: (a) the Balau , T ,roup of nhfirea; 

(b) the Meianti pa'anr, ;',roupl TC)" 'the Meranti Darr.ar Hi tan ;;roup; and 

(d) the ;!ed '-ferar.ti .-,roup; followed by the genera An ioopt era; 

lialanocarpjis; Cotylelobiun; Dipterocarpus; Dir/obalanop3; Hopea; 

ravashorea, I-cnta^ne, Vatican 

TlTe report al'io contains ll'"- text-figures, 109 references and 

alphabetical lists of scientific and vernacular names. 

rd, 3. .'Jeconci voyage du PC re Tachard et des Je*suites enyoyez par 

le roi au royaune de 3iarn. 'il6 pp, 1 pi. Paris. 1689* Another 

ed. 369 pp. 1 pi. Amsterdam. 1669. 

Includes sone botanical observations, and illustrations of 

-r several nlants. 

275

; Tangraonkol. T. Yam bean cultivation in Borabue. Kasikorn 25 (l): 

! . 12-15. 1952. 

Ta^.or, G. Colguhounia coccinea. Curtis 's Bot. Mag. 16 (3): 115. ^-950. 

This species is "native frcm Garhwal to Upper Burma, /unnan, 

and northern Siam. 

Teijamann, J.E, Verslag elner reis naar Siam, in het revolg van den 

Gouvernoments Komraissaris Mr. A. Loudori. Natuur, Tijdschr. Nederl. 

Ind. 25: 149-208. 186-3. 

An account (in Dutch), with an alphabetical list of plants of 

Thailand and another of vernacular names with their botanical 

equivalents. 

Terra, H. de. Component geographic factors of the natural regions of 

Burma. Ann. Assoc. Amer. Geogr. 34: 67-96. 1 pi. 6 figs. 1944. 

Includes vegetational regions on a climatic basis. 

Thanomkulbutra, C, Spacing rice seedlings at transplanting in relation 

to applications of lime and fertilizers. Kasikorn 23 (4): 

275. 1950. 

Thepsithar, S. Thailand's Teak Exports. The Bangkok Chamber of 

Commerce Journal 9(3): 3. Bangkok. March 1955. 

Contains statistics on volume of teak extracted during 1946-52, 

and volume exported during 1948-53- 

Thirawut, S. Forest Conservator, Central Region, Thailand. Bulletin 

No. R. 17. 85 PP« Royal Forest Department, Bangkok. 195&. 

This phamplet furnishes general information on forests, forestry 

ana forest policy in Thailand. It contains information on Teak 

and other timbers exploited for domestic use and for export; and 

discusses the forest program adopted by the Thai Royal Forest 

Department. 

Thailand is divided, for forest administrative purposes, into 

four regions, each in charge of a Conservator. Each region has 

four to seven divisions. Each division, in turn, is composed of 

a group of provinces, of which there are 71 in all. In each province 

the governor is virtually responsible for forestry matters, 

so that there is some difficulty in pursuing a consistent forest 

policy. 

Thai plant names are given with the corresponding botanical 

equivalent, which enhances the value of the Bulletin. 

Thompson, V. Thailand, the New Siam. 864 pp. Macmillan. New York. 

1941. 

This comprehensive publication is divided into three parts. Part 

one discusses the geography of Thailand; its people; history; 

foreign relations; administration; justice; and defense. The 

second part treats with land and population; natural resources; 

276

agriculture; commerce; industry; public works; finance; and labor. 

The third part deals with religion; social organization; social 

problems; public health; opium; culture; education; press and 

public opinion. 

A large bibliography is included; a list of newspapers and 

periodicals that were reviewed; biographical notes of individuals 

and commercial organizations; footnotes referring to chapters; 

and an index. 

Thornthwaite, C.W. An approach toward a rational classification of 

climate. Geog. Rev. 33 (l): 5^-9^. 19^3- 

Traipob, P.H. Growing grapes in Thailand. Kasikorn 23 (3): 164-167. 

1950. 

Trew, D.M. Site mapping from aerial photos. The Forestry Chronicle 

37 (4): k23-k2k. Dec. 1961, 

If site maps are needed for closer rotation and calculation of 

yield, then all forest land should be site typed by photo interpretation. 

However, the author gives a word of caution when aerial 

photos are used. Th^re is more to photo interpretation trian meets 

the eye. In advocating site-mapping from photos it should be 

understood that stereo-vision alone is not the only prerequisite. 

Miniature stereo image of a forest facilitates those who have the 

training, experience and mature judgment to read and understand it. 

Many foresters remain skeptical of photo information because of exaggerated 

claims of accuracy made by over-enthusiastic novices. 

Troll, C. Der asymetrische Aufbau der Vegetations-zonea und Vegetationsstufen 

auf der Nord und Suedhalbkugel. Ber. u.d. Geobotauische 

Forschungs-institut Ruebel in Zurich f.d. 19^7. 19^8. 

._ Landscape Ecology and Land Development with Special Reference 

to the Tropics. Journ. Tropical Geography 17: 1-11. May 1963. 

In this paper the author defines geography and its two main 

aims. He traces the works of Warming, Cowles and Clements, Barrow 

and McKenzie in terms of plant ecology, human ecology and landscape 

ecology. There is also a discussion of tropical savannas as examples 

of natural landscapes. 

Five plates and 5 figures, with a reference list of 29 titles 

accompany the article. 

Trung, Thai-van. Ecologie et Classification de la Vegetation Porestiere 

du Viet Nam (in Russian). BotanicalJournal of W.L. Komarsv. ^0 pp. 

1 map. Academy of Science, USSR. 1962. 

This is an abstract of a dissertation submitted for the Doctorate 

Degree in Biological Sciences at Leningrad University. Dr. Thai 

Van Trung is now Chief of the Botany Department at the Institute 

of Forest Investigations in Hanoi, North Vietnam. This publication 

presents the results of more than 20 years of observations and 

277

experiments on the forests of almost all parts of Vietnam, from 

Langshou and Kao bau, on the border of China, as far as Laskay 

and Kamay in the extreme.South, where the author worked during 

19^1-^5 on the utilization and replenishment of the forests. 

Until recent years the vegetation of the Peninsula of Indochina, 

part of which now forms Vietnam, attracted little attention 

from ecologists and phytogeographers, and therefore it wa's inadequately 

studied or known. 

Many papers dealing with the taxonomy of woody plants and purely 

technical publications, such as Lecomte'a contributions (1905-1952) 

on the Flora of Indochina, have been published. But there is no 

publication on the general vegetation of Vietnam to compare with 

published information available on other tropical countries. 

The author divides the vegetation of Vietnam into Ik climatic 

types, ranging from closed evergreet^ rain or subhuraid tropical 

type to upland formations, such as .steppe, prairie and desert, and 

subhumid vegetation to that of cold and dry zones. He discusses 

also edaphic and authropogenic subtypes, such as forests prevailing 

on calcareous soil; bamboo and closed secondary forest; mangrove 

forest on littoral saline soil; artificial forest of Casuarina 

eguisetifolia on coastal sandy soil; artificial Eucalyptus forest 

on cloud-covered slopes; and secondary savannas. 

The report is accompanied by a preliminary map of the forests 

of Vietnam, with the various forest types and subtypes indicated 

in different colors. 

Truong-Van-Hie'u. Les perspectives de la culture du laquier au Viet- 

Nam. 12 pp. Secretariat d'Etat a I 1 Agriculture. Sept.Oct. Iy59. 

A brief historical account is given of the culture of lac in 

Vietnam; the different species of host trees; lac requirements within 

Vietnam, and potential production for exportation; the culture of 

lac in Vietnam; and location of an experimental station for such 

studies. 

Tulyakanit, C. Coffee. Kasikorn 23 (5): 377-38. 1950. 

., T. Suwankiri and P. Siri. Report on the growing of cacao in 

Singora (Songkla). Kasikorn 26 (3): 307-310. 1953. 

Turpin, F.H. Histoire civile et naturelle du royaume de Siam, et 

des revolutions qui ont bouleverse cet empire jusqu'en 1770; 

publie*e par M. Turpin sur des inanuscrits qui lui ont e*te communique* 

par M. 1'Eveque de Tabuaca, Vicaire apostolique de Siam 

et autres missionnaires de ce royaume. 2 volumes. Paris. 1771- 

. History of Siam. A general collection of the best and most 

interesting voyages and travels. London. 9: 573-655* London. 1808. 

l8lU. (Transl. from French. John Pinkerton. Ed.) 

Chapter 8 deals with natural history, and chapter 9 discusses 

the trees and fruits of Thailand. 

278

LI, W.B. Ascolepis gracilis, Turrill. Cyperaceae. Tribus 

Hypolytreae. Hook. Icon. PI. 31: pi. 3020. 191*" 

A new species described from Thailand and Wesv, Africa. 

a> T. Notes on genus Gastrodia of southeastern Asia. Journ. 

Jap. Bot. I: 579-586. 3 figs. 19>H. 

In English and Japanese; includes G. tiaensis and G« hayatae, 

reported as new species from Thailand. 

d Nations - Econ. and Soc. Council, Dept. Econ. Affairs. Economic 

Survey of Asia and the Far East, 1953. Bangkok. 

Report on the economic and social aspects of production and 

utilization of fertilizers in the ECAFE Region. 207 PP« 

Dec. 1950. (Mimeographed.) 

This report was prepared jointly by the secretariats of the 

Economic Commission for Asia and the Far East and of the Food and 

Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. 

. Report of the Mission on Community Organization, and Development 

in South and Southeast Asia. United Nations Series on Community 

Organization and Development. 165 pp. 1953* (Mimeographed.) 

This is a technical report by Professor H. Belshaw and Dr. 

J. B. Grant. 

International Rice Commission. Use of rice-fields for fish 

"culture in Thailand. News Letter. 13: 18-19. 1955. 

. Army. Photo interpretation of vegetation in 'the Tropical Pacific 

area and its use as an indicator of kind of ground. Engineering 

Notes No. 20. 107 PP., 28 plates, 2k figs. Aug. l$kk. 

Prepared by U.S. Geological Survey under the direction of Chief 

of Engineers, Military Intelligence Division Office, U.S. Army. 

_. Cambodia. Health Data Publication No. 2A. Walter Reed Army 

Institute of Research. Walter Reed Army Medical Center, Washington, 

D. C. 

. Department of Agriculture. Policy and programs which tend to 

deter United States trade in agricultural products in Thailand. 

Agr. Circ. FATP 31-55. Washington, D.C. 1955. (Mimeographed.) 

Thailand kapok exports increase in 195^ « 

To-55. Washington, D. C. 1955- 

For. «.g. Cic. FvF 

_ . World cotton production exceeds previous record. For. Agr. 

"Circ. FC 9-55.. Washington, D. C. 1955. 

World jute supply considerably larger in 1955-56. 

"Circ. FVF 13-55. Washington, D. C. 1955- 

279 

For. Agr. 

For.

. World peanut production at near-record level. For. Agr. Circ. 

FFO 13-55. Washington, D. C. 1955. 

. World soybean production sets new record. For. Agr. Circ. 

FFO 12-55. Washington, D.C. 1955. 

• . Office of Foreign Relations. The Agriculture of Siam. ^9 PP« 

Washington, D. C. Aug. 1950. (Mimeographed.) 

This preliminary report was prepared for the Economic Cooperation 

Administration, so as to be available for the guidance of persons 

operating with the United States program of technical cooperation 

with Thailand. 

U. S. Department of Commerce. International Affairs. World Trade Information 

Service. Operatio'^s Reports Licensing and exchange 

controls - Cambodia. Part 2: Ser. 6l-53« 6 pp. Aug. 1961. 

. Bureau of International Programs. Basic data on the economy 

of Cambodia. Economic Reports. Part 1: No. 61-65. 16 pp. Sept. 

1961 

Ṫhis report superseded basic data on the economy of Cambodia. 

World 'irade Information Service, Part 1: No. 58. Jan. 1958. 

. 3iam.Summary of basic economic information. Int. Ref. Service, 

5 (21). Washington, D. C. May 191*9. 

• . Thailand - Summary of basic economic information. Bus. Information 

Serv. World Trade Series No. 389. Washington, D. C. 1953. 

U. 3. Mutual Security Agency. East meets west in Thailand. Washington, 

D. C. 1952. 

Uthaisri, S. Economic position of broadcast rice farmers. Kasikorn 

25 (3): 218-223. 1952. 

Valeton, T. New notes on the Zingiberaceae of Java and the Malayan 

Archipelago. Bull. Jard. Bot. Buitenzorg 2. (2): 1-168. pi. 1-30. 

1916. 

Some eastern Asiatic species cultivated in the region are discussed. 

Van-Hoi, L. Contribution a l'e*tude des foêts claires du Sud-Laos. 

99 pages. 1952. 

Van Leeuwen, W. Contribution to the knowledge of the insect- c ,alls of 

Siam. Journ. Siara. Soc. 15: ^-65. figs. 1-lU. 1922. 

Contains descriptions of galls on 36 species of plants in 22 

families. 

280

J. Conditions ecologiques,.groupements vegetale et- flore du 

,aos. Soc. Bot. de France, Mem. 1958; 3-Ul. map. 1959. 

Les forets du Laos. Bois et Forets des Tropiques 70: 5-21« 

"llustr. March-April 1960. 

Knowledge of the general ecological conditions in Laos contributes 

to a better understanding of the dominant forest types 

Ln that country. 

•»- Six climatic zones prevailing in Laos correspond, in general, to 

separate climatic types of forests. Adjacent to the dense, humid 

and semi-deciduous forests there are deciduous forests in which teak 

1 (Tectona grandis) is found. Within or near the climatic forests 

there are other formations, which are either transitory or of a 

secondary nature; also those stabilized under the influence of the 

soil, and known as pseudoclimatic forests, or man-made, peni- 

* climatic forests. 

A map of the geology of Laos; a schematic map of the principal 

forest types; 9 photographs; and 31 references are included. 

iever, A. Natural treasures and their utilization. Journ. Thailand 

Hes. Soc. Nat. Hist. Suppl. 12 (l): 53-63. 1939< 

Particul ar reference is made to the work done'by the Department 

of Science of Thailand. 

. Ec.ible and poisonous beans of the lima type (Pnaseolus 

Innatur L*}: a comparative study. Thai Sci. Bull. 2 (1):~1-99* 

pi. 1-9. l c "tO. 

Largely concerns chemistry and nutritive va n uss and includes 

some botantical data. 

nam. Presenting Vietnam. Spec. Ed. Published by the Review 

Horizons. 20 pp. Saigon, Vietnam. I960. 

A brief review of the ethnic and physiographic features of 

Vietnam is given. 

Whatever the truth nay be, or whichever theory one supports, it 

can be taken as certain that the Vietnamese race, as it is today, 

with its own peculiar characteristics, forms a homogeneous race, 

the product of the long-past mingling of peoples. It may not be 

possible to make a precise scientific analysis cf each constituent 

element - Mongol, Indonesian, Indo-Malay, Melanesian< and others - 

but it is undeniable that the mixture of these elements through 

the course of centuries has resulted in a nation which has ethnic 

originality. On that basis it maintains that it has just claims to 

authentic nationalism. 

uthankul, K. 

I 

Fertilizers for backyard gardening. 

. .. 

Kasikorn 25 (3): 

236-2^2. 1952. 

•at, L.S. Aids from tne U.S. Government through M.3.A. Kasikorn 

* 26 (1): 1-22. 1953. 

261

Wager, J.V.K. Uses of aerial photographs in forest recreation. Photograznmetric 

.Engineering 16 (1): 618-619. 1950. 

The author is head of the Department of Forest Recreation and 

Game Management, Colorado, A.& M.College, Fort Collins, Colorado. 

Wainio, E.A. Lichenen sumo note Doi Sutep (circ. 1675 m.s.m.) in 

Siam bore alia anno 190U A D re: C.C. Hosseo collecti. Ann. Soc. 

Zool.-Bot. Penn. Vanamo 1;33-35. 1923. 

A systematic treatment, including new species from northern 

Thailand. 

Walker, E.H. A contribution toward a bibliography of Thai Botany. 

The Siam Society; The Natural History Bulletin 15 (l)rpp. 27-88. 

Sept. 1952. 

This Bibliography contains the majority of major and minor references 

dealing specifically with the plants of Thailand. This 

is not a complete bibliography of Thai botany, for many important 

toxonomic monograph.3 of groups which include Thai species are not 

listed and many publications with incidental references to Thai 

plants have been omitted. 

This publication was prepared as a supplement to the more extensive 

reference, 'A Bibliography of Eastern Asiatic Botany', by 

E. D. Merrill and E.H. Walker^ Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University, 

1938. This vast Bibliography contains about 21,000 titles, covering 

Mainland China, Japan, Manchuria, Mongolia, Tibet, Korea, and 

eastern Siberia. It includes also the most important floras and 

comprehensive works on adjacent regions, such as the Philippines, 

Indochina, Thailand, Burma, India and Central Asia. 

., and R. L. Pendleton. A survey of the vegetation of Southeastern 

Asia, the Indo-Chinese Province of the Pacific Basin. Proceedings 

of the Eighth Pacific Science Congress. k: pp. 99-lUU. 

1957. 

Walker, F.A. The management and exploitation of the Klang mangrove 

forests. Malayan Forester 6: 71-78. 1937. 

Regeneration or Klang mangroves. Malayan Forester 7: 71-76. 

2 plates. 4.938. 

Walton, R.C., R.C. Barnard, and J.Wyatt-Smith. The SilvicvJ.ture of 

lowland Dipterocarp forest in Malaya. Malayan Forester 5. 15: 

181. 1952. 

Ward, B.E. (Ed.). Women in the New Asia. 5^9 pp. illustr. UNESCO. 

Paris. 1963. 

This publication is an outgrowth of UNESCO's long-range research 

project t.n Mutual Appreciation of Eastern and Western Cultural. 

Values, which was launched with a symposium of social, 

scientists held at Calcutta in 195&- It should be looked on as a 

282

ly, from a new perspective, of the Status of Women in South 

(195^), edited by A, Appadorai, also under the auspices of 

0. During recent history, the world har. seen revolutionary 

es in the de Aure status of women - politically, legally, 

mically, and educationally; but de facto changes have not kept 

with them. The present volume attempts to explore .the latter 

£s of the issue, and in so doing, it offers a refreshing dott 

for social scientists as well as interested laymen. 

>oen in the New Asia is divided into three parts. The first 

lies a long analytical paper by Barbara Ward wherein she 

.iantly examines, in cross-national framework, the influence 

idem medical measures, communication, urbanization, new eraa«jnt 

and waês, education, political emancipation, and kinship 

ims on the changing roles of women in South and Southeast Asia, 

second part present*autobiographical and sociological data on 

ifferent countries, contributed by 18 authors. Of the two or 

papers written on each country, one provides social-anthropocal 

analysis of women's role in the society and the other pres 

an autobiographical sketch of a leading, atypical woman 

zen. The third part comprises two papers-one, by Romila Tharper, 

'omen's emancipation movements in southern Asia and the other, 

'.. Smith, on the population characteristics of South and Southeast 

** 

!he volume was written by 20 persons drawn from a wide spectrum 

Jiofessions, for the contributors include anthropologists, jour- 

.sts, social workers, physicians, and politicians as well eu3 

Jmakers. It illustrates at least two points cf general interest. 

5t, the change in the social roles of women in Asia during the 

b three generations is largely the result of their access to 

srn systems of education. This is obvious, because nine out of 

women writing their biographical notes are successful professionals 

the tenth, the first woman to attain the baccalaureate in Laos, 

a socially active, nonprofessional by choice. Second, the changes 

the women's roles are generally rest- 4 . ' rt r> d to the urban centers, 

nly among the new elites of the new Asia, who radiate innovations 

the fat-flung corners of their countries. On the sociological 

•el, S.C. Dube points out how caste becomes invisible in Indian 

,ies; 3.S. Siriwardena describes how towns have exercised liber- 

.ng influences on women in Ceylon; and F. Wong shows how urban 

Klitlons engender change from extended to nuclear families among 

j Chinese of Singapore. It is interesting to note that the women 

such countries as Burma and Thailand, who have long held equal 

•'portunities with men and have had for generations uxany roles open 

them, are not as professionally active or generally outstanding 

the women of India, Ceylon, or Pakistan, who, only two generations 

o, had very few roles available to them. 

* Women in the New Asia is a fascinating, objectively written doment 

offering comparative data from 11 (now 10) different countries, 

283

even though it does not tell MS much about the women of the masses 

who live in the rural areas of these old countries that have become 

new nations. 

Wanandom, P.W, (Winit Toh Komes). The Cape gooseberry* Journ. Slam. 

Soc. Nat. Hist. Suppl. 8 (k): 335-336. 1932. 

A brief note on the introduction of Physalis peruviana. 

_ . Yellow-banded leaves in Saccolobium giânteura. Journ. Siam 

Soc. Nat. Hist. Suppl. 9 (l):^ " 1933- 

Considered a natural sport. 

. (Phya Vinit Vanontan Toh Komes) A reputed rejuvanator. 

Journ. Siam Soc. Nat. Hist. Suppl. 9 (l): Ik^-lk". 1933. 

Concerns phRiolor.ical effects of f\ drug from the roots of 

Butea super ba. 

_ 

Notes on introduced plants in Siam. Journ. Siam Soc. Nat. 

Hist. Suppl. 9 (1): 89-107. 1933; 9 (3): 265-285. 

Notes on many species. 

_ . Khid Suvarnasuddhi and Tern Smitinand (Eds.). Thai Plant 

Names: Vernacular Names - Botanical Neunes. Thai Forest Record No. 

1. 871 pp. 1 map. Royal Forest Department, Bangkok. I960. 

The original intention of the author was .to complete and publish 

this worlt in 1948. Because of Phya Winlt'c sudden death in 

1955, the project was completed, by Khid Suvamasuddi and Tern 

Smitinand, of the Royal Forest Department, who undertook the task 

of editing this large and useful compilation. 

The common names are arranged according to the Thai alphabet. 

The authors listed vernacular names used by different tribes and 

other nationals residing in Thailand, and the country subdivided 

into regions according to the principal dialects used. Preceding 

each botanical name an abbreviation denotes the habit of the 

plant, whether a tree, «•> vb, liane, grass or palm, so that the 

reader may ascertain its characteristics. 

An appendix contains a list of synonyms. 

Wang, C.W. A preliminary study of the vegetation of Yunnan. Bull. Fan. 

Mem. Last. Biol. Bot. Ser, 9: 67-113. pi. 1-11. 2 folded maps. 1939. 

_ 

. The forest vegetation of continental eastern Asia- and its 

development. 

An unpublished manuscript. | 

Warburg, 0. Plantar novae siamensis a J. Schmidt collectae. Repert. 

Sp. Nov. Fedtle 16: 25^-256. 1919- 

Knema siamensis, Gonocaryum jjjMgnsgj Rauwolfia denslflpra and 

Scolopia siamensis, n spp. and Picroxylon n. gen. (Simarubaceae)

. represented by P. stamensis n. sp. 

rd, F.K. Across tK> Siamese Peninsula I-II. Card. Chron. Ser. III. 

110: 102. fig. 85. Nov. 15; 20^. Fig. 9 J +. Nov.29, 19U1. 

A general account of the author's trip, with botanical observations 

. 

rming, E., and P. Graebner, Lehrbuch der oekologischer Pfianzengeograrhie. 

ke. t ed. Berlin. 1933. 

tt, G. The commercial products of India, being an abridgment of 

'The dictionary of the economic products of India 1 , i-viii, 

l-llfl9. London. 1908. 

An abridgment of Watt's valuable Dictionary (1889-96). 

. Gossypium. Kew Dull. Misc. Inf. 1926: 193-210; 192y; 

321-35^ 

A classified enumeration of cultivated and wild species represented 

in British herbaria, including citations of specimens 

from Thailand. 

tson, J.G. Mangrove forests of the Malay Peninsula. Malayan .For. 

Rec. 6: 275 pp. 72 plates, k diagrams. 1928. 

The Mangrove forests, or swamps, of the Malay Peninsula covex an 

area of about U30 square miles, almost all on the west coast. 

.More than '*00 square miles of these have been established as reserve 

forests. The author gives a general description of the Mangrove 

formation; general characteristics of the flora: botanical 

descriptions; silviculture; and management, utilization and exploitation 

of this forest type. 

The bib.liography contains 55 titles. An index and glossary 

are also included. 

eeler, P.R. Preliminary plan: forest survey of Cambodia. Cambodia, 

U30M. 1959. 

chitranon, S. English-Siamese technical terms. 1-216. [1-2]. 

Bangkok. 1931-32. 

Pages 77-1^2 are apparently a republication by Phya Vanpruk 

Picharn. 1923. 

chi£er, V.D., and M.K. Bennett. The rice economy of monsoon Asia. 

358 pp. Standford Univ. Press. 1941. 

Rice is the great staple in the diet of hundreds of millions of 

people, particularly in the Orient, and is a cereal preferred by 

millions more tu> poverty forces them to eat cheaper foods. This 

publication contains 13 chapters, in which the authors discuss rice 

in the diet of Asiatics; potentialities for rice expansion in terms 

ex' acreage and yields; and trends in the Asiatic rice economy. 

285

Williams, F.N. The botany of Siam. Journ. Bot. Brit. & For. Ul: 306- 

309. Sept. 1901. 

Mainly notes on publications and collections deposited in the 

Kew herbarium. 

. Liste des plantes connues du Siam. Bull. Herb. Boiss. II. 

: 217-232, 361.372, 1027-103^. 190U: II 5: 17-32, 216-227, 

A systematic list of 10^2 species representing various 

collections; includes many new speciesj see Hosseus, C.C., 1910. 

Wilson, E. h. Ms^noliaceae collected by J. F. Rock in Yunnan and Indo- 

China. Journ. Arn. Arc. 7: 235-239. 1926. 

Includes some of his collections from Thailand. 

Winit Wanaiorn, P. A night-scented orchid. Journ. Nat. Hist. Soc. 

Siam. 6 (1): ll*o. 1923. 

A short note on Platanthera susannae. 

Wit, H.D.D. de. Revision of the genus Sindora Miquel (Lecura.). Bull. 

Pot. Card. Buitenzorg III. 18. 5-82. Figs. 1-15. 191*9. 

Includes the Thai species. 

Wclff, H. Hydro ctyle diaroenais. spec. nov. Repert. Sp. Nov. I-'edde 17: 

155- 156.' 1921. 

Based on Hosseus J92. 

Wyatt-Smith, J. Pocket check list of timber trees. Mai. For. Rec. 

17: 182 pp. 1952. 

_ 

. A note on the vegetation of the islands in the Malacca 

Straits. Malayan Forester. 16: p. 191. 1953. 

_ _ . Storm forest in Kelantan. Malayan Forester, 17: p. 5. 195 1 *. 

Manual of Malayan timbers trees. For. Res. Inst. Research 

"pamphlets Nos. 1 to 6. 1953-5 1 *. 

. Malayan species of Brur.uiera, Gonneratia, Ayicennia. Malayan 

Forester 1£ (^>): 156-161. 1953. 

Yingkayran, P., and 3, Srihanern. Pineapple growing at Amphur Bangkla. 

Kaoikorn 23 (2): ;)7-l05. 1950. • 

Zimmerman, G.C. Gome phases of land utilisation in Giara. Goeg. Rev. 

27: 378-39 1 *. ifl figs. 1937. 

A treatment of land utilization on a regional bas^.s in Thailand. 

236

;. and W.N. Sparhawk. Forest Resources of Siam. Vol. I: 

6-^89. McGraw Hill Book Company, Inc..1923. 

General information on the extent and character of the forests 

' Thailand; ovnershipj annual cut; growth and consumption; exufts 

and imports; table showing distribution of teak exports. 

>ntains 2 references. 

Forest Resources of French Indo-China. Vol. I: 390-U20. 

V;Graw Hill Book Company, Inc. 1923- 

The general region is discussed with a brief description of 

le forest area; character of ownership; annual cut and production; 

-*ible showing volume of timber cut in 1916; annual consumption; 

sports and imports; probable future program. 

There is a discussion of the major areas of Tonkin, now part 

f North Vietnam; Casbodia; north, central and south Annam; and 

ochin-China, now forming a part of South Vietnam; and a brief 

escription of the principal timbers, and their uses, of each 

egion. 

-0- 

28

G E N E R A L I N U E X 

Abies sp. 

Acacia catechu 

comosa -----------JtO 

Acantiiaceae - -------- 25 

Acer sp, ------------ 5 ;> ,£l 

Acknowledgments----- a 

Acrostichutp aureum --33 

Adir.a cord if oil a -- — 36 

Aerial inventory, 

Vietnam .......... 52 

observations ----- 17 

Aerial photographs — -t^, ^0 

color film ------- '55 

interpretation --- 5> 

surface assess. 

merit ------------- 'xL 

Aerial photography --- '»°, ' ; l 

films used-------- < 

Aerial studies ------ 5,7 

Canada ------------ 

: >--- 

Europe ----------- 

; ' 

tropical forests -•'; - 

united States -..-- >• 

Africa, Central ----- •• 

we an ------------- !•-; 

African tulip tree --Xi 

Afzclia xylocarpa. ---- 27 , 5 •' 

."', .ad i rac'-.la inclioa 

Hal. Cu-v: 'on rivor 73 

Balai 10-;•>.: tûr. I'cimi 1 

.-j

............. 20,23,27,28, 

35, 36, 38, HI, 

H 2, 59, 60, 73, 

75., TB, 80, 93, 

9-'i,98, 

1H5 (ill.) 

ikes - ......... 

U,o,ll,«'iO, 

Hi, 1.2,80, 92, 

157(111.) 

158(111.) 

ft ........... 158(111.) 

es ------------ jo 

sa arundinacea-27, 36, 38, 39, 

Hi, 59 

umenea -------- Ho,H3,59 

. V- ...........HO 

'akong river --- ^,65 

.ok - ..........5,7,8,H7, 

H8,6l,70 

.ain ----------- 69 

bhatana, Dusit-ii 

>nts -— - ....... 6,37,38,1*3 

)ur,W..R.- ....... 10 

.nla sp. ....... 25,39 

i .............. 77,78 

Jtry 

ia spp. --- Ho 

78 

•) forest H,5,6,39, 

HO,92, 

155(U1.) 

family 78,79 

a, j.s. 10 

al, Bay of 69 

re - 76 

n. T i'V7 

O •" ~ "•• - mr ~m ~ ~- ~- w- — J | 

la sp. 

5H 

iography H,l7o 

boa 77,78 

oniaceae -25 

long 

7o 

i-Thuan 77 

.Lab.Ft.Detrick, 

W. — H,H8,56 

.Lc fcrnation ---15 

;C 

wen plateau ---- 86 

>ax insir;ne ----- 39, Ho, 

__. 

;p. 

SO 

Borabue ------------------ 6,33 

Borassus flabellifer ----- 6, 

Borneo, liorth ------------ 19,53 

aer\al photography ----- 53 

beach forest ---- - ------ 53 

Casuarina fringe -- --- --53 

coastal padar>3 --------- 53 

inland forest, drained --53 

inundated forest ------- 53 

mangrove forest ---- ---- 53 

mixed coastal foreot --- 53 

r.ibon^ palm ---- -------- 53 

nipa palm -------------- 53 

Royal Air Force aerial 

photography ------------ 53 

salt water forest ------ 53 

transitional forest -- — 53 

Brazil ------------------- 50 

Broad-leaved trees ----- --73,79 

Bruffliiera parviflora — ---31- 

ftvnmorrhiza ---- . -------- 31 

op ........ - ............ 30,31 

Brundage, T.W. --------- ~-ii 

Buddhism ----------------- 80 

Bur cham, L.T. ----- - ------ '16 

Burma --- ......... -------- 3, 5, 6, 2\, Hi, 

H7, (Si, 60 

Eurtt Davy, J ------------- 10 ^ 

Butea sp. ---- . ----------- -50 

Buttes, limestone 06 

Cacti .................... 39, 9H 

Caesalpinia. aappan ----- --36,81 

Cain,S.A. .................. 9 

Cajeput tree ............. 32,77, 138 (ill.) 

Calamuci spp ............ --20,22, 2H, 25, 

27,7S,8H 

Calophyllum inophyllum — ; )0 

Canau, Pte.de ------------ 31,71,78 

Car.bodia ................ - 1,2,3,4,5,7, 

16, 17,21,2'i, 

29,31, 33, 3S 1 , 

Ho ; H7,^8,52, 

59,61,64,65, 

o6,72,.73,T7,. 

8l,82,8i>,92, 

93, 9H 

climate ---------------- 83 

forests ------ — ........83, 8H 

forest types ----- ------lll(map) 

289

Charcoal. — —59, '8 

Charenmayou, Preecna ii 

-Chaudoc 

Chaulmoo.crn oil 

- 77,79 

---23 

Ghee river ~ -7 

ll ,o 

Che:nica3. defoliants 

spray — 

•'*!> ^2, ^6 

Chestnut 28,61 

Chiaiv;khan 7 

Chiengriao 

ran.-je 

5,'J,^,93 

12'>(ill.) 

Chienr;mai -.-,8, 26,2 C /, 

Chienp;raj 

30,37,^7,91 

--3C 

China 

— - v,65,86 

couth -- j,C, 32 

•Sea 77 

Chinese —78,62,83 

frontier 71 

Chipp, T.F. — 10 

Cholon 6 

Chukrasia yeiutina 27,39 

Chulalonkorn University -—17^' 

Chumphon 

Citrus fruits 

u,39 

36 

Classification of .tropical 

forests 

Climate - 

9 

13,18 

Climax formations --!•!. 17 

Cochin-China 

Co con; 76 

Coffee family 25 

Colombia 16 

Coniferous forest 

2, ;}2,7i, 7^ 

'i,18,29,60, 

92 

Conifers - 17,29,52,79, 

81 

Consociation 1'i, 15,16 

Cambodia 

population 82 

rubber production 

85 

Cambodians 

65,6'/ 

Camellia ccr.rusn 

sp. 

2 

26 

Canarium tonkinense-61 

Car, a valla sp, -39 

Cap Hock Escarpment 

Carallia sp. 

69 

--25 

Carapa obovata ---—31 

Cardamom mountain 

chain - 

Cardamoms 

—21,02,63,93 

23,6c 

Carica papaya 94 

Caryota urens 25 

Cassava 

60,9-'* 

Cassia fistula 36 

garrettiana —27 

siamea .--27 

Cas'canupsis acuminatissina 

28 

sp 

Castor bean 

•26,70,61 

\fj 

Casuarina eguisetif'olia 

.'(0 

jungnuhniana - t o 

trees "HTH7 o7,72, 

151(111.) 

I:.(ill.) 

Cay tram 

Cedrola sp. 

-25 

Central plain 6^ 

climate of —~-->^ 

Cephalostachyum sp.-'tO 

Chachersao 5 

Chainat — "-3 

Chak 32 

Chaklee -— 7,8 

Chamao cypar i s sp.—80 

Champion ,H.G» 

Chams - 

-10 

81,83 

Chantaburi — - 5,29, 3, 

62, & 

66,91 

river 66 

Chao Phraya plain--~6U, 65 

river 5, °3, 

Cordia dichotoma — 

Corn 

^0 

9'*- 

Corypha leaves -23 

unbracul i f era 

Cotton 

;----23 

36,9^ 

Cotylelobiurri lanceolatum 70 

Cratoxylon formosura ^0 

sp - 27 

Criteria for classification-11 

Crotpn hut c h is on 1 anu s 

3S J 

Cunnin^hamia sinenais — 

sp." - 

30 

17,80 

290

ia Javanensis --36 

rd-apple t'ainily-25 

36 

-81 

Alum clatum 28 

jdes sp. 17,93 

* tiorops sp. 25 

53,73 

r.-^xa barler.sis -36 

\ chinoninensjla --88 

l.trata -— --'- 27 

n/jnaiensls -— --36 

I - ver AA -36 

. 25,28,3^ 

r reain ---22,37 

•Cia - -80 

in river 73 

2k mountain -&2 

ao mountain 

; ';3 

reau, P.M. 10 

., plateau -----73 

.•.', K.A. - —— —- 70,78,79,81, 

! Dipterocarp forests *, 5, : ->>7>8,13, 

n, 28, 37,^0, 

^ 

167(111.) 

burned over - .....---------152 (ill.) 

dry ...................... ^9,6o,150(ill.) 

151(111.) 

152(111.) 

dvarf - ..... - .......... — 37 

trees .................... 36,^1,69,70, 

73,79 

Dipterocarpus olatus -------- 23,25,37,40, 

U2, 50, 52,70, 

79 

eostatus ----------------- 25,70 

is-- ---------------- 25 

,.;randiflorus ------------- -25 

intricatuo - ....... ------- 3c, 37,8U 

obtusifolius ------------- 33»36,37,38, 

J.;,:.T forest.-. --- 3,-V', 1'-, 

23,70 

8l 

tuberculatuE 

27,36,38,84 

turbinatus - 

23,25 

, :0,VO, opp. 50,79 

Doi Anka 29 

e 

Chien.ûao 

-- 6,28,2Q 

f r.ixed -------- 35,^6,40, Inthar.on - 28,29 

168(111.) Pay 6,29 

iar.ts ---------- 6, lo,''6, Doi Sutep 6,28,29 

:'ect of -------- 57 

oak anu ccestnut ^-133(111.) 

ipoctic:: trail— 171(111. ) shifting agriculture- 125(111.) 

3t-site ........ 171(111.) Dominants ---15,16 

172(111.) Doir; Fhrya Yen^ ranê --64,65 

:;t.; witli ....... *• : 

Don;.; Rek iiscarpmcnt 

-.'.^,65 

3 .. lalanus .-.- : .. ...,- Doverspike, O.K. 5 4 

rictus 27,36,Jil Drude, 0. 9 

. ''C ! Dryland forests 78 

Dorian 

Durio spp. 

23 

23 

291

Dwarf trees 

Dye 

93 

36,79 

Dyera co_stulat>x 19,23 

Eagle wood --------- .-23 

Eastman Kodak Co.-----5 4 

Ebony----------------78 

Edaphic community ---12,30 

formation -------- 16 

Edible plants ....... 23,45,58 

Edwards plateau ----- 89,92 

Elephant mountain — 21,82,83,93 

Elfin woodland ------ 93 

Endemism ------------ 70 

Enterolobium saman---94 

Entada sp. ----------- 25 

Environment — - — ----11 

Erythrophloeum suceirubrum 

— ------ —-36,40 

teysmannii ------- 27,36 

Essential oil ------- 32 

Eucalyptus trees - — -72 

Eugenia j_ambos ------ 94 

ripicola --------- 41 

siamensiia -- ---- --25 

sp. .............. 27 

Eupator ium pdoratum- -^2, 44 , 57 , cC , 

94 , 163 ( ill . ) 

Europe ---------- ----16 

Euterpe globosa ----- 93 

Evergreen forest ---- 3,4,l4,r 7 , 

18,20,29, 

dry ------ ........ 4,26,-»0,4l, 

43,^5/92, 

128 (ill.) 

170 (ill.) 

moist, second 

growth - ..........122(111.) 

Excoecaria agallocha-31 

Fagraea cochin* 

(Thine nse —-------40 

Fang------ ......... —29 

Ferns ------- ...... --24,25,60 

Feronella lucida — 39 

Fiber --- - ----------- 80 . 

plants ------------ 36 

Flcus spp.-- ....... —25,27,50, 

lU 6(111.) 

147(111.) 

Field studies 

292 

Field team — 167(111.) 

Firewood - 32, 37,59,65, 

78,80 

Flacourtia indica 39 

Floristics 13 

Foliage hue 51 

tone — 51 

Food plants 

..-.-9^ 

resources 

__-___--58 

For.Agric. Org. (FAO) 

Mission 70 

Forestry School, Prae 70 

Forests, aerial observations 

— 47 

aerial photo sampling U6 

deciduous 

8H 

dense 

Qk 

dry dipterocarp 88 

dry evergreen 92 

evergreen -92 

flooded 84 

inundated 84 

mixed deciduous—--------88 

mixed evergreen --88 

mobility in 

':0 

moist • 92 

moist evergreen '• 91 

physiognomy : 45 

products 

8U 

profii'.~ 1 studies -.- 4,-92 

Thailand 69 

ttYjp€S « — — ••—' — — -•••«-•- — — — •— — ^•»•-.L'-r y j_''j -L ( 

type mapping 50 

visibility in 58,'O . 

Forets claires 36,73 

denses — 2't 

Poreword 

i 

Formations lU,15,lo, 17 

France 2,6! 

Fr ax inns sp. • ---81 

French ecologies 2*1,36,73 

French forest officers 80 

French Indochina 2,71,82

swamps —30,32,33, 

139(111.) 

Ing forest ----- M 

trees ----- -- — 9'4 

DOC ............ 77 

ry forest 

17,26,H, 

129(111.) 

22 

qia cornea ----- kQ 

nburyi --------- 22 

a. -pinnata ------ 27 

2n~-H ...... , ---- 9 

al Aniline and 

Lm Corp.-- — - --- 5^ 

a Truce Conrence 

- ------ --- 2,71 

nh ............. 77,78 

— ....... - ..... 81 

tochloa sp. ----- 27,1*0 

•n sp. ~ --------- 29 

R.D'O,- — ....... 9 

land -- ....... --92 . 

y swamps ------- 33 

Lake, Cambodia-33 

A fire --------- Uk 

udies ---------- 5 

lupe peak ------ 89,92 

ca ------------- 91,9^ 

insoluble ----- 80 

-rruir. ----------- 79 

-percha -------- 23,79 

ferae - ......... 78 

ai 

d L> ••• 

n 

ong , 

oods 

n 

7 

•••^••^••^••••J^ j 

- 2 

31 

17,55 

77 

--93 

acks 

dous plants ---- ^,**5, 

57,58 

ia javani pa ----25 

——-_.....,----28 

r, R.C. --------- 5^ 

riura materiaJ.s -h$ 

Hevea brasiliensls --------- 2,21,50, 

60,7^,85, 

166(111.) 

Hickory ------------------- ,92 

Hill moist (evergreen) 

forests - ........ • ........5,6,7,8,2U, 

25,'t7, ! '8,49 

52,78, 

119(111.) 

123 (m.) 

tribes ........... -- ...... 7^,118(111.) 

1U9(1U.) 

165(111.) 

HimaJ.ayas ------------------ 3,69 

Hoang-toi ------------------ 80 

Holdridee, L.R ............ —10 

Homonoia riparia ----------- 33,^1 

Hopea feirea --------------- 25 

odorata ----------------- 2k,2f,Bo 

sp ......... .............. 27, 52,79 

Hua llin — - .......... - ..... 6 

Huay Yang - ................. 39,^0 

Hulcher camera ---------- •— 5h 

Humidity - ................ — 18 

Hydnocarpus anthelmintica --23 

icurzii --------- "— "• ---- --- 23 

sp. ............... ....... 27 

Imperata cylindrjca -------- 28,29,38,39, 

te,^,M,57, 

58,60,80, 

173 (ill.) 

Incense wood --------------- 23 

India ---------------------- 3 

Indian Ocean --- ------------ 66 

Indians ----------- — ,-------86 

Indochina ------------------ 2,36,52,85 

geographical service --- 53 

peninsula --------------- 1,3,83,85 

Indonesia ------------------ 32,86 

Inthanon mountain ---------- ^2,93 

Intsia sp. ----------------- 25 

Ipomaea pes-caprae --------- 39 

Irvinpia malayana ---------- 37 

Java 

Jelutong gun 

•23 

-19,23

Juniper -92 

Kabinburi 

Kachawng - 

5 

7,8,24,25, 

Kalasin . 

47 

6,24,43 

Kambu 82 

Karapot 84 

Kanchanaburi 6,37,36,43 

Kasetsart University 

Forestry School -11,44,70,176 

Kelly, ,Jr., Capt.J. ii, 47 

Kenaf fiber 36 

Kha 86 

Kha-luang(grass) 57,58,60 

Khao Banthat 21,24, 06 

Khao Khieo forest 44.,47 [ 

peak ---- 66 j 

Khao Phanom Bencha 

J 

(peak) 66 i 

Khao Sa Bap (peak)-- 5,21,24,66 j 

Khao Soi Dao (peak)-66 

I 

fOmo Yai Nat.For. — 5.7,21,24, j 

Khlongs 

25! 28,4 6 i 

«-4l,48;50,o4 

84 

Khlung — .5,7, 31,-8 ! 

Khmer race 82 | 

Khwae Noi river —-- 6, 37>4l,42 

4 3 

Khwae Yai river 8, 37,42,-O, , 

47,48 

Konhang island 24,47,48,67 

Komkris, Thiem ii 

Kompong Cham 82,85 

Kompong Than 84 

Konkaen 5, 6,7,43,1.7 

Koompassia sp. 19 

Koppen, W. 10 

Korat plateau 5,6,7,30,37, 

38,41,41.^7, 

48,tS2,o4,65, 

•o9,91 

115(111.) 

climate of, —--u5 

Ko Si Chang 67 

Kra Isthmus 

5, u ,31,3^> 

43,47,66,09 

Kraoi 7,8,31,47 

Kratie province 84',85 

Krone Pok- river 73 

Kucliler, A. W. 

Kwangchowan — 

-10 

Lacquer ware — -~ ---37 

Lagerstroemla calyculata -—50>128(tll.) 

i4o(in.) 

148(111.) 

flps-regihae 27,42 

tomentosa .40 

sp. - 25,50 

La-hunc 60 

Lalany grass -80 

Larapang 6,8,36,37, 

^3,47 

Lampun ^.____.___.- 6 

Lang Bian ------------------80 

Lanta 67 

Lao 86 

Laos 1,2,4,5,17, 

21,24,29,39, 

'tO, 43,59, 61, 

65,72,73,82, 

88,94 

climate 87 

forest types 

111 (map) 

forests --87 

population 86 

pseudo-steppe —- 

topographic regions ---—86 

Lao-Theting 

Larix sp. 

86 

54 

Later!to 68 

Latosols 68 

Lau 60 

lôraceae — 25,78 

.Laurel family --25 

-132(ill.) 

Leeward Islands -__-io 

Leguminosae 25,78,79 

Lianes ——25,78,84 

Library of Congress 176 

Life-forms 24 

Limestone buttes - 93,l6l(ill.) 

162(ill.) 

ridges 67 

Linbong island -67 

Lithocarpun spicatus -------28 

sp"." — __ _____ 25 

Lithosols 

__-_28 

Littoral woodland 39 

Livistona opociosa --25 

Loblolly pine 92 

294

3ch, P.- 

- 7,2'*,27,29, 

hQ 

•-§1,52 

Leaf pine 92 

tuyen 

4jri 

76,77 

6 

and forest Hg 

sciduous forests- 5,7 

yergreen forests-2U,J+7 

Dist evergreen 

orests . 2^,25 

srai-evergreen 

orest (aerial)—139 

---- 06 

itzcra coccinea--33. 

illo mountain --- 93 

ang ........... —23 

Hongson ......... 5,8,29,33, 

Sariang 8,29,37,^3, 

7 Sot 

8 

long river ------ *a 

a ramantorcea --- 25 

olia ............. 81 

gany ------------ 9^ 

lai - ............ 41 

pak - ------------ hi 

pha ............. 59 

phai —- -------- -kl 

ruak ............ 38,39,^1,59 

•su-suk ---------- 59 

iya ......... . ..... 19 

iysia ------------ 3,5,16,21, 

31,32,33,61, 

67 69 

.otus cochin-- 

ihinenGis -------- 81 

•Samrong - ------ ~~6o 

;ifera caloneura -Uo 

Incticq --- , -------- 9 J| - 

10 ............... 9 ] 28, 

3^,35^0,^1. 

.'»7, 51, 52, 70, 

93, 9^,1'^ (ill.) 

dry -------------------- >- 6 

Mobility .................. -kk 

Mogotes - .....----- ---------93 

Moi plateau ---------------- 82,83 

Moist deciduous forest ------ 6,8, 1'*, 15, 

29,35 

evergreen forest -------- U, 7, 8, 12,15, 

21, 2U, 25, 27, 

28,3^0, Ul, 

U2,l«6,l»7,U8, 

58,61,69,70, 

81,83,92,93, 

118(111.) 

119(111.) 

120 (ill.) 

Mokhaves, Prasart 

295

Monsoon 

i'orest 

. 3, M, 67,89 

-32,3^,62 

Montagnards 

Montane forest 

-75 

U,27,28, 

lower 

92,93 

5,7,'*7,'i8, 

upper 

121(111.) 

28 

Mossy forest — -93,13 ; *(ill. 

Mountain ranges 3 

Mucuna sp. -----»----25 

Mukdahan - 

6,27,88 • 

Mun river 05 

Munsell gray scale --55 

Murraya sp. 27 

Myrtaceae 25 

Myrtle family — 

MytLo 

25 

76 

Nakhon Nayok 5 

Nakhon Fathom 8 

Nakhon Phanom 

6,7, ^3,^7,. 

80 

Nakhon Rathchasima — 5,6,7,6't 

Nakhon Sawan f>, 8,^7 

Nakhon Crithamarat --66,67 

Nam Karn river 65 

Nam Lieau river 73 

Nan =,6 

Nat. Acric. Library -i1,176 

Nat. Goo;-;. Ins t. of- 

Paris 

Nauclea orientalis --36 

purpurca —---TT 81 

Hew Mexico --89 

Hew York otate -—---85 

Neyraudia sp. 57, 60 

N,;;ao 6,36 

Nr-oc - Linh (peak) --73 

Nibur.;: 1*9 

Mipa palm (jJipa fmtl'eans) 

'}, •'>, 32, .'.7, 

13o(ill.) 

economic value 3'-- 

Nor.- Han lake - 33,65 

Hor.,-;k::ai 

5. v, 7j'^3 

North jVnerica lo 

PIux- vomica 37 

Oak 

)l 

Oak-chestnut belt --------- 29 

Oak forests --------------- 69 

Odina vodier----------- — J»o 

Olea sp. ------------------ 28 

Oleo-resin ---------------- 37 

Oncpsperma filamentosa ---- ^9 

ppuntia sp. -------- "~-----39 

Oxy te nant he ra albo*- ell iata-Ul , 

ni/ro- ciliata ----- ---- M 

sp. 

Pa den,' —- 

Pa Lak river 

37,70 

ft 

Paholyothin-Friendship 

highway 5 

Pak Cham river 

Pakistanis --- 

66,67 

86 

PaknaTipo 

>.___..__6.3 

Paksane 88 

_PalaquiuM obovatum 23,25,79 

Pains 20,25,28,75, 

93,127(111.) 

'Jorassus 6, 113(111.) 

Panel an 

^0 

Panrta.".us teetorius __»_iio 

ij"n •>w.twB. M

aha -- 

•va — 

Lung - 

•> i f T\ _ emic.a/iitt.atunv '«0 

Puerto Hico 1,11,33,61,88 

92,93,9 ; t 

analogous features ---—88 

area ---88 

climate 

physiography 89 

soils - 91 

pines 92 

— '*,90 

plant families 95 

topography 

— h 

297

Puerto Rico, 

vegetation 91 

Pulse" runily 7B.79 

Fliy mountain 93 

I-v.'-eurn ar'noreum --hi 

r.is fleurl i -28 

........ ...... }, 

Kac'v.ia ------------- 77 

Radiation - .......... 19 

Hal. r.yot,ern --• ------- -'t2,8C 

RaUroad tics ....... 37,.^ 

Rain IVrca!, - ....... - )•''. 

12, 

l!i, 

10,20,21, 2.'., 

2;,, 27,26, 30, 

I Rice fields 112(aerlol), 

I 

ii'./'iiN 

- 157(111.), 

i6 ( ;(ill.) 

lUchards, P..I --lo 

H Id i giu; copirnun is /O 

ITiverain i'oror.1 20 

Rio Grande Valley 9C 

lUpiirian i'oreot 17,12''-(.lll.), 

Rocky 

Rosewood ----- — --7^>'i"i 

Royal Air '/orce --52, r > 

Royal Kore^t Dope.. 

iL, 

r >, ! *o,56, 

70,176 

Rubber plantations 2 

Riibei, K. 

',> 

Rubiaceae 2 1 ; 

70,l'l,fa3,92,' 

'.•lir.ate ---------- iiQ 

e>-on . importance — 21 

minor proJuc.ta ---21. 

rui.-:« 1 ----- ....... -21 

;])Jarvi ----------- 7 

:\-.u:- 'all ............ 13,18, 

HainirL-e ------------ 

c >'i 

i-'.nmi i. dinmotorum ---- 39 

il.it our i ------------- 

31, ''3 

•. 

HattU'u; ------------- ''0,^2, 1 'i , 

i27(il.J . 

Ha-ir.ki-icr, •:. ------- 9 

Knyori -------------- '3 

KOI i i'vjf-ot ---------- 37, 7' - 1 

Kt-'d fiver --------- -- 'i,'{l 

aeitn ----- ........ 71,7'J 

Res. t :)ev. Field 

• UnU(AKPA) ........ 'iU 

Heair.c .............. 79,^0 

Hhi7.cpt:ora carvie- 

',uta -------- 'U 

- " ......... l, •'•«;', 50 

Rhodcdendrnn :;n. ---- :•'> 

Jaccbaru-n spontaneurr: 57, O, 

" l--3(ili.) 

'•'•1, 5 

Jair.alia LnuL.-p.i3 . 39,"0 

Jalween river 

Janet 

•• 

;: 7,"^ 

; 2 

Jan Kitmptuicri • ran;:e ----- -'.-» 

, i-oreat. i;cpt. ---- >3 

oup'rm sp. --------------- 23 

.'Jaf;, in wood -------------- -3'j 

.JarawaK ------------------ 19 

Jarabou.ry 

J.arabur i 

Savanna •y, 7, IS 15, 

climate ----------------- 39 

r.rasa .................. -3 

wooded ................. ^3, 

5^,73',ii8',92', 

, ..'.;•:., l.,i(M)t.Col . --Li/io 

ik-hlrna wall Uv ii ---------- 26 

..jciii.mpi;r, A.;- 1 . ------------ 9,10,13,1^ 

298

forest I't 

% Khan river --73 

al forests 33,3'i,8H 

ary growth l'.)2(ill.), 

169(111.) 

oil-producin,$-8o 

ver-r;reen 

est" 

l'»,27,52, 

1 

122(111.), 

125(ill.), 

lit 1( ill.) 

>tates 5,cl 

.m: agriculture-'*3, 5^,80 

i floribunda ---37 

> tu'caT"—-—' 25 

itisoiiria 25 

xachra 22 

ûsa"- 

rvifolia 25 

oust a 37 

ricea -• -2'j 

36,28,'tl,i|l 

70 " 

r^r 25,79 

leaf pine 92 

a palm 93 

.ra sieunensis J>1 

uKinenais tit 1 - 

pore 

~2.',78 

Cambodians 8'3 

.ea sp. 93 

.nand, Tern ii,)i'4,i+6,*4 r 

•an- 76,V7 

roods, species 17,00 

; —— 19,38,50 

factor 30 

itcriti': 

.-oductivity 

ype 

'tl 

173 (ill.), 

17-'. 

167(ill,) 

'H 

ble resin ------ -37 

Ben Hai river — 73- 

Kon river ---- --73 

;kvu.a ........ ----- 7,8,1*7,66, 

t-7 

iGratia alba ----- 31 

:p. — " ........... 31,50 

' 

Sorbus sp. 

South China Sea ----- 

iiouth Edwards plains 

•5>» 

-65,71,72,73 

-89 

South Texas plains 89 

Southeast Asia 29, . 

101(map) 

agric. resources 2,'* 

analogous features 88 

area —-- 1,88 

climate -3, it, 61,69 

forest resources 

'i 

inhabitants 2 

physiography 2,61 

population 1 

plant families 95 

river systems 2 

sumrnp.ry --------------- 1 

topography 

^,^9 

vegetation 

i,3,91 

Spathodca campanulata —-—9't 

Gpectrophotometrio 

measurements -51 

Sp.ha ; ~num bog 28,93 

Spinifcx sp. -39 

Sppndis,3 lunnata —39,UO, 172(111.) 

tonkinencis 81 

sp. 27 

Statin-"; urea 

'*8 

Steppes -— -33 

Sterculia canranulat_a 2U 

lychnophora --23 

Sterculiacec.e - -78,81 

Stereospermurn finbriatum —^0 

S fra t i'f i cation 13 

Streblus zeylanlcum 27 

Strychnine -37 

Strychnos nux-vomica 37 

otyrax toakincnsis --------08 

Sumatra 

Super Anscochrome 

> —23 

5''* 

3ur at- thani 

'/7 

Surin 

Sutep mountain 

5,37, ll 3 

93 

Swamp, forest 

'«,17, 30,''9,92 

freshwater —-- --139(111.) 

Swietenia macrophylla —---9'< 

Tabaek -- 

Tabanuco 

-50 

-93 

299

.'Si-' 

Tak ................. 6,27,37,^3 

Takuaoa ---- ....... — 7,8,21,2*1, 

67,92 

Tamarind ----- • ------- 9^ 

Tamarindus iruilrra --9-t 

'lanbon ---— - ---- ---61 

Tanan --------------- 7'- 

Tanbark ------------- CO 

Tannin,; material. -— 36 

Tansley, A.O.--------10 

Tarutac- island. ------ 61, o7 

TaXctrcphia sp. ----- 27 

Tax us sp. -~ --------- cO 

Yaynninr, ------------- 77 

Teak ................ '-, 

ensus 

eak l>re.3t. lor -ir..- 

Temperate ever -reer. 

1-1(111.), 

133C-U.) 

emperate re -i^.-ici — -'•!

miland 

eastern 

5,7,^3,66, 

8U 

151(111.) 

evergreen forestc-109(map) 

; field team -1^6(111.) 

flora of —-'.if" 

forests 

- —:;'- 

forest types 3108(map) 

Cround and. aerial 

studies 

1(X (nap) 

Gulf of 61,62,63,$!, 

6o,-J7,77,G2 

hamlets -• ----ol 

Laotians .in •„! 

Malaysians in ——61 

noist evergreen 

forest — 1 117(111.) 

monthly rainfall--10 : t(map) 

acntiily tenperature 

I05(map) 

mountain forests -12-*(ill.) 

mountain ranges —1C3(map) 

nil-ban ——-ol 

northern 6,8, 2'i,27,*'- 

2^,29,35,36, 

"1.51,-3,6U, 

o,-'-9,86,93, 

\* 

northeastern , ; .7,26, 37, 

.".i ,'-',• vi 

northwestern. 0,6, '»2, u2, 

peninsula 

physiof-raphic re- 

rO 

^-«O,6,8, 

1^19,21,23, 

31,32,3t,38, 

•- .-,, 61, C)2, 

v3,ot,C7,69, 

91,9,93 

;>J_V>»*'- 

C~ 1 l"> f ««.« 

~ 

— — 

>• 

— ».«. 

mm 

— 

•• 

«-»•—, 

K *• ' ' 1 

^j "*•- 

'f^ 

lC2(rap) 

political divisions 

•-1 

population 1 

rain forest ll>(ill.) 

siuftin:- a,;ric.-—115(111.) 

soils 

-^j91. 

107(r.ap> 

Thailand 

southeast 5,16,32,65,56 

tambon —— -61 

vegetation 91 

villages 

6l 

western 42 

Tobacco — 

9'* 

Toddalia sp. - 25 

Toddy pain - - -113(111.) 

Tonkin 2, 52,71,60,61 

delta - 71,72 

Gulf of 69/11,72,30 

Tonic" Gap 33,82 

Toona êbrifu-;a 81 

Torches 37 

Trac - 88 

Trach 

8'

Vaccinium sp. ------29 

Vaico 77 

Val d'Eitieraude 83 

Varnish 37 

Vatica tonkinensis -81 

Vegetables --------- 36 

Verbenaceae - — -----78 

Vientiane - .........87,88 

Vietnam .......... — 2,11,2^,31, 

57, 59, to, 71, 

72,78,81,85, 

9U 

aerial inventory-52 

agriculture ----- 71,72, 7^ 

climate --------- 7k 

forest types ---- 75,76, 

111 (nap) 

highlands ..... —73 

minerals of ----- 71 

minor forest products 

-- ..... ---- 78 

population ----- ~7' ; 

religions ------- 75 

Vietnam, Central----21,7^,79,30, 

93 

Vietnam, North ......1,^,16,17,21. 

29,31,^0,52,' 

71,73,7^,75, 

forests 

0 

Vietnam, South 1, 3,-'*,16',17, 

21,29,30,31, 

39,40,52,71, 

72,73,7^,75, 

78,79,82,85, 

9^ 

forests -- ------- 76 

Lang Bian pla- . 

teau ............ 130(111.) 

Vietnamese --------- 83>8 ;> 

Vir;;in Islands ----- 91 

Visibility -........'t' l , u 5,^8 

Vitex peduncularis -36 

pubescens ------- 27 

sp. ..... ........ 27,39 . 

Vivipary ----------- 31 

Volatile oil --.- ---- 32 

g river 

Warming, K. 

Watt, A. 3 

63 

9,10 

10 

Vten river ---------------- 06, -T[ 

V/et evergreen forest ----- l'i,28, 40 

White dammar ------------- 22 

Wind ..................... 18 

Windbreak ----------------- tO, 59 

Windward Islands — ------10 

Wood, P. — - ................53 

Wood-oil ................. 3,22,23,37, 

W, 70, 78, 79, 

8't,93 

method of extracting -79 

Woodland ------------------ 92 

Woody vines .............. 8,25,79,8^, 

117 (ill.) 

World Soils Geography 

Unit, USDA ........... 68 

Wri,",htia tomentosa ------- J *0 

Xieng Khouanr; ------------ 88 

Xylia dolabriformis --- ---8U 

kerrii ---------------3^,70 

Xylo'carpus sp. ----------- 31 

Yanp, ..................... >\2, 50,70 

Yan.3-khao - ...........----50,70,79, 

113 (ill.) 

115(111.) 

Yao island -------------- - 67,00 

Yen-bach ----------------- 57, •'& 

Yom river ---------------- 63 

Yunnan province --------- -85 

Zalacca sp. ------ •---------25 

Zizyphus combed iana ------ 39 

Waisura sp. -27 

302 

"us oovc»N«[NT Mmtmo orricc ms 0—711-151

Vegetation of Southeast Asia Studies of Forest Types 1963-1965

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