A Text centred rhetorical analysis of Paul's Letter to Titus
A Text centred rhetorical analysis of Paul's Letter to Titus
A Text centred rhetorical analysis of Paul's Letter to Titus
Create successful ePaper yourself
Turn your PDF publications into a flip-book with our unique Google optimized e-Paper software.
A TEXT-CENTRED RHETORICAL<br />
ANALYSIS OF PAUL'S LETTER TO TITUS<br />
BY<br />
ALDRED AUGUSE GENADE<br />
A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED IN ACCORDANCE WITH THE<br />
REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DOCTOR IN PHILOSOPHY<br />
DEGREE IN THE FACULTY OF THEOLOGY, DEPARTMENT<br />
OF NEW TESTAMENT AT THE UNIVERSITY OF FREE STATE<br />
SUPERVISOR: PROF. DR. D.F. TOLMIE<br />
THE UNIVERSITY OF THE FREE STATE<br />
FACULTY OF THEOLOGY<br />
NOVEMBER 2007<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS<br />
A project <strong>of</strong> this scope and size is never an individual endeavour, at least not<br />
for the believer. As one most unworthy <strong>of</strong> being called a servant <strong>of</strong> God, I wish<br />
<strong>to</strong> acknowledge help received-that mysterious combination <strong>of</strong> divine and<br />
human assistance.<br />
First. All glory alone <strong>to</strong> God, maker <strong>of</strong> Heaven and Earth, the Father <strong>of</strong> our<br />
Lord Jesus Christ for saving me and equipping me <strong>to</strong> serve His Church.<br />
Next. While there no doubt have been many, koinonia in this project have<br />
been more direct with the following, individuals, groups and institutions:<br />
1. My Dok<strong>to</strong>rvater, Pr<strong>of</strong> D.F. Tolmie, whom I’ve grown <strong>to</strong> love and<br />
respect, an example <strong>of</strong> diligent labour, thorough scholarship and<br />
reverence for God’s Word.<br />
2. My wife Celeste who helped me <strong>to</strong> remain focused during this time, for<br />
her timeous and delightful “distractions”<br />
3. Bellville Baptist church for their magnanimous accommodation while I<br />
finished this project, especially the Saturday morning prayer group,<br />
who held me accountable and kept me before the throne <strong>of</strong> grace by<br />
their prayerful support.<br />
4. Br. Chris Mathews and Rev. Dr. Taeheon Song who “saw” this journey<br />
ere I set but one foot <strong>to</strong> traverse it.<br />
5. The Faculty <strong>of</strong> Theology <strong>of</strong> UFS for financial assistance<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com
DECLARATION<br />
I declare that the dissertation/thesis hereby submitted by me for the Ph.D.<br />
degree at the University <strong>of</strong> the Orange Free State is my own independent<br />
work and has not previously been submitted by me at another<br />
university/faculty. I furthermore do cede copyright <strong>of</strong> the<br />
dissertation/thesis in favour <strong>of</strong> the University <strong>of</strong> the Free State.<br />
Signature:________________________________<br />
Aldred Auguse Genade<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com
Declaration<br />
Table <strong>of</strong> Contents<br />
TABLE OF CONTENTS<br />
SECTION 1<br />
INTRODUCTION<br />
1.1 OVERVIEW OF EXISTING SCHOLARSHIP 4<br />
1.1.1 INTRODUCTION 4<br />
1.1.2 AUTHORSHIP OF TITUS 5<br />
1.1.2.1 INTRODUCTORY REMARKS 5<br />
1.1.2.2 OVERVIEW OF THE DEBATE ON AUTHENTICITY 6<br />
1.1.2.3 THE PRESENT POSITION OF THE DEBATE 7<br />
1.1.2.4 CONCLUSION 22<br />
1.1.3 THE THEOLOGY OF TITUS 27<br />
1.1.3.1 INTRODUCTION 27<br />
1.1.3.2 TRENDS 27<br />
1.1.3.3 THEOLOGY AND CHRISTOLOGY 29<br />
1.1.3.4 CONCLUSION 35<br />
1.1.4 STRUCTURE AND COHERENCY 35<br />
1.1.4.1 INTRODUCTION 35<br />
1.1.4.2 TWO POSITIONS 36<br />
1.1.5 RHETORICAL APPROACHES TO TITUS 40<br />
1.1.5.1. INTRODUCTION 40<br />
1.1.5.2 CARL JOACHIM CLASSEN: “A RHETORICAL READING OF THE EPISTLE TO TITUS” 42<br />
1.1.5.3 CRITICAL EVALUATION OF RHETORICAL APPROACHES TO TITUS 47<br />
1.1.5.4 CONCLUSION 49<br />
1.2 RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS AND METHODOLOGY 50<br />
1.2.1 RESEARCH PROBLEM 50<br />
1.2.2 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 52<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
1
SECTION 2<br />
RHETORICAL ANALYSIS<br />
2.1 RHETORICAL SITUATION 55<br />
2.1.1 INTRODUCTION 55<br />
2.1.2 DEFINITION 55<br />
2.1.3 PAUL 56<br />
2.1.4 PAUL AND TITUS 57<br />
2.1.5 PAUL AND THE CRETAN BELIEVERS 59<br />
2.1.6 PAUL AND THE OPPOSITION 61<br />
2.1.7 PAUL AND OTHER CHARACTERS 62<br />
2.1.8 CONCLUSION 62<br />
2.2 RHETORICAL ANALYSIS 63<br />
2.2.1 TITUS 1:1-4: ADAPTING THE SALUTATION TO EMPHASISE THE DIVINE BASIS OF<br />
LEGITIMATE MINISTRY 63<br />
2.2.1.1 EMPHASISING THE LEGITIMACY OF HIS MINISTRY 64<br />
2.2.1.2 EMPHASISING LEGITIMATE TEACHING 65<br />
2.2.1.3 EMPHASISING THE LEGITIMACY OF THE MINISTRY OF TITUS 69<br />
2.2.1.4 CONCLUSION 70<br />
2.2.2 TITUS 1:5-9: OUTLINING THE CRITERIA FOR LEGITIMATE LOCAL LEADERSHIP 71<br />
2.2.3 TITUS 1:10-16: DISCREDITING THE ILLEGITIMATE TEACHERS 77<br />
2.2.4 TITUS 2:1: DISTINGUISHING TITUS AS A MINISTER OF SOUND DOCTRINE ON THE<br />
BASIS OF APOSTOLIC AUTHORISATION 89<br />
2.2.5 TITUS 2:2-10: PERSUADING THE CRETANS THAT PERSONAL CONDUCT COMPLIANT<br />
WITH SOUND DOCTRINE IS COMPULSORY AND SHOULD CHARACTERISE ALL BELIEVERS 91<br />
2.2.5.1 THE BEHAVIOUR OF OLDER MEN 92<br />
2.2.5.2 THE BEHAVIOUR OF OLDER WOMEN 94<br />
2.2.5.3 THE BEHAVIOUR OF YOUNGER WOMEN 95<br />
2.2.5.4 THE BEHAVIOUR OF YOUNG MEN 98<br />
2.2.5.5 THE BEHAVIOUR OF TITUS 98<br />
2.2.5.6 THE BEHAVIOUR OF SLAVES 100<br />
2.2.6 TITUS 2: 11-15: EMPHASISING THE DIVINE BASIS OF OBEDIENCE TO SOUND<br />
DOCTRINE 104<br />
2.2.6.1 THE UNIVERSAL APPEARANCE OF GRACE IN THE PAST 106<br />
2.2.6.2 THE PARTICULAR INSTRUCTION OF GRACE IN THE PRESENT 106<br />
2.2.7 TITUS 3:1-2: PERSUADING THE CRETANS OF THE COMPULSORY TREATMENT OF ALL<br />
UNBELIEVERS IN A MANNER CONSISTENT WITH SOUND DOCTRINE 117<br />
2.2.8 TITUS 3:3: EVOKING DISGUST WITH PAST SINFUL BEHAVIOUR IN ORDER TO<br />
REINFORCE BEHAVIOUR IN THE PRESENT THAT COMPLY WITH SOUND DOCTRINE 124<br />
2.2.9 TITUS 3:4-7: PERSUADING THE CRETANS THAT DISPLAYING GOOD WORKS TO THOSE<br />
CONSIDERED UNDESERVING DEMONSTRATES CONFORMITY TO THE DIVINE EXAMPLE 129<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
2
2.2.10 TITUS 3:8-11: REINFORCING THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN SOUND AND<br />
ILLEGITIMATE DOCTRINE IN ORDER TO ENCOURAGE COMPLIANCE TO THE FORMER AND<br />
REJECTION OF THE LATTER 151<br />
2.2.11 TITUS 3:12-15: ADAPTING THE CONCLUSION TO REINFORCE THE NOTION OF<br />
LEGITIMATE MINISTRY 159<br />
CONCLUSION 166<br />
BIBLIOGRAPHY__________________________________________________ 186<br />
ABSTRACT 194<br />
OPSOMMING 197<br />
KEY TERMS 200<br />
TREF WOORDE 201<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
3
SECTION 1<br />
INTRODUCTION<br />
1.1 OVERVIEW OF EXISTING SCHOLARSHIP<br />
1.1.1 INTRODUCTION<br />
Current research focusing on the <strong>Letter</strong> <strong>to</strong> <strong>Titus</strong> evinces several interesting<br />
trends. Starting with authorship <strong>of</strong> the Pas<strong>to</strong>rals, it will be shown that a clear<br />
link exists between that and the treatment <strong>of</strong> <strong>Titus</strong> in the areas <strong>of</strong> theology,<br />
structure and coherence, and rhe<strong>to</strong>ric. It will be shown that the, perhaps<br />
unintentional, cumulative effect <strong>of</strong> the authorship debate was the<br />
marginalisation <strong>of</strong> the <strong>Letter</strong> <strong>to</strong> <strong>Titus</strong>. The literature evidence will bear out that<br />
for a long time there was not much talk about, for example, the theology <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>Titus</strong> as opposed <strong>to</strong> the theology <strong>of</strong> the Pas<strong>to</strong>rals. Thus, a <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> <strong>analysis</strong><br />
<strong>of</strong> the <strong>Letter</strong> <strong>to</strong> <strong>Titus</strong> must begin with an appreciation for the multiplicity <strong>of</strong><br />
influences that have impacted upon the scholarly interest in this letter. The<br />
present chapter will review these trends, illustrating in particular how they<br />
have impacted upon the treatment <strong>of</strong> the letter <strong>to</strong> <strong>Titus</strong>.<br />
In order <strong>to</strong> establish a comprehensive assessment, various categories <strong>of</strong><br />
research will be investigated. These include commentaries, recent books and<br />
related journal articles. Due <strong>to</strong> the enormous expansion within the field <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> criticism, boundaries are required <strong>to</strong> stay within the focus area <strong>of</strong><br />
this study. Therefore, the selection <strong>of</strong> commentaries, books and articles will be<br />
governed by their direct relevance <strong>to</strong> the problem <strong>of</strong> the relationship between<br />
<strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> criticism and the Pas<strong>to</strong>rals, specifically the <strong>Letter</strong> <strong>to</strong> <strong>Titus</strong>.<br />
The review will attempt <strong>to</strong> show that the <strong>Letter</strong> <strong>to</strong> <strong>Titus</strong> still has <strong>to</strong> benefit from<br />
a thorough <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> critical <strong>analysis</strong> that will demonstrate its uniqueness as a<br />
coherent, comprehensive portion <strong>of</strong> New Testament literature that can be<br />
interpreted independently from the two letters <strong>to</strong> Timothy.<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
4
1.1.2 AUTHORSHIP OF TITUS<br />
1.1.2.1 Introduc<strong>to</strong>ry remarks<br />
The issue <strong>of</strong> authorship is undoubtedly the dominant contention in regard <strong>to</strong><br />
the Pas<strong>to</strong>rals. The authorship <strong>of</strong> the <strong>Letter</strong> <strong>to</strong> <strong>Titus</strong> is directly tied <strong>to</strong> the<br />
current debate, because <strong>of</strong> the relatively recent tendency <strong>to</strong> categorise the<br />
three letters in<strong>to</strong> a single unit. Scholarship is generally divided in<strong>to</strong> two camps.<br />
At the one end <strong>of</strong> the spectrum, there are those who maintain that the letters<br />
were authored by Paul, in accordance with the self-identification <strong>of</strong> the letter.<br />
In this regard, some scholars display an unqualified acceptance <strong>of</strong> Pauline<br />
authorship, for example, Hiebert (1978:421) and McArthur (1996:ix). Until the<br />
turn <strong>of</strong> the nineteenth century, this was the unchallenged traditional position.<br />
An alternative position has emerged since the beginning <strong>of</strong> the twentieth<br />
century. Scholars, at the opposite end <strong>of</strong> the spectrum, maintain that these<br />
letters are later, non-Pauline or pseudonymous creations.<br />
Among supporters <strong>of</strong> the traditional view, are commenta<strong>to</strong>rs and authors who<br />
display an unqualified acceptance <strong>of</strong> Pauline authorship. On both sides <strong>of</strong> the<br />
debate, there are also authors who present careful and thorough<br />
presentations <strong>to</strong> defend their particular hypotheses. That there are some<br />
cogent arguments for either view is evidenced by the confession <strong>of</strong> some<br />
authors who “converted” from one view <strong>to</strong> another (Johnson, 1996:2; Hanson,<br />
1982:10). An author’s position on this crucial issue has far reaching<br />
implications for the interpretation and treatment <strong>of</strong> this body <strong>of</strong><br />
correspondence and particularly the <strong>Letter</strong> <strong>to</strong> <strong>Titus</strong>.<br />
Evidence gleaned from multiple literary sources, including commentaries and<br />
related journal articles, will demonstrate the extent <strong>of</strong> the current division and<br />
the resultant implications for the treatment <strong>of</strong> the <strong>Letter</strong> <strong>to</strong> <strong>Titus</strong>. It will,<br />
furthermore, show how the presuppositions regarding authorship <strong>of</strong> this<br />
corpus particularly, influence the treatment <strong>of</strong> the <strong>Letter</strong> <strong>to</strong> <strong>Titus</strong> by scholars.<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
5
The content <strong>of</strong> the authorship debate is an established academic fact and is<br />
well documented in most commentaries and scholarly literature. Mere<br />
recitation, therefore, <strong>of</strong> these facts would not be conducive <strong>to</strong> the intent <strong>of</strong> this<br />
chapter.<br />
A rather more interesting avenue <strong>of</strong> investigation is <strong>to</strong> attempt the<br />
extrapolation <strong>of</strong> any insight that will advance our understanding <strong>of</strong> how<br />
scholars have come <strong>to</strong> the positions they so intrepidly defend. This study will<br />
focus on a <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> <strong>analysis</strong> <strong>of</strong> the <strong>Letter</strong> <strong>to</strong> <strong>Titus</strong>. However, it will soon<br />
become evident that the <strong>Letter</strong> <strong>to</strong> <strong>Titus</strong> does not enjoy the attention <strong>of</strong> New<br />
Testament scholars <strong>to</strong> the extent that the Timothean correspondence does.<br />
While there is undoubtedly some justification for this, and without<br />
oversimplifying the complexities involved in the science <strong>of</strong> biblical<br />
interpretation, a probable explanation for this apparent ‘neglect’, would appear<br />
<strong>to</strong> emerge from an investigation <strong>of</strong> current literature. The question begs <strong>to</strong> be<br />
asked, would scholars maintain their views on the authenticity issue if a<br />
different methodology were <strong>to</strong> be utilised? Could the disparate position be<br />
attributable <strong>to</strong> a ‘flawed’ methodology? I have isolated and classified what I<br />
term reading principles or methodologies that occur in literature on the<br />
Pas<strong>to</strong>ral <strong>Letter</strong>s. While not part <strong>of</strong> the core discussion <strong>of</strong> the present study,<br />
the way in which scholars read these letters, illumines our understanding <strong>of</strong><br />
the scholarly treatment <strong>of</strong> these letters. Additionally, it bolsters the case for an<br />
appreciation <strong>of</strong> the individualistic peculiarities <strong>of</strong> the <strong>Letter</strong> <strong>to</strong> <strong>Titus</strong>.<br />
1.1.2.2 Overview <strong>of</strong> the debate on authenticity<br />
The content and range <strong>of</strong> the debate on authorship <strong>of</strong> the Pas<strong>to</strong>ral <strong>Letter</strong>s is<br />
settled. Scholars have unequivocally sided themselves with one <strong>of</strong> two<br />
positions, namely those who argue that these letters are genuinely the product<br />
<strong>of</strong> Paul’s hand and those who argue that these are not from Paul. Therefore, a<br />
mere replication <strong>of</strong> the facts will not be presented in this section.<br />
What is important is <strong>to</strong> attempt <strong>to</strong> establish a link between the authorship<br />
debate, and the <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> criticism <strong>of</strong> the Pas<strong>to</strong>ral <strong>Letter</strong>s, specifically the<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
6
position <strong>of</strong> the <strong>Letter</strong> <strong>to</strong> <strong>Titus</strong>. It remains <strong>to</strong> be shown that the authenticity<br />
debate has bearing on the resultant neglect <strong>of</strong> academic appreciation for the<br />
individuality <strong>of</strong> the <strong>Letter</strong> <strong>to</strong> <strong>Titus</strong>. This can be established by highlighting the<br />
operative reading methodologies gleaned from New Testament academic<br />
literature. This matter will receive attention in the following sections. In order<br />
<strong>to</strong> add perspective, a summary <strong>of</strong> the present position, <strong>to</strong>gether with the key<br />
points <strong>of</strong> dispute in the authenticity debate will be presented.<br />
1.1.2.3 The present position <strong>of</strong> the debate<br />
a) The authenticity <strong>of</strong> the Pas<strong>to</strong>ral <strong>Letter</strong>s challenged<br />
Until the turn <strong>of</strong> the nineteenth century, the authenticity <strong>of</strong> the Pas<strong>to</strong>ral <strong>Letter</strong>s<br />
was unchallenged. Subsequently, there followed a succession <strong>of</strong> dissident<br />
voices, mainly from Germany that snowballed in<strong>to</strong> the present polarity on this<br />
issue. The names <strong>of</strong> Friedrich Schleiermacher and Ferdinand Christian Bauer<br />
should be mentioned as the original catalysts in what has become the<br />
authenticity debate. The grounds upon which the authenticity <strong>of</strong> the letters<br />
was considered spurious related primarily <strong>to</strong> linguistic and stylistic<br />
discrepancies. An outline <strong>of</strong> the main criteria follows later in this study.<br />
The rejection <strong>of</strong> the authenticity <strong>of</strong> all three letters occurred rapidly though not<br />
au<strong>to</strong>matically. In this regard, it is interesting <strong>to</strong> note how early scholars<br />
contradicted each other. It is well documented, how some accepted the<br />
authenticity <strong>of</strong> one letter while rejecting the rest and vice versa. This problem<br />
goes back a long time. From the early church era, Tatian is cited by Dibelius<br />
and Conzelmann (1972:2) as an example <strong>of</strong> one who rejected 1 and 2<br />
Timothy, but accepted the <strong>Letter</strong> <strong>to</strong> <strong>Titus</strong> as authentically Pauline. The same<br />
ambivalence is noticeable among the German scholars. In his His<strong>to</strong>rical-<br />
Critical introduction <strong>to</strong> the New Testament, J.E.C Schmidt (1804) questioned<br />
whether 1 Timothy could have been written by the same author who penned<br />
the other two. During the same time, Edward Evanson (1805:318-319)<br />
expressed doubt that <strong>Titus</strong> came from the hand <strong>of</strong> Paul, but upheld the<br />
authenticity <strong>of</strong> the Timothean correspondence. Even Schleiermacher,<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
7
consistently identified as pioneer <strong>of</strong> the debate, accepted only the authenticity<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>Titus</strong> and 2 Timothy. By 1812, however, J.G. Eichhorn would reject all three<br />
Pas<strong>to</strong>rals.<br />
A gradual consensus in German critical scholarship emerged throughout the<br />
rest <strong>of</strong> the nineteenth century that effectively denied the Pauline authorship <strong>of</strong><br />
all three letters. Late in the second half <strong>of</strong> the nineteenth century, Heinrich<br />
Julius Holtzmann (1880) confirmed the German consensus on the non-<br />
Pauline authorship <strong>of</strong> these <strong>Letter</strong>s. Two dissenting German voices <strong>to</strong> this<br />
general consensus made themselves heard. One came from the commentary<br />
<strong>of</strong> J. Jeremias, who in 1963, defended the authenticity <strong>of</strong> these letters. The<br />
other was T. Zahn, who in his Introduction <strong>to</strong> the New Testament (1953),<br />
insisted that the Pas<strong>to</strong>rals were written during Paul’s lifetime.<br />
The notion that these letters were not from Paul had far reaching implications,<br />
not least <strong>of</strong> which relates <strong>to</strong> the twin concerns, namely date <strong>of</strong> composition<br />
and authorship. Logically, the date <strong>of</strong> composition would necessarily be post-<br />
Pauline, which in turn raised a new question <strong>of</strong> authorship: if not Paul, then<br />
who? In this regard, several hypotheses were presented and some are still<br />
maintained.<br />
Once it was established that Paul could not have written the Pas<strong>to</strong>rals, the<br />
debate shifted <strong>to</strong> the determination <strong>of</strong> a probable date <strong>of</strong> composition. F. C.<br />
Baur in 1835 propounded the hypothesis that the Pas<strong>to</strong>rals belong <strong>to</strong> the<br />
second century. He maintained that there were similarities between elements<br />
raised in the Pas<strong>to</strong>rals and the Gnostic threat opposed by Irenaeus. This led<br />
him <strong>to</strong> conclude that these letters represent an early second century response<br />
<strong>to</strong> the Gnostic heresy. Interestingly, this conclusion has elicited criticism from<br />
among some modern proponents in the non-Pauline forum (Harding,<br />
1998:10). More voices from the rest <strong>of</strong> the world joined the choir <strong>of</strong> dissent<br />
from the traditional interpretation. Today, from South Africa <strong>to</strong> the USA, a<br />
significant majority <strong>of</strong> biblical scholars deny the authenticity <strong>of</strong> these three<br />
letters.<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
8
The final word on this matter belongs <strong>to</strong> Collins, “By the end <strong>of</strong> the twentieth<br />
century New Testament scholarship was virtually unanimous in affirming that<br />
the Pas<strong>to</strong>ral <strong>Letter</strong>s were written some time after Paul’s death” (Collins<br />
2002:4). Presently, this status <strong>of</strong> virtual unanimity is consistently assigned <strong>to</strong><br />
almost every discussion <strong>of</strong> the authenticity issue. Thus, for example, J. Rol<strong>of</strong>f<br />
(1988:376) insists that “<strong>to</strong>day there should not even be a doubt that Paul did<br />
not write directly or indirectly the PE”, a view that is illustrative <strong>of</strong> the prevailing<br />
adamance on the issue. Miller (1997:4) considers pseudonymity <strong>to</strong> be<br />
“entrenched”, while Harding (1998:16) finds “any insistence on the Pauline<br />
authorship <strong>of</strong> the PE, problematical”. Such comments are indicative <strong>of</strong> the<br />
present state <strong>of</strong> the debate, which has effectively polarised academia.<br />
J. Jeremias was, however, not the only contender <strong>to</strong> challenge the virtual<br />
unanimity on the authenticity issue. Reaction from other quarters <strong>of</strong> the globe<br />
<strong>to</strong> German scholarship was equally rapid. In fact, from the early eighteen<br />
sixties till the early nineteen hundreds, an impressive list <strong>of</strong> conservative<br />
scholars, like C. J. Ellicott, being the earliest, J. H. Bernard, T. Zahn (1906)<br />
and J. D. James (1906) came <strong>to</strong> the fore (Guthrie, 1957:15; Johnson, 1996:4).<br />
From Great Britain J.B. Lightfoot (1893) articulated an influential defence <strong>of</strong><br />
Pauline authorship in the English speaking world. Still, the twentieth century<br />
saw scholars increasingly oppose the Pauline authorship <strong>of</strong> the Pas<strong>to</strong>ral<br />
<strong>Letter</strong>s.<br />
Lists <strong>of</strong> scholars representative <strong>of</strong> either position are accessible in several<br />
extant works and most good commentaries on the Pas<strong>to</strong>rals (Guthrie,<br />
1957:15; Lea and Griffin, 1992:23; Childs, 1984:378-379; S<strong>to</strong>tt, 1997:21;<br />
Collins, 2002:3, 4; Hultgren, 1984:13, 14; Quinn, 1990:17, 18).<br />
Twentieth century scholarship is almost equally divided on the authorship<br />
issue, represented by careful scholarship on both sides <strong>of</strong> the debate. Lea<br />
and Griffin (1992:23) list the following twentieth century adherents <strong>to</strong><br />
pseudonymity: P.N. Harrison, M. Dibelius and H. Conzelmann, F.D. Gealy,<br />
C.K. Barrett, N. Brox, A Strobel, J.H. Houlden, S.G. Wilson, A.T. Hanson and<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
9
J. Quinn. Their list <strong>of</strong> scholars adhering <strong>to</strong> Pauline authorship include W. Lock,<br />
O. Roller, D. Guthrie, J.N.D. Kelly, J. Jeremias, C.F.D. Moule, C. Spicq, B.<br />
Reicke, W. Metzger and D.E. Hiebert.<br />
The debate continues <strong>to</strong> elicit support for both positions. Contemporary<br />
defenders <strong>of</strong> Pauline authorship include George W. Knight (1992), Phillip<br />
Towner (1994), Luke T. Johnson (1996), William D. Mounce (2000), J.D.G.<br />
Dunn (2000), Andreas J. Köstenberger (2003), and Ray van Neste (2003).<br />
Equally on the other side very recent proponents <strong>of</strong> non-Pauline authorship<br />
include Mark Harding (1998), Raymond F. Collins (2002) and I. Howard<br />
Marshall (2002). Thus, we see respected scholars on both sides <strong>of</strong> the debate<br />
approaching the matter <strong>of</strong> authorship as something not <strong>to</strong> be regarded lightly.<br />
The complexity <strong>of</strong> the debate has been succinctly summarised by Quinn<br />
(1990:17) as follows: “All scholars <strong>of</strong> the PE draw inferences from practically<br />
the same concrete data in and about the letters, analysing the linguistic,<br />
his<strong>to</strong>rico-sociological, and theological components <strong>of</strong> the correspondence.<br />
Yet, these data have provoked the most dramatically different hypotheses <strong>to</strong><br />
explain the origin and purpose <strong>of</strong> the PE.”<br />
b) Summary <strong>of</strong> key dispute issues<br />
In view <strong>of</strong> the centrality <strong>of</strong> the authenticity debate, it is expedient <strong>to</strong> delineate<br />
in broad strokes the most salient elements <strong>of</strong> the debate. They include the<br />
following:<br />
Vocabulary and style: Comparative studies reveal that these letters<br />
collectively contain a high percentage <strong>of</strong> unique vocabulary and stylistic<br />
fluctuations that are uncharacteristic <strong>of</strong> accepted Pauline letters. Likewise,<br />
words that are present in the rest <strong>of</strong> the Pauline corpus are absent from the<br />
Pas<strong>to</strong>rals, while linguistic affinities between the Pas<strong>to</strong>rals and second century<br />
literature have been established (Barrett, 1963:6).<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
10
Developed church order: The various church <strong>of</strong>ficers mentioned in these<br />
letters are unders<strong>to</strong>od <strong>to</strong> be indicative <strong>of</strong> an advanced state <strong>of</strong> ecclesial<br />
organisation. The initially charismatic community developed <strong>to</strong>wards a more<br />
settled state, a household <strong>of</strong> God. Within this household, a hierarchy <strong>of</strong><br />
authority has developed, comprising presbyters, deacons, episcopal bishops<br />
and overseers (1 Tim. 3:1-13; 5:3-22; Tit. 1:5-9). This supposed, multi-level<br />
leadership structure indicates a later period in the his<strong>to</strong>ry <strong>of</strong> the church,<br />
hence, post-Pauline.<br />
Recipients: The instructions contained in these letters appear redundant, if<br />
addressed <strong>to</strong> the two his<strong>to</strong>rical individuals namely Timothy and <strong>Titus</strong>, since<br />
they would have been very familiar with Paul’s teachings. Scholars argue that<br />
these letters only make sense if the actual addressees were later<br />
congregations. Thus, ‘Timothy’ and ‘<strong>Titus</strong>’ must be unders<strong>to</strong>od in a<br />
representational capacity, as representative addressees <strong>of</strong> the actual<br />
recipients, namely second or third generation leadership or congregations.<br />
Gnostic opposition: The Pas<strong>to</strong>rals make several references <strong>to</strong> opponents<br />
(<strong>Titus</strong> 1:10, 14; 3:9; 1 Tim. 1:1-3, 7; 6:20). They appear <strong>to</strong> be primarily Jewish,<br />
and their teachings involve elements <strong>of</strong> asceticism and secret knowledge.<br />
Critics denying Pauline authorship, therefore, deduce some form <strong>of</strong> post-<br />
Pauline Judeo-Gnosticism or even that the author wrote in response <strong>to</strong><br />
Marcion (based on 1 Tim. 6:20: “falsely called knowledge”).<br />
Irreconcilable Pauline chronology: Critics aver that the his<strong>to</strong>rical data in the<br />
Pas<strong>to</strong>rals do not fit in<strong>to</strong> the Lukan record according <strong>to</strong> the Book <strong>of</strong> Acts. In<br />
order <strong>to</strong> facilitate some reconciliation, supporters <strong>of</strong> the traditional view have<br />
responded with what is known as the second imprisonment hypothesis.<br />
According <strong>to</strong> this theory, the Book <strong>of</strong> Acts was never intended <strong>to</strong> provide a<br />
comprehensive record <strong>of</strong> Paul’s ministerial activities. Furthermore, the open<br />
ended conclusion <strong>of</strong> the Book <strong>of</strong> Acts is cited as probable support for a<br />
second imprisonment, implied by the his<strong>to</strong>rical data in the Pas<strong>to</strong>rals.<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
11
Uncharacteristic Pauline theology: Scholars claim that these letters are<br />
inauthentic because <strong>of</strong> theological emphases that are at variance with what<br />
are known from genuine Pauline letters. So, for example, there appears <strong>to</strong> be<br />
a muted focus on the fatherhood <strong>of</strong> God since the title ‘Father’ with reference<br />
<strong>to</strong> God, never occurs in the body <strong>of</strong> these letters (Guthrie, 1957:40, 41). The<br />
characteristic Pauline emphases on the cross and the doctrine <strong>of</strong> the Holy<br />
Spirit are glaringly absent from the Pas<strong>to</strong>rals. Instead, these letters testify <strong>to</strong> a<br />
growing concern for orthodoxy and the transmission <strong>of</strong> correct doctrine in view<br />
<strong>of</strong> a delayed parousia. The imminence <strong>of</strong> the Lord’s return has faded and<br />
believers are encouraged <strong>to</strong> live godly lives within secular society.<br />
Most <strong>of</strong> the literature, cited in this study, treats the above and some additional<br />
points in great detail and may be consulted if more information is required.<br />
The summary <strong>of</strong> issues above was intended <strong>to</strong> provide insight in<strong>to</strong> the key<br />
points <strong>of</strong> contention in the authenticity debate and <strong>to</strong> aid the survey <strong>of</strong><br />
scholarship <strong>to</strong> follow rather than <strong>to</strong> be exhaustive.<br />
c) Further developments<br />
The advent <strong>of</strong> German criticism <strong>of</strong> the traditional understanding raised a cloud<br />
<strong>of</strong> doubt about the authenticity <strong>of</strong> the Pas<strong>to</strong>ral <strong>Letter</strong>s. Once scholars<br />
established that Paul was not the author, alternative theories were posited <strong>to</strong><br />
explain the existence and purpose <strong>of</strong> these letters. Of the four propositions,<br />
one no longer enjoys any significant support among New Testament scholars.<br />
The hypotheses are as follows: the pseudonymous or fiction hypothesis,<br />
fragment hypothesis, secretary or amanuensis hypothesis, and the allonymity<br />
or allepigraphy theory (Marshall, Travis, et al. 2002:175-176; Mounce, 2000:<br />
cxviii-cxxix; Hanson, 1982:6-11; Dibelius and Conzelmann, 1972:4, 5). These<br />
four theories are diametrically opposed <strong>to</strong> the direct Pauline authorship<br />
hypothesis. The four theories will be discussed briefly <strong>to</strong> aid perspective on<br />
the current position <strong>of</strong> the debate and eventually shed light on the academic<br />
diffidence particularly <strong>to</strong>wards <strong>Titus</strong>.<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
12
i) Pseudonymity or fiction hypothesis<br />
In Germany, it was J.G. Eichorn, who in 1812 argued for the pseudonymity <strong>of</strong><br />
each letter. Gradually, this snow-balled <strong>to</strong> become what some have termed<br />
“contemporary critical orthodoxy” (Carson, Moo, et al. 1992:360). One<br />
contemporary scholar considers the original argument <strong>of</strong> Holtzmann so<br />
watertight that he alleges incorrectly that Holtzmann’s five objections still wait<br />
<strong>to</strong> be rebutted (Lea and Griffin, 1992:22). Such a rebuttal has been<br />
adequately pr<strong>of</strong>fered by the respected scholar and commenta<strong>to</strong>r, Donald<br />
Guthrie (1957:11-53). Still, it remains true <strong>to</strong> say that pseudonymity was<br />
initially a formidable challenge <strong>to</strong> the authenticity <strong>of</strong> the Pas<strong>to</strong>ral <strong>Letter</strong>s. The<br />
simplistic, outright rejection <strong>of</strong> Pauline authorship has developed some rather<br />
complex twists and turns since its original conception in Germany.<br />
At its simplest level, pseudonymity implies that the letters were written by<br />
someone other than Paul at a time much later than that <strong>of</strong> the apostle. This<br />
person is designated a Paulinist (Harrison, 1921:9), while at other times he is<br />
awkwardly referred <strong>to</strong> as the mysterious “pas<strong>to</strong>r” (Harding, 1998:103, 16;<br />
Goulder, 1996:242). In the majority <strong>of</strong> instances, he is simply called the<br />
“author” who was probably a disciple <strong>of</strong> the apostle (Goulder, 1996:243;<br />
Dibelius and Conzelmann, 1972:1). It is argued, that since this “disciple” was<br />
familiar with the writings <strong>of</strong> the apostle, he wanted <strong>to</strong> preserve the teaching <strong>of</strong><br />
the apostle for a new (second) generation church setting in the light <strong>of</strong> the<br />
delay <strong>of</strong> the parousia, as well as for subsequent generations (Dibelius and<br />
Conzelmann, 1972:8; Beker, 1991:35-75).<br />
Pseudonymity raised several tricky questions that have kept scholars<br />
occupied and continue <strong>to</strong> do so. A major implication relates <strong>to</strong> the content <strong>of</strong><br />
these letters and the matter <strong>of</strong> authorship. If Paul did not write them, then the<br />
people and his<strong>to</strong>rical references contained in this corpus are not real. Caution<br />
is sounded not <strong>to</strong> assume “that the his<strong>to</strong>rical data <strong>of</strong> these pseudonymous<br />
Epistles are necessarily true” (Barrett 1963:30). Hence, some scholars refer <strong>to</strong><br />
pseudonymity as the fiction hypothesis (Mounce, 2000: cxviii; Marshall, Travis<br />
et al. 2002:179). Thus, references <strong>to</strong> Paul, Timothy, <strong>Titus</strong>, Crete, Ephesus,<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
13
etc. are not referring <strong>to</strong> actual people or places. Moreover, the situations<br />
depicted within the letters are not real. This implies that the perceived threats<br />
were not real, but the imaginative creations <strong>of</strong> the pseudonymous author, who<br />
envisaged future developments and wrote <strong>to</strong> protect and guide the church by<br />
means <strong>of</strong> these letters. A representative <strong>of</strong> this fictive Pauline authorship is<br />
Michael Wolter, who believes that what we have in the Pas<strong>to</strong>ral <strong>Letter</strong>s is an<br />
attempt <strong>to</strong> represent Pauline tradition for the current situation <strong>of</strong> the author<br />
(Wolter, 1988:11-25). Timothy and <strong>Titus</strong> function typologically as the kind <strong>of</strong><br />
leaders who have <strong>to</strong> shoulder the responsibility <strong>to</strong> maintain the Pauline<br />
deposit. The plot thickens, because if this is true, then more than simple<br />
pseudonymity is on the table. Hence, according <strong>to</strong> Raymond Collins<br />
(2002:10), these letters are “doubly pseudonymous”. Since Timothy and <strong>Titus</strong><br />
would probably have been dead by the time these letters were written, they<br />
simply “lent their names <strong>to</strong> the Pas<strong>to</strong>r’s work, because they represented<br />
Paul’s presence”. Thus, the author and recipients are “literary fictions”<br />
(Collins, 2002:10). Apart from complicating the matter, this interpretation<br />
weakens the pseudonymity view. Where do we then s<strong>to</strong>p? Several other<br />
names appear in this corpus. Are we, therefore, <strong>to</strong> assume they are also the<br />
product <strong>of</strong> a healthy imagination? Besides, the letters are indirectly addressed<br />
<strong>to</strong> the congregation through the evidence <strong>of</strong> the second persona plural<br />
pronoun, “you”, that occurs within these letters. Was the congregation<br />
therefore also imaginary? While double pseudonymity might be a novel term,<br />
it does nothing <strong>to</strong> ease an already complex situation.<br />
Scholars are unanimous in their assessment <strong>of</strong> the complexity <strong>of</strong> the matter<br />
and correctly caution against any dogmatic tendencies when so much<br />
depends on conjecture and so little certainty prevails (Achtemeier, Green et<br />
al. 2001:464). The implications <strong>of</strong> pseudonymity have however not gone<br />
unchallenged.<br />
Reactions <strong>to</strong> the pseudonymity hypothesis<br />
Several key works highlight the substantial reaction by various scholars <strong>to</strong> the<br />
claims <strong>of</strong> those who espouse pseudonymity. The foremost work is<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
14
undoubtedly Guthrie’s Tyndale commentary on the Pas<strong>to</strong>rals. Given the<br />
limited size and scope <strong>of</strong> this series, his treatment is so comprehensive that<br />
several commenta<strong>to</strong>rs cite his work as an authoritative reference on the<br />
introduc<strong>to</strong>ry matters (Demarest, 1984:149).<br />
Critics <strong>of</strong> the pseudonymous theory base their contentions on four areas,<br />
namely ethics, his<strong>to</strong>ry, hermeneutics and apos<strong>to</strong>lic or scriptural objections.<br />
Ethics<br />
Several scholars find it hard <strong>to</strong> reconcile the practice <strong>of</strong> pseudipigraphy and<br />
honesty. S<strong>to</strong>tt (1997:30) is representative <strong>of</strong> this concern. It is alleged by<br />
proponents <strong>of</strong> pseudipigraphy that it was an acceptable practice devoid <strong>of</strong><br />
fraudulent intent. In response, S<strong>to</strong>tt and others demand his<strong>to</strong>rical evidence for<br />
the acceptance <strong>of</strong> New Testament pseudipigraphy. Quoting, as an example,<br />
Donelson, a proponent <strong>of</strong> pseudipigraphy, S<strong>to</strong>tt (1997:30) highlights the<br />
paradoxical acknowledgement/confession that “in Christian circles<br />
pseudonymity was considered a dishonourable device”. S<strong>to</strong>tt continues <strong>to</strong> ask<br />
the following probing questions: If no one intended <strong>to</strong> deceive, why write in the<br />
name <strong>of</strong> someone else? Why invent pseudo-his<strong>to</strong>rical persona and situations?<br />
In the end, S<strong>to</strong>tt finds the very notion <strong>of</strong> deceit psychologically irreconcilable <strong>to</strong><br />
the human conscience irrespective <strong>of</strong> whether the dissemblance stems from<br />
noble intentions. To some scholars, there is no neutral ground. These letters<br />
are either genuinely Pauline or they must be blatant fabrications. Thomas<br />
Oden (1989:15) is representative <strong>of</strong> this position. The final word on this matter<br />
belongs <strong>to</strong> him:<br />
If not Paul, the surrogate had <strong>to</strong> be blatantly fabricating when he instructed<br />
Timothy <strong>to</strong> “bring the cloak that I left with Carpus at Troas, also the books,<br />
and above all the parchments” (2Timothy 4:13). What possible motive could<br />
there be for inventing such a sentence? Is not the whole <strong>of</strong> 2 Timothy 4 so<br />
saturated with intimate, personal, loving details that no one but Paul could<br />
have written it …? On what imaginable hypothesis would a forger have put in<br />
the mouth <strong>of</strong> Paul a claim <strong>to</strong> be “chief <strong>of</strong> sinners” (1Timothy 1:15, KJV)? How<br />
could a deceiver, however well-intentioned, write so movingly <strong>of</strong> “God, who<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
15
His<strong>to</strong>ry<br />
never lies” (<strong>Titus</strong> 1:2)? The case against Pauline authorship reeks with<br />
difficulties.<br />
His<strong>to</strong>rically, it is also difficult <strong>to</strong> uphold the claim for pseudonymity on the<br />
charge that the church viewed pseudonymity as acceptable. Quite the<br />
opposite seems true, if one evaluates how well intentioned false authors and<br />
their works were treated. Two examples <strong>of</strong> spurious letters written in the name<br />
<strong>of</strong> Paul are the Acts <strong>of</strong> Paul and the Epistle <strong>to</strong> the Laodiceans. Once it was<br />
discovered that the letters were not written by the alleged author, it was<br />
rejected. Where a fraudster was apprehended, he faced severe<br />
consequences (Carson, Moo, et al 1992:368-369). For example, a presbyter<br />
in Asia, who wrote in Paul’s name, once he was convicted and confessed <strong>to</strong><br />
have done so, “from the love <strong>of</strong> Paul”, was removed from <strong>of</strong>fice. Contrary <strong>to</strong><br />
what is claimed, the early church did not deal kindly with dissemblers or with<br />
their written products (Eusebius, 6.12; Tertullian, 1919:67, 68).<br />
Contrary <strong>to</strong> the claim that pseudonymous authorship was an acceptable<br />
practice among the early church, Carson, Moo and Fee (1992:368) raise<br />
several valid concerns. The first relates <strong>to</strong> the fact that writings were valued<br />
for divine content rather than the names attached <strong>to</strong> them. Thus, we find<br />
several New Testament writings that do not bear the names <strong>of</strong> authors.<br />
Therefore, attaching an apos<strong>to</strong>lic name was no guarantee that the church<br />
would accept it unquestioningly, as authentic.<br />
Hermeneutics<br />
Andreas Köstenberger and Brevard Childs draw attention <strong>to</strong> the problematical<br />
hermeneutical implications <strong>of</strong> the pseudipigraphical theory. Köstenberger<br />
(2003:4) addresses the matter by asking and answering several pertinent<br />
questions, namely,<br />
1. Was pseudonymous letter-writing attested in the first century?<br />
2. If so, was such a practice ethically unobjectionable and devoid <strong>of</strong> deceptive<br />
intent or not?<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
16
3. Could pseudonymous letters have been acceptable <strong>to</strong> the early church?<br />
4. If so, is pseudonymity more plausible than authenticity in the case <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Pas<strong>to</strong>rals?<br />
He concludes that whereas pseudonymity was not uncommon,<br />
“pseudonymous letters were exceedingly rare” (Köstenberger, 2003:5; See<br />
also Bauckham, 1988:487; Carson, Moo, et al. 1992:371).<br />
According <strong>to</strong> Köstenberger (2003:7), pseudipigraphy renders all his<strong>to</strong>rical data<br />
fictional, but no extant example <strong>of</strong> the so called “fictive epis<strong>to</strong>lary” genre in the<br />
first or second century exists. This creates the problem <strong>of</strong> interpreting the<br />
letters, since some parts <strong>of</strong> it must be discarded, being incidental. Moreover, it<br />
leaves the interpreter with the unpleasant task <strong>of</strong> having <strong>to</strong> decipher which <strong>of</strong><br />
the didactic portions would be significant. The problem is this: By what criteria<br />
does one make the distinctions? The interpreter is thus faced with this<br />
hermeneutical conundrum.<br />
Brevard Childs (1984:383) argues that the hermeneutical assumptions flowing<br />
from the attribution <strong>of</strong> pseudipigraphy <strong>to</strong> the Pas<strong>to</strong>ral <strong>Letter</strong>s have resulted in<br />
“serious exegetical dis<strong>to</strong>rtions”. In this regard, he highlights three dangers.<br />
1. A pseudipigraphal interpretation objectifies Paul. Since Paul is not regarded<br />
as the author, a shift must occur with respect <strong>to</strong> the author’s focal position or<br />
view point. The letters are no longer from Paul but about Paul. A his<strong>to</strong>rical<br />
critical assumption has thus modified the canonical shaping <strong>of</strong> the Pas<strong>to</strong>rals.<br />
In essence, this shift reduces the Pas<strong>to</strong>rals <strong>to</strong> the level <strong>of</strong> post-apos<strong>to</strong>lic<br />
references <strong>to</strong> Paul, such as, for example, as can be found in Polycarp. The<br />
canonical distinction in the image <strong>of</strong> Paul is thus obliterated.<br />
2. The addressees are not who the text prima facie identifies them <strong>to</strong> be.<br />
Pseudipigraphical interpretation renders them <strong>to</strong> be mere fictional<br />
representatives <strong>of</strong> a later <strong>of</strong>fice. This has the effect <strong>of</strong> relinquishing the<br />
canonical portrayal <strong>of</strong> Timothy and <strong>Titus</strong> in place <strong>of</strong> “a hermeneutical theory <strong>of</strong><br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
17
meaning as determined by his<strong>to</strong>rical referentiality” (Childs, 1984:384). In other<br />
words, correct understanding <strong>of</strong> the letter is made conditional upon the<br />
“his<strong>to</strong>rical assumption that the real addressee must be critically reconstructed”<br />
first (Childs, 1984:383).<br />
3. The acute presentation <strong>of</strong> the heresy is made indistinct through the<br />
pseudipigraphal genre. The tension between the heresy as a present and<br />
future threat is compromised by an interpretative assumption that views the<br />
heresy as occurring fifty years after the letter was composed (Childs,<br />
1984:384).<br />
All <strong>of</strong> the above represent a summary <strong>of</strong> the general academic rejoinders <strong>to</strong><br />
the pseudonymous authorship theory. A fourth response, suggested here, is<br />
the apos<strong>to</strong>lic or scriptural objections.<br />
Apos<strong>to</strong>lic objections<br />
We have evidence from Scripture that is indicative <strong>of</strong> the apos<strong>to</strong>lic attitude <strong>to</strong><br />
pseudonymous works.<br />
In 2 Thessalonians 3:17 and 2:2, we find what appears <strong>to</strong> be an apos<strong>to</strong>lic<br />
caution. It comes in the form <strong>of</strong> a warning against false writings. In the former<br />
reference, Paul draws attention <strong>to</strong> the “distinguishing mark”, the mark that<br />
would indicate <strong>to</strong> his readers the authenticity <strong>of</strong> a letter purporting <strong>to</strong> be from<br />
him. Additionally, he adds that this mark is in every letter. In several other<br />
writings, Paul reminds his readers <strong>of</strong> the fact that he is writing in his own hand<br />
(1Cor. 16:21; Gal. 6:11; Col. 4:8; Philemon 19).<br />
The second scripture reference (2 Thes. 2:2) contains a warning <strong>to</strong> the<br />
readers not <strong>to</strong> be perturbed by a “letter as if from us”. This clearly constitutes<br />
a safeguard against any duplici<strong>to</strong>us letters. Thus, Paul himself apparently <strong>to</strong>ok<br />
measures <strong>to</strong> safeguard the church against any counterfeit correspondence in<br />
his name. It would, therefore, seem improbable for the early church <strong>to</strong><br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
18
carelessly veer from this apos<strong>to</strong>lic injunction, and thereby risk opening<br />
themselves up <strong>to</strong> spurious material in the name <strong>of</strong> an apostle.<br />
In the same vein, the attitude <strong>of</strong> the Pas<strong>to</strong>rals appears <strong>to</strong> weaken the claim <strong>of</strong><br />
pseudonymity. These letters lay such stress on the integrity <strong>of</strong> the author and<br />
so vehemently warn against deceivers, making it increasingly unlikely that a<br />
pseudonymous author would stress honesty (1 Tim. 4:1; 2 Tim. 3:13; Tit.<br />
1:10). In <strong>Titus</strong> 3:3, the author confesses <strong>to</strong> having once been a deceiver.<br />
However, he is one no longer since he is now saved. Neither would a deceiver<br />
ex<strong>to</strong>l with such passion the character <strong>of</strong> God as “God who never lies” (Tit.<br />
1:2).<br />
This general survey has attempted <strong>to</strong> show that pseudonymity is not an<br />
insurmountable theory and that insistence upon the authenticity <strong>of</strong> the letters<br />
is not an unreasonable one (Collins, 2002:4). Doubtless, there are valid<br />
theological perceptions put forward by proponents <strong>of</strong> pseudonymity (Childs,<br />
1984:384), but the above fac<strong>to</strong>rs still demand an adequate response.<br />
Proponents <strong>of</strong> pseudonymity have yet <strong>to</strong> produce pro<strong>of</strong> for the acceptance <strong>of</strong><br />
pseudonymous letters by the church and the onus rests upon them in this<br />
regard <strong>to</strong> produce such evidence (Carson, Moo, et al. 1992:371; Knight,<br />
1992:47; S<strong>to</strong>tt, 1997:33, Lenski, 1961:474). The insistence, that these letters<br />
owe their existence <strong>to</strong> a hand other than that <strong>of</strong> Paul, is therefore far from<br />
conclusive.<br />
ii) Fragment hypothesis<br />
Some distinctly Pauline elements and the rather distasteful associations <strong>of</strong><br />
pseudonymity have led some scholars <strong>to</strong> postulate alternative authorship<br />
theories. The so called fragment theory has a modern proponent in Paul N.<br />
Harrison, but was apparently formulated as early as the late eighteen thirties<br />
by K.A. Credner. Harrison suggests that the author used authentic fragments<br />
written by Paul. This theory thus attempts <strong>to</strong> bridge the gaps left by the initial<br />
pseudonymity theory <strong>of</strong> Baur’s Tübingen school. It seeks <strong>to</strong> account on the<br />
one hand for the presence <strong>of</strong> vintage Pauline traits in these letters, and on the<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
19
other <strong>to</strong> explain what these critics call the “incoherence” <strong>of</strong> these letters<br />
(Carson, Moo, et al. 1992:366). Harrison originally identified five genuine<br />
fragments: Tit. 3:12-15; 2 Tim. 4:13-15, 20, 21a; 2 Tim. 4:16-18a and 2 Tim.<br />
4:9-12,22b. He later modified his findings, reducing the number <strong>of</strong> fragments<br />
<strong>to</strong> three.<br />
James D. Miller, in his book, The Pas<strong>to</strong>ral <strong>Letter</strong>s as composite documents,<br />
critiqued Harrison’s theory. Miller amended the theory, arguing that the<br />
fragments should not be regarded as haphazardly preserved scraps <strong>of</strong><br />
Pauline letters. Instead, the fragments should be seen as the original Pas<strong>to</strong>ral<br />
letters. Miller best puts it as follows: “Each <strong>of</strong> our three Pas<strong>to</strong>rals originated as<br />
an authentic note written by the apostle <strong>to</strong> Timothy and <strong>Titus</strong>” (1997:146).<br />
During the process <strong>of</strong> transmission from one generation <strong>to</strong> the next, these<br />
original letters were expanded by various edi<strong>to</strong>rs who wanted <strong>to</strong> preserve the<br />
traditions as taught by the apostle for their own contexts. Miller claims, in<br />
support, that a similar process accounts for the book <strong>of</strong> Jeremiah. It must be<br />
conceded that Old Testament literature has influenced New Testament<br />
literature. However, what must be borne in mind is that the book <strong>of</strong> Jeremiah<br />
is not only an Old Testament document, but is also a different literary genre<br />
compared <strong>to</strong> the Pas<strong>to</strong>rals. The Pas<strong>to</strong>rals are epis<strong>to</strong>lary literature, largely<br />
modelled after Greco-Roman pro<strong>to</strong>types. Moreover, it cannot be categorically<br />
maintained that the book <strong>of</strong> Jeremiah originated in the manner alleged by<br />
Miller. According <strong>to</strong> Miller, there are more than fifteen original “core Pauline<br />
notes” within the corpus (1997:147, 149, 150).<br />
Harrison’s original theory does not enjoy much support among scholars <strong>to</strong>day,<br />
largely due <strong>to</strong> the lack <strong>of</strong> indisputable evidence (Hanson, 1982:10; Hultgren,<br />
1984:18, Ellis, 1979:54). Its waning popularity is also related <strong>to</strong> the fact that<br />
this theory raises more questions than the answers it attempts <strong>to</strong> give<br />
(Carson, Moo, et al. 1992:366; Guthrie, 1990:636; Lea and Griffin, 1992:23,<br />
24).<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
20
iii) Secretary or amanuensis hypothesis<br />
Scholars on both sides <strong>of</strong> the debate account for the vocabulary and stylistic<br />
differences between the Pas<strong>to</strong>rals and the undisputed Paulines by arguing<br />
that Paul employed the services <strong>of</strong> secretaries or amanuenses. The<br />
forerunner <strong>to</strong> this theory was Ot<strong>to</strong> Roller in 1933. It was elaborated by E.R.<br />
Richards in 1991. The differences from the undisputed corpus are therefore<br />
attributable <strong>to</strong> a secretary who had more freedom <strong>of</strong> expression as was the<br />
case in the undisputed Paulines (Fee, 1988:26). Both Luke and Tychicus have<br />
been proposed by some as possible candidates (Lock, 1924: xxix; Moule,<br />
1965:430-452; Strobel, 1968:191-210; Jeremias, 1963:8). Mounce<br />
(2000:cxxxix) believes that this theory <strong>of</strong>fers more advantages in regard <strong>to</strong> the<br />
internal and external evidence without introducing additional problems and is<br />
therefore <strong>to</strong> be preferred over the fiction and fragment hypotheses.<br />
iv) Allonymity or allepigraphy hypothesis<br />
A very recent and novel alternative <strong>to</strong> Pauline authorship has come from the<br />
pen <strong>of</strong> I. Howard Marshall. While rejecting both Pauline authorship as well as<br />
pseudonymity, Marshall endorses a theory he defines as allonymity or<br />
allepigraphy (Marshall, Travis, et al. 2002:176). In his own words, it “describes<br />
the writing <strong>of</strong> a letter by somebody other than the named author, but without<br />
the attempt <strong>to</strong> deceive people: from the beginning the readers knew what was<br />
going on”. This theory thus attempts <strong>to</strong> s<strong>of</strong>ten the charge <strong>of</strong> deception<br />
associated with pseudonymity.<br />
This theory by default appears <strong>to</strong> confirm what some scholars find problematic<br />
with pseudonymity, namely the connotation <strong>of</strong> dishonesty. Furthermore, as<br />
Köstenberger (2003:4) points out, allonymity fictionalises the recipients<br />
Timothy and <strong>Titus</strong>. Köstenberger continues <strong>to</strong> criticise a theory that reverses<br />
the traditional and canonical order, when it makes 2 Timothy the primary work<br />
<strong>of</strong> Paul and the letter upon which the “allonymous” author based 1 Timothy<br />
and <strong>Titus</strong> (Köstenberger, 2003:176).<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
21
1.1.2.4 Conclusion<br />
The various theories testify <strong>to</strong> the complexity <strong>of</strong> the issues at hand. The<br />
debate is not about liberals versus conservatives or vice versa. Reputable<br />
scholars, who honour the integrity <strong>of</strong> the Scriptures, are <strong>to</strong> be found on either<br />
side <strong>of</strong> the table. Some scholars changed their perspectives when more<br />
evidence was forthcoming or after finding a theory lacking scholarly evidence.<br />
However, what has been an unfortunate consequence <strong>of</strong> debate was the<br />
effect upon the succeeding treatment <strong>of</strong> the three letters.<br />
The essence <strong>of</strong> the individual messages <strong>of</strong> the three letters, put mildly, faded<br />
in<strong>to</strong> the background, when the authenticity issue became central. The<br />
dominance <strong>of</strong> the pseudonymous position affected the subsequent treatment<br />
<strong>of</strong> these letters. They were treated as if they had nothing more <strong>to</strong> <strong>of</strong>fer.<br />
Luke T. Johnson (1996:4) observes that the Pas<strong>to</strong>rals all but disappeared<br />
from scholarly consideration. Johnson cites a 1989 survey <strong>of</strong> New Testament<br />
scholarship by the Society <strong>of</strong> Biblical Literature. An article entitled “Pauline<br />
Studies” contains one reference <strong>to</strong> the Pas<strong>to</strong>rals mentioned in a single line<br />
with reference <strong>to</strong> their inauthenticity. Three books were honoured with only a<br />
single reference in an article purporting <strong>to</strong> treat Pauline studies! Johnson is<br />
therefore not unreasonable when he avers that the determination <strong>of</strong><br />
authenticity or inauthenticity also affected the appreciation or depreciation <strong>of</strong><br />
the Pas<strong>to</strong>rals as Christian witnesses (Johnson, 1996:5).<br />
The relevance <strong>of</strong> this review for the <strong>to</strong>pic at hand must now be considered. If<br />
the authenticity debate has negatively impacted on the entire corpus in terms<br />
<strong>of</strong> further treatment, what has been the effect on a single letter, like <strong>Titus</strong>?<br />
Initially, it was not good at all. But the tide is changing. McKnight and Osborne<br />
(2004:292) observe that the burgeoning interest in literary studies has shifted<br />
the scholarly magnifying glass from matters <strong>of</strong> authorship and is focusing it<br />
increasingly upon the text itself - “its theology, rhe<strong>to</strong>ric, and reception”. Some<br />
<strong>of</strong> the developments in this regard will be discussed later.<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
22
While this transition is encouraging, we still have some way <strong>to</strong> go. It would<br />
appear that the two letters <strong>to</strong> Timothy have been especially dusted <strong>of</strong>f and<br />
placed back on the table - or a different table as the following article and<br />
paper indicate. The 1997 article by J.W. Aageson, is entitled “2 Timothy and<br />
its theological pattern”, while in 1996 J.L. Sumney presented a paper entitled<br />
“A reading <strong>of</strong> the theology <strong>of</strong> 1 Timothy without authorial presuppositions” <strong>to</strong><br />
the Theology <strong>of</strong> the Disputed Paulines Group at a meeting <strong>of</strong> the Society <strong>of</strong><br />
Biblical Literature. The same can however not be said <strong>of</strong> the <strong>Letter</strong> <strong>to</strong> <strong>Titus</strong>.<br />
A 1994 collection <strong>of</strong> Pauline studies has absolutely zero references <strong>to</strong> <strong>Titus</strong>,<br />
but at least one <strong>to</strong> 1 and 2 Timothy (Lambrecht, 1994:464). The Pre<strong>to</strong>ria<br />
conference on Rhe<strong>to</strong>ric, Scripture and Theology <strong>of</strong> 1996 has no contributions<br />
dealing with the Pas<strong>to</strong>rals, yet the index discloses three pages <strong>of</strong> references<br />
<strong>to</strong> the early Christian writings and the classical authors. Suffice it <strong>to</strong> say that at<br />
this stage, the reasons for the peripheral treatment <strong>of</strong> the <strong>Letter</strong> <strong>to</strong> <strong>Titus</strong> could<br />
be traced right back <strong>to</strong> all the events that started in Germany at the turn <strong>of</strong> the<br />
nineteenth century. It is important <strong>to</strong> note that, with regard <strong>to</strong> the original<br />
challenge <strong>of</strong> scholars accepting pseudonymity, those who defended Pauline<br />
authorship largely modelled their responses <strong>to</strong> the claims <strong>of</strong> the challengers.<br />
In terms <strong>of</strong> the actual points <strong>of</strong> debate, nothing new has been added. This is<br />
an important observation and one that will be revisited later in this study.<br />
The brief <strong>Letter</strong> <strong>to</strong> <strong>Titus</strong> has been relegated <strong>to</strong> the margins <strong>of</strong> scholarly<br />
attention which <strong>of</strong>ten views it as a book that primarily addresses pas<strong>to</strong>rs and<br />
has little <strong>to</strong> say <strong>to</strong> the rest <strong>of</strong> the church (Van Neste, 2003:18). Listen however<br />
<strong>to</strong> what Martin Luther (1960:389) said about this letter:<br />
“This is a short epistle, but a model <strong>of</strong> Christian doctrine, in which is<br />
comprehended in a masterful way all that is necessary for a Christian <strong>to</strong> know<br />
and <strong>to</strong> live”.<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
23
Excursus: Cumulative-complimentary versus individualistic-contrastive. Causal theory<br />
for conclusions on authorial presuppositions <strong>of</strong> the Pas<strong>to</strong>rals<br />
All scholars build their case, whether for or against Pauline authorship, on data derived from the texts<br />
<strong>of</strong> the three letters. In this regard certain peculiarities surface as <strong>to</strong> the methodology these authors<br />
adopt, whether consciously or unconsciously, in order <strong>to</strong> prove the correctness <strong>of</strong> their particular<br />
positions. The most common approach I have categorised as the cumulative-complimentary reading<br />
principle. An emergent variation is what I call the individualistic-comparative reading principle.<br />
In the cumulative-complimentary category, the author interprets the three letters as one, with each letter<br />
unders<strong>to</strong>od <strong>to</strong> complement the data <strong>of</strong> the other. Thus, any “gaps” in one letter are filled with reference<br />
<strong>to</strong> the others. Subsequent interpretation regarding, for example, authenticity or inauthenticity is then<br />
based on a cumulative picture derived from a collation <strong>of</strong> data from the three individual letters. The<br />
majority <strong>of</strong> scholars, irrespective <strong>of</strong> their position on authorship, apply this first principle when<br />
interpreting the Pas<strong>to</strong>rals.<br />
In the individualistic-comparative category, the author treats each book in the corpus on an individual<br />
basis, accentuating the distinctiveness <strong>of</strong> each book, through comparative <strong>analysis</strong> with the rest <strong>of</strong> the<br />
corpus. Conclusions on, inter alia, authorship are primarily based on the unique and individualistic<br />
content <strong>of</strong> each letter. Only after the individual discourse has been analysed on its own, similarities are<br />
considered on a comparative basis with all other literature <strong>of</strong> a similar nature, i.e. letters.<br />
Operation <strong>of</strong> the cumulative-complimentary reading principle<br />
The operation <strong>of</strong> the cumulative-complimentary reading principle goes back <strong>to</strong> the first time doubts<br />
were raised about the integrity <strong>of</strong> the letters. Ferdinand Baur and Julius Holtzmann evaluated the<br />
Pas<strong>to</strong>ral corpus from a comparative perspective when they eventually concluded that the style,<br />
ecclesiology, theology and the identity <strong>of</strong> the false teachers point <strong>to</strong> an author later than Paul (Harding,<br />
1998:9). As more points <strong>of</strong> contention and divergence were added, scholars simply focused on the<br />
issues <strong>of</strong> contention. In the early nineteen seventies Dibelius and Conzelmann (1972:5) drew attention<br />
<strong>to</strong> the affinities between the letters and on that basis spoke about the “literary character <strong>of</strong> the Pas<strong>to</strong>ral<br />
Epistles”. Interestingly, they correctly observe the different character <strong>of</strong> 2 Timothy as opposed <strong>to</strong> the<br />
other two (Dibelius and Conzelmann, 1972:7). Donald Hagner (1998:558) put it bluntly when he stated<br />
that “these letters need ultimately <strong>to</strong> be considered <strong>to</strong>gether”. Quinn goes so far as <strong>to</strong> declare the three<br />
one. He regards the <strong>Letter</strong> <strong>to</strong> <strong>Titus</strong> as the introduc<strong>to</strong>ry letter <strong>of</strong> the entire corpus while viewing the two<br />
letters addressed <strong>to</strong> Timothy as complimentary <strong>to</strong> one another (Quinn, 1990:7, 19-20).<br />
The language employed is very insightful. Commenta<strong>to</strong>rs and the like speak about “the theology <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Pas<strong>to</strong>rals” or <strong>of</strong> their ecclesiology or <strong>of</strong> the false teachers in the Pas<strong>to</strong>rals, and so forth. The only<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
24
problem is that such blanket categorisations cannot be substantiated from the texts. Let us consider<br />
some concrete examples.<br />
Ecclesiology<br />
The literature refers <strong>to</strong> the “structure” <strong>of</strong> the church in the Pas<strong>to</strong>rals. Truth <strong>of</strong> the matter is that church<br />
structure per se in <strong>Titus</strong> is very different from that which we find in 1 Timothy. In 2 Timothy, we can<br />
hardly speak about “church structure” (Mounce, 2000: lxxxviii). Harding (98:30) refers <strong>to</strong> Norbert<br />
Brox who sees the Pas<strong>to</strong>ral <strong>Letter</strong>s as the product <strong>of</strong> pseudonymity that sought <strong>to</strong> present Paul as the<br />
model care giver <strong>of</strong> the churches for successive generations <strong>of</strong> <strong>of</strong>ficials. The problem with this<br />
interpretation is the fact that 2 Timothy does not deal with churches per se. In this regard, Fitzmyer<br />
(2004:582) summarises the content <strong>of</strong> these letters in the following manner: “They deal with the<br />
structured ministry <strong>of</strong> the early church and a concern for orthodox teaching”. Such blanket statements<br />
obscure the intentions expressed in the three individually and should rather be avoided.<br />
Old Testament in the Pas<strong>to</strong>rals<br />
Sometimes researchers allow themselves <strong>to</strong> be overly influenced by a prior supposition. Hanson<br />
(1968:112) expresses such an overzealous commitment <strong>to</strong> the non-Pauline position that he completely<br />
misses the wood for the trees. Nowhere is this more evident than in his assumptions about the<br />
appearance <strong>of</strong> the Old Testament in the Pas<strong>to</strong>rals. In this instance, there are at least allusions <strong>to</strong> the Old<br />
Testament in 1 and 2 Timothy, but the same does not hold true for <strong>Titus</strong>.<br />
Background <strong>of</strong> the Pas<strong>to</strong>rals<br />
It is not only scholars, who maintain <strong>of</strong> anti-Pauline sentiments that make themselves liable <strong>to</strong> this<br />
methodological fallacy. Andreas Köstenberger (2003:8), a staunch defender <strong>of</strong> Pauline authorship,<br />
commits the same error. Thus, when he treats the background <strong>of</strong> Pas<strong>to</strong>ral <strong>Letter</strong>s <strong>to</strong> establish cultural<br />
relativity, he extensively cites passages from 1 Timothy. Now this may by due <strong>to</strong> the limitations <strong>of</strong><br />
space or because the use <strong>of</strong> the singular source was expedient, but it cannot be maintained that there is<br />
such a thing as the background <strong>of</strong> the Pas<strong>to</strong>rals.<br />
Suffering <strong>of</strong> the apostle/teacher in the Pas<strong>to</strong>rals<br />
Harding (1998:141) highlights the sufferings <strong>of</strong> the apostle <strong>to</strong>gether with concomitant calls <strong>to</strong> suffering<br />
and training. We can speak <strong>of</strong> hardship or the suffering motif in 1 and 2 Timothy, but not in <strong>Titus</strong>.<br />
fulavssw in the Pas<strong>to</strong>rals<br />
Harding (1998:148) states that the verb fulavssw appears in the Pas<strong>to</strong>rals five times. The truth <strong>of</strong> the<br />
matter is that it appears in 1 Timothy twice (5:21, 6:20) and in 2 Timothy thrice (1:12, 14; 4:15). It<br />
does not feature in <strong>Titus</strong> at all. So, are the Pas<strong>to</strong>rals referring <strong>to</strong> the Timothean correspondence with<br />
<strong>Titus</strong> on the side? What do scholars mean when they enumerate characteristics <strong>of</strong> the Pas<strong>to</strong>rals, when<br />
in fact those characteristics are not true <strong>of</strong> every letter comprising the Pas<strong>to</strong>rals?<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
25
Lumping or clustering apparent opposition<br />
According <strong>to</strong> Young (1995:276), the opposition constitutes a group <strong>of</strong> teachers <strong>of</strong> “gnosis falsely so<br />
called”. The problem is that this description is only mentioned in 1 Timothy.<br />
Heresy or Heresies?<br />
Bailey (1994:335) speaks <strong>of</strong> the heresy as a single indistinguishable entity identical in all three letters.<br />
However, 2 Timothy has very little information on the heresy. In <strong>Titus</strong>, the description is comparatively<br />
vague. This does not leave much room for anything but conjecture.<br />
God: Sovereign Crea<strong>to</strong>r and Sustainer<br />
Another example <strong>of</strong> the cumulative contrastive reading principle is found in Bailey (1994:341). In a<br />
subsection that deals with God’s involvement in his works, the following sentence occurs, clearly<br />
illustrative <strong>of</strong> the assumptions <strong>of</strong> the author: “Three times in these letters Paul credited God with being<br />
the Crea<strong>to</strong>r and Sustainer <strong>of</strong> everything (1 Tim. 4:4; 6:13, 15)”. Notice how the author refers <strong>to</strong> three<br />
letters, when in actuality he only cites three instances from one <strong>of</strong> the three letters! This is another<br />
example <strong>of</strong> the operation <strong>of</strong> the cumulative-complimentary reading fallacy by a scholar who supports<br />
Pauline authorship <strong>of</strong> this corpus.<br />
The above suffice as examples <strong>of</strong> the cumulative-complimentary reading principle (fallacy?). Today,<br />
there are increasing calls among New Testament scholarship <strong>to</strong> acknowledge the individuality <strong>of</strong> the<br />
letters. Thus, according <strong>to</strong> Mounce (2000:cxx), the three are “so significantly different that apart from a<br />
few verses on church structure and the opponents, there is little overlap <strong>of</strong> content”. This recognition <strong>of</strong><br />
the distinctiveness <strong>of</strong> the three and exhortations <strong>to</strong> appreciate the individuality <strong>of</strong> the three letters are<br />
gaining momentum. A detailed critique <strong>of</strong> “grouping” can be consulted in Johnson’s commentary<br />
(1996:8-18).<br />
Individualistic-contrastive principle<br />
An emerging trend, among scholars in the Pas<strong>to</strong>ral <strong>Letter</strong>s, favours an approach that prioritises the<br />
study <strong>of</strong> each letter apart from and prior <strong>to</strong> comparison with the rest <strong>of</strong> the corpus (Van Neste,<br />
2002:120; Johnson, 1996:7, 19, 22). The most vociferous proponent <strong>of</strong> this approach is Luke Timothy<br />
Johnson. In his commentary, he summarises his approach stating that he will pay careful attention <strong>to</strong><br />
the “literary form <strong>of</strong> each letter … individually and in particular rather than in general and as a group”<br />
(1996:32). A host <strong>of</strong> scholars have recently made significant contributions <strong>to</strong> the study <strong>of</strong> the letter <strong>to</strong><br />
<strong>Titus</strong>. These include contributions by Harris (1980), Hagner (1998), Thurs<strong>to</strong>n (1999), Kidd (1999),<br />
Classen (2002), Van Neste (2002), Van Neste (2003) and Faber (2005). My <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> <strong>analysis</strong> <strong>of</strong> the<br />
<strong>Letter</strong> <strong>to</strong> <strong>Titus</strong> is motivated in part by the recognition that the letter has its own voice and can stand on<br />
its own. Like Johnson, I <strong>to</strong>o believe that if scholars evaluated the letters individually first, and then<br />
compared them with the rest <strong>of</strong> the Pauline corpus, the conclusions on pseudonymity would stand on<br />
shaky ground (Johnson, 1996:7; Carson and Moo, 2005:555).<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
26
===========================================================<br />
1.1.3 THE THEOLOGY OF TITUS<br />
1.1.3.1 Introduction<br />
Theology is one <strong>of</strong> the contested areas, which contributed <strong>to</strong> the rejection <strong>of</strong><br />
the Pauline authorship <strong>of</strong> the Pas<strong>to</strong>rals. As was indicated in the above<br />
excursus, scholars on both sides <strong>of</strong> the debate addressed the matter by<br />
combining and extracting data from the three letters in order <strong>to</strong> arrive at the<br />
theology <strong>of</strong> the Pas<strong>to</strong>rals as opposed <strong>to</strong> the theology <strong>of</strong> 1 or 2 Timothy, or <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>Titus</strong>. It was, furthermore, a picture <strong>of</strong> a “Pas<strong>to</strong>ral” theology as compared with<br />
a composite image formed from the so called “undisputed” Pauline letters.<br />
Thus, a combination <strong>of</strong> three different letters was being compared with a<br />
combination <strong>of</strong> several letters <strong>to</strong> form a single opinion resulting in the rejection<br />
<strong>of</strong> an entire collection <strong>of</strong> works. For many years, little, if any, research was<br />
devoted <strong>to</strong> the theology <strong>of</strong> the individual letters <strong>of</strong> the Pas<strong>to</strong>ral collection, with<br />
even less <strong>to</strong> the brief <strong>Letter</strong> <strong>to</strong> <strong>Titus</strong>. For example, in their recent survey<br />
McKnight and Osborne (2004:292) laud a shift from matters <strong>of</strong> authorship <strong>to</strong> a<br />
focus upon the text itself. However, in their footnotes, the only examples <strong>of</strong><br />
this supposed shift are references <strong>to</strong> works dealing with literary aspects <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Timothean correspondence. The consistent marginalisation <strong>of</strong> the <strong>Letter</strong> <strong>to</strong><br />
<strong>Titus</strong> vis a vis 1 and 2 Timothy is a general trend in present scholarship,<br />
although there are exceptions.<br />
1.1.3.2 Trends<br />
In light, therefore, <strong>of</strong> the resilience <strong>of</strong> the authorship debate and the resultant<br />
neglect <strong>of</strong> the individuality <strong>of</strong> these letters, two recent works are encouraging<br />
indica<strong>to</strong>rs <strong>of</strong> an emerging trend, namely moving away from the earlier<br />
stalemate in and dominance <strong>of</strong> the authenticity issue. While the proverbial<br />
dust remains far from settled, when it comes <strong>to</strong> the authorship debate, there<br />
appears <strong>to</strong> at least be a tendency or willingness <strong>to</strong> move on beyond the matter<br />
<strong>of</strong> authorship. Thus, we see scholars setting out <strong>to</strong> investigate and appreciate<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
27
these letters on a more individual level; <strong>Titus</strong> in particular. However, there is<br />
much that remains <strong>to</strong> be done as the sparseness <strong>of</strong> works seems <strong>to</strong> suggest.<br />
On the <strong>to</strong>pic <strong>of</strong> the theology <strong>of</strong> <strong>Titus</strong>, two recent journal articles have surfaced.<br />
The first is by Raymond F. Collins entitled, “The theology <strong>of</strong> the Epistle <strong>to</strong><br />
<strong>Titus</strong>”. The other is by Bonnie Thurs<strong>to</strong>n, whose article is entitled simply, “The<br />
theology <strong>of</strong> <strong>Titus</strong>”. The approach <strong>of</strong> both scholars is very similar. Their articles<br />
are not apologetic treatises <strong>of</strong> the authenticity issue. They generally limit their<br />
attention <strong>to</strong> their stated subject matter. Thurs<strong>to</strong>n, in a footnote, states that she<br />
makes no presuppositions regarding authorship (1999:171). Collins<br />
categorically states his support for pseudonymity (2000:56, 57). Both struggle<br />
<strong>to</strong> cut themselves free from the resilience <strong>of</strong> the authenticity issue. Collins<br />
especially runs the risk <strong>of</strong> being interpreted <strong>to</strong> approach the <strong>to</strong>pic with an<br />
agenda <strong>to</strong> prove his assumption <strong>of</strong> pseudonymity, or double pseudonymity<br />
(Collins, 2000:57). This is an unfortunate tendency, because it obscures our<br />
appreciation for the individuality <strong>of</strong> the letter. The complexity <strong>of</strong> the debate is<br />
translated in<strong>to</strong> the text itself. By his insistence <strong>to</strong> raise the authenticity issue in<br />
his article, Collins has <strong>to</strong> create an additional person. Why must he say the<br />
following, “For the pas<strong>to</strong>r the commission entrusted <strong>to</strong> Paul <strong>to</strong> proclaim the<br />
word ...?” (Collins, 2000:63). Paul is transformed in<strong>to</strong> an object, thereby<br />
complicating the reading, not <strong>to</strong> mention the interpretation <strong>of</strong> an otherwise<br />
straightforward sentence. Because Collins prefers not <strong>to</strong> designate Paul as<br />
the author, and opts instead for the more obscure “fictive Paul”, a degree <strong>of</strong><br />
‘awkwardness’ characterises this otherwise helpful article. The following<br />
examples will suffice, namely, “The pseudonymous author’s intention <strong>to</strong><br />
present ...” or “The author <strong>of</strong> <strong>Titus</strong> has enhanced the image <strong>of</strong> Paul ...” (p. 64)<br />
or “The real author <strong>of</strong> the epistle goes on...”, and finally “... the pas<strong>to</strong>r<br />
attributes <strong>to</strong> Jesus ...” This kind <strong>of</strong> hazy language heightens the sense <strong>of</strong><br />
clumsiness <strong>to</strong> an otherwise good article that would normally exemplify an<br />
appreciation for the unique theological contribution <strong>of</strong> this short letter.<br />
Thurs<strong>to</strong>n (1999:176) confesses that, on the surface, the <strong>Letter</strong> <strong>to</strong> <strong>Titus</strong><br />
appears <strong>to</strong> be practical rather than theological. For Collins, on the other hand,<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
28
exactly the opposite holds true. He describes it as “[a] most blatantly<br />
theological ... composition” (Collins, 2000:56).<br />
1.1.3.3 Theology and Chris<strong>to</strong>logy<br />
We have in this letter an interesting, if not inseparable combination <strong>of</strong> theology<br />
and Chris<strong>to</strong>logy. Collins maintains the former emphasis, while Thurs<strong>to</strong>n<br />
stresses the latter. The two authors concur in their identification <strong>of</strong> three major<br />
theologically loaded sections, namely 1:1-4, 2:11-14, and 3:4-7. Not all<br />
scholars agree that there are three theological sections in <strong>Titus</strong>. Bailey<br />
(1994:351, 352) categorises seven in <strong>to</strong>tal, scattered throughout the three<br />
letters. Two <strong>of</strong> these occur in the <strong>Letter</strong> <strong>to</strong> <strong>Titus</strong>, namely 2:11-14 and 3:3-7. He<br />
does concur in his assessment that Chris<strong>to</strong>logy and theology are central<br />
emphases in <strong>Titus</strong>. Instead, he prefers not <strong>to</strong> distinguish these distinctive foci<br />
from the “theology <strong>of</strong> the Pas<strong>to</strong>rals” (Bailey, 1994:340, 343).<br />
a) Jesus Christ: salvation<br />
Thurs<strong>to</strong>n (1999:177, 178) sees a Chris<strong>to</strong>logical soteriology as the focal point<br />
<strong>of</strong> the <strong>Letter</strong> <strong>to</strong> <strong>Titus</strong>. In her words, “The theological core <strong>of</strong> <strong>Titus</strong>, its writer’s<br />
main theological interest, is Chris<strong>to</strong>logy”, unders<strong>to</strong>od as “any evaluation <strong>of</strong><br />
Jesus in respect <strong>to</strong> who he was and the role he played in the divine plan”. The<br />
main focus <strong>of</strong> <strong>Titus</strong>’ Chris<strong>to</strong>logy is soteriology, the saving role Jesus played in<br />
God’s plan or put differently “the theology <strong>of</strong> God-as-Saviour” (Thurs<strong>to</strong>n,<br />
1999:183).<br />
In the entire Pas<strong>to</strong>ral corpus, the most frequently occurring name is Jesus<br />
Christ or Christ Jesus or simply Christ as in 1 Timothy 5:11. The name makes<br />
no less than 32 appearances in the entire corpus <strong>of</strong> which 4 occur in the<br />
<strong>Letter</strong> <strong>to</strong> <strong>Titus</strong>. This may not seem like much, but in view <strong>of</strong> the brevity <strong>of</strong> the<br />
letter, it is a comparatively high number <strong>of</strong> times for any name <strong>to</strong> be repeated<br />
within one book. Interestingly, this name appears in every chapter <strong>of</strong> this small<br />
letter, namely 1:1, 1:4; 2:13, and 3:6.<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
29
Furthermore, the name Jesus Christ appears within a very definite context,<br />
namely a theological cluster that once precedes (1:1-4) and twice succeeds<br />
(2:11-14; 3:4-7) sections containing instructions (1:5-16; 2:1-10; 3:1-3). Most<br />
scholars agree that these theological clusters appear in at least the second<br />
and third chapters while some do not regard the section in the salutation as<br />
the third theological section. Nevertheless, within these theological hubs both<br />
God and Jesus Christ are mentioned. More importantly though, are the<br />
remarkable titles attached <strong>to</strong> the name Jesus Christ or Christ Jesus.<br />
As mentioned elsewhere, the title swthvr makes ten appearances in the<br />
Pas<strong>to</strong>ral <strong>Letter</strong>s. God and Jesus Christ equally share six uses <strong>of</strong> this title. In<br />
<strong>Titus</strong>, Jesus is referred <strong>to</strong> as Saviour in chapters 1:4, 2:13 and 3:6. This titular<br />
attribution designates Jesus implicitly a co-Saviour with the Father, who is<br />
also referred <strong>to</strong> as swthvr (Bailey, 1994:344; Thurs<strong>to</strong>n, 1999:183).<br />
b) Jesus Christ: Deity<br />
One verse, in <strong>Titus</strong> 2:13, has been the subject <strong>of</strong> much debate with reference<br />
<strong>to</strong> the deity <strong>of</strong> Christ. Scholars have long debated whether the verse applies <strong>to</strong><br />
Jesus Christ only or whether it makes separate reference <strong>to</strong> God and Jesus<br />
Christ.<br />
Murray J. Harris, in his paper entitled “<strong>Titus</strong> 2:13 and the deity <strong>of</strong> Christ”,<br />
<strong>of</strong>fers an evaluative summary <strong>of</strong> the various interpretive options on this verse.<br />
His conclusion is that the verse should be unders<strong>to</strong>od <strong>to</strong> refer <strong>to</strong> a singular<br />
predicate, namely Jesus Christ (Harris, 1980:171). His comprehensive<br />
<strong>analysis</strong> is well documented and should be consulted for a detailed overview<br />
<strong>of</strong> the possibilities (Quinn, 1990:156; Harris 1980:263-271). For the purposes<br />
<strong>of</strong> this study, only a bare summary <strong>of</strong> the different categories will be<br />
replicated. He lists and discusses several translation possibilities under three<br />
main interpretive constructions.<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
30
A. dovxa and swthvr are dependent on ejpifavneia (with qeou` dependent on<br />
dovxa):<br />
“... the appearing <strong>of</strong> the glory <strong>of</strong> the great God [= the Father] and [the<br />
appearing] <strong>of</strong> our Saviour, Jesus Christ”.<br />
Dubbed the double epiphaneous view, this interpretation argues for two<br />
manifestations, namely one by the Father and the other by Jesus Christ. The<br />
problem is that it requires the merging <strong>of</strong> an impersonal subject (dovxa) and a<br />
personal subject (swthvr). While some commenta<strong>to</strong>rs have avoided this<br />
conclusion (Harris, 1980:263), there are additional complications. These relate<br />
<strong>to</strong> the fact that swthvr does not have an article and could therefore be<br />
associated either with qeou` or dovxa. Additionally, it is unnatural <strong>to</strong> separate<br />
swthvr from qeou`. These two words have great cultic significance. They always<br />
refer <strong>to</strong> a single deity when employed in this particular relationship.<br />
B. qeou` and swthvr depend on ejpifavneia (with th`~ dovzh~ as a “Hebrew<br />
genitive) and as referring <strong>to</strong> either one:<br />
“... the glorious appearing <strong>of</strong> our great God and Saviour, Jesus Christ” (NIV).<br />
or two persons:<br />
“... the glorious appearing <strong>of</strong> the great God and [<strong>of</strong>] our Saviour Jesus Christ”<br />
(KJV).<br />
As Harris (1980:264) points out, this interpretation compromises the verbal<br />
parallelism between verses 11 and 13. By ignoring the article that modifies<br />
dovxa (verse 13), it undoes the corresponding idea in verse 11, namely hJ<br />
cavri~. Whereas the first appearance is a manifestation <strong>of</strong> divine grace, the<br />
second will be a manifestation <strong>of</strong> divine glory (Harris, 1980:264). The rendition<br />
<strong>of</strong> this dovxa as an adjective reduces significantly the connotative value <strong>of</strong> the<br />
term dovxa. Saying that “a person’s appearance will be ‘resplendent’ or<br />
‘attended by glory’ is a far cry from saying that the person’s own ‘glory will be<br />
revealed’” (Harris, 1980:264).<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
31
C. 1. qeou` and swthvr depend on dovxa and refer <strong>to</strong> two persons:<br />
“... the appearing <strong>of</strong> the glory <strong>of</strong> the great God and [the glory <strong>of</strong>] our Saviour<br />
Jesus Christ” (RSV, ASV, NEB).<br />
C. 2. qeou` and swthvr depend on dovxa and refers <strong>to</strong> one person (with Jesus<br />
Christ in apposition <strong>to</strong> this dovxa):<br />
“... the appearing <strong>of</strong> [him who is] the Glory <strong>of</strong> our great God and Saviour [= the<br />
Father, which glory is/that is] Jesus Christ” (F.J. A. Hort).<br />
C. 3. qeou` and swthvr depend on dovxa and refers <strong>to</strong> one person (with jIhsou`<br />
Cris<strong>to</strong>u in apposition <strong>to</strong>u` megavlou qeou` kai; swth`roi)<br />
“… the appearing <strong>of</strong> the glory <strong>of</strong> our great God and Saviour Jesus Christ” (RV,<br />
ASV mg, TCNT, Weymouth, NEB, JB, TEV).<br />
The expression qevo~ kaiv swthvr was standard cultic language in the first<br />
century and widely used. In every instance, it denoted a single deity. The<br />
second reason in support <strong>of</strong> this interpretation is that grammatically, two co-<br />
ordinate nouns referring <strong>to</strong> the same person are usually joined by a singular<br />
article (Harris, 1980:267). Harris supplies extensive corroborative evidence<br />
that may be accessed for further study.<br />
c) God: Salvation<br />
Collins sees God as the central focus <strong>of</strong> the letter. He attaches correctly so,<br />
great significance <strong>to</strong> the quintuple appearance <strong>of</strong> the noun God within the first<br />
four verses <strong>of</strong> the letter (Collins, 2000:56). God is specified as having a<br />
servant in Paul (1:1), having an elect (1:1), un-lying (1:2), being a Saviour (3)<br />
and a Father (4). However, if we consider all the verbs in the salutation<br />
<strong>to</strong>gether with the other nouns occurring in this section, then far more is being<br />
said about God than is indicated by the frequency <strong>of</strong> the nouns. Implicitly, it<br />
could be said that God promised (1:2), God manifested (1:3), has a word (1:3)<br />
and has a commandment (1:3). Paul discloses that he, the servant <strong>of</strong> God,<br />
has been entrusted with a message. The passive voice implies that God,<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
32
whose servant Paul identifies himself as in the introduc<strong>to</strong>ry verse, entrusted<br />
this message <strong>to</strong> Paul. Thus, over and above the five nominal references <strong>to</strong><br />
God, far more is said with reference <strong>to</strong> God, making the salutation glaringly<br />
theological. In sum, “God is identified in terms <strong>of</strong> the attributes <strong>of</strong> truth,<br />
paternity, and salvation” (Collins, 2000:56). According <strong>to</strong> Collins (2000:59), the<br />
theological foundations established by the pseudonymous author in the<br />
introduction is developed and elaborated in the body <strong>of</strong> the letter.<br />
The titular reference swthvr occurs ten times in the Pas<strong>to</strong>ral <strong>Letter</strong>s. Six <strong>of</strong><br />
these designate the Father, and three <strong>of</strong> the citations appear in each chapter<br />
<strong>of</strong> the <strong>Letter</strong> <strong>to</strong> <strong>Titus</strong>, namely 1:3, 2:10, and 3:4. The Father, like the Son, is<br />
presented as an active agent in the salvific process.<br />
All that is introduced concerning God is related <strong>to</strong> His activity, His character<br />
and the influence <strong>of</strong> these upon the individuals and the community. Thus, is<br />
introduced, not only a knowledge <strong>of</strong> God, but several related mini-themes like<br />
servanthood, godliness, the ecclesia, promise and hope (Collins, 2000:56-65).<br />
These are all interpreted in the light <strong>of</strong> what is said about God and developed<br />
as the letter progresses.<br />
Paul’s self-description as “servant <strong>of</strong> God” (1:1) links him <strong>to</strong> other Old<br />
Testament servants <strong>of</strong> God, like Moses. In this way, the significance and<br />
credibility <strong>of</strong> the person <strong>of</strong> the apostle is established (Collins, 2000:60, 65).<br />
The quality <strong>of</strong> Paul’s service is indicated by the designation, “apostle <strong>of</strong> Jesus<br />
Christ” (1:1).<br />
Collins goes on <strong>to</strong> discuss the <strong>to</strong>pic <strong>of</strong> godliness as well as the phrase the<br />
“hope <strong>of</strong> eternal life” (Collins, 2000:61, 62). He connects the discussion <strong>of</strong> the<br />
term godliness <strong>to</strong> the designation <strong>of</strong> the church as the elect <strong>of</strong> God occurring<br />
earlier. Godliness, therefore, constitutes the behavioural characteristic <strong>of</strong><br />
those qualified <strong>to</strong> be called God’s chosen ones. God’s calling <strong>of</strong> Paul, His<br />
election <strong>of</strong> the church; His promise and the fulfilment <strong>of</strong> that promise<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
33
accentuate the unmistakable role <strong>of</strong> God as the initia<strong>to</strong>r and guaran<strong>to</strong>r <strong>of</strong><br />
salvation.<br />
d) God: Sovereignty<br />
Salvation is only possible because God is in absolute control. Temporal<br />
references in relation <strong>to</strong> the apostle, God, and the church, paint another<br />
interesting picture reminiscent <strong>of</strong> God calling Abraham and the Israelites and<br />
God’s promise <strong>to</strong> the patriarch. In <strong>Titus</strong>, God operates within the narrative<br />
framework <strong>of</strong> eternity pro; crovnwn aijwnivwn. Paul’s ministry <strong>to</strong> the elect <strong>of</strong> God<br />
is situated at the appropriate his<strong>to</strong>rical moment, ejfanevrwsen de; kairoi`~<br />
ijdivoi~. Thus, God is presented as transcendent; operating at once outside <strong>of</strong><br />
the boundaries <strong>of</strong> time, yet at the same time manifesting Himself in time.<br />
When humanity is saved, this salvation depends entirely upon the Lord (3:4-<br />
7). God is the “un-lying” sovereign who keeps His promises.<br />
Collins (2000:66) links the second theological passage, <strong>Titus</strong> 3:4-7, <strong>to</strong> the<br />
salutation. Themes introduced in the latter are developed in this passage. One<br />
<strong>of</strong> these is the concept <strong>of</strong> divine paternity (1:4; 3:5, 7), where a link can be<br />
established between God as Father and the related concepts <strong>of</strong> birth and<br />
inheritance that surface in chapter 3. There, the un-lying God <strong>of</strong> chapter 1 is<br />
elaborated. He is “kind” (crhs<strong>to</strong>vth~), “loving” (filanqrwpiva) and “merciful”<br />
(e[leo~). This knowledge <strong>of</strong> God is deducible from the appearance <strong>of</strong> Jesus<br />
Christ, whose incarnation and a<strong>to</strong>nement are interpreted as the manifestation<br />
<strong>of</strong> God’s goodness and love. Divine mercy is the singular cause <strong>of</strong> salvation.<br />
The three nouns, kindness/goodness, love and mercy, are combined <strong>to</strong><br />
collectively express the quality <strong>of</strong> divine “grace” or cavri~ (3:7). Grace is then<br />
presented as the basis <strong>of</strong> the hope <strong>of</strong> eternal life (3:7; 1:2).<br />
e) The Holy Spirit: Salvation<br />
<strong>Titus</strong> contains only one direct reference <strong>to</strong> the Holy Spirit, namely in 3:5, and<br />
one implicit reference in a relative pronoun in 3:6. The sparseness <strong>of</strong><br />
references <strong>to</strong> the Holy Spirit in the Pas<strong>to</strong>rals is interpreted by Bailey<br />
(1994:348) as indicative <strong>of</strong> an assumed knowledge <strong>of</strong> the Spirit’s work on the<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
34
part <strong>of</strong> Paul. Thurs<strong>to</strong>n does not elaborate upon the role <strong>of</strong> the Holy Spirit apart<br />
from mentioning His agency and that He comes through Jesus Christ<br />
(Thurs<strong>to</strong>n, 1999:181,182). This is presumably due <strong>to</strong> her interpretation that<br />
the heart <strong>of</strong> this letter is Chris<strong>to</strong>logical. What she is prepared <strong>to</strong> emphasise,<br />
and <strong>to</strong> which Collins concurs, is her conviction that <strong>Titus</strong> 3:4-7 is a hymn or<br />
creedal fragment (Thurs<strong>to</strong>n, 1999:181; Collins, 2000:66, 67; See also Hanson,<br />
1968:78-96; Karris, 1996:80). Scholars also concede the conspicuously<br />
Trinitarian emphasis <strong>of</strong> this section. What is being emphasised is the role <strong>of</strong><br />
the Spirit in regeneration and renewal (Bailey, 1994:349).<br />
1.1.3.4 Conclusion<br />
Central in the theology <strong>of</strong> <strong>Titus</strong> is the his<strong>to</strong>rical act <strong>of</strong> salvation. It is a salvation<br />
that God and Jesus Christ share as co-saviours. Chris<strong>to</strong>logically, the letter<br />
evinces a very high view <strong>of</strong> Jesus Christ, who in 2:13 is designated as God. It<br />
is not an overstatement <strong>to</strong> say that <strong>Titus</strong> has an exalted Chris<strong>to</strong>logy. The<br />
interpretation <strong>of</strong> such an elevated view <strong>of</strong> Christ is not without complexities as<br />
the debate around <strong>Titus</strong> 2:13 clearly testifies <strong>to</strong>. The introduction <strong>of</strong> the Holy<br />
Spirit, in the last chapter, completes the Trinitarian emphasis <strong>of</strong> the letter.<br />
1.1.4 STRUCTURE AND COHERENCY<br />
1.1.4.1 Introduction<br />
Any appreciation for the structure <strong>of</strong> the <strong>Letter</strong> <strong>to</strong> <strong>Titus</strong> must begin with the<br />
recognition <strong>of</strong> the difficulty <strong>of</strong> such an endeavour. This problem relates <strong>to</strong> the<br />
prevalence and influence <strong>of</strong> the authenticity debate which, on the one hand,<br />
informed an attitude <strong>of</strong> alienation from matters related <strong>to</strong> the structure and<br />
composition <strong>of</strong> these letters. Thus, scholars and commenta<strong>to</strong>rs, in particular,<br />
just simply ignored the existence <strong>of</strong> structural concerns. It was observed, for<br />
example, as recent as 1997 that “most commenta<strong>to</strong>rs on the Pas<strong>to</strong>rals do not<br />
address the question <strong>of</strong> literary structure within these letters” (Miller,<br />
1997:159). On the other hand, a related response was the fostering <strong>of</strong> a<br />
negative interest that tended <strong>to</strong> focus on the exploitation <strong>of</strong> structural issues in<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
35
order <strong>to</strong> prove issues <strong>of</strong> authorship, without appreciating the potential value <strong>of</strong><br />
the insights gleaned from structural <strong>analysis</strong> <strong>to</strong> advance our understanding <strong>of</strong><br />
the content <strong>of</strong> the letters. The implications <strong>of</strong> some positions related <strong>to</strong> the<br />
matter <strong>of</strong> structure and coherency are so severe as <strong>to</strong> render these letters<br />
meaningless.<br />
Fortunately, a shift in scholarly mindset looms on the horizon. The dust having<br />
almost settled on the authorship debate and the non-Pauline view in the<br />
proverbial driving seat, scholars are slowly, though increasingly focusing their<br />
attention on other aspects, like the structure and linguistic features <strong>of</strong> these<br />
letters. It must be pointed out that scholars on both sides <strong>of</strong> the debate have<br />
sometimes weighed and found wanting any structural coherence in these<br />
letters. Paradoxically, some scholars are <strong>of</strong> the view that the majority <strong>of</strong><br />
contemporary scholarship affirms the fundamental coherence <strong>of</strong> the Pas<strong>to</strong>ral<br />
<strong>Letter</strong>s (Van Neste, 2002:119). That the matter is far from settled is evidenced<br />
by the fact that even those who defend the Pauline integrity <strong>of</strong> these letters<br />
doubt the coherency <strong>of</strong> the corpus. No less than Donald Guthrie himself, in<br />
this regard, found the letters <strong>to</strong> evince “lack <strong>of</strong> studied order, some subjects<br />
being treated more than once in the same letter without apparent<br />
premeditation”, concluding that the letters are “far removed from literary<br />
exercises” (Guthrie, 1957:12). This apparent disjunctiveness, however,<br />
bolsters his conviction that Paul authored this corpus. Non-Pauline<br />
proponents likewise, interpret the alleged structural “inconsistencies” <strong>to</strong><br />
galvanise their position. While a comparatively great amount <strong>of</strong> work has been<br />
done on the letters <strong>to</strong> Timothy, the <strong>Letter</strong> <strong>to</strong> <strong>Titus</strong>, even on this issue, has<br />
largely been relegated <strong>to</strong> the margins.<br />
1.1.4.2 Two positions<br />
There are essentially only two positions when addressing the specific matter<br />
<strong>of</strong> the structure <strong>of</strong> <strong>Titus</strong>. The first is that <strong>Titus</strong>, in the light <strong>of</strong> the whole corpus,<br />
has no structure and is incoherent. The key proponent <strong>of</strong> this position is<br />
James D. Miller. The second alternative is that <strong>Titus</strong> has a definite and<br />
justifiable structure, and constitutes a coherent unit <strong>of</strong> discourse.<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
36
Representative <strong>of</strong> this position is Ray van Neste. Several scholars have<br />
argued for the coherency <strong>of</strong> the Pas<strong>to</strong>rals. These include P. Towner (1989), L.<br />
Donelson (1986), B. Fiore (1986), and D. Verner (1983). Only Van Neste has<br />
exclusively focused on <strong>Titus</strong>.<br />
a) James D. Miller<br />
Miller’s book entitled, The Pas<strong>to</strong>ral <strong>Letter</strong>s as composite documents,<br />
investigates all three letters. He does however have one section that deals<br />
exclusively with the <strong>Letter</strong> <strong>to</strong> <strong>Titus</strong>, entitled “<strong>Titus</strong>: A compositional <strong>analysis</strong>”<br />
(1997:124-137).<br />
He divides the letter as follows:<br />
1:1-4 Epis<strong>to</strong>lary Salutation<br />
1:5 Epis<strong>to</strong>lary motive<br />
1:6-9 Qualities required <strong>of</strong> a good leader<br />
1:10-16 Polemical warnings<br />
2:1-10 Domestic rules: qualities <strong>of</strong> good community members<br />
2:11-14 Creedal fragment<br />
2:15 Literary marker<br />
3:3-8 Creedal fragment<br />
3:9-11 Polemical admonitions: on dealing with opponents<br />
3:12-15 Personalia and greetings<br />
Miller’s conclusion on the composition <strong>of</strong> the Pas<strong>to</strong>rals collectively is<br />
representative <strong>of</strong> his views on the structure <strong>of</strong> the <strong>Letter</strong> <strong>to</strong> <strong>Titus</strong>. Some<br />
examples will suffice:<br />
“... the letters have no driving concern, no consistent focus <strong>of</strong> interest; instead,<br />
they read like an anthology <strong>of</strong> traditions, many arranged mechanically<br />
<strong>to</strong>gether by <strong>to</strong>pic, some simply juxtaposed” (Miller, 1997:138).<br />
“... [o]rganization and development <strong>of</strong> thought ... the Pas<strong>to</strong>rals are<br />
characterized by a remarkable lack <strong>of</strong> both” (Miller, 1997:139, 140).<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
37
Miller (1997:124) is particularly uncomplimentary in his appraisal <strong>of</strong> the<br />
salutation <strong>of</strong> <strong>Titus</strong>. Thus, he considers it <strong>to</strong> be “no<strong>to</strong>riously complicated and<br />
confusing”. Moreover, he finds the style <strong>of</strong> the salutation “overloaded”, its<br />
grammar “confusing” and its content “unusual”. These “peculiarities” Miller<br />
(1997:125) attributes <strong>to</strong> the hand <strong>of</strong> a later edi<strong>to</strong>r. He is prepared <strong>to</strong> concede<br />
that the section on leadership displays evidence <strong>of</strong> unity, but maintains, on<br />
vocabulary evidence and what he terms as “abrupt” and “sudden” changes in<br />
sentences, that more than one author was involved (Miller, 1997:126). Earlier,<br />
I have dealt with Miller, in the section on authorship, and since the matters are<br />
related, I refer the reader <strong>to</strong> those sections. Basically, Miller denies that <strong>Titus</strong><br />
has any structure. Moreover, the present form <strong>of</strong> the letter is attributable <strong>to</strong><br />
intersections <strong>of</strong> different material by different authors at different stages during<br />
the formation <strong>of</strong> this document. Miller’s conclusions, which have been<br />
challenged recently by Ray van Neste, are applicable <strong>to</strong> the entire corpus and,<br />
as mentioned earlier, apply mutatis mutandis <strong>to</strong> the <strong>Letter</strong> <strong>to</strong> <strong>Titus</strong>.<br />
b) R. van Neste<br />
Ray Van Neste has found in the hypothesis <strong>of</strong> Miller, that the letters are<br />
composite texts, originating as short Pauline compositions, elaborated over<br />
time, through multiple edi<strong>to</strong>rial embellishments, a great challenge <strong>to</strong> the<br />
theology and meaning <strong>of</strong> the Pas<strong>to</strong>rals (Van Neste, 2002:119, 120). To<br />
counter the threat, he calls for an <strong>analysis</strong> <strong>of</strong> what he terms the “linguistic<br />
cohesiveness” <strong>of</strong> the text (Van Neste, 2002:118, 119). This literary or linguistic<br />
approach must seek <strong>to</strong> investigate the linguistic mechanisms by which links<br />
are created between various discourses. In other words, it needs <strong>to</strong> be<br />
established how we recognise coherency in a piece <strong>of</strong> discourse.<br />
Van Neste (2002:121) defines cohesion as “the quality <strong>of</strong> a text which creates<br />
a sense that it ‘hangs <strong>to</strong>gether’, and makes sense”. A text is cohesive when<br />
there are links between all the material comprising that text, so much so that<br />
“an understanding <strong>of</strong> one element requires an understanding <strong>of</strong> other<br />
elements in the text” through continuity and repetition (Van Neste, 2002:121).<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
38
In other words, there should be an element <strong>of</strong> textual inter-dependence within<br />
the discourse unit.<br />
Van Neste (2002:121) focuses on three ways in which cohesion in <strong>Titus</strong> is<br />
created. First, is cohesion shift <strong>analysis</strong> (122-126); next, are transitional<br />
devices (126-127) and finally repetitions (127-130). Quoting linguists Brown<br />
and Yule, Van Neste (2002:122) explains the first method as follows:<br />
“Between two contiguous pieces <strong>of</strong> discourse which are intuitively considered<br />
<strong>to</strong> have two different ‘<strong>to</strong>pics’ there should be a point at which the shift from<br />
one <strong>to</strong>pic <strong>to</strong> the next is marked”. Transitions between adjacent units are<br />
usually identifiable by significant shifts in “cohesion fields”. Cohesion fields<br />
signify “genre, <strong>to</strong>pic, subject, participants, verb tense, person and number as<br />
well as temporal and local frames <strong>of</strong> reference” (Van Neste, 2002:122).<br />
Continuity between the different fields greatly enhances the cohesiveness <strong>of</strong><br />
the discourse while discontinuity indicates development within the discourse<br />
(Van Neste, 2002:122). High levels <strong>of</strong> shifts will indicate paragraphic<br />
transitions, signifying the start <strong>of</strong> a new textual unit. Applied <strong>to</strong> the <strong>Letter</strong> <strong>to</strong><br />
<strong>Titus</strong>, Van Neste demonstrates that the unit evinces remarkable<br />
cohesiveness, linked by the dual concern <strong>of</strong> ethics and doctrine which “bind<br />
unit <strong>to</strong> unit throughout the letter” (Van Neste, 2002:126). His efforts are<br />
targeted at averting the challenge <strong>of</strong> Miller’s hypothesis, which he does very<br />
convincingly. Under the heading <strong>of</strong> “transitional devices”, Van Neste<br />
(2002:126) finds evidence in the text <strong>of</strong> <strong>Titus</strong> for the presence <strong>of</strong> “hook” words.<br />
He discusses and applies two variations <strong>of</strong> this linguistic device found in the<br />
letter, namely the “distant hook word” and the “hooked keyword” (Van Neste,<br />
2002:126). One example <strong>of</strong> these is the recurrent phrase in 2:10, “God our<br />
Saviour”, which Van Neste demonstrably judges <strong>to</strong> introduce and provide<br />
cohesion with 2:11-14. He, thus, disagrees with Miller’s criticism that the<br />
transitions between these two units are not smooth and also that the logical<br />
relationships are not obvious (Van Neste, 2002:127). Van Neste demonstrates<br />
that the utilisation <strong>of</strong> transitional devices indicates the intentional cohesion<br />
within the first part <strong>of</strong> the letter, again disputing Miller’s insistence that 1:10-16<br />
and 2:1-10 are isolated units, independent from the rest <strong>of</strong> the context.<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
39
Next, Van Neste goes on <strong>to</strong> show how the repetition <strong>of</strong> words, phrases or<br />
ideas provides cohesion and structure <strong>to</strong> the <strong>Letter</strong> <strong>to</strong> <strong>Titus</strong>. He sees and<br />
demonstrates the operation <strong>of</strong> lexical cohesion between the salutation (1:1-4)<br />
and the doctrinal sections (2:11-14, 3:3-7). He, furthermore, argues for the<br />
presence <strong>of</strong> an inclusio between 2:1 and 2:15 with the repetition <strong>of</strong> the words<br />
“<strong>to</strong> teach” and “<strong>to</strong> exhort” (Van Neste, 2002:129). He then proceeds <strong>to</strong><br />
demonstrate the parallels between the two sections, 3:1-8 and 2:1-15. He<br />
observes that both have in view ethical living based on an introduc<strong>to</strong>ry<br />
command, both are followed by a doctrinal section introduced by the word<br />
“for” (gavr), both shift back <strong>to</strong> the present tense with an exhortation instructing<br />
<strong>Titus</strong> <strong>to</strong> teach authoritatively. Finally, he suggests that 2:1-15 and 3:1-8 should<br />
be read as a single unit intimating that the earlier reference has a more<br />
complete introduction that is complimented best by the latter reference’s more<br />
complete conclusion (Van Neste, 2002:129-130).<br />
The article is a significant attempt <strong>to</strong> defend the integrity <strong>of</strong> the letter and <strong>to</strong><br />
guard against the implications <strong>of</strong> the incoherency theory which effectively<br />
reduces the letter and its theology <strong>to</strong> meaninglessness.<br />
Van Neste’s cry, which must be heeded, is for “further <strong>analysis</strong> <strong>of</strong> the structure<br />
and cohesion <strong>of</strong> the Pas<strong>to</strong>ral Epistles, and <strong>Titus</strong> specifically” (2002:118). It is<br />
<strong>to</strong> this task that the present study will address itself.<br />
1.1.5 RHETORICAL APPROACHES TO TITUS<br />
1.1.5.1. Introduction<br />
Exclusive treatises <strong>of</strong> the rhe<strong>to</strong>ric <strong>of</strong> the <strong>Letter</strong> <strong>to</strong> <strong>Titus</strong> are, <strong>to</strong> put it mildly,<br />
hard <strong>to</strong> locate, except for perhaps a mention in a footnote or some other place<br />
<strong>of</strong> obscurity. There are several reasons for this situation. The first relates,<br />
perhaps, <strong>to</strong> the relative novelty <strong>of</strong> the <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> critical methodology. The<br />
second reason is perhaps the fact that the <strong>Letter</strong> <strong>to</strong> <strong>Titus</strong> is much shorter than<br />
the other two Pas<strong>to</strong>rals. There appears <strong>to</strong> be so much more <strong>to</strong> say about the<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
40
<strong>Letter</strong>s <strong>to</strong> Timothy, because their scope and content are comparatively more<br />
extensive. The net result, or impression, is unfortunately that the compendious<br />
<strong>Letter</strong> <strong>to</strong> <strong>Titus</strong> appears <strong>to</strong> be treated as a footnote within discussions <strong>of</strong> the<br />
larger Timothean corpus. One gets the impression that it is almost “tacked” on<br />
<strong>to</strong> whatever is said in regard <strong>to</strong> the other two letters. An exception <strong>to</strong> this<br />
perception is the magisterial work by Jerome Quinn, whose posthumous<br />
volume on <strong>Titus</strong> is accorded “[p]ride <strong>of</strong> place” in a recent evaluation <strong>of</strong><br />
commentaries on the Pas<strong>to</strong>rals (Marshall, 2006:140). A final and most<br />
important reason for the perceived marginalisation <strong>of</strong> the <strong>Letter</strong> <strong>to</strong> <strong>Titus</strong> is the<br />
inextricable relationship with the authenticity debate and the cumulative-<br />
complimentary reading <strong>of</strong> the letters.<br />
Over the last three decades, there has been a tremendous surge <strong>of</strong> interest in<br />
<strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> criticism and the literature <strong>of</strong> the New Testament. Unfortunately,<br />
very little <strong>of</strong> this rekindled interest has been directed <strong>to</strong>wards the Pas<strong>to</strong>rals<br />
collectively and even less <strong>to</strong> the <strong>Letter</strong> <strong>to</strong> <strong>Titus</strong>. If a glance at several<br />
academic journals is anything <strong>to</strong> go by, then much remains <strong>to</strong> be done.<br />
For example, a collection <strong>of</strong> essays entitled Pauline studies (Lambrecht,<br />
1994:464-465) has zero references <strong>to</strong> <strong>Titus</strong>, although 1 and 2 Timothy share<br />
six. A 1996 collection entitled Rhe<strong>to</strong>ric, Scripture and theology, edited by S.<br />
Porter and T. Olbricht, has nothing on any <strong>of</strong> the three letters, but three pages<br />
<strong>of</strong> references from “Early Christian Writings and Classical authors”. In a 1999<br />
series, entitled, The <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> interpretation <strong>of</strong> Scripture, Christian and<br />
Classical share five pages <strong>of</strong> references. 1 Timothy is mentioned twice,<br />
followed by 2 Timothy, which is mentioned four times. <strong>Titus</strong> is referred <strong>to</strong> only<br />
once. A 2002 supplement entitled Rhe<strong>to</strong>rical Criticism and the Bible, edited by<br />
S. Porter and L. Stamps, has four and a half pages <strong>of</strong> references <strong>to</strong> “Post<br />
Biblical Jewish Literature”, including Josephus, classical authors and other<br />
ancient sources. This more than 500 page collection has one reference each<br />
<strong>to</strong> the Timothean corpus, and zero references <strong>to</strong> the <strong>Letter</strong> <strong>to</strong> <strong>Titus</strong>. While not<br />
conclusive, the data is suggestive <strong>of</strong> a need for a corrective in the area <strong>of</strong> the<br />
<strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> treatment <strong>of</strong> the corpus and more so <strong>of</strong> each one individually.<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
41
There have been some recent exceptions with one warranting a mention,<br />
namely Mark Harding’s, Tradition and rhe<strong>to</strong>ric in the Pas<strong>to</strong>ral Epistles. As the<br />
title indicates, Harding treats and interprets the letters collectively, arguing for<br />
the “literateness <strong>of</strong> the PE as letters and as persuasive communications <strong>of</strong> the<br />
received Pauline heritage ...” (Harding, 1998:4). His extensive treatment <strong>of</strong><br />
this group <strong>of</strong> letters, while valuable, is weakened by the cumulative-<br />
complimentary reading <strong>of</strong> the texts. Plotting the way forward, he fortunately<br />
expresses the conviction that these letters are “readily susceptible ... <strong>to</strong><br />
<strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> <strong>analysis</strong>” (Harding, 1992:234).<br />
There is <strong>to</strong> my knowledge, with the exception <strong>of</strong> Harding and Quinn, still room<br />
or even a need for extensive <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> <strong>analysis</strong> <strong>of</strong> the individual letters, <strong>Titus</strong><br />
in particular. This little letter must be rescued from beneath the shadow <strong>of</strong> its<br />
counterparts. Joachim Classen appears <strong>to</strong> be the only scholar who has<br />
recently done a <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> interpretation or, as he calls it, “reading” <strong>of</strong> the<br />
<strong>Letter</strong> <strong>to</strong> <strong>Titus</strong>.<br />
1.1.5.2 Carl Joachim Classen: “A <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> reading <strong>of</strong> the Epistle <strong>to</strong><br />
<strong>Titus</strong>”<br />
a) Introduction<br />
In the book, Rhe<strong>to</strong>rical Criticism <strong>of</strong> the New Testament, C. J. Classen has one<br />
section in which he deals with the rhe<strong>to</strong>ric <strong>of</strong> the <strong>Letter</strong> <strong>to</strong> <strong>Titus</strong>, entitled “A<br />
<strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> reading <strong>of</strong> the Epistle <strong>to</strong> <strong>Titus</strong>”. Classen (2002:45) defines rhe<strong>to</strong>ric<br />
as “the deliberate calculated use <strong>of</strong> language for the sake <strong>of</strong> communicating<br />
various kinds <strong>of</strong> information in the manner intended by the speaker (and the<br />
theory <strong>of</strong> such use)”. He explains <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> reading as,<br />
[R]eading a text in order <strong>to</strong> grasp the information it intends <strong>to</strong> impart, <strong>to</strong><br />
understand its meaning or its message by appreciating and explaining<br />
the function <strong>of</strong> every single part <strong>of</strong> it as well as <strong>of</strong> the composition as a<br />
whole (Classen, 2002:46).<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
42
This implies:<br />
[R]eading a text as composed by an authoress or an author with the<br />
particular intention <strong>of</strong> addressing a particular audience or individual at a<br />
particular moment or a wider public (wider both with regard <strong>to</strong> space<br />
and time) and, therefore, formulated in a carefully considered manner<br />
(Classen, 2002:46).<br />
In his definition <strong>of</strong> <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> reading, Classen understands three aspects <strong>to</strong> be<br />
materially significant. First, there is the text itself, then the relationship<br />
between author and audience as discernable, and thirdly the structure <strong>of</strong> the<br />
text.<br />
Classen begins his reading with a brief reference <strong>to</strong> authorship in regard <strong>to</strong><br />
which he opts for pseudonymous authorship (Classen, 2002:48). Furthermore,<br />
he avers that the letter should be analyzed, not in isolation, but rather by<br />
comparison with the authentic Pauline corpus.<br />
b) Structure<br />
Classen’s final structure is divided in<strong>to</strong> seven sections:<br />
1:1-4: Salutation<br />
15-13a: The mandate <strong>to</strong> <strong>Titus</strong>, qualifications for eldership and the<br />
characterisation <strong>of</strong> the opponents<br />
1:13b-2:15: A long section, involving a general instruction for <strong>Titus</strong> <strong>to</strong><br />
address Cretan unbelief<br />
3:1-7: Specific “aspects” with justifications<br />
3:8-11: Some admonitions and promises related <strong>to</strong> unbelievers and<br />
believers respectively<br />
3:12-14: Particular instructions<br />
3:15: Final greetings<br />
c) Methodology<br />
The author performs his <strong>analysis</strong> <strong>of</strong> the letter in two parts.<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
43
The first part <strong>of</strong> the <strong>analysis</strong> is essentially linguistic. It focuses on the<br />
explanation <strong>of</strong> the unique phrases and vocabulary <strong>of</strong> the letter (Classen,<br />
2002:48-63). This takes the form <strong>of</strong> an <strong>analysis</strong> <strong>of</strong> the first few sentences <strong>of</strong><br />
the letter, with particular emphasis upon the introduc<strong>to</strong>ry vocabulary.<br />
Throughout his evaluation, he highlights the significance <strong>of</strong> and relationship<br />
between some <strong>of</strong> the distinctive words.<br />
In the second part <strong>of</strong> his <strong>analysis</strong>, Classen attempts <strong>to</strong> show how the<br />
sentences are related by drawing attention <strong>to</strong> the linguistic mechanisms that<br />
tie the letter in<strong>to</strong> a coherent whole. According <strong>to</strong> Classen (2002:63), these<br />
include a number <strong>of</strong> individual keywords that make several reappearances in<br />
the body <strong>of</strong> the letter: pivsti", swthvr, ajyeudhv", ejfanevrwsen, and zwhv aijwvnio".<br />
He shows that the salutation flows, without transition markers, in<strong>to</strong> the specific<br />
instructions <strong>to</strong> <strong>Titus</strong> (1:5-6). This section is then followed by the<br />
characterisation <strong>of</strong> elders, which concludes with the requirement that elders<br />
be able <strong>to</strong> hold on <strong>to</strong> the faithful word and <strong>to</strong> oppose those in opposition (i{na<br />
duna<strong>to</strong>;" h\ / kai; parakalei`n ejn th`/ didaskaliva/ th`/ uJgiainouvsh/ kai; <strong>to</strong>u;"<br />
ajntilevgonta" ejlevgcein, 1:9). Classen points out how this requirement <strong>of</strong><br />
elders introduces the section dealing with the opposition through the words,<br />
<strong>to</strong>u;" ajntilevgonta" (1:9) and “many”, polloiv (1:10). The description <strong>of</strong> the<br />
opposition is a tightly knit section that concludes with a description <strong>of</strong> the<br />
motives from which these illegitimate teachers teach (1:11) followed by the<br />
prophet’s quotation in verse 12. The affirmation expressed by the use <strong>of</strong> the<br />
faithful saying (1:13) concludes the section. Classen draws attention <strong>to</strong> the<br />
linguistic link between verses 7, mh; aijscrokerdh` and 11, mh; dei` aijscrou`<br />
kevrdou" cavrin.<br />
Classen highlights the rebuke in verse 13, e[legce auj<strong>to</strong>u;", which is said <strong>to</strong><br />
draw upon the earlier description <strong>of</strong> the opponents in verse 9, <strong>to</strong>u;"<br />
ajntilevgonta" ejlevgcein. He does not draw attention <strong>to</strong> these linguistic links<br />
except <strong>to</strong> mention it without further elaboration. Next, he highlights the<br />
repetition <strong>of</strong> the ideas <strong>of</strong> sound teaching and belief repeated at various<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
44
intervals in the letter (1:13 i{na uJgiaivnwsin ejn th`/ pivstei; cf. 1:9 ajntecovmenon<br />
<strong>to</strong>u` kata; th;n didach;n pis<strong>to</strong>u` lovgou; 1:4 pivstin) in order <strong>to</strong> accentuate<br />
coherence <strong>of</strong> the various parts <strong>of</strong> the letter (Classen, 2002:64). The section<br />
concludes with another characterisation <strong>of</strong> the opponents (ajnqrwvpwn<br />
ajpostrefomevnwn th;n ajlhvqeian). Classen ties the entire section from 1:1-13a<br />
<strong>to</strong>gether as expressive <strong>of</strong> a mandate for <strong>Titus</strong>, involving justification for his<br />
authority, based upon the characterisations <strong>of</strong> the elders and the opponents.<br />
The additional pejorative references <strong>to</strong> the opposition (1:15-16) fall within the<br />
next division that forms part <strong>of</strong> a general instruction <strong>to</strong> <strong>Titus</strong>.<br />
Classen attaches great significance <strong>to</strong> the appearance <strong>of</strong> imperatival verbs. It<br />
appears <strong>to</strong> be the singular influence in his decisions about the structure <strong>of</strong> the<br />
letter. His next division commences from 1:13b, which contains an imperative.<br />
Thus, he does not regard chapter two as introducing a new section, preferring<br />
instead, <strong>to</strong> draw a correlation between the imperative in 2:1, lavlei and 1:13,<br />
e[legce. The recurring emphasis on soundness persuades him further in this<br />
decision; thus uJgiainouvsh in 2:1 and the verb uJgiaivnwsi" in 1:13. He finds<br />
additional corroboration in the linguistic allusion between the expressions a}<br />
prevpei occurring in 2:1 and a} mh; dei in 1:11. Due <strong>to</strong> the occurrence <strong>of</strong> the<br />
imperative verb forms and the similarity in vocabulary, Classen justifies his<br />
decision <strong>to</strong> treat the section from 1:13b till the end <strong>of</strong> chapter 2 as a unit.<br />
Further links with earlier sections are established through the repetition <strong>of</strong> the<br />
word ajntilevgonte" occurring in 2:9 as well as in 1:9. However, Classen<br />
(2002:57, 58) overplays his hand when he attempts <strong>to</strong> link 2:10 with 2:11 by<br />
translating ejn pa`sin (2:10) as “amongst all men”, in order <strong>to</strong> make it run<br />
parallel with 2:11, pa`sin ajnqrwvpoi". He, furthermore, prefers <strong>to</strong> skip the rest<br />
<strong>of</strong> the instructions given <strong>to</strong> the servant category. Instead, he disregards the<br />
rest <strong>of</strong> the instructions in 2:9 and 10 focussing only on the i{na-clause in the<br />
latter verse. Furthermore, the dual occurrence <strong>of</strong> the adjective, pav~, in verse<br />
10 is deliberate, a point which the author does not explain in his book. More<br />
importantly though, Classen is not consistent in this translation <strong>of</strong> the<br />
expression, ejn pa`sin, which also occurs in verse 9. Unfortunately, he does not<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
45
<strong>of</strong>fer any translations in this regard. Thus, Classen’s decision <strong>to</strong> translate the<br />
adjective substantively as “all men” in verse 10 is perhaps a tinge arbitrary in<br />
order <strong>to</strong> justify his divisions <strong>of</strong> the letter.<br />
Classen (2002:65) observes that 2:1-15 comprises an independent unit in a<br />
section beginning in 1:13b and ending at 2:15 that contains specific<br />
instructions about sound belief <strong>to</strong> different categories <strong>of</strong> Cretans. The section<br />
is cordoned <strong>of</strong>f by several imperatival verbs. There are three, namely, lavlei,<br />
which introduces the section and that is repeated in verse 15. The other two<br />
are, parakavlei and e[legce.<br />
The next imperative in 3:1, uJpomivmnh/ske relates back <strong>to</strong> the preceding<br />
imperatives and is unders<strong>to</strong>od <strong>to</strong> link the two sections (Classen, 2002:65).<br />
The reason why <strong>Titus</strong> is given this instruction is attributable, according <strong>to</strong><br />
Classen, firstly <strong>to</strong> human weaknesses (3:3) and secondly, <strong>to</strong> divine love (3:4-<br />
7). He draws a very faint connection between 3:1-7 and 2:11, without<br />
highlighting any specific emphases (Classen, 2002:65). Two final imperatives,<br />
in 3:9, periivŸstaso, and 3:10, parai<strong>to</strong>u`, underscore the nature <strong>of</strong> the letter,<br />
which Classen summarises as follows:<br />
It is a letter with instructions, mandates, injunctions, admonitions and<br />
warnings, particular orders which are justified with the help <strong>of</strong> general<br />
considerations and put forward in a very clear and carefully structured<br />
arrangement” (Classen, 2002:65).<br />
These orders or instructions <strong>to</strong> <strong>Titus</strong> are programmatic for the structure <strong>of</strong> the<br />
letter. They are key signals <strong>to</strong>gether with the repetition <strong>of</strong> special vocabulary<br />
provided by the author <strong>to</strong> aid the reader’s understanding <strong>of</strong> the letter (Classen,<br />
2002:65). Classen defines in one sentence the <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> elements <strong>of</strong> inventio,<br />
dispositio and <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> situation (Classen, 2002:65) without <strong>of</strong>fering any<br />
further elaboration.<br />
In the very last section, Classen (2002:65, 66) indicates what he considers <strong>to</strong><br />
constitute the basic emphases <strong>of</strong> the author,<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
46
1. “The belief <strong>of</strong> the people <strong>of</strong> God in his graciousness and promises <strong>of</strong><br />
salvation and eternal life;<br />
2. The need <strong>to</strong> know the sound teaching;<br />
3. The need <strong>to</strong> live a moderate life and <strong>to</strong> perform kalav e[rga”.<br />
d) Conclusion<br />
The article concludes with an outline <strong>of</strong> the letter based on the rationale as<br />
presented earlier.<br />
1.1.5.3 Critical evaluation <strong>of</strong> <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> approaches <strong>to</strong> <strong>Titus</strong><br />
It is fair <strong>to</strong> say that very little, if any work, has been done that has made the<br />
rhe<strong>to</strong>ric <strong>of</strong> the <strong>Letter</strong> <strong>to</strong> <strong>Titus</strong> its exclusive focus. The prevalence <strong>of</strong> the<br />
authenticity debate appears <strong>to</strong> have had a restraining effect on the scholarly<br />
treatment <strong>of</strong> the entire corpus. Even commenta<strong>to</strong>rs treat and interpret the<br />
letters in the light <strong>of</strong> the authorship debate, displaying an apparent<br />
apprehensiveness <strong>to</strong> appreciate the individuality <strong>of</strong> Pas<strong>to</strong>rals. <strong>Titus</strong> tends <strong>to</strong><br />
be treated in the light <strong>of</strong> the other two. Critical works dedicated <strong>to</strong> a <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong><br />
study <strong>of</strong> the Pas<strong>to</strong>rals continue <strong>to</strong> concentrate upon the Timothean corpus, as<br />
a survey <strong>of</strong> recent <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> conferences, has shown.<br />
Generally, therefore, there appears <strong>to</strong> be a dearth <strong>of</strong> <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> attention when<br />
it comes <strong>to</strong> the collective treatment <strong>of</strong> the Pas<strong>to</strong>rals, which becomes even less<br />
in the case <strong>of</strong> the <strong>Letter</strong> <strong>to</strong> <strong>Titus</strong>. In this regard, I am aware <strong>of</strong> only one study<br />
that pays direct attention, in a more or less comprehensive manner, <strong>to</strong> the<br />
rhe<strong>to</strong>ric <strong>of</strong> <strong>Titus</strong>, namely that <strong>of</strong> Joachim Classen discussed above, whose<br />
book is dedicated <strong>to</strong> the <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> criticism <strong>of</strong> the New Testament. He<br />
apportions 23 pages <strong>of</strong> his book <strong>to</strong> the <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> treatment <strong>of</strong> <strong>Titus</strong>.<br />
Classen’s work has much <strong>to</strong> commend it. His decision <strong>to</strong> take the letter<br />
seriously and <strong>to</strong> evaluate it on its own merits is in itself commendable. The<br />
decision <strong>to</strong> structure the letter around the occurrence <strong>of</strong> imperatives is rather<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
47
novel. To the best <strong>of</strong> my knowledge, this is the only <strong>analysis</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Titus</strong> <strong>to</strong> attach<br />
such significance <strong>to</strong> that particular construct. His initial <strong>analysis</strong> <strong>of</strong> the<br />
sentences also renders helpful insight despite a subsequent tendency <strong>to</strong>wards<br />
a selective <strong>analysis</strong> <strong>of</strong> only parts <strong>of</strong> sentences. Unfortunately, there are also<br />
some weaknesses in his <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> reading.<br />
Persuasion is a key aspect <strong>of</strong> <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> criticism. At no stage in his treatment<br />
<strong>of</strong> the letter does Classen even allude <strong>to</strong> this element. The issue should be<br />
“Why does the author say what he is saying in the way he says it?” Classen’s<br />
examination highlights what is there, i.e. in the text. He never attempts <strong>to</strong> go<br />
beyond that and answer the next question, namely, why is it there? Leading<br />
on from this is, perhaps, a more serious shortcoming <strong>of</strong> the study.<br />
Classen’s assessment is more exegetical than <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong>. His critical treatment<br />
interprets the contents <strong>of</strong> the text without disclosing any indication <strong>of</strong> motive.<br />
His article merely <strong>of</strong>fers knowledge about the peculiar vocabulary <strong>of</strong> the letter,<br />
the special phrases, and the syntactical flow <strong>of</strong> ideas between sentences. The<br />
role <strong>of</strong> the unique vocabulary and what the peculiar sentence flow<br />
communicate about the intention <strong>of</strong> the author are left unexamined. His study<br />
is far more textual and focused on the linguistic aspects <strong>of</strong> the text than the<br />
rhe<strong>to</strong>ric there<strong>of</strong>. This fact is evident from his definition <strong>of</strong> rhe<strong>to</strong>ric and<br />
<strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> reading (Classen, 2002:45, 46), which emphasises “understanding”<br />
the message, while “appreciating” and “explaining the function” <strong>of</strong> the parts as<br />
well as <strong>of</strong> the whole composition (Classen, 2002:46). Classen (2002:63)<br />
places great emphasis on the fact that this is a letter and not a speech. While<br />
this is true, it is equally true that ancient letter writers wrote in an oral, and<br />
even an aural manner. Yes, in form it is a letter, but it is not merely a letter.<br />
The phenomenon <strong>of</strong> the so called apos<strong>to</strong>lic parousia is an accepted feature in<br />
New Testament scholarship. It has been demonstrated that the epis<strong>to</strong>lary<br />
format also functions <strong>to</strong> communicate the apos<strong>to</strong>lic presence. This<br />
phenomenon in part contributes <strong>to</strong> an appreciation <strong>of</strong> the literary format <strong>of</strong><br />
New Testament letters. Classen’s study does not pay any consideration <strong>to</strong> this<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
48
dimension in his investigation. He would appear <strong>to</strong> exclude the possibility that<br />
even letters can be employed with persuasive intent.<br />
Moreover, this is not a comprehensive treatment <strong>of</strong> the whole letter. Several<br />
words and parts <strong>of</strong> sentences are left unexplained. This situation could<br />
perhaps be attributed <strong>to</strong> the fact that the author merely attempted <strong>to</strong><br />
demonstrate <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> criticism using <strong>Titus</strong> because <strong>of</strong> its relative brevity. In<br />
other words, his intention might not have been <strong>to</strong> conduct a comprehensive<br />
<strong>analysis</strong>.<br />
A surprising omission in Classen’s enquiry is the silence on the theology <strong>of</strong><br />
the letter. Whereas the majority <strong>of</strong> scholars, at worst, allude <strong>to</strong> the distinctive<br />
theological emphases <strong>of</strong> the letter, Classen’s study, at best, hints at it<br />
(Classen, 2002:50, 51). The reason, why he seemingly misses or selectively<br />
mutes the evident theological emphases, is not clear. Perhaps, it is because<br />
he is so committed <strong>to</strong> prove the relationship <strong>of</strong> the various imperatives <strong>to</strong> the<br />
structure <strong>of</strong> the letter. As shown in the overview, he is probably overstating his<br />
case in this regard. Still, the theological sections are underplayed and what<br />
are highlighted are the orders given <strong>to</strong> <strong>Titus</strong>. The theological sections are<br />
interpreted as mere justifications for the instructions given <strong>to</strong> <strong>Titus</strong>. The<br />
references <strong>to</strong> possible <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> categories are limited <strong>to</strong> the end <strong>of</strong> his article<br />
and even then in only one sentence. Other <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> aspects, for example,<br />
pathos and ethos are not considered in this study.<br />
1.1.5.4 Conclusion<br />
Rhe<strong>to</strong>rical treatments <strong>of</strong> the <strong>Letter</strong> <strong>to</strong> <strong>Titus</strong> are sparse. In the light <strong>of</strong> the<br />
modern burgeoning <strong>of</strong> this ancient critical technique, this is surprising.<br />
Considered, however, against the backdrop <strong>of</strong> the authenticity debate, this<br />
marginalisation <strong>of</strong> the <strong>Letter</strong> <strong>to</strong> <strong>Titus</strong> is logically explicable. A <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong><br />
treatment <strong>of</strong> <strong>Titus</strong> is commendable because it will elevate the significance <strong>of</strong><br />
this letter as one that can stand in its own right. In other words, the letter<br />
needs <strong>to</strong> be seen as a biblical text that has its own contribution <strong>to</strong> make,<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
49
ather than as a supplement <strong>to</strong> the Timothean correspondence. The letter,<br />
furthermore, has a distinctive theological character that will be highlighted by a<br />
thorough <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> <strong>analysis</strong>. In this way, the stalemate situation resulting from<br />
the authenticity debate can be overcome. Already, there are calls from within<br />
the halls <strong>of</strong> academia for the three letters <strong>to</strong> be appreciated individually (Van<br />
Neste, Thurs<strong>to</strong>n, Johnson). A <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> treatment <strong>of</strong> this small letter will<br />
answer that call.<br />
1.2 RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS AND<br />
METHODOLOGY<br />
1.2.1 RESEARCH PROBLEM<br />
The above review has shown that the Pas<strong>to</strong>ral <strong>Letter</strong>s, as a corpus, have and<br />
continue <strong>to</strong> enjoy significant scholarly attention. Furthermore, the rise <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> criticism over the last fifty years has proved beneficial for New<br />
Testament hermeneutics and exegesis generally, and the Pas<strong>to</strong>rals<br />
particularly. A preliminary evaluation <strong>of</strong> current research in the Pas<strong>to</strong>rals (as<br />
presented above), discloses interesting tendencies in the way researchers<br />
have treated them as a corpus and individually. This treatment highlights what<br />
is potentially problematic with regard <strong>to</strong> the relationship between <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong><br />
criticism and the Pas<strong>to</strong>rals and hence the motivation for this study. The multi-<br />
faceted nature <strong>of</strong> the problem involves, firstly, the primacy <strong>of</strong> the Timothean<br />
correspondence versus the neglect <strong>of</strong> the <strong>Letter</strong> <strong>to</strong> <strong>Titus</strong>. Secondly, it involves<br />
the treatment <strong>of</strong> the Pas<strong>to</strong>rals as a unit or corpus versus the individuality <strong>of</strong><br />
the <strong>Letter</strong> <strong>to</strong> <strong>Titus</strong>. Finally, it involves the <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> praxis versus the<br />
theological and practical implications <strong>of</strong> the <strong>Letter</strong> <strong>to</strong> <strong>Titus</strong>.<br />
1. Primacy <strong>of</strong> the Timothean correspondence versus the neglect <strong>of</strong> the <strong>Letter</strong> <strong>to</strong> <strong>Titus</strong><br />
Presently, with minor exceptions, the majority <strong>of</strong> scholars concentrate their<br />
efforts on the issues <strong>of</strong> epis<strong>to</strong>lary theory and the authenticity <strong>of</strong> the Pas<strong>to</strong>ral<br />
corpus, specifically the <strong>Letter</strong>s <strong>to</strong> Timothy. On the other hand, the <strong>Letter</strong> <strong>to</strong><br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
50
<strong>Titus</strong>, with some exceptions, continues largely <strong>to</strong> be relegated <strong>to</strong> the periphery<br />
<strong>of</strong> scholarly endeavours.<br />
2. The Pas<strong>to</strong>rals as a unit or corpus versus the individuality <strong>of</strong> the <strong>Letter</strong> <strong>to</strong> <strong>Titus</strong><br />
Following on from the above, the individuality <strong>of</strong> the different letters has not<br />
been sufficiently appreciated while under the microscope <strong>of</strong> scholarly<br />
investigation. Despite preoccupying themselves with the Pas<strong>to</strong>ral corpus,<br />
scholars appear largely <strong>to</strong> have done so, at the risk <strong>of</strong> failure <strong>to</strong> observe that<br />
this ‘unit’ actually comprises three individual letters. Each <strong>of</strong> these, despite<br />
their commonality, manifests sufficient degrees <strong>of</strong> original emphases,<br />
revealing remarkable idiosyncrasy. Still, the Pas<strong>to</strong>ral <strong>Letter</strong>s continue largely<br />
<strong>to</strong> be treated as a unit with primary emphasis falling on the <strong>Letter</strong>s <strong>to</strong> Timothy.<br />
3. Rhe<strong>to</strong>rical praxis versus the theological and practical implications <strong>of</strong> the <strong>Letter</strong> <strong>to</strong><br />
<strong>Titus</strong><br />
A major advance, due <strong>to</strong> the utilisation <strong>of</strong> <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> criticism, was that the<br />
biblical text again came <strong>to</strong> enjoy centrality, over against the approach <strong>of</strong> the<br />
his<strong>to</strong>rical critical methodology. Unfortunately, this has not translated in<strong>to</strong> a<br />
serious application <strong>of</strong> <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> criticism <strong>to</strong> the text <strong>of</strong> particularly the <strong>Letter</strong> <strong>to</strong><br />
<strong>Titus</strong>. It appears as if a plateau has been reached in regard <strong>to</strong> the potential <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> criticism. In other words, the promise that <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> criticism holds is<br />
not being maximised as a technique <strong>to</strong> enhance our encounter with the text,<br />
climaxing in proclamation and edification <strong>of</strong> the Church.<br />
The relationship between <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> criticism and the Pas<strong>to</strong>rals seems <strong>to</strong> have<br />
reached an impasse: authorship and <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> theory. The investigation<br />
needs <strong>to</strong> be advanced and the promise <strong>of</strong> <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> criticism must be tested.<br />
Whereas certain aspects <strong>of</strong> the theology and rhe<strong>to</strong>ric <strong>of</strong> the <strong>Letter</strong> <strong>to</strong> <strong>Titus</strong><br />
have recently come under the spotlight, there remains room for a<br />
comprehensive <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> <strong>analysis</strong> <strong>of</strong> this letter that will bring <strong>to</strong>gether and<br />
develop, what has apparently, till now, been considered in isolated studies.<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
51
Accordingly, the research hypothesis on which this study is based will be as<br />
follows: A thorough text-<strong>centred</strong> <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> approach <strong>to</strong> the <strong>Letter</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Titus</strong> (i.e.,<br />
without relating it <strong>to</strong> the other two Pas<strong>to</strong>ral <strong>Letter</strong>s or approaching it in terms <strong>of</strong><br />
the authenticity/inauthenticity debate) will yield new insights for its<br />
interpretation.<br />
1.2.2 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY<br />
The first section <strong>of</strong> this research focused upon an overview <strong>of</strong> existing<br />
scholarship on the <strong>Letter</strong> <strong>to</strong> <strong>Titus</strong>. The second section will be dedicated <strong>to</strong> the<br />
actual <strong>analysis</strong> <strong>of</strong> the text with a view <strong>to</strong> reconstruct the <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> strategy<br />
from the text itself. Above, in the presentation <strong>of</strong> the research hypothesis, I<br />
have already indicated that the <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> approach that will be followed is a<br />
“text-<strong>centred</strong>” approach. A text-<strong>centred</strong> approach is exactly that: it involves an<br />
<strong>analysis</strong> <strong>of</strong> the rhe<strong>to</strong>ric <strong>of</strong> a text that focuses primarily upon identifying and<br />
describing the <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> strategies from the text itself instead <strong>of</strong> imposing pre-<br />
selected systems or <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> models upon the text and making the text fit<br />
in<strong>to</strong> such systems or models. Thus, the major disadvantage <strong>of</strong> using pre-<br />
selected models is that the text is forced <strong>to</strong> comply with a particular model.<br />
Furthermore, such an approach implies that a particular <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> model can<br />
explain every aspect <strong>of</strong> the text. It seems better, however, <strong>to</strong> let the text<br />
“speak for itself” or <strong>to</strong> “trust in the text and in its own internal logic” (Meynet,<br />
1998:177) instead <strong>of</strong> con<strong>to</strong>rting it <strong>to</strong> fit in<strong>to</strong> the rigours <strong>of</strong> a pre-existent model.<br />
The fruitful results from Tolmie's <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> approach <strong>to</strong> the <strong>Letter</strong> <strong>of</strong> Galatians<br />
open new possibilities for "other Pauline (and New Testament) letters"<br />
(2005:247) and will be followed in this <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> <strong>analysis</strong> <strong>of</strong> the <strong>Letter</strong> <strong>to</strong> <strong>Titus</strong>.<br />
I will use an adapted version <strong>of</strong> Tolmie’s (2005) minimal theoretical framework<br />
approach. The following summary is given for the benefit <strong>of</strong> readers, who<br />
might be unfamiliar with his approach. It comes from Tolmie’s book,<br />
“Persuading the Galatians: A <strong>Text</strong>-Centred Rhe<strong>to</strong>rical Analysis <strong>of</strong> a Pauline<br />
<strong>Letter</strong>” (2005:28-29).<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
52
Starting with the text itself, this approach aims <strong>to</strong> reconstruct the author's<br />
<strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> strategy from the text itself. This involves a text-<strong>centred</strong> descriptive<br />
<strong>analysis</strong> <strong>of</strong> the way in which the author attempts <strong>to</strong> persuade his audience.<br />
The <strong>analysis</strong> is guided by a “minimal theoretical framework” used as a general<br />
guideline and involves several steps. I have outlined it below as a series <strong>of</strong><br />
sequential steps only for the sake <strong>of</strong> an orderly presentation, although Tolmie<br />
does not present it in this way.<br />
• Step 1: Identify the dominant <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> strategy <strong>of</strong> a section. This<br />
involves answering two primary questions:<br />
o How can one describe the author's primary <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong><br />
objective in the particular section?<br />
o How does the author set about achieving this objective?<br />
The answers <strong>to</strong> the above questions enable one <strong>to</strong> describe the<br />
dominant <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> strategy <strong>of</strong> the section, which is then<br />
expressed in a single sentence.<br />
• Step 2: A detailed <strong>analysis</strong> <strong>of</strong> the author’s <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> strategy in a<br />
particular section. While flexibility is maintained with regard <strong>to</strong><br />
the approach for each section, a general rather than a fixed<br />
methodological approach is followed <strong>to</strong> achieve the following<br />
outcomes:<br />
§ A description <strong>of</strong> the main characteristics <strong>of</strong> the author’s<br />
strategy in a particular section which may involve<br />
describing<br />
o The type <strong>of</strong> argument or the nature <strong>of</strong> a specific<br />
argument (Tolmie, 2005:28), or<br />
o The way in which an author argues or the process <strong>of</strong><br />
argumentation employed <strong>to</strong> achieve a particular<br />
<strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> objective (Tolmie, 2005:29).<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
53
•Step 3: Where deemed necessary, identify the “supportive”<br />
<strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> strategies important for the overall argument <strong>of</strong> a<br />
section or for the entire discourse (Tolmie, 2005:29). Strategies<br />
that cannot be directly related <strong>to</strong> the dominant <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong><br />
objective fall in<strong>to</strong> this category. In the present study, I have not<br />
deemed it necessary <strong>to</strong> identify any "supportive" strategies,<br />
hence this terminology will not be utilised.<br />
• Step 4: Identify the <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> techniques within a section. These<br />
involve the ways in which an author enhances the effectiveness<br />
<strong>of</strong> his communication.<br />
o E.g. metaphor, <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> questions, paronomasia, the<br />
way sentences are constructed and chiasm (Tolmie,<br />
2005:29).<br />
• Step 5. Describe the organisation <strong>of</strong> the argument in the letter as<br />
a whole. This final step is done after completion <strong>of</strong> the <strong>analysis</strong><br />
and is therefore presented in the conclusion <strong>of</strong> this study.<br />
Section 2 will be the actual <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> <strong>analysis</strong> <strong>of</strong> the <strong>Letter</strong> <strong>to</strong> <strong>Titus</strong>. Section 3<br />
will contain my conclusion and a summary <strong>of</strong> the prospective areas <strong>of</strong> study<br />
stimulated by the present study.<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
54
SECTION 2<br />
RHETORICAL ANALYSIS OF TITUS<br />
2.1 RHETORICAL SITUATION<br />
2.1.1 INTRODUCTION<br />
A <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> <strong>analysis</strong> must consider the broader <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> environment within<br />
which a discourse is created and functions. Scholars refer <strong>to</strong> this environment<br />
as the <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> situation. In this chapter, we will do a <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> <strong>analysis</strong> <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>Titus</strong>. The first section <strong>of</strong> the <strong>analysis</strong> will describe the <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> situation <strong>of</strong><br />
the letter. A clarification <strong>of</strong> definitions will be expedient in this regard and will<br />
be considered forthwith.<br />
2.1.2 DEFINITION<br />
The concept, ‘<strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> situation’, is based on the presupposition that every<br />
discourse owes its existence <strong>to</strong> a particular situation that necessitated its<br />
creation. Definitions <strong>of</strong> what constitutes a <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> situation span various<br />
degrees <strong>of</strong> complexity. At its most basic level, it refers <strong>to</strong> “the situation in<br />
which a piece <strong>of</strong> communication functions <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong>ly” 1 (Tolmie, 2007). A<br />
more elaborate explanation comes from Lloyd F. Bitzer (1968:6) who defines<br />
the <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> situation as:<br />
A complex <strong>of</strong> persons, events, objects, and relations presenting an<br />
actual or potential exigency which can be completely or partially<br />
removed if discourse, introduced in<strong>to</strong> the situation, can so constrain<br />
human decision or action as <strong>to</strong> bring about the significant modification<br />
<strong>of</strong> the exigency. (Emphasis added.)<br />
1 Spoken by Pr<strong>of</strong>. Tolmie in a private consultation with me during 2007.<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
55
The <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> situation corresponds in some ways <strong>to</strong> the Sitz im Leben <strong>of</strong><br />
form criticism. Other synonymous terms are the his<strong>to</strong>rical situation or the<br />
epis<strong>to</strong>lary occasion (Stamps, 1993:193). However, these equivalents are all<br />
his<strong>to</strong>rically orientated whereas the <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> situation is essentially oriented<br />
<strong>to</strong>wards the text. This, according <strong>to</strong> Wuellner (1987:456), means that the<br />
<strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> critic is preoccupied with the "premises <strong>of</strong> a text as appeal or<br />
argument". In this regard, Wuellner (1991:99) speaks <strong>of</strong> the ‘<strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong>’ or<br />
‘argumentative’ situation. It is the text-centeredness <strong>of</strong> the approach that<br />
distinguishes it from the conventional his<strong>to</strong>rical critical categories.<br />
A <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> situation may also involve a ‘<strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> problem’ that confronts the<br />
speaker, for example, prejudice <strong>to</strong>wards the speaker, the undermining <strong>of</strong> his<br />
authority or the complicated nature <strong>of</strong> the message (Kennedy, 1984:36). The<br />
persons, events and relations that make up the <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> situation <strong>of</strong> <strong>Titus</strong> will<br />
be considered, based on Bitzer's definition. Because we are dealing with a<br />
particular genre, namely the epis<strong>to</strong>lary genre, the role <strong>of</strong> people forms a<br />
significant component <strong>of</strong> the interpretation <strong>of</strong> the letter. A letter would normally<br />
have a sender and a recipient or recipients. The <strong>Letter</strong> <strong>to</strong> <strong>Titus</strong> has a dual<br />
level recipiency, several secondary characters and an amorphous opposition<br />
group.<br />
2.1.3 PAUL<br />
Paul is the self designated author <strong>of</strong> the letter (1:1). This is followed by two<br />
additional self elaborations, dou`lo" and ajpovs<strong>to</strong>lo", which are further modified<br />
by the two nouns qeov" and jIhsou`" Cris<strong>to</strong>v" respectively.<br />
<strong>Paul's</strong> location at the time <strong>of</strong> writing can only be conjectured. The letter<br />
suggests that Paul could be en route <strong>to</strong> Nicopolis although he is definitely not<br />
there yet as the word ejkei' indicates. With regard <strong>to</strong> the time <strong>of</strong> the year, the<br />
text indicates that it is not yet winter when Paul is writing (3:12).<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
56
2.1.4 PAUL AND TITUS<br />
Paul writes <strong>to</strong> <strong>Titus</strong>, who is in Crete with an assignment, namely <strong>to</strong> complete<br />
unfinished business (1:5). It seems that Paul did not stay long enough <strong>to</strong><br />
implement the organisation <strong>of</strong> leadership structures at the churches in Crete.<br />
<strong>Titus</strong> is on Crete by apos<strong>to</strong>lic mandate. In other words, he did not appoint<br />
himself. His presence is furthermore <strong>of</strong> limited duration. The original situation<br />
appears on the one hand <strong>to</strong> have been serious enough <strong>to</strong> require the<br />
presence <strong>of</strong> an apos<strong>to</strong>lic delegate (1:5 ajpelipovn se ejn Krhvth/). On the other<br />
hand, it appears not <strong>to</strong> have been as serious as <strong>to</strong> warrant that <strong>Titus</strong> remains<br />
there permanently. In fact, this letter reflects an additional purpose, namely<br />
the redeployment <strong>of</strong> <strong>Titus</strong>, who is instructed <strong>to</strong> reunite with Paul at Nicopolis<br />
(3:12). He is also informed that he would be replaced by either Artemas or<br />
Tychicus (3:12). The presence <strong>of</strong> these delegates seems a satisfac<strong>to</strong>ry<br />
measure in the present situation. Thus, at no stage is there any intimation that<br />
the apos<strong>to</strong>lic delegate would not be able <strong>to</strong> deal with whatever trouble there<br />
was on Crete.<br />
The letter gives evidence that Paul was aware <strong>of</strong> the difficulties related <strong>to</strong> the<br />
opposition at the time he left. Paul displays an acute cognisance <strong>of</strong> the natural<br />
moral disposition <strong>of</strong> the Cretans (1:12). Despite this fact, Paul left anyway,<br />
leaving <strong>Titus</strong> behind. Whatever the nature <strong>of</strong> the threat or the opposition, it<br />
was not as severe as <strong>to</strong> merit the physical presence <strong>of</strong> the apostle <strong>to</strong> address<br />
it.<br />
<strong>Paul's</strong> instructions <strong>to</strong> <strong>Titus</strong> are very specific. It does not appear <strong>to</strong> constitute<br />
fresh instructions <strong>to</strong> <strong>Titus</strong>. The aorist indicative middle verb dietaxavmhn (1:5)<br />
suggests an earlier time in the past when Paul must have instructed <strong>Titus</strong>.<br />
What we encounter in the text appears <strong>to</strong> be a summary <strong>of</strong> obligations given<br />
at a prior occasion and time.<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
57
<strong>Titus</strong>' primary assignment is <strong>to</strong> appoint elders. However, the elders do not<br />
receive any direct instruction anywhere within the letter. This is significant,<br />
because it means that all the instructions are directed <strong>to</strong> someone who is not<br />
going <strong>to</strong> remain permanently. At what stage are the elders supposed <strong>to</strong><br />
exercise their roles: parakalei`n and <strong>to</strong>u;" ajntilevgonta" ejlevgcein (1:9)? A<br />
reasonable inference is that <strong>Titus</strong> represents a model or example <strong>to</strong> the<br />
elders.<br />
Furthermore, at no stage does Paul circumvent or undermine <strong>Titus</strong>' authority.<br />
Instead, he galvanises it. In the introduction (1:4), he refers <strong>to</strong> <strong>Titus</strong> as<br />
gnhvsion tevknon. All the instructions are directed at <strong>Titus</strong>. Paul never<br />
addresses the elders (or prospective elders, since they are not yet appointed,<br />
cf. Acts 20:17-38). <strong>Titus</strong> represents leadership in transition or intermediary<br />
leadership while the elders, whom he must appoint, will constitute the<br />
permanent or resident leadership structure. Why then does the apostle not<br />
address the prospective elders directly? It is suggested that they are <strong>to</strong>o<br />
recently converted and unskilled at that stage <strong>to</strong> deal with the challenges<br />
facing this group <strong>of</strong> churches. Hence, <strong>Titus</strong> must demonstrate or model the<br />
leadership role <strong>to</strong> them. The apostle is setting up a priority chain <strong>of</strong> leadership.<br />
First in this chain was Paul, then came <strong>Titus</strong> (Artemas or Tychicus), followed<br />
by the local leaders.<br />
The letter does not merely concern the elimination <strong>of</strong> the threat <strong>to</strong> the health<br />
<strong>of</strong> the church. It also involves the implementation <strong>of</strong> measures <strong>to</strong> ensure the<br />
continued health <strong>of</strong> the church. In the mind <strong>of</strong> the apostle, the measures<br />
implemented would be sufficient <strong>to</strong> keep false teachers at bay. These<br />
opponents must be treated with firmness <strong>of</strong> speech as the following<br />
imperatives indicate: ejlevgcein (1:9), ejpis<strong>to</strong>mivzein (1:11), e[legce auj<strong>to</strong>u;"<br />
ajpo<strong>to</strong>vmw" (1:13), and parai<strong>to</strong>u' (3:10).<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
58
2.1.5 PAUL AND THE CRETAN BELIEVERS<br />
The evidence suggests that Paul’s original stay at Crete was very brief. Thus,<br />
<strong>Paul's</strong> relationship with the congregation is not characterised by explicit<br />
warmth. Paul apparently did not stay long enough <strong>to</strong> oversee the<br />
implementation <strong>of</strong> the leadership <strong>of</strong> the churches in Crete. Instead, he left this<br />
<strong>to</strong> <strong>Titus</strong>.<br />
Compared, for example, with the <strong>Letter</strong> <strong>to</strong> Philippians there are no explicit<br />
confessions <strong>of</strong> delight in the congregation and other terms <strong>of</strong> endearment like<br />
ajgaph<strong>to</strong>iv. However, Paul implicitly relates <strong>to</strong> the congregations as fellow<br />
beneficiaries <strong>of</strong> God's salvific activity.<br />
At the very beginning <strong>of</strong> his letter, he acknowledges their divine origin as the<br />
people <strong>of</strong> God, ejklek<strong>to</strong>iv qeou' (1:1). At the same time, he introduces himself in<br />
similar language by locating the origin <strong>of</strong> his <strong>of</strong>fice in God and Jesus Christ,<br />
dou`lo" qeou`, ajpovs<strong>to</strong>lo" jIhsou` Cris<strong>to</strong>u' (1:1). In so doing, he identifies himself<br />
from the outset with the believers at Crete. He continues this notion<br />
throughout the letter.<br />
His language suggests the notion <strong>of</strong> inclusivity in this regard. Thus, in 2:12,<br />
God's grace instructs "us” (paideuvousa hJma`"); in 2:13, Jesus is referred <strong>to</strong> as<br />
"our" God and Saviour (qeov~ kai; swthvr hJmw`n); in 2:14, Jesus gave Himself for<br />
"us" (o}" e[dwken eJau<strong>to</strong>;n uJpe;r hJmw`n) and redeemed "us" (lutrwvshtai hJma`"). In<br />
3:3, Paul continues with this notion <strong>of</strong> corporate identification when he lists<br />
particular sins. It is "we", \Hmen gavr pote kai; hJmei`", who once were guilty <strong>of</strong><br />
the listed activities. Also noticeable in this verse, is how the combined use <strong>of</strong><br />
the verb in the first person plural <strong>to</strong>gether with the first person plural pronoun,<br />
fulfils an emphatic role in the sentence. In 3:5, God saves "us” (hJmei`") not on<br />
the basis on deeds which "we” have done (a} ejpoihvsamen hJmei`"). In the latter<br />
citation, the emphatic use <strong>of</strong> the personal pronoun, <strong>to</strong>gether with a verb in the<br />
first person plural, is noticeable. In 3:6, the Holy Spirit's outpouring, in terms <strong>of</strong><br />
the recipients, is a corporate action; He is poured out “on us” (ejfÆ hJma`").<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
59
Throughout the letter, Paul shares with the believers in the relationship with<br />
God and Jesus Christ, both <strong>of</strong> whom are qualified as "our" God or Saviour<br />
(1:3; 1:4; 2:10; 2:13; 3:4; 3:6). The conduct <strong>of</strong> the believers implicates the<br />
reputation <strong>of</strong> believers as well as that <strong>of</strong> the apostles. Thus, their behaviour<br />
should not give the “opponent anything bad <strong>to</strong> say about us” (peri; hJmw`n<br />
fau`lon). In this instance, the pronoun could refer <strong>to</strong> the apostles; alternatively<br />
it could refer <strong>to</strong> all believers. Whatever interpretation we attach <strong>to</strong> the<br />
pronoun, in this instance, the notion <strong>of</strong> identification is <strong>to</strong>o explicit <strong>to</strong> miss.<br />
In 3:7, the apostle shares in the justification believers have experienced. The<br />
participle dikaiwqevnte" is passive, nominative plural. This is followed by the<br />
verb givnomai in the first person plural passive, genhqw`men. Here, Paul shares<br />
the hope <strong>of</strong> eternal life <strong>to</strong>gether with the believers. The identification is<br />
categorical and unambiguous.<br />
In 3:8, Paul pays them a compliment by acknowledging their faith in God.<br />
Here, he refers <strong>to</strong> them as oiJ pepisteukovte" qew`/. This reference has the<br />
effect <strong>of</strong> differentiating them from those who make false pr<strong>of</strong>essions <strong>of</strong> faith<br />
(1:16).<br />
The concilia<strong>to</strong>ry <strong>to</strong>ne climaxes with the designation found in 3:14. Here, Paul<br />
calls them "our people". He deviates from the use <strong>of</strong> the personal pronoun<br />
h}mei". Instead, here, Paul uses the possessive pronoun hJmevtero". Paul<br />
speaks as one who owns them; who feels possessive over them. He shares<br />
this ownership with <strong>Titus</strong> as the nominative plural suggests, and shared<br />
ownership implies shared responsibility for the believers <strong>of</strong> Crete. This notion<br />
<strong>of</strong> ownership, <strong>of</strong> possession, explains the comparatively formal <strong>to</strong>ne that<br />
pervades the letter. Paul wants the people (their people) <strong>to</strong> learn and not <strong>to</strong> be<br />
unfruitful (3:14). In the concluding greeting in 3:15, after <strong>Titus</strong> is greeted, Paul<br />
passes on a greeting <strong>to</strong> the believers, referring <strong>to</strong> them in endearing terms as<br />
filou`nta" hJma`" ejn pivstei. The apostle seems <strong>to</strong> assume that the believers <strong>of</strong><br />
Crete are favourably, in fact lovingly, predisposed <strong>to</strong>wards him and those with<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
60
him. The letter concludes with a greeting in the second person plural <strong>of</strong> the<br />
pronoun uJmei'", modified by the adjective pa'".<br />
To conclude, Paul feels deeply responsible for the congregations <strong>of</strong> Crete. He<br />
writes as one who owns them; who feels a responsibility <strong>to</strong>wards them. His<br />
concern for the well-being <strong>of</strong> the congregation is suggested by his<br />
unwillingness <strong>to</strong> leave them unattended. This is deducible from his plans <strong>to</strong><br />
send Artemas or Tychicus <strong>to</strong> replace <strong>Titus</strong>.<br />
Paul also writes as a co-recipient <strong>of</strong> God's salvific grace, by identifying fully<br />
with the believers in their past sinful actions. He refers <strong>to</strong> God and Jesus<br />
Christ as “our” (hJmw`n) Saviour, thereby including himself, <strong>Titus</strong> and the<br />
congregations as mutual benefac<strong>to</strong>rs <strong>of</strong> God’s saving actions. The<br />
relationship between Paul, <strong>Titus</strong> and the congregations is at once a<br />
relationship between equals. At the same time, it is reminiscent <strong>of</strong> that which<br />
characterises the relationship between a superior and a subject. While on the<br />
surface therefore, the letter appears formal, it is so in a warm sense. The<br />
author assumes that a relative degree <strong>of</strong> intimacy and endearment exists<br />
between him and the recipients.<br />
2.1.6 PAUL AND THE OPPOSITION<br />
The opponents are introduced very early in the letter. They are called <strong>to</strong>u;"<br />
ajntilevgonta" (1:9). They appear <strong>to</strong> be a mixed group, dominated by a Jewish<br />
segment (1:10, 14; 3:9). Paul is extremely negative <strong>to</strong>wards them. He<br />
describes them, in 1:10-16, as a very sordid bunch. In 3:10, he mentions a<br />
factious or heretical individual (aiJretiko" a[nqrwpo") and the measures <strong>to</strong> deal<br />
with him.<br />
Paul has no direct relationship with the unqualified teachers. They are not<br />
attacking him, his teaching or his credentials. However, their teachings are<br />
affecting the congregations negatively and this is part <strong>of</strong> the reason for the<br />
apostle's letter. Their teachings are unhealthy or unwholesome and result in<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
61
equally negative conduct (1:16). Interestingly, Paul does not elaborate upon<br />
their teaching, nor is he very specific in his identification <strong>of</strong> the aberrant<br />
teachers. Instead, he advises that this recalcitrant faction be opposed with<br />
healthy teaching from qualified teachers. While the unqualified teachers<br />
appear <strong>to</strong> have the ear <strong>of</strong> some believers (1:11), their teaching can still be<br />
s<strong>to</strong>pped by the introduction <strong>of</strong> sound doctrine (1:9, 13). The treatment <strong>of</strong> these<br />
unqualified teachers is concentrated in chapter one, except for a brief mention<br />
<strong>to</strong> something similar in 3:9. The bulk <strong>of</strong> the letter is concerned with instructions<br />
<strong>to</strong> believers. These two fac<strong>to</strong>rs confirm that Paul, at the time <strong>of</strong> writing, does<br />
not consider the false teachers and their teaching as major threats. It seems<br />
as if the influence <strong>of</strong> the unqualified teachers among the churches could be<br />
controlled, if not eliminated, by this extreme negative portrayal <strong>of</strong> them.<br />
2.1.7 PAUL AND OTHER CHARACTERS<br />
Several peripheral characters appear in the letter. These include Artemas,<br />
Tychicus, Zenas and Apollos. The first two are only mentioned (3:12). One <strong>of</strong><br />
them would be dispatched <strong>to</strong> release <strong>Titus</strong> and enable him <strong>to</strong> re-unite with<br />
Paul at Nicopolis (3:12). Thus, <strong>Titus</strong> is hereby informed or reminded that his<br />
mission in Crete is not indefinite.<br />
Zenas and Apollos appear <strong>to</strong> be at Crete (3:13). The congregation must<br />
render them support for their impending journey (3:14). In this way, they<br />
present an opportunity <strong>to</strong> the congregation <strong>to</strong> demonstrate good works that is<br />
in evidence for healthy doctrine.<br />
2.1.8 CONCLUSION<br />
So why did Paul write, if the opposition was not a major threat <strong>to</strong> the Cretan<br />
churches, and if <strong>Titus</strong> knew what was expected <strong>of</strong> him?<br />
The letter evinces a construct I call layered or dual recipiency. On the surface<br />
layer <strong>Titus</strong> is the designated recipient. However, the temporary duration <strong>of</strong> his<br />
term <strong>of</strong> <strong>of</strong>fice, the appointment <strong>of</strong> elders who would eventually be responsible<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
62
<strong>to</strong> quell the opposition and the detailed nature <strong>of</strong> the instructions suggest a<br />
second layer <strong>of</strong> recipients. Paul has already instructed <strong>Titus</strong> (1:5), so why<br />
would he have <strong>to</strong> repeat himself <strong>to</strong> <strong>Titus</strong> in such detail? Additionally, <strong>Paul's</strong><br />
use <strong>of</strong> inclusive language suggests that the intended audience <strong>of</strong> the letter<br />
extends beyond that <strong>of</strong> <strong>Titus</strong>.<br />
<strong>Paul's</strong> <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> objective is <strong>to</strong> persuade <strong>Titus</strong> directly, and the congregations<br />
indirectly (3:15 uJmw`n) that divinely sanctioned church leadership and divinely<br />
sanctioned doctrine is necessary for the maintenance <strong>of</strong> the divine character<br />
<strong>of</strong> God's people in the present world. He does this through positive and<br />
negative stereotyping, persuading the congregation <strong>to</strong> avoid the latter while<br />
pursuing the former.<br />
2.2 RHETORICAL ANALYSIS<br />
2.2.1 <strong>Titus</strong> 1:1-4: Adapting the salutation <strong>to</strong> emphasise the<br />
divine basis <strong>of</strong> legitimate ministry<br />
The salutation is one <strong>of</strong> five categories <strong>of</strong> a typical Pauline letter. In it, Paul<br />
would identify himself as the sender, specify the recipient(s), followed by a<br />
greeting, thanksgiving or a prayer (McRay, 2003:265, 267; Harvey, 1998:18;<br />
Tolmie, 2005:31). <strong>Titus</strong> demonstrates that Paul could deviate from his normal<br />
pattern with relative ease, since this letter, for example, does not contain a<br />
thanksgiving section. Scholars recognise the unusual nature <strong>of</strong> this salutation<br />
and in this regard Collins (2000:59) observes that “salutations were much<br />
more than an envelope for a letter: they <strong>to</strong>o had a <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> function”, which<br />
he argues involved getting the attention <strong>of</strong> the audience and rehearsing facts<br />
upon which the audience and the speaker agreed. He continues by observing<br />
that salutations were similar <strong>to</strong> the first century <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> categories <strong>of</strong><br />
exordium and narratio. In the case <strong>of</strong> the <strong>Letter</strong> <strong>to</strong> <strong>Titus</strong>, the dominant<br />
<strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> objective <strong>of</strong> the salutation is <strong>to</strong> emphasise the divine basis <strong>of</strong><br />
legitimate ministry. The <strong>analysis</strong> <strong>of</strong> this section will show that multifaceted<br />
objectives lie behind Paul’s digression from his usual pattern.<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
63
2.2.1.1 Emphasising the legitimacy <strong>of</strong> his ministry<br />
This letter opens in a most unique manner. Paul situates his modified self-<br />
identification within the realm <strong>of</strong> the divine. By means <strong>of</strong> two anarthrous<br />
nouns, he immediately relates himself <strong>to</strong> God and Jesus Christ, first as a<br />
servant <strong>of</strong> the former, next, as an apostle <strong>of</strong> the latter. At the same time, Paul<br />
is relating himself <strong>to</strong> God and Jesus Christ. He thus, from the outset,<br />
communicates belief in the equality <strong>of</strong> God and Jesus Christ. He reiterates<br />
this by repeating it in verse 4. Additionally, there is a sense in which Paul<br />
stresses the dual authorisation <strong>of</strong> his ministry by locating it with God as well<br />
as with Jesus Christ. While his ministry derives its authority from God and<br />
Jesus Christ, it remains focused on a single entity, namely the elect <strong>of</strong> God.<br />
Later in the sentence, Paul again emphasises this notion <strong>of</strong> divine sanction <strong>of</strong><br />
his ministry. In 1:3, he declares that he has been entrusted (ejpisteuvqhn) with<br />
a message. The emphatic use <strong>of</strong> the personal pronoun ejgw is unequivocal.<br />
Paul continues <strong>to</strong> accentuate the divine authorisation <strong>of</strong> his ministry by<br />
stressing that he is serving according <strong>to</strong> the command <strong>of</strong> God (katÆ ejpitagh;n<br />
<strong>to</strong>u` … qeou`). In effect, he is also persuading his audience why they should<br />
listen <strong>to</strong> him. He seems keen <strong>to</strong> persuade his audience that only those who<br />
serve God and Jesus Christ can serve the church or advance the faith and<br />
knowledge <strong>of</strong> the church, for the purpose <strong>of</strong> godliness.<br />
One fact is made very clear, namely, that qualified or legitimised service in the<br />
church is a necessity. Paul seems <strong>to</strong> communicate the notion that he did not<br />
simply wake up one day and decide that serving the church would be a noble<br />
vocation. No. He was entrusted, commanded. He was serving God. He was<br />
sent by Jesus Christ. Thus, divine authorisation or a theological motivation for<br />
legitimate ministry seems <strong>to</strong> be a central feature <strong>of</strong> this section.<br />
It remains <strong>to</strong> be asked, why Paul is so emphatic about the authorisation <strong>of</strong> his<br />
ministry. A reasonable conjecture must be presented. He appears, in this<br />
introduc<strong>to</strong>ry sentence, <strong>to</strong> counter a tendency among Cretan believers <strong>to</strong><br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
64
accept or <strong>to</strong>lerate unqualified teachers. According <strong>to</strong> him, this is an untenable<br />
situation, because the spiritual progress, namely, faith and knowledge, <strong>of</strong> a<br />
church, depends upon the quality <strong>of</strong> the leadership. Paul is thus establishing<br />
himself as the supreme example <strong>of</strong> an authorised servant; one who has the<br />
right <strong>to</strong> speak <strong>to</strong> the church. However, unlike the situation envisioned in the<br />
<strong>Letter</strong> <strong>to</strong> the Galatians, here it is clear that Paul’s authority or credibility is not<br />
under attack. Paul is not writing <strong>to</strong> defend his ministry. He can reasonably be<br />
said <strong>to</strong> set himself up as an example <strong>of</strong> legitimised ministry and as one that<br />
has the right <strong>to</strong> address the church.<br />
2.2.1.2 Emphasising legitimate teaching<br />
a) References <strong>of</strong> a doctrinal nature<br />
Paul’s ministry is directed <strong>to</strong>wards the faith and knowledge (kata; pivstin …<br />
kai; ejpivgnwsin) <strong>of</strong> the church or the elect <strong>of</strong> God (ejklektw`n qeou`). Thus, these<br />
two specific areas comprise the realm <strong>of</strong> legitimate ministry. It is a very<br />
specific knowledge that is the focus <strong>of</strong> attention, namely knowledge <strong>of</strong> “the<br />
truth” (ajlhqeiva" th`"). Through an intricate series <strong>of</strong> prepositional phrases,<br />
Paul develops the twin concepts <strong>of</strong> faith and knowledge <strong>to</strong> their ethical<br />
conclusion, expanding it through a series <strong>of</strong> prepositional phrases. The<br />
preposition katav features prominently in this opening section: kata; pivstin<br />
ejklektw`n (1:1), katÆ eujsevbeian (1:1), katÆ ejpitaghvn (1:3), and kata; koinh;n<br />
pivstin (1:4). According <strong>to</strong> Wallace (1996:377), one <strong>of</strong> the basic functions <strong>of</strong><br />
katav with the accusative is <strong>to</strong> indicate standard, in which instance it is then<br />
translated as “in accordance with” or “corresponding <strong>to</strong>”. However, in the first<br />
instance above, the preposition is best unders<strong>to</strong>od <strong>to</strong> indicate the purpose <strong>of</strong><br />
Paul’s service and apostleship (Bernard, 1980 [1899]:155). Thus, his ministry<br />
is “for the purpose <strong>of</strong> (the) faith”, <strong>to</strong> further the faith (Knight, 1992:283), “for<br />
(the) faith” (Mounce, 2000:379; Quinn 1990:62), or “in the interest <strong>of</strong> faith”<br />
(Hendriksen, 1957:340). The repetition <strong>of</strong> the preposition, in this section,<br />
serves as a <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> technique that adds <strong>to</strong> the cohesiveness <strong>of</strong> this section.<br />
Interestingly, the unusual repetition <strong>of</strong> this preposition is located rather<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
65
strategically throughout this section forming what could be seen as an<br />
inclusio:<br />
kata; pivstin … (1:1)<br />
katÆ eujsevbeian … (1:1)<br />
katÆ ejpitagh;n … (1:3)<br />
kata; (koinh;n) pivstin (1:4)<br />
While some take a different view, the second instance <strong>of</strong> the preposition also<br />
indicates purpose. This time it is not related <strong>to</strong> Paul but rather <strong>to</strong> faith and<br />
knowledge. Faith and knowledge have as their goal or outcome, the godliness<br />
<strong>of</strong> the elect. Faith is emphasised through the repetition <strong>of</strong> the word pivsti~<br />
(1:1, 4) as well as through paranomasia <strong>of</strong> the same word group: pivsti~ (1:1,<br />
4) and pisteuvw (1:3) in this section: Godliness in turn, is motivated by, or<br />
premised upon, the hope <strong>of</strong> eternal life (1:2). Paul is meticulous in defining<br />
knowledge. He uses the genitive <strong>to</strong> limit the meaning <strong>to</strong> “knowledge <strong>of</strong> the<br />
truth” (ejpivgnwsin ajlhqeiva" th`"). Here, “the truth”, modified by the article,<br />
constitutes the gospel, in particular that body <strong>of</strong> objective truth.<br />
Faith <strong>of</strong> God’s elect, knowledge, the truth and godliness specify the<br />
parameters <strong>of</strong> legitimate ministry. In the first place, there is a specific group or<br />
category <strong>of</strong> people that are related <strong>to</strong> God in a particular manner. God elected<br />
them. Thus, they are His. Next, the legitimate ministry relates <strong>to</strong> a specific<br />
body <strong>of</strong> truth, namely ajlhqeiva" th`" kat j eujsebeian. The purpose <strong>of</strong> the<br />
apos<strong>to</strong>lic ministry is <strong>to</strong> bring about a behavioural or ethical adjustment<br />
(eujsevbeia) in view <strong>of</strong> the life <strong>to</strong> come.<br />
The certainty <strong>of</strong> this hope is guaranteed. Paul bases his argument upon the<br />
integrity <strong>of</strong> the divine or the reliability <strong>of</strong> God, specifying that His ethical<br />
character is ajyeudhv". He continues <strong>to</strong> emphasise that this hope was never<br />
dependent upon man. God promised it, God brought it about. Through the use<br />
<strong>of</strong> temporal references, namely, pro; crovnwn aijwnivwn (1:2) and kairoi`" ijdivoi"<br />
(1:3), Paul ensures that no credit accrues at any stage <strong>to</strong> any human being.<br />
His argument is based on divine authorisation and divine initiation. The hope<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
66
<strong>of</strong> eternal life was manifested in the word <strong>of</strong> God (<strong>to</strong>;n lovgon auj<strong>to</strong>u'). Verse 3<br />
reiterates the divine authorisation <strong>of</strong> the apostle’s ministry, in which he strips<br />
even himself from any credit for the proclamation (khruvgma). Thus, the<br />
messenger as well as the content <strong>of</strong> the message must be divinely authorised.<br />
b) References <strong>to</strong> God<br />
There are five references <strong>to</strong> God in this section. This constitutes a high<br />
occurrence-ratio for a single noun in such a small section. The noun is used<br />
twice, first in v.1 and again in v.4, as part <strong>of</strong> the inclusio that cordons <strong>of</strong>f this<br />
section. Excepting this usage, the remaining three occurrences are very<br />
significant, highlighting the theocentric emphases <strong>of</strong> this opening section. The<br />
inclusio mentioned previously refers <strong>to</strong> the repetition <strong>of</strong> the nouns “God” and<br />
“Jesus Christ” in verses 1 and 4.<br />
The use <strong>of</strong> the word “God” establishes a relationship between God and the<br />
Church, who is described as ejklek<strong>to</strong>iv qeou'. This expression is juxtaposed<br />
with dou`lo" qeou' in verse 1. Thus, Paul’s service and apostleship are directed<br />
<strong>to</strong>wards a particular group, namely the elect <strong>of</strong> God. The kind <strong>of</strong> ministry<br />
presented here is specified as a divinely sanctioned ministry (dou`lo" qeou'),<br />
directed <strong>to</strong>wards a group, whose origins the apostle locates in the divine<br />
(ejklek<strong>to</strong>iv qeou').<br />
Next, God’s character is accentuated by the expression oJ ajyeudh;" qeov" (1:2).<br />
This description occurs in the context <strong>of</strong> the promise that God made. Thus,<br />
the divine character or ethic is used <strong>to</strong> highlight the reliability <strong>of</strong> the divine<br />
promise. What God has promised He has fulfilled. The affirmation <strong>of</strong> the divine<br />
character furthermore implies the imposition <strong>of</strong> a norm. If God cannot lie, then<br />
His servant cannot either or at least would be expected <strong>to</strong> be honest.<br />
The third reference occurs in 1:3 where God is referred <strong>to</strong> as Saviour (swthvr).<br />
Thus, we are dealing here with the divine origin <strong>of</strong> salvation. In the next verse,<br />
the same description is applied <strong>to</strong> Jesus Christ.<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
67
This section is suffused with the role <strong>of</strong> the divine. The elect has their origin in<br />
God. The promise made before the ages was fulfilled because <strong>of</strong> the<br />
character <strong>of</strong> God. The reason there is an elect, the reason for the ethic<br />
required <strong>of</strong> the elect is because God is also the one who saved them. Thus,<br />
central in this first section is the notion <strong>of</strong> the divine. It takes away all credit<br />
from man and places the focus on the central and dominating character <strong>of</strong><br />
God.<br />
c) References <strong>to</strong> Jesus Christ<br />
Verses 1-4 contain two references <strong>to</strong> Jesus Christ. The first reference in 1:1 is<br />
repeated, but reversed in 1:4. These references appear <strong>to</strong> accentuate the<br />
divinity <strong>of</strong> Jesus Christ who, in both instances, is presented as equal <strong>to</strong> God.<br />
In the first instance, the name <strong>of</strong> Jesus is mentioned in the context <strong>of</strong> ministry,<br />
specifically the apos<strong>to</strong>lic <strong>of</strong>fice. In the next instance, it is mentioned in the<br />
context <strong>of</strong> salvation. Interestingly, though, God is also mentioned in both <strong>of</strong><br />
these contexts.<br />
In 1:1, Paul relates his ministry first <strong>to</strong> God and next, as apostle, <strong>to</strong> Jesus<br />
Christ. The first reference <strong>to</strong> Jesus Christ is in a coordinate relationship with<br />
the noun qeov~. Some commenta<strong>to</strong>rs interpret the conjunction dev in a<br />
connective sense as “and”. However, it can also be interpreted in a<br />
contrastive or adversative sense as “yet” or “but”. The apostle thus introduces<br />
himself by laying the foundation for his authority <strong>to</strong> address <strong>Titus</strong> and the<br />
church. On the one hand, he is only a bond-servant <strong>of</strong> God. However, on the<br />
other hand, his <strong>of</strong>fice is that <strong>of</strong> an apostle, authorised by Jesus Christ.<br />
In 1:4, he refers <strong>to</strong> Jesus Christ as swthvr hJmw`n. This is the exact designation<br />
used in the preceding verse <strong>to</strong> refer <strong>to</strong> God. Thus, God and Jesus Christ are<br />
introduced as co-saviours <strong>to</strong> whom the salvific activity is attributed. This is<br />
accentuated through the <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> technique known as a chiasm:<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
68
<strong>to</strong>u` swth`ro" hJmw`n qeou' (1:3)<br />
Cris<strong>to</strong>u' jIhsou` <strong>to</strong>u` swth`ro" hJmw`n (1:4)<br />
Another striking feature <strong>of</strong> this passage is the way in which it begins and ends.<br />
Verse 1 starts with qeou` … jIhsou` Cris<strong>to</strong>u, while verse four ends with qeou'…<br />
Cris<strong>to</strong>u` jIhsou'). Except for the reversal <strong>of</strong> Jesus Christ <strong>to</strong> Christ Jesus, the<br />
order is essentially identical. This is known as an inclusio. Why did the apostle<br />
deem it necessary <strong>to</strong> accentuate the divinity <strong>of</strong> Jesus in this manner, namely<br />
by equating Him with God? Why is he so painstakingly meticulous <strong>to</strong> ensure<br />
that the recipient(s) are properly orientated <strong>to</strong>wards Jesus Christ? Could it be<br />
that he was perhaps pre-empting erroneous notions about the divinity <strong>of</strong><br />
Christ? Was part <strong>of</strong> the erroneous doctrine that was perpetuated by the false<br />
teachers related <strong>to</strong> an incomplete or compromised Chris<strong>to</strong>logy? An answer in<br />
the affirmative would not seem unreasonable in this regard.<br />
2.2.1.3 Emphasising the legitimacy <strong>of</strong> the ministry <strong>of</strong> <strong>Titus</strong><br />
Whereas Paul’s authority is derived from God, the legitimisation <strong>of</strong> the ministry<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>Titus</strong> comes from the apostle. <strong>Titus</strong> is referred <strong>to</strong> by name (1:4). This<br />
designation is expanded through the use <strong>of</strong> kinship language as exemplified in<br />
the expression gnhsivon tevknon. In return, the kinship is made emphatic by the<br />
assonance <strong>of</strong> the w-sound when referring <strong>to</strong> <strong>Titus</strong> as, Tivtw/ gnhsivw/ tevknw/.<br />
Furthermore, the language serves <strong>to</strong> bes<strong>to</strong>w honour upon <strong>Titus</strong> before the<br />
congregation. This is an early occurrence <strong>of</strong> the <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> technique called<br />
honorific referencing or - classification.<br />
Towards the end <strong>of</strong> the salutation, the transcendent quality <strong>of</strong> the language<br />
yields <strong>to</strong> the language <strong>of</strong> imminence, activated through familial or relational<br />
referents. Tenderness is introduced by referring <strong>to</strong> <strong>Titus</strong> as Paul’s child and<br />
later claiming God as Father (1:4). The reference <strong>to</strong> God as “Father” levels the<br />
proverbial playing fields, since it makes God the source <strong>of</strong> Paul and <strong>of</strong> <strong>Titus</strong>.<br />
The ejklek<strong>to</strong>iv qeou' are from a salvific perspective the <strong>of</strong>fspring <strong>of</strong> the divine,<br />
but so are Paul and <strong>Titus</strong>. <strong>Titus</strong>’ ministry at Crete is couched in the language<br />
<strong>of</strong> a son who stands in the service <strong>of</strong> his father, conjuring up images <strong>of</strong> loyalty<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
69
and trustworthiness. This choice <strong>of</strong> language constitutes an argument <strong>of</strong><br />
authorisation based on paternal or parental validation. Furthermore, it has the<br />
effect <strong>of</strong> confirming <strong>to</strong> the audience (including the illegitimate teachers) that<br />
<strong>Titus</strong> is acting as an authorised representative <strong>of</strong> the apostle.<br />
2.2.1.4 Conclusion<br />
In this section, Paul’s dominant <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> strategy has been <strong>to</strong> adapt the<br />
salutation <strong>to</strong> emphasise the divine basis <strong>of</strong> legitimate ministry. He starts by<br />
establishing his own authority and concludes by endorsing the ministry <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>Titus</strong> by apos<strong>to</strong>lic and divine authorisation. His reason for doing this is not<br />
because he is under attack, but rather <strong>to</strong> highlight the notion <strong>of</strong> legitimate<br />
ministry. It remains <strong>to</strong> be asked: Why does the apostle adopt this specific<br />
approach?<br />
The salutation contains information that would be redundant if primarily<br />
addressed <strong>to</strong> someone who knew the apostle as well as <strong>Titus</strong>. Instead, the<br />
very nature <strong>of</strong> the address, the l<strong>of</strong>tiness <strong>of</strong> the theology and the inflexible<br />
insistence upon highlighting the role <strong>of</strong> the divine, suggest that Paul had a<br />
wider audience in mind. Most scholars come <strong>to</strong> this conclusion based on the<br />
reference in 3:15, but it can be detected right here in the salutation. The use<br />
<strong>of</strong> inclusive language at this stage <strong>of</strong> the letter confirms this fact. In 1:3 Paul<br />
refers <strong>to</strong> God as oJ swthvr hJmw`n. Are we expected <strong>to</strong> believe that the apostle is<br />
referring here exclusively <strong>to</strong> himself and <strong>Titus</strong>? In other words, is the apostle<br />
suggesting that God is only the Saviour <strong>of</strong> the two <strong>of</strong> them? Would someone<br />
like <strong>Titus</strong> need <strong>to</strong> be persuaded about Paul’s authority? Or would he need <strong>to</strong><br />
be taught about the content <strong>of</strong> legitimate teaching? The answer is obvious.<br />
Paul is addressing the church at Crete. The reference <strong>to</strong> qeov~ patevr is<br />
another example <strong>of</strong> the <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> technique inclusive language that cannot<br />
simply be applicable <strong>to</strong> the apostle and his delegate. It is interesting <strong>to</strong> note<br />
the expansion or development with reference <strong>to</strong> God. In 1:1 Paul is dou`lo"<br />
qeou', and the church is ejklektw`n qeou'. The next description that follows<br />
describes God as oJ ajyeudh;" qeov". Beyond this point, God is mentioned in the<br />
context <strong>of</strong> a plural modifier as swthvr hJmw`n and in a paternal nuance as qeov~<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
70
patevr. God is therefore the key protagonist, the leading ac<strong>to</strong>r in this unfolding<br />
drama <strong>of</strong> salvation.<br />
Other <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> techniques used in this section, include the unusual repetition<br />
<strong>of</strong> the preposition katav, inclusio, chiasm, paranomasia, honorific referencing<br />
or -classification, and the repetition <strong>of</strong> the pivsti~-word group.<br />
2.2.2 <strong>Titus</strong> 1:5-9: Outlining the criteria for legitimate local<br />
leadership<br />
Having established himself as a legitimate minister <strong>of</strong> the church, the apostle<br />
concludes the salutation by introducing and affirming <strong>Titus</strong> as his<br />
representative. From verse 5 onwards, he develops the concept <strong>of</strong> legitimate<br />
ministry, by embarking upon his dominant <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> objective namely outlining<br />
the criteria for legitimate local congregational leadership. Conspicuously<br />
remiss at this point, is the characteristic thanksgiving section (Classen,<br />
2002:51). A possible reason for this absence, could be because there was<br />
nothing <strong>to</strong> give thanks for, which in turn, could confirm scholarly conjecture<br />
that the congregation was relatively young, established fairly recently. Since<br />
there is nothing <strong>to</strong> give thanks for, Paul unceremoniously launches in<strong>to</strong> his<br />
<strong>to</strong>pic with great eagerness.<br />
Paul employs arguments based on authority, namely apos<strong>to</strong>lic authority, in<br />
order <strong>to</strong> firstly justify <strong>Titus</strong>’s presence on the island <strong>of</strong> Crete and secondly, <strong>to</strong><br />
underscore his authority among the Cretan believers. In verse 5, Paul<br />
declares that he left <strong>Titus</strong> in Crete (ajpevlipon se ejn Krhvth/). Now, in all<br />
probability, <strong>Titus</strong> knew that Paul had left him in Crete. He would also have<br />
unders<strong>to</strong>od or at least had some idea, before his arrival, <strong>of</strong> the nature <strong>of</strong> his<br />
assignment. So why would Paul now write in this manner? The answer lies in<br />
our understanding <strong>of</strong> who the recipients <strong>of</strong> the letter are. The language<br />
suggests that <strong>Titus</strong> cannot be the only recipient. It has <strong>to</strong> include a wider<br />
audience, in whose presence, in all probability, this letter would have been<br />
read. Verse 5 answers questions like, “What are you doing here in Crete?” or<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
71
“By whose authority are you implementing these procedures?” or “Who gave<br />
you command over us?” These kinds <strong>of</strong> questions are answered by the details<br />
provided in verse 5. The concluding clause provides the authorisation for <strong>Titus</strong><br />
<strong>to</strong> fulfil his mandate. In this regard, the use <strong>of</strong> the first person personal<br />
pronoun (ejgwv) <strong>to</strong>gether with the verb in the first person singular, dietaxavmhn,<br />
is deliberately emphatic. Paul stresses that he is the one who has directed<br />
<strong>Titus</strong>. Interestingly, the tense <strong>of</strong> the verb, namely aorist middle, points <strong>to</strong> a<br />
time prior <strong>to</strong> that when <strong>Titus</strong> would have received this letter. These are<br />
therefore not new directives. Although the verb diatavssw (1:5) is weaker in<br />
import than the noun ejpitaghv in 1:3, it functions in the same way as the noun.<br />
This is an instance <strong>of</strong> the use <strong>of</strong> synonyms for emphasis and <strong>to</strong> fascilitate<br />
intra-sectional cohesion. Paul’s authority derives directly from God while that<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>Titus</strong> comes indirectly from the apos<strong>to</strong>lic directive. In other words, there is a<br />
hierarchy <strong>of</strong> command where authority flows from the divine through the<br />
apostle <strong>to</strong> <strong>Titus</strong> and ultimately <strong>to</strong> the local leaders. However, Paul’s choice <strong>of</strong><br />
language indicates that he does not consider his authority, in this instance, <strong>to</strong><br />
be equal with that <strong>of</strong> God. Hence, he directs (diatavssw) <strong>Titus</strong>, but God<br />
commanded (katÆ ejpitaghvn) him, i.e. Paul. It remains <strong>to</strong> be asked, why Paul<br />
would write in such a round-about manner. The apostle is perhaps adopting<br />
an anticipa<strong>to</strong>ry stance in view <strong>of</strong> some opposition against the presence <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>Titus</strong>. Already, we find in Crete teachers who were “upsetting whole<br />
households” (1:11). <strong>Titus</strong>’ presence would not be amicably received within<br />
such a context. The teachers, no doubt, held at least some degree <strong>of</strong> sway<br />
among the congregations. The difference between them and <strong>Titus</strong> is a<br />
significant one, as the salutation and verse 5 indicate: <strong>Titus</strong> represents<br />
legitimate leadership, while those in Crete are illegitimate. At a different level,<br />
the apostle is educating the Cretan believers about legitimate church<br />
leadership. He is about <strong>to</strong> develop his lesson, by providing objective criteria <strong>to</strong><br />
ensure that the believers would be able <strong>to</strong> distinguish legitimate teachers from<br />
those who presume <strong>to</strong> be teachers. By so doing, he is laying a foundation for<br />
the appointment <strong>of</strong> leaders in the future, i.e. in the absence <strong>of</strong> apostles and<br />
apos<strong>to</strong>lic delegates.<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
72
The basis upon which these other teachers came <strong>to</strong> exercise influence over<br />
the church is not clear. There seems <strong>to</strong> have been an indiscriminate<br />
<strong>to</strong>lerance, if not acceptance, by the church <strong>of</strong> these persons as well as <strong>of</strong> their<br />
teachings. Paul’s purpose, in this section therefore, seems <strong>to</strong> be <strong>to</strong> provide<br />
objective evaluation criteria for the establishment <strong>of</strong> legitimate or authorised<br />
leadership in the Cretan church.<br />
In the salutation, Paul alluded <strong>to</strong> the purpose <strong>of</strong> legitimate ministry, namely the<br />
maintenance <strong>of</strong> the character <strong>of</strong> God’s people as ejklek<strong>to</strong>iv qeou`. Starting with<br />
himself, Paul showed that even he had <strong>to</strong> comply with certain criteria through<br />
the use <strong>of</strong> the nouns dou`lo" and ajpovs<strong>to</strong>lo".<br />
Now, in verses 6-9, he is developing the notion that serving the church <strong>of</strong> God<br />
is not the domain <strong>of</strong> individual preference. There are conditions <strong>to</strong> be met.<br />
Since compliance criteria are acceptable in secular business, how much more<br />
among the ejklek<strong>to</strong>iv qeou'? Those who serve in the church ought <strong>to</strong> serve the<br />
interests <strong>of</strong> God rather than their own interests. The overseer is after all called<br />
a qeou' oijkonovmo" (1:7). Note how Paul, in his capacity as the dou`lo" qeou' (1:1)<br />
serving the ejklek<strong>to</strong>iv qeou' (1:1), now prescribes the criteria for those whom he<br />
refers <strong>to</strong> as the qeou' oijkonovmoi (1:7). The consistent pattern emerging from<br />
these few verses makes all who minister in the church, accountable <strong>to</strong> God<br />
(qeov~).<br />
Paul’s objective is clear, namely <strong>to</strong> provide observable or measurable criteria<br />
by which <strong>to</strong> ensure legitimate leadership in the church. Mappes (2003:214)<br />
suggests that the qualitications for elders serve as a polemic against the false<br />
teachers. Some, like Dibelius and Conzelmann (1972:158) have pointed out<br />
the resemblance between the lists in the Pas<strong>to</strong>rals and first century character<br />
codes. The stipulated criteria would also serve <strong>to</strong> explain or defend <strong>Titus</strong>’<br />
selection <strong>of</strong> some and not others. In other words, these standards effectively<br />
clear <strong>Titus</strong>’ actions from potential charges <strong>of</strong> arbitrariness or subjectivity. More<br />
importantly though, is the <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> significance <strong>of</strong> the list. In a recent work,<br />
Tolmie (2005:216, 217) categorised similar lists in Galatians as constituting<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
73
“shared knowledge”. The qualities cited in verses 6-9 are not exclusive <strong>to</strong> the<br />
Christian context. Extra-biblical evidence corroborates that such norms were<br />
considered reasonable by the broader society <strong>of</strong> first century Hellenistic<br />
culture (Dibelius and Conzelmann, 1972:158). If secular Cretan society<br />
therefore endorsed these standards, it would be very hard <strong>to</strong> defend the<br />
behavioural conduct <strong>of</strong> leaders that do not comply with these shared or<br />
common standards. Rhe<strong>to</strong>rically, this has the positive effect <strong>of</strong> rendering<br />
Paul’s prescriptions reasonable, since his audience would be familiar with<br />
these criteria. Negatively, it would be almost impossible <strong>to</strong> justify <strong>to</strong>lerating<br />
anyone whose actions contradict the societal norm.<br />
Those responsible <strong>to</strong> minister <strong>to</strong> the ejklek<strong>to</strong>iv qeou' ought <strong>to</strong> be examples <strong>of</strong><br />
the power <strong>of</strong> the truth (1:1). Their lives and conduct must give evidence <strong>of</strong> the<br />
reliability <strong>of</strong> the promises <strong>of</strong> God. The first <strong>to</strong> manifest eujsevbeia are the<br />
leaders. Faith in God, or the eujsevbeia ejpÆ ejlpivdi zwh`" aijwnivou (1:1, 2), is<br />
neither cerebral nor merely confessional (cf. 1:16). Instead, it is practical and<br />
observable. Scholars, who overeagerly emphasise the similarity these<br />
character requirements share with secular lists, downplay the powerful<br />
statement made here concerning the gospel or the truth (1:1). Those<br />
appointed become the direct antitheses <strong>of</strong> the illegitimate teachers. That men<br />
<strong>of</strong> this calibre can even be found in such a context, is an incredible testimony<br />
<strong>to</strong> the power <strong>of</strong> God’s word. In other words, the manifestation <strong>of</strong> the divine<br />
promise is not an abstract event. It changes lives; produces the kind <strong>of</strong> men<br />
described in 1:6-9.<br />
To whom is this written? Both <strong>Titus</strong> and the Cretans are the intended<br />
audience <strong>of</strong> these lists. However, <strong>Titus</strong> is only a secondary recipient. He<br />
perhaps needs only a reminder. The primary recipients are the Cretans. The<br />
sheer detail provided in this section suggests a didactic function. There can be<br />
no mistaking that anyone hearing the content <strong>of</strong> this letter would leave with an<br />
almost graphic image <strong>of</strong> the legitimate leader. Doubtless, there would be<br />
those followers <strong>of</strong> the illegitimate teachers who would now be empowered with<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
74
an objective standard by which <strong>to</strong> measure their teachers <strong>to</strong> whose influence<br />
they have fallen victim (1:11).<br />
According <strong>to</strong> Johnson (1996:220), the catalogue <strong>of</strong> vices and virtues in 1:6-9<br />
evinces several instances <strong>of</strong> unique vocabulary. It contains three New<br />
Testament (ejpidiorqovw, filavgaqo", ejgrathv") and fifteen Pauline hapax<br />
legomena. Of the latter, nine appear in the rest <strong>of</strong> the Pas<strong>to</strong>rals (ajpoleivpw,<br />
filovxeno", pavroimo", plhvkth", aijscrokerdh'", swvfron, presbutevro", o{sio",<br />
uJgiaivnw) while six never occur in the Pauline corpus (Krhvth, leivpw,<br />
kathgoriva, ajnupovtak<strong>to</strong>", aujqavdh~, ojrgivlo"). Incidentally, Johnson (1996:221)<br />
maintains that the variation in vocabulary can be explained by the variation in<br />
subject matter. It is preferable <strong>to</strong> interpret these hapaxes as context specific<br />
vocabulary. This is based on the assumption that in the mind <strong>of</strong> the author the<br />
recipients would have been familiar with the vocabulary. The anaphoric mh is<br />
another device employed <strong>to</strong> highlight the five vices in 1:7. Anaphora is also<br />
used in two words in the virtue list. They occur in 1:8, namely filovxeno~ and<br />
filavgaqo~. Both adjectives are compound nouns prefixed by the noun, filov".<br />
These <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> techniques highlight the arenas <strong>of</strong> the elder-overseer’s<br />
personal life under observation, namely his marriage, family life and his<br />
personality or attitudinal behaviour. Moreover, the prefix, filov" emphasises<br />
the attitude <strong>of</strong> love that should characterise the elder-overseer.<br />
The cohesion between this section and the salutation is effected through the<br />
repetition <strong>of</strong> specific vocabulary. For example, the noun pivsti" recurs several<br />
times in the space <strong>of</strong> a few verses: kata; pivstin ejklektw`n qeou` (1:1), kata;<br />
koinh;n pivstin (1:4), ajntecovmenon <strong>to</strong>u` ... pis<strong>to</strong>u` lovgou (1:9). Additionally, the<br />
word lovgo" (1:3) is repeated in verse 9.<br />
Paul also uses transitional devices <strong>to</strong> introduce the different sections. In 1:4<br />
he introduced <strong>Titus</strong> and proceeded <strong>to</strong> address him in verse 5. Now, in 1:9, he<br />
introduces the opposition or the illegitimate teachers as oiJ ajntilevgonte".<br />
What is it that they contradict or oppose? It must be the teaching, here made<br />
conspicuous by the interchangeable use <strong>of</strong> the nouns didachv and didaskaliva<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
75
espectively within the same sentence: kata; th;n didach;n and ejn th`/<br />
didaskaliva/ th`/ uJgiainouvsh. The conditions for elders culminate in verse 9 with<br />
the criterion <strong>to</strong> “hold <strong>to</strong> the faithful word”, ajntecovmenon <strong>to</strong>u` kata; th;n didach;n<br />
pis<strong>to</strong>u` lovgou. Thus, over and above the character requirements, the<br />
relationship <strong>of</strong> the individual elder <strong>to</strong> the word is paramount. The idea <strong>of</strong> “the<br />
word” was introduced in the salutation, 1:3. There, it was the divine word that<br />
was ‘manifested’, ejfanevrwsen de; kairoi`" ijdivoi" <strong>to</strong>;n lovgon auj<strong>to</strong>u'. According<br />
<strong>to</strong> 1:9, the elder must cling <strong>to</strong> the “faithful word”. This description would call <strong>to</strong><br />
mind the earlier reference in 1:3. The authority <strong>of</strong> the elder derives directly<br />
from the word, which enables him <strong>to</strong> do two things, namely “<strong>to</strong> exhort”<br />
(parakalei'n) and “<strong>to</strong> refute” or “convince” (ejlevgcein). It is at this point that the<br />
issue <strong>of</strong> opposition is introduced. The distinguishing fac<strong>to</strong>r between legitimacy<br />
and illegitimacy hinges on the relationship <strong>of</strong> the opposing parties <strong>to</strong> the<br />
manifested word. The antithesis between the two groups is highlighted<br />
through the intentional play on the two participles used <strong>to</strong> refer <strong>to</strong> them:<br />
ajntecovmenoi and ajntivlegonte". Both are prefixed by the preposition ajntiv,<br />
generally meaning “against” (Zodhiates, 1992:190). The first word connotes a<br />
positive stance, the second a negative action. Paul, in this way, introduces the<br />
next step in his strategy namely, the vilification <strong>of</strong> the opposition. In this<br />
transitionary sentence, the apostle juxtaposes their negative behaviour with<br />
the positive behaviour <strong>of</strong> the overseer. The opposition is thus introduced here<br />
as “the ones who speak against”. They contradict the action <strong>of</strong> the overseers<br />
who “holds against” or “clings <strong>to</strong>”. The <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> objective <strong>of</strong> this brilliant use<br />
<strong>of</strong> a prefix is <strong>to</strong> launch his denigration <strong>of</strong> the opposition.<br />
Conclusion<br />
In this section, the dominant <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> objective is <strong>to</strong> outline criteria for the<br />
establishment <strong>of</strong> legitimate local leadership in the church. His arguments are<br />
primarily based on authority, particularly apos<strong>to</strong>lic authority. Thus, <strong>Titus</strong>’<br />
presence and jurisdiction are authorised by apos<strong>to</strong>lic directive. The detailed<br />
explanations, in the form <strong>of</strong> a catalogue <strong>of</strong> vices and virtues, are examples <strong>of</strong><br />
the <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> technique called shared knowledge. Its use suggests that this<br />
section is primarily targeted at the congregation. It addresses <strong>Titus</strong> only<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
76
secondarily. The leader must be blameless in his family life as well as in his<br />
behaviour. In other words, his life must bear testimony <strong>to</strong> the fact that he has<br />
embraced the Christian doctrine. Through the <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> technique <strong>of</strong><br />
repetition, Paul links this section <strong>to</strong> the preceding salutation, developing<br />
certain notions like faith and the primacy <strong>of</strong> the word. Another <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong><br />
technique, anaphora is used <strong>to</strong> draw attention <strong>to</strong> the vices and virtues related<br />
<strong>to</strong> the elder-overseers and concludes the catalogue by specifying the most<br />
important qualification, namely the ability <strong>to</strong> teach the word. In this regard, the<br />
elder-overseers are made responsible for exhortation and refutation.<br />
Also present on the island are “those who contradict” and their followers. Paul<br />
uses the list <strong>of</strong> virtues and vices <strong>to</strong> educate the congregation regarding<br />
legitimate and illegitimate leadership. The list also represents shared<br />
knowledge, which constitutes an irrefutable argument in favour <strong>of</strong> the validity<br />
<strong>of</strong> the requirements for legitimate leadership. Another <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> technique<br />
used in this section is that <strong>of</strong> synonyms.<br />
This section concludes with the legitimate leaders being pitched against the<br />
illegitimate ones. Furthermore, the closing sentence (1:9) serves as a<br />
transitional device that introduces the vilification <strong>of</strong> the illegitimate leaders. In<br />
the following section, the disparagement <strong>of</strong> the opposition takes on a more<br />
fully developed form. This section presents a clear picture <strong>of</strong> the legitimate<br />
leaders and introduces the problem <strong>of</strong> the illegitimate ones.<br />
2.2.3 <strong>Titus</strong> 1:10-16: Discrediting the illegitimate teachers<br />
In verse 6 and following, Paul focuses the attention upon the “opposition”,<br />
whom he would eventually expose as being presumptive teachers (1:11).<br />
Through the use <strong>of</strong> a transitional sentence, Paul introduces them in the latter<br />
part <strong>of</strong> verse 9, as <strong>to</strong>u;" ajntilevgonta". We first encounter them in the context<br />
<strong>of</strong> a conflict situation, at the receiving end <strong>of</strong> the ministry <strong>of</strong> the elders, who<br />
must reprove (ejlevgcein) them. This sentence introduces an “us-them”<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
77
dicho<strong>to</strong>my at the front end <strong>of</strong> this letter (1:9) that is expanded in the<br />
subsequent verses (1:10-16). The dominant <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> objective in this section<br />
is <strong>to</strong> discredit the illegitimate teachers primarily by magnifying their<br />
illegitimacy. The <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> technique employed involves vilification <strong>of</strong> the<br />
illegitimate teachers.<br />
Vilification<br />
Vilification is a persuasive technique used by an author or speaker <strong>to</strong> present<br />
opposing parties or their viewpoints in a negative light, by magnifying some<br />
aspects <strong>of</strong> character or propositional weakness, with a view <strong>to</strong> influence an<br />
audience <strong>to</strong> disassociate themselves from the opposition or the viewpoint and<br />
associate themselves with or endorse the position or person <strong>of</strong> the speaker or<br />
writer. Du Toit (1994:404) considers it <strong>to</strong> have been a “widespread convention<br />
… obtained throughout the Mediterranean world”. Botha (1993:421) calls it<br />
“invective”, which aimed <strong>to</strong> “dispose hearers favourably <strong>to</strong> the speaker and <strong>to</strong><br />
shame and humiliate the ‘enemy’”. One <strong>of</strong> the ways in which it was employed,<br />
involved portraying the opposition as those who are perverting the true faith<br />
and who are negative influences for the faith <strong>of</strong> others (Du Toit, 1994:409). In<br />
order <strong>to</strong> achieve his dominant <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> objective, Paul makes extensive use<br />
<strong>of</strong> vilification <strong>to</strong> portray the opposition in a very negative light. The impact and<br />
overall domination <strong>of</strong> the technique in this section becomes obvious from the<br />
following list:<br />
1. insubordinate, empty talkers,<br />
deceivers (v.10)<br />
2. upsetting whole families (v.11)<br />
3. teaching for gain (v.11)<br />
4. teaching without the right <strong>to</strong><br />
teach (v.11)<br />
5. liars/evil beasts/lazy glut<strong>to</strong>ns<br />
(v.12)<br />
6. giving heed <strong>to</strong> Jewish myths<br />
(v.14)<br />
7. giving heed <strong>to</strong> the commands <strong>of</strong><br />
men who reject the truth (v.14)<br />
8. corrupt and unbelieving (v.15)<br />
9. minds and consciences are<br />
corrupt (v.15)<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
10. deny God by their deeds (v.16)<br />
11. detestable, disobedient, unfit<br />
for any good deed (v.16)<br />
78
Verse 10 immediately takes up and builds upon the hostility introduced in the<br />
latter part <strong>of</strong> verse 9. The apostle unleashes his verbal artillery upon the<br />
aberrant ones through a technique I call emphatic clustering. He groups<br />
<strong>to</strong>gether three words <strong>to</strong> launch his vilification campaign, namely ajnupovtak<strong>to</strong>~,<br />
mataiolovgo~ and frenapavth~. This linguistic triplet, combined with the<br />
adjective pa`~, intensifies the hostile sentiment that this section intends <strong>to</strong><br />
create. It furthermore serves as justification for the apos<strong>to</strong>lic directives that<br />
this correspondence conveys. Structurally, it cordons <strong>of</strong>f this section and<br />
magnifies the denigration <strong>to</strong> follow.<br />
The vilification procedure is facilitated by several additional techniques, such<br />
as implicit contrasting. That which is contrasted is not made obvious within a<br />
sentence. In other words, the author gives no linguistic clues that a contrast is<br />
being made. Instead, the author provides the information in such a manner<br />
that the hearer or reader, almost intuitively, “sees” the glaring contrasts within<br />
the larger discourse unit. For example, the description <strong>of</strong> the opposition in this<br />
section is implicitly contrasted with the positive character requirements<br />
associated with the <strong>of</strong>fice <strong>of</strong> the overseer mentioned earlier. The negative<br />
attitude <strong>of</strong> the opposition <strong>to</strong>wards the word (1:9), is made plausible by the<br />
pejorative description <strong>of</strong> their character, which manifests firstly as<br />
insubordination (ajnupovtak<strong>to</strong>~). This noun was used earlier with reference <strong>to</strong><br />
the children <strong>of</strong> elders (1:6). This is an example <strong>of</strong> repetition. The effect is <strong>to</strong><br />
evoke strong disapproval from the congregation for childish behaviour on the<br />
part <strong>of</strong> the opposition. Unruly behaviour demands strong disciplinary<br />
retaliation.<br />
The noun mataiolovgo~ follows rapidly upon the first and is suggestive <strong>of</strong> the<br />
apos<strong>to</strong>lic view <strong>of</strong> the aberrant teaching. It is vain, empty, and lacking<br />
substance. In fact, the false teachers are the personification <strong>of</strong> what they<br />
teach. They themselves are empty and vain. The final noun in this cluster,<br />
frenapavth~, describes the opposition as deceivers or impos<strong>to</strong>rs. In other<br />
words, they are unauthorised, invalid and hence unqualified <strong>to</strong> minister <strong>to</strong> the<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
79
church. Implicit contrasting is also operative here. Thus, compared <strong>to</strong><br />
everyone mentioned in the previous two sections, this group <strong>of</strong> impos<strong>to</strong>rs<br />
does not match the pr<strong>of</strong>ile. While the group may be substantial, the apostle<br />
appears <strong>to</strong> single out a Jewish faction within the larger group, through the<br />
adjectival phrase mavlista oiJ ejk th`" peri<strong>to</strong>mh`". Johnson (1996:227, 228)<br />
suggests that this expression might refer <strong>to</strong> Gentile Cretans who have come<br />
<strong>to</strong> embrace Judaism through the influence <strong>of</strong> Jewish teachers. If this is so, the<br />
resemblance <strong>to</strong> Galatians would be, in his words, “all the more striking”<br />
(Johnson, 1996:228).<br />
The effect upon the hearers is nothing short <strong>of</strong> riveting: If this is what the<br />
apostle says about these people, how dare some believers (perhaps) think<br />
amicably about them? At this very point, the congregants are forced <strong>to</strong> pick<br />
sides. The <strong>to</strong>ne <strong>of</strong> the letter has been positive up <strong>to</strong> the first half <strong>of</strong> verse 9:<br />
Paul, <strong>Titus</strong>, the elders elect. It will, however, from here onwards become<br />
calculatedly negative.<br />
Verse 11 <strong>of</strong>fers additional justification for the severe treatment <strong>of</strong> this<br />
insubordinate faction. The reasoning relates firstly <strong>to</strong> the effect <strong>of</strong> their<br />
“ministry” among the believers. It is considered absolutely essential that these<br />
people be silenced or muzzled (ejpis<strong>to</strong>mivzein). Paul and the elders, however,<br />
are allowed <strong>to</strong> speak <strong>to</strong> or teach the believers (1:3, 9). The impact <strong>of</strong> the<br />
activities <strong>of</strong> the illegitimate teachers, is that it subverts or overturns whole<br />
households or families (oi{tine" o{lou" oi[kou" ajnatrevpousin). The emphasis<br />
upon the negative effect on the family institution, constititutes a further<br />
element in the vilification campaign against these people. The reference <strong>to</strong><br />
households (oi[koi) can either indicate house churches or families. Paul’s<br />
vilification here is based on the family or kinship theme. This calls <strong>to</strong> mind<br />
related ideas that were introduced in the previous two sections. For example,<br />
in 1:4, God is referred <strong>to</strong> as qeov~ pathvr while <strong>Titus</strong> is called Paul’s tevknon.<br />
The language is relational and familial. This kind <strong>of</strong> relationship is<br />
characterised by order and submission. The notion <strong>of</strong> family also features<br />
prominently in the criteria for elders. In 1:6, the elder is expected <strong>to</strong><br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
80
demonstrate a positive influence upon his own family. All these disclose a<br />
positive attitude <strong>to</strong>wards the family. The negative impact <strong>of</strong> the illegitimate<br />
teachers upon the family institution is thus exacerbated by the use <strong>of</strong> the<br />
kinship argument. This implicit contrast highlights an underlying argument<br />
suggestive <strong>of</strong> the importance <strong>of</strong> a stable family life in the ancient world.<br />
Whereas elder-overseers must maintain a stable family life, the opposition<br />
threatens that stability and are vilified for it. The text, therefore, suggests that<br />
it is a severe form <strong>of</strong> vilification <strong>to</strong> accuse someone <strong>of</strong> threatening the family<br />
institution. Johnson (1996:235) mentions that “[i]n the Greco-Roman world,<br />
insubordination or instability in the oikos was reason enough <strong>to</strong> condemn a<br />
religious movement”. Through a clever play on the word oi\ko~, the apostle<br />
exploits the connotative value <strong>of</strong> the kinship argument with direct application<br />
<strong>to</strong> the church. In 1:7, he described the overseer as a qeou' oijkonovmo~. The<br />
false teachers on the other hand, are subverting whole oi\koi. Again, by<br />
implicit comparison <strong>to</strong> the elders, these impos<strong>to</strong>rs are shown <strong>to</strong> be illegitimate<br />
by highlighting the negative impact <strong>of</strong> their activities upon the church or<br />
individual families. They must be avoided because they prove <strong>to</strong> be outsiders,<br />
non-family, and preda<strong>to</strong>ry.<br />
The next justification for the ruthless treatment <strong>of</strong> the impos<strong>to</strong>rs, relates <strong>to</strong> the<br />
content <strong>of</strong> and the motivation for their teaching, which serves as a further<br />
basis for their vilification. Their illegitimacy relates <strong>to</strong> the content <strong>of</strong> their<br />
teaching, here described very unflatteringly as a} mh; dei' (“things not<br />
necessary”). The insignificance <strong>of</strong> what they teach is expressed by the use <strong>of</strong><br />
the relative pronoun (neuter) a}{. The illegitimate teachers simply teach “things”.<br />
Again, this is the opposite <strong>of</strong> what Paul and the elders teach. The selection <strong>of</strong><br />
vocabulary heightens the polarity between the two groups. “Things” do not<br />
quite compare with “the truth”, “the faithful word”, “the teaching”, and “healthy<br />
teaching” or “healthy doctrine” (1:1, 9). The readers must choose between<br />
being taught illegitimate “things” and legitimate “teaching”.<br />
The next two words aijscroiv kevrdoi, are further examples <strong>of</strong> paranomasia. It<br />
intentionally recalls a quality listed in the earlier catalogue <strong>of</strong> vices with<br />
reference <strong>to</strong> overseers, namely aijscrokerdhv~. If an overseer may not be<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
81
aijscrokerdhv", and these false teachers are teaching for the sake <strong>of</strong> aijscroiv<br />
kevrdoi, then there is no way that the latter group can ever legitimately serve in<br />
God’s oi\ko~. They are disqualified. The language implies a warning <strong>to</strong> the<br />
believers. It is as if the apostle is saying, “Watch out. They are out <strong>to</strong> exploit<br />
you!” Clearly, he cannot be speaking <strong>to</strong> <strong>Titus</strong>. Those who stand <strong>to</strong> benefit from<br />
these caveats are the believers.<br />
In verse 12, the apostle intensifies his strategy <strong>of</strong> vilifying the illegitimate<br />
teachers. His <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> strategy involves the use <strong>of</strong> alienating or exclusive<br />
language and appeal <strong>to</strong> an external source <strong>of</strong> authority. Paul’s use <strong>of</strong> “them-<br />
us” serves <strong>to</strong> alienate the believers from the illegitimate teachers. It also<br />
harnesses the notion <strong>of</strong> community and belonging. Here, he uses it negatively<br />
with reference <strong>to</strong> the illegitimate teachers. The repetition <strong>of</strong> the third person,<br />
plural, <strong>of</strong> the pronoun auj<strong>to</strong>v~ (ejx aujtw`n i[dio" aujtw`n pr<strong>of</strong>hvth") emphasises<br />
the notion <strong>of</strong> “them” and “us”. More importantly, however, the repetition <strong>of</strong> the<br />
pronoun functions <strong>to</strong> corroborate the accusation that is expressed in the form<br />
<strong>of</strong> that infamous quote. Thus, here we have information about the false<br />
teachers from the proverbial horse’s mouth; here is an inside s<strong>to</strong>ry.<br />
Paul’s <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> strategy furthermore involves an appeal <strong>to</strong> an external<br />
authority. The quote, Krh`te" ajei; yeu`stai, kaka; qhriva, gastevre" ajrgaiv,<br />
effectively points the attention <strong>of</strong> the hearers away from Paul. It is as if Paul is<br />
saying: “Don’t be surprised. I’m not sucking these things out <strong>of</strong> my thumb.<br />
Here’s what is said about them by someone who knows them. Here is what<br />
you know is true about them”. The citation suggests a known source,<br />
insinuating that this is public knowledge. One could read in<strong>to</strong> this citation a<br />
mild or implicit rebuke <strong>to</strong>wards the congregation. They should have known<br />
these things. However, if there is a rebuke, it is s<strong>of</strong>tened by the earlier use <strong>of</strong><br />
the “them-us” language.<br />
The quote demonstrates another instance <strong>of</strong> emphatic clustering. More<br />
specifically, we have here an example <strong>of</strong> asyndetic emphatic clustering.<br />
Together with verse 10, it ties this section in<strong>to</strong> a neat unit and maintains the<br />
vilification <strong>of</strong> the false teachers. The vocabulary employed is significant.<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
82
Firstly, there is a play on the an<strong>to</strong>nyms noticeable in the expressions, Krh`te"<br />
ajei; yeu`stai and oJ ajyeudh;" qeov" (1:2). This is an instance <strong>of</strong> implicit<br />
contrasting where the character <strong>of</strong> the Cretans is juxtaposed with that <strong>of</strong> God.<br />
It furthermore establishes an argument based on example, and in this<br />
occurrence it is an irrefutable one, since the character <strong>of</strong> the opposition is<br />
presented as being diametrically opposed <strong>to</strong> the character <strong>of</strong> the divine. The<br />
next two descriptions, namely kaka; qhriva and gastevre" ajrgaiv, have the effect<br />
<strong>of</strong> portraying the opposition as dehumanised by refering <strong>to</strong> them as beasts<br />
(qhriva) and lazy glut<strong>to</strong>ns, or literally “idle s<strong>to</strong>machs”. The <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> effect <strong>of</strong><br />
this quotation is that it belittles the opposition in the eyes <strong>of</strong> the church. On its<br />
own, such vilification is rather damaging <strong>to</strong> any person’s reputation. In the<br />
context <strong>of</strong> a local congregation, the relational consequences would be<br />
devastating.<br />
In verse 13, the <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> strategy involves an apos<strong>to</strong>lic verification <strong>of</strong> the<br />
saying regarding the Cretans’ moral disposition. The use <strong>of</strong> the demonstrative<br />
pronoun au{th links this sentence <strong>to</strong> the citation. Here, Paul had opportunity <strong>to</strong><br />
limit the applicability <strong>of</strong> the earlier quotation; instead he affirms the veracity <strong>of</strong><br />
the Cretan poet’s adage. There is a sense <strong>of</strong> irony associated with the<br />
combination <strong>of</strong> the quote and the apos<strong>to</strong>lic affirmation: A Cretan poet brands<br />
Cretans as pathological liars, lazy bones and glut<strong>to</strong>ns. Scholars refer <strong>to</strong> this<br />
as the liar’s paradox (Mounce, 2000:398), since it makes the statement a<br />
logical impossibility. The apos<strong>to</strong>lic verification serves <strong>to</strong> corroborate the truth<br />
<strong>of</strong> the statement. Furthermore, we have repetition <strong>of</strong> the same word in the<br />
adjective ajlhqhv". The corresponding noun ajlhqeiva was introduced in the<br />
salutation. Opponents would be hard pressed <strong>to</strong> refute the characterisation,<br />
which is here intensified by the apos<strong>to</strong>lic corroboration. A comparative view <strong>of</strong><br />
the various units in chapter 1, discloses the development <strong>of</strong> a deliberate<br />
tension between truth and lies or liars: Paul’s ministry is focused on the<br />
knowledge <strong>of</strong> ajlhqeiva (1:1). God is ajyeudhv" (1:2). Next, the Cretans are<br />
yeu`stai (1:12), while the statement is ajlhqhv" (1:13). Structurally, one could<br />
almost argue for an ABBA structure, but that is not the concern <strong>of</strong> this study.<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
83
The second part <strong>of</strong> verse 13 contains an instruction on the treatment <strong>of</strong> these<br />
false teachers. The second person singular imperative <strong>of</strong> e[levgcw points <strong>to</strong><br />
<strong>Titus</strong> as the primary addressee. This verb is repeated, having occurred earlier,<br />
where it applied <strong>to</strong> the overseer (1:9). Therefore, the responsibility <strong>to</strong> refute is<br />
shared by <strong>Titus</strong> and the overseers. <strong>Titus</strong> implicitly, models <strong>to</strong> the others how<br />
an elder must exercise his ministry. The purpose clause, introduced by the<br />
conjunction i{na, serves <strong>to</strong> defend Paul’s instructions against charges <strong>of</strong><br />
malevolence. In spite <strong>of</strong> how bad they are, there is still hope for the impos<strong>to</strong>rs<br />
<strong>to</strong> become sound or healthy in the faith (… i{na uJgiaivnwsin ejn th`/ pivstei). The<br />
clause uJgiaivnwsin ejn th`/ pivstei brings <strong>to</strong>gether in a single expression two<br />
words used in earlier sections, namely pivsti~ (1:1, 4, 6, 9) and the verb<br />
uJgiaivnw. In the latter instance, it is the participial equivalent, namely<br />
uJgiainouvsh (1:9) that is employed. Verse 13 suggests the possibility for<br />
transformation. Those who may have been led astray can become sound in<br />
the faith. The verse also expresses an implicit caution against the abuse <strong>of</strong><br />
authority since the harsh treatment has a noble end, namely return <strong>to</strong> the<br />
faith. The article in this instance specifies the body <strong>of</strong> objective gospel<br />
teaching, synonymous <strong>to</strong> the truth (1:1).<br />
Verse 14 describes the content <strong>of</strong> the false teaching that the impos<strong>to</strong>rs are<br />
embracing, thereby continuing the vilification. Through the use <strong>of</strong> two related<br />
verbs, the difference between legitimate and illegitimate teachers is<br />
intensified. While not directly synonymous, the two verbs are related, in that<br />
they share the verb e[cw. Whereas the overseer must “cling <strong>to</strong>” (ajntevcw) the<br />
faithful teaching, false teachers must not “pay attention” (mh; prosevcw) <strong>to</strong><br />
wrong doctrine. Several parallels are apparent in the description <strong>of</strong> the two<br />
groups. Firstly, both verbs share the primary root verb. Next, they are both in<br />
the present participial form. Thirdly, there is a definite contrast in regards <strong>to</strong><br />
the content <strong>of</strong> the different teachings. In verse 14, the attention is apparently<br />
focused on jIoudai>koi`" muvqoi" kai; ejn<strong>to</strong>lai`" ajnqrwvpwn. In verse 9, it is <strong>to</strong>u`<br />
(kata; th;n didach;n) pis<strong>to</strong>u` lovgou. Note, how the authorisation <strong>of</strong> the<br />
illegitimate leaders derives from human authority (ejn<strong>to</strong>lai`" ajnqrwvpwn), while<br />
that <strong>of</strong> Paul originates directly from the divine (1:1-4). The ministry <strong>of</strong> <strong>Titus</strong><br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
84
and the elders derives more indirectly from apos<strong>to</strong>lic authorisation (1:5-9). In<br />
this part <strong>of</strong> the verse, the object <strong>of</strong> vilification shifts temporarily from<br />
individuals <strong>to</strong> the doctrinal origin <strong>of</strong> the false teaching. False doctrine derives<br />
from man and is authorised by man. Sound doctrine derives from God and is<br />
authorised by God.<br />
The next participial phrase, ajpostrefomevnoi th;n ajlhvqeian refocuses the<br />
attention on those who are targets <strong>of</strong> the vilification campaign. Throughout this<br />
entire sentence, the comparisons are implicit. The illegitimate teachers have<br />
reneged “the truth” (th;n ajlhvqeian) while Paul’s entire ministry is focused on<br />
ejpivgnwsin ajlhqeiva" th`" katÆ eujsevbeian (1:1). This description in verse 14, <strong>of</strong><br />
the opposition’s relationship <strong>to</strong> the truth, constitutes the climax in the<br />
vilification <strong>of</strong> the opposition. Here, is the fundamental difference between<br />
legitimate and illegitimate ministry, namely the latter’s abandonment <strong>of</strong> the<br />
truth. Verses 13 and 14 are one sentence in Greek. It opens and closes with<br />
the word ajlhqeiva, first as an adjective and then as a noun. The word-chain is<br />
thus continued and serves <strong>to</strong> tie all the various units <strong>of</strong> this chapter <strong>to</strong>gether.<br />
The fact that God is ajyeudhv" does not bid well for the false teachers and their<br />
relationship <strong>to</strong> (the) truth. The repetitive use <strong>of</strong> the truth-lie dicho<strong>to</strong>my<br />
highlights the illegitimacy <strong>of</strong> the false teachers and presents them in a<br />
diametrically opposite stance from the divine.<br />
In verse 15, the apostle appears <strong>to</strong> zoom in on a key notion within the<br />
teaching <strong>of</strong> the false teachers, namely purity. He continues his vilification<br />
campaign by elaborating on the description <strong>of</strong> the teachings he introduced in<br />
verse 14. He accomplishes this through a technique described as antithetic<br />
presentation (Tolmie, 2005:33) or antithetic chiasmus (Quinn, 1990:101)<br />
which he combines with assonance <strong>of</strong> the vowel a. Additionally, he uses the<br />
repetition <strong>of</strong> several key words <strong>to</strong> intensify his focus. The most obvious is the<br />
word kaqarov~, which appears three times in this verse: pavnta kaqara; <strong>to</strong>i`"<br />
kaqaroi`": <strong>to</strong>i`" de; kai; ajpivs<strong>to</strong>i" oujde;n kaqarovn. Next, is the verb memivanw:<br />
memiammevnoi"… memivantai. Earlier, Paul used the noun pivsti~, now he<br />
employs the an<strong>to</strong>nym ajpivs<strong>to</strong>", which accentuates the contrasts between the<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
85
different groups. He relentlessly pursues his objective <strong>of</strong> vilifying the<br />
opponents, this time through contrasting the pure and the impure and name<br />
calling: memiammevnoi" kai; ajpivs<strong>to</strong>i". A final technique is the parallelism in the<br />
structure AABA, which can be indicated as follows:<br />
A pavnta kaqara; A <strong>to</strong>i`" kaqaroi`":<br />
B <strong>to</strong>i`" de; memiammevnoi" kai; ajpivs<strong>to</strong>i" A l oujde;n kaqarovn<br />
The sentence introduces two groups: the pure versus the defiled and<br />
unbelieving. The sentence accentuates the futility <strong>of</strong> trying <strong>to</strong> attain purity<br />
when you are already defiled and unbelieving. The participle, memiammevno~, is<br />
in the perfect tense and in the passive voice. It is translated as “those who<br />
have been defiled”. The repetition <strong>of</strong> key vocabulary and concomitant parallel<br />
structure, plus the <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> technique <strong>of</strong> assonance, draw attention <strong>to</strong> what<br />
may have been a dominant feature <strong>of</strong> the aberrant teaching, namely ritual<br />
purity. Paul shoots this notion down by convincingly illustrating its futility. The<br />
second clause emphasises the hopelessness <strong>of</strong> the efforts <strong>of</strong> the false<br />
teachers. Their defilement is not merely external but also internal: ajlla;<br />
memivantai aujtw`n kai; oJ nou`" kai; hJ suneivdhsi". In other words, they are <strong>to</strong>tally<br />
defiled or utterly incapable <strong>of</strong> purity because their defilement extends <strong>to</strong> their<br />
minds (oJ nou`") and their consciences (hJ suneivdhsi").<br />
In verse 16, Paul’s <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> strategy involves focusing on the ethical<br />
inconsistency <strong>of</strong> what the opponents are doing. They confess <strong>to</strong> know God<br />
(qeo;n oJmologou`sin eijdevnai) but instead they deny God by their works (<strong>to</strong>i`" de;<br />
e[rgoi" ajrnou`ntai). The contrast between “<strong>to</strong> know” and “they are denying” is<br />
obvious and intentional. The vilification comes in the form <strong>of</strong> an accusation<br />
that the false teachers are not serving God by their deeds, which is one <strong>of</strong> the<br />
fundamental tenets <strong>of</strong> Judaism and Christianity (cf. Mathew 7:21). The<br />
<strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> effect <strong>of</strong> this is <strong>to</strong> provide the hearers with additional criteria by<br />
which <strong>to</strong> evaluate these false teachers. This final criterium is the most<br />
damning <strong>of</strong> them all, since what the opponents believe about God finds<br />
ultimate expression in the way they conduct their lives. In their case, it<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
86
amounts <strong>to</strong> a complete denial <strong>of</strong> the foundational teachings <strong>of</strong> Christianity and<br />
Judaism.<br />
The verse concludes with an instance <strong>of</strong> polysyndetic emphatic clustering <strong>to</strong><br />
complete this phase <strong>of</strong> vilification. The illegitimate teachers are bdeluk<strong>to</strong>i;<br />
(o[nte") kai; ajpeiqei`" kai; (pro;" pa`n e[rgon ajgaqo;n) ajdovkimoi. The underlined<br />
words are all adjectives, masculine, nominative plural and are linked by<br />
conjunctions. Contrary <strong>to</strong> their appearance <strong>of</strong> purity, Paul describes the false<br />
teachers as ajdovkimo~ (abominable or detestable). This interesting word is a<br />
New Testament harpax legomenon. It denotes that which is an abomination <strong>to</strong><br />
God (Zodhiates, 1992:330; Mounce, 2000:403). ajpeiqhv" denotes<br />
unwillingness <strong>to</strong> be persuaded, unbelieving, disobedient (Zodhiates,<br />
1992:549). The last word in the trilogy, ajdovkimo~, means unapproved,<br />
unworthy, spurious or worthless (Zodhiates, 1992:96). An ironic picture<br />
concludes this section. Those who pr<strong>of</strong>ess <strong>to</strong> know God is considered an<br />
abomination (<strong>to</strong> God). Having earlier referred <strong>to</strong> them as ajpivs<strong>to</strong>~, the apostle<br />
now uses the word ajpeiqhv" <strong>to</strong> express a similar thought but in stronger terms:<br />
they are beyond persuasion. The final word concludes the picture by<br />
accentuating the illegitimacy <strong>of</strong> these false teachers. The expression pa`n<br />
e[rgon ajgaqovn is a transitionary device in lieu <strong>of</strong> the next section and will be<br />
developed in the subsequent sections. The point is that such works cannot be<br />
expected from the false teachers and also not from those who subscribe <strong>to</strong><br />
their teaching.<br />
Conclusion<br />
In this section Paul’s dominant <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> objective has been <strong>to</strong> discredit the<br />
illegitimate leaders. His primary <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> strategy involves vilification <strong>of</strong> the<br />
opposition. Paul uses several techniques <strong>to</strong> facilitate his objective, reducing<br />
the opposition <strong>to</strong> a less than human state. Through the technique called<br />
emphatic clustering, he immediately and directly focuses the attention upon<br />
the impos<strong>to</strong>rs. This strategy magnifies the illegitimacy <strong>of</strong> the false teachers<br />
and provides justification for the apos<strong>to</strong>lic vitriol that they receive in this<br />
section. The vilification is furthermore intensified through techniques like<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
87
implicit contrasting. The negative qualities <strong>of</strong> the false teachers follow after the<br />
description <strong>of</strong> the qualifications for elders-overseers. The proximity <strong>of</strong> the two<br />
pictures inevitably encourages the drawing <strong>of</strong> comparisons between the two<br />
groups. Paul goes beyond this <strong>to</strong> compare the false teachers with everyone<br />
else mentioned earlier, including God. This is made possible through the<br />
ingenious repetitions <strong>of</strong> synonyms and an<strong>to</strong>nyms. For example, there is a<br />
deliberate play upon the truth-lie dicho<strong>to</strong>my made possible entirely by the<br />
repetition <strong>of</strong> words like truth, liars and “unlying”. The false teachers’ lack <strong>of</strong><br />
commitment <strong>to</strong> the truth is also highlighted through the repetition <strong>of</strong> the words<br />
“truth” and “the truth”.<br />
Alienating language, which involves the use <strong>of</strong> them-us language, is another<br />
technique employed in this section. This has the effect <strong>of</strong> isolating the false<br />
teachers as well as discouraging those believers who might be tempted <strong>to</strong><br />
embrace the aberrant teaching. In verse 12, Paul draws on external evidence<br />
<strong>to</strong> substantiate his position.<br />
Example is another one <strong>of</strong> several effective techniques employed in this<br />
section. Paul implicitly appeals <strong>to</strong> the example <strong>of</strong> the divine character when,<br />
through the use <strong>of</strong> the quote, he calls <strong>to</strong> mind verse 2 where God is described<br />
as one who cannot lie. In this quote, the Cretans are branded as liars. The<br />
parallel is glaring.<br />
Paul eventually highlights an aspect <strong>of</strong> the false teaching that emphasises<br />
purity. He exposes the futility <strong>of</strong> the teaching, by using parallelism and<br />
concludes the section with another dose <strong>of</strong> emphatic clustering, just for<br />
emphasis. He also uses the <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> technique <strong>of</strong> assonance and introduces<br />
a new concept that he will develop in subsequent sections. This latter<br />
tendency is an example <strong>of</strong> a transitional device, something Paul has<br />
consistently done throughout this chapter.<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
88
2.2.4 <strong>Titus</strong> 2:1: Distinguishing <strong>Titus</strong> as a minister <strong>of</strong> sound<br />
doctrine on the basis <strong>of</strong> apos<strong>to</strong>lic authorisation<br />
The dominant <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> objective in this section is <strong>to</strong> distinguish <strong>Titus</strong> as a<br />
minister <strong>of</strong> sound doctrine on the basis <strong>of</strong> apos<strong>to</strong>lic authorisation. This section<br />
follows on from the previous section in which the author discredited the<br />
opposition through the <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> technique <strong>of</strong> vilification. Here, he is<br />
distinguishing <strong>Titus</strong> by commending him as a minister <strong>of</strong> sound doctrine with<br />
apos<strong>to</strong>lic endorsement. Furthermore, the mandate <strong>of</strong> <strong>Titus</strong> is extended in that<br />
he becomes responsible not only for the appointment <strong>of</strong> <strong>of</strong>fice bearers but<br />
also for the disbursement <strong>of</strong> sound doctrine <strong>to</strong> the believers. <strong>Titus</strong> is thus<br />
presented here as one who is qualified <strong>to</strong> teach the church as opposed <strong>to</strong> the<br />
opposition (1:11).<br />
The ministry <strong>of</strong> <strong>Titus</strong> is set apart from that <strong>of</strong> the false teachers in various<br />
ways. To achieve this task, the apostle uses several linguistic markers. First,<br />
there is the emphatic placement <strong>of</strong> the second person singular personal<br />
pronoun suv at the beginning <strong>of</strong> the sentence, <strong>to</strong>gether with the adversative<br />
conjunction dev. While marking <strong>of</strong>f the section as separate from the previous<br />
one, it also contrasts <strong>Titus</strong>' ministry by drawing attention <strong>to</strong> the apos<strong>to</strong>lic<br />
imperative from which his ministry originates. If someone from Crete were <strong>to</strong><br />
ask "Why are you teaching these things <strong>to</strong> us?” <strong>Titus</strong> could answer, “The<br />
apostle Paul commanded me <strong>to</strong>". Next, <strong>Titus</strong> is commanded <strong>to</strong> “speak”, lalevw.<br />
This is an interesting word choice. The false teachers were “teaching”,<br />
didavskonte" (1:11). So, why does Paul not instruct <strong>Titus</strong> <strong>to</strong> “teach” (didavskw)?<br />
Why this change <strong>of</strong> vocabulary? Could it be that he wants <strong>to</strong> create some<br />
distance between <strong>Titus</strong>, here representing legitimate ministry and the false<br />
teachers who represent illegitimate ministry? Another option is that the close<br />
proximity <strong>to</strong> the remaining words in the sentence could have dis<strong>to</strong>rted the<br />
meaning <strong>of</strong> particularly didaskaliva. Thus, he appears <strong>to</strong> be protecting the<br />
distinctive or technical sense <strong>of</strong> the word didaskaliva. Alternatively, the<br />
variation <strong>of</strong> vocabulary might have been intended <strong>to</strong> avoid redundancy. This is<br />
an example <strong>of</strong> the <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> technique paranomasia (word play). A third<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
89
marker is the use <strong>of</strong> the plural <strong>of</strong> the neuter relative pronoun, a}. This pronoun<br />
has an immediate correlation <strong>to</strong> the false teachers who, according <strong>to</strong> 1:11,<br />
teaches a} mh; dei`. Rhythmically, with reference <strong>to</strong> metre, as well as aurally,<br />
with reference <strong>to</strong> assonance <strong>of</strong> the vowel a, and the diphthong ei, the relation<br />
between the words in their different contexts is undeniable. A hearer would<br />
immediately have picked up this similarity <strong>of</strong> sound and noticed the intended<br />
difference between what is said <strong>to</strong> <strong>Titus</strong> and what is said about the false<br />
teachers. <strong>Titus</strong>, unlike the false teachers must speak, a} prevpei th`/ uJgiainouvsh/<br />
didaskaliva. Interestingly, the expression hJ uJgiainouvsh didaskaliva is here<br />
reversed, when compared <strong>to</strong> its first occurrence in 1:9. Furthermore, the first<br />
time these two words appear <strong>to</strong>gether is in the context <strong>of</strong> elders-overseers,<br />
who must parakalevw the teaching. Now, <strong>Titus</strong> shares that responsibility as he<br />
must lavlew it. Here, repetition is used <strong>to</strong> establish a positive association. The<br />
parallel between the verbs used is also unmistakable. Thus, <strong>Titus</strong> and the<br />
elders-overseers are shown <strong>to</strong> be allies or associates, while the false teachers<br />
are shown <strong>to</strong> be aliens. Purely through the choice <strong>of</strong> vocabulary, the apostle<br />
manages <strong>to</strong> distinguish the ministry <strong>of</strong> <strong>Titus</strong> and the elders-overseers from<br />
that <strong>of</strong> the false teachers through the ingenious combination <strong>of</strong> the neuter<br />
article and an expression used earlier with reference <strong>to</strong> another set <strong>of</strong><br />
validated ministers <strong>of</strong> the church: a} prevpei th`/ uJgiainouvsh/ didaskaliva.<br />
Conclusion<br />
This section appears upon a first inspection <strong>to</strong> be addressed <strong>to</strong> <strong>Titus</strong>.<br />
However, from a <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> angle, the manner in which the apostle ties this<br />
section <strong>to</strong> the preceding one suggests that a wider audience is intended. The<br />
opening sentence is directed <strong>to</strong> distinguish <strong>Titus</strong> and what he does as the<br />
apos<strong>to</strong>lic delegate among the Cretan believers (cf. 1:5). This is the dominant<br />
<strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> objective <strong>of</strong> this section. More importantly though, is the fact that<br />
this verse also introduces the notion <strong>of</strong> healthy doctrine. In the next section<br />
(2:2-10), the concept <strong>of</strong> healthy doctrine will be developed in a comprehensive<br />
sense. The doctrine <strong>of</strong> the false teachers has been discredited in the previous<br />
section and their pr<strong>of</strong>ession <strong>of</strong> faith was shown <strong>to</strong> be nothing more than hot air<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
90
ecause <strong>of</strong> their works (1:16). The false teachers were teaching "things not<br />
necessary" (1:11). <strong>Titus</strong> is distinguished as one entitled <strong>to</strong> teach something<br />
very specific, namely "things fitting for sound doctrine". In this section, Paul is<br />
simply "backing" or validating his man. The <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> techniques used in this<br />
section include: paronomasia, metre, assonance, emphatic use <strong>of</strong> pronouns<br />
and repetition.<br />
2.2.5 <strong>Titus</strong> 2:2-10: Persuading the Cretans that personal conduct<br />
compliant with sound doctrine is compulsory and should<br />
characterise all believers<br />
The dominant <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> strategy <strong>of</strong> this section is <strong>to</strong> persuade the Cretans<br />
that personal conduct compliant with sound doctrine is compulsory and should<br />
characterise all believers. Sound doctrine is given its fullest explanation in this<br />
section. In this section, Paul’s objective is <strong>to</strong> give substance <strong>to</strong> the notion <strong>of</strong><br />
sound doctrine. In other words, it sets out <strong>to</strong> answer the question: What does<br />
sound doctrine look like?” Paul correlates sound doctrine <strong>to</strong> the manifestation<br />
<strong>of</strong> right behaviour. Earlier, in 1:10-16, right behaviour was shown <strong>to</strong> be the key<br />
indica<strong>to</strong>r <strong>of</strong> a genuine pr<strong>of</strong>ession <strong>of</strong> faith in God (1:10-16). The false teachers<br />
by their deeds are denying God; conversely, believers by their deeds must<br />
confess God. Thus, the inseparable correspondence between deeds and<br />
sound doctrine is at the heart <strong>of</strong> Paul’s <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> objective in this section. The<br />
author makes extensive use <strong>of</strong> the <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> method <strong>of</strong> implicit contrast <strong>to</strong><br />
achieve this objective.<br />
The distinction between “sound” and “unsound” is consistently highlighted in<br />
this section. The objective involves providing the Cretan believers with<br />
reasons why they should embrace sound doctrine rather than the “things” <strong>of</strong><br />
the false teachers. The text suggests that part <strong>of</strong> what the apostle is<br />
countering in this letter is the tendency among Cretan Christians <strong>to</strong> <strong>to</strong>lerate<br />
unhealthy teachers. This weakness corroborates the theory <strong>of</strong> the relative<br />
newness <strong>of</strong> the church <strong>of</strong> Crete. It appears that they have not yet learnt <strong>to</strong><br />
discern between healthy and unhealthy teaching and was still in need <strong>of</strong><br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
91
instruction in this regard. “Healthy doctrine” is never defined anywhere in this<br />
letter. This is probably explicable from the fact that Paul does not seem <strong>to</strong><br />
treat it as a theoretical concept. Instead, sound doctrine appears <strong>to</strong> be<br />
manifested in practical, personal and public conduct by all believers.<br />
In 2:2-10, Paul delineates the behaviour that will characterise obedience <strong>to</strong><br />
healthy doctrine as manifested through the lives <strong>of</strong> different categories <strong>of</strong><br />
believers. These groups seem <strong>to</strong> be arranged in a particular order and are<br />
clearly cordoned <strong>of</strong>f from each other. In a footnote, Hendriksen (1957:363)<br />
draws attention <strong>to</strong> the <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> technique <strong>of</strong> a chiastic arrangement <strong>of</strong> the<br />
first four groups in this section:<br />
older men (2:2) older women (2:3)<br />
young women (2:4-5) young men (2:6)<br />
In verses 2-5, the author describes what behaviour fitting for sound doctrine<br />
looks like for older men, older women and younger women. This is followed by<br />
a purpose statement in the form <strong>of</strong> a i{na-clause. In verses 6-7 he deals with<br />
the behaviour <strong>of</strong> young men and <strong>of</strong> <strong>Titus</strong>, also followed by a i{na-clause. The<br />
behaviour <strong>of</strong> slaves is the final social category (2:9-10) and this <strong>to</strong>o is followed<br />
by a i{na-clause. The section thus comprises verses 2-10 and is further<br />
subdivided by three i{na-clauses. The list is general and comprehensive.<br />
2.2.5.1 The behaviour <strong>of</strong> older men<br />
In verse 2, Paul directs attention <strong>to</strong> the conduct <strong>of</strong> older men in the<br />
congregation that will comply with sound doctrine. Here the noun presbuvth~<br />
(older man) appears, while earlier (1:5) its adjectival form, namely<br />
presbutevro~, is used <strong>to</strong> refer <strong>to</strong> an <strong>of</strong>ficer <strong>of</strong> the church. The change in<br />
terminology suggests that this group is distinct from the leaders mentioned<br />
previously. Fee (1988:185) argues that the agreement between the<br />
characteristics for elder-overseers and older men could be attributed <strong>to</strong> the<br />
fact that the former would be appointed from latter group. Nevertheless, the<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
92
language suggests that as members <strong>of</strong> the church older men are expected <strong>to</strong><br />
manifest observable behaviour that confirms their standing as legitimate<br />
believers. Through the repetition <strong>of</strong> a similar word, the idea is communicated<br />
that there ought <strong>to</strong> be congruency between the behaviour <strong>of</strong> older men in the<br />
church and that <strong>of</strong> the leaders and vice versa. Thus, by their conduct, older<br />
men will confirm their allegiance <strong>to</strong> the teaching <strong>of</strong> those ministering <strong>to</strong> the<br />
church.<br />
Next, the apostle employs shared knowledge as he lists the reasonable,<br />
expected conduct <strong>of</strong> those associated with the church. These constitute<br />
borrowings from secular society (Towner, 1994:236; Dibelius & Conzelmann,<br />
1972:50-51). They must be nhfalivoi, semnoiv, swvfronoi and uJgiaivnonte". The<br />
first and third adjectives communicate the idea <strong>of</strong> sensibleness, self-control,<br />
and sobriety. semnov~ refers <strong>to</strong> the dignified conduct <strong>of</strong> an elderly man in<br />
society and the church. Through the use <strong>of</strong> the adjective swvfrono", this<br />
section is tied <strong>to</strong> the virtues associated with elders-overseers (cf. 1:8) in the<br />
same way that <strong>Titus</strong> is associated with the elders-overseers through the<br />
words uJgiainouvsh didaskaliva.<br />
The participle uJgiaivnonte" is the fourth quality in this list and is modified by<br />
three nouns that are all dative, feminine and singular: th`/ pivstei, th`/ ajgavph/,<br />
th`/ uJpomonh/. This is another instance <strong>of</strong> asyndetic emphatic clustering. Paul<br />
expects older men <strong>to</strong> manifest spiritual health or wholeness. In 1:13, <strong>Titus</strong><br />
must rebuke false teachers that they may be “sound in the faith” (i{na<br />
uJgiaivnwsin ejn th`/ pivstei). The same thing is expected <strong>of</strong> older men:<br />
uJgiaivnonte" th`/ pivstei. This parallel expression signifies an instance <strong>of</strong><br />
implicit contrast being made between the older men and the false teachers.<br />
The latter might become “sound” or “healthy” only after severe rebuke. The<br />
older men on the other hand, are “sound” or “healthy” as a result <strong>of</strong> legitimate<br />
teacher(s) who must lavlei a} prevpei th`/ uJgiainouvsh/ didaskaliva. Older men<br />
must also be healthy in love and perseverance. The combination <strong>of</strong> these<br />
positive qualities appears <strong>to</strong> balance the citation with the three negative traits<br />
in 1:12. These qualities are therefore, presented as commendable, made<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
93
almost desirable. Thus, legitimate teaching is presented in a very positive light<br />
through the use <strong>of</strong> these <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> devices. The <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> objective is<br />
evidently <strong>to</strong> motivate the believers <strong>to</strong> manifest behaviour that gives evidence<br />
<strong>of</strong> their compliance <strong>to</strong> uJgiainouvsh didaskaliva.<br />
The participle <strong>of</strong> uJgiaivnw is used in all three instances thus far, namely 1:9,<br />
2:1 and 2:2. This is an instance <strong>of</strong> direct repetition. Sound doctrine ought <strong>to</strong><br />
manifest as soundness that will in turn affect other areas <strong>of</strong> the individual life.<br />
The intention behind these lists is <strong>to</strong> provide criteria for the kind <strong>of</strong> behaviour<br />
that would be viewed as evidence for compliance <strong>to</strong> sound doctrine by older<br />
men. It communicates the following notion: “Older men, if you really are<br />
obedient <strong>to</strong> sound doctrine you will behave in these particular ways. If you are<br />
not behaving in these ways, it must be reasonably concluded that you are not<br />
obedient <strong>to</strong> sound doctrine”. Paul is not suggesting that the older men are<br />
leaders though. As was said about elders-overseers, the lists constitute what<br />
is called shared knowledge although is highly likely that local leaders were<br />
selected from this category (Fee, 1988:185, Towner, 1994:236; Dibelius &<br />
Conzelmann, 1972:50-51). The positive qualities enunciated here were<br />
qualities that the broader society considered commendable. Paul however,<br />
attributes such behaviour <strong>to</strong> the influence <strong>of</strong> sound teaching and expects that<br />
the older men by their conduct must manifest submission <strong>to</strong> sound teaching.<br />
Here. the audience is presented with behaviour that complies with sound<br />
doctrine and that would be considered good by the rest <strong>of</strong> society.<br />
2.2.5.2 The behaviour <strong>of</strong> older women<br />
In verse 3, older women (presbu`ti") are required <strong>to</strong> manifest behaviour<br />
compliant with sound doctrine. The adverb wJsauvtw" relates this sentence <strong>to</strong><br />
the previous one. For older women, compliance <strong>to</strong> sound doctrine involves<br />
their behaviour or demeanour (katasthvma). The hapax legomenon,<br />
iJeroprephv~, refers <strong>to</strong> religious conduct or behaviour. It means “<strong>to</strong> act like a<br />
sacred person” (Zodhiates, 1992:762). While these lists are also examples <strong>of</strong><br />
“shared knowledge”, they undergo a change in the hand <strong>of</strong> the apostle. This is<br />
brought about, here and elsewhere, through the use <strong>of</strong> special religious<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
94
language. The word iJeroprephv~ is a case in point. According <strong>to</strong> Collins<br />
(2002:341), it was used by classical authors <strong>to</strong> describe “priests and<br />
priestesses, religious processions and the like”. The author goes on <strong>to</strong><br />
emphasise this characteristic by immediately restating it with a double<br />
negative, namely mh; diavboloi and mh; oi[nw/ pollw`/ dedoulwmevnai. Both are<br />
observable behaviour and where they are lacking such a person cannot be<br />
said <strong>to</strong> be iJeroprephv~. Hence, they would not be manifesting compliance <strong>to</strong><br />
sound doctrine. Paul employs these lists <strong>to</strong> establish objective criteria by<br />
which <strong>to</strong> measure a pr<strong>of</strong>ession <strong>of</strong> faith in God. Changed lives that benefit<br />
society are the only evidence <strong>to</strong> demonstrate the effect <strong>of</strong> healthy teaching.<br />
Finally, older women must also be kalodidavskaloi. This compound word is<br />
made up <strong>of</strong> the word kalov~ (good) and didavskalo~ (teacher). It is another<br />
instance <strong>of</strong> the <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> technique called paranomasia. It repeats a similar<br />
idea following on from the immediate context <strong>of</strong> 2:1 and links it <strong>to</strong> earlier<br />
sections (1:9, 10). Older women must therefore be “teachers <strong>of</strong> what is good”.<br />
Older women who qualify are hereby authorised <strong>to</strong> teach. They would be<br />
recognised as legitimate teachers in the church, although it would appear <strong>to</strong><br />
be in a limited capacity. Interestingly, the privilege <strong>to</strong> teach is made subject <strong>to</strong><br />
the fulfilment <strong>of</strong> prior criteria and thus comes at the end <strong>of</strong> the list. This same<br />
principle applies <strong>to</strong> elders-overseers who can only teach (parakalei`n) if they<br />
have proven themselves in their family and private lives (1:5-9). Older women,<br />
likewise, are authorised <strong>to</strong> teach in so far as they themselves demonstrate<br />
their willingness <strong>to</strong> be taught. By way <strong>of</strong> implicit contrast, older women are<br />
distinguished from false teachers, since the latter are unauthorised <strong>to</strong> teach<br />
and “upset whole families” (1:11), while the former are authorised <strong>to</strong> “teach<br />
what is good”. Paul employs the same argument here as in the case <strong>of</strong> older<br />
men. The behaviour that older women are expected <strong>to</strong> manifest, are<br />
considered <strong>to</strong> be both Christian, as well as behaviour that society associates<br />
with older women.<br />
2.2.5.3 The behaviour <strong>of</strong> younger women<br />
In verse 4, older women are made responsible <strong>to</strong> teach younger women (aiJ<br />
nevai). The verb swfronivzwin is present active subjunctive, third person plural.<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
95
The subject is the older women. This is another interesting vocabulary switch<br />
or use <strong>of</strong> alternative vocabulary. <strong>Titus</strong> must speak (lavlew), and older women<br />
on the other hand must advise, encourage or urge (swfronivzw). Thus, neither<br />
<strong>Titus</strong> nor the older women must didavskw like the false teachers (1:11). The<br />
<strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> objective seems <strong>to</strong> be the maintenance <strong>of</strong> a gap between legitimate<br />
and illegitimate teachers, or <strong>to</strong> avoid confusing associations between the<br />
opposing groups. More importantly though, is the focus area <strong>of</strong> the teaching,<br />
namely the family. The illegitimate teachers with their “things” (aJ) had a<br />
subversive effect upon o{loi oi[koi (1:11). In contradistinction, legitimate<br />
teaching proves <strong>to</strong> be <strong>to</strong> the advantage <strong>of</strong> families. As was mentioned<br />
elsewhere (cf. 81), Greco-Roman culture placed great significance on stable<br />
family institutions. According <strong>to</strong> Johnson (1996:235), Christian households<br />
that ignored the mores <strong>of</strong> civil society could jeopardise the credibility <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Christian message. The apostle begins by emphasising the husband-wife and<br />
parent-child relationships (4). The family focus is perpetuated throughout this<br />
sentence, verse 5, through the use <strong>of</strong> words like oijkourgov" that contains the<br />
words oijkov~ and ejrgov~. This emphasis confirms the belief surrounding the<br />
importance <strong>of</strong> the family unit <strong>to</strong> the Cretans. The prior vilification section and<br />
this reference <strong>to</strong> the family, suggest that people were judged based on their<br />
commitment <strong>to</strong> the progress or destruction <strong>of</strong> the family unit. The behaviour<br />
commended in verse 4 would constitute a strong argument in favour <strong>of</strong><br />
complying with sound doctrine.<br />
Through the repetition <strong>of</strong> key words, the author is able <strong>to</strong> maintain a sense <strong>of</strong><br />
coherence and momentum in the discourse. Such a word is the word swvfrwn.<br />
The verbal cognate appears with reference <strong>to</strong> older women swfronivzwsin.<br />
The adjective also appears in the virtue lists pertaining <strong>to</strong> older men (2:2) and<br />
elders-overseers (1:8).<br />
The reference <strong>to</strong> younger women also comprises a list <strong>of</strong> virtuous qualities<br />
that constitute shared knowledge. However, Paul adapts the list <strong>to</strong> achieve<br />
theological objectives through the use <strong>of</strong> religious language. For example,<br />
aJgnov" constitutes such religious language. Particular sounds and words are<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
96
also intentionally repeated for emphatic effect. For example, the words ta;"<br />
neva" (filavndrou" ei\nai, filotevknou") swvfrona" aJgna;" (oijkourgou;") ajgaqav",<br />
and uJpotassomevna" all give evidence <strong>of</strong> the deliberate repetition <strong>of</strong> the a"-<br />
sound. The same holds true for the ou~ -sound in filavndrou" (ei\nai),<br />
filotevknou" (swvfrona" aJgna;") oijkourgou;" ajgaqav"…. The word fivlo~<br />
appears in the two compound nouns filavndrou" and filotevknou" and<br />
emphasises endearment within the family context. The prefix fivlo~, is another<br />
instance <strong>of</strong> anaphora used earlier with reference <strong>to</strong> the elders-overseers (cf.<br />
1:8). A definite link is established between the sound behaviour <strong>of</strong> the younger<br />
women and the conduct <strong>of</strong> the elders-overseers. When these women conduct<br />
themselves in their homes in compliance <strong>to</strong> sound doctrine, their behaviour<br />
places them in company with those who teach and obey sound doctrine. No<br />
one in the audience would suggest that a wife feel any different about her<br />
husband and her children. Who would be able <strong>to</strong> discredit teaching that<br />
encourages behaviour reflecting such an elevated view <strong>of</strong> the family; that<br />
encourages its adherents <strong>to</strong> serve it; that encourages a view <strong>of</strong> the family<br />
institution that even secular society aspires after? It would be extremely<br />
difficult <strong>to</strong> resist being persuaded <strong>to</strong> adopt behaviour fitting for sound doctrine.<br />
Verse 4 introduces another angle from which Paul argues for compliance <strong>to</strong><br />
sound doctrine. He has argued on the basis <strong>of</strong> shared knowledge that the<br />
behaviour characteristic <strong>of</strong> sound doctrine is behaviour that the rest <strong>of</strong> society<br />
values. The behaviour is however, more than simple compliance <strong>to</strong> human<br />
expectations. God expects those who believe in Him <strong>to</strong> manifest this particular<br />
kind <strong>of</strong> behaviour! The i{na-clause functions <strong>to</strong> distinguish the virtue lists from<br />
any secular lists. Arguing on the basis <strong>of</strong> divine authorisation, Paul shows that<br />
God expects His followers <strong>to</strong> behave in a specific manner so that His word will<br />
not be maligned, i{na mh; oJ lovgo" <strong>to</strong>u` qeou` blasfhmh`tai. Paul’s argument is<br />
that the expected behaviour is <strong>of</strong> a transcendent quality, being behaviour that<br />
God requires. The consequence for non-compliant behaviour is also<br />
transcendent in nature, namely the maligning <strong>of</strong> the divine word. Thus, the<br />
relationship between sound doctrine and sound deeds is ultimately<br />
transcendent and presented as inseparable. Wrong behaviour will impact<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
97
negatively upon the oJ lovgo" <strong>to</strong>u` qeou`. In other words, more is at stake than<br />
simply the good reputation <strong>of</strong> individuals. The very reputation <strong>of</strong> the word <strong>of</strong><br />
God, oJ lovgo" <strong>to</strong>u` qeou`, depends upon the manifestation <strong>of</strong> proper behaviour<br />
by believers, especially by young wives in submission <strong>to</strong> their husbands. Just<br />
like Paul was entrusted with the manifest word <strong>of</strong> God (1:3), so now the<br />
Cretan believers are required <strong>to</strong> manifest the word <strong>of</strong> God through godly<br />
character. If they would not, God’s word would be discredited (blasfhmevw) in<br />
the eyes <strong>of</strong> outsiders. The divine nature <strong>of</strong> the consequences attached <strong>to</strong> this<br />
teaching makes it necessary that believers behave in accordance <strong>to</strong> sound<br />
doctrine.<br />
2.2.5.4 The behaviour <strong>of</strong> young men<br />
Verse 6 is related <strong>to</strong> the previous category through the adverb wJsauvtw". Thus,<br />
everything said so far also applies <strong>to</strong> young men, newtevroi, whom <strong>Titus</strong> must<br />
“exhort” (parakavlei). The verb parakavlei is another instance <strong>of</strong> a direct<br />
repetition <strong>of</strong> a word used earlier with reference <strong>to</strong> the task <strong>of</strong> elders-overseers<br />
(1:9). It accentuates the proximity between <strong>Titus</strong> and the overseers and<br />
supports the idea <strong>of</strong> <strong>Titus</strong> functioning as role model <strong>to</strong> the elders. <strong>Titus</strong> must<br />
exhort the young men <strong>to</strong> swfronei`n. This is also an instance <strong>of</strong> repetition <strong>of</strong> a<br />
similar word. Earlier, a cognate <strong>of</strong> this verb was used in connection with the<br />
role <strong>of</strong> older women who must swfronivzw younger women.<br />
2.2.5.5 The behaviour <strong>of</strong> <strong>Titus</strong><br />
The teaching is extended in verse 7 <strong>to</strong> <strong>Titus</strong> who must “present himself”<br />
(seau<strong>to</strong>;n parecovmeno") as “an example” (tuvpo~) <strong>of</strong> “good works” (kalav e[rgav).<br />
The latter expression takes up a similar expression introduced in 1:16 as<br />
e[rgon ajgaqo;n. The two words are close synonyms. The implicit contrast is<br />
undeniable: <strong>Titus</strong>, as a tuvpo" kalw`n e[rgwn, must distinguish himself from<br />
those who are “worthless for any good work”, pro;" pa`n e[rgon ajgaqo;n<br />
ajdovkimoi (1:16). The repetition <strong>of</strong> the adjective pav~ is emphatic and suggests<br />
the perpetuation <strong>of</strong> the contrast between the two opposing groups. Another<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
98
direct repetition occurs in the word didaskaliva, which here is part <strong>of</strong> a<br />
prepositional phrase, in regard <strong>to</strong> which <strong>Titus</strong> must be incorruptible (ajfqoriva).<br />
The combination <strong>of</strong> three nouns, <strong>of</strong> which two are modified, is another<br />
instance <strong>of</strong> emphatic clustering. The trio comprises the nouns ajfqoriva,<br />
semnovth~ and lovgo~ uJgihv~, which are here modified by the adjective<br />
ajkatavgnws<strong>to</strong>~ (irreproachable). The minister <strong>of</strong> legitimate teaching must be<br />
unmistakably distinguishable from the illegitimate teachers. A more important<br />
implication is this: even <strong>Titus</strong> is not above sound teaching. His life must<br />
correspond <strong>to</strong> the doctrine. This is <strong>to</strong>tally in line with everything that has been<br />
taught so far in this letter.<br />
As in verse 5, where the integrity <strong>of</strong> the teaching (oJ lovgo" <strong>to</strong>u` qeou`) was tied<br />
<strong>to</strong> the conduct <strong>of</strong> submissive wives, so in the case <strong>of</strong> <strong>Titus</strong> the integrity <strong>of</strong> the<br />
teachers are tied <strong>to</strong> the example <strong>of</strong> <strong>Titus</strong>. The second i{na-clause alludes <strong>to</strong><br />
opposition (ejx ejnantiva") who would be put <strong>to</strong> shame (ejntrevpw) and prevented<br />
from saying bad things about the legitimate teachers. Most commenta<strong>to</strong>rs<br />
understand this sentence <strong>to</strong> refer <strong>to</strong> Paul and <strong>Titus</strong> only. But it begs the<br />
question as <strong>to</strong> whether <strong>Titus</strong>, who is introduced as a “son” <strong>of</strong> the apostle,<br />
would behave in a manner that would compromise the integrity <strong>of</strong> the mission<br />
and even that <strong>of</strong> the apostle. A conclusion in the negative seems more<br />
probable, coupled with the suggestion that the pronoun hJmei`~, represents the<br />
entire Christian movement. The use <strong>of</strong> the pronoun is a <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> technique <strong>to</strong><br />
facilitate identification; <strong>to</strong> engender the “us-them” sentiment. The apostle<br />
speaks as an insider. In this way, he is in effect saying that if they (the<br />
opposition) bad-mouth you, they bad-mouth me. This part <strong>of</strong> the sentence<br />
also evinces assonance <strong>of</strong> the e-sound: “… ejx ejnantiva" ejntraph`/ mhde;n e[cwn<br />
levgein peri; hJmw`n …”. This is for emphatic purposes, <strong>to</strong> highlight the serious<br />
consequences <strong>of</strong> compromising conduct. Believers must conduct themselves<br />
in compliance with sound doctrine because the apostle expects this behaviour<br />
from them. This constitutes an argument based upon apos<strong>to</strong>lic authorisation.<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
99
2.2.5.6 The behaviour <strong>of</strong> slaves<br />
In verses 9-10 the behaviour <strong>of</strong> Christian slaves (douvloi) is addressed. There<br />
are several instances <strong>of</strong> direct repetition from earlier sections that ties this<br />
section <strong>to</strong> the content <strong>of</strong> the entire discourse. It includes the following words:<br />
dou`lo" (1:1), uJpotavssw (2:4), ajntilevgw (1:9), pa`~ (1:15, 16; 2:7), pivs<strong>to</strong>~ (1:1,<br />
4, 6, 9, 13; 2:2), ajgaqov~ (1:16; 2:5), didaskaliva (1:9, 11; 2:1, 7), swth`r (1:3,<br />
4), qeov~ (1:1 – twice, 7, 16; 2:5), and the expression swthvr hJmw`n qeov~ (1:3).<br />
The <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> significance <strong>of</strong> this extensive repetition lies in the parallels and<br />
comparisons that are drawn through it. It is also important for the cohesion <strong>of</strong><br />
this unit.<br />
Paul introduced himself as a douvlo~ in 1:1. This self-signification s<strong>of</strong>tens any<br />
negative connotation associated with this word. In fact, it places the master-<br />
slave relationship in a positive light, thus serving an ameliorative purpose.<br />
Furthermore, Paul’s identification with those at the bot<strong>to</strong>m end <strong>of</strong> the social<br />
ladder would do much <strong>to</strong> commend him and especially the content <strong>of</strong> this<br />
letter <strong>to</strong> the congregation. On another level, Paul takes the place <strong>of</strong> a role<br />
model as he demonstrates his obedience <strong>to</strong> God. There is therefore, a sense<br />
in which Paul is speaking here, not as a high-handed apostle, but rather as a<br />
fellow slave in submission <strong>to</strong> the great Master. It is from this perspective that<br />
he can “urge” slaves in the congregation <strong>to</strong> follow his example. The rest <strong>of</strong> the<br />
congregation would be hard pressed <strong>to</strong> reject those who are lower in the<br />
social order, since they would then have <strong>to</strong> reject even Paul. Thus, through<br />
the use <strong>of</strong> this word, the apostle is facilitating harmony within the<br />
congregation.<br />
Slaves must “submit” (uJpotavssw) <strong>to</strong> their (own) masters in the same way that<br />
younger women are expected <strong>to</strong> “submit” (uJpotavssw) <strong>to</strong> their (own) husbands<br />
(2:4). By contrast, the false teachers have been vilified as ajnupovtak<strong>to</strong>i (1:10).<br />
Through paronomasia, Paul establishes on the one hand, a positive<br />
connection between the various groups <strong>of</strong> believers while on the other hand<br />
facilitating a contrast with the opposition. The paranomasia maintains the<br />
polarity between those who are “sound” and those who are “unsound”. Paul<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
100
makes a very persuasive case for the adoption <strong>of</strong> sound doctrine and the<br />
resultant compliant behaviour since sound doctrine manifests as uJpotavssw,<br />
while false doctrine manifests as behaviour vilified as ajnupovtak<strong>to</strong>~. The<br />
audience must choose. Another word that was used <strong>to</strong> describe the opposition<br />
is repeated in this address <strong>to</strong> slaves, namely ajntilevgw. The repetition serves<br />
a similar objective as the earlier word, namely <strong>to</strong> discourage such behaviour<br />
by drawing the parallel with the false teachers. This is an instance <strong>of</strong> negative<br />
role modelling or stigmatisation. By associating this word with the opposition,<br />
it becomes negative; an attitude or behaviour that must be avoided. Paul does<br />
the same, in a positive sense, through the word douvlo~.<br />
While the false teachers are “worthless for any good work” (pa`n e[rgon ajgaqo;n<br />
ajdovkimoi), the slaves must “show/demonstrate all good faith” (pa`san pivstin<br />
ejndeiknumevnoi ajgaqhvn). The disparity between the two groups is intensified by<br />
the work-faith antithesis. Slaves who obey the legitimate teaching<br />
demonstrate by that their alliance <strong>to</strong> “the faith”. The <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> objective is <strong>to</strong><br />
alienate the false teachers through stigmatisation and <strong>to</strong> attract the believers<br />
through positive association with those who demonstrate compliance <strong>to</strong> sound<br />
doctrine by good behaviour.<br />
The third i{na-clause, 2:9 is positive, unlike the previous two (2:5, 6) that are<br />
phrased in such a way as <strong>to</strong> discourage the negative consequences <strong>of</strong> non-<br />
compliance <strong>to</strong> sound doctrine. God expects behaviour compliant <strong>to</strong> sound<br />
doctrine, because it “adorns” or “beautifies” (kosmevw) the teaching <strong>of</strong> God (hJ<br />
didaskaliva hJ <strong>to</strong>u` swth`ro" hJmw`n qeou'). This is the third example <strong>of</strong> an<br />
argument based upon divine authorisation. The triple repetition <strong>of</strong> this<br />
argument is in itself an emphatic strategy. It emphasises the truth that these<br />
behavioural characteristics are manda<strong>to</strong>ry, not primarily because the rest <strong>of</strong><br />
society expects it, but rather because God expects people <strong>to</strong> behave in these<br />
ways.<br />
The apostle reserves the highest commendation for the lowest sec<strong>to</strong>r <strong>of</strong><br />
society by ascribing <strong>to</strong> them the honour <strong>of</strong> adorning the doctrine <strong>of</strong> God. The<br />
divine nature <strong>of</strong> the teaching is emphasised by referring <strong>to</strong> it as belonging <strong>to</strong><br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
101
or originating from God (<strong>to</strong>u' … qeou'). This reference <strong>to</strong> God takes up a theme<br />
introduced in the salutation. In the present instance, it serves as a<br />
transitionary device that will be developed in the subsequent section. In this<br />
way, the apostle systematically ties the various sections <strong>to</strong>gether in<strong>to</strong> a unified<br />
whole.<br />
The exhortation, <strong>to</strong> adorn the doctrine <strong>of</strong> God, is a beautiful variation <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> strategy. When one wants <strong>to</strong> persuade, it is good <strong>to</strong> present a<br />
positive challenge <strong>to</strong> people that encourages the desired outcome instead <strong>of</strong><br />
merely speaking in prohibi<strong>to</strong>ry <strong>to</strong>nes.<br />
There is clearly a parallel between the reference in 2:5 <strong>to</strong> oJ lovgo" <strong>to</strong>u` qeou'<br />
and hJ didaskaliva … <strong>to</strong>u` … qeou'. On the one hand, the expressions are<br />
synonymous. On the other hand, they reveal a contrast and progression within<br />
the section. In the respective sentences, the verbs that are employed<br />
progress from negative (blasfhmevw) <strong>to</strong> positive (kosmevw). Additionally, there is<br />
development in the theological dimension <strong>of</strong> the two sentences. The reference<br />
<strong>to</strong>u` qeou` in 2:5, becomes swth`ro" hJmw`n qeou'. Finally, the presence <strong>of</strong> the<br />
personal pronoun is an instance <strong>of</strong> inclusive language or the “us-them”<br />
reference. Again, Paul cannot be unders<strong>to</strong>od <strong>to</strong> imply that God is only the<br />
Saviour <strong>of</strong> himself and <strong>Titus</strong>. Everything that has been said about the<br />
apostle’s use <strong>of</strong> vocabulary militates against such a narrow interpretation.<br />
There appears therefore, <strong>to</strong> be an evident theological progression that will<br />
climax in the next section. It is as if Paul has not said everything he wants <strong>to</strong><br />
say; he wants <strong>to</strong> ground the teaching expressed in chapter 2. This is exactly<br />
what he is going <strong>to</strong> do in the ensuing section.<br />
Conclusion<br />
In this section, the dominant <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> strategy is <strong>to</strong> persuade the Cretans that<br />
personal conduct compliant with sound doctrine is compulsory and should<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
102
characterise all believers. The comprehensive nature <strong>of</strong> sound doctrine is<br />
demonstrated by applying it <strong>to</strong> various sec<strong>to</strong>rs <strong>of</strong> the social strata <strong>of</strong> Crete.<br />
Even <strong>Titus</strong> is not excluded from the influence <strong>of</strong> legitimate teaching.<br />
Two lines <strong>of</strong> argument are used <strong>to</strong> achieve the dominant objective. The first<br />
argument is based upon the notion <strong>of</strong> shared knowledge. Christians must<br />
manifest the right behaviour because the rest <strong>of</strong> society also considers such<br />
behaviour <strong>to</strong> be good. The next line <strong>of</strong> argument is transcendent in nature.<br />
The behaviour that believers must manifest is behaviour that God expects<br />
from people (5, 6, 9). The repetition <strong>of</strong> this line <strong>of</strong> reasoning suggests that the<br />
apostle considers it <strong>to</strong> be more authoritative and binding upon believers. In<br />
other words the behaviour that believers must manifest exceeds the<br />
maintenance <strong>of</strong> a good public image - they must live up <strong>to</strong> the expectations <strong>of</strong><br />
God!<br />
Through <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> techniques like repetition, behaviour compliant with sound<br />
doctrine is demonstrated <strong>to</strong> characterise all believers; thus, the<br />
correspondence between the behavioural characteristics <strong>of</strong> older men and<br />
elder-overseers and between Paul being a slave <strong>of</strong> God and the Christian<br />
slaves in Crete. The positive effect <strong>of</strong> Christian behaviour in the home is<br />
negatively contrasted with the damaging effect <strong>of</strong> false teachers (1:11).<br />
Similarly, the behaviour <strong>of</strong> “teaching what is good” (2:3) spoken about older<br />
women is contrasted with the false teachers who “teach things not necessary”<br />
(1:11). These techniques maintain the tension between “sound” and<br />
“unsound”, forcing the audience <strong>to</strong> choose a position.<br />
The superiority <strong>of</strong> legitimate teaching over against illegitimate teaching is a<br />
secondary outcome <strong>of</strong> this section. Thus, sound doctrine must be embraced<br />
and the corresponding behaviour must be manifested because it is superior <strong>to</strong><br />
false doctrine. This superiority is more implicit rather than explicit in the text.<br />
Sound teaching benefits the family institution, by respecting the authority <strong>of</strong><br />
the husband. This is the same argument used with reference <strong>to</strong> slaves.<br />
Furthermore, some theological progression is discernible from the references<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
103
<strong>to</strong> God and this paves the way for the next section. The expression swth`r<br />
hJmw`n qeou' is taken up here, having first appeared in the salutation and serves<br />
as a transitionary device that will be developed in the next section.<br />
Other <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> techniques used in this section include inclusive language,<br />
paronomasia, role modelling and stigmatisation, while the use <strong>of</strong> implicit<br />
contrast occurs constantly.<br />
2.2.6 <strong>Titus</strong> 2: 11-15: Emphasising the divine basis <strong>of</strong> obedience<br />
<strong>to</strong> sound doctrine<br />
The dominant <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> objective in this section is <strong>to</strong> emphasise the divine<br />
basis <strong>of</strong> obedience <strong>to</strong> sound doctrine. In the previous section, Paul highlighted<br />
the relationship between sound doctrine and deeds compliant with the<br />
doctrine. Deeds corresponding <strong>to</strong> sound doctrine were shown <strong>to</strong> comply with<br />
the expectations <strong>of</strong> the rest <strong>of</strong> society. In verses 5 and 10, he alluded <strong>to</strong> the<br />
transcendent nature <strong>of</strong> the prescribed behaviour, namely that it is behaviour<br />
that God expects from people. He furthermore, emphasised the benefits that<br />
legitimate teaching has for the broad spectrum <strong>of</strong> the congregation as well as<br />
the beneficial influence <strong>of</strong> legitimate teaching upon social institutions like the<br />
family and servant-master relationships. Now, Paul is going <strong>to</strong> proverbially<br />
“clinch the deal” by a final argument. He is going <strong>to</strong> justify the divine<br />
expectation for sound behaviour in accordance with sound doctrine by arguing<br />
on the basis <strong>of</strong> the divine origin <strong>of</strong> this teaching. Not only is the behaviour in<br />
line with that which God expects, but so is the doctrine that prescribes the<br />
behaviour. Paul is now arguing that God is the one teaching the doctrine,<br />
making the doctrine and the behaviour inseparable. The teaching as well as<br />
the Teacher are transcendent and must therefore be obeyed because it is not<br />
<strong>of</strong> human origin. It applies, and the Cretans are radically bound <strong>to</strong> it. In other<br />
words, sound doctrine must be obeyed, because it is the exact opposite <strong>of</strong><br />
“the commandments <strong>of</strong> men” (1:14). Not <strong>to</strong> obey the doctrine and therefore<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
104
not manifesting these particular behavioural characteristics is tantamount <strong>to</strong><br />
disobedience <strong>to</strong> God. This is the point that Paul develops in this section.<br />
Verses 11-14 are one sentence in the original Greek. This is the second<br />
unusually long sentence in this letter. The use <strong>of</strong> such a long sentence is in<br />
itself a strategic <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> technique used <strong>to</strong> emphasise the material<br />
communicated by it. Fee (1988:193) calls it a “marvellous passage” with “so<br />
much theological grist that it is easy <strong>to</strong> analyze it solely on its own merits and<br />
thereby overlook its place in the context <strong>of</strong> the letter”. Most commenta<strong>to</strong>rs<br />
appear not <strong>to</strong> see any relationship between the theological references in<br />
verses 5 and 9 and those in the present section but correctly recognise the<br />
theological import <strong>of</strong> the section and its explana<strong>to</strong>ry function with regard <strong>to</strong><br />
2:2-10 (Mounce, 2000:433; Quinn, 1990: 162; Johnson, 1996:240-241). The<br />
section is related <strong>to</strong> the previous section by the use <strong>of</strong> the conjunction gavr,<br />
which here functions in an explana<strong>to</strong>ry capacity. A number <strong>of</strong> linguistic<br />
parallels tie these two sections <strong>to</strong>gether. For example, the words in verse 10,<br />
<strong>to</strong>u` … qeou` and the proximate word, swthvr, are repeated in verse 11. There is<br />
also a transition from th;n didaskalivan … <strong>to</strong>u` … qeou` (2:10) <strong>to</strong> hJ cavri" <strong>to</strong>u`<br />
qeou' (2:11).<br />
The author employs repetition, unique vocabulary and other <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong><br />
techniques <strong>to</strong> accomplish his objectives in this section. The dominant<br />
<strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> objective is <strong>to</strong> emphasise the theological foundation <strong>of</strong> the conduct<br />
expounded in 2:2-10, by highlighting the divine origin <strong>of</strong> the teaching. The<br />
teaching should be embraced because it is not a human idea.<br />
The best explanation for what Paul is doing in this instance is the analogy <strong>of</strong><br />
an eavesdropper. Paul is ostensibly in a conversation with <strong>Titus</strong>. Hultgren<br />
(1984:19, 20) describes this as “talking past” <strong>Titus</strong> <strong>to</strong> the community. Paul’s<br />
conversation with <strong>Titus</strong> is done, in such a manner as <strong>to</strong> “invite” or attract<br />
others <strong>to</strong> become part <strong>of</strong> it. While there is no direct communication with the<br />
Cretan believers at any stage in this discourse, they are an integral part <strong>of</strong> it.<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
105
This explains the use <strong>of</strong> inclusive language, which is perpetuated throughout<br />
this section.<br />
2.2.6.1 The universal appearance <strong>of</strong> grace in the past<br />
In verse 11, the transcendent nature <strong>of</strong> the teaching that mandates the<br />
behaviour is emphasised first. The transformation that the Cretans are<br />
required <strong>to</strong> manifest (2-10) is explicable with reference <strong>to</strong> the appearance <strong>of</strong><br />
the saving grace <strong>of</strong> God ( jEpefavnh ga;r hJ cavri" <strong>to</strong>u` qeou` swthvrio" ...). It<br />
appeared <strong>to</strong> all men (pa`sin ajnqrwvpoi"), including the Cretans at some point in<br />
the past, as suggested by the aorist tense <strong>of</strong> the verb ejpifaivnw. The universal<br />
appearance and inclusiveness <strong>of</strong> divine grace is a key emphasis in this part <strong>of</strong><br />
the sentence. Furthermore, the combination <strong>of</strong> the verb ejpifaivnw, and the<br />
adjective pav~, suggests that this event was neither a clandestine occasion nor<br />
limited <strong>to</strong> a particular group. According <strong>to</strong> Quinn (1990:163), the expression<br />
pav~ a[nqrwpo~ is used by Paul outside <strong>of</strong> the Pas<strong>to</strong>rals for polemical purposes.<br />
Thus, the use <strong>of</strong> the adjective pav~ here suggests a polemical purpose against<br />
the illegitimate teaching, which may have encouraged mythological, secretive<br />
and exclusive tendencies. The immediate context confirms such an<br />
interpretation since Paul takes great pains <strong>to</strong> specify the different categories<br />
that can be found in the church. The lowest category, namely “slaves”, is<br />
presented positively being afforded the privilege <strong>to</strong> “adorn the doctrine <strong>of</strong> God”<br />
(2:10).<br />
2.2.6.2 The particular instruction <strong>of</strong> grace in the present<br />
In verse 12, the expression paideuvousa hJma`" introduces a limitation. The<br />
participle form <strong>of</strong> the verb paideuvw is present active. Thus, grace continues <strong>to</strong><br />
instruct in the present. Grace now, at present, instructs, paideuvw, only a very<br />
particular group, namely “us”. Again, this cannot merely refer <strong>to</strong> Paul and<br />
<strong>Titus</strong>. Instead, it is another instance <strong>of</strong> inclusive language that includes the<br />
“eavesdroppers”. By using inclusive language, Paul is clearly showing his<br />
approval and submission <strong>to</strong> this teaching or instruction. He is also in complete<br />
community with those who are so instructed. Commenta<strong>to</strong>rs debate the<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
106
interpretation <strong>of</strong> the verb paideuvw, arguing that it denotes both chastisement<br />
or discipline and education (Mounce, 2000:423, 424; Johnson, 1992:241;<br />
Quinn, 1990:163, 164). A punitive connotation does not suit the immediate<br />
context. Instead, the focus <strong>of</strong> the chapter is upon instruction or sound doctrine<br />
in which case discipline or education is the better interpretation. Thus, grace is<br />
now “educating us” (Classen, 2002:58). It is also explicable as an instance <strong>of</strong><br />
the use <strong>of</strong> a synonymous expression <strong>to</strong> differentiate legitimate from<br />
illegitimate teaching. Additionally, this verb suggests the notion <strong>of</strong> family, since<br />
instruction would first occur in the family. If this interpretation is tenable, then<br />
Paul’s use <strong>of</strong> the third person pronoun is a good strategy <strong>to</strong> facilitate<br />
identification and community.<br />
A new aspect <strong>to</strong> Paul’s strategy is the use <strong>of</strong> personification. He applies this<br />
<strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> technique <strong>to</strong> the concept <strong>of</strong> grace, which appeared (11) and now<br />
instructs (12) the believers. Kelly (1960:244) does not interpret grace as<br />
personified but prefers instead <strong>to</strong> interpret it as “God’s free favour, the<br />
spontaneous goodness by which he intervenes <strong>to</strong> help deliver men”. The<br />
present tense <strong>of</strong> the verb makes the teaching act (paideuvw) real, personal and<br />
imminent or as Johnson (1996:240) puts it “contemporary and continuous”.<br />
Obedience <strong>to</strong> the instruction becomes obedience <strong>to</strong> “someone”, rather than<br />
something. This is a very persuasive angle. Grace <strong>of</strong>fers the complete<br />
opposite <strong>of</strong> what the false teachers have <strong>to</strong> <strong>of</strong>fer. This formulation <strong>of</strong> the<br />
proposition makes sound doctrine more appealing and the argument for<br />
compliance <strong>to</strong> it more persuasive. Furthermore, by personifying grace, the<br />
notion <strong>of</strong> accountability is reinforced. Paul’s audience would have been<br />
familiar with the concept <strong>of</strong> discipline and instruction. By phrasing it in this<br />
manner, the point that religious obedience demands the same obedience is<br />
driven home.<br />
The significance <strong>of</strong> what grace accomplishes is emphasised through<br />
assonance <strong>of</strong> the a-vowel in verse 12: paideuvousa hJma`", i{na ajrnhsavmenoi th;n<br />
ajsevbeian kai; ta;" kosmika;" ejpiqumiva".<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
107
Furthermore, through the direct repetition <strong>of</strong> the verb ajrnevomai the author<br />
creates an implicit contrast. Those instructed by grace deny th;n ajsevbeian kai;<br />
ta;" kosmika;" ejpiqumiva", whereas the false teachers are vilified as denying<br />
God (1:16). In this way, the diametrical opposition between the two groups is<br />
highlighted. The repetition serves <strong>to</strong> maintain the polarity, keeping the two<br />
groups at opposite ends and closing the door for any compromise or<br />
endorsement. The word ajsevbeia constitutes religious language. The an<strong>to</strong>nym,<br />
ajsevbeia is the opposite <strong>of</strong> eujsevbeia. Paul’s point is that sound doctrine, does<br />
not have its origin in man and encourages the denial <strong>of</strong> ajsevbeia or, positively,<br />
the manifestation <strong>of</strong> eujsevbeia in the present life. This argument links up with<br />
the salutation where faith and knowledge <strong>of</strong> “God’s elect” is said <strong>to</strong> be for the<br />
purpose <strong>of</strong> eujsevbeia (1:1). To thus claim <strong>to</strong> know God (be instructed by God’s<br />
grace), requires a denial <strong>of</strong> everything that would contradict that claim. Thus,<br />
the two are mutually exclusive since the students <strong>of</strong> divine grace cannot<br />
manifest both ajsevbeia and eujsevbeia.<br />
Paranomasia is also evident from the two cognate words kosmikav" (12) and<br />
kosmw`sin (10). The latter verb is a positive action that slaves must perform in<br />
regard <strong>to</strong> the teaching <strong>of</strong> God and is therefore encouraged. The former relates<br />
<strong>to</strong> the world in a negative sense and must therefore be denied. The<br />
paranomasia serves <strong>to</strong> maintain the polarity between “sound” and “not sound”,<br />
which leaves the audience with a choice <strong>to</strong> make.<br />
Another key concern revolves around the difference between legitimate and<br />
illegitimate teaching. There is an almost concentric or circular progression<br />
detectable with regard <strong>to</strong> the theme <strong>of</strong> teaching. Through the use <strong>of</strong> concentric<br />
or circular progression, the dicho<strong>to</strong>my between legitimacy and illegitimacy is<br />
maintained. The progression becomes evident as different ‘categories’ <strong>of</strong><br />
legitimate teaching sources are identified. In chapter 1, it includes Paul, <strong>Titus</strong><br />
and the elders-overseers. In chapter 2, it again includes <strong>Titus</strong> and extends <strong>to</strong><br />
the ministry <strong>of</strong> older women. Finally, the readers are informed about the<br />
manifestation <strong>of</strong> divine grace that appeared and now teaches. There is a<br />
sense in which the argument has gone full circle, if we take in<strong>to</strong> consideration<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
108
the opening verses <strong>of</strong> the letter where the manifestation <strong>of</strong> the divine word is<br />
mentioned. In the present section, the teaching grace <strong>of</strong> God is presented as<br />
another manifestation <strong>of</strong> the divine word.<br />
The contrast between that which must be denied and that which must be<br />
practiced, is highlighted through the juxtaposition <strong>of</strong> kosmika;" ejpiqumiva" and<br />
swfrovnw" (verse 12). The latter word is another instance <strong>of</strong> repetition. This<br />
word has been used positively throughout the section and in earlier parts <strong>of</strong><br />
the letter. It now forms part <strong>of</strong> another emphatic cluster along with dikaivw" kai;<br />
eujsebw`". Quinn (1990:168) correctly identifies assonance and the rhyming -<br />
w`" <strong>of</strong> the adverbs, the polysynde<strong>to</strong>n and the adverbial usage. He proposes<br />
that this cluster is clearly emphatic and suggestive <strong>of</strong> the inseparability <strong>of</strong><br />
these qualities in Christian living. Thus, in the instruction <strong>of</strong> grace, the three<br />
qualities come <strong>to</strong>gether <strong>to</strong> form a unity characteristic <strong>of</strong> those who pr<strong>of</strong>ess <strong>to</strong><br />
know God. Each <strong>of</strong> the three words in this cluster has been used previously,<br />
but this is the first time they are combined. In this regard, one can almost refer<br />
<strong>to</strong> them as doubly emphatic.<br />
In the case <strong>of</strong> dikaivw", it should be noted that the adjective divkaio~ was used<br />
first with reference <strong>to</strong> elders-overseers (1:8). It now is a characteristic <strong>of</strong> all<br />
who are instructed by grace. Its repetition serves <strong>to</strong> enhance the identification<br />
and community <strong>of</strong> the students <strong>of</strong> grace. Thus, if the believers manifest<br />
conduct corresponding <strong>to</strong> sound doctrine they are in community with those<br />
identified in 1:5-9 and not with the opposition who are incapable <strong>of</strong><br />
manifesting divkaio~.<br />
In the case <strong>of</strong> eujsebw`", it should be noted that the emphatic repetition and<br />
recollection <strong>of</strong> eujsevbeia, first raised in 1:1, makes an important point regarding<br />
the consistency <strong>of</strong> the divine intent. The purpose <strong>of</strong> the apos<strong>to</strong>lic ministry was<br />
for the sake <strong>of</strong> godliness (1:1). The appearance <strong>of</strong> grace, who instructs “her”<br />
students in godliness, emphasises that Paul is not introducing anything new.<br />
He expects the Cretans <strong>to</strong> be in <strong>to</strong>tal agreement with the divine mandate.<br />
There is absolute consensus between what the apostle is appointed <strong>to</strong> do and<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
109
what grace is instructing the believers <strong>to</strong> do. The fact that the audience can<br />
observe this consistency adds <strong>to</strong> the persuasiveness <strong>of</strong> Paul’s argument.<br />
Paul thus gives “shared knowledge” a theological nuance <strong>to</strong> the extent that he<br />
attributes the manifestation <strong>of</strong> these virtues in those instructed by grace <strong>to</strong> a<br />
transcendent or a divine act. There is therefore nothing “ordinary” about these<br />
characteristics. Johnson (1996:240) in this regard observes “that civilisation,<br />
and culture are not necessarily “natural” and that the habits <strong>of</strong> the heart that<br />
build communities <strong>of</strong> meaning and <strong>of</strong> meaningful relationships can be<br />
forgotten and lost or abused and destroyed. Sometimes, civilisation needs <strong>to</strong><br />
be taught for the first time <strong>to</strong> the savage heart or relearned by the heart grown<br />
savage”. Through “religious language”, the theological nature <strong>of</strong> the<br />
appropriate conduct is intensified while, by implicit contrast, the positive<br />
qualities are shown <strong>to</strong> be in direct contrast <strong>to</strong> the three in the vilification<br />
section (1:12). What these and other <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> techniques do, is <strong>to</strong> press<br />
home the distinction between “sound” and “not sound” and <strong>to</strong> impress upon<br />
the audience the inseparable relationship between doctrine and deeds: the<br />
false teachers are unsound because <strong>of</strong> their deeds and their deeds are<br />
unsound because <strong>of</strong> their doctrine! Likewise, divine and apos<strong>to</strong>lic authorised<br />
teachers are sound because <strong>of</strong> their deeds and their deeds are sound<br />
because <strong>of</strong> their doctrine.<br />
Another instance <strong>of</strong> the <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> technique “inclusive language” is evident in<br />
the verb zhvswmen. It includes all <strong>of</strong> those who are instructed by grace, whose<br />
lives give evidence <strong>of</strong> being lived “sensibly, righteously and godly”. The<br />
technique enhances the sense <strong>of</strong> community and presents Paul as one who is<br />
teachable and in submission <strong>to</strong> the instruction <strong>of</strong> divine grace. Furthermore, it<br />
adds <strong>to</strong> his credibility and facilitates his rapport with the audience.<br />
The temporal phrase, ejn tw`/ nu`n aijw`ni, “in the now age", recalls and relates <strong>to</strong><br />
the reference in the salutation (1:2) about God’s divine promise, which was<br />
before the ages. This serves <strong>to</strong> enhance a sense <strong>of</strong> coherence between the<br />
various sections <strong>of</strong> this letter. More importantly, it is very emphatic about the<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
110
implications legitimate teaching has for this present life. The sentence<br />
demonstrates multiple time dimensions moving from past <strong>to</strong> present and in<br />
verse 13 <strong>to</strong> future. This heightens the temporal momentum that is evident in<br />
this section. The motivation behind this notion is clearly <strong>to</strong> illustrate <strong>to</strong> the<br />
Cretans that their conduct does not take place in a vacuum. Their positive<br />
conduct in the present is attributable <strong>to</strong> the his<strong>to</strong>rical intervention <strong>of</strong> God.<br />
Verse 13 takes up the future dimension that is also present in the salutation.<br />
The ejlpiv" zwh`" aijwnivou in 1:2 now becomes hJ makariva ejlpiv". Paul ties the<br />
blessed hope <strong>to</strong> the fact <strong>of</strong> the return <strong>of</strong> Jesus Christ, whom he identifies here<br />
as God. The past-present-future time references place the congregation<br />
between two appearances: the first was when divine grace appeared in the<br />
past; the second appearance will be in the future when Jesus Christ will<br />
return. Complying <strong>to</strong> sound doctrine with corresponding behaviour is not only<br />
the wisest option because <strong>of</strong> its divine origin. Right (or wrong) behaviour has<br />
implications for the future: those who manifest compliant behaviour do so<br />
because they demonstrate thereby that they have a "blessed hope".<br />
Negatively, the implication is that those who do not manifest obedience <strong>to</strong> the<br />
instruction <strong>of</strong> grace must remember that Jesus Christ is going <strong>to</strong> appear again<br />
in the future. In other words the "now age" is the age <strong>of</strong> compliance.<br />
The divinity <strong>of</strong> Jesus Christ relates directly <strong>to</strong> the salutation. Elsewhere, I have<br />
indicated my concurrence with the interpretation that the expression “our great<br />
God and Saviour” applies <strong>to</strong> Jesus Christ. (cf. p. 30). The reference <strong>to</strong> Jesus<br />
as hJmw`n is another example <strong>of</strong> “inclusive language”. If Paul’s arguments in<br />
chapter 2:2-10 can be described as sociological or even missiological (Collins,<br />
2002:12-13; Karris, 1979:113, 116), his argument in this section can be<br />
described as theological. Paul amasses theological terms in this part <strong>of</strong> the<br />
sentence, in order <strong>to</strong> convince his audience <strong>of</strong> the transcendent implications<br />
<strong>of</strong> legitimate teaching. The transcendent nature <strong>of</strong> sound doctrine places it in<br />
a class <strong>of</strong> its own and superior <strong>to</strong> “Jewish myths and the commandments <strong>of</strong><br />
men” (1:14). The evidence serves as pro<strong>of</strong> for the insistence upon adherence<br />
and submission <strong>to</strong> sound doctrine. Through the use <strong>of</strong> inclusive language,<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
111
Paul demonstrates that he is himself in submission <strong>to</strong> the teaching and lives<br />
as one anticipating the return <strong>of</strong> Jesus Christ.<br />
Most commenta<strong>to</strong>rs agree that this section serves <strong>to</strong> explain the preceding<br />
instructions (Demarest, 1984:320; Johnson, 1996:240; Clark, 2002:111).<br />
Rhe<strong>to</strong>rically, however, more is involved. Paul is not only saying: “The reason I<br />
want you <strong>to</strong> do this (2-10) is because <strong>of</strong> this (11-14).” Instead, he is claiming:<br />
“The teaching that I want you <strong>to</strong> embrace and the behaviour I want you <strong>to</strong><br />
manifest are superior <strong>to</strong> what those presumptive fellows are trying <strong>to</strong> sell you.<br />
Their teaching originates from a human mind. Just look at the way they live!<br />
This doctrine is divine. If you do not accept it, you are in direct opposition <strong>to</strong><br />
God. It is a choice between teaching that is human and teaching that is<br />
divine.” It leaves the hearer-reader in the awkward position <strong>of</strong> having <strong>to</strong><br />
decide. It <strong>of</strong>fers no neutral grounds.<br />
The vocabulary selected in this section places the emphasis on the<br />
uniqueness and the distinctiveness <strong>of</strong> God’s people. There is a sense in which<br />
Paul almost indirectly uses the language <strong>to</strong> pointing <strong>to</strong> the ideal. He does not<br />
tell or specify <strong>to</strong> the Cretans that they are a special people; that they have<br />
been chosen <strong>of</strong> God. Instead, the emphasis appears <strong>to</strong> be on the notion <strong>of</strong><br />
privilege <strong>to</strong> have been chosen by God.<br />
There are in verse 14 two final instances <strong>of</strong> inclusive language. Jesus is said<br />
<strong>to</strong> have given himself “for us”, <strong>to</strong> redeem “us” (o}" e[dwken eJau<strong>to</strong>;n uJpe;r hJmw`n,<br />
i{na lutrwvshtai hJma`"). The emphasis in the final verse is on the activity <strong>of</strong> the<br />
divine. Having identified Jesus Christ as God “our Saviour”, the sentence goes<br />
on <strong>to</strong> describe what He has done: He gave himself for us, in order that He<br />
might save us. This us then become a “unique and peculiar people, zealous<br />
for good works” (2:14). The reality <strong>of</strong> the divine intervention thus constitutes<br />
the reason why Christians or Cretan believers ought <strong>to</strong> be characterised by<br />
the performance <strong>of</strong> good works compliant with sound doctrine.<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
112
The final reason why the Cretans must manifest the behaviour stipulated in<br />
this chapter relates <strong>to</strong> themselves. They have been changed by the divine<br />
intervention, namely the appearance <strong>of</strong> grace. They have become in Jesus<br />
Christ the objects <strong>of</strong> divine interest, when He gave himself for them (o}" e[dwken<br />
eJau<strong>to</strong>;n uJpe;r hJmw`n). The inclusive language in this part is also emphatic. They<br />
are no longer mere Cretans, but the people <strong>of</strong> God; His own peculiar people<br />
(eJautw/' laov~ periouvsio~). Their identity and consequently their natures have<br />
been changed. They have been made God’s own “unique people”. This<br />
expression reinforces the communal sense prevalent in this section. Thus,<br />
when Cretan believers perform good deeds, in other words when they obey<br />
the instructions <strong>of</strong> divine grace, they are acting consistent with their new<br />
character. Together with the inclusive language, this becomes a compelling<br />
reason <strong>to</strong> conform, since it is implied that failure <strong>to</strong> do so has consequences,<br />
for example, it could result in exclusion and loss <strong>of</strong> privileges. God<br />
“redeemed” (lutroovmai) and “cleansed” (kaqarivzw/) them “from all<br />
lawlessness” (ajpo; pavsh" ajnomiva"). This is an instance <strong>of</strong> a divine<br />
authorisation argument based on the notion <strong>of</strong> the right <strong>of</strong> the divine or the<br />
divine prerogative. God has a right over the Cretans. He purchased them and<br />
He cleansed them. By implication therefore, they do not belong <strong>to</strong> themselves,<br />
but <strong>to</strong> God.<br />
The irony lies in the notion that the Jewish segment <strong>of</strong> the false teachers<br />
would probably have wanted <strong>to</strong> get the Cretans <strong>to</strong> submit <strong>to</strong> the law <strong>of</strong> ritual<br />
purity. Here, Paul stresses that it is God who cleanses from lawlessness.<br />
Hence, they can no longer act in a way that contradicts all that they have<br />
become through Jesus Christ. In fact, they should be “zealous for good works”<br />
(zhlwth;" kalw`n e[rgwn). The argument is based on the notion <strong>of</strong> irreconcilable<br />
conduct. This is the opposite <strong>of</strong> the false teachers (and their disciples) who<br />
are “worthless for any good work” (pa`n e[rgon ajgaqo;n ajdovkimoi). The choice is<br />
clear: whether you are <strong>of</strong> God or not <strong>of</strong> God will be shown by your works. The<br />
contrast could not be more blatant than this.<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
113
The section closes with the apostle reiterating his affirmation <strong>of</strong> <strong>Titus</strong>’ ministry.<br />
In 2:15 the apostle reaffirms the ministry <strong>of</strong> <strong>Titus</strong>. The sentence is a more<br />
developed and emphatic rejoinder <strong>to</strong> verse 1. Opening with tau`ta (these<br />
things) it reveals another emphatic cluster: lavlei kai; parakavlei kai; e[legce.<br />
The demonstrative pronoun, tau`ta, functions vis a vis the relative pronoun in<br />
1:11. The false teachers teach "things" and do so without authorisation. <strong>Titus</strong>,<br />
however, is authorised <strong>to</strong> teach and is <strong>to</strong>ld what <strong>to</strong> teach. This affirmation not<br />
only involves affirming <strong>Titus</strong>; instead it involves the apos<strong>to</strong>lic affirmation <strong>of</strong><br />
sound doctrine. The congregation has just been instructed not only <strong>to</strong><br />
manifest but also <strong>to</strong> identify and evaluate sound doctrine; they have been<br />
reminded what sound doctrine "looks" like. The reference is clearly <strong>to</strong> the<br />
content <strong>of</strong> chapter 2. Paul seems <strong>to</strong> be saying: "Anyone who does not teach<br />
'these things' that <strong>Titus</strong> will be teaching is not a teacher <strong>of</strong> sound doctrine.<br />
Beware!"<br />
All the verbs in the emphatic cluster are in the present tense and in the<br />
imperative mood. They can also be considered doubly emphatic because<br />
each one is repeated throughout the letter. Their occurrence here is<br />
exceptional since they all appear <strong>to</strong>gether in one sentence.<br />
The first verb, lavlei, links the concluding and opening sentences <strong>of</strong> this<br />
chapter thereby forming a tidy border around the teaching section. The next<br />
verb, parakavlei, is a repetition from 1:9 and 2:6. The latter reference is also<br />
applicable <strong>to</strong> <strong>Titus</strong>. The former occurs as part <strong>of</strong> the duties <strong>of</strong> elders and<br />
correlates the ministry <strong>of</strong> <strong>Titus</strong> <strong>to</strong> that <strong>of</strong> elders-overseers. The only way<br />
elders are going <strong>to</strong> know how <strong>to</strong> perform this ministry is by observing <strong>Titus</strong>.<br />
The final <strong>of</strong> the trio, e[legce, occurs in 1:9 and in 1:13. As with the previous<br />
word, e[legce, also links the ministry <strong>of</strong> <strong>Titus</strong> <strong>to</strong> that <strong>of</strong> the elder-overseers<br />
(1:9). Both occurrences <strong>of</strong> the word appear in the context <strong>of</strong> rebuking the<br />
opposition, first by the elder-overseers (1:9) then by <strong>Titus</strong> (1:13). Thus, by<br />
means <strong>of</strong> this verbal association, ministerial parallels are drawn between<br />
<strong>Titus</strong>’ ministry and that <strong>of</strong> the future leaders <strong>of</strong> the church at Crete.<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
114
The prepositional phrase, meta; pavsh" ejpitagh`", is a further validation <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>Titus</strong>’ mandate at Crete. The word ejpitaghv recalls what was said earlier (1:3)<br />
with reference <strong>to</strong> God. It seems <strong>to</strong> suggest that just like Paul was commanded<br />
by God, that is, by divine authorisation, so now by apos<strong>to</strong>lic authorisation,<br />
<strong>Titus</strong> must exercise all command or authority.<br />
The final command, mhdeiv" sou perifroneivtw, is an instance <strong>of</strong> tau<strong>to</strong>logy.<br />
Paul is restating the same thing in different words, that is, negatively, for the<br />
purpose <strong>of</strong> emphasis. Wendland (1999:338) argues that the expression is<br />
intended <strong>to</strong> reinforce the authority with which <strong>Titus</strong> is expected <strong>to</strong> execute his<br />
ministry in Crete. It is clear that the <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> objective in verse 15 is the<br />
apos<strong>to</strong>lic reaffirmation <strong>of</strong> <strong>Titus</strong>’ ministry in the Cretan context.<br />
Conclusion<br />
In this section, <strong>Paul's</strong> dominant <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> objective is <strong>to</strong> emphasise the divine<br />
basis <strong>of</strong> obedience <strong>to</strong> sound doctrine. His argument is based upon the divine<br />
origin <strong>of</strong> the right teaching. The appearance <strong>of</strong> the grace <strong>of</strong> God was the<br />
watershed moment in the lives <strong>of</strong> the Cretans. The his<strong>to</strong>rical intervention <strong>of</strong><br />
the divine is emphasised through the use <strong>of</strong> time references. The past–<br />
present–future perspectives contribute <strong>to</strong> the sense <strong>of</strong> temporal momentum<br />
that permeates the letter. It also provides a context for the conduct that is<br />
enjoined upon the believers. They must demonstrate in the present the<br />
required behaviour because something happened in the past. They continue<br />
in this behaviour because <strong>of</strong> something else that will happen in the future,<br />
namely the return <strong>of</strong> the Lord Jesus Christ. The basic arguments rallied<br />
involve irreconcilable conduct and the divine prerogative or the right <strong>of</strong> the<br />
divine. In terms <strong>of</strong> the former argument, the Cretans are compelled <strong>to</strong> act in<br />
accordance <strong>to</strong> their new natures. In the case <strong>of</strong> the latter argument, God has a<br />
right over the Cretans and can therefore dictate His required conduct <strong>to</strong> them.<br />
The origin <strong>of</strong> this teaching lies in the divine, since grace itself is teaching the<br />
believers. The usual <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> techniques in this section include inclusive<br />
language, implicit contrasting, emphatic clustering and religious language.<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
115
Another technique is personification, by means <strong>of</strong> which grace is presented as<br />
the one teaching all believers. The word “teach”, paideuvw, is a <strong>to</strong>tally new and<br />
distinctive word that suggests the notion <strong>of</strong> family.<br />
Having dealt with issue <strong>of</strong> origin, Paul proceeds in the same sentence <strong>to</strong> insist<br />
upon compliance <strong>to</strong> the teaching based on the argument <strong>of</strong> the divine<br />
prerogative. Christ gave Himself for them, purchased them and cleansed<br />
them. By implication therefore, they do not belong <strong>to</strong> themselves anymore.<br />
God has a right <strong>to</strong> require specific behaviour from those whom He has made<br />
his own.<br />
Paul proceeds by arguing for compliant behaviour based on the notion <strong>of</strong><br />
irreconcilable conduct. Through divine intervention, the Cretan believers have<br />
been changed and therefore their behaviour must testify <strong>to</strong> this<br />
transformation. They are now God’s people, recipients <strong>of</strong> His favour.<br />
Consequently, a propensity <strong>to</strong>wards good works should be the natural<br />
manifestation <strong>of</strong> this reality. Through the combination <strong>of</strong> the communal<br />
reference God’s “unique people”, and inclusive language, the author exploits<br />
the desire <strong>to</strong> belong. Negatively, it amounts <strong>to</strong> use <strong>of</strong> the fear <strong>of</strong> exclusion <strong>to</strong><br />
enforce compliant behaviour. The persuasive effect <strong>of</strong> this strategy is that the<br />
hearers would be more inclined <strong>to</strong> demonstrate compliant behaviour. They are<br />
not given any options. The argument is presented in such a compelling<br />
manner that no compromises are possible; no neutral ground is <strong>of</strong>fered.<br />
Sound doctrine is <strong>of</strong> transcendent origin, while the false teaching comes from<br />
man. Behaviour contrary <strong>to</strong> what grace teaches is behaviour that God does<br />
not approve. Believers presently live between the two appearances both <strong>of</strong><br />
which have implications for their lives. The section concludes with a final<br />
apos<strong>to</strong>lic affirmation <strong>of</strong> <strong>Titus</strong>’ ministry as well as that <strong>of</strong> the elders. This is<br />
effected through the doubly emphatic cluster, which draws close parallels<br />
between the ministries <strong>of</strong> <strong>Titus</strong> and elder-overseers.<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
116
2.2.7 <strong>Titus</strong> 3:1-2: Persuading the Cretans <strong>of</strong> the compulsory<br />
treatment <strong>of</strong> all unbelievers in a manner consistent with sound<br />
doctrine<br />
Several commenta<strong>to</strong>rs consider this section as a continuation <strong>of</strong> the<br />
instructions given in 2:1-10 (Johnson, 1996:246; Quinn, 1990:182; Fee,<br />
1988:200; Collins, 2002:356). Mounce (2000:443) even views it as a repetition<br />
<strong>of</strong> 2:1-14. It is, however, possible <strong>to</strong> view this as a new section that introduces<br />
a different <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> objective. Paul’s dominant <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> objective can be<br />
summarised as persuading the Cretans <strong>of</strong> the compulsory treatment <strong>of</strong> all<br />
unbelievers in a manner consistent with sound doctrine. Commenta<strong>to</strong>rs agree<br />
that the pronoun auj<strong>to</strong>uv" refers <strong>to</strong> all believers. However, Quinn (1990:182)<br />
interprets the pronoun as a reference <strong>to</strong>, what he calls, the Jewish Christian<br />
opponents <strong>of</strong> 1:10, 16. Some differences are however noticeable between<br />
these two sections. The earlier section in 2:1-10 distinguished between<br />
various categories <strong>of</strong> believers, with instructions specific <strong>to</strong> each group. In the<br />
present section, the pronoun auj<strong>to</strong>uv" suggests that the earlier categories are<br />
now viewed as the collective group <strong>of</strong> Cretan believers.<br />
Thus far, <strong>Titus</strong> has been given many instructions. The verb uJpomivmnh/skw, in<br />
this instance, indicates another aspect <strong>of</strong> his ministry as a teacher <strong>of</strong> sound<br />
doctrine. It is also in the imperative second person singular like that <strong>of</strong> 2:15<br />
and expresses a continuation <strong>of</strong> the ministry <strong>of</strong> <strong>Titus</strong>, who here represents<br />
legitimate teaching. The choice <strong>of</strong> this word <strong>to</strong> describe an aspect <strong>of</strong> legitimate<br />
teaching could indicate a caution against accepting novel teachings. Paul<br />
turns the attention in this section <strong>to</strong> the whole congregation. The pronoun<br />
auj<strong>to</strong>uv" refers <strong>to</strong> everyone who was mentioned in chapter 2:1-10. The use <strong>of</strong><br />
the pronoun signifies a comprehensive expansion <strong>of</strong> the teaching ministry.<br />
Whereas in the previous section the apostle specified particular categories <strong>of</strong><br />
people, he now includes everyone by the use <strong>of</strong> the pronoun.<br />
Verses 1-2 are a single sentence in Greek. It contains a list <strong>of</strong> seven virtues.<br />
This is counterbalanced in verse 3 by a list <strong>of</strong> seven vices. The strategy that<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
117
the apostle adopts <strong>to</strong> persuade his audience consists <strong>of</strong> an argument based<br />
on an appeal <strong>to</strong> the prior knowledge <strong>of</strong> his audience <strong>to</strong> motivate them <strong>to</strong><br />
manifest the ensuing list <strong>of</strong> positive behavioural traits. The verb uJpomivmnh/skw<br />
represents a possible variation in vocabulary <strong>to</strong> distinguish the ministry <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>Titus</strong> from that <strong>of</strong> the false teachers. The function <strong>of</strong> this verb is open <strong>to</strong><br />
several interpretive possibilities. It, first <strong>of</strong> all, seems <strong>to</strong> introduce another<br />
dimension <strong>of</strong> legitimate teaching, namely “remembering”. Next, the use <strong>of</strong> the<br />
verb suggests a polemic against novel teachings. It also suggests the<br />
succession <strong>of</strong> legitimate ministry. In other words, if sound doctrine is<br />
consistent and void <strong>of</strong> novelties, it becomes transmittable from one generation<br />
<strong>to</strong> the next by a succession <strong>of</strong> teachers. The task <strong>of</strong> new teachers would<br />
therefore involve reminding the congregations. This implies that the audience<br />
is expected <strong>to</strong> be familiar with the teaching, since one reminds people <strong>of</strong><br />
things that they already know. In other words, they have had prior exposure <strong>to</strong><br />
the instructions that are about <strong>to</strong> follow, having already received instruction in<br />
it. It is as if the apostle is saying, “Here are things that people already know<br />
but need <strong>to</strong> be reminded <strong>of</strong> again”. In 1:13, <strong>Titus</strong> had <strong>to</strong> ejlevgcein auj<strong>to</strong>uv", with<br />
particular reference <strong>to</strong> the false teachers. In the present sentence, the verb<br />
uJpomivmnh/skw has as its direct object the pronoun auj<strong>to</strong>uv". <strong>Titus</strong> is hereby<br />
authorised <strong>to</strong> take up the task <strong>of</strong> reminding the believers. He is given the<br />
responsibility <strong>to</strong> continue what someone else has begun. This is therefore<br />
another instance <strong>of</strong> apos<strong>to</strong>lic affirmation <strong>of</strong> <strong>Titus</strong>’ ministry, through the use <strong>of</strong><br />
an alternative verb in the imperative mode.<br />
The choice <strong>of</strong> the verb demands further explanation. “Remind them” implies<br />
knowledge pre-existent or known beforehand <strong>to</strong> the hearers. In other words,<br />
at some stage, when they were first exposed <strong>to</strong> the gospel, the Cretans were<br />
exposed <strong>to</strong> this information. It thus constitutes an argument based on the<br />
existence <strong>of</strong> prior knowledge or an argument based on the appeal <strong>to</strong> memory.<br />
This argument emphasises the temporal priority <strong>of</strong> legitimate teaching that the<br />
Cretans were initially exposed <strong>to</strong>, over against the illegitimate teaching, which<br />
must have come afterwards. This argument thus puts the hearers in a position<br />
<strong>to</strong> evaluate the veracity <strong>of</strong> the legitimate teaching. They are able <strong>to</strong> measure<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
118
what they are being taught now with what they have been taught previously.<br />
The motive could be <strong>to</strong> prove the consistency <strong>of</strong> legitimate teaching over<br />
against the implied inconsistency <strong>of</strong> illegitimate teaching. Thus, by implication,<br />
the Cretans have been practising legitimate teaching all along, and are now in<br />
danger <strong>of</strong> forsaking that which they have embraced. If the Cretans do not<br />
embrace and practise sound doctrine, they are implicitly acting against<br />
themselves. Their behaviour would be interpreted as self-contradic<strong>to</strong>ry.<br />
Another interpretation would be <strong>to</strong> view it as a polemic against illegitimate<br />
teaching. The latter could have encouraged the people, namely the Cretans <strong>to</strong><br />
conduct themselves in a manner contrary <strong>to</strong> the good conduct that is being<br />
advocated in this section. Whatever the content <strong>of</strong> the illegitimate teaching<br />
might have been, its implications may have involved encouraging the<br />
believers <strong>to</strong> conduct themselves in a manner unbecoming <strong>of</strong> good citizens.<br />
The appeal <strong>to</strong> prior knowledge relates <strong>to</strong> knowledge <strong>of</strong> what is considered<br />
positively by the secular society. The believers must, therefore, be reminded<br />
<strong>of</strong> that behaviour which they have known <strong>to</strong> be commendable and which<br />
society admires. They are <strong>to</strong> make a positive contribution <strong>to</strong>wards society,<br />
namely demonstrable submissive conduct. In other words, they must not<br />
abandon that conduct which they have known <strong>to</strong> be good. The discourse<br />
suggests the existence <strong>of</strong> a need <strong>to</strong> remind the believers lest they make<br />
themselves guilty <strong>of</strong> conduct that would elicit a negative response from the<br />
rest <strong>of</strong> society and government authorities; conduct that would make them<br />
appear separatist, exclusivist and insurrectionary since it is <strong>to</strong> the ajrcaiv<br />
ejxousivai that they must submit. This interpretation seems <strong>to</strong> make the best<br />
sense in the present context, and explains the structure <strong>of</strong> the section: seven<br />
virtues (1-2) followed by seven vices (3) with several supportive <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong><br />
techniques, including asynde<strong>to</strong>n, direct repetition, assonance and<br />
paranomasia.<br />
Believers must submit <strong>to</strong> the ajrcaiv ejxousivai. Commenta<strong>to</strong>rs struggle with the<br />
asynde<strong>to</strong>n here. This leaves them <strong>to</strong> interpret the two nouns very differently.<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
119
Most commenta<strong>to</strong>rs treat ejxousivai as modifying ajrcaiv, translating it as<br />
“governing/ government authorities” or “legitimate rulers” (Quinn, 1990:178;<br />
Fee, 1988:201; Collins, 2002:357). Some commenta<strong>to</strong>rs supply a conjunction<br />
and treat the two adjectives as separate, for example, “rulers and authorities”<br />
(Johnson, 1996:245). Bernard (1980 [1899]:176) translates this literally as “<strong>to</strong><br />
rulers, <strong>to</strong> authorities”. There would be no need <strong>to</strong> add a conjunction since the<br />
absence <strong>of</strong> the conjunction conforms <strong>to</strong> the structure <strong>of</strong> this entire section.<br />
Furthermore, asynde<strong>to</strong>n is a <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> technique used regularly in this letter.<br />
The absence <strong>of</strong> conjunctions in both lists is rather conspicuous. The<br />
asynde<strong>to</strong>n is for emphatic purposes. It accentuates the interrelatedness or<br />
inseparableness <strong>of</strong> the various elements that make up these lists. The<br />
cohesiveness is enhanced by the use <strong>of</strong> the infinitive mode in the first five<br />
verbs <strong>of</strong> verses 1 and 2: uJpotavssesqai, peiqarcei`n, ei\nai, blasfhmei`n and<br />
ei\nai. The list is completed with two adjectives namely ejpieikei`" and<br />
prau?thta.<br />
The relationship between believers and the governing authorities is one that<br />
ought <strong>to</strong> be characterised by submission on the part <strong>of</strong> believers. The verb<br />
uJpotavssesqai is an instance <strong>of</strong> paranomasia and a repetition from 2:5 and<br />
2:9. Just as in the context <strong>of</strong> the home, the wife's relationship <strong>to</strong> her husband<br />
is characterised by submission and in the context <strong>of</strong> employment the servant’s<br />
relationship is characterised by submission <strong>to</strong> the master, so in the context <strong>of</strong><br />
society the believer's relationship <strong>to</strong> government authorities must be<br />
characterised by submission. The progression in the theme <strong>of</strong> submission is<br />
remarkable when considered in the light <strong>of</strong> 2:1-3:1. It involves the distinct<br />
realms where submission is required, namely in the home, then in the<br />
workplace, culminating with submission in the public sec<strong>to</strong>r. Then there is<br />
progression in the three levels <strong>of</strong> recognised authority: first <strong>to</strong> a husband, then<br />
<strong>to</strong> a master, and finally <strong>to</strong> governing authorities. There is also progression in<br />
regard <strong>to</strong> the sec<strong>to</strong>rs from which submission can be expected: Christian<br />
wives, Christian slaves and Christian citizens. Thus, irrespective <strong>of</strong> whether<br />
you are a wife or a slave, a Christian must demonstrate submission <strong>to</strong> all<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
120
authority. Paradoxically, the false teachers are described as ajnupovtak<strong>to</strong>i<br />
(1:10) while the children <strong>of</strong> elders-overseers must not manifest this<br />
characteristic (1:6). A compound noun, it has as its root the word uJpotavssw.<br />
The paranomasia serves <strong>to</strong> facilitate an implicit contrast between those who<br />
manifest submission and those who manifest rebellion. Thus, sound doctrine<br />
can only lead <strong>to</strong> uJpotavssw, while illegitimate ministry can only encourage<br />
behaviour that is ajnupovtak<strong>to</strong>~, which is behaviour that society in general<br />
would condemn.<br />
The next infinitive, peiqarcei`n, is another instance <strong>of</strong> paranomasia. The<br />
an<strong>to</strong>nym, ajpeiqhv" (1:16) was used in the context <strong>of</strong> false teachers.<br />
Furthermore, the noun ajrchv occurring in the first part <strong>of</strong> the sentence is also<br />
present in the verb peiqarcevw. By using paranomasia, the author contrasts<br />
the dispositions <strong>of</strong> the false teachers and believers, perhaps with specific<br />
emphasis upon their relationship <strong>to</strong> authority. Whereas previously, the implicit<br />
contrasts were being drawn between legitimate teachers and illegitimate<br />
teachers, now it is illegitimate teachers and legitimate believers that are being<br />
contrasted. The separation between legitimate and illegitimate is thus being<br />
maintained.<br />
The expression, pro;" pa`n e[rgon ajgaqo;n eJ<strong>to</strong>ivmou" ei\nai, but for the infinitive<br />
and the adjective, is an exact replication <strong>of</strong> a previous prepositional phrase:<br />
pro;" pa`n e[rgon ajgaqo;n ajdovkimoi (1:16). This is also an instance <strong>of</strong> implicit<br />
contrast, between the illegitimate teachers and the legitimate believers.<br />
Through implicit contrast, the difference between legitimate and illegitimate is<br />
highlighted and maintained. The apostle takes great pains <strong>to</strong> prevent any<br />
blurring <strong>of</strong> the boundaries between these two opposing sides. Thus, whereas<br />
illegitimate teaching renders the one group “worthless for any good work”,<br />
legitimate teaching makes believers “ready for every good work”.<br />
In verse 3 the verb blasfhmei`n is also a repetition from an earlier occurrence,<br />
blasfhmh`tai in 2:5. This repetition also constitutes paranomasia. Thus, two<br />
things ought not <strong>to</strong> be spoken evil <strong>of</strong>, namely God's word, and any other<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
121
person. Interestingly, both instances <strong>of</strong> this verb appear in close association<br />
with the verb uJpotavssw. Just as it would be wrong for unbelievers <strong>to</strong> speak<br />
evil <strong>of</strong> God's word, it would be equally wrong for believers <strong>to</strong> speak evil <strong>of</strong> any<br />
other person. In fact, evil speaking would put the believer on par with those<br />
who speak against the word <strong>of</strong> God. The adjective mhdeiv~ functions <strong>to</strong><br />
accentuate the scope <strong>of</strong> this prohibition, making it applicable <strong>to</strong> all people –<br />
unbelievers and believers alike.<br />
The next two expressions, ajmavcoi ei\nai (<strong>to</strong> be uncontentious) and ejpieikaiv<br />
(kind, gentle, <strong>to</strong>lerant) emphasise the peaceable nature that ought <strong>to</strong><br />
characterise the believer. It is reminiscent <strong>of</strong> two synonymous traits<br />
associated with elders-overseers in 1:7, namely, mh; ojrgivlo" (not quick<br />
tempered) and mh; plhvkth" (not pugnacious).<br />
The final characteristic, prau?th~, is emphasised through alliteration <strong>of</strong> the p-<br />
consonant: pa`san (ejndeiknumevnou") prau?thta pro;" pavnta" ajnqrwvpou". The<br />
participial clause states in a positive manner that which was stated negatively<br />
earlier, namely, mhdevna blasfhmei`n and ajmavcoi ei\nai. The repetition <strong>of</strong> the<br />
adjective pav~ reinforces the manda<strong>to</strong>ry and uncompromising nature <strong>of</strong> these<br />
characteristics. This is further enhanced by the pairing <strong>of</strong> the an<strong>to</strong>nyms, pav~<br />
(all) and mhdeiv~ (none). Thus, any behaviour <strong>to</strong> the contrary is completely<br />
unjustifiable – “all gentleness” <strong>to</strong> “all people”, without exceptions.<br />
Conclusion<br />
In this section, the dominant <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> objective may summarised as an<br />
attempt <strong>to</strong> persuade the Cretans <strong>of</strong> the compulsory treatment <strong>of</strong> all<br />
unbelievers in a manner consistent with sound doctrine. Paul argues on the<br />
basis <strong>of</strong> the prior knowledge <strong>of</strong> or appealing <strong>to</strong> the memory <strong>of</strong> his audience <strong>to</strong><br />
convince them <strong>to</strong> behave in a socially responsible manner <strong>to</strong>wards authorities<br />
and society in general. Verses 1-2 comprise behaviour that the audience have<br />
known <strong>to</strong> be commendable; a societal ideal. Implicitly, this appeal seems <strong>to</strong> be<br />
motivated by a concern about the negative influence <strong>of</strong> illegitimate teaching<br />
and the resultant discrediting <strong>of</strong> the gospel or the Christian movement in<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
122
Crete. The appeal <strong>to</strong> memory is a powerful persuasive strategy because it<br />
originates from within the individual.<br />
The section begins with the apos<strong>to</strong>lic endorsement <strong>of</strong> <strong>Titus</strong>’ ministry through<br />
the use <strong>of</strong> an alternative verb in the imperative mode. Several supportive<br />
<strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> techniques include: asynde<strong>to</strong>n, direct repetition, assonance and<br />
paranomasia. These facilitate intra- and inter-sectional cohesion. The section<br />
also evinces an interesting development in the theme <strong>of</strong> submission through<br />
the paranomatic repetition <strong>of</strong> the verb uJpotavssw. In each <strong>of</strong> the three<br />
occurrences <strong>of</strong> this verb, there is a different subject and indirect object, and<br />
increasing spheres <strong>of</strong> authoritativeness. This technique ties this section <strong>to</strong> the<br />
rest <strong>of</strong> the letter and highlights the significance <strong>of</strong> submission in the Cretan<br />
context. The emphasis on submission also calls <strong>to</strong> mind the false teachers,<br />
whose behaviour is described as the exact opposite, being ajnupovtak<strong>to</strong>~.<br />
(1:10). This noun is made up <strong>of</strong> the privative a (without) and uJpotavssw<br />
(Zodhiates, 1992:198). It is also a characteristic that should not manifest in the<br />
children <strong>of</strong> teachers in the church (1:6). This is an instance <strong>of</strong> the <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong><br />
technique <strong>of</strong> paranomasia used here <strong>to</strong> facilitate a contrast between those<br />
who are sound and those who are not. Another striking example <strong>of</strong> explicit<br />
contrast is seen in the direct repetition <strong>of</strong> the prepositional phrase, pro;" pa`n<br />
e[rgon ajgaqovn, which facilitates inter-sectional cohesion as well as implicit<br />
contrast between the illegitimate teachers and the legitimate believers. The<br />
ultimate objective is <strong>to</strong> encourage the Cretans <strong>to</strong> disassociate themselves<br />
from those who seem <strong>to</strong> encourage behaviour considered <strong>to</strong> be disruptive or<br />
subversive. In this way, the apostle launches his strategy <strong>to</strong> enforce<br />
compliance <strong>to</strong> legitimate teaching by forcing the Cretans <strong>to</strong> look inside<br />
themselves and evaluate whether what he is saying is true or not. But the<br />
apostle is not going <strong>to</strong> leave it there, and in the next section it will be shown<br />
how he continues his persuasive strategy through the use <strong>of</strong> a list <strong>of</strong> vices.<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
123
2.2.8 <strong>Titus</strong> 3:3: Evoking disgust with past sinful behaviour in<br />
order <strong>to</strong> reinforce behaviour in the present that comply with<br />
sound doctrine<br />
The seven virtues in the previous two verses are counterbalanced in verse 3<br />
by seven vices. The dominant <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> objective <strong>of</strong> this section is <strong>to</strong> evoke<br />
the audience <strong>to</strong> be disgusted with their past sinful behaviour in order <strong>to</strong><br />
reinforce behaviour in the present that comply with sound doctrine. This<br />
interpretation requires some justification in light <strong>of</strong> the different ways in which<br />
commenta<strong>to</strong>rs treat the list.<br />
Structurally, scholars correctly identify the “once-now” or “pote-o{te” scheme<br />
that characterises this section, concluding that the purpose <strong>of</strong> this section is <strong>to</strong><br />
contrast the old and the new person (Collins, 2000:358). Towner (1994:253,<br />
254), and Johnson (1996:245) refer <strong>to</strong> this as a transition or conversion<br />
formula respectively, which purpose is <strong>to</strong> indicate the transition <strong>to</strong> the new life.<br />
According <strong>to</strong> Mounce (2000:446), verse 3 forms part <strong>of</strong> the theological<br />
motivation for the kind <strong>of</strong> conduct enumerated in the previous section. He<br />
maintains that these sins are not directed <strong>to</strong>wards the opponents as much as<br />
they are a reflection <strong>of</strong> the sins <strong>of</strong> humanity in general. Towner (1994:253)<br />
makes the point that the vice list emphasises the actuality or reality <strong>of</strong> the<br />
change that has occurred. Latching on <strong>to</strong> this, Hultgren (1984:168), claims<br />
that the reference <strong>to</strong> a former life in contrast <strong>to</strong> the present is a literary device<br />
employed <strong>to</strong> make a theological <strong>analysis</strong> <strong>of</strong> the pre-salvific state, without<br />
necessarily having any direct bearing on the author or recipients. Fee<br />
(1988:202) also believes that the list depicts the general “human fallenness”<br />
and regards 3:3 as the evangelistic motive behind the appeal <strong>of</strong> 3:1-2. While<br />
all <strong>of</strong> these interpretations are probably correct and highly reasonable, they do<br />
not satisfac<strong>to</strong>rily explain the purpose <strong>of</strong> the list itself. Furthermore, these<br />
conclusions are based on premature assumptions about the applicability <strong>of</strong><br />
these vices <strong>to</strong> the stated recipients. Scholars are hesitant <strong>to</strong> apply the vices<br />
listed here <strong>to</strong> those whom the apostle identifies as “we”. Thus, Quinn<br />
(1990:200) avers that these lists are “not biographical, much less<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
124
au<strong>to</strong>biographical” and “the items <strong>of</strong> this vice catalogue are not vices as such;<br />
they are adjectival <strong>of</strong> persons”. While there may be a modicum <strong>of</strong> truth in this<br />
comment, it downplays what the text intends <strong>to</strong> communicate about the<br />
recipients and the purpose behind the list. Bernard (1980 [1899]:177) captures<br />
the intent <strong>of</strong> this verse as indicated by his chapter heading: “No reason for<br />
pride”. Unfortunately he does not elaborate upon this in the rest <strong>of</strong> his<br />
commentary. In a single sentence, Simpson (1954:114) succinctly expresses<br />
the intention <strong>of</strong> the list, namely “<strong>to</strong> inspire disgust”. In all fairness <strong>to</strong> Quinn<br />
(1990:208) he does eventually, in his explanation for the abrupt conclusion <strong>of</strong><br />
verse 3, allude <strong>to</strong> the function <strong>of</strong> these lists as “bring[ing] the reader up short.”<br />
The “affective” function <strong>of</strong> these lists, particularly that <strong>of</strong> the vice list, is a<br />
notion that most commenta<strong>to</strong>rs seem not <strong>to</strong> appreciate fully. These lists were<br />
intended <strong>to</strong> affect the recipients. The graphic description <strong>of</strong> the vices, which<br />
fills even a modern audience with disgust, supports such an interpretation.<br />
The overarching <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> objective in 3:3 is <strong>to</strong> fill the audience with disgust,<br />
<strong>to</strong> show them up. Why? The candour <strong>of</strong> the apostle is only justifiable if he is<br />
enforcing compliance <strong>to</strong> sound doctrine.<br />
Most modern commenta<strong>to</strong>rs provide more than adequate explanations for the<br />
vocabulary that comprises verse 3 and may be consulted for that purpose.<br />
This study will highlight some <strong>of</strong> the <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> techniques employed that tie<br />
this section in<strong>to</strong> a coherent unit. These include alliteration and rhyme,<br />
chiasmus, inclusive language, implicit contrast, and “emphatic pairing”.<br />
Paul uses the conjunction gavr <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong>ly (cf. 2:11) <strong>to</strong> emphasise the<br />
relationship between the present section and the previous one. The enclitic<br />
particle potev anticipates the follow-up <strong>to</strong> this verse with its parallel particle in<br />
the next verse, namely o{te, <strong>to</strong> form what scholars identify as a transition or<br />
conversion formula (Towner, 1994:253; Johnson, 1996:245). Another<br />
<strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> technique occurs in the use <strong>of</strong> the verb h\men in the first person<br />
plural, with the personal pronoun, hJmei`". The purpose is clearly <strong>to</strong> emphasise<br />
inclusiveness and <strong>to</strong> facilitate identification between the apostle, <strong>Titus</strong> and the<br />
Cretan believers. Quinn (1990:201) believes this expresses a relational<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
125
purpose while Mounce (2000:446) believes it is emphatic <strong>to</strong> accentuate the<br />
contrast between the past and present life. The latter may be a secondary<br />
objective, but its primary objective must certainly be the facilitation <strong>of</strong> a<br />
relationship with the emphasis upon the “<strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> identification with his<br />
audience” (Johnson, 1996:247). It s<strong>of</strong>tens the harshness <strong>of</strong> the list by<br />
presenting Paul as an insider and not as a judge speaking from a<br />
sanctimonious height. Conversely, it conveys the humility <strong>of</strong> the apostle <strong>to</strong><br />
establish apos<strong>to</strong>lic pathos. According <strong>to</strong> Hendriksen (1972:387) “it causes the<br />
reader (<strong>Titus</strong>) and the hearers (the Cretan believers when the letter is read <strong>to</strong><br />
them) <strong>to</strong> feel that the writer is standing on common ground with them and<br />
understands them”. This interpretation is in line with the pattern that has<br />
characterised the discourse thus far. Paul argues from the basis <strong>of</strong><br />
identification with his audience in order <strong>to</strong> enforce compliance <strong>to</strong> the required<br />
behavioural conduct.<br />
Collins (2002:358) and Quinn (1990:201) <strong>of</strong>fer insightful comments with<br />
reference <strong>to</strong> the <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> arrangement <strong>of</strong> this verse. The opening two vices,<br />
ajnovh<strong>to</strong>" and ajpeiqhv" both contain alpha privatives. The latter word is an<br />
instance <strong>of</strong> paranomasia and is used for emphasis. It is a direct repetition <strong>of</strong><br />
the word that appears in 1:16, which describes the false teachers. It is also<br />
the an<strong>to</strong>nym <strong>of</strong> the virtue that appears in 3:1. The effect <strong>of</strong> this word can best<br />
be visualised when we outline the order in which it appears in the discourse:<br />
ajpeiqhv" (1:16) – negative, false teachers in the present<br />
peiqarcei`n (3:1) – positive, believers in the present<br />
ajpeiqhv" (3:3) – negative, believers in the past<br />
The persuasive effect <strong>of</strong> this technique is compelling: any manifestation <strong>of</strong><br />
being ajpeiqhv" is a step backward; a step in<strong>to</strong> the past; a step in<strong>to</strong> fellowship<br />
with the false teachers.<br />
The paronomasia, combined with the double negative, in the form <strong>of</strong> two<br />
alpha privatives, highlight the heinous nature <strong>of</strong> disobedience, by linking it with<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
126
the vilification section, more specifically, a section where a pr<strong>of</strong>ession <strong>to</strong> know<br />
God is cancelled out by ethical conduct that translates in<strong>to</strong> a denial <strong>of</strong> Him.<br />
The present vice list is therefore a graphic picture <strong>of</strong> behaviour that<br />
demonstrates an absence <strong>of</strong> the knowledge <strong>of</strong> God. In other words, Paul is<br />
saying, “We also were like ‘them’”. The use <strong>of</strong> this shame list constitutes what<br />
I term self-vilification, which serves <strong>to</strong> induce disgust within the hearers. By<br />
forcing them <strong>to</strong> remember their past, especially the shamefulness there<strong>of</strong>, the<br />
overarching <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> objective <strong>of</strong> compliance <strong>to</strong> the sound teaching is<br />
compellingly reinforced.<br />
Quinn (1990:201) is particularly helpful when he demonstrates how, through<br />
rhyming endings (assonance) in –oi, several items on the list are linked. Thus,<br />
ajnovh<strong>to</strong>i is linked with the third word, planwvmenoi, and the sixth, stugh<strong>to</strong>iv. The<br />
list evinces a combination <strong>of</strong> asynde<strong>to</strong>n and syndetic pairing. The conjunction,<br />
kaiv, appears very strategically within the two participial phrases <strong>of</strong> the<br />
sentence: douleuvonte" ejpiqumivai" kai; hJdonai`" poikivlai", ejn kakiva/ kai; fqovnw/<br />
diavgonte". Quinn (1990:201) is perhaps correct when he identifies this as the<br />
“central chiasmus” <strong>of</strong> the section. Moreover, he shows how the assonated<br />
sounds encircle the central chiasmus:<br />
douleuvonte" ejpiqumivai" kai; hJdonai`" poikivlai"<br />
ejn kakiva/ kai; fqovnw/ diavgonte"<br />
This chiasmus is introduced and concluded by the alliteration and rhyme <strong>of</strong><br />
douleuvonte" … diavgonte" (Quinn, 1990:202).The <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> function <strong>of</strong> the<br />
chiasm is <strong>to</strong> emphasise how servitude <strong>to</strong> vice (douleuvonte") becomes a<br />
manner <strong>of</strong> life (diavgonte"). The verb douleuvw is furthermore an instance <strong>of</strong><br />
paranomasia. It has been preceded by the noun dou`lo" in both plural (2:9)<br />
and singular (1:1) form. Its use, however, in this present context, is a<br />
development <strong>of</strong> the previous two occasions in that it now functions in a<br />
metaphorical sense. The two earlier instances <strong>of</strong> the theme <strong>of</strong> slavery were<br />
communicated in a positive light, while the present one is presented as<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
127
negative. Paranomasia and the metaphorical nuance <strong>of</strong> the slavery thus<br />
highlight the negative side <strong>of</strong> enslavement. True freedom is therefore not<br />
freedom from an earthly or divine master, but rather from ejpiqumivai" kai;<br />
hJdonai`" poikivlai", and ejn kakiva/ kai; fqovnw diavgonte". In other words, the real<br />
slaves are not those who serve earthly masters, but those who serve sin.<br />
Interestingly, the apostle, by using the first person plural pronoun, presents<br />
himself as one who is presently a slave <strong>of</strong> God (1:1), and as one who was<br />
previously (potev) a slave <strong>of</strong> sin (3:3).<br />
Scholars are keen <strong>to</strong> interpret the vice list as follows: We were not really much<br />
better than other people; “hence let us not be <strong>to</strong>o hard on the people who are<br />
still in that condition, but let us strive by godly conduct <strong>to</strong> win them for Christ”<br />
(Hendriksen, 1972:389). Such an interpretation unfortunately ignores the key<br />
concern <strong>of</strong> this discourse, namely, the supremacy, efficacy and necessity <strong>of</strong><br />
sound teaching and hence the urgency <strong>of</strong> compliance <strong>to</strong> sound teaching. The<br />
evangelistic efficacy <strong>of</strong> the gospel follows as a result <strong>of</strong> the believers’<br />
compliance and embracing, through the <strong>to</strong>tality <strong>of</strong> their lives, <strong>of</strong> legitimate<br />
teaching. The Cretans are not yet at the place where they have grasped or<br />
demonstrated that they have grasped the necessity for legitimate teaching.<br />
Instead, there is reason <strong>to</strong> believe that they are allowing themselves <strong>to</strong> come<br />
under the influence <strong>of</strong> illegitimate teachers and their teaching, resulting in<br />
conduct that places the integrity <strong>of</strong> God's word or legitimate teaching at risk.<br />
These two lists present them with an opportunity <strong>to</strong> evaluate their pre-and<br />
post-conversion behaviour. It holds before them two kinds <strong>of</strong> behaviour that<br />
are mutually exclusive. The overall <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> impact <strong>of</strong> this section is <strong>to</strong><br />
emphasise the utter unworthiness <strong>of</strong> Paul, <strong>Titus</strong>, the Cretan believers and the<br />
rest <strong>of</strong> humanity.<br />
Conclusion<br />
The dominant <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> objective <strong>of</strong> the vice list in verse 3 is <strong>to</strong> evoke disgust<br />
at past sinful behaviour, in order <strong>to</strong> reinforce behaviour in the present that<br />
complies with sound doctrine. It has been shown how scholars all <strong>to</strong>o <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
gloss over this section by a) interpreting it exclusively from an evangelistic<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
128
perspective and b) portraying it as primarily a picture <strong>of</strong> human sinfulness.<br />
The section is applicable firstly <strong>to</strong> the Cretans, Paul and <strong>Titus</strong> and then <strong>to</strong> the<br />
rest <strong>of</strong> humanity.<br />
The section evinces what I refer <strong>to</strong> as self-vilification. The purpose <strong>of</strong> the<br />
shame list is <strong>to</strong> evoke disgust within the hearers with a concomitant sense <strong>of</strong><br />
worthlessness. Through the “once-now” or “potev-o{te” scheme, which serves<br />
as a transitional device, the author is anticipating the event that made the<br />
difference in his audience, something they would only appreciate once they've<br />
come <strong>to</strong> terms with their own unworthiness.<br />
Intra-sectional coherence is achieved through <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> techniques like<br />
alliteration and rhyme, chiasmus, inclusive language, implicit contrast, and<br />
“emphatic pairing”. Intersectional coherence is achieved through the use <strong>of</strong><br />
the conjunction gavr, paranomasia and repetition, particularly <strong>of</strong> the following<br />
words: ajpeiqei`" and douleuvonte". The latter word is also used in a<br />
metaphorical way as opposed <strong>to</strong> its “normal” meaning in the rest <strong>of</strong> the letter.<br />
We also have in this section the simultaneous use <strong>of</strong> asynde<strong>to</strong>n and<br />
synde<strong>to</strong>n, with the latter in a structure referred <strong>to</strong> as syndetic pairing. All <strong>of</strong><br />
these are emphatic and used <strong>to</strong> facilitate coherence within the discourse. The<br />
apostle argues from the basis <strong>of</strong> identification with his audience in order <strong>to</strong><br />
achieve his objective <strong>of</strong> engendering a compliant attitude. This technique<br />
provides the apostle with a platform from which <strong>to</strong> address his audience,<br />
effectively reinforcing his authority over or right <strong>to</strong> speak <strong>to</strong> them with such<br />
candour.<br />
2.2.9 <strong>Titus</strong> 3:4-7: Persuading the Cretans that displaying good works <strong>to</strong><br />
those considered undeserving demonstrates conformity <strong>to</strong> the divine<br />
example<br />
In this section, Paul’s dominant <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> objective is <strong>to</strong> persuade the Cretans<br />
that displaying good works <strong>to</strong> those considered undeserving, demonstrates<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
129
conformity <strong>to</strong> the divine example. In order <strong>to</strong> achieve this objective, Paul<br />
structures his argument by appealing <strong>to</strong> the divine example. To this extent, he<br />
adapts traditional material <strong>to</strong> remind his audience <strong>of</strong> God’s salvific<br />
intervention. The highly theological nature <strong>of</strong> this section continues <strong>to</strong> evoke<br />
much discussion and debate. A <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> <strong>analysis</strong> <strong>of</strong> this passage<br />
necessitates an evaluation <strong>of</strong> how scholars tend <strong>to</strong> treat it. It will become clear<br />
how some scholars have already suggested the interpretation adopted in this<br />
study without actually developing it far enough.<br />
Some general observations on this passage must precede the evaluation <strong>of</strong><br />
academic treatment <strong>of</strong> this passage. Verses 4-7 constitute a single sentence<br />
in the original. Salvation is clearly the main focus <strong>of</strong> the sentence as indicated<br />
by the main verb and direct object, e[swsen hJma`". The rest <strong>of</strong> verse 5 concisely<br />
expresses, according <strong>to</strong> Fee (1988:203), “the basis (his mercy), the what (new<br />
birth, renewal, justified), the means (by the Holy Spirit, (‘by his [Christ's]<br />
grace’), and the goal (the hope <strong>of</strong> eternal life) <strong>of</strong> salvation”. Expressions like<br />
the “Gospel in a nutshell” (Simpson, 1954:115), the “essence <strong>of</strong> the gospel”<br />
(Demarest, 1984:326) or “the gospel summarised in a highly condensed form”<br />
(Oden, 1989:36) confirm the recognition by scholars <strong>of</strong> the essential content<br />
<strong>of</strong> this sentence.<br />
Scholarly treatment <strong>of</strong> this passage is characterised by a debate that is both<br />
intense and technical. One area that continues <strong>to</strong> attract discussion, involves<br />
the character and delineation <strong>of</strong> the section. In regard <strong>to</strong> the former, scholars<br />
cannot decide whether this passage is a hymn (Guthrie, 1957:204; Karris,<br />
1996:127), a liturgical formula, a creedal formula (Mounce, 2000:440; Fee,<br />
1988:203), or a baptismal prayer or act <strong>of</strong> praise (Hanson, 1968:95). With<br />
regard <strong>to</strong> the latter, Hanson (1968:83, 86, 90, 95, 96) adopts a source-critical<br />
approach when he argues for the existence <strong>of</strong> a common or original source<br />
shared by the authors <strong>of</strong> the <strong>Letter</strong> <strong>to</strong> <strong>Titus</strong>, 1 Peter and Ephesians.<br />
The majority <strong>of</strong> scholars, however, regard this passage as a hymn. Thus,<br />
Karris (1996:127) insists that this section “is indeed a hymn”. This insistence<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
130
is primarily based on typological and, more importantly, textual considerations.<br />
Regarding the latter, Karris (1996:128, 131) argues that the section conforms<br />
<strong>to</strong> six <strong>of</strong> Markus Barth’s eleven “objective” criteria “for detecting the existence<br />
<strong>of</strong> hymns in the New Testament”. Although he refers <strong>to</strong> six he only lists the<br />
following five:<br />
a) The passage use <strong>of</strong> verbs as aorist participles in relative clauses and in<br />
consecutive clauses (criterion 3)<br />
b) Those who benefit from God’s mighty acts speak in the first person<br />
plural (criterion 4)<br />
c) The presence <strong>of</strong> unique words (criterion 6)<br />
d) Artistic structure-“parallelism” (criterion 8)<br />
e) The content <strong>of</strong> a given passage interrupts the context (criterion 11)<br />
Karris (1996:127, 128) bases his typological considerations on the fact that<br />
this section is indented by the edi<strong>to</strong>rs <strong>of</strong> the NASB and the Novum<br />
Testamentum Graece (27 th edition). Karris believes that it would not be<br />
indented if it was not considered poetic or hymnic. He also cites Ralph Martin,<br />
a scholar <strong>of</strong> hymns who includes <strong>Titus</strong> 3:4-7 as part <strong>of</strong> the “sacramental”<br />
hymns.<br />
Mounce (2000:440) disagrees with Karris, because the suggested hymnic<br />
structure is disrupted by the unusual placement <strong>of</strong> e[swsen hJma". Furthermore,<br />
there are other criteria suggestive <strong>of</strong> a creed rather than a hymn. These<br />
include the use <strong>of</strong> plural pronouns and a purpose clause in verse 7 rather than<br />
an indicative. According <strong>to</strong> Fee (1988:203), the sentence “al<strong>to</strong>gether lacks the<br />
poetic elements <strong>of</strong> a hymn”.<br />
Unanimity among scholarship is also absent when it comes <strong>to</strong> the delineation<br />
<strong>of</strong> the formula. This issues from the authenticity debate, and relates <strong>to</strong> the<br />
differentiation between traditional material and Pauline additions. With regard<br />
<strong>to</strong> traditional material, various possibilities are posited: verses 3-7, 5b-6 and 5-<br />
7 (Guthrie, 1957:204). The majority <strong>of</strong> scholars, however, regard verses 4-7<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
131
as traditional, with verse 3 as an addition (Knight, 1979:81; Mounce,<br />
2000:440). Still, the matter remains moot, since “it is virtually impossible <strong>to</strong><br />
differentiate between traditional and Pauline material with any degree <strong>of</strong><br />
certainty” (Mounce, 2000:441).<br />
Another area <strong>of</strong> debate relates <strong>to</strong> the meaning <strong>of</strong> the word loutrovn and its<br />
relationship <strong>to</strong> what follows in the rest <strong>of</strong> the sentence. The word is translated<br />
in at least four primary ways: cleansing from sin, baptism, baptism <strong>of</strong> the Spirit<br />
and laver/bath <strong>of</strong> washing/washtub. Oden (1989:37) follows the classical view<br />
that regards baptism as the bath <strong>of</strong> the new birth. Simpson (1954:115-116)<br />
takes issue with the Roman Catholic or sacramental interpretation <strong>of</strong> this<br />
sentence that interprets dia; loutrou' as denoting the material apparatus <strong>of</strong><br />
baptism, namely the laver or bath. He argues that the word refers <strong>to</strong> baptism<br />
and simply means “washing”. Hendriksen (1957:391) supports this<br />
interpretation, adding that “the washing referred <strong>to</strong> is wholly spiritual.” Karris<br />
(1996:135) disagrees, insisting that the word refers <strong>to</strong> “a bath”, which was a<br />
“ubiqui<strong>to</strong>us Roman institution” used for recreation and ablution purposes by all<br />
citizens. The image <strong>of</strong> the bath would strike a chord with the audience <strong>of</strong> this<br />
letter rather than the “dominant image” <strong>of</strong> baptism in our modern-day Christian<br />
language. Mounce (2000:439) and Fee (1988:204) prefer not <strong>to</strong> interpret the<br />
word in a strict baptismal sense. They argue that the word is a metaphor for<br />
inner or spiritual “cleansing”. In fact, Mounce (2000:439) maintains, “It is<br />
possible for the New Testament <strong>to</strong> use the imagery <strong>of</strong> cleansing without any<br />
reference <strong>to</strong> baptism”. On the other end <strong>of</strong> the spectrum, we find Hultgren<br />
(1984:169) who interprets dia; loutrou` paliggenesiva" kai; ajnakainwvsew"<br />
pneuvma<strong>to</strong>" aJgivou as a reference <strong>to</strong> baptismal regeneration in which “God<br />
saves through baptism”. Towner (1989:115, 117) believes the word is a<br />
description <strong>of</strong> spiritual baptism and emphasises the “salvation-his<strong>to</strong>rical<br />
orientation <strong>of</strong> the passage”.<br />
A related area <strong>of</strong> debate focuses on the collection <strong>of</strong> genitives that follow the<br />
preposition diav. The succinct summary <strong>of</strong> the debate by Fee (1988:204-205)<br />
is very helpful and relied upon here. There are three positions, namely:<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
132
1. The word loutrou` refers <strong>to</strong> conversion (or baptism) and ajnakainwvsew" <strong>to</strong><br />
the coming <strong>of</strong> the Spirit. Both are dependent upon diav and refer <strong>to</strong> two distinct<br />
realities. Thus, “through the ‘washing’ found in rebirth and through the renewal<br />
that comes with the gift <strong>of</strong> the Spirit”. However, the narrow proximity in<br />
meaning between the words paliggenesiva" and ajnakainwvsew" weakens this<br />
interpretation since it would necessitate an additional diav <strong>to</strong> make this<br />
meaning clear. Interestingly, this is the interpretation propounded by Mounce<br />
(2000:442-443) who puts forth the following arguments in defence <strong>of</strong> his<br />
position: a) Regeneration and renewal, though contemporaneous events, are<br />
none the less distinct realities; b) renewal is never described as a washing,<br />
therefore ajnakainwvsew" cannot be said <strong>to</strong> modify loutrou`; c) If the imagery <strong>of</strong><br />
washing suggests a “once-for-all” cleansing and renewal refers <strong>to</strong> the<br />
believer’s initial renewal, then we find in the words paliggenesiva" and<br />
ajnakainwvsew" a description <strong>of</strong> the singular conversion-event from a dual<br />
perspective; d) stylistically the dependence upon diav maintains a better<br />
parallelism; e) Paul characteristically omits the second preposition (diav) in a<br />
construction where a preposition governs a series <strong>of</strong> phrases connected by<br />
kaiv; f) the absence <strong>of</strong> an additional article, <strong>to</strong>u` or preposition uJpov preceding<br />
pneuvma<strong>to</strong>" aJgivou enhances its proximity <strong>to</strong> ajnakainwvsew". The additional<br />
article or preposition would have brought paliggenesiva" and ajnakainwvsew"<br />
closer <strong>to</strong>gether while its absence appears <strong>to</strong> corroborate the notion that the<br />
two are separate; g) the dependence <strong>of</strong> the four genitives upon the<br />
preposition diav eliminates interpreting the sentence as teaching the doctrine<br />
<strong>of</strong> justification by baptism. Mounce (2000:443) concludes that “Paul is<br />
describing one event, not two”. Scholars are therefore, not unanimous in their<br />
interpretation <strong>of</strong> the string <strong>of</strong> genitives and Mounce (2000:442) is prepared <strong>to</strong><br />
acknowledge “[i]t is difficult <strong>to</strong> decide between the two, and in many cases the<br />
distinctions are not that significant”. He is joined in this regard by Bernard<br />
(1980 [1899]:178) who admits that “both (1) and (2) are admissible in<br />
grammar”.<br />
2. The word loutrou` refers exclusively <strong>to</strong> baptism and the two genitives<br />
paliggenesiva" and ajnakainwvsew" which are effected by the Holy Spirit,<br />
depend upon it. Thus, “through the regenerating and renewing work <strong>of</strong><br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
133
aptism effected by the Holy Spirit”. The terms therefore, function either<br />
synonymously or complimentarily. While this interpretation has much that<br />
commends it, it nevertheless tends <strong>to</strong> emphasise baptism in a manner that<br />
stretches the present context.<br />
3. The word loutrou' is a metaphor for spiritual cleansing and not a synonym<br />
for baptism. The emphasis is on the cleansing, regenerative work <strong>of</strong> the Holy<br />
Spirit. Thus, “through the ‘washing’ by the Holy Spirit that brings rebirth and<br />
renewal”. This view conforms <strong>to</strong> Pauline theology concerning the centrality <strong>of</strong><br />
the Holy Spirit for Christian existence and is seemingly confirmed by the<br />
emphasis in the sentence. Fee (1988:205) believes that paliggenesiva" and<br />
ajnakainwvsew" are “twin metaphors for the same spiritual reality-the re-<br />
creating work <strong>of</strong> the Holy Spirit in the believer’s life”.<br />
In summary, the influence <strong>of</strong> the authenticity debate is clearly felt in the<br />
<strong>analysis</strong> <strong>of</strong> the sentence. There is a definite correspondence between the lack<br />
<strong>of</strong> consent around the extent and delineation <strong>of</strong> the passage and the degree<br />
<strong>to</strong> which scholars regard portions <strong>of</strong> the sentence or passage as authentic<br />
Pauline or not. The same holds for the interpretation <strong>of</strong> the word loutrovn.<br />
Apart from textual considerations, continuity or discontinuity with Pauline<br />
theology significantly affects the interpretation <strong>of</strong> this word. The debate around<br />
the nature <strong>of</strong> the passage is less influenced by the authenticity issue. The<br />
above discussion represents the primary areas <strong>of</strong> contention in the translation<br />
and <strong>analysis</strong> <strong>of</strong> this passage. It would be remiss <strong>to</strong> highlight the areas <strong>of</strong><br />
disagreement, while ignoring what scholars generally agree upon in regard <strong>to</strong><br />
this section.<br />
There is widespread consensus around the content <strong>of</strong> the sentence.<br />
Commenta<strong>to</strong>rs generally agree about the soteriological nature <strong>of</strong> this<br />
passage. The majority acknowledge the unique aspects <strong>of</strong> the passage,<br />
particularly the Trinitarian character <strong>of</strong> the passage (Mounce, 2000:450;<br />
Karris, 1996:129; Towner, 1994:258; Quinn, 1990:212; Oden, 1989:37; Fee,<br />
1988:206; Hendriksen, 1957:392). Similarly, almost all scholars recognise this<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
134
as a doctrinal section congruent with 2:11-15 (Van Neste, 2003:25). The<br />
themes <strong>of</strong> divine grace and salvation are clearly present in the section and<br />
scholars correctly point this out as illustrated by the following quotes:<br />
Precisely at the point where God has every right <strong>to</strong> express his judgment <strong>of</strong><br />
us, he chooses instead <strong>to</strong> meet us with kindness and love (Demarest,<br />
1984:328).<br />
Salvation by grace stands forth in clearest relief in the language employed,<br />
which effectually excludes all glory on man's part and denies <strong>to</strong> any s<strong>to</strong>ck <strong>of</strong><br />
good works amassed by any sinner a “merit <strong>of</strong> congruity” drawing forth the<br />
riches <strong>of</strong> divine mercy (Simpson, 1954:115).<br />
These and every interpretation given by scholars has some degree <strong>of</strong><br />
legitimacy or represents an accurate interpretation <strong>of</strong> an aspect <strong>of</strong> the<br />
sentence. However, regarding the full import <strong>of</strong> what the apostle is<br />
communicating, room exists for additional contributions, especially in light <strong>of</strong><br />
the context <strong>of</strong> the entire letter thus far.<br />
The shortcomings surrounding scholarly discussions <strong>of</strong> this section relate <strong>to</strong><br />
their <strong>analysis</strong> <strong>of</strong> the passage within the context <strong>of</strong> the letter itself. Many<br />
interpret the passage within the context <strong>of</strong> Pauline theology, attempting <strong>to</strong><br />
reconcile their interpretation with what can be found elsewhere, either extra-<br />
biblically or in the rest <strong>of</strong> the New Testament. For example, Mounce<br />
(2000:443, 455), in his otherwise excellent commentary, does not see this<br />
section as contributing anything new <strong>to</strong> the apostle’s argument, observing that<br />
“<strong>Titus</strong> 3:1-11 is a repetition <strong>of</strong> 2:1-14”. Perhaps I am being overly critical <strong>of</strong> an<br />
unfortunate choice in vocabulary, but as my <strong>analysis</strong> will show, there is a<br />
significant development in this part <strong>of</strong> the argument; more than a mere<br />
repetition <strong>of</strong> what is said earlier. Likewise, Oden (1989:35) is content <strong>to</strong><br />
classify this section as the epi<strong>to</strong>my <strong>of</strong> “the word <strong>of</strong> justification by grace”. True,<br />
the passage <strong>to</strong>uches on justification by grace, but <strong>to</strong> imply that it does so<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
135
exclusively or that this constitutes the primary function <strong>of</strong> this section is not<br />
entirely justified.<br />
Others simply fail <strong>to</strong> relate this section <strong>to</strong> the rest <strong>of</strong> the letter, except for<br />
pointing out obvious linguistic correspondences. Collins (2002:359), for<br />
example, is <strong>of</strong> the opinion that this section is simply a return <strong>to</strong> the epiphany<br />
motive. While he is not al<strong>to</strong>gether incorrect, there is more <strong>to</strong> this passage than<br />
simply a thematic revisit <strong>of</strong> the “saving appearance <strong>of</strong> Jesus Christ, our<br />
Saviour”. In fact, the primary focus <strong>of</strong> scholarly works consulted is on the<br />
nature <strong>of</strong> the sentence, specifically its origin as a baptismal hymn or creed.<br />
Other commenta<strong>to</strong>rs appear <strong>to</strong> get lost in linguistic analyses and etymological<br />
studies, all <strong>of</strong> which are valid and render valuable insights in<strong>to</strong> the vocabulary,<br />
but unfortunately fail <strong>to</strong> adequately relate the passage <strong>to</strong> its immediate and<br />
extended contexts.<br />
The tendency <strong>to</strong> make baptism and salvation the foci <strong>of</strong> the passage is a<br />
major criticism. Thus, scholars approach the text with a preconceived notion<br />
<strong>of</strong>, for example, baptism or baptismal regeneration, utterly disregarding the<br />
recorded order <strong>of</strong> the sentence. In regard <strong>to</strong> the latter, some (correctly) point<br />
out the main verb <strong>of</strong> the sentence and make that the starting point <strong>of</strong> their<br />
interpretation. But that is not the best way <strong>to</strong> approach the text. A better<br />
approach would be <strong>to</strong> deal with the structure <strong>of</strong> the sentence in the way it has<br />
been recorded, in order <strong>to</strong> appreciate the different syntactical relationships<br />
within the sentence and the section at large. Thus, the shortcomings relate <strong>to</strong><br />
the grinding <strong>of</strong> theological axes and vocabulary analyses instead <strong>of</strong><br />
appreciating the sentence as it stands and seeking more adequate<br />
explanations for the unusual nature <strong>of</strong> the sentence structure. In this regard,<br />
some scholars like George Knight III and Jerome Quinn, prove rather helpful.<br />
Knight (1992:337, 338) drawing attention <strong>to</strong> the second word in v. 4, namely<br />
dev, captures the essence <strong>of</strong> this passage and relates it <strong>to</strong> the preceding<br />
verses, 1-3. Contrasts are clearly in view: the characteristics <strong>of</strong> God and the<br />
characteristics <strong>of</strong> believers’ past condition. In his own words,<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
136
This attitude <strong>of</strong> God is contrasted with Christians’ past attitude (verse 3) so<br />
that no one less than God the merciful Saviour can be the norm for exhorting<br />
Christians “<strong>to</strong> be gentle, showing all meekness <strong>to</strong>ward all people” (verse 2),<br />
since God showed <strong>to</strong> the Christians his “kindness and love <strong>to</strong>ward mankind”<br />
when they were as “all people” are now (Knight, 1992:338, Emphasis added.).<br />
The normative role <strong>of</strong> the divine example is a key aspect in our understanding<br />
<strong>of</strong> this sentence. Unfortunately, Knight neither takes this up again in the rest<br />
his <strong>analysis</strong> nor does he relate it <strong>to</strong> the argument <strong>of</strong> the apostle earlier in the<br />
letter.<br />
Quinn (1990:215) gets even closer <strong>to</strong> target in his summary <strong>of</strong> this sentence,<br />
best presented in his own words:<br />
Jews were devoted <strong>to</strong> the God who loved humankind; they could not<br />
reasonably hate what their God loved …. Jesus, the savior, was the visible,<br />
his<strong>to</strong>rical revelation <strong>of</strong> God’s philanthrōpia <strong>to</strong> all human beings. That vision <strong>of</strong><br />
the baptismal pr<strong>of</strong>ession became in its turn the antithesis <strong>to</strong> the vicious<br />
existence that converts from extremist Jewish sects had once led. They had<br />
formerly been “detested, hating one another.” Now, in faith, they have seen<br />
“the humane munificence <strong>of</strong> our savior, God … revealed.” They have no<br />
longer any basis for hating those whom God, their Father and savior, has<br />
loved (Emphasis added).<br />
This comparative-contrastive dimension best explains the function <strong>of</strong> this<br />
unusual sentence. The apostle has not abandoned his dominant <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong><br />
objective, namely <strong>to</strong> enforce compliance <strong>to</strong> sound doctrine. Instead, he takes<br />
his argument a notch higher in this final <strong>of</strong> three strategic, though unusually<br />
long sentences, occurring here, in 1:1-4 and in 2:11-14. Each <strong>of</strong> these three<br />
long sentences forms a strategic part <strong>of</strong> the <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> strategy <strong>of</strong> the author.<br />
He thus tends <strong>to</strong> use these sentences <strong>to</strong> communicate highly concentrated<br />
theology. Each <strong>of</strong> the sentences contains shared knowledge or traditional<br />
material apparently known <strong>to</strong> the recipients. The present sentence is therefore<br />
also a strategically placed <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> technique. After shaming the believers<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
137
through self-vilification in the opening verses <strong>of</strong> this chapter, the apostle does<br />
not relent. The employment <strong>of</strong> the potev-o{te formula serves <strong>to</strong> connect this<br />
sentence with the previous section. Thus, the argument based on prior<br />
knowledge is implicitly perpetuated in this section. The believers must be<br />
reminded about good conduct (vv. 1-2), about what they were (v. 3) and now<br />
the apostle reminds them <strong>of</strong> what God did while they were unworthy <strong>of</strong> his<br />
beneficence. Paul is enforcing compliance <strong>to</strong> sound doctrine arguing now on<br />
the basis <strong>of</strong> the power <strong>of</strong> the divine example. Believers’ past negative conduct<br />
in v. 3 is juxtaposed with the positive attitude <strong>of</strong> God in the opening<br />
description <strong>of</strong> v. 4. The pote-o{te formula emphasises this contrast. Thus,<br />
when believers are instructed <strong>to</strong> manifest the positive behaviour <strong>of</strong> 3:1-2 <strong>to</strong><br />
outsiders, lack <strong>of</strong> compliance will put them at variance not with man, but with<br />
God himself. Furthermore, this argument is based on transcendent conduct.<br />
When believers manifest these attitudes, their behaviour transcends common<br />
decency or what is expected from good citizens. Their conduct testifies about<br />
something extraordinary that has happened <strong>to</strong> them, namely the way God<br />
treated them! This is certainly a powerful line <strong>of</strong> reasoning, highly convincing<br />
and persuasive. A schematic presentation <strong>of</strong> the argument will demonstrate<br />
the careful reasoning in which the contrasts between the divine and human<br />
actions are accentuated:<br />
(3:1-2) Present: Believers manifesting positive behaviour<br />
(3:3) Past: Believers manifesting negative behaviour<br />
(3:4-7) Past: God manifesting positive behaviour<br />
(3:8) Present: Believers manifesting positive behaviour<br />
Most scholars recognise the temporal aspects <strong>of</strong> this sentence (3-7),<br />
particularly the believers’ past conduct and the attitude and intervention <strong>of</strong> the<br />
divine in the past, but are less appreciative <strong>of</strong> the <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> intent and function<br />
behind these shifts in temporal perspectives.<br />
The lack <strong>of</strong> unanimity among scholars, in identifying or categorising this<br />
section, prohibits any dogmatic notions about the nature <strong>of</strong> the section. The<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
138
most that can be said is that this section contains elements <strong>of</strong> traditional<br />
material. Attempts <strong>to</strong> classify it as either a hymn or creed, cloud the <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong><br />
intent behind the sentence. For the purposes <strong>of</strong> this study, this sentence will<br />
be categorised as constituting shared knowledge and as forming part <strong>of</strong> the<br />
overall <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> intent <strong>of</strong> the passage. Paul is adapting the traditional<br />
material in a manner that draws attention <strong>to</strong> the salvific activity <strong>of</strong> the triune<br />
God and not primarily <strong>to</strong> present a comprehensive theological treatise. He<br />
wishes instead <strong>to</strong> accentuate the lavishness <strong>of</strong> the divine condescension<br />
<strong>to</strong>wards people who did not deserve it. The rich and distinct theological flavour<br />
is empathic, drawing attention <strong>to</strong> and highlighting the benevolent action <strong>of</strong> the<br />
divine. In fact, if the structure <strong>of</strong> the sentence is appreciated, it provides a<br />
clearer indication <strong>of</strong> the apos<strong>to</strong>lic intent <strong>of</strong> this sentence.<br />
This section is inspired by the <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> objective namely, motivating<br />
compliance <strong>to</strong> sound doctrine. If someone dared <strong>to</strong> ask <strong>Titus</strong>: “Why must I<br />
show kindness <strong>to</strong> these unsaved Cretans?” the answer would be: “Look at<br />
what you were and look at how God treated you”. Furthermore, there also<br />
appears <strong>to</strong> be a polemical intention behind this section. The false teaching<br />
seems <strong>to</strong> have encouraged isolationists’ tendencies, even hostility <strong>to</strong>wards<br />
pagan neighbours, who appear <strong>to</strong> have been branded as unworthy <strong>to</strong><br />
associate with. This kind <strong>of</strong> thinking is confronted head on by the argument <strong>of</strong><br />
the apostle in this section.<br />
Most commenta<strong>to</strong>rs provide elaborate and helpful vocabulary studies <strong>of</strong> this<br />
sentence and may be consulted for further information. Classen (2002:61)<br />
argues that it is the order <strong>of</strong> the sentence rather than the unusual vocabulary<br />
that demands an explanation: “Here it is the sentences which he arranges in<br />
such a way as <strong>to</strong> give his words special force and emphasis...” Prominent<br />
<strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> features in this section include synde<strong>to</strong>n, implicit contrast, repetition,<br />
and paranomasia. Other features include emotive or anthropopathic, highly<br />
theological and inclusive language.<br />
In earlier sections, implicit contrasts are drawn primarily on the human level,<br />
whereas in the present situation it takes on a different dimension. The<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
139
crhs<strong>to</strong>vth" and filanqrwpiva <strong>of</strong> God are contrasted with the unworthy<br />
condition <strong>of</strong> believers in their pre-conversion state (v. 3). This is borne out by<br />
the pote-o{te construction, which links the two sentences. The words<br />
crhs<strong>to</strong>vth" and filanqrwpiva are examples <strong>of</strong> the <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> technique called<br />
anthropopathism, so entitled because <strong>of</strong> the approximation <strong>of</strong> human<br />
emotions <strong>to</strong> the divine. The <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> objective <strong>of</strong> this strategy is tw<strong>of</strong>old. First,<br />
it presents God in a manner that people can identify with; it personalises God.<br />
Secondly, it emphasises the stark contrast between the divine attitude and<br />
those human qualities listed in 3:3 as well as those negative qualities referred<br />
<strong>to</strong> with respect <strong>to</strong> false teachers and their followers (1:10-12,15-16).<br />
Interestingly, this word pair has been used extra-biblically <strong>to</strong> describe some<br />
emperors (Collins, 2002:361).<br />
The expression hJ crhs<strong>to</strong>vth" kai; hJ filanqrwpiva is an example <strong>of</strong> synde<strong>to</strong>n.<br />
Classen (2002:60) points out the “asyndetic enumeration” <strong>of</strong> the Cretans past<br />
behaviour (3:3), here contrasted with the synde<strong>to</strong>nic enumeration <strong>of</strong> the divine<br />
attitude. The use <strong>of</strong> asynde<strong>to</strong>n and synde<strong>to</strong>n thus functions <strong>to</strong> accentuate the<br />
contrast between the opposing attitudes while magnifying the distinctiveness<br />
<strong>of</strong> the divine beneficence. Another helpful enumeration by Classen (2002:61)<br />
is the pairing <strong>of</strong> significant concepts that are evident in this sentence:<br />
“crhs<strong>to</strong>vth" kai; hJ filanqrwpiva (“kindness and love for mankind”), e[rga ta; ejn<br />
dikaiosuvnh/ a} ejpoihvsamen hJmei`"/<strong>to</strong>; auj<strong>to</strong>u` e[leo" (“works done in<br />
righteousness which we have performed”/ “his mercy”: antithesis), loutro;n<br />
paliggenesiva" kai; ajnakainwvsew" pneuvma<strong>to</strong>" aJgivou. The notion <strong>of</strong> contrast<br />
between the divine and human is consistently emphasised in this brilliant<br />
sentence, reinforced here by the antithesis that Classen highlights. Paul’s<br />
primary objective is therefore not related <strong>to</strong> the presentation <strong>of</strong> a fully orbed<br />
Pauline theological treatise. This is an important observation since many<br />
scholars appear <strong>to</strong> get sidetracked here <strong>to</strong> either want <strong>to</strong> prove or disprove<br />
whether this sentence correctly reflects authentic Pauline theology. The<br />
author is simply exalting the excellencies <strong>of</strong> the divine example over against<br />
the poverty <strong>of</strong> the pre-conversion human condition. If it was simply a matter <strong>of</strong><br />
conveying knowledge, i.e. theology, then there is much that the apostle is not<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
140
saying. However, as Tolmie (2005:132) points out, the original hearers would<br />
have heard this sentence in a manner <strong>of</strong> seconds. What they would have<br />
heard was not detailed information per se but rather a <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> intention,<br />
namely <strong>to</strong> force them <strong>to</strong> compare themselves with none other than God<br />
himself. An observation in Tolmie (2002:132) pertaining <strong>to</strong> Galatians is<br />
applicable <strong>to</strong> this current sentence: “This provocative utterance is not arrived<br />
at slowly by a careful process <strong>of</strong> thought. It is flung out in the heat <strong>of</strong> debate –<br />
and the hearer in the sentence is left <strong>to</strong> consider in what sense or senses it is<br />
true”. Therefore, in the debate surrounding the nature <strong>of</strong> the discourse, the<br />
adamance <strong>to</strong> categorise the sentences as either a creed or a hymn proves<br />
rather fruitless. It is unquestionable that the sentence resembles traditional<br />
aspects. The most that can be maintained is that the apostle has modified this<br />
traditional material <strong>to</strong> serve a <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> purpose, namely <strong>to</strong> emphasise the<br />
exemplary nature <strong>of</strong> the divine example. The net effect <strong>of</strong> this cus<strong>to</strong>misation <strong>of</strong><br />
traditional material is that the audience is confronted with a choice: either<br />
follow inferior teaching modelled by inferior examples or follow sound teaching<br />
and a superior example – not Paul, nor <strong>Titus</strong>, but God. The ultimate<br />
consequence <strong>of</strong> sound teaching is <strong>to</strong> make the attitude <strong>of</strong> the adherent there<strong>of</strong><br />
conform <strong>to</strong> that <strong>of</strong> God Himself.<br />
Other <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> strategies include inclusive language, repetition, antithesis,<br />
and theological vocabulary. This section contains a high concentration <strong>of</strong><br />
inclusive language in pronoun and verbal forms:<br />
<strong>to</strong>u` swth`ro" hJmw`n qeou (v. 4)<br />
ejpoihvsamen hJmei`" (v. 5)<br />
e[swsen hJma`" (v. 5)<br />
ou| ejxevceen ejfÆ hJma`" (v. 6)<br />
jIhsou` Cris<strong>to</strong>u` <strong>to</strong>u` swth`ro" hJmw`n (v. 6)<br />
genhqw`men (v. 6)<br />
In v. 5, the pronoun functions emphatically since the verb ejpoihvsamen already<br />
contains the first person plural ending. The pronoun highlights the antithesis<br />
between divine grace and human works: oujk ejx e[rgwn tw`n ejn dikaiosuvnh/ a}<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
141
ejpoihvsamen hJmei`" (works) ajlla; kata; <strong>to</strong>; auj<strong>to</strong>u` e[leo" (grace) e[swsen hJma`".<br />
There seem <strong>to</strong> be a polemical intent behind this sentence, particularly the<br />
negation concerning a “works righteousness”. It is probable that the false<br />
teaching emphasised a “works righteousness” or that there was a leniency<br />
<strong>to</strong>wards such a teaching among the Cretan believers, hence the strong<br />
negation on the part <strong>of</strong> the apostle. If we accept the notion that this sentence<br />
constitutes some form <strong>of</strong> tradition or shared knowledge, it would underscore<br />
the polemical nuance <strong>of</strong> the sentence. It makes sense <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong>ly <strong>to</strong> counter<br />
any doctrinal aberrance by reciting doctrine already known <strong>to</strong> the believers.<br />
The sentence o{te de; hJ crhs<strong>to</strong>vth" kai; hJ filanqrwpiva ejpefavnh <strong>to</strong>u` swth`ro"<br />
hJmw`n qeou` (v. 4) is parallel <strong>to</strong> that <strong>of</strong> 2:11. These two sentences share several<br />
commonalities. For example, they contain the same verb in the aorist, namely<br />
ejpifaivnw. In 2:11 it is hJ cavri" <strong>to</strong>u` qeou` that appeared. In 3:4 it is the<br />
manifestation <strong>of</strong> hJ crhs<strong>to</strong>vth" and hJ filanqrwpiva … <strong>to</strong>u' … qeou` that is in the<br />
spotlight. The use <strong>of</strong> this verb, <strong>to</strong>gether with the synonymous verb in 1:3,<br />
namely fanerovw convey the notion <strong>of</strong> accessibility or absence <strong>of</strong> secrecy.<br />
Everything God has done He did openly and publicly. There are no secrets –<br />
whether it is the source <strong>of</strong> Paul’s authority <strong>to</strong> teach (1:3) or the contents <strong>of</strong><br />
sound doctrine (2:11-12) or the nature <strong>of</strong> the divine beneficence (3:4); it is all<br />
known. The employment <strong>of</strong> this verb seems <strong>to</strong> counter any notions <strong>of</strong> secrecy<br />
perhaps taught by the false teachers.<br />
Paranomasia is seen in the occurrence <strong>of</strong> the noun swthvr and adjective<br />
swthvrio~ found respectively in 3:4 and 2:11. Also, both sentences contain the<br />
expression <strong>to</strong>u` … qeou`. In 2:11, it is divine grace that appeared while in 3:4 it<br />
is divine kindness and love-for-mankind/people. The presence <strong>of</strong> the third<br />
person singular verb ejpefavnh, has lead some scholars <strong>to</strong> view the expression<br />
crhs<strong>to</strong>vth" kai; hJ filanqrwpiva, as conveying a single concept namely the<br />
divine attitude (Knight, 1992:338; Hendriksen, 1957:389). The paranomasia<br />
and parallel expressions facilitate inter-textual coherence between the above<br />
respective sections. Coherence extends <strong>to</strong> the rest <strong>of</strong> the letter, specifically<br />
the opening verses <strong>of</strong> this letter, by an interesting theological exchange <strong>of</strong><br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
142
titles between God and Jesus Christ. In 1:3-4, we find the following references<br />
<strong>to</strong> God and Jesus Christ:<br />
<strong>to</strong>u` swth`ro" hJmw`n qeou' (1:3)<br />
Cris<strong>to</strong>u` jIhsou` <strong>to</strong>u` swth`ro" hJmw`n (1:4)<br />
In 3:4 and 3:6, the exact references are repeated:<br />
<strong>to</strong>u` swth`ro" hJmw`n qeou` (3:4)<br />
jIhsou` Cris<strong>to</strong>u` <strong>to</strong>u` swth`ro" hJmw`n (3:6)<br />
In both <strong>of</strong> the above instances, the references form a chiasm. Interestingly, in<br />
2:13, all <strong>of</strong> the above vocabulary appears again. Only this time, it refers<br />
exclusively <strong>to</strong> Jesus Christ who is called both our God and Saviour:<br />
(ejpifavneian th`" dovxh" <strong>to</strong>u` megavlou) qeou` kai; swth`ro" hJmw`n jIhsou` Cris<strong>to</strong>u`.<br />
Note in the above sentence, the presence <strong>of</strong> the noun form (ejpifavneia), from<br />
the verb ejpifaivnw. This makes the occurrence <strong>of</strong> the verb, in 3:5, another<br />
instance <strong>of</strong> paranomasia. These direct repetitions bind the letter in<strong>to</strong> a<br />
coherent unit that evinces development <strong>of</strong> the Chris<strong>to</strong>logical motif. Viewed<br />
holistically, the following outline demonstrates the Chris<strong>to</strong>logical progression<br />
within the letter:<br />
1:3 - God our Saviour (PAST)<br />
1:4 - (God our Father) Christ Jesus our Saviour (PRESENT)<br />
2:13 - our (great) God and Saviour Jesus Christ (FUTURE)<br />
3:4 - God our Saviour (PAST)<br />
3:6 - Jesus Christ our Saviour (PAST)<br />
It is only in 1:1, 1:4 and 2:13 that the words God and Jesus Christ or Christ<br />
Jesus occur <strong>to</strong>gether. In the first two instances, they refer <strong>to</strong> two separate<br />
persons whereas in the last instance a single person is in view. Thus, in the<br />
presentation <strong>of</strong> Jesus Christ, there is progression. Furthermore, from the<br />
above scheme, it is interesting <strong>to</strong> note the time referents associated with<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
143
these titles. The future appearance <strong>of</strong> Jesus Christ as God and Saviour<br />
appears <strong>to</strong> be a central theme in the letter. This outline confirms the scholarly<br />
consensus surrounding the soteriological character <strong>of</strong> the letter.<br />
In v. 5, the contrast between the divine and human attitudes is also<br />
highlighted through assonance <strong>of</strong> the e-vowel in the nouns e[rgwn and e[leo",<br />
as well as in the verbs ejpoihvsamen and e[swsen. Furthermore, the order in<br />
which the audience would have heard the divine and human actions described<br />
also accentuates the differences:<br />
God (v. 4): hJ crhs<strong>to</strong>vth" kai; hJ filanqrwpiva<br />
Man (v. 5): e[rgwn tw`n ejn dikaiosuvnh/<br />
God (v. 5): e[leo"<br />
The aural impact is overwhelming in this section, because God is presented<br />
as the sole ac<strong>to</strong>r with man at the receiving end <strong>of</strong> his divine benevolence: He<br />
saved the saints, e[swsen (v. 5) and poured out the Spirit richly, ejxevceen ejfÆ<br />
hJma`" plousivw" (v. 6) upon them. The adverb plousivw" reiterates the<br />
generous nature <strong>of</strong> divine salvation: God was not skimpy when He acted.<br />
Thus, the Cretans are without excuse, having no reason <strong>to</strong> boast or <strong>to</strong> avoid<br />
compliance <strong>to</strong> sound doctrine. Any action contrary <strong>to</strong> that stipulated in 3:1-2<br />
would amount <strong>to</strong> flagrant disobedience or serve as pro<strong>of</strong> that they do not<br />
belong <strong>to</strong> the divine family (cf. 1:4). To disobey, in the light <strong>of</strong> such divine<br />
lavishness, would be unthinkable <strong>to</strong> a true believer. The basis <strong>of</strong> their being<br />
part <strong>of</strong> the divine family lies entirely outside <strong>of</strong> themselves being saved not<br />
from e[rgwn tw`n ejn dikaiosuvnh but kata; <strong>to</strong>; auj<strong>to</strong>u` e[leo". The careful and<br />
deliberate structuring <strong>of</strong> the argument suggests an embedded polemic against<br />
a doctrine <strong>of</strong> works righteousness or salvation by human effort, particularly by<br />
observing the law (Johnson, 1996:248).<br />
The repetition <strong>of</strong> the noun e[rgon, while facilitating coherence throughout the<br />
text, recalls previous appearances <strong>of</strong> the word. These are as follows:<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
144
<strong>to</strong>i`" de; e[rgoi" ajrnou`ntai (1:16)<br />
pro;" pa`n e[rgon ajgaqo;n ajdovkimoi (1:16)<br />
kalw`n e[rgwn (2:7)<br />
zhlwth;n kalw`n e[rgwn (2:14)<br />
e[rgon ajgaqovn (3:1)<br />
oujk ejx e[rgwn tw`n ejn dikaiosuvnh (3:5)<br />
The above list confirms the vital role <strong>of</strong> works in this letter. The repetition <strong>of</strong><br />
the word reintroduces it in this section as a reminder <strong>of</strong> what works cannot do,<br />
namely render anyone righteous. Furthermore, while works cannot justify,<br />
believers will manifest good works and are shown <strong>to</strong> be genuine believers by<br />
their works. Works also serve as evidence that some are not part <strong>of</strong> God’s<br />
family and are “worthless for any good work”. Believers ought <strong>to</strong> be zealous<br />
for good works. Thus, the nature <strong>of</strong> an individual’s works will reveal the<br />
existence or non- existence <strong>of</strong> the knowledge <strong>of</strong> God. In this manner, the<br />
author is <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong>ly strategic in his reintroduction <strong>of</strong> this key word.<br />
Verse 5 also contains the much discussed phrase, dia; loutrou`<br />
paliggenesiva" kai; ajnakainwvsew", which emphasises the newness <strong>of</strong> those<br />
who have encountered divine grace. Rhe<strong>to</strong>rically, it functions <strong>to</strong> further the<br />
notion that those who have been renewed in this way are no longer what they<br />
used <strong>to</strong> be, since they have been regenerated and renewed. Thus, the good<br />
conduct espoused in 3:1-2 ought <strong>to</strong> be manifested by those who had been<br />
regenerated and renewed. By negative implication therefore, the absence <strong>of</strong><br />
such conduct would testify <strong>to</strong> the fact that such individuals never experienced<br />
renewal and regeneration.<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
145
The certainty and completeness <strong>of</strong> the transformation is guaranteed by the<br />
Trinitarian references within the sentence. Failure <strong>to</strong> manifest godly conduct<br />
would amount <strong>to</strong> a denial <strong>of</strong> the salvific intervention <strong>of</strong> God the Father, Jesus<br />
Christ and the Holy Spirit.<br />
Verse 7 presents another instance <strong>of</strong> paranomasia in the participle<br />
dikaiwqevnte". Its <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> functions include highlighting again the contrast<br />
that is so endemic <strong>to</strong> this sentence (vv. 3-7). Other functions relate <strong>to</strong> inter-<br />
sectional cohesion since cognates <strong>of</strong> this word occur in 1:8 (divkaion), 2:12<br />
(dikaivw") and 3:5 (dikaiosuvnh). Righteousness is a quality inherent <strong>to</strong><br />
believers. Elder-overseers must manifest it (1:8) as a requirement <strong>to</strong> serve in<br />
the church. Believers must live righteously, as they are instructed by grace<br />
(2:12). Righteousness manifests after salvation and cannot be attained by<br />
human efforts (3:5). Thus, the only time this positive quality is presented<br />
negatively is when it is viewed as attainable by works <strong>of</strong> righteousness. In<br />
every other instance, the word is presented as a positive Christian trait. In 3:7,<br />
the answer or explanation is given as <strong>to</strong> how a believer comes <strong>to</strong> manifest this<br />
quality: they are made righteous by divine grace. Likewise, in 2:11, it is grace<br />
that instructs believers <strong>to</strong> live “godly” (dikaivw") in this present age. The<br />
paranomasia serves <strong>to</strong> highlight the endemic nature <strong>of</strong> righteousness in the<br />
life <strong>of</strong> believers. Rhe<strong>to</strong>rically, this has the effect <strong>of</strong> making genuine sainthood<br />
inseparable from the quality <strong>of</strong> righteousness. Thus, where this quality is<br />
absent it can reasonably be inferred that no salvation has occurred. The<br />
Cretans were not saved by righteous works they have done (oujk ejx e[rgwn tw`n<br />
ejn dikaiosuvnh/), instead they have been made righteous (dikaiwqevnte"). In<br />
other words, they are passive in the act <strong>of</strong> acquiring the status <strong>of</strong><br />
righteousness. The passive participle constitutes an emphatic denial <strong>of</strong> human<br />
boasting, contrasting directly with the sentiment expressed in the first part <strong>of</strong><br />
v. 5. The use <strong>of</strong> inclusive language employed both in verbal and pronoun<br />
forms, functions among other things, <strong>to</strong> restrain any credit from accruing <strong>to</strong><br />
human beings. Paul is implicitly affirming that even his Jewish heritage was <strong>of</strong><br />
no value in his salvation or in acquiring this righteousness. <strong>Titus</strong> also has<br />
nothing <strong>to</strong> boast in apart from divine grace. By implication therefore, the<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
146
Cretans are only saved by the gracious condescension <strong>of</strong> God who<br />
manifested his e[leo".<br />
Inclusive language also functions <strong>to</strong> foster a sense <strong>of</strong> community and<br />
identification. Paul, by indicating his own unworthiness <strong>to</strong> be saved, as well as<br />
that <strong>of</strong> <strong>Titus</strong>, facilitates thereby a full identification with the Cretans. The<br />
presentation <strong>of</strong> a Jew as a co-recipient <strong>of</strong> divine grace must communicate<br />
powerfully against any temptations <strong>to</strong>wards proud superiority. The <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong><br />
impact <strong>of</strong> this line <strong>of</strong> communication harnesses a sense <strong>of</strong> community and<br />
unity, while discouraging any latent allegiance <strong>to</strong> teaching and teachers that<br />
encourage the opposite.<br />
In verse 7 we find the word cavri~ which is repeated from 2:11. The <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong><br />
objective <strong>of</strong> this repetition is <strong>to</strong> demonstrate the relationship between grace<br />
and righteousness. Here, it also concludes a conglomeration <strong>of</strong> related terms<br />
or synonyms used in this sentence <strong>to</strong> distinguish the divine action vis-a-vis the<br />
human action. From 3:4-7, the following terms are employed <strong>to</strong> describe<br />
God’s behaviour:<br />
hJ crhs<strong>to</strong>vth" kai; hJ filanqrwpiva (v. 4)<br />
e[leo" (v. 5)<br />
cavriti (v. 7)<br />
This conglomeration is emphatic, highlighting the supremacy and <strong>to</strong>tality <strong>of</strong><br />
the divine action. In each <strong>of</strong> the above instances, the accompanying pronoun<br />
or modifier reiterates that with reference <strong>to</strong> the salvation <strong>of</strong> people, including<br />
the Cretans, God alone is the author there<strong>of</strong>: God’s kindness and love for<br />
mankind (<strong>to</strong>u` … qeou'), His mercy (auj<strong>to</strong>u` e[leo"), and His grace (ejkeivnou<br />
cavriti). This triple emphasis stands in stark contrast <strong>to</strong> human effort with its<br />
emphatic first person plural pronoun following after the verb: oujk ejx e[rgwn tw`n<br />
ejn dikaiosuvnh/ a} ejpoihvsamen hJmei`".<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
147
The next two words in v. 7 are examples <strong>of</strong> kinship and inclusive language<br />
respectively. The noun klhronovmo~ evokes images <strong>of</strong> family and privilege.<br />
Together with the verb givnomai, it serves as a very powerful confirmation <strong>of</strong><br />
the transformation shared by all the believers without discrimination or<br />
exception. It is reminiscent <strong>of</strong> the earlier paternal reference <strong>to</strong> God as “our<br />
Father” (1:4) and parent-sibling images in Paul calling <strong>Titus</strong> his “true child”<br />
(1:4). The verb, genhqw`men, being in the passive voice, reaffirms the<br />
consistent emphasis throughout this sentence on the passivity <strong>of</strong> man and the<br />
radical activity <strong>of</strong> God. The prepositional phrase, katÆ ejlpivda zwh`" aijwnivou,<br />
introduces a shift in the temporal emphasis <strong>of</strong> this sentence. Hope points <strong>to</strong><br />
that which is still <strong>to</strong> come or <strong>to</strong> be expected, thus some future event. More<br />
importantly though, this phrase repeats the reference in 1:2, ejpÆ ejlpivdi zwh`"<br />
aijwnivou, where the apostle ties present godliness <strong>to</strong> the future hope. The<br />
repetition has the <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> effect <strong>of</strong> bolstering the coherency <strong>of</strong> the<br />
discourse, particularly as it also relates <strong>to</strong> 2:13 and the makarivan ejlpivda. The<br />
three references <strong>to</strong> hope (ejlpiv~) impact on the temporal momentum <strong>of</strong> the<br />
discourse by introducing a future dimension <strong>to</strong> it. This future perspective<br />
serves an important <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> function. Positively, those who embrace sound<br />
doctrine and obey it can anticipate eternal life with its implicit rewards.<br />
Negatively, those who reject sound doctrine or who embrace false teaching<br />
are “warned” by the notion <strong>of</strong> a future reckoning. In other words, the teaching<br />
about the future serves <strong>to</strong> ground or anchor adherence <strong>to</strong> sound doctrine in<br />
the present while also warning those who risk ignoring sound doctrine. The<br />
obedient ones will have something good <strong>to</strong> look forward <strong>to</strong>, while those who<br />
are reckless in this life will, by implication, also have something <strong>to</strong> look<br />
forward <strong>to</strong>, but less pleasant.<br />
The overall <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> effect <strong>of</strong> this future perspective is <strong>to</strong> communicate the<br />
truth that present godliness has future implications, while present ungodliness<br />
will also have future implications. This is an ingenious way <strong>to</strong> motivate the<br />
believers <strong>to</strong> embrace sound doctrine that results in godliness (1:1-2).<br />
Furthermore, the certainty <strong>of</strong> this hope is stressed by the triple repetition<br />
there<strong>of</strong> throughout this letter. Additionally, in each <strong>of</strong> the theological sections,<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
148
1:1-4 and in 2:11-14 and 3:4-7 there is transition in time frames – past,<br />
present and future. Each relates how God has acted and how His purposes<br />
were established. In this manner, the reader-hearers are given a “track<br />
record” or pr<strong>of</strong>ile <strong>of</strong> God’s actions. Logically, therefore, it can be deduced that<br />
if God has acted in the past and it came <strong>to</strong> fruition, then the future or ejlpiv~ is<br />
certain.<br />
Conclusion<br />
The dominant <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> objective <strong>of</strong> verses 4-7, a single sentence in the<br />
original, is <strong>to</strong> enforce compliance <strong>to</strong> sound doctrine by appealing <strong>to</strong> the divine<br />
example through the reminder <strong>of</strong> God’s salvific intervention. This section in<br />
particular, has also not escaped the pervasiveness <strong>of</strong> the authenticity debate<br />
which has contributed <strong>to</strong> a mellow appreciation for the actual content <strong>of</strong> the<br />
sentence and the intent <strong>of</strong> the author. The approach <strong>to</strong> this sentence has<br />
<strong>centred</strong> upon three central issues: a) the extent and delineation <strong>of</strong> the<br />
passage and the degree <strong>to</strong> which this passage is considered representative <strong>of</strong><br />
authentic Pauline work; b) the interpretation <strong>of</strong> the word loutrovn. In this<br />
regard, the evidence shows that continuity or discontinuity with Pauline<br />
theology impacts upon the interpretation <strong>of</strong> this word; c) the nature <strong>of</strong> the<br />
passage, specifically whether it is a hymn or creed. Apart from these<br />
differences in opinion, there is widespread consensus surrounding the content<br />
<strong>of</strong> the sentence, particularly its soteriological nature. Scholars also recognise<br />
the unique Trinitarian emphases <strong>of</strong> the passage as well as its essential<br />
doctrinal character. While the text hints at baptism and salvation, it has been<br />
demonstrated that these are not the primary foci <strong>of</strong> the passage and <strong>to</strong> insist<br />
that is so, does not advance our appreciation for the unique contribution <strong>of</strong><br />
this letter.<br />
The key aspect <strong>to</strong> appreciating this sentence is <strong>to</strong> interpret it in the order in<br />
which it appears. Such an approach reveals the intricate and powerful<br />
<strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> argument that characterises this sentence. Paul’s overall <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong><br />
strategy is <strong>to</strong> hold before his audience the example <strong>of</strong> no one less than God<br />
Himself. The behaviour that they ought <strong>to</strong> conform <strong>to</strong> was demonstrated in<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
149
their salvation by God. The divine attitude is set up as the standard by which<br />
<strong>to</strong> evaluate their own willingness or reluctance <strong>to</strong> comply with and manifest<br />
sound doctrine. It is suggested that this is the only objective the apostle sets<br />
out <strong>to</strong> achieve in this sentence. To this task, he draws from an arsenal <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> techniques which were already used earlier on in the letter, with one<br />
exception, that <strong>of</strong> anthropopathism. He uses the latter <strong>to</strong> personalise God and<br />
<strong>to</strong> present God as an example not only <strong>to</strong> the saints but also <strong>to</strong> the<br />
disobedient whose actions are showed <strong>to</strong> be glaringly inconsistent compared<br />
<strong>to</strong> that <strong>of</strong> the divine.<br />
Minor <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> techniques utilised in this section include synde<strong>to</strong>n, implicit<br />
contrast, repetition, and paranomasia. It was demonstrated how strategic the<br />
repetition <strong>of</strong> e[rgon is in this section. Paranomasia <strong>of</strong> several words occurred,<br />
the most prominent being dikaiwqevnte~. Other features include highly<br />
theological and inclusive language, like crhs<strong>to</strong>vth~, filanqrwpiva, e[leo~ and<br />
cavri~. The language <strong>of</strong> inheritance calls <strong>to</strong> mind kinship, community and<br />
inclusiveness. The orientation <strong>to</strong>wards the future is reintroduced in this section<br />
through the expression katÆ ejlpivda zwh`~ aijwnivou. This orientation functions<br />
<strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong>ly <strong>to</strong>, on the one hand, hold before the obedient the implicit promise<br />
<strong>of</strong> reward, while on the other hand, hint at negative consequences or<br />
punishment in the future <strong>to</strong> those who disobey now. The certainty <strong>of</strong> this hope<br />
is communicated by the triple repetition there<strong>of</strong> throughout the letter, as well<br />
as, by the recollection <strong>of</strong> God’s consistency in the past. In this manner, the<br />
author uses the temporal momentum within this section as a guarantee <strong>of</strong> the<br />
future hope.<br />
The sentence in itself, functions as a <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> instrument. As was shown<br />
above, this sentence is one <strong>of</strong> three that are strategically located throughout<br />
this discourse. They are unique in character revealing high concentrations <strong>of</strong><br />
theological truths, probably known <strong>to</strong> the recipients. In the present example,<br />
scholars agree that the sentence constitutes pre-existent traditional material<br />
or shared knowledge, known <strong>to</strong> the recipients. The fact that the recipients<br />
probably knew this material significantly adds <strong>to</strong> their persuasive value.<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
150
2.2.10 <strong>Titus</strong> 3:8-11: Reinforcing the differences between sound<br />
and illegitimate doctrine in order <strong>to</strong> encourage compliance <strong>to</strong> the<br />
former and rejection <strong>of</strong> the latter<br />
In this section, beginning from 3:8-11, the author’s dominant <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong><br />
objective is <strong>to</strong> make a final appeal for compliance <strong>to</strong> sound doctrine by<br />
reinforcing the differences between sound and illegitimate doctrine. He sets<br />
out <strong>to</strong> achieve this objective by encouraging the adoption <strong>of</strong> the one and the<br />
rejection <strong>of</strong> the other; in this case it is false doctrine that must be rejected. As<br />
he nears the conclusion <strong>of</strong> his letter, he wants <strong>to</strong> help his audience maintain<br />
the mutual exclusivity <strong>of</strong> the opposing doctrines. Negatively, he wants <strong>to</strong><br />
provide the congregation with some final reasons why they should forsake or<br />
not be lured <strong>to</strong> embrace false doctrine. This strategy is a repetition <strong>of</strong> that<br />
pursued in 2:1-10. To accomplish this objective, Paul again contrasts sound<br />
doctrine with false doctrine, unleashing an assortment <strong>of</strong> <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> techniques<br />
<strong>to</strong> this end. In fact, this small section is unusually inundated with a variety <strong>of</strong><br />
these techniques.<br />
Some scholars, like Quinn (1990:244), argue that this section contains the<br />
final contrast between sound doctrine and false doctrine. He goes so far as <strong>to</strong><br />
entitle this section “True and False Instruction” (Quinn, 1990:233). Scholars<br />
are however divided on the exact demarcation <strong>of</strong> the section. Some scholars<br />
begin this section with the second part <strong>of</strong> verse 8, indicating it as 8b-11<br />
(Quinn, 1990:233; Collins, 2002:366). Mounce (2000:434, 455) views it as<br />
comprising 3:1-11. Knight (1992:350), interestingly, includes it as part <strong>of</strong> 3:3-8.<br />
Others argue that v. 8 commences a new section (Guthrie, 1957:207;<br />
Simpson, 1954:116). The demarcation accepted in this study is based on the<br />
following arguments: Verse 8 should be viewed as separate from 4-7,<br />
because <strong>of</strong> a difference in genre. Verses 4-7 constitute some form <strong>of</strong> earlier<br />
tradition, that is, it could be a hymn or creed. Verse 8a is an observation about<br />
the preceding sentence and therefore not part <strong>of</strong> it. A final consideration, for<br />
the view that v. 8 begins a new section, relates <strong>to</strong> its function within the<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
151
discourse. In this regard, consideration must be paid <strong>to</strong> the <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> intention<br />
behind this section.<br />
The function <strong>of</strong> the sentence pis<strong>to</strong>;" oJ lovgo" is multifaceted. It is one <strong>of</strong> three<br />
short sentences used in this section, <strong>to</strong>gether with the others being tau`ta<br />
ejstin kala; kai; wjfevlima <strong>to</strong>i`" ajnqrwvpoi" (8) and eijsi;n ga;r ajnwfelei`" kai;<br />
mavtaioi (9). Its brevity makes it conspicuous and highlights the claim that it<br />
makes about the previous section (4-7), which is one sentence. This, in itself,<br />
supports the decision for the division between the sections. The use <strong>of</strong> short<br />
sentences is one <strong>of</strong> several <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> techniques exploited in this section for<br />
emphatic purposes. At a basic level, the sentence serves <strong>to</strong> connect verses 8-<br />
11 with the preceding section, facilitating a degree <strong>of</strong> fluidity in this part <strong>of</strong> the<br />
apostle’s argument. Later, it will be evident how it functions as an antithetic<br />
hedge with the description in verse 9 <strong>of</strong> the false teaching as ajnwfelei`" kai;<br />
mavtaioi. Its immediate function therefore, is transi<strong>to</strong>ry, indicating the transition<br />
from one genre form <strong>to</strong> another, i.e. from verses 4-7 <strong>to</strong> 8-11. At a <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong><br />
level, this statement functions as an apos<strong>to</strong>lic affirmation <strong>of</strong> the preceding<br />
section. The apostle underscores the traditional material as pis<strong>to</strong>;" oJ lovgo".<br />
This is an important insight, if we want <strong>to</strong> appreciate the rest <strong>of</strong> his argument.<br />
The dominant <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> intent behind verses 8-11 is <strong>to</strong> contrast legitimate and<br />
illegitimate teaching in order <strong>to</strong> reinforce compliance <strong>to</strong> the former. Pis<strong>to</strong>;" oJ<br />
lovgo" therefore should be interpreted <strong>to</strong> mean: “Everything said thus far<br />
constitute legitimate teaching. I affirm that <strong>to</strong> be so, as dou`lo" qeou`,<br />
ajpovs<strong>to</strong>lo" de; jIhsou` Cris<strong>to</strong>u`” (1:1). Put in more colloquial terms, the apostle<br />
is saying: “This is the real thing”. The first person singular, bouvlomai, suggests<br />
the reasonableness <strong>of</strong> such an interpretation <strong>of</strong> the text. This sentence<br />
therefore introduces the first reason why sound teaching is <strong>to</strong> be embraced as<br />
well as why it is superior <strong>to</strong> false teaching. This is an argument based on<br />
apos<strong>to</strong>lic authorisation. Sound doctrine must be heeded because unlike false<br />
teaching, it is apos<strong>to</strong>lically authorised. In the rest <strong>of</strong> the sentence, the apostle<br />
is going <strong>to</strong> give two more reasons why Cretan believers must comply with<br />
sound doctrine and reject false doctrine.<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
152
The second half <strong>of</strong> v. 8 builds upon the first part. Since these teachings are<br />
legitimate, the apostle proceeds <strong>to</strong> express his desire (bouvlomai) that <strong>Titus</strong><br />
should insist or speak confidently (diabebaioovmai) about them. The strong<br />
diabebaioovmai leads Mounce (2000:452) <strong>to</strong> interpret <strong>to</strong>uvtwn as referring <strong>to</strong> all<br />
<strong>of</strong> chapter 3. Knight (1992:350) agrees, arguing that it refers <strong>to</strong> 3:1-7 while<br />
Hendriksen (1957:394) limits it <strong>to</strong> verses 4-7. Contextually, it is more tenable<br />
<strong>to</strong> argue that the pronoun refers <strong>to</strong> everything that has preceded thus far and<br />
not only <strong>to</strong> 3:4-7. The ensuing purpose clause includes the key expression<br />
kalw`n e[rgwn which is best interpreted <strong>to</strong> include the virtues commended in<br />
3:1-2.<br />
Earlier, in 2:1 <strong>Titus</strong> was exhorted <strong>to</strong> “speak” (lavlew). In contradistinction, the<br />
false teachers must be silenced, ejpis<strong>to</strong>mivzw (1:11). Thus, sound doctrine can<br />
be spoken about confidently. This command, like the earlier ones, is an<br />
instance <strong>of</strong> apos<strong>to</strong>lic affirmation or authorisation <strong>of</strong> the ministry <strong>of</strong> <strong>Titus</strong>.<br />
The purpose clause, i{na … qew`/, has a very interesting structure. The<br />
preposition, i{na, is followed by the verb, frontivzwsin. These two are<br />
separated from the infinitive, proivŸstasqai, and subject, oiJ pepisteukovte", by<br />
the key expression, kalw`n e[rgwn. It is only at the end that the subject, oiJ<br />
pepisteukovte" is revealed. This structure emphasises a concern or<br />
eagerness for good works. Thus, <strong>Titus</strong> must insist or speak confidently so that<br />
a concern or eagerness for sound doctrine will result or be manifested. The<br />
emphasis in the second part <strong>of</strong> this sentence is that only those who believed<br />
and continue <strong>to</strong> believe in God are able <strong>to</strong> be occupied in good works. The<br />
participle, pepisteukovte", is in the perfect tense and expresses the idea <strong>of</strong> a<br />
completed action perpetuated in the present. The faith allegiance <strong>of</strong> those<br />
who are careful <strong>to</strong> perform good deeds is directed <strong>to</strong>wards God, qew`/. The<br />
juxtaposition <strong>of</strong> the subject and indirect object stresses the inseparability <strong>of</strong><br />
faith in God and good works. Put differently, those who believe in God will be<br />
those who perform kala; e[rga. This is in direct opposition <strong>to</strong> the false teachers<br />
who pr<strong>of</strong>ess <strong>to</strong> know God but deny him by their deeds, qeo;n oJmologou`sin<br />
eijdevnai, <strong>to</strong>i`" de; e[rgoi" ajrnou`ntai (1:16). In this way, the chasm between the<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
153
two groups is accentuated and the disparities are made all the more obvious.<br />
This constitutes an argument based upon the irreconcilability <strong>of</strong> conduct.<br />
Thus, the second reason why sound teaching is different, relates <strong>to</strong> the<br />
ensuing good works, which, in turn, confirm them as the ones who actually<br />
have come <strong>to</strong> faith in God. The substantive use <strong>of</strong> the participle supports the<br />
notion <strong>of</strong> identity. Here, the apostle uses the <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> technique <strong>of</strong> honorific<br />
referencing <strong>to</strong> encourage compliance <strong>to</strong> sound doctrine. Thus, by behaviour<br />
compliant <strong>to</strong> sound doctrine the audience will demonstrate their faith or the<br />
absence <strong>of</strong> faith in God. The Cretans must decide whether they deserve the<br />
honour <strong>of</strong> being referred <strong>to</strong> as oiJ pepisteukovte" qew`/ or not; only their conduct<br />
will show this.<br />
The beneficial impact <strong>of</strong> sound doctrine and deeds consequential <strong>to</strong> it upon<br />
the rest <strong>of</strong> society is another distinctive from false doctrine. The last part <strong>of</strong> v.<br />
8 contains the final reason for compliance <strong>to</strong> sound doctrine, namely its<br />
positive impact upon the rest <strong>of</strong> humanity. These things, i.e. all the teaching<br />
contained in chapter 3, are kala; kai; wjfevlima <strong>to</strong>i`" ajnqrwvpoi". The use <strong>of</strong><br />
synde<strong>to</strong>n emphasises the double significance <strong>of</strong> the sound doctrine. Several<br />
words are repeated in this section and each instance is emphatic. The word<br />
kalovn repeats, within a single sentence an earlier occurrence, namely kalw`n<br />
e[rgwn. The hearers would hear this double reiteration <strong>of</strong> “good”, which in turn,<br />
connects this section with all the earlier occurrences <strong>of</strong> this word. The word<br />
ajnqrwvpo" recalls several occurrences <strong>of</strong> this noun, some <strong>of</strong> which are positive<br />
while one or two are negative. In 3:2, the believers are called <strong>to</strong> exhibit<br />
kindness pro;" pavnta" ajnqrwvpou". Grace appeared pa`sin ajnqrwvpoi" (2:11).<br />
Both <strong>of</strong> these could be classified as positive uses <strong>of</strong> this word. The first<br />
negative occurrence is in 1:14 with reference <strong>to</strong> the false teachers who adhere<br />
<strong>to</strong> the commandments <strong>of</strong> men, ejn<strong>to</strong>lai`" ajnqrwvpwn. Within the immediate<br />
context <strong>of</strong> 3:8-11, the word appears again, but in a negative context, with<br />
reference <strong>to</strong> the opposition who are, aiJretiko;n a[nqrwpon. In 3:8, the intention<br />
is surely <strong>to</strong> accentuate the positive benefits <strong>of</strong> sound doctrine <strong>to</strong> the greater<br />
humanity, similar <strong>to</strong> 2:11 with regard <strong>to</strong> grace. Rhe<strong>to</strong>rically, the intention <strong>to</strong><br />
contrast the positive effect <strong>of</strong> sound doctrine with the negative effect <strong>of</strong> false<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
154
doctrine cannot be clearer. Whereas false teaching was “upsetting whole<br />
households”, o{lou" oi[kou" ajnatrevpousin (1:11), this cannot be maintained<br />
about sound doctrine. The repetition <strong>of</strong> ajnqrwvpo" serves the additional<br />
purpose <strong>of</strong> facilitating coherence throughout the letter or facilitating inter-<br />
sectional coherence.<br />
Thus, in v. 8 the apostle has successfully highlighted the distinctiveness <strong>of</strong><br />
sound doctrine. Sound doctrine is commended by the apos<strong>to</strong>lic affirmation in<br />
the sentence pis<strong>to</strong>;" oJ lovgo". The results <strong>of</strong> sound doctrine can be seen by<br />
the good works which those who believe in God will be careful <strong>to</strong> perform.<br />
Finally, the good works will benefit the community at large. Through repetition<br />
<strong>of</strong> key words, the apostle facilitates implicit contrasts with the opposition from<br />
earlier sections <strong>of</strong> the letter. The highly positive presentation <strong>of</strong> sound doctrine<br />
is the main <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> intent <strong>of</strong> verse 8. In the next section, the contrast<br />
between sound and false doctrine is perpetuated, but this time through an<br />
intensely negative portrayal <strong>of</strong> the opposition.<br />
The primary <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> intent in 3:9-11 is the perpetuation <strong>of</strong> the contrast<br />
between sound and false doctrine. This section is replete with <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong><br />
techniques employed <strong>to</strong> achieve the <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> objective, namely <strong>to</strong> encourage<br />
the audience <strong>to</strong> reject false doctrine. However, most commenta<strong>to</strong>rs reveal an<br />
etymological preoccupation with the vocabulary in this and other sentences,<br />
although they sometimes cite some helpful extra–biblical occurrences <strong>of</strong> the<br />
words (Simpson, 1954:117-118; Quinn, 1990:244-248). However, as a result<br />
<strong>of</strong> this focus they do not pay much attention <strong>to</strong> the other stylistic features<br />
present in this section. Mounce (2000:453) and Knight (1992:353-354), for<br />
example, categorise mwra;" de; zhthvsei" kai; genealogiva" kai; e[rei" kai;<br />
mavca" nomika;" as merely a list <strong>of</strong> “errors <strong>to</strong> avoid”. There are exceptions, like<br />
Collins (2002:368) and Quinn (1990:245), who draw attention <strong>to</strong> the<br />
polysynde<strong>to</strong>n in this sentence. Unfortunately, they do not explain its function<br />
in the sentence. This will now be addressed.<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
155
Verse 9 opens with the adversative dev followed by four references <strong>to</strong> the false<br />
teaching, each separated by the conjunction kaiv. Mounce (2000:453) correctly<br />
identifies the function <strong>of</strong> the adversative conjunction, namely <strong>to</strong> “establish …<br />
contrast”. He unfortunately limits the contrast exclusively <strong>to</strong> this chapter,<br />
whereas it is best unders<strong>to</strong>od <strong>to</strong> perpetuate the contrast that runs consistently<br />
throughout the letter. In all fairness <strong>to</strong> him, there is definitely a contrast in the<br />
immediate context, but it exceeds the context, as the <strong>analysis</strong> <strong>of</strong> this section<br />
will show, and as the repetition <strong>of</strong> key vocabulary in verse 8 has<br />
demonstrated. The <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> technique employed in this verse is<br />
polysynde<strong>to</strong>n. The four descriptions <strong>of</strong> the false teaching are separated by<br />
three conjunctions: mwra;" (dev) zhthvsei" kai; genealogiva" kai; e[rei" kai;<br />
mavca" nomika;". The polysynde<strong>to</strong>n emphasises the false teaching. The<br />
<strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> objective behind it is the vilification <strong>of</strong> the false teaching. The terms<br />
are largely negative, almost mocking. The false teaching must not be<br />
confronted, instead <strong>Titus</strong> must “steer clear” from or “avoid” (periivŸstaso) it.<br />
The imperative indicates that the problem is not endemic <strong>to</strong> the congregation.<br />
It was not something <strong>to</strong> get rid <strong>of</strong>; rather it was <strong>to</strong> be avoided. Rhe<strong>to</strong>rically,<br />
and as far as Paul is concerned, false doctrine is invalid, unnecessary, not<br />
worthy <strong>of</strong> <strong>Titus</strong>’ consideration or time. It is, by implication, an utter waste <strong>of</strong><br />
time. This is therefore, a clear instance <strong>of</strong> vilification. Here, it is the false<br />
teaching itself that is vilified rather than its promoters (cf. 1:10-16). The<br />
polysynde<strong>to</strong>n accentuates the worthlessness and futility <strong>of</strong> the false teaching.<br />
The reason given in the second half <strong>of</strong> this verse reinforces the uselessness<br />
<strong>of</strong> the teaching: eijsi;n ga;r ajnwfelei`" kai; mavtaioi. The polarity between sound<br />
and false doctrine is accentuated by opposing terms used <strong>to</strong> describe both. In<br />
8:1, sound doctrine was affirmed <strong>to</strong> be pis<strong>to</strong>;" oJ lovgo". Verse 9 concludes<br />
with a judgment on false doctrine being ajnwfelei`" kai; mavtaioi. The latter<br />
expression constitutes an apos<strong>to</strong>lic denunciation <strong>of</strong> the false teaching. This<br />
denunciation could be seen as an additional evidence for the distinctiveness<br />
<strong>of</strong> sound doctrine. Rhe<strong>to</strong>rically, therefore, anyone who embraces false<br />
teaching would be affirming that which the apostle has judged <strong>to</strong> be “worthless<br />
and unpr<strong>of</strong>itable”. It would place such a person in the very awkward position<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
156
<strong>of</strong> going against the judgment <strong>of</strong> a “servant <strong>of</strong> God and an apostle <strong>of</strong> Jesus<br />
Christ” (1:1).<br />
The positive-negative disparity is reiterated through the employment <strong>of</strong><br />
several smaller <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> techniques <strong>of</strong> which some have already been<br />
pointed out earlier. Verses 8-11 contain several an<strong>to</strong>nyms: sound doctrine<br />
was considered pr<strong>of</strong>itable, wjfevlima (8). False teaching on the other hand is<br />
condemned as unpr<strong>of</strong>itable, ajnwfelei`" (9). Paul brands false teachings as<br />
“quarrels”, mavca" (3:9), but wants believers <strong>to</strong> be “peaceable”, ajmavcou" (3:2).<br />
Another contrast is drawn through the choice <strong>of</strong> words used <strong>to</strong> describe<br />
people in this section. In v. 8, believers are spoken <strong>of</strong> honourably as oiJ<br />
pepisteukovte" qew`/, while the false teacher is labelled a aiJretiko;n a[nqrwpon<br />
(10). When compared <strong>to</strong> earlier sections, a progression can be observed with<br />
regard <strong>to</strong> the increasing discrimination between the opposing parties in the<br />
letter. In 1:9, the elder-overseer must “oppose <strong>to</strong>u;" ajntilevgonta"”. Here, the<br />
opponents are are represented synecdochially by the reference <strong>to</strong> the singular<br />
aiJretiko;n a[nqrwpon. This is an instance <strong>of</strong> the <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> technique <strong>of</strong><br />
synecdoche. Furthermore, there is progression: from confrontation or<br />
ejlevgcein (1:9), <strong>to</strong> censuring, ejpis<strong>to</strong>mivzein (1:11), <strong>to</strong> avoidance <strong>of</strong> the doctrine<br />
(3:9) and, finally, shunning <strong>of</strong> the person, parai<strong>to</strong>u` (3:10). There can clearly<br />
be no compromise between those who teach and adhere <strong>to</strong> sound doctrine<br />
and those who teach and embrace false doctrine. The chasm only becomes<br />
wider. The paranomasia by the use <strong>of</strong> the two words, “empty talkers”,<br />
mataiolovgoi (1:10) and “empty”, mavtaioi (3:9) does not paint a very<br />
complimentary picture <strong>of</strong> the false teachers or their doctrine.<br />
Through synde<strong>to</strong>n, ajnwfelei`" kai; mavtaioi, the groundless futility <strong>of</strong> false<br />
teaching is emphasised while at the same time accentuating its<br />
distinctiveness from sound doctrine, which is also emphasised through<br />
synde<strong>to</strong>n positively as kala; kai; wjfevlima. The synde<strong>to</strong>n <strong>of</strong> v. 10, mivan kai;<br />
deutevran, emphasises the specificity <strong>of</strong> the manner in which erroneous<br />
teachings must be treated. No <strong>to</strong>lerance must be entertained; just two<br />
warnings followed by shunning or rejection. The apostle seems <strong>to</strong> show great<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
157
awareness <strong>of</strong> the insidiousness <strong>of</strong> false teaching <strong>to</strong> the church. This alone<br />
could justify the severe treatment advocated so emphatically here.<br />
Verse 11 drives home the proverbial final nail in the c<strong>of</strong>fin through emphatic<br />
clustering <strong>of</strong> verbs that describe the false teacher: ejxevstraptai (oJ <strong>to</strong>iou`<strong>to</strong>")<br />
kai; aJmartavnei w]n auj<strong>to</strong>katavkri<strong>to</strong>". This is akin <strong>to</strong> the vilification section <strong>of</strong><br />
chapter 1. In the present section, the apostle has vilified not only their<br />
teaching but also the person <strong>of</strong> the teachers and accentuates it through<br />
emphatic clustering. The description portrays a gradual downward<br />
progression from perversion, <strong>to</strong> sinning <strong>to</strong> the final state <strong>of</strong> self condemnation.<br />
Conclusion<br />
The dominant <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> objective <strong>of</strong> this section is <strong>to</strong> reinforce the differences<br />
between sound and illegitimate doctrine in order <strong>to</strong> encourage compliance <strong>to</strong><br />
the former and rejection <strong>of</strong> the latter. The argument is structured by way <strong>of</strong><br />
contrast <strong>to</strong> highlight the virtues <strong>of</strong> one over the other. Thus, verse 8 contains<br />
reasons for the adoption <strong>of</strong> sound doctrine while verses 9-11 provide reasons<br />
for the rejection <strong>of</strong> false teaching. This task is accomplished through the<br />
employment <strong>of</strong> an array <strong>of</strong> <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> techniques. The opening sentence is one<br />
<strong>of</strong> three very short sentences in this section and is used <strong>to</strong> emphasise the<br />
resultant contrast between sound and false doctrine.<br />
The apostle highlights three characteristics <strong>of</strong> sound doctrine, namely the<br />
apos<strong>to</strong>lic commendation there<strong>of</strong>, its association with those who have come <strong>to</strong><br />
faith in God and finally its beneficial impact upon the rest <strong>of</strong> society.<br />
Through repetition <strong>of</strong> key words like kalovn e[rgon, kalav and ajnqrwvpo" the<br />
apostle facilitates implicit contrasts with the opposition from earlier sections <strong>of</strong><br />
the letter. This results in a highly positive presentation <strong>of</strong> sound doctrine.<br />
In verses 9-11, the negative aspects <strong>of</strong> the false doctrine are highlighted. This<br />
section has much in common with chapter 1, repeating similar <strong>to</strong>nes and<br />
sentiments. The apostle basically vilifies the false teaching in 3:9, contrasting<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
158
its negative impact with that <strong>of</strong> sound doctrine through the use <strong>of</strong> another<br />
short sentence, eijsi;n ga;r ajnwfelei`" kai; mavtaioi. In 10-11, he vilifies the<br />
person <strong>of</strong> the false teacher and uses name calling or labelling, like he did in<br />
1:10. The effect <strong>of</strong> all this criticism and commendation is that the chasm<br />
between sound and false doctrine is maintained, if not reinforced. It removes<br />
any possibility for compromise between the two parties. Clearly, the intent <strong>of</strong><br />
the author, <strong>to</strong>wards the end <strong>of</strong> his letter, is <strong>to</strong> hold before his audience two<br />
pictures, one <strong>of</strong> false doctrine and another <strong>of</strong> sound doctrine, showing them<br />
why they should comply with the latter and reject the former. They cannot but<br />
choose sound doctrine and reject the other, because this puts them in<br />
community with the apostle who authorises sound doctrine. Furthermore, it<br />
confirms their identity as those who believe in God when they order their<br />
conduct in line with sound doctrine. Other <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> techniques employed<br />
include synde<strong>to</strong>n, polysynde<strong>to</strong>n, an<strong>to</strong>nyms, repetition, synecdoche,<br />
paranomasia and emphatic clustering.<br />
2.2.11 <strong>Titus</strong> 3:12-15: Adapting the conclusion <strong>to</strong> reinforce the<br />
notion <strong>of</strong> legitimate ministry<br />
Scholars regard the closing section as “standard” Pauline (Demarest,<br />
1984:331; Knight, 1992:356; Mounce, 2000:456, 459). While all the standard<br />
elements <strong>of</strong> a Pauline conclusion are present, the vocabulary and the rich<br />
network <strong>of</strong> cognate linguistic concepts suggest that Paul is adapting his<br />
normal conclusion for a more important purpose, namely <strong>to</strong> round <strong>of</strong>f his<br />
overall argument for compliance <strong>to</strong> sound doctrine, especially reemphasising<br />
the notion <strong>of</strong> legitimate ministry. This is the best opportunity since he has just<br />
in the previous section (9-11) addressed illegitimate ministry and dictated<br />
procedures for the treatment <strong>of</strong> the false teacher(s). The conclusion leaves<br />
the recipients in no doubt as <strong>to</strong> what constitutes legitimate ministry.<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
159
This is a very tight unit, carefully, almost abruptly, demarcated from the<br />
preceding section through repetition and paranomasia. There is however a<br />
clear transition in terms from the perspective <strong>of</strong> the content <strong>of</strong> this section; it<br />
deals with practical and personal arrangements. Based on this, scholars like<br />
Quinn (1990:260) argue that the unit should be read exclusively with the<br />
opening verses as a “compositional envelope”, instead <strong>of</strong> with the preceding<br />
sections. Paranomasia and repetition do seem <strong>to</strong> suggest some<br />
correspondence with the opening sections. Quinn points out several<br />
examples: leivph/ (3:13) and ajpevlipon … ta; leivponta (1:5); ejn pivstei (3:15)<br />
and kata; koinh;n pivstin (1:4); cavri" (3:15b) and the same in 1:4, 5. The unity<br />
<strong>of</strong> this section is underscored by the repetition <strong>of</strong> the following words in rapid<br />
succession <strong>to</strong> each other: pevmyw (12) and its cognate provpemyon (13);<br />
spouvdason (12) and the adverb spoudaivw" (13). Quinn (1990:260) adds oiJ<br />
hJmevteroi (14) and hJma`" (15). Verse 15 discloses an interesting repetition <strong>of</strong><br />
the verb ajspavzomai and the adjective pav~ within a single verse. The repetition<br />
serves <strong>to</strong> emphasise the important function <strong>of</strong> the greetings, in particular its<br />
contribution <strong>to</strong> enhancing a sense <strong>of</strong> community. It furthermore affirms the<br />
legitimacy <strong>of</strong> the believers at Crete. Those who are far from them<br />
acknowledge them by greeting them. The same holds true for <strong>Titus</strong>, who is<br />
not serving in isolation but in community.<br />
The emphasis <strong>of</strong> this final section recalls and rejoins the opening verses <strong>of</strong><br />
this letter but not initially in as strong a manner as Quinn insists upon. With<br />
due respect <strong>to</strong> Quinn, there remains sufficient reasons <strong>to</strong> argue for a close<br />
connection between this section and the preceding units. The word pivs<strong>to</strong>~<br />
and its cognates appear nine times in this letter, in five different forms<br />
scattered in each chapter <strong>of</strong> this letter (1:1, 4, 6, 9, 13; 2:2, 10; 3:8, 15). The<br />
word cavri" also appears elsewhere in 1:11; 2:11 and 3:7. The repetition <strong>of</strong><br />
these words facilitates coherence within the letter rather than just establishing<br />
a link between two isolated units. Furthermore, overemphasising the<br />
abruptness <strong>of</strong> the unit suggests that there is very little relationship with the<br />
previous section. On the contrary, there is a very deliberate link between the<br />
two sections when considered from a <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> perspective. The abruptness<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
160
facilitates a mental break from a chilling presentation <strong>of</strong> the negative<br />
consequences for rejecting sound doctrine (11). It also introduces a positive<br />
picture <strong>of</strong> legitimate ministry and ministers. It is here where the link with the<br />
opening verses is strongest and credit must go <strong>to</strong> Quinn for his observations<br />
in this regard.<br />
The dominant <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> emphasis <strong>of</strong> this section is upon the notion <strong>of</strong><br />
legitimate ministry. No overt contrasts are presented and no new propositions<br />
are introduced. In fact, this part <strong>of</strong> the letter points back <strong>to</strong> concepts<br />
introduced in the opening <strong>of</strong> the letter.<br />
In verse 12, Paul introduces measures <strong>to</strong> ensure the perpetuation <strong>of</strong><br />
legitimate ministry in Crete. He had just advised them <strong>to</strong> reject the false<br />
teacher (3:10). Now he is about <strong>to</strong> introduce legitimate ministry. The duration<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>Titus</strong>’ ministry is limited and a replacement will be sent in the future. Collins<br />
(2002:370) considers the introduction <strong>of</strong> the four characters, Artemis,<br />
Tychicus, Zenas and Apollos an outstanding characteristic <strong>of</strong> this conclusion.<br />
The fact that Paul plans <strong>to</strong> send a replacement rather than transfer<br />
responsibility for ministry <strong>to</strong> the elder-overseers, is suggestive <strong>of</strong> the relative<br />
young age <strong>of</strong> the church in Crete. Hendriksen (1957:398) observes in this<br />
regard that “churches cannot be made ‘indigenous’ overnight. As long as<br />
leadership from the outside is necessary, it must be provided”. The kind <strong>of</strong><br />
legitimate ministry envisaged is similar <strong>to</strong> that introduced in opening portions<br />
<strong>of</strong> the letter. Whereas the ministry <strong>of</strong> Paul has divine sanction, subsequent<br />
ministry must enjoy apos<strong>to</strong>lic sanction in order <strong>to</strong> prove legitimate. Such<br />
ministry must be in harmony with that taught by the apostle.<br />
The provision <strong>of</strong> ministerial successors furthermore functions <strong>to</strong> present a<br />
positive picture <strong>of</strong> Paul. He is portrayed as one deeply concerned about the<br />
church and expresses such care through the careful appointment <strong>of</strong> sound<br />
leaders. This is what led him <strong>to</strong> leave <strong>Titus</strong> there in the first place (1:5) and<br />
now he remains unwavering in his commitment <strong>to</strong> them. Furthermore, Paul<br />
wants <strong>to</strong> ensure that the church continues <strong>to</strong> receive sound doctrine which, in<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
161
turn, requires the presence <strong>of</strong> sound teachers, hence Artemis or Tychicus.<br />
The use <strong>of</strong> the first person singular verb, pevmyw, confirms that it is Paul who<br />
will be sending one <strong>of</strong> them.<br />
Additionally, by expressing the desire for <strong>Titus</strong>’ presence, the apostle says<br />
much about the latter’s reputation with the apostle. The ministry <strong>of</strong> <strong>Titus</strong> has<br />
constantly been affirmed throughout this letter. Presently, this request that<br />
<strong>Titus</strong> join the apostle (spouvdason ejlqei`n prov" me eij" Nikovpolin) functions in a<br />
similar manner. It affirms the present ministry <strong>of</strong> <strong>Titus</strong> while still in Crete. In the<br />
eyes <strong>of</strong> the congregation, <strong>Titus</strong> is presented as one whose company the<br />
apostle seeks. Thus, if the apostle Paul appreciates <strong>Titus</strong>, how much more<br />
should the Cretans; how privileged they are <strong>to</strong> have him minister among them.<br />
If the Cretans harboured any secret wish for a visit from the apostle, such<br />
desire is disappointed by the present arrangements as well as by the<br />
information that he will be spending the winter in Nicopolis (ejkei` ga;r kevkrika<br />
paraceimavsai.)<br />
What is very clear is that the perpetuation <strong>of</strong> legitimate ministry does not<br />
require the physical presence <strong>of</strong> an apostle, only the presence <strong>of</strong> those<br />
committed <strong>to</strong> the teaching, which would eventually include elder-overseers<br />
from their own ranks (1:9).<br />
The list <strong>of</strong> names in this section also introduces at least four other men who<br />
uphold legitimate teaching and who are committed <strong>to</strong> that which the apostle is<br />
committed <strong>to</strong>, namely the integrity and perpetuation <strong>of</strong> sound doctrine among<br />
the believers. These are men who care about them, unlike the false teachers<br />
who teach from selfish and exploitative motives (1:11).<br />
The list <strong>of</strong> names functions <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong>ly <strong>to</strong> highlight again the notion <strong>of</strong><br />
legitimate ministry. Proper names are only mentioned here and in the<br />
introduc<strong>to</strong>ry parts <strong>of</strong> the letter. In this manner, the closing section functions<br />
beautifully <strong>to</strong> round <strong>of</strong>f the letter. Interestingly, though, the false teachers<br />
remain nameless.<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
162
Verse 14 is <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong>ly significant since the apostle includes a final<br />
exhortation for good works. This reiterates the lesson <strong>of</strong> the entire letter that<br />
sound doctrine results in a healthy ethic. The opportunity that is presented <strong>to</strong><br />
them is <strong>to</strong> provide practical help <strong>to</strong> those committed <strong>to</strong> legitimate teaching,<br />
Zenas and Apollos. The verb, manqavnw, is one <strong>of</strong> four synonyms used in the<br />
letter <strong>to</strong> refer <strong>to</strong> teaching and or learning: didaskaliva (1:9, 11; 2:1, 7, 10);<br />
kalodidaskavlo" (2:3), swfronivzw (2:4); and paideuvw (2:12). The word implies<br />
the existence <strong>of</strong> an attitude that responds <strong>to</strong> teaching and results in the<br />
performance <strong>of</strong> good deeds. Those who respond positively <strong>to</strong> teaching are<br />
described as “our ones/people”, oiJ hJmevteroi. This is an instance <strong>of</strong> honorific<br />
referencing or classification and is <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong>ly significant, because anyone<br />
who refuses <strong>to</strong> practise good deeds demonstrates by that refusal that he or<br />
she does not belong <strong>to</strong> the people <strong>of</strong> Paul and his delegates. The expression,<br />
kalw`n e[rgwn proivŸstasqai, repeats an earlier occurrence (3:8). In the latter<br />
appearance, those who performed good works were described as oiJ<br />
pepisteukovte" qew`/. Here, they are honorifically referenced or classified as oiJ<br />
hJmevteroi. Thus, legitimate teaching results in sound doctrine that results in<br />
good deeds by those who submit <strong>to</strong> it, demonstrating by it that they believe in<br />
God or are in community with the apostles, the delegates and the rest <strong>of</strong> the<br />
churches. The honorific reference serves <strong>to</strong> reinforce their identity and <strong>to</strong><br />
distinguish them from the false teachers and their followers. More importantly,<br />
it serves as a final reinforcement <strong>of</strong> the inseparability <strong>of</strong> sound doctrine and<br />
good deeds. The purpose clause, i{na mh; w\sin a[karpoi, uses an agricultural<br />
metaphor, and restates in the negative (a[karpoi) the necessity <strong>to</strong> bear fruit.<br />
The believer’s good works are his or her fruit. A fruit tree benefits others when<br />
it does what a fruit tree does, namely bear fruit.<br />
The closing greetings in verse 15 reinforces a sense <strong>of</strong> community and<br />
functions as an encouragement <strong>to</strong> the recipients. Interestingly, <strong>Titus</strong> receives<br />
a separate greeting from the rest <strong>of</strong> the congregation. Perhaps this serves<br />
again <strong>to</strong> reiterate the prominence <strong>of</strong> <strong>Titus</strong> <strong>to</strong> other believers, oiJ (metÆ ejmou`)<br />
pavnte" and hence <strong>to</strong> affirm him in the eyes <strong>of</strong> the Cretan believers, in line with<br />
the endearing manner in which he is referred <strong>to</strong> in the salutation (1:4). The<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
163
closing greeting <strong>to</strong> the Cretans involves another instance <strong>of</strong> honorific<br />
referencing or classification. They are called <strong>to</strong>u;" filou`nta" hJma`" ejn pivstei.<br />
This expression serves a vicarious function, firstly as a term <strong>of</strong> endearment;<br />
an affectionate reference <strong>to</strong> the congregations in Crete. The verb filevw is an<br />
instance <strong>of</strong> paranomasia at this late stage in the letter. The cognate words<br />
were used in the context <strong>of</strong> family relationships in 2:4 and with reference <strong>to</strong><br />
elders-overseers in 1:8. Wives must love their husbands and children,<br />
filavndro" and filotevkno" respectively, while local leaders must demonstrate<br />
filovxenon and be filavgaqon. Seen from this perspective the word, filevw<br />
positively reinforces the idea <strong>of</strong> family love, community and intimacy. It serves<br />
<strong>to</strong> draw Paul and the others with him relationally closer <strong>to</strong> the believers at<br />
Crete. The second and negative nuance relates <strong>to</strong> the limitation that is set<br />
through the expression ejn pivstei. In other words, it excludes those who are<br />
not “in (the) faith”. Paul’s greeting is therefore limited <strong>to</strong> those who are in the<br />
faith and <strong>to</strong> no one else; only <strong>to</strong> those who are <strong>of</strong> the same family – who are<br />
oiJ hJmevteroi (14). The Cretans are again forced <strong>to</strong> recognise that one can be<br />
“in (the) faith” or negatively “out <strong>of</strong> (the) faith”. This kind <strong>of</strong> eradication <strong>of</strong> grey<br />
areas is consistent with Paul’s argument throughout the letter. He remains<br />
uncompromising <strong>to</strong> the very end – although it must be added that the choice<br />
<strong>of</strong> vocabulary “s<strong>of</strong>tens” the reality <strong>of</strong> what he is saying in this concluding part<br />
<strong>of</strong> his letter.<br />
This gentle <strong>to</strong>ne culminates in the final sentence where it takes the form <strong>of</strong> a<br />
blessing directed <strong>to</strong> all the believers: JH cavri" meta; pavntwn uJmw`n. The<br />
<strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> function <strong>of</strong> this blessing is <strong>to</strong> encourage them as recipients <strong>of</strong> divine<br />
favour (Tolmie, 2005:223-224). The blessing represents the final appearance<br />
<strong>of</strong> the key word, cavri", used first in the salutation and scattered throughout<br />
the letter. The blessing concludes this letter in a positive <strong>to</strong>ne and brings<br />
<strong>to</strong>gether the opening and conclusion <strong>of</strong> the letter.<br />
Conclusion<br />
The dominant <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> objective <strong>of</strong> this section is <strong>to</strong> reinforce the notion <strong>of</strong><br />
legitimate teaching. This is accomplished through the use <strong>of</strong> a list <strong>of</strong> workers<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
164
that are representative <strong>of</strong> sound doctrine. The legitimacy <strong>of</strong> their ministry<br />
stems from the apos<strong>to</strong>lic mandate or affirmation there<strong>of</strong>. <strong>Titus</strong> is also affirmed,<br />
on the basis <strong>of</strong> the value the apostle attaches <strong>to</strong> his company. The list <strong>of</strong><br />
workers furthermore demonstrates the apos<strong>to</strong>lic concern and care for the<br />
congregation. Through honorific referencing, the congregation is referred <strong>to</strong> in<br />
different ways such as “our people”, those who are “in faith” and “those who<br />
love us”. The legitimacy <strong>of</strong> the teaching will be evident by their readiness <strong>to</strong><br />
perform good deeds <strong>to</strong> meet urgent needs. This is a point raised by way <strong>of</strong><br />
reminder. There is also the regular use <strong>of</strong> repetition and paranomasia. The<br />
particular repetition <strong>of</strong> key words from the introduc<strong>to</strong>ry portions <strong>of</strong> this letter<br />
adds <strong>to</strong> the feeling <strong>of</strong> an argument that has gone full circle. The final <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong><br />
technique is the concluding blessing, which functions as an encouragement <strong>to</strong><br />
all the saints with the emphatic employment <strong>of</strong> the adjective pav~.<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
165
SECTION 3<br />
CONCLUSION<br />
In Section 1, the research hypothesis on which this study was based was<br />
outlined as follows: A thorough text-<strong>centred</strong> <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> approach <strong>to</strong> the <strong>Letter</strong><br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>Titus</strong> (i.e. without relating it <strong>to</strong> the other two Pas<strong>to</strong>ral <strong>Letter</strong>s or approaching<br />
it in terms <strong>of</strong> the authenticity/inauthenticity debate) will yield new insights for<br />
its interpretation.<br />
Guided by this research hypothesis, this <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> <strong>analysis</strong> <strong>of</strong> the <strong>Letter</strong> <strong>to</strong><br />
<strong>Titus</strong> was, accordingly, an endeavour <strong>to</strong> firstly, investigate the uniqueness <strong>of</strong><br />
this letter based upon the assumption that it stands independently from the<br />
Timothean correspondence. Secondly, it involved an attempt at analysing<br />
Paul’s <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> strategy from the letter itself. The methodology employed <strong>to</strong><br />
achieve this was a minimal theoretical framework methodology for <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong><br />
<strong>analysis</strong>, which was developed by Tolmie (2005) for a text-<strong>centred</strong> <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong><br />
<strong>analysis</strong> by which the persuasive strategy in a text can be identified and<br />
described.<br />
The important question <strong>to</strong> be asked now is: “Did this study indeed yield new<br />
insights, as foreseen in Chapter 1?” To begin, it should be pointed out that this<br />
study is the only comprehensive, as well as the only text-<strong>centred</strong>, <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong><br />
<strong>analysis</strong> <strong>of</strong> the <strong>Letter</strong> <strong>to</strong> <strong>Titus</strong> currently existing – in itself a contribution <strong>to</strong> New<br />
Testament scholarship. As I have indicated in Chapter 1, the <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong><br />
interest in the Pas<strong>to</strong>rals is generally rare and in the case <strong>of</strong> <strong>Titus</strong> it is virtually<br />
non-existent. With regard <strong>to</strong> <strong>Titus</strong>, this it has been suggested that this is<br />
attributable, firstly, <strong>to</strong> the relative novelty <strong>of</strong> the <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> critical approach<br />
and, secondly, <strong>to</strong> the brevity <strong>of</strong> the letter in comparison <strong>to</strong> the other two<br />
letters. <strong>Titus</strong> <strong>of</strong>ten appears <strong>to</strong> be treated as a footnote within the greater<br />
discussion <strong>of</strong> the Timothean corpus. The only recent work that focuses<br />
exclusively upon the rhe<strong>to</strong>ric <strong>of</strong> the <strong>Letter</strong> <strong>to</strong> <strong>Titus</strong> is that <strong>of</strong> Joachim Classen.<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
166
While having much <strong>to</strong> commend, the work unfortunately has several<br />
shortcomings: It does not really investigate persuasion in the letter; it is<br />
exegetical rather than <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong>ly oriented; and it does not provide a<br />
comprehensive <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> treatment <strong>of</strong> the letter. Compared <strong>to</strong> that <strong>of</strong> Classen,<br />
this study focuses specifically on the issue <strong>of</strong> persuasion, is much more<br />
comprehensive, and is, furthermore, based on a <strong>to</strong>tally different <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong><br />
approach. Of course, these claims are open for evaluation by other scholars.<br />
Furthermore, I trust that the detailed <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> <strong>analysis</strong> presented in Section<br />
2, also provided new insights with regard <strong>to</strong> the details <strong>of</strong> the <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong><br />
strategy in particular sections in the <strong>Letter</strong> <strong>to</strong> <strong>Titus</strong>, both in terms <strong>of</strong> the way in<br />
which the dominant <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> strategy <strong>of</strong> a particular section could be<br />
described, as well as the discussion <strong>of</strong> the detailed issues relating <strong>to</strong> this.<br />
These will not be repeated here. Instead, the focus will now fall on the overall<br />
<strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> strategy in the letter. This can be approached from different angles:<br />
On the one hand, the step-by-step development <strong>of</strong> the overall argument<br />
should be summarised. Based on the <strong>analysis</strong> provided in Section 2, the<br />
broad persuasive strategy in the letter (in terms <strong>of</strong> the changes in dominant<br />
<strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> strategy) can now be outlined as follows:<br />
1. <strong>Titus</strong> 1:1-4: Adapting the salutation <strong>to</strong> emphasise the divine basis <strong>of</strong><br />
legitimate ministry<br />
2: <strong>Titus</strong> 1:5-9: Outlining the criteria for legitimate local leadership<br />
3: <strong>Titus</strong> 1:10-16: Discrediting the illegitimate teachers<br />
4: <strong>Titus</strong> 2:1: Distinguishing <strong>Titus</strong> as a minister <strong>of</strong> sound doctrine on the<br />
basis <strong>of</strong> apos<strong>to</strong>lic authorisation<br />
5: <strong>Titus</strong> 2:2-10: Persuading the Cretans that personal conduct<br />
compliant with sound doctrine is compulsory and should characterise<br />
all believers<br />
6: <strong>Titus</strong> 2:11-15: Emphasising the divine basis <strong>of</strong> obedience <strong>to</strong> sound<br />
doctrine<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
167
7: <strong>Titus</strong> 3:1-2: Persuading the Cretans <strong>of</strong> the compulsory treatment <strong>of</strong><br />
all unbelievers in a manner consistent with sound doctrine<br />
8: <strong>Titus</strong> 3:3: Evoking disgust with past sinful behaviour in order <strong>to</strong><br />
reinforce behaviour in the present that complies with sound doctrine<br />
9: <strong>Titus</strong> 3:4-7: Persuading the Cretans that displaying good works <strong>to</strong><br />
those considered undeserving demonstrates conformity <strong>to</strong> the divine<br />
example<br />
10: <strong>Titus</strong> 3:8-11: Reinforcing the differences between sound and<br />
illegitimate doctrine in order <strong>to</strong> encourage compliance <strong>to</strong> the former and<br />
rejection <strong>of</strong> the latter<br />
11: <strong>Titus</strong> 3:12-15: Adapting the conclusion <strong>to</strong> reemphasise the notion <strong>of</strong><br />
legitimate ministry<br />
The above outline evinces certain thematic repetitions or emphases. For<br />
example, the opening and closing units both emphasise legitimate teaching.<br />
Units 5 and 7 raise the issue <strong>of</strong> compliant behaviour while units 1, 6 and 9<br />
evince a distinctly theological character. It raises the question, whether these<br />
apparent thematic commonalities are deliberate creations, part <strong>of</strong> the author's<br />
overall <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> strategy or whether they are incidental, a random expression<br />
<strong>of</strong> unrelated ideas. More importantly, is the question whether any coherent<br />
pattern suggestive <strong>of</strong> an overall <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> strategy is discernible from these<br />
summaries. In response <strong>to</strong> the latter question, I suggest that a deliberate<br />
overall <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> strategy can be indicated in the letter. The three theological<br />
sections (Units 1, 6 and 9), each made up <strong>of</strong> one long sentence, are<br />
complimented by three sections, that describe or relate <strong>to</strong> certain behaviour.<br />
The complimentary sections include 1:5-16, 2:1-10 and 3:1-3 respectively.<br />
Within their respective contexts, the three theological sections are<br />
programmatic for identifying a step-by-step development <strong>of</strong> <strong>Paul's</strong> overall<br />
<strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> strategy in the letter.<br />
Let us first consider the overall <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> objective. The apostle opens the<br />
letter giving a very clear indication <strong>of</strong> his mandate as a servant and an apostle<br />
(1:1), namely that he serves in this capacity kata; pivstin ejklektw`n qeou` kai;<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
168
ejpivgnwsin ajlhqeiva" th`" katÆ eujsevbeian. The objectives <strong>of</strong> his ministry relate<br />
<strong>to</strong> the divinely elect ones who are characterised by very particular behaviour.<br />
This initial emphasis therefore, is suggestive <strong>of</strong> the problem that the Cretans<br />
were being confronted with, namely the threat <strong>of</strong> compromising the high<br />
standard <strong>of</strong> living in the present life, katÆ eujsevbeian. Thus, in 1:16 the key<br />
characteristic <strong>of</strong> the agita<strong>to</strong>rs is their paradoxical pr<strong>of</strong>ession <strong>of</strong> God and their<br />
denial <strong>of</strong> Him by their deeds or works, qeo;n oJmologou`sin eijdevnai, <strong>to</strong>i`" de;<br />
e[rgoi" ajrnou`ntai. The objective <strong>of</strong> the apostle therefore, relates <strong>to</strong> the<br />
maintenance or res<strong>to</strong>ration <strong>of</strong> the following balance: deeds that affirm and<br />
correspond <strong>to</strong> the testimony <strong>of</strong> faith in God. Behaviour, however, does not<br />
happen in a vacuum but is influenced, if not determined by doctrine. In the<br />
letter, we have two groups <strong>of</strong> teachers with opposing doctrines competing for<br />
the same audience. Paul, in 1:1, informs the audience that he is a minister “for<br />
the knowledge <strong>of</strong> the truth”, ejpivgnwsin ajlhqeiva". The overall <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong><br />
objective is thus related <strong>to</strong> the notion <strong>of</strong> doctrinal quality. The congregation<br />
must be persuaded <strong>to</strong> embrace healthy doctrine, while rejecting unhealthy<br />
doctrine based upon the submission <strong>of</strong> convincing evidence. In the light <strong>of</strong><br />
these considerations, I submit that the following three-stage overall <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong><br />
strategy underlies the letter.<br />
First stage: 1:1-16: Convince the audience <strong>of</strong> the transcendent character <strong>of</strong><br />
the origin <strong>of</strong> legitimate teaching and <strong>of</strong> those who teach it<br />
This stage in the overall <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> strategy underlies the first three units<br />
identified in the <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> <strong>analysis</strong>:<br />
1. <strong>Titus</strong> 1:1-4: Adapting the salutation <strong>to</strong> emphasise the divine basis <strong>of</strong><br />
legitimate ministry<br />
2: <strong>Titus</strong> 1:5-9: Outlining the criteria for legitimate local leadership<br />
3: <strong>Titus</strong> 1:10-16: Discrediting the illegitimate teachers<br />
The first thing the apostle needs <strong>to</strong> do is <strong>to</strong> persuade the Cretans <strong>to</strong><br />
distinguish between “doctrine” and “doctrine”, as well as between “teachers”<br />
and “teachers”. Legitimate teaching is “the truth” (1:1), it comes from God<br />
through designated <strong>of</strong>fice bearers that includes apostles, delegates <strong>of</strong> the<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
169
apostles and lay leaders appointed by the apos<strong>to</strong>lic delegate (1:1-9). The<br />
conduct <strong>of</strong> the lay leaders combined with a thorough commitment <strong>to</strong> the<br />
“faithful word” (1:9) is what sets them apart from the illegitimate teachers who<br />
are vilified and ultimately shown <strong>to</strong> have no relationship with God (1:16). In<br />
other words, the false teachers are shown <strong>to</strong> be illegitimate by their conduct<br />
as well as by the absence <strong>of</strong> divine legitimisation <strong>of</strong> their persons. In this way,<br />
the transcendent character <strong>of</strong> legitimate teaching is emphasised and attempts<br />
<strong>to</strong> counter an attitude that seems <strong>to</strong> reason that teaching is teaching and<br />
teachers are teachers. This transcendence relates <strong>to</strong> the origin <strong>of</strong> the teaching<br />
and the authorisation <strong>of</strong> the teachers. A relationship is set up between<br />
legitimate teaching and the theological origin there<strong>of</strong>. Thus, this section<br />
attempts <strong>to</strong> show that sound doctrine is legitimate. It is transcendent, because<br />
its origin is divine. Those who are authorised <strong>to</strong> teach sound doctrine, derive<br />
their authorisation from its transcendent source, namely God. Conversely,<br />
teaching and teachers that are not divinely authorised or theologically<br />
justifiable are invalid and <strong>of</strong> no benefit <strong>to</strong> the church. Where that transcendent<br />
source or divine link between the teaching and the teachers is absent, both<br />
must be rejected.<br />
Second stage: 2:1-15: Convince the audience <strong>of</strong> the transcendent character <strong>of</strong><br />
behaviour accompanying legitimate teaching<br />
This stage in the overall <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> objective underlies units 4-6 identified in the<br />
<strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> <strong>analysis</strong> <strong>of</strong> the letter:<br />
4: <strong>Titus</strong> 2:1: Distinguishing <strong>Titus</strong> as a minister <strong>of</strong> sound doctrine on the<br />
basis <strong>of</strong> apos<strong>to</strong>lic authorisation<br />
5: <strong>Titus</strong> 2:2-10: Persuading the Cretans that personal conduct<br />
compliant with sound doctrine is compulsory and should characterise<br />
all believers<br />
6: <strong>Titus</strong> 2:11-15: Emphasising the divine basis <strong>of</strong> obedience <strong>to</strong> sound<br />
doctrine<br />
This stage begins with the authorisation <strong>of</strong> <strong>Titus</strong>’ ministry in unit 4 (2:1), which<br />
really distinguishes it from what was said <strong>of</strong> the illegitimate teachers (1:10-16).<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
170
Unit 5 (2:2-10) contains descriptions <strong>of</strong> behaviour by various categories <strong>of</strong><br />
believers that constitute manifestations <strong>of</strong> compliance <strong>to</strong> sound doctrine. The<br />
next unit (2:11-15) explains the specified conduct in theological terms. This<br />
has the effect <strong>of</strong> elevating the behaviour <strong>to</strong> a divine level, which highlights the<br />
transcendent character <strong>of</strong> the behaviour. At one level, the required behaviour<br />
is what society in general would commend. However, the conduct <strong>of</strong> believers<br />
becomes a manifestation <strong>of</strong> a divine reality, namely the appearance <strong>of</strong> grace<br />
in the life <strong>of</strong> believers. If believers were asked <strong>to</strong> explain their conduct, they<br />
would respond something like this: “Our teacher is grace who teaches us <strong>to</strong><br />
conduct ourselves in this manner. In other words, believers are not merely<br />
manifesting behaviour that society deems good.” The behaviour <strong>of</strong> believers is<br />
thus motivated by a transcendent cause or motive, namely the appearance <strong>of</strong><br />
grace and the complete transformation that they have experienced (2:11-15).<br />
They are behaving like God’s people, living in anticipation <strong>of</strong> the appearing <strong>of</strong><br />
Jesus Christ (2:12), a redeemed people, a cleansed people, zealous for good<br />
works (2:13). Thus, the believers are not simply practising good manners,<br />
instead their behaviour is explicable by theological reasons; there is a<br />
theological basis <strong>to</strong> explain why believers conduct themselves the way they<br />
do. Thus, there is nothing “ordinary” about the way Christians ought <strong>to</strong><br />
behave.<br />
Third stage: 3:1-7: Convince the audience <strong>of</strong> the transcendent character <strong>of</strong><br />
their relationships with secular society<br />
This stage in the <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> strategy underlies units 7-9 identified in the<br />
<strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> <strong>analysis</strong>:<br />
7: <strong>Titus</strong> 3:1-2: Persuading the Cretans <strong>of</strong> the compulsory treatment <strong>of</strong><br />
all unbelievers in a manner consistent with sound doctrine<br />
8: <strong>Titus</strong> 3:3: Evoking disgust with past sinful behaviour in order <strong>to</strong><br />
reinforce behaviour in the present that complies with sound doctrine<br />
9: <strong>Titus</strong> 3:4-7: Persuading the Cretans that displaying good works <strong>to</strong><br />
those considered undeserving demonstrates conformity <strong>to</strong> the divine<br />
example<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
171
In unit 7 (3:1-2), the relationship <strong>of</strong> believers <strong>to</strong> their secular environment<br />
comes under the spotlight. It appears as if the false teaching encouraged a<br />
withdrawal from or even hostility <strong>to</strong>wards secular society. Based upon the<br />
existence <strong>of</strong> prior knowledge, Paul argues that the Cretans already know how<br />
<strong>to</strong> conduct themselves <strong>to</strong>wards secular authorities. In unit 8 (3:3), the apostle<br />
uses the <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> technique <strong>of</strong> self-vilification <strong>to</strong> inspire disgust in order <strong>to</strong><br />
persuade the Cretans <strong>to</strong> behave properly <strong>to</strong>wards secular society. The<br />
transcendent motivation for their behaviour is provided in unit 9 (3:4-7). God<br />
acted kindly <strong>to</strong>wards the Cretans when they were least deserving <strong>of</strong> it. Their<br />
attitude <strong>to</strong>wards secular society is therefore, more than just decent citizenship;<br />
it follows the transcendent example <strong>of</strong> God.<br />
3:8-15: Concluding phase<br />
In units 10 and 11 the concluding stage in the <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> strategy follows. This<br />
comprises units 10 and 11:<br />
10: <strong>Titus</strong> 3:8-11: Reinforcing the differences between sound and<br />
illegitimate doctrine in order <strong>to</strong> encourage compliance <strong>to</strong> the former and<br />
rejection <strong>of</strong> the latter<br />
11: <strong>Titus</strong> 3:12-15: Adapting the conclusion <strong>to</strong> reemphasise the notion <strong>of</strong><br />
legitimate ministry<br />
In summary: The overall <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> objective relates <strong>to</strong> the use <strong>of</strong> theological<br />
motivations for the adoption <strong>of</strong> sound doctrine and the practice <strong>of</strong> sound<br />
behaviour by the Cretans. Sound doctrine and corresponding behaviour are<br />
inseparably connected <strong>to</strong> a theological basis, namely the manifestation <strong>of</strong><br />
“God’s word” (1:3), “God’s grace” (2:11), and “God’s kindness and love for<br />
mankind” (3:4). Thus, the doctrine is portrayed as transcendent, because it<br />
comes from God; the required behaviour is motivated transcendentally,<br />
because it is taught by God; the manifestation <strong>of</strong> kindness <strong>to</strong> non-Christians is<br />
motivated transcendentally, because God first demonstrated his kindness<br />
<strong>to</strong>wards the Cretans when they were unsaved. There is therefore, nothing<br />
“ordinary” about what is required from the Cretan believers. On the contrary,<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
172
the false teaching encourages behaviour that makes no real distinction<br />
between believers and unbelievers.<br />
The overall <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> strategy may also be approached from another angle,<br />
not in terms <strong>of</strong> the chronological development <strong>of</strong> the argument as outlined<br />
above, but in terms <strong>of</strong> the commonalities between the dominant <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong><br />
objectives. In terms <strong>of</strong> this approach, four different (but related) <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong><br />
objectives can be identified:<br />
Paul’s first objective is <strong>to</strong> persuade the Cretans <strong>of</strong> the need <strong>to</strong> recognise<br />
legitimate ministry. This he does in units 1 (1:1-4), 2 (1:5-9), 4 (2:1) and 11<br />
(3:12-15). He begins by trying <strong>to</strong> convince the audience <strong>of</strong> the legitimacy <strong>of</strong><br />
teachers and their teaching. In unit 1 (1:1-4), he presents himself as a<br />
legitimate teacher by arguing on the basis <strong>of</strong> divine authorisation. To this end<br />
he adapts the salutation <strong>to</strong> emphasise the divine basis <strong>of</strong> legitimate ministry,<br />
which includes the legitimisation both <strong>of</strong> the doctrine and the teacher. The<br />
same unit also includes apos<strong>to</strong>lic authorisation <strong>of</strong> the ministry <strong>of</strong> <strong>Titus</strong>. Unit 2<br />
(1:1-4) sees the delegation <strong>of</strong> authority <strong>to</strong> <strong>Titus</strong> who is authorised <strong>to</strong> appoint<br />
local leaders. The dominant <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> objective <strong>of</strong> this unit is <strong>to</strong> specify the<br />
criteria for legitimate local leadership. In unit 4 (2:1), the dominant <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong><br />
objective is <strong>to</strong> distinguish <strong>Titus</strong> on the basis <strong>of</strong> apos<strong>to</strong>lic authorisation, as a<br />
minister <strong>of</strong> sound doctrine from the illegitimate teachers <strong>of</strong> unit 3 (1:10-16). In<br />
unit 11 (3:12-15), Paul adapts the conclusion <strong>to</strong> reemphasise the notion <strong>of</strong><br />
legitimate ministry by the introduction <strong>of</strong> Tychicus, Artemis, Zenas and Apollos<br />
who are examples <strong>of</strong> apos<strong>to</strong>lically authorised ministers <strong>of</strong> the church. Thus, in<br />
these four units we have three levels <strong>of</strong> authorisation <strong>of</strong> legitimate ministry: <strong>of</strong><br />
Paul by God; <strong>of</strong> <strong>Titus</strong>, Artemis or Tychicus, Zenas and Apollos by Paul and <strong>of</strong><br />
the elder-overseers by <strong>Titus</strong>. These units, collectively, convey the notion that<br />
the teaching ministry in the church is not for any ambitious Tom, Dick and<br />
Harry: There are clear guidelines that must be satisfied with respect <strong>to</strong> those<br />
who teach as well as regards the content <strong>of</strong> their teaching.<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
173
The second objective is <strong>to</strong> highlight God’s central role as the Author <strong>of</strong> sound<br />
doctrine, the Teacher <strong>of</strong> sound doctrine and the Model <strong>of</strong> good deeds. Three<br />
key units express this objective, namely units 1 (1:1-4), 6 (2:11-15) and 9 (3:4-<br />
7). Each <strong>of</strong> these units consists <strong>of</strong> a single sentence and each one focuses<br />
almost exclusively on the role <strong>of</strong> God. In unit 1 (1:1-4), the dominant <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong><br />
objective involved adapting the salutation <strong>to</strong> emphasise the divine basis <strong>of</strong><br />
legitimate ministry. At one level, the unit introduces the notion <strong>of</strong> the<br />
legitimisation <strong>of</strong> ministry. At another level, it also introduces the notion <strong>of</strong> the<br />
divine authorship <strong>of</strong> sound doctrine which is presented as the manifestation <strong>of</strong><br />
“His word”, ejfanevrwsen …. <strong>to</strong>;n lovgon auj<strong>to</strong>u' (1:3). In this way, Paul<br />
establishes from the outset the following notion: “What I’m presenting <strong>to</strong> you is<br />
God’s word. <strong>Titus</strong>, the elder-overseers and other legitimate teachers will do<br />
the same. Sound doctrine is sound, because sound doctrine is God’s word”. In<br />
Unit 6 (2:11-15), the dominant <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> objective was described as<br />
emphasising the divine basis <strong>of</strong> obedience <strong>to</strong> sound doctrine. It communicates<br />
the following notion: “When you adjust your behaviour, so that it complies with<br />
sound doctrine, you are really showing your obedience <strong>to</strong> God rather than <strong>to</strong><br />
man, because God is the real teacher <strong>of</strong> sound doctrine”. The dominant<br />
<strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> objective <strong>of</strong> Unit 9 (3:4-7) is <strong>to</strong> persuade the Cretans that displaying<br />
good works <strong>to</strong> those considered <strong>to</strong> be undeserving demonstrates conformity<br />
<strong>to</strong> the example <strong>of</strong> God. It communicates the following notion: “What are you<br />
doing? Don’t you understand you are most like God when you practise good<br />
deeds <strong>to</strong> those whom you do not consider worthy? Then you are following his<br />
example. Decide whose example you want <strong>to</strong> follow!”<br />
The third objective is <strong>to</strong> alienate the Cretans from any apparent or potential<br />
allegiance <strong>to</strong> unhealthy doctrine and its propaga<strong>to</strong>rs. This is addressed in<br />
units 3 (1:10-16) and 10 (3:8-11). In the prior unit, the dominant <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong><br />
objective is <strong>to</strong> discredit the illegitimate teachers through the <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong><br />
technique <strong>of</strong> vilification. It communicates the notion that illegitimate teachers<br />
must be avoided since they are neither divinely nor apos<strong>to</strong>lically authorised <strong>to</strong><br />
minister <strong>to</strong> the church. Unit 10 (3:8-11) reemphasises the notion <strong>of</strong> illegitimate<br />
teaching by contrasting it with sound doctrine. The dominant <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong><br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
174
objective can be summarised as reinforcing the differences between sound<br />
and illegitimate doctrine in order <strong>to</strong> encourage compliance <strong>to</strong> the former and<br />
rejection <strong>of</strong> the latter. The <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> technique <strong>of</strong> vilification is utilised again,<br />
but this time the emphasis is upon the vilification <strong>of</strong> both the unsound doctrine<br />
as well as the promoter there<strong>of</strong>.<br />
The fourth objective is <strong>to</strong> emphasise the relationship between sound doctrine<br />
and behaviour consequential <strong>to</strong> the doctrine. This happens in units 5 (2:2-10),<br />
7 (3:1-2), 8 (3:3) and 10 (3:8-11). In unit 5 (2:2-10), the dominant <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong><br />
objective is <strong>to</strong> persuade the Cretans that personal conduct compliant with<br />
sound doctrine is compulsory and should characterise all believers. The<br />
notion the apostle seems <strong>to</strong> communicate can be summarised as follows:<br />
“Sound doctrine from sound teachers should manifest as sound behaviour<br />
among all believers”. This unit follows the description <strong>of</strong> the illegitimate<br />
teachers who “pr<strong>of</strong>ess <strong>to</strong> know God but deny Him by their deeds” (1:16). Unit<br />
7 (3:1-2) expresses the following dominant <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> objective, namely <strong>to</strong><br />
persuade the Cretans <strong>of</strong> the compulsory treatment <strong>of</strong> all unbelievers in a<br />
manner consistent with sound doctrine. It conveys the following notion:<br />
“Sound doctrine ought <strong>to</strong> make model citizens <strong>of</strong> you. Even the rest <strong>of</strong> society<br />
expects this from you”. In unit 8 (3:3), the dominant <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> objective was<br />
summarised as follows: evoking disgust with past sinful behaviour in order <strong>to</strong><br />
reinforce behaviour in the present that complies with sound doctrine. The<br />
notion it conveys can be summarised as follows: “Expecting you <strong>to</strong> behave in<br />
a civil manner <strong>to</strong>wards those whom you consider unworthy is not<br />
unreasonable. In fact, it is but another opportunity <strong>to</strong> manifest the doctrine we<br />
believe. Don’t forget, we were all once undeserving brutes”. In unit 10 (3:8-<br />
11), the dominant <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> objective is described as reinforcing the<br />
differences between sound and illegitimate doctrine in order <strong>to</strong> encourage<br />
compliance <strong>to</strong> the former and rejection <strong>of</strong> the latter. It conveys the following<br />
notion: “This doctrine is proven. I, Paul confirm this <strong>to</strong> be true and if you obey<br />
it you can only benefit. It will prove that you really believe in God”.<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
175
These four objectives may be summarised as follows:<br />
First objective: Convince the audience <strong>of</strong> the need <strong>to</strong> recognise legitimate<br />
forms <strong>of</strong> ministry – units 1 (1:1-4), 2 (1:1-4), 4 (2:1) and 11 (3:12-15).<br />
Second objective: Convince the audience <strong>of</strong> God’s central role as the Author<br />
<strong>of</strong> sound doctrine, the Teacher <strong>of</strong> sound doctrine and the Model <strong>of</strong> good<br />
deeds –units 1 (1:1-4), 6 (2:11-15) and 9 (3:4-7).<br />
Third objective: Convince the audience <strong>to</strong> alienate themselves from any<br />
apparent or potential allegiance <strong>to</strong> unhealthy doctrine and its propaga<strong>to</strong>rs –<br />
units 3 (1:10-16) and 10 (3:8-11).<br />
Fourth objective: Convince the audience <strong>of</strong> the relationship between sound<br />
doctrine and behaviour consequential <strong>to</strong> the doctrine – units 5 (2:2-10), 7 (3:1-<br />
2), 8 (3:3) and 10 (3:8-11).<br />
The discussion above shows how this study contributes a unique and distinct<br />
description <strong>of</strong> the overall <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> strategy <strong>of</strong> the <strong>Letter</strong> <strong>to</strong> <strong>Titus</strong>. It differs from<br />
other studies <strong>of</strong> this letter by presenting a comprehensive <strong>analysis</strong> <strong>of</strong> the<br />
letter, utilising a text-<strong>centred</strong> <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> approach. This approach presupposes<br />
the existence <strong>of</strong> <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> strategies within the text and seeks <strong>to</strong> identify and<br />
describe the author’s <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> strategy from the text itself, not only section by<br />
section, but also in terms <strong>of</strong> overall strategy and recurrent objectives. There is,<br />
<strong>to</strong> my knowledge, no other study <strong>of</strong> this nature that utilises this methodology<br />
and applies it in particular <strong>to</strong> the <strong>Letter</strong> <strong>to</strong> <strong>Titus</strong>. This study therefore, presents<br />
an opportunity for other scholars <strong>to</strong> scrutinise this contribution and <strong>to</strong> agree or<br />
disagree with the findings contained therein.<br />
A further benefit <strong>of</strong> the approach followed in this <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> <strong>analysis</strong> is that it<br />
allows one <strong>to</strong> identify the type <strong>of</strong> arguments employed in the letter. In this<br />
regard, the following can be identified:<br />
o Arguments based on the notion <strong>of</strong> divine authorisation<br />
Arguments based on the notion <strong>of</strong> divine authorisation are<br />
foundational for the apostle’s <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> strategy in this letter. It is<br />
by far the most frequently used type <strong>of</strong> argument in this letter<br />
(followed by arguments based on shared knowledge – see next<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
176
section). In a letter <strong>of</strong> this nature that deals with issues <strong>of</strong><br />
legitimacy and the challenge <strong>of</strong> illegitimacy, it is important <strong>to</strong><br />
establish the basis <strong>of</strong> legitimacy. It is, therefore, significant that<br />
the apostle’s first objective is <strong>to</strong> convince the Cretans <strong>of</strong> the<br />
divine basis <strong>of</strong> legitimate ministry. Since the church is God’s<br />
elect, ejklek<strong>to</strong>iv qeou', He has a right <strong>to</strong> prescribe who may or<br />
may not minister <strong>to</strong> them. Equally important, is the second<br />
dominant <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> objective, which sets out <strong>to</strong> convince the<br />
Cretans <strong>of</strong> God’s central role as the Author <strong>of</strong> sound doctrine,<br />
the Teacher <strong>of</strong> sound doctrine and the Model <strong>of</strong> good deeds.<br />
Related <strong>to</strong> this, is the concept that God expects a particular<br />
behaviour from those who pr<strong>of</strong>ess <strong>to</strong> believe in Him. Hence, any<br />
failure <strong>to</strong> behave in a manner compliant <strong>to</strong> sound doctrine is<br />
presented as tantamount <strong>to</strong> a denial <strong>of</strong> God (1:16). Also, in 2:2-<br />
10, the negligent behaviour <strong>of</strong> believers can either be a cause<br />
for God’s word <strong>to</strong> be maligned, or God’s doctrine can be<br />
adorned by sound conduct. Similarly, the reference <strong>to</strong> Cretans<br />
as “those who believe in God”, oiJ pepisteukovte" qew`/, is another<br />
variation <strong>of</strong> this kind <strong>of</strong> argument that God expects a particular<br />
behaviour from those who believe in Him. Following on from this,<br />
is a further variation <strong>of</strong> the divine authorisation argument,<br />
namely the divine prerogative or the right <strong>of</strong> the divine. This<br />
argument is closely related <strong>to</strong> the argument <strong>of</strong> the divine<br />
expectation <strong>of</strong> a particular behaviour. According <strong>to</strong> 2:11-15, God<br />
has a right over those whom He has redeemed (lutroovmai) and<br />
cleansed (kaqarivzw) from all lawlessness (ajpo; pavsh" ajnomiva").<br />
Since God is the one who purchased and cleansed the Cretan<br />
believers, they belong <strong>to</strong> Him; hence the prerogative <strong>to</strong> prescribe<br />
the appropriate behaviour belongs <strong>to</strong> Him.<br />
Furthermore, this line <strong>of</strong> argumentation is foundational for the<br />
past-present-future momentum characteristic <strong>of</strong> this letter. There<br />
is a hope, ejlpiv~, but only those who behave in the divinely<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
177
expected manner can look forward <strong>to</strong> it. Negatively, this implies<br />
that those who deviate from the expected behaviour can<br />
anticipate the opposite <strong>of</strong> what the obedient ones are expecting.<br />
o Arguments based on shared knowledge<br />
Arguments based on shared knowledge employ accepted<br />
societal norms regarding proper and acceptable behaviour as a<br />
legitimate yardstick <strong>of</strong> behaviour. The virtue and vice lists<br />
pertaining <strong>to</strong> elder-overseers and illegitimate teachers<br />
respectively (1:5-9, 10-16) are examples <strong>of</strong> this kind <strong>of</strong><br />
argument. It is also used in 2:2-10 with regard <strong>to</strong> the conduct <strong>of</strong><br />
believers as well as in 3:1-3. Paul uses these arguments <strong>to</strong><br />
convince the Cretans <strong>of</strong> the necessity <strong>to</strong> behave in a manner<br />
compliant with sound doctrine, which will reflect behaviour<br />
considered admirable by society. Negatively, this kind <strong>of</strong><br />
argument serves <strong>to</strong> present the false teachers in a bad light by<br />
highlighting the extent <strong>to</strong> which their conduct contradicts the<br />
positive behaviour that society in general upholds. This line <strong>of</strong><br />
argumentation makes it very difficult for the Cretans not <strong>to</strong><br />
conduct themselves in a manner compliant with the sound<br />
doctrine. Its persuasive power also lies in the fact that the<br />
commendable conduct is obvious and known <strong>to</strong> all.<br />
o Arguments based on the existence <strong>of</strong> prior knowledge or based<br />
on the appeal <strong>to</strong> memory<br />
Paul uses an argument based on the appeal <strong>to</strong> the memory or<br />
prior knowledge <strong>of</strong> his audience in 3:1-3. This kind <strong>of</strong><br />
argumentation presents the audience with an opportunity for a<br />
subjective evaluation <strong>of</strong> the information presented <strong>to</strong> them. They<br />
can evaluate the consistency <strong>of</strong> the doctrine because they are<br />
not expected <strong>to</strong> comprehend new information. They are called <strong>to</strong><br />
act in ways they have known <strong>to</strong> be consistent with sound<br />
doctrine. On the negative side, a refusal <strong>to</strong> act consistent with<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
178
what they have known <strong>to</strong> be true would amount <strong>to</strong> a moral<br />
paradox, thus making this line <strong>of</strong> argumentation very persuasive.<br />
o Arguments based on the notion <strong>of</strong> irreconcilable conduct<br />
The salutation lays the groundwork for this line <strong>of</strong> argumentation<br />
when the church is referred <strong>to</strong> as ejklek<strong>to</strong>iv qeou`, whose faith and<br />
knowledge <strong>of</strong> the truth must be for the goal <strong>of</strong> conforming <strong>to</strong><br />
godliness, eujsevbeia. Thus, godliness will characterise the<br />
ejklek<strong>to</strong>iv qeou'. An ungodly ejklek<strong>to</strong>v~ qeou' would be unthinkable<br />
or irreconcilable.<br />
In 2:11-14, Paul describes the Cretans as God's own<br />
possession, zealous for good works, … eJautw`/ lao;n periouvsion,<br />
zhlwth;n kalw`n e[rgwn. The argument is as follows: Those who<br />
belong <strong>to</strong> God are zealous for good works, Cretans believers<br />
belong <strong>to</strong> God, and therefore the Cretans believers are zealous<br />
for good works. Negatively, this argument contends that the<br />
absence <strong>of</strong> a zeal for good works is tantamount <strong>to</strong> not belonging<br />
<strong>to</strong> God. It is thus a form <strong>of</strong> irreconcilable conduct <strong>to</strong> belong <strong>to</strong><br />
God and not <strong>to</strong> be zealous for good works.<br />
The reference <strong>to</strong> the believers in 3:8 as frontivzwsin kalw`n<br />
e[rgwn proivŸstasqai oiJ pepisteukovte" qew`/ is another instance <strong>of</strong><br />
this line <strong>of</strong> argumentation. To believe in God, and not engage in<br />
good deeds would also constitute irreconcilable conduct.<br />
e. Arguments based upon identification with the audience<br />
In 3:3, the apostle argues on the basis <strong>of</strong> identification with his<br />
audience in order <strong>to</strong> achieve his objective <strong>of</strong> engendering a<br />
compliant attitude. This technique provides the apostle with a<br />
platform from which <strong>to</strong> address his audience, effectively<br />
reinforcing his authority over or right <strong>to</strong> speak <strong>to</strong> them with great<br />
liberty and confidence.<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
179
f. Arguments based on the use <strong>of</strong> vilification <strong>of</strong> the opposition<br />
Vilification is a technique that Paul uses very effectively <strong>to</strong><br />
influence the perception <strong>of</strong> his audience regarding the<br />
opposition. In units 3 (1:10-16) and 10 (3:8-11), he sets out <strong>to</strong><br />
persuade his audience concerning the illegitimacy <strong>of</strong> the<br />
doctrine <strong>of</strong> the opposition. The intention is <strong>to</strong> get the audience <strong>to</strong><br />
change their minds about the false teachers and their teaching<br />
by raising doubts concerning their character and their teaching.<br />
For example, he refers <strong>to</strong> their teaching as “things”, a} (1:11)<br />
while the quote in 1:12 is used <strong>to</strong> cast doubt upon the character<br />
<strong>of</strong> the false teachers, being yeu`stai, kaka; qhriva, gastevre"<br />
ajrgaiv.<br />
Lastly, attention should be focused on the wide range <strong>of</strong> <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> techniques<br />
employed in the <strong>Letter</strong> <strong>to</strong> <strong>Titus</strong>. Most <strong>of</strong> these techniques are well known and<br />
are listed here for reference purposes. (In the <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> <strong>analysis</strong> in Chapter 2<br />
their function has already been discussed.) Furthermore, four additional<br />
techniques have been pointed out in this study, which seem not <strong>to</strong> have been<br />
identified by scholars thus far. They will be highlighted briefly in the second<br />
half <strong>of</strong> this review.<br />
1. Rhe<strong>to</strong>rical techniques used most <strong>of</strong>ten in the letter, include:<br />
a. Paranomasia: for example kosmika;" (2:12) and kosmw`sin (2:10).<br />
b. Implicit contrasting:<br />
An example <strong>of</strong> this technique occurs in chapter 1 with the<br />
positive description <strong>of</strong> the elder-overseers (5-9) followed by a<br />
description <strong>of</strong> the false teachers (10-16). The contrast between<br />
the two groups is implicit rather than explicit since, there are no<br />
indications <strong>of</strong> a simile being drawn. A more subtle example is<br />
the comparison between the character <strong>of</strong> God and that <strong>of</strong> the<br />
false teachers in 1:2 and 1:12 respectively. God is described as<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
180
eing “unlying”, ajyeudh;", while the false teachers are called<br />
“always liars”, ajei; yeu`stai.<br />
c. Personification: For example, in 2:12 grace is said <strong>to</strong> instruct the<br />
believers, paideuvousa hJma`".<br />
d. Asynde<strong>to</strong>n: For example, in 3:1-2 a variety <strong>of</strong> nouns and<br />
infinitives are paired without the use <strong>of</strong> conjunctions: ajrcai`"<br />
ejxousivai" uJpotavssesqai, peiqarcei`n, pro;" pa`n e[rgon ajgaqo;n<br />
eJ<strong>to</strong>ivmou" ei\nai, mhdevna blasfhmei`n, ajmavcou" ei\nai, ejpieikei`",<br />
pa`san ejndeiknumevnou" prau?thta pro;" pavnta" ajnqrwvpou".<br />
e. Synde<strong>to</strong>n: For example, in 3:4: hJ crhs<strong>to</strong>vth" kai; hJ filanqrwpiva.<br />
f. Polysynde<strong>to</strong>n: For example, in 3:9, mwra;" de; zhthvsei" kai;<br />
genealogiva" kai; e[rei" kai; mavca" nomika;".<br />
g. Repetitions: For example, in 1:9 one finds th`/ didaskaliva/ th`/<br />
uJgiainouvsh/, and 2:1 th`/ uJgiainouvsh/ didaskaliva.<br />
h. Metaphor: For example, in 1:4 <strong>Titus</strong> is called Paul’s “true child”, a<br />
metaphorical reference <strong>to</strong> family life. In 3:14 we find an<br />
agricultural reference <strong>to</strong> fruitlessness, a[karpoi.<br />
i. Inclusive language: For example, 3:3, \Hmen gavr pote kai; hJmei`".<br />
j. Synonyms: For example, in 1:16 we encounter e[rgon ajgaqo;n. In<br />
2:7 we find kalw`n e[rgwn.<br />
k. An<strong>to</strong>nyms: For example, in 1:2, ajyeudhv" and in 1:12, yeu`stai.<br />
l. Them-us language: For example, 1:12, tiv" ejx aujtw`n i[dio" aujtw`n<br />
pr<strong>of</strong>hvth".<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
181
m. Example. For example, in 3:4-7 God is presented as an example<br />
<strong>of</strong> one who shows kindness <strong>to</strong> those who do not deserve it.<br />
According <strong>to</strong> 1:2, God does not lie. Paul, as a servant <strong>of</strong> God<br />
(1:1), is also an example <strong>to</strong> others, who are in master-servant<br />
relationships (2:9).<br />
n. Chiasm: For example in 1:3-4 we find the following references <strong>to</strong><br />
God and Jesus Christ:<br />
<strong>to</strong>u` swth`ro" hJmw`n qeou' (1:3)<br />
Cris<strong>to</strong>u` jIhsou` <strong>to</strong>u` swth`ro" hJmw`n (1:4)<br />
In 3:4 and 3:6 we find the same:<br />
<strong>to</strong>u` swth`ro" hJmw`n qeou` (3:4)<br />
jIhsou` Cris<strong>to</strong>u` <strong>to</strong>u` swth`ro" hJmw`n (3:6)<br />
In 1:15 we find another example:<br />
pavnta kaqara; <strong>to</strong>i`" kaqaroi`"<br />
<strong>to</strong>i`" de; memiammevnoi" kai; ajpivs<strong>to</strong>i" oujde;n kaqarovn<br />
o. Transitional devices: For example, section 1:5-9 deals with the<br />
elder-overseers, but in verse 9 which describes the responsibility<br />
<strong>of</strong> the elder-overseers the false teachers are introduced as <strong>to</strong>u;"<br />
ajntilevgonta", just before the next section (1:10-16) in which<br />
they are fully dealt with. This small word, in 1:9, thus functions<br />
as a transitional device that introduces the next section.<br />
p. Anaphora: For example, in 1:8 filovxenon and filavgaqon, and in<br />
2:4 filavndrou" … filotevknou".<br />
q. Assonance: For example, in 2:11 the rhyming and repetition <strong>of</strong><br />
the w~- sound in swfrovnw" kai; dikaivw" kai; eujsebw`".<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
182
. Thematic progression: For example, the theme <strong>of</strong> servanthood is<br />
developed starting with Paul as a servant <strong>of</strong> and obedient <strong>to</strong><br />
God, while slaves must submit <strong>to</strong> their own masters (2:9).<br />
Related <strong>to</strong> this is the theme <strong>of</strong> submission <strong>to</strong> authority: wives <strong>to</strong><br />
their husbands (2:5); servants <strong>to</strong> their masters (2:9) and<br />
believers <strong>to</strong> secular authorities (3:1). Thus, starting in the home,<br />
then <strong>to</strong> the place <strong>of</strong> employment and finally within secular<br />
society.<br />
s. Alliteration and rhyme: For example, in 3:3 douleuvonte" …<br />
diavgonte".<br />
t. Anthropopathism: For example, in 3:4-7 the reference <strong>to</strong> God’s<br />
crhs<strong>to</strong>vth" kai; filanqrwpiva (4) and e[leo" (5).<br />
u. Unusually long sentences: For example, 1:1-4, 2:11-14, and 3:4-<br />
7.<br />
v. Synecdoche: For example, in 3:10 the reference <strong>to</strong> the opposition<br />
in the singular as aiJretikov~ a[nqrwpo~.<br />
2. New <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> techniques that have been identified are:<br />
Emphatic clustering<br />
This technique is used in several places in the letter. There are<br />
variations <strong>of</strong> the technique namely asyndetic (1:12; 2:2) and<br />
polysyndetic clustering (1:16; 2:12, 15).<br />
It involves the grouping <strong>to</strong>gether or clustering <strong>of</strong> related concepts<br />
or words in groups <strong>of</strong> three. Clustering serves an emphatic<br />
purpose. In chapter 1, it is employed as part <strong>of</strong> the apostle’s<br />
vilification campaign in 1:10, 12 and 16 highlighting the “badness”<br />
<strong>of</strong> the false teachers. In 2:2, it is used <strong>to</strong> emphasise the sound<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
183
ehaviour expected <strong>of</strong> older men. In 2:7, it is used <strong>to</strong> impress<br />
upon <strong>Titus</strong> what is required from him as an example <strong>to</strong> the<br />
believers. In 2:12, the conduct <strong>of</strong> those who are instructed by<br />
grace is emphasised by the words, swfrovnw" kai; dikaivw" kai;<br />
eujsebw`". In 2:15, it is used <strong>to</strong> impress upon <strong>Titus</strong> the urgency<br />
with which he must approach his ministry, lavlei kai; parakavlei<br />
kai; e[legce. A final instance <strong>of</strong> this technique appears in 3:11,<br />
which constitutes a final instance <strong>of</strong> vilification.<br />
Self-vilification<br />
This <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> technique is used in 3:3 with reference <strong>to</strong> the pre-<br />
salvific conduct <strong>of</strong> the believers. The list <strong>of</strong> vices is used <strong>to</strong> instil<br />
disgust. Here, it is not the opponents that are being vilified, but<br />
Paul and the believers, by Paul. It highlights the odiousness <strong>of</strong><br />
their past life and is used <strong>to</strong> enforce compliance <strong>to</strong> behaviour that<br />
corresponds <strong>to</strong> sound doctrine.<br />
Honorific referencing or classification<br />
This technique is the opposite <strong>of</strong> vilification or more specifically,<br />
self-vilification. Paul refers <strong>to</strong> believers in ways that emphasise<br />
their privileged status, thus bes<strong>to</strong>wing honour upon them. This<br />
strategy is utilised <strong>to</strong> build relationships. Thus, believers are<br />
called ejklek<strong>to</strong>iv qeou' (1:1), oiJ pepisteukovte" qew`/ (3:8), oiJ<br />
hJmevteroi (3:13), and <strong>to</strong>u;" filou`nta" hJma`" ejn pivstei (3:15).<br />
Networks created by the repetition <strong>of</strong> associated concepts<br />
In the <strong>analysis</strong> section, it has been pointed out how various<br />
related words or concepts are repeated in different units and in<br />
different contexts. This technique makes several processes<br />
possible. One <strong>of</strong> these is implicit contrasting, which is facilitated<br />
merely through the repetition <strong>of</strong> a cognate word within a different<br />
context. This technique also facilitates the remarkable coherency<br />
that is evident within the letter. An outstanding example is the<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
184
instance <strong>of</strong> paranomasia associated with the following words:<br />
ajnupovtakta (Christian children <strong>of</strong> elder-overseers); ajnupovtak<strong>to</strong>i<br />
(false teachers); uJpotassomevna" (Christian young women);<br />
uJpotavssesqai (Christian slaves).The word uJpotassw and its<br />
cognates contrast the opposing groups within the letter and<br />
establish a network <strong>of</strong> positive behaviour shared by those who<br />
are associated with sound doctrine.<br />
This study has led me <strong>to</strong> a new appreciation for the <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> genius <strong>of</strong> the<br />
apostle Paul. Furthermore, it <strong>of</strong>fers, almost serendipi<strong>to</strong>usly so, fresh<br />
perspectives beneficial for the authenticity debate. The implications <strong>of</strong> the<br />
cumulative-complimentary reading principle certainly have potential for further<br />
investigtion. In terms <strong>of</strong> practical theology, the homiletical benefit <strong>of</strong> <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong><br />
critical <strong>analysis</strong> is another area that holds rich dividends for further study.<br />
Indeed, anything that will help the church with the persausive proclamation <strong>of</strong><br />
the gospel warrants our attention.<br />
The message <strong>of</strong> this letter <strong>to</strong> <strong>Titus</strong> may not be unique, but the way in which it<br />
is communicated certainly is. Indeed, this little letter does not need <strong>to</strong> stand in<br />
the shadow <strong>of</strong> the Timothean correspondence.<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
185
BIBLIOGRAPHY<br />
Aageson, J. W. (1997). "2 Timothy and its Theology: In Search <strong>of</strong> a<br />
Theological Pattern." Society <strong>of</strong> Biblical Literature Seminar Papers 36:<br />
692-714.<br />
Achtemeier, P. J., J. B. Green, et al. (2001). Introducing the New Testament:<br />
Its Literature and Theology. Grand Rapids, Michigan, William B<br />
Eerdmans Company.<br />
Bailey, M. L. (1994). A Theology <strong>of</strong> <strong>Paul's</strong> Pas<strong>to</strong>ral Epistles. A Biblical<br />
Theology <strong>of</strong> the New Testament. R. B. Zuck. Chicago, Moody Press:<br />
333-367.<br />
Barrett, C. (1963). The Pas<strong>to</strong>ral Epistles. Oxford, Clarendon Press.<br />
Bauckham, R. (1988). "Pseudo-Apos<strong>to</strong>lic <strong>Letter</strong>s." Journal <strong>of</strong> Biblical<br />
Literature 107: 469-494.<br />
Bauer, F. C. (1835). Die Sogennanten Pas<strong>to</strong>ralbriefe des Apostels Paulus.<br />
Stuttgart and Tübingen, J G Gottaschen Verlagshandlung.<br />
Beker, D. J. C. (1991). Heirs or Paul: <strong>Paul's</strong> Legacy in the New Testament<br />
and in the Church Today. Minneapolis, Fortress.<br />
Bernard, J. H. (1980 [1899]). The Pas<strong>to</strong>ral Epistles. Grand Rapids, Michigan,<br />
Baker Book House<br />
Bitzer, L. (1968). "The Rhe<strong>to</strong>rical Situation." Philosophy and Rhe<strong>to</strong>ric 1: 1-14.<br />
Botha, P. J. J. (1993). The Verbal Art <strong>of</strong> the Pauline <strong>Letter</strong>s:Rhe<strong>to</strong>ric,<br />
Performance and Presence. Rhe<strong>to</strong>ric and the New Testament: Essays<br />
from the 1992 Heidelberg Conference. S. E. Porter and T. H. Olbricht.<br />
Sheffield 90: 409-428.<br />
Brox, N. (1989). Die Pas<strong>to</strong>ralbriefe. Regensburg, Pustet Verlag.<br />
Carson, D. A. and D. Moo (2005). An Introduction <strong>to</strong> the New Testament<br />
Leichester, England, Apollos.<br />
Carson, D. A., D. J. Moo, et al. (1992). An Introduction <strong>to</strong> the New Testament<br />
Leichester, England, Apollos.<br />
Childs, B. S. (1984). The New Testament as Canon: An Introduction.<br />
Philadelphia, Fortress Press.<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
186
Clark, D. (2002). "Discourse structure in <strong>Titus</strong>." Bible Transla<strong>to</strong>r 53(1): 101-<br />
117.<br />
Classen, C. (2002). Rhe<strong>to</strong>rical Criticism <strong>of</strong> the New Testament. Bos<strong>to</strong>n, Bril<br />
Academic Publishers, INC<br />
Collins, R. F. (2000). "The Theology <strong>of</strong> the Epistle <strong>to</strong> <strong>Titus</strong>." Ephemerides<br />
Theologicae Lovanienses Tomus LXXVI (76): 56-72.<br />
Collins, R. F. (2002). 1 & 2 Timothy and <strong>Titus</strong>: A Commentary. Louisville,<br />
Westminster John Knox Press.<br />
Credner, K. A. (1836). Einleitung in das Neue Testament Halle, Waisenhaus.<br />
Demarest, G. (1984). 1, 2 Thessalonians, 1, 2 Timothy, <strong>Titus</strong>. . Waco, Texas,<br />
Word Books.<br />
Dibelius, M. and H. Conzelmann (1972). The Pas<strong>to</strong>ral Epistles: A<br />
Commentary on the Pas<strong>to</strong>ral Epistles Philadelphia, Fortress Press.<br />
Donelson, L. R. (1986). Pseudipigraphy and ethical argument in the Pas<strong>to</strong>ral<br />
Epistles Hermeneutische Untersuchungen zur Theologie. Tübingen,<br />
Mohr Siebeck. 22: viii-221.<br />
Dunn, J. D. G. (2000). The First and Second <strong>Letter</strong>s <strong>to</strong> Timothy and the <strong>Letter</strong><br />
<strong>to</strong> <strong>Titus</strong>. Nashville, Abingdon Press.<br />
Du Toit, A. B. (1994). "Vilification as a Pragmatic Device in Early Christian<br />
Epis<strong>to</strong>lography." Biblica 75(3): 403-412.<br />
Eichorn, J. G. (1812 ). Einleitung in das Neuen Testament. Leipzig,<br />
Weidemannischen Buchhandlung.<br />
Ellis, E. E. (1979). Paul and his recent interpreters. Grand Rapids, Michigan,<br />
William B Eerdmans Publishing Company.<br />
Eusebius, P. (1955). The Ecclesiastical His<strong>to</strong>ry <strong>of</strong> Eusebius Pamphilus:<br />
Bishop <strong>of</strong> Cesarea, in Palestine. Translated from the original with an<br />
introduction by Christian Fredierick Cruse and an His<strong>to</strong>rical View <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Council <strong>of</strong> Nice. Twin Brooks Series. I. Boyle. Grand Rapids, Michigan,<br />
Bake Book House.<br />
Evanson, E. (1805). The Dissonance <strong>of</strong> the four generally received<br />
Evangelists, and the evidence <strong>of</strong> their respective Authenticity<br />
examined; with that <strong>of</strong> some other scriptures deemed canonical<br />
Gloucester, D. Walker for J. Johnson.<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
187
Everts, J. M. (1993). Hope Dictionary <strong>of</strong> Paul and his <strong>Letter</strong>s. G. F.<br />
Hawthorne, R. P. Reid and D. G. Martin. Leichester, England, Inter<br />
Varsity Press: 415-417.<br />
Faber, R. (2005). "Evil Beasts Lazy Glut<strong>to</strong>ns. A Neglected Theme in the<br />
Epistle <strong>to</strong> <strong>Titus</strong>." Westminster Journal <strong>of</strong> Theology 67: 135-45.<br />
Fee, G. D. (1988). 1 and 2 Timothy, <strong>Titus</strong>. Massachusetts, Hendrickson<br />
Publishers.<br />
Fiore, B. (1986). The Function <strong>of</strong> Personal Example in the Socratic and<br />
Pas<strong>to</strong>ral Epistles. Italy, Rome Biblical Institute Press.<br />
Fitzmeyer, J. A. (2004). "The Structured Ministry <strong>of</strong> the Church in the Pas<strong>to</strong>ral<br />
Epistles." Catholic Biblical Quarterly 66 (4): 582-596.<br />
Goulder, M. D. (1996). "The Pas<strong>to</strong>r's Wolves: Jewish Christian Visionaries<br />
behind the Pas<strong>to</strong>ral Epistles." Novum Testamentum 38 (JI): 242-256.<br />
Guthrie, D. (1957). The Pas<strong>to</strong>ral Epistles: An Introduction and Commentary.<br />
London, The Tyndale Press.<br />
Guthrie, D. (1990). The New Testament Introduction. Leichester, England,<br />
Apollos.<br />
Hagner, D. A. (1998). <strong>Titus</strong> as a Pauline <strong>Letter</strong>. Society <strong>of</strong> Biblical Literature<br />
1998 Seminar Papers Part Two. Atlanta, Georgia, Scholars Press. 37:<br />
546-558.<br />
Hanson, A. T. (1968). Studies in the Pas<strong>to</strong>ral Epistles. London, SPCK.<br />
Hanson, A. T. (1982). The Pas<strong>to</strong>ral Epistles: Based on the Revised Standard<br />
Version. Grand Rapids, WM.B. Eerdmans Publishers.<br />
Harding, M. (1998). Tradition and Rhe<strong>to</strong>ric in the Pas<strong>to</strong>ral Epistles. New York,<br />
Peter Lang Publishing.<br />
Harris, M. J. (1980). <strong>Titus</strong> 2:13 and the Deity <strong>of</strong> Christ. Pauline Studies:<br />
Essays Presented <strong>to</strong> Pr<strong>of</strong>essor F F Bruce on his 70th Birthday. D. A.<br />
Hagner and M. J. Harris. Grand Rapids, William B Eerdmans<br />
Publishing Company: 263-273.<br />
Harrison, P. N. (1921). The Problem <strong>of</strong> the Pas<strong>to</strong>ral Epistles London, Oxford<br />
University Press.<br />
Harvey, J. D. (1998). Listening <strong>to</strong> the <strong>Text</strong>: Oral Patterning in <strong>Paul's</strong> <strong>Letter</strong>s.<br />
Grand Rapids, Michigan, Baker Books.<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
188
Hendriksen, W. (1957). 1 & 2 Timothy and <strong>Titus</strong>. London, Banner <strong>of</strong> Truth<br />
Trust.<br />
Hiebert, D. E. (1978). <strong>Titus</strong> and Philemon. Chicago, Moody Press.<br />
Holtzmann, J. (1880). Die Pas<strong>to</strong>ralbriefe. Leipzig, Wilhelm Engelmann.<br />
Houlden, J. (1976 ). The Pas<strong>to</strong>ral Epistles Middlesex, England, Penquin<br />
Books.<br />
Hultgren, A. J. (1984). I-II Timothy, <strong>Titus</strong>, II Thessalonians. Minneapolis,<br />
Minnesota, Augsburg Publishing House.<br />
Jeremias, J. (1963). Die Briefe an Timotheus und <strong>Titus</strong>. Gottingen,<br />
Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht.<br />
Johnson, L. T. (1996). <strong>Letter</strong>s <strong>to</strong> <strong>Paul's</strong> Delegates: 1 Timothy, 2 Timothy,<br />
<strong>Titus</strong>. Valley Forge, Pennsylvania, Trinity Press International.<br />
Karris, R. J. (1979). The Pas<strong>to</strong>ral Epistles. Wilming<strong>to</strong>n, Delaware, Michael<br />
Glazier, Incorporated.<br />
Karris, R. J. (1996). A Symphony <strong>of</strong> New Testament Hymns. Commentary on<br />
Phillipians 2:5-11, Colossians 1:15-20, Ephesian 2:14-16, 1Timothy<br />
3:16, <strong>Titus</strong> 3:4-7, 1Peter 3:18-22, and 2Timothy 2:11-13. Collegeville,<br />
Minnesota, The Liturgical Press.<br />
Kelly, J. N. D. (1960). A Commentary on the Pas<strong>to</strong>ral Epistles I Timothy, II<br />
Timothy, <strong>Titus</strong>. London, A&C Black.<br />
Kennedy, G. A. (1984). New Testament Interpretation through Rhe<strong>to</strong>rical<br />
Criticism Chapel Hill, The University <strong>of</strong> North Carolina Press.<br />
Kidd, R. M. (1999). "<strong>Titus</strong> as Apologia: Grace for Liars Beasts and Bellies."<br />
Horisons in Biblical Theology 21(2): 185-209.<br />
Knight (III), G. W. (1979). The Faithful Sayings in the Pas<strong>to</strong>rals. Grand<br />
Rapids, Michigan, Baker Book House.<br />
Knight (III), G. W. (1992). The Pas<strong>to</strong>ral Epistles: A Commentary on the Greek<br />
<strong>Text</strong>. . Grand Rapids, Michigan, W B Eerdmans Publishing Company.<br />
Köstenberger, A. J. (2003). " Hermeneutical and Exegetical Challenges in<br />
Interpreting the Pas<strong>to</strong>ral Epistles." The Southern Baptist Journal <strong>of</strong><br />
Theology 7 (3): 4-17.<br />
Lambrecht, J. (1994). Pauline Studies: Collected Essays. Bibliotheca<br />
Ephemeridum Theologicarum Lovaniensium. CXV: x-xi.<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
189
Lea, D. and H. P. Griffin (1992). 1, 2 Timothy <strong>Titus</strong>. Nashville Tennessee,<br />
Broadman Press.<br />
Lenski, R. C. H. (1961). The Interpretation <strong>of</strong> St. <strong>Paul's</strong> Epistles <strong>to</strong> the<br />
Colossians, <strong>to</strong> the Thessalonians, <strong>to</strong> Timothy, <strong>to</strong> <strong>Titus</strong> and Philemon.<br />
Minneapolis, Minnesota, Augsburg Publishing House.<br />
Lightfoot, J. B. (1893). The Date <strong>of</strong> the Pas<strong>to</strong>ral Epistles. Biblical Essays.<br />
London, Macmillan: 397-410.<br />
Lock, W. (1924). A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Pas<strong>to</strong>ral<br />
Epistles (1 & 2 Timothy and <strong>Titus</strong>).Edinburgh T & T Clark.<br />
Luther, M. (1960). Preface <strong>to</strong> the Epistle <strong>of</strong> St.Paul <strong>to</strong> <strong>Titus</strong>. Luther's Works:<br />
Word and Sacrament I. E. T. Bachmann. Philadelphia, Fortress Press.<br />
35.<br />
Mappes, D. A. (2003). "Moral Virtues Associated with Eldership." Bibliotheca<br />
Sacra 160(April-June): 202-218.<br />
Marshall, I. H. (2006). "Some Recent Commentaries on the Pas<strong>to</strong>ral Epistles."<br />
The Exposi<strong>to</strong>ry Times 117(4): 140-143.<br />
Marshall, I. H., S. Travis, et al. (2002). Exploring the New Testament: A Guide<br />
<strong>to</strong> the <strong>Letter</strong>s and Revelation. Downers Grove, Ilinois, InterVarsity<br />
Press.<br />
McArthur (Jr), J. (1996). <strong>Titus</strong>. Chicago, Moody Press.<br />
McKnight, S. and G. R. Osborne (2004). The Face <strong>of</strong> New Testament Studies:<br />
A survey <strong>of</strong> recent research Grand Rapids, Michigan Baker Academic.<br />
McRay, J. (2003). Paul: His Life and Teaching. Grand Rapids, Michigan,<br />
Baker Academic.<br />
Meynet, R. (1998). Rhe<strong>to</strong>rical Analysis: An Introduction <strong>to</strong> Biblical Rhe<strong>to</strong>ric<br />
Sheffield, Sheffield Academic Press.<br />
Miller, J. D. (1997). The Pas<strong>to</strong>ral <strong>Letter</strong>s as Composite Documents Society for<br />
New Testament Studies: Monograph Series. R. Bauckham. Cambridge,<br />
Cambridge University Press.<br />
Moule, C. F. D. (1965). "The Problem <strong>of</strong> the Pas<strong>to</strong>ral Epistles: A Reappraisal."<br />
Bulletin <strong>of</strong> the John Rylands Library 47: 430-452.<br />
Mounce, W. D. (2000). Pas<strong>to</strong>ral Epistles. Nashville, Thomas Nelson<br />
Publishers.<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
190
Oden, T. C. (1989). First and Second Timothy and <strong>Titus</strong>. Louisville, John Knox<br />
Press.<br />
Porter, S. and T. H. Olbricht, Eds. (1996). Rhe<strong>to</strong>ric, Scripture, and Theology:<br />
Essays from the 1994 Pre<strong>to</strong>ria Conference. Journal for the Study <strong>of</strong><br />
New Testament Supplent Series. London, Sheffield Academic Press.<br />
Porter, S. and D. L. Stamps, Eds. (2002). Rhe<strong>to</strong>rical Criticism and the Bible.<br />
Journal for the Study <strong>of</strong> the New Testament Supplement Series.<br />
London, Sheffield Academic Press.<br />
Porter, S. and L. Stamps, Eds. (1999). The Rhe<strong>to</strong>rical Interpretation <strong>of</strong><br />
Scripture: Essays from the 1996 Malibu Conference. Journal for the<br />
Study <strong>of</strong> the New Testament Supplement Series. London, Sheffield<br />
Academic Press.<br />
Quinn, J. D. (1990). The <strong>Letter</strong> <strong>to</strong> <strong>Titus</strong>: A New Translation with Notes and<br />
Commentary and an Introduction <strong>to</strong> <strong>Titus</strong>, 1 Timothy, and the Pas<strong>to</strong>ral<br />
Epistles. . New York, Doubleday.<br />
Richards, E. R. (1991). The secretary in the letters <strong>of</strong> Paul Tübingen Möhr.<br />
Roller, O. (1933). Das Formular der Paulinischen Briefe. Stuttgart,<br />
Köhlhammer.<br />
Rol<strong>of</strong>f, J. (1988). Der erste Brief an Timotheus. Zurich, Benziger Verlag.<br />
Schleiermacher, F. E. D. (1897). Über den ersten Brief Pauli an Timotheus.<br />
Braunschweig/Leipzig, Gerhard Reuter.<br />
Schmidt, J. E. C. (1804). His<strong>to</strong>rical Critical Introduction <strong>to</strong> the New Testament.<br />
Simpson, E. K. (1954). The Pas<strong>to</strong>ral Epistles. The Greek <strong>Text</strong> with<br />
Introduction and Commentary. London.<br />
Stamps, D. L. (1993). Rethinking the Rhe<strong>to</strong>rical Situation: The Entextualising<br />
<strong>of</strong> the Situation in New Testament Epistles. Rhe<strong>to</strong>ric and the New<br />
Testament: Essays from the 1992 Helderberg Conference. S. E. Porter<br />
and T. H. Olbricht. England, Sheffield Publishers: 193-210.<br />
S<strong>to</strong>tt, J. R. W. (1997). The Message <strong>of</strong> Timothy and <strong>Titus</strong>. Leicester, England,<br />
Inter-Varsity Press.<br />
Strobel, A. (1968). "Screiben des Lukas? Zum sprachlichen Problem der<br />
Pas<strong>to</strong>ralbriefe." New Testament Studies 15: 191-210.<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
191
Sumney, J. L. (1996). “A Reading <strong>of</strong> the Theology <strong>of</strong> 1 Timothy without<br />
Authorial Presuppositions” (paper presented <strong>to</strong> the Theology <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Disputed Paulines Group at the annual meeting <strong>of</strong> the Society <strong>of</strong><br />
Biblical Literature, New Orleans, November).<br />
Tertullian (1919). Tertullian's Treatises concerning Prayer, concerning<br />
Baptism. Translations <strong>of</strong> Christian Literature: Latin <strong>Text</strong>s. London,<br />
Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge.<br />
Thurs<strong>to</strong>n, B. B. (1999). "The Theology <strong>of</strong> <strong>Titus</strong>." Horisons in Biblical Theology<br />
21 (2): 171-184.<br />
Tolmie, D. F. (2005). Persuading the Galatians. A <strong>Text</strong>-Centred Rhe<strong>to</strong>rical<br />
Analysis <strong>of</strong> a Pauline <strong>Letter</strong>. Tübingen, Möhr Siebeck.<br />
Towner, P. H. (1989). The Goal <strong>of</strong> our Instruction: The Structure <strong>of</strong> Theology<br />
and Ethics in the Pas<strong>to</strong>ral Epistles. Sheffield, England Shefield<br />
Academic Press.<br />
Towner, P. H. (1994). 1-2 Timothy and <strong>Titus</strong>. Leichester, England Intervarsity<br />
Press.<br />
Van Neste (2002). "Structure and Cohesion in <strong>Titus</strong>: Problems and Method."<br />
The Bible Transla<strong>to</strong>r 53(1): 118-133.<br />
Van Neste, R. (2003). "The Message <strong>of</strong> <strong>Titus</strong>: An overview.” The Southern<br />
Baptist Journal <strong>of</strong> Theology 7 (3): 18-30.<br />
Verner, D. C. (1983). The Household <strong>of</strong> God: The social world <strong>of</strong> the Pas<strong>to</strong>ral<br />
Epistles. Chicago, California, Scholars Press<br />
Wallace, D. B. (1997). Crisis <strong>of</strong> the Word or A Message <strong>to</strong> Pas<strong>to</strong>rs and Would-<br />
Be Pas<strong>to</strong>rs (2Timothy 2:15). Dallas Seminary. Biblical Studies Press.<br />
Wendland, E. R. (1999). Let no one disregard you! (<strong>Titus</strong> 2:15): Church<br />
Discipline and the construction <strong>of</strong> Discourse in a Personal, 'Pas<strong>to</strong>ral'<br />
Epistle. Discourse Analysis and the New Testament: Approaches and<br />
Results S. E. Porter and J. T. Reed. Sheffield, Sheffield Academic<br />
Press: 334-351.<br />
Wolter, M. (1988). Die Pas<strong>to</strong>ralbriefe als Paulustradition. Göttingen,<br />
Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht.<br />
Wuellner, W. (1987). "Where is <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> criticism taking us?" Catholic Biblical<br />
Quarterly 49: 448-463.<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
192
Wuellner, W. (1991). The Rhe<strong>to</strong>rical Genre or Jesus's Sermon in Luke 12.1-<br />
13.9 Persuasive Artistry: Studies in New Testament Rhe<strong>to</strong>ric in Honor<br />
<strong>of</strong> George A. Kennedy D. Watson. Sheffield, JSOT Press: 93-118.<br />
Young, F. (1995). The Pas<strong>to</strong>ral Epistles and the Ethics <strong>of</strong> Reading. The<br />
Pauline Writings. S. Porter and C. A. Evans. Sheffield Sheffield<br />
Academic Press. The Biblical Seminar 34: 268-282.<br />
Zahn, T. (1953). Introduction <strong>to</strong> the New Testament. Grand Rapids, Michigan,<br />
Kregel.<br />
Zodhiates, S. (1992). The Complete Word Study Dictionary: New Testament.<br />
Chattanooga, Tennessee, AMG Publishers.<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
193
ABSTRACT<br />
This study has been conducted upon the presupposition that the <strong>Letter</strong> <strong>to</strong><br />
<strong>Titus</strong> still has <strong>to</strong> benefit from a thorough <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> critical <strong>analysis</strong> that will<br />
demonstrate its uniqueness as a coherent, comprehensive portion <strong>of</strong> New<br />
Testament literature that can be interpreted independently from the two letters<br />
<strong>to</strong> Timothy. Accordingly, a review <strong>of</strong> existing scholarship on the Pas<strong>to</strong>rals<br />
generally and <strong>Titus</strong> specifically was conducted (Section1) followed by a<br />
comprehensive text-<strong>centred</strong> <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> <strong>analysis</strong> <strong>of</strong> the <strong>Letter</strong> <strong>to</strong> <strong>Titus</strong> (Section<br />
2). Finally, a summary <strong>of</strong> the results <strong>of</strong> this study was presented (Section 3).<br />
In Section 1, the review <strong>of</strong> existing scholarship on the authorship, theology,<br />
structure and coherency, and <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> approaches <strong>to</strong> <strong>Titus</strong> revealed how,<br />
due <strong>to</strong> the pervasiveness <strong>of</strong> the authenticity or authorship debate about the<br />
Pas<strong>to</strong>rals, the <strong>Letter</strong> <strong>to</strong> <strong>Titus</strong> has been marginalised and interpreted in the<br />
light <strong>of</strong> the Timothean correspondence. In all the above categories, the<br />
individuality and uniqueness <strong>of</strong> <strong>Titus</strong> have been compromised. The<br />
authenticity <strong>of</strong> the Pas<strong>to</strong>ral <strong>Letter</strong>s went unchallenged until the turn <strong>of</strong> the<br />
nineteenth century when German scholars expressed their doubts about the<br />
alleged Pauline authorship <strong>of</strong> this corpus. The key dispute issues related <strong>to</strong><br />
theological, ecclesiological, stylistic and his<strong>to</strong>rical inconsistencies that New<br />
Testament scholars observed in their <strong>analysis</strong> <strong>of</strong> the three letters. In response<br />
<strong>to</strong> these apparent inconsistencies, various theories were developed <strong>to</strong><br />
account for the origin <strong>of</strong> the three letters. The first was the pseudonymous or<br />
fiction hypothesis according <strong>to</strong> which it is argued that the Pas<strong>to</strong>rals were<br />
authored by someone other than Paul, but who used his name, probably<br />
some time after his death. Scholars who defend Pauline authorship <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Pas<strong>to</strong>rals have challenged pseudonymity on the basis <strong>of</strong> ethics, his<strong>to</strong>ry,<br />
hermeneutics, and apos<strong>to</strong>lic objections. The origin <strong>of</strong> the letters have also<br />
been explained by the following theories: fragment hypothesis, secretary or<br />
amanuensis hypothesis and the allonymity or allepigraphy hypothesis.<br />
Theology, Chris<strong>to</strong>logy, pneuma<strong>to</strong>logy and soteriology are central emphases in<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
194
the theology <strong>of</strong> <strong>Titus</strong>, but tend <strong>to</strong> be interpreted in relationship with the other<br />
two letters. Structurally, the <strong>Letter</strong> <strong>to</strong> <strong>Titus</strong>, when compared <strong>to</strong> the other<br />
Pas<strong>to</strong>rals, has been described as not having any structure, being incoherent.<br />
This position has been proposed by James Miller. In defence, Ray van Neste<br />
has argued for the coherence <strong>of</strong> the letter. Rhe<strong>to</strong>rical studies devoted<br />
exclusively <strong>to</strong> <strong>Titus</strong> have been found <strong>to</strong> be severely lacking. The exception<br />
has been the work by Joachim Classen entitled “A <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> reading <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Epistle <strong>to</strong> <strong>Titus</strong>”. While having much <strong>to</strong> commend it, the article has been<br />
shown <strong>to</strong> have several serious shortcomings: although the article deals with<br />
what is there, it does not address the issue <strong>of</strong> persuasion; in other words, it<br />
does not evaluate why the author says things in the way he does; it is more<br />
exegetical than <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong>; it is not a comprehensive treatment <strong>of</strong> the whole<br />
letter; it is silent about the obvious theological emphases in the letter. There<br />
have been increasing calls for an appreciation <strong>of</strong> the three letters individually.<br />
This study attempted <strong>to</strong> respond <strong>to</strong> that call on the basis <strong>of</strong> the following<br />
hypothesis: A thorough text-<strong>centred</strong> <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> approach <strong>to</strong> the <strong>Letter</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Titus</strong><br />
(i.e. without relating it <strong>to</strong> the other two Pas<strong>to</strong>ral <strong>Letter</strong>s or approaching it in<br />
terms <strong>of</strong> the authenticity/inauthenticity debate) will yield new insights for its<br />
interpretation.<br />
In Section 2 the <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> situation was presented followed by a<br />
comprehensive <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> <strong>analysis</strong> <strong>of</strong> the letter, using a text-<strong>centred</strong>, minimal<br />
theory framework approach, formulated by D.F. Tolmie (2005). The objective<br />
was <strong>to</strong> investigate and analyse the <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> strategy <strong>of</strong> the author from the<br />
text, which was divided in<strong>to</strong> 11 <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> units. Each unit was demarcated and<br />
described in terms <strong>of</strong> the dominant <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> objective <strong>of</strong> the author. This was<br />
done based on a verse-by-verse <strong>analysis</strong> <strong>of</strong> the text. This approach yielded<br />
much insight in<strong>to</strong> the unique <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> structure <strong>of</strong> the letter as a whole and<br />
provided rich insights in<strong>to</strong> the coherence <strong>of</strong> the letter. A variety <strong>of</strong> <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong><br />
techniques revealed the intricate <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> structure that characterise this<br />
short letter. Some techniques have been observed that may not yet have<br />
been categorised by scholars <strong>to</strong> date.<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
195
In Section 3 the results <strong>of</strong> the study have been summarised. It sets out the<br />
<strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> objective <strong>of</strong> the text in terms <strong>of</strong> the chronological development <strong>of</strong> the<br />
author’s argument as it develops from unit <strong>to</strong> unit. A second way <strong>to</strong> describe<br />
the <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> strategy <strong>of</strong> the author has been described in terms <strong>of</strong> the<br />
overlap between the various units which revealed several controlling <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong><br />
objectives. Furthermore, the <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> techniques used in the letter have been<br />
summarised in this section. New techniques have also been defined and listed<br />
in the concluding section. The study concludes with the conviction that the<br />
<strong>Letter</strong> <strong>to</strong> <strong>Titus</strong> can stand independently from the rest <strong>of</strong> the Pas<strong>to</strong>rals and<br />
makes a significant contribution in our understanding and appreciation <strong>of</strong><br />
Paul’s use <strong>of</strong> rhe<strong>to</strong>ric.<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
196
OPSOMMING<br />
Hierdie studie is gebaseer op die voorveronderstelling dat die Brief aan <strong>Titus</strong><br />
nog moet baat vind by ’n deurdagte, re<strong>to</strong>ries-kritiese analise, wat die<br />
uniekheid daarvan as ‘n samehangende, gehele deel van Nuwe<br />
Testamentiese literatuur, wat onafhankilik van die briewe aan Timotheus<br />
geinterpreteer kan word, sal demonstreer. Gevolglik is ’n oorsig van<br />
bestaande navorsing oor die Pas<strong>to</strong>rale Briewe in die algemeen, en <strong>Titus</strong><br />
spesifiek onderneem (Deel 1) gevolg deur ‘n volledige teks-gesentreerde,<br />
re<strong>to</strong>riese analise van die Brief aan <strong>Titus</strong> (Deel 2). Laastens is ’n opsomming<br />
van die resultate van hierdie studie gemaak (Deel 3).<br />
In Deel 1 het ’n oorsig van bestaande navorsing oor die outeurskap, teologie,<br />
struktuur en samehangendheid en re<strong>to</strong>riese benaderings <strong>to</strong>t <strong>Titus</strong> blootgelê<br />
hoe, te wyte aan die deurdringendheid van die egtheidkwessie <strong>of</strong> die debat<br />
rakende die outeurskap van die Pas<strong>to</strong>rale, die Brief aan <strong>Titus</strong> gemarginaliseer<br />
en in die lig van die Timotheus korrespondensie geinterpreteer word. In al<br />
bogenoemde kategorieë is die uitsonderlikheid en oorspronklikheid van <strong>Titus</strong><br />
misken. Die egtheid van die Pas<strong>to</strong>rale Briewe is nooit bevraagteken voor die<br />
negentiende eeu nie, <strong>to</strong>tdat Duitse akademici die Pauliniese outeurskap van<br />
hierdie werke in twyfel begin trek het. Die sleutelkwessies waaroor die dispuut<br />
gehandel het is verwant aan teologiese, ekklesiologiese, stilistiese and<br />
his<strong>to</strong>riese ongerymdhede wat Nuwe-Testamentiese navorsers, in hul analise<br />
van die drie briewe bevraagteken het. In reaksie op hierdie oënskynlike<br />
ongerymdhede, het verskeie teorieë die lig gesien om vir die oorsprong van<br />
die drie briewe verantwoording te doen. Eerstens was daar die vervalsing- <strong>of</strong><br />
fiksiehipotese waarvolgens daar aangevoer word dat die Pas<strong>to</strong>rale deur<br />
iemand anders, in die naam van Paulus geskryf is, waarskynlik ná sy dood.<br />
Navorsers wat die Pauliniese outeurskap van die Pas<strong>to</strong>rale verdedig, het die<br />
vervalsing- <strong>of</strong> fiksiehipotese bevraagteken op grond van etiese, his<strong>to</strong>riese,<br />
hermeneutiese en apos<strong>to</strong>liese oorwegings. Die oorsprong van die briewe is<br />
ook verklaar deur die volgende teorieë: die fragmenthipotese, sekretaris- <strong>of</strong><br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
197
amanuensishipotese en die allonieme- <strong>of</strong> allepigrafiesehipotese. Teologie,<br />
Chris<strong>to</strong>logie, pneuma<strong>to</strong>logie en soteriologie is sentrale aspekte in die teologie<br />
van <strong>Titus</strong>, maar skyn geinterpreteer te word in verhouding met die ander twee<br />
briewe. In terme van die struktuur is die Brief aan <strong>Titus</strong>, in vergelyking met die<br />
ander Pas<strong>to</strong>rale, beskryf as ontbrekend aan enige struktuur, en<br />
onsamehangend. Dit is die argument soos aangevoer deur James Miller. Ter<br />
verdediging, het Ray van Neste geargumenteer vir die samehangendheid van<br />
<strong>Titus</strong>. Geen re<strong>to</strong>riese studies wat eklusief <strong>to</strong>egewy is aan <strong>Titus</strong> is gevind nie.<br />
’n Uitsondering was die artikel van Joachim Classen getiteld “A <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong><br />
reading <strong>of</strong> the <strong>Letter</strong> <strong>to</strong> <strong>Titus</strong>”. Alhoewel dit ’n bydrae lewer, is die volgende<br />
tekortkominge uitgewys: die studie behandel die teks in terme van wat daar is<br />
sonder om die oorreding aan te spreek, met ander woorde dit behandel nie<br />
waarom die outeur sy inligting op ‘n spesifieke manier organiseer nie; dit is<br />
meer eksegeties as re<strong>to</strong>ries; dit in nie ‘n volledige behandeling van die hele<br />
brief nie; dit behandel ook nie die duidelik teologiese aspekte van die brief nie.<br />
Daar was <strong>to</strong>enemende oproepe vir ’n waardering van die drie briewe op ’n<br />
indiwiduele grondslag. Hierdie studie het gepoog om te reageer op daardie<br />
oproep op grond van die volgende hipotese: ‘n Deeglike teks-gesentreerde<br />
re<strong>to</strong>riese benadering <strong>to</strong>t die Brief aan <strong>Titus</strong> (d.w.s. sonder om dit in<br />
verwantskap te bring met die ander twee Pas<strong>to</strong>rale Briewe <strong>of</strong> dit te benader in<br />
terme van die egtheid/onegtheid-debat) sal nuwe insigte vir die interpretasie<br />
van die brief bydra.<br />
In Deel 2 is die re<strong>to</strong>riese situasie behandel gevolg deur ’n volledige re<strong>to</strong>riese<br />
analise van die brief, deur gebruik te maak van ’n teks-gesentreerde,<br />
minimale teoretiese raamwerk, wat deur D.F. Tolmie (2005) geformuleer is.<br />
Die doel was om die skrywer se re<strong>to</strong>riese strategie uit die teks self, wat<br />
opverdeel is in 11 re<strong>to</strong>riese eenhede, te ondersoek en te analiseer. Elke<br />
eenheid is afgebaken en beskryf in terme van die skrywer se oorkoepelende<br />
re<strong>to</strong>riese doelstelling. Dit is gedoen volgens ’n vers-vir-vers analise van die<br />
teks. Hierdie benadering het veel bygedra <strong>to</strong>t insigte in die unieke re<strong>to</strong>riese<br />
struktuur van die brief as ’n geheel en het ook bygedra <strong>to</strong>t ryk insigte in die<br />
samehangendheid van die brief. Verskeie re<strong>to</strong>riese tegnieke het die<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
198
geïntegreerde re<strong>to</strong>riese struktuur, wat hierdie brief kenmerk, blootgelê. Sekere<br />
tegnieke is waargneem wat nog nie <strong>to</strong>t op die hede deur navorsers<br />
geidentifiseer was nie.<br />
In Deel 3 is die resultate van hierdie studie opgesom. Dit bevat ’n<br />
uiteensetting van die re<strong>to</strong>riese doelstelling van die teks in terme van die<br />
kronologiese ontwikkeling van die skrywer se argument soos dit van eenheid<br />
<strong>to</strong>t eenheid op bou. ’n Tweede manier om die skrywer se re<strong>to</strong>riese strategie te<br />
beskryf, was om dit te sien in terme van die oorvleueling wat bestaan tussen<br />
die verskeie eenhede wat weer op sy beurt verskillende re<strong>to</strong>riese objektiewe<br />
blootgelê het. Die re<strong>to</strong>riese tegnieke wat in die brief gebruik word, is in Deel 3<br />
opgesom. Nuwe re<strong>to</strong>riese tegnieke is ook in die laaste gedeelte<br />
gekategoriseer en opgesom. Die studie is afgesluit met die oortuiging dat die<br />
Brief aan <strong>Titus</strong> onafhanklik kan staan van die res van die Pas<strong>to</strong>rale en dat die<br />
brief ’n aansienlike bydrae lewer <strong>to</strong>t ons insig en waardering vir Paulus se<br />
gebruik van re<strong>to</strong>riek.<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
199
KEY TERMS<br />
1. Pas<strong>to</strong>ral <strong>Letter</strong>s<br />
2. Rhe<strong>to</strong>rical criticism<br />
3. Rhe<strong>to</strong>rical strategy<br />
4. Pauline<br />
5. <strong>Titus</strong><br />
6. Dominant <strong>rhe<strong>to</strong>rical</strong> objective<br />
7. New Testament<br />
8. Rhe<strong>to</strong>ric<br />
9. Rhe<strong>to</strong>rical technique<br />
10. Persuasion<br />
11. Vilification<br />
12. Sound doctrine<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
200
TREF WOORDE<br />
1. Pas<strong>to</strong>rale Briewe<br />
2. Re<strong>to</strong>riese kritiek<br />
3. Re<strong>to</strong>riese strategie<br />
4. Paulinies<br />
5. <strong>Titus</strong><br />
6. Dominante re<strong>to</strong>riese doelstelling<br />
7. Nuwe Testament<br />
8. Re<strong>to</strong>riek<br />
9. Re<strong>to</strong>riese tegniek<br />
10. Oorreding<br />
11. Vilifikasie<br />
12. Gesonde leer<br />
PDF created with pdfFac<strong>to</strong>ry Pro trial version www.pdffac<strong>to</strong>ry.com<br />
201