AHA/ASA Guideline Guidelines for the Prevention of Stroke in ...

Guidelines for the Prevention of Stroke in Patients With Stroke or TransientIschemic Attack: A Guideline for Healthcare Professionals From the AmericanHeart Association/American Stroke AssociationKaren L. Furie, Scott E. Kasner, Robert J. Adams, Gregory W. Albers, Ruth L. Bush,Susan C. Fagan, Jonathan L. Halperin, S. Claiborne Johnston, Irene Katzan, Walter N.Kernan, Pamela H. Mitchell, Bruce Ovbiagele, Yuko Y. Palesch, Ralph L. Sacco, LeeH. Schwamm, Sylvia Wassertheil-Smoller, Tanya N. Turan, Deidre Wentworth and onbehalf of the American Heart Association Stroke Council, Council on CardiovascularNursing, Council on Clinical Cardiology, and Interdisciplinary Council on Quality ofCare and Outcomes ResearchStroke 2011;42;227-276; originally published online Oct 21, 2010;DOI: 10.1161/STR.0b013e3181f7d043Stroke is published by the American Heart Association. 7272 Greenville Avenue, Dallas, TX 72514Copyright © 2011 American Heart Association. All rights reserved. Print ISSN: 0039-2499. OnlineISSN: 1524-4628The online version of this article, along with updated information and services, islocated on the World Wide Web at:http://stroke.ahajournals.org/cgi/content/full/42/1/227Subscriptions: Information about subscribing to Stroke is online athttp://stroke.ahajournals.org/subscriptions/Permissions: Permissions & Rights Desk, Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, a division of WoltersKluwer Health, 351 West Camden Street, Baltimore, MD 21202-2436. Phone: 410-528-4050. Fax:410-528-8550. E-mail:journalpermissions@lww.comReprints: Information about reprints can be found online athttp://www.lww.com/reprintsDownloaded from stroke.ahajournals.org by on March 8, 2011

AHA/ASA GuidelineGuidelines for the Prevention of Stroke in Patients WithStroke or Transient Ischemic AttackA Guideline for Healthcare Professionals From the American HeartAssociation/American Stroke AssociationThe American Academy of Neurology affirms the value of this guideline as an educationaltool for neurologists.The American Association of Neurological Surgeons and Congress of Neurological Surgeonshave reviewed this document and affirm its educational content.Karen L. Furie, MD, MPH, FAHA, Chair; Scott E. Kasner, MD, MSCE, FAHA, Vice Chair;Robert J. Adams, MD, MS, FAHA; Gregory W. Albers, MD; Ruth L. Bush, MD, MPH;Susan C. Fagan, PharmD, FAHA; Jonathan L. Halperin, MD, FAHA; S. Claiborne Johnston, MD, PhD;Irene Katzan, MD, MS, FAHA; Walter N. Kernan, MD;Pamela H. Mitchell, PhD, CNRN, RN, FAAN, FAHA; Bruce Ovbiagele, MD, MS, FAHA;Yuko Y. Palesch, PhD; Ralph L. Sacco, MD, MS, FAHA, FAAN; Lee H. Schwamm, MD, FAHA;Sylvia Wassertheil-Smoller, MD, PhD, FAHA; Tanya N. Turan, MD, FAHA;Deidre Wentworth, MSN, RN; on behalf of the American Heart Association Stroke Council, Councilon Cardiovascular Nursing, Council on Clinical Cardiology, and Interdisciplinary Council on Quality ofCare and Outcomes ResearchAbstract—The aim of this updated statement is to provide comprehensive and timely evidence-based recommendations onthe prevention of ischemic stroke among survivors of ischemic stroke or transient ischemic attack. Evidence-basedrecommendations are included for the control of risk factors, interventional approaches for atherosclerotic disease,antithrombotic treatments for cardioembolism, and the use of antiplatelet agents for noncardioembolic stroke. Furtherrecommendations are provided for the prevention of recurrent stroke in a variety of other specific circumstances,including arterial dissections; patent foramen ovale; hyperhomocysteinemia; hypercoagulable states; sickle cell disease;cerebral venous sinus thrombosis; stroke among women, particularly with regard to pregnancy and the use ofpostmenopausal hormones; the use of anticoagulation after cerebral hemorrhage; and special approaches to theimplementation of guidelines and their use in high-risk populations. (Stroke. 2011;42:227-276.)Key Words: AHA Scientific Statements ischemia transient ischemic attack stroke stroke preventionThe American Heart Association makes every effort to avoid any actual or potential conflicts of interest that may arise as a result of an outsiderelationship or a personal, professional, or business interest of a member of the writing panel. Specifically, all members of the writing group are requiredto complete and submit a Disclosure Questionnaire showing all such relationships that might be perceived as real or potential conflicts of interest.This guideline was approved by the American Heart Association Science Advisory and Coordinating Committee on July 13, 2010. A copy of theguideline is available at http://www.americanheart.org/presenter.jhtml?identifier3003999 by selecting either the “topic list” link or the “chronologicallist” link (No. KB-0102). To purchase additional reprints, call 843-216-2533 or e-mail kelle.ramsay@wolterskluwer.com.The online-only Data Supplement is available at http://stroke.ahajournals.org/cgi/content/full/10.1161/STR.0b013e3181f7d043/DC1.The American Heart Association requests that this document be cited as follows: Furie KL, Kasner SE, Adams RJ, Albers GW, Bush RL, Fagan SC,Halperin JL, Johnston SC, Katzan I, Kernan WN, Mitchell PH, Ovbiagele B, Palesch YY, Sacco RL, Schwamm LH, Wassertheil-Smoller S, Turan TN,Wentworth D; on behalf of the American Heart Association Stroke Council, Council on Cardiovascular Nursing, Council on Clinical Cardiology, andInterdisciplinary Council on Quality of Care and Outcomes Research. Guidelines for the prevention of stroke in patients with stroke or transient ischemicattack: a guideline for healthcare professionals from the American Heart Association/American Stroke Association. Stroke. 2011;42:227–276.Expert peer review of AHA Scientific Statements is conducted at the AHA National Center. For more on AHA statements and guidelines development,visit http://www.americanheart.org/presenter.jhtml?identifier3023366.Permissions: Multiple copies, modification, alteration, enhancement, and/or distribution of this document are not permitted without the expresspermission of the American Heart Association. Instructions for obtaining permission are located at http://www.americanheart.org/presenter.jhtml?identifier4431. A link to the “Permission Request Form” appears on the right side of the page.© 2010 American Heart Association, Inc.Stroke is available at http://stroke.ahajournals.orgDOI: 10.1161/STR.0b013e3181f7d043Downloaded from stroke.ahajournals.org 227 by on March 8, 2011

228 Stroke January 2011Stroke is a major source of mortality and morbidity in theUnited States. Survivors of a transient ischemic attack (TIA)or stroke represent a population at increased risk of subsequentstroke. Approximately one quarter of the 795 000 strokes thatoccur each year are recurrent events. The true prevalence of TIAis difficult to gauge because a large proportion of patients whoexperience a TIA fail to report it to a healthcare provider. 1 Onthe basis of epidemiological data defining the determinants ofrecurrent stroke and the results of clinical trials, it is possible toderive evidence-based recommendations to reduce stroke risk.Notably, much of the existing data come from studies withlimited numbers of older adults, women, and diverse ethnicgroups, and additional research is needed to confirm the generalizabilityof the published findings.The aim of this statement is to provide clinicians with themost up-to-date evidence-based recommendations for theprevention of ischemic stroke among survivors of ischemicstroke or TIA. A writing committee chair and vice chair weredesignated by the Stroke Council Manuscript OversightCommittee. A writing committee roster was developed andapproved by the Stroke Council with representatives fromneurology, cardiology, radiology, surgery, nursing, pharmacy,and epidemiology/biostatistics. The writing groupconducted a comprehensive review and synthesis of therelevant literature. The committee reviewed all compiledreports from computerized searches and conducted additionalsearches by hand. These searches are available on request.Searches were limited to English-language sources and humansubjects. Literature citations were generally restricted topublished manuscripts appearing in journals listed in IndexMedicus and reflected literature published as of August 1,2009. Because of the scope and importance of certainongoing clinical trials and other emerging information, publishedabstracts were cited for informational purposes whenthey were the only published information available, butrecommendations were not based on abstracts alone. Thereferences selected for this document are exclusively forpeer-reviewed papers that are representative but not allinclusive,with priority given to references with higher levelsof evidence. All members of the committee had frequentopportunities to review drafts of the document and reach aconsensus with the final recommendations. Recommendationsfollow the American Heart Association (AHA) and theAmerican College of Cardiology (ACC) methods of classifyingthe level of certainty of the treatment effect and theclass of evidence (Tables 1 and 2). 2Although prevention of ischemic stroke is the primaryoutcome of interest, many of the grades for the recommendationswere chosen to reflect the existing evidence on thereduction of all vascular outcomes after stroke or TIA, includingsubsequent stroke, myocardial infarction (MI), and vasculardeath. The recommendations in this statement are organized tohelp the clinician who has arrived at a potential explanation ofthe cause of ischemic stroke in an individual patient and isembarking on selection of a therapy to reduce the risk of arecurrent event and other vascular outcomes. Our intention is toupdate these statements every 3 years, with additional intervalupdates as needed, to reflect the changing state of knowledge onthe approaches to prevent a recurrent stroke.Definition of TIA and IschemicStroke SubtypesA TIA is an important predictor of stroke. The 90-day risk ofstroke after a TIA has been reported as being as high as 17%,with the greatest risk apparent in the first week. 3,4 Thedistinction between TIA and ischemic stroke has become lessimportant in recent years because many of the preventiveapproaches are applicable to both. 5 TIA and ischemic strokeshare pathophysiologic mechanisms, but prognosis may varydepending on severity and cause, and definitions are dependenton the timing and extent of the diagnostic evaluation. Byconventional clinical definitions, the presence of focal neurologicalsymptoms or signs lasting 24 hours has beendefined as a TIA. With more widespread use of modernimaging techniques for the brain, up to one third of patientswith symptoms lasting 24 hours have been found to have aninfarction. 5,6 This has led to a new tissue-based definition ofTIA: a transient episode of neurological dysfunction causedby focal brain, spinal cord, or retinal ischemia, without acuteinfarction. 5 Notably, the majority of studies described in thisguideline used the older definition. Recommendations providedby this guideline are believed to apply to both strokeand TIA regardless of which definition is used.The classification of ischemic stroke is based on thepresumed mechanism of the focal brain injury and the typeand localization of the vascular lesion. The classic categorieshave been defined as large-artery atherosclerotic infarction,which may be extracranial or intracranial; embolism from acardiac source; small-vessel disease; other determined causesuch as dissection, hypercoagulable states, or sickle celldisease; and infarcts of undetermined cause. 7 The certainty ofclassification of the ischemic stroke mechanism is far fromideal and reflects the inadequacy of the diagnostic workup insome cases to visualize the occluded artery or localize thesource of the embolism. The setting of specific recommendationsfor the timing and type of diagnostic workup forpatients with TIA or stroke is beyond the scope of theseguidelines; at a bare minimum, all stroke patients should havebrain imaging with computed tomography or magnetic resonanceimaging (MRI) to distinguish between ischemic andhemorrhagic events, and both TIA and ischemic strokepatients should have an evaluation sufficient to excludehigh-risk modifiable conditions such as carotid stenosis oratrial fibrillation (AF) as the cause of ischemic symptoms.I. Risk Factor Control for All Patients WithTIA or Ischemic StrokeA. HypertensionAn estimated 72 million Americans have hypertension, definedas a systolic blood pressure (BP) 140 mm Hg ordiastolic BP 90 mm Hg. 8 Overall, there is an associationbetween both systolic and diastolic BP and risk of strokewithout a clear threshold even at a systolic BP of115 mm Hg. 9 Meta-analyses of randomized controlled trialshave shown that BP lowering is associated with a 30% to 40%reduction in risk of stroke. 10–12 Risk reduction is greater withlarger reductions in BP without clear evidence of a drugclass–specific treatment effect. 12 Evidence-based recommen-Downloaded from stroke.ahajournals.org by on March 8, 2011

Furie et al Prevention of Stroke in Patients With Stroke and TIA 229Table 1.Applying Classification of Recommendations and Level of Evidence*Data available from clinical trials or registries about the usefulness/efficacy in different subpopulations, such as gender, age, history of diabetes, history of priormyocardial infarction, history of heart failure, and prior aspirin use. A recommendation with Level of Evidence B or C does not imply that the recommendation is weak.Many important clinical questions addressed in the guidelines do not lend themselves to clinical trials. Even though randomized trials are not available, there maybe a very clear clinical consensus that a particular test or therapy is useful or effective.†For recommendations (Class I and IIa; Level of Evidence A and B only) regarding the comparative effectiveness of one treatment with respect to another, thesewords or phrases may be accompanied by the additional terms “in preference to” or “to choose” to indicate the favored intervention. For example, “Treatment A isrecommended in preference to Treatment B for …” or “It is reasonable to choose Treatment A over Treatment B for ….” Studies that support the use of comparatorverbs should involve direct comparisons of the treatments or strategies being evaluated.dations for BP screening and treatment of persons withhypertension are summarized in the American Stroke Association(ASA) Guidelines on the Primary Prevention ofIschemic Stroke 13 and are detailed in the Seventh Report ofthe Joint National Committee on Prevention, Detection,Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Pressure (JNC 7). 14JNC 7 stresses the importance of lifestyle modifications in themanagement of hypertension. Lifestyle interventions associatedwith reduction of BP include weight loss (including saltrestriction); the consumption of a diet rich in fruits, vegetables,and low-fat dairy products; regular aerobic physicalactivity; and limited alcohol consumption. 14Although numerous randomized trials and meta-analysessupport the importance of treatment of hypertension for preventionof primary cardiovascular disease in general and stroke inparticular, few trials directly address the role of BP treatment insecondary prevention among persons with stroke or TIA. 10,15There is a general lack of definitive data to help guide theimmediate management of elevated BP in the setting of acuteischemic stroke; a cautious approach has been recommended,and the optimal time to initiate therapy remains uncertain. 16A meta-analysis of randomized trials showed that antihypertensivemedications reduced the risk of recurrent strokeafter stroke or TIA. 15 The meta-analysis included 7 randomizedtrials performed through 2002: the Dutch TIA trial(atenolol, a -blocker), 17 Poststroke Antihypertensive TreatmentStudy (PATS; indapamide, a diuretic), 18 Heart OutcomesPrevention Evaluation (HOPE; ramipril, an angiotensin-convertingenzyme inhibitor [ACEI]), 19 and PerindoprilProtection Against Recurrent Stroke Study (PROGRESS;perindopril, an ACEI, with or without indapamide), 20 as well as3 other smaller trials. 21–23 Together these trials included 15 527Downloaded from stroke.ahajournals.org by on March 8, 2011

230 Stroke January 2011Table 2.Definition of Classes and Levels of Evidence Used in AHA RecommendationsClass IClass IIClass IIaClass IIbClass IIITherapeutic recommendationsLevel of Evidence ALevel of Evidence BLevel of Evidence CDiagnostic recommendationsLevel of Evidence ALevel of Evidence BLevel of Evidence CConditions for which there is evidence for and/or general agreement that the procedure or treatment is useful and effectiveConditions for which there is conflicting evidence and/or a divergence of opinion about the usefulness/efficacy of aprocedure or treatmentThe weight of evidence or opinion is in favor of the procedure or treatmentUsefulness/efficacy is less well established by evidence or opinionConditions for which there is evidence and/or general agreement that the procedure or treatment is not useful/effective andin some cases may be harmfulData derived from multiple randomized clinical trials or meta-analysesData derived from a single randomized trial or nonrandomized studiesConsensus opinion of experts, case studies, or standard of careData derived from multiple prospective cohort studies using a reference standard applied by a masked evaluatorData derived from a single grade A study, or one or more case-control studies, or studies using a reference standardapplied by an unmasked evaluatorConsensus opinion of expertsparticipants with transient ischemic stroke, TIA, or intracerebralhemorrhage (ICH) randomized from 3 weeks to 14 months afterthe index event and followed up for 2 to 5 years. No trials testedthe effects of nonpharmacological interventions.Overall, treatment with antihypertensive drugs was associatedwith significant reductions in recurrent strokes (relativerisk [RR], 0.76; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.63 to 0.92),MI (RR, 0.79; 95% CI, 0.63 to 0.98), and all vascular events(RR, 0.79; 95% CI, 0.66 to 0.95). 15 The impact of BPreduction was similar in the restricted group of subjects withhypertension and when all subjects, including those with andwithout hypertension, were analyzed. Larger reductions insystolic BP were associated with greater reduction in risk ofrecurrent stroke. The small number of trials limited comparisonsbetween antihypertensive medications. Significant reductionsin recurrent stroke were seen with diuretics aloneand in combination with ACEIs but not with -blockers orACEIs used alone; nonetheless, statistical power was limited,particularly for the assessment of -blockers, and calciumchannel blockers and angiotensin receptor blockers were notevaluated in any of the included trials.Since this meta-analysis, 2 additional large-scale randomizedtrials of antihypertensive medications after stroke havebeen published: Morbidity and Mortality After Stroke, EprosartanCompared with Nitrendipine for Secondary Prevention(MOSES), 24 and Prevention Regimen for Effectively AvoidingSecond Strokes (PRoFESS). 25 In MOSES, 1405 subjectswith hypertension and a stroke or TIA within the prior 2 yearswere randomized to eprosartan (an angiotensin receptorblocker) or nitrendipine (a calcium channel blocker). 24 BPreductions were similar with the 2 agents. Total strokes andTIAs (counting recurrent events) were less frequent amongthose randomized to eprosartan (incidence density ratio, 0.75;95% CI, 0.58 to 0.97), and there was a reduction in the riskof primary composite events (death, cardiovascular event, orcerebrovascular event; incidence density ratio, 0.79; 95% CI,0.66 to 0.96). A reduction in TIAs accounted for most of thebenefit in cerebrovascular events, with no significant differencein ischemic strokes, and a more traditional analysis oftime to first cerebrovascular event did not show a benefit ofeprosartan. In PRoFESS, 20 332 subjects with ischemicstroke were randomly assigned to telmisartan or placebowithin 90 days of an ischemic stroke. 25 Telmisartan was notassociated with a reduction in recurrent stroke (hazard ratio[HR], 0.95; 95% CI, 0.86 to 1.04) or major cardiovascularevents (HR, 0.94; 95% CI, 0.87 to 1.01) during mean 2.5-yearfollow-up. The BP-lowering arm in PRoFESS was statisticallyunderpowered. Nonadherence to telmisartan and moreaggressive treatment with other antihypertensive medicationsin the placebo group reduced the difference in BP between thetreatment groups (systolic BP differed by 5.4 mm Hg at 1month and 4.0 mm Hg at 1 year) and may have reduced theimpact of treatment on stroke recurrence. Taken together, aparticular role for angiotensin receptor blockers after strokehas not been confirmed.Recommendations1. BP reduction is recommended for both prevention ofrecurrent stroke and prevention of other vascularevents in persons who have had an ischemic stroke orTIA and are beyond the first 24 hours (Class I; Level ofEvidence A).2. Because this benefit extends to persons with and withouta documented history of hypertension, this recommendationis reasonable for all patients with ischemicstroke or TIA who are considered appropriate for BPreduction (Class IIa; Level of Evidence B).3. An absolute target BP level and reduction are uncertainand should be individualized, but benefit hasbeen associated with an average reduction of approximately10/5 mm Hg, and normal BP levels havebeen defined as

Furie et al Prevention of Stroke in Patients With Stroke and TIA 231Table 3.Recommendations for Treatable Vascular Risk FactorsRisk FactorHypertensionDiabetesLipidsRecommendationsBP reduction is recommended for both prevention of recurrent stroke and prevention of other vascular events inpersons who have had an ischemic stroke or TIA and are beyond the first 24 hours (Class I; Level of Evidence A).Because this benefit extends to persons with and without a documented history of hypertension, thisrecommendation is reasonable for all patients with ischemic stroke or TIA who are considered appropriate for BPreduction (Class IIa; Level of Evidence B).An absolute target BP level and reduction are uncertain and should be individualized, but benefit has beenassociated with an average reduction of approximately 10/5 mm Hg, and normal BP levels have been defined as120/80 mm Hg by JNC 7 (Class IIa; Level of Evidence B).Several lifestyle modifications have been associated with BP reduction and are a reasonable part of acomprehensive antihypertensive therapy (Class IIa; Level of Evidence C). These modifications include saltrestriction; weight loss; consumption of a diet rich in fruits, vegetables, and low-fat dairy products; regularaerobic physical activity; and limited alcohol consumption.The optimal drug regimen to achieve the recommended level of reduction is uncertain because direct comparisonsbetween regimens are limited. The available data indicate that diuretics or the combination of diuretics and anACEI are useful (Class I; Level of Evidence A).The choice of specific drugs and targets should be individualized on the basis of pharmacological properties,mechanism of action, and consideration of specific patient characteristics for which specific agents are probablyindicated (eg, extracranial cerebrovascular occlusive disease, renal impairment, cardiac disease, and diabetes)(Class IIa; Level of Evidence B). (New recommendation)Use of existing guidelines for glycemic control and BP targets in patients with diabetes is recommended for patientswho have had a stroke or TIA (Class I; Level of Evidence B). (New recommendation)Statin therapy with intensive lipid-lowering effects is recommended to reduce risk of stroke and cardiovascularevents among patients with ischemic stroke or TIA who have evidence of atherosclerosis, an LDL-C level 100mg/dL, and who are without known CHD (Class I; Level of Evidence B).For patients with atherosclerotic ischemic stroke or TIA and without known CHD, it is reasonable to target areduction of at least 50% in LDL-C or a target LDL-C level of 70 mg/dL to obtain maximum benefit (Class IIa;Level of Evidence B). (New recommendation)Patients with ischemic stroke or TIA with elevated cholesterol or comorbid coronary artery disease should beotherwise managed according to NCEP III guidelines, which include lifestyle modification, dietary guidelines, andmedication recommendations (Class I; Level of Evidence A).Patients with ischemic stroke or TIA with low HDL-C may be considered for treatment with niacin or gemfibrozil(Class IIb; Level of Evidence B).Class/Level ofEvidence*Class I; Level AClass IIa; Level BClass IIa; Level BClass IIa; Level CClass I; Level AClass IIa; Level BClass I; Level BClass I; Level BClass IIa; Level BClass I; Level AClass IIb; Level BCHD indicates coronary heart disease; HDL, high-density lipoprotein cholesterol; LDL-C, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol; NCEP III, The Third Report of the NationalCholesterol Education Program Expert Panel on Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Cholesterol in Adults; and SPARCL, Stroke Prevention by AggressiveReduction in Cholesterol.*See Tables 1 and 2 for explanation of class and level of evidence.aerobic physical activity; and limited alcoholconsumption.5. The optimal drug regimen to achieve the recommendedlevel of reduction is uncertain because directcomparisons between regimens are limited. The availabledata indicate that diuretics or the combination ofdiuretics and an ACEI are useful (Class I; Level ofEvidence A). The choice of specific drugs and targetsshould be individualized on the basis of pharmacologicalproperties, mechanism of action, and considerationof specific patient characteristics for which specificagents are probably indicated (eg, extracranial cerebrovascularocclusive disease, renal impairment, cardiacdisease, and diabetes) (Class IIa; Level of EvidenceB). (New recommendation; Table 3)B. DiabetesDiabetes is estimated to affect 8% of the adult population inthe United States. 26 Prevalence is 15% to 33% in patients withischemic stroke. 27–29 Diabetes is a clear risk factor for firststroke, 30–34 but the data supporting diabetes as a risk factorfor recurrent stroke are more sparse. Diabetes mellitus appearsto be an independent predictor of recurrent stroke inpopulation-based studies, 35 and 9.1% of recurrent strokeshave been estimated to be attributable to diabetes. 36,37 Diabeteswas a predictor of the presence of multiple lacunarinfarcts in 2 stroke cohorts. 38,39Normal fasting glucose is defined as glucose 100 mg/dL(5.6 mmol/L), and impaired fasting glucose has been definedas a fasting plasma glucose of 100 mg/dL to 125 mg/dL(5.6 mmol/L to 6.9 mmol/L). 26 A fasting plasma glucose level126 mg/dL (7.0 mmol/L), or A1C 6.5%, or a casualplasma glucose 200 mg/dL (11.1 mmol/L) in the setting ofsymptoms attributable to hyperglycemia meets the thresholdfor the diagnosis of diabetes. 26 A hemoglobin A 1c (HbA 1c )level 7% is defined as inadequate control of hyperglycemia.Diet, exercise, oral hypoglycemic drugs, and insulin arerecommended to gain glycemic control. 26Three major randomized clinical trials of intensive glucosemanagement in persons with diabetes with a history ofcardiovascular disease, stroke, or additional vascular riskDownloaded from stroke.ahajournals.org by on March 8, 2011

232 Stroke January 2011factors have all failed to demonstrate a reduction in cardiovascularevents or death in the groups receiving intensiveglucose therapy. In the Action to Control Cardiovascular Riskin Diabetes (ACCORD) trial, 10 251 patients with type 2diabetes and vascular disease or multiple risk factors wererandomly assigned to an intensive treatment program targetinga glycohemoglobin level of 6% versus a standardprogram with a goal HbA 1c level of 7% to 7.9%. 39 The trialwas halted after a mean of 3.5 years of follow-up because ofan increased risk of death in patients randomized to theintensive treatment program (HR, 1.22; 95% CI, 1.01 to1.46). There was no significant difference in the rate ofnonfatal stroke (HR, 1.06; 95% CI, 0.75 to 1.50; P0.72) orin the primary end point, which was a composite of nonfatalheart attack, nonfatal stroke, and death due to a cardiovascularcause (HR, 0.90; 95% CI, 0.78 to 1.04; P0.16). TheAction in Diabetes and Vascular Disease (ADVANCE) trialalso failed to show a benefit in secondary prevention ofcardiovascular events. In this trial 11 140 patients with type 2diabetes and a history of macrovascular disease or anotherrisk factor were randomly assigned to intensive glucosecontrol (target 6.5%) or standard glucose control (targetHbA 1c 7%). 40 Thirty-two percent of subjects had a historyof major macrovascular disease, including 9% with a historyof stroke. There was no significant reduction in the occurrenceof macrovascular events alone (HR, 0.94; 95% CI, 0.84to 1.06; P0.32) or nonfatal stroke (3.8% in both treatmentarms). In contrast to the ACCORD trial, there were nosignificant differences in the rate of deaths between the studygroups. Finally, the Veterans Affairs Diabetes Trial, consistingof 1791 veterans with type 2 diabetes assigned tointensive blood glucose treatment or standard treatment,found no significant difference between the 2 groups in anycomponent of the primary outcome, which consisted of timeto occurrence of a major cardiovascular event, or in the rateof death due to any cause (HR, 1.07; 95% CI, 0.81 to 1.42;P0.62). 40 The results of these trials indicate the glycemictargets should not be lowered to HbA 1c 6.5% in patientswith a history of cardiovascular disease or the presence ofvascular risk factors.Among patients who have had a stroke or TIA and havediabetes, guidelines have been established for glycemiccontrol 41 and BP management. 14Recently the use of pioglitazone has been evaluated in5238 patients with type 2 diabetes and macrovascular disease.In the PROspective pioglitAzone Clinical Trial In macroVascularEvents (PROactive), there was no significant reductionin the primary end point of all-cause death or cardiovascularevents in patients randomly assigned to pioglitazone comparedwith placebo (HR, 0.78; 95% CI, 0.60 to 1.02). 42,43Remarkably, among patients who entered PROactive with ahistory of stroke, pioglitazone therapy was associated with a47% relative risk reduction in recurrent stroke (HR, 0.53;95% CI, 0.34 to 0.85), and a 28% relative risk reduction instroke, MI, or vascular death (HR, 0.72; 95% CI, 0.53 to1.00). Conversely, rosiglitazone, another of the thiazolidinedioneclass of drugs, has been linked to the occurrenceof heart failure and possible fluid retention, which led to theUS Food and Drug Administration (FDA) requiring a boxedwarning for this class of drugs in 2007. An increased risk ofMI or cardiovascular death with the use of rosiglitazone hasbeen suspected but not conclusively proven. The InsulinResistance Intervention after Stroke (IRIS) trial is an ongoingstudy funded by the National Institute for NeurologicalDisorders and Stroke (NINDS) in which patients with TIA orstroke are randomly assigned to pioglitazone or placebo for aprimary outcome of stroke and MI.Recommendation1. Use of existing guidelines for glycemic control andBP targets in patients with diabetes is recommendedfor patients who have had a stroke or TIA (Class I;Level of Evidence B). (New recommendation; Table 3)C. LipidsLarge epidemiological studies in which ischemic and hemorrhagicstrokes were distinguishable have shown a modestassociation of elevated total cholesterol or low-density lipoproteincholesterol (LDL-C) with increased risk of ischemicstroke and a relationship between low LDL-C and greaterrisk of ICH. 44–46 With regard to other lipid subfractions,recent studies have independently linked higher serum triglyceridelevels with occurrence of ischemic stroke 47,48 andlarge-artery atherosclerotic stroke, 49 as well as associatinglow high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C) with riskof ischemic stroke. 50 A meta-analysis of 90 000 patientsincluded in statin trials showed that the larger the reduction inLDL-C, the greater the reduction in stroke risk. 51 It wasunclear, however, up until recently what beneficial role, ifany, that statins played in stroke patients without establishedcoronary heart disease (CHD), with regard to vascular riskreduction, particularly prevention of recurrent stroke. 52A retrospective subset analysis of 3280 subjects in theMedical Research Council/British Heart Foundation HeartProtection Study (HPS) with a remote (mean, 4.3 years)history of symptomatic ischemic cerebrovascular diseaseshowed that simvastatin therapy yielded a 20% reduction inmajor vascular events (HR, 0.80; 95% CI, 0.71 to 0.92). 53 Forthe end point of recurrent strokes, simvastatin exerted no netbenefit (HR, 0.98; 95% CI, 0.79 to 1.22), being associatedwith both a nonsignificant 19% reduction in ischemic strokeand a nonsignificant doubling of hemorrhagic stroke (1.3%simvastatin, 0.7% placebo; HR, 1.91; 95% CI, 0.92 to 3.96;4.3% simvastatin versus 5.7% placebo; P0.0001). Giventhe exploratory nature of this post hoc subgroup analysis ofHPS, it remained unclear whether stroke patients woulddefinitively benefit from statin treatment to lessen futurevascular risk (including recurrent stroke), especially thosewithout known CHD. 54In the Stroke Prevention by Aggressive Reduction inCholesterol Levels (SPARCL) study, 4731 persons withstroke or TIA, LDL-C levels between 100 mg/dL and 190mg/dL, and no known history of CHD were randomlyassigned to 80 mg of atorvastatin daily versus placebo. 55During a median follow-up of 4.9 years, fatal or nonfatalstroke occurred in 11.2% who received atorvastatin versus13.1% who received placebo (5-year absolute reduction inrisk, 2.2%; HR, 0.84; 95% CI, 0.71 to 0.99; P0.03). TheDownloaded from stroke.ahajournals.org by on March 8, 2011

Furie et al Prevention of Stroke in Patients With Stroke and TIA 2335-year absolute reduction in risk of major cardiovascularevents was 3.5% (HR, 0.80; 95% CI, 0.69 to 0.92; P0.002).Statin therapy was generally well tolerated, with a mildlyincreased rate of elevated liver enzymes and elevation ofcreatine kinase but no cases of liver failure nor significantexcess in cases of myopathy, myalgia, or rhabdomyolysis. 55There was a higher incidence of hemorrhagic stroke in theatorvastatin treatment arm (n55 [2.3%] for active treatmentversus n33 [1.4%] for placebo; HR, 1.66; 95% CI, 1.08 to2.55) but no difference in the incidence of fatal hemorrhagicstroke between the groups (17 in the atorvastatin group and18 in the placebo group). 55The SPARCL results may understate the magnitude of thetrue treatment effect in fully compliant patients because ofhigh rates of discontinuation of assigned therapy and crossoversto open-label, nonstudy statin therapy in the placebogroup. A prespecified on-treatment analysis of 4162 patientsrevealed an 18% relative reduction in risk of stroke in theatorvastatin treatment group versus controls (HR, 0.82; 95%CI, 0.69 to 0.98; P0.03). 56On the basis of SPARCL, the number needed to treat(NNT) to prevent a first recurrent stroke over 1 year is 258;to prevent 1 nonfatal MI, the NNT is 288. Despite theexclusion of subjects with CHD from the trial, the reductionof various CHD events surpassed that of stroke events,suggesting that asymptomatic CHD is often a comorbidcondition in stroke patients even in the absence of a medicalhistory of CHD. SPARCL assessed the benefits and risksassociated with achieving a degree of LDL-C lowering andnational guideline–recommended nominal targets. Patientswith 50% reduction in LDL-C had a 35% reduction incombined risk of nonfatal and fatal stroke. Although ischemicstrokes were reduced by 37% (HR, 0.63; 95% CI, 0.49 to0.81), there was no increase in hemorrhagic stroke (HR, 1.02;95% CI, 0.60 to 1.75). Achieving an LDL-C level of 70mg/dL was associated with a 28% reduction in risk of stroke(HR, 0.72; 95% CI, 0.59 to 0.89; P0.0018) without anincrease in risk of hemorrhagic stroke (HR, 1.28; 95% CI,0.78 to 2.09; P0.3358), but again the confidence intervalsaround the latter point estimate were wide. 57 A post hocanalysis of the small number of ICHs in SPARCL (n55 foractive treatment versus n33 for placebo) found an increasedrisk of hemorrhagic stroke associated with hemorrhagic stroke asthe entry event (HR, 5.65; 95% CI, 2.82 to 11.30, P0.001),male sex (HR, 1.79, 95% CI, 1.13 to 2.84, P0.01), age(10-year increments; HR, 1.42; 95% CI, 1.16 to 1.74, P0.001),and having stage 2 (JNC 7) hypertension at the last study visit(HR, 6.19; 95% CI, 1.47 to 26.11, P0.01). 58The National Cholesterol Education Program (NCEP) ExpertPanel on Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of HighCholesterol in Adults (Adult Treatment Panel III [ATP III]) isthe most comprehensive guide for management of dyslipidemiain persons with or at risk for vascular disease, includingstroke. 59,60 The NCEP recommends LDL-C lowering as theprimary lipid target. Therapeutic lifestyle modification emphasizesa reduction in saturated fat and cholesterol intake,weight reduction to achieve ideal body weight, and a boost inphysical activity. LDL-C goals and cutpoints for implementingtherapeutic lifestyle change and drug therapy are based on3 categories of risk: CHD and CHD risk equivalents (the lattercategory includes diabetes and symptomatic carotid artery disease),2 cardiovascular risk factors stratified by 10-year risk of10% to 20% for CHD and 10% for CHD according to theFramingham risk score, and 0 to 1 cardiovascular risk factor. 59When there is a history of CHD and CHD risk equivalents, thetarget LDL-C goal is 100 mg/dL. Drug therapy options andmanagement of other dyslipidemias are addressed in the NCEPguideline. LDL-C lowering results in a reduction of totalmortality, coronary mortality, major coronary events, coronaryprocedures, and stroke in persons with CHD. 59Other medications used to treat dyslipidemia include niacin,fibrates, and cholesterol absorption inhibitors. Theseagents can be used by stroke or TIA patients who cannottolerate statins, but data demonstrating their efficacy forprevention of stroke recurrence are sparse. Niacin has beenassociated with a reduction in cerebrovascular events, 61whereas gemfibrozil reduced the rate of unadjudicated totalstrokes among men with coronary artery disease and lowlevels of HDL-C (40 mg/dL) in the Veterans Affairs HDLIntervention Trial (VA-HIT), but the latter result lost significancewhen adjudicated events alone were analyzed. 62Recommendations1. Statin therapy with intensive lipid-lowering effects isrecommended to reduce risk of stroke and cardiovascularevents among patients with ischemic strokeor TIA who have evidence of atherosclerosis, anLDL-C level >100 mg/dL, and who are withoutknown CHD (Class I; Level of Evidence B).2. For patients with atherosclerotic ischemic stroke orTIA and without known CHD, it is reasonable to targeta reduction of at least 50% in LDL-C or a target LDL-Clevel of

234 Stroke January 2011Table 4.Recommendations for Modifiable Behavioral Risk FactorsRisk FactorCigarette smokingAlcohol consumptionRecommendationsHealthcare providers should strongly advise every patient with stroke or TIA who has smoked in the pastyear to quit (Class I; Level of Evidence C).It is reasonable to avoid environmental (passive) tobacco smoke (Class IIa; Level of Evidence C).Counseling, nicotine products, and oral smoking cessation medications are effective for helping smokers toquit (Class I; Level of Evidence A).Patients with ischemic stroke or TIA who are heavy drinkers should eliminate or reduce their consumption ofalcohol (Class I; Level of Evidence C).Light to moderate levels of alcohol consumption (no more than 2 drinks per day for men and 1 drink per dayfor nonpregnant women) may be reasonable; nondrinkers should not be counseled to start drinking (ClassIIb; Level of Evidence B).Physical activity For patients with ischemic stroke or TIA who are capable of engaging in physical activity, at least 30minutes of moderate-intensity physical exercise, typically defined as vigorous activity sufficient to break asweat or noticeably raise heart rate, 1 to 3 times a week (eg, walking briskly, using an exercise bicycle)may be considered to reduce risk factors and comorbid conditions that increase the likelihood of recurrentstroke (Class IIb; Level of Evidence C).For those individuals with a disability following ischemic stroke, supervision by a healthcare professional,such as a physical therapist or cardiac rehabilitation professional, at least on initiation of an exerciseregimen, may be considered (Class IIb; Level of Evidence C).Metabolic syndrome At this time, the utility of screening patients for the metabolic syndrome after stroke has not beenestablished (Class IIb; Level of Evidence C). (New recommendation)For patients who are screened and classified as having the metabolic syndrome, management should includecounseling for lifestyle modification (diet, exercise, and weight loss) for vascular risk reduction (Class I;Level of Evidence C). (New recommendation)Preventive care for patients with the metabolic syndrome should include appropriate treatment for individualcomponents of the syndrome that are also stroke risk factors, particularly dyslipidemia and hypertension(Class I; Level of Evidence A). (New recommendation)*See Tables 1 and 2 for explanation of class and level of evidence.Class/Level ofEvidence*Class I; Level CClass IIa; Level CClass I; Level AClass I; Level CClass IIb; Level BClass IIb; Level CClass IIb; Level CClass IIb; Level CClass I; Level CClass I; Level ARecommendations1. Healthcare providers should strongly advise everypatient with stroke or TIA who has smoked in thepast year to quit (Class I; Level of Evidence C).2. It is reasonable to avoid environmental (passive)tobacco smoke (Class IIa; Level of Evidence C).3. Counseling, nicotine products, and oral smokingcessation medications are effective for helping smokersquit (Class I; Level of Evidence A) (Table 4).E. Alcohol ConsumptionThere is strong evidence that chronic alcoholism and heavydrinking are risk factors for all stroke subtypes. 82–86 Studieshave demonstrated an association between alcohol and ischemicstroke, ranging from a definite independent effect to noeffect. Most studies have suggested a J-shaped associationbetween alcohol and ischemic stroke, with a protective effectfrom light or moderate consumption and an elevated risk ofstroke with heavy consumption of alcohol. 82,83,87–96The majority of the data on the risk of alcohol are relatedto primary prevention, which is discussed extensively in theAHA/ASA guideline statement on primary prevention ofischemic stroke. 13Few studies have evaluated the association between alcoholconsumption and recurrent stroke. Stroke recurrence was significantlyincreased among ischemic stroke patients with priorheavy alcohol use in the Northern Manhattan cohort. 89 Nostudies have demonstrated that reduction of alcohol intakedecreases risk of recurrent stroke. The mechanism for reducedrisk of ischemic stroke with light to moderate alcohol consumptionmay be related to an increase in HDL, 97,98 a decrease inplatelet aggregation, 99,100 and a lower concentration of plasmafibrinogen. 101,102 The mechanism of risk in heavy alcohol usersincludes alcohol-induced hypertension, hypercoagulable state,reduced cerebral blood flow, and AF or cardioembolism due tocardiomyopathy. 83,89,103 In addition, alcohol consumption has beenassociated with insulin resistance and the metabolic syndrome. 104It is well established that alcohol can cause dependenceand that alcoholism is a major public health problem. Whenadvising a patient about behaviors to reduce risk of recurrentstroke, clinicians should consider the interrelationship betweenother risk factors and alcohol consumption. Nondrinkersshould not be counseled to start drinking. A primary goalfor secondary stroke prevention is to eliminate or reducealcohol consumption in heavy drinkers through establishedscreening and counseling methods as outlined in the USPreventive Services Task Force Update 2004. 105Recommendations1. Patients with ischemic stroke or TIA who are heavydrinkers should eliminate or reduce their consumptionof alcohol (Class I; Level of Evidence C).2. Light to moderate levels of alcohol consumption (nomore than 2 drinks per day for men and 1 drink perday for women who are not pregnant) may be reasonable;nondrinkers should not be counseled to startdrinking (Class IIb; Level of Evidence B) (Table 4).Downloaded from stroke.ahajournals.org by on March 8, 2011

Furie et al Prevention of Stroke in Patients With Stroke and TIA 235F. ObesityObesity, defined as a body mass index of 30 kg/m 2 , hasbeen established as an independent risk factor for CHD andpremature mortality. 106–108 The relationship of obesity andweight to stroke is complex but has been studied mostly inrelation to primary prevention. 109–118Among African-American stroke survivors in the AfricanAmerican Antiplatelet Stroke Prevention Study, cardiovascularrisk factor profiles increased with increasing weight, 119although a relationship with risk of recurrent stroke was notestablished.No study has demonstrated that weight reduction reducesrisk of stroke recurrence.G. Physical ActivityPhysical activity exerts a beneficial effect on multiple strokerisk factors. 108,120–125 In a recent review of existing studies onphysical activity and stroke, moderately or highly activepersons had a lower risk of stroke incidence or mortality thandid persons with a low level of activity. 121 Moderately activemen and women had a 20% lower risk, and those who werehighly active had a 27% lower risk. Physical activity tends tolower BP and weight, 125,126 enhance vasodilation, 127 improveglucose tolerance, 128,129 and promote cardiovascular health. 108Despite the established benefits of an active lifestyle,sedentary behaviors continue to be the national trends. 130,131Disability after stroke is substantial, 132 and neurologicaldeficits can predispose an individual to activity intoleranceand physical deconditioning. 133 Therefore, the challenge forclinicians is to establish a safe therapeutic exercise regimenthat allows the patient to regain prestroke levels of activityand then to attain a level of sufficient physical activity andexercise to optimize secondary prevention. Several studiessupport the implementation of aerobic exercise and strengthtraining to improve cardiovascular fitness after stroke. 133–136Structured programs of therapeutic exercise have been shownto improve mobility, balance, and endurance. 134 Beneficialeffects have been demonstrated in different ethnic groups andin both older and younger groups. 137 Although these studieshave shown that structured exercise programs are not harmfulafter stroke, no controlled studies have determined whethertherapeutic exercise reduces the incidence of subsequent stroke.Physical activity was not measured in any of the recent internationalstudies of recurrent stroke and risk factors. 138–140A few studies have investigated stroke survivors’ awarenessof exercise as a potential preventive measure. A surveyusing the 1999 Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System(BRFSS) showed that overall, 62.9% of those who reportedhaving been told they had had a stroke were exercising toreduce their risk of heart attack or another stroke. Mostimportantly, a much larger percentage of stroke survivorswho had received advice to exercise reported actually doingso (75.6%) than stroke survivors who did not receive suchadvice (38.5%). Stroke survivors who reported engaging inmore exercise had fewer days when their activity was limited,fewer days when their physical health was not good, andhealthier days than survivors who did not report exercising afterstroke. 141 This study highlights the importance of provideradvice about exercise, diet, and other lifestyle risk factors. It didnot investigate the incidence of recurrent stroke.Studies have shown that encouragement of physical activityand exercise can optimize physical performance, functionalcapacity, and quality of life after stroke. Recommendations onthe benefits of physical activity for stroke survivors are reviewedmore extensively in other publications. 108,125,127Recommendations1. For patients with ischemic stroke or TIA who arecapable of engaging in physical activity, at least 30minutes of moderate-intensity physical exercise, typicallydefined as vigorous activity sufficient to breaka sweat or noticeably raise heart rate, 1 to 3 times aweek (eg, walking briskly, using an exercise bicycle)may be considered to reduce the risk factors andcomorbid conditions that increase the likelihood ofrecurrent stroke (Class IIb; Level of Evidence C).2. For those individuals with a disability after ischemicstroke, supervision by a healthcare professional,such as a physical therapist or cardiac rehabilitationprofessional, at least on initiation of an exerciseregimen, may be considered (Class IIb; Level of EvidenceC) (Table 4).H. Metabolic SyndromeThe metabolic syndrome refers to the confluence of severalphysiological abnormalities that increase risk for vasculardisease. 142 Those abnormalities are variably counted in differentdefinitions of the metabolic syndrome and includehypertriglyceridemia, low HDL-C, high BP, and hyperglycemia.143–145 Research over the past decade has expanded thesyndrome to include subclinical inflammation and disordersof thrombosis, fibrinolysis, and endothelial function, and hasdemonstrated that it may be transmitted genetically. 142,146,147The metabolic syndrome is commonly diagnosed with criteriaproposed by the NCEP Adult Treatment Panel, the WorldHealth Organization, or the AHA (adopted from the NCEP).According to the AHA criteria, the metabolic syndrome isrecognized when 3 of the following 5 features are present:increased waist circumference (102 cm in men; 88 cm inwomen); elevated triglycerides (150 mg/dL); reducedHDL-C (40 mg/dL in women; 50 mg/dL in men); elevatedBP (systolic 130 mm Hg or diastolic 85 mm Hg); and elevatedfasting glucose (100 mg/dL). 148 Insulin resistance is usuallydescribed as a pathophysiologic state in which a normalamount of insulin produces a subnormal physiological response.Selected consequences include reduced peripheralglucose uptake (into muscle and fat), increased hepaticglucose production, and increased pancreatic insulin secretion(compensatory). 149 Diet, exercise, and use of drugs that enhanceinsulin sensitivity have also been shown to produce many ofthese improvements in persons with the metabolic syndrome. 150–155 The metabolic syndrome affects approximately 22% of USadults 20 years of age. 156 Among patients with ischemicstroke, the prevalence is 40% to 50%. 157–159Considerable controversy surrounds the metabolic syndrome,largely because of uncertainty regarding its etiologyand clinical usefulness. The metabolic syndrome is related toan increased risk for diabetes, cardiovascular disease, andall-cause mortality. 160 It remains uncertain, however, whetherDownloaded from stroke.ahajournals.org by on March 8, 2011

236 Stroke January 2011the metabolic syndrome has value in characterizing risk forindividual patients; simpler risk stratification instruments,such as the Framingham risk score, perform as well or betterin this regard. 157,158 Furthermore, the metabolic syndrome hasnot been associated with risk of developing cardiovasculardisease in the elderly (70 to 82 years of age), limiting itsgeneralizability in a typical stroke population. 161The association between the metabolic syndrome and riskfor first ischemic stroke has been examined in several recentstudies, 158,162–170 all but one of which have confirmed theassociation. 168 The predictive value of the metabolic syndromerelative to its individual components or simpler compositerisk scores has not been adequately examined. Onerecent analysis supports the view that classification of patientsaccording to the metabolic syndrome does not significantlyimprove estimation of stroke risk beyond what can beaccomplished with traditional risk factors. 170,171Only 1 study has examined the association between themetabolic syndrome and risk for stroke recurrence. In theWarfarin Aspirin Symptomatic Intracranial Disease (WASID)trial, 206 participants with the metabolic syndrome were morelikely to have a stroke, MI, or vascular death during 1.8 yearsof follow-up than participants without the metabolic syndrome(HR, 1.6; 95% CI, 1.1 to 2.4; P0.0097). Patients withthe metabolic syndrome were also at increased risk forischemic stroke alone (HR, 1.7; 95% CI, 1.1 to 2.6;P0.012). Adjustment for components of the metabolicsyndrome attenuated the association for the composite outcomeand stroke alone, rendering the hazards ratio notstatistically significant. In addition, in a study of the impact ofobesity and metabolic syndrome on risk factors in AfricanAmerican stroke survivors in the African American AntiplateletStroke Prevention Study, there were increasing cardiovascularrisk factor profiles with increasing weight. 119The cardinal features of the metabolic syndrome all improvewith weight loss. In particular, weight loss among menand women with the metabolic syndrome or obesity has beenshown to improve insulin sensitivity, lower plasma glucose,lower plasma LDL-C, lower plasma triglycerides, raiseHDL-C, lower BP, reduce inflammation, improve fibrinolysis,and improve endothelial function. 154,172,173No adequately powered randomized clinical trials have testedthe effectiveness of weight loss, diet, or exercise for primaryprevention of stroke or other vascular clinical events amongpatients with the metabolic syndrome, although several areunder way. 174 No randomized trial of secondary preventiontherapy has been conducted among stroke patients with themetabolic syndrome. Until such trials are completed, preventivetherapy for patients with the metabolic syndrome should bedriven by the same characteristics that guide therapy for patientswithout the metabolic syndrome, such as BP, age, weight,presence of diabetes, prior symptomatic vascular disease,LDL-C value, HDL-C value, renal function, and family history.Recommendations1. At this time, the utility of screening patients forthe metabolic syndrome after stroke has not beenestablished (Class IIb; Level of Evidence C).(New recommendation)Table 5. Prospective Trials Comparing CarotidEndarterectomy and Medical TherapyTrial Mean Follow-Up Surgical Arm, %* Medical Arm, %*ECST 3 y 2.8 16.8NASCET 2.7 y 9 26VACS 11.9 mo 7.9 25.6ECST indicates European Carotid Surgery Trial; NASCET, North AmericanSymptomatic Carotid Endarterectomy Trial; and VACS, Veterans Affairs CooperativeStudy Program.*Risk of fatal or nonfatal ipsilateral stroke.2. For patients who are screened and classified ashaving the metabolic syndrome, management shouldinclude counseling for lifestyle modification (diet,exercise, and weight loss) for vascular risk reduction(Class I; Level of Evidence C). (New recommendation)3. Preventive care for patients with the metabolicsyndrome should include appropriate treatment forindividual components of the syndrome that are alsostroke risk factors, particularly dyslipidemia andhypertension (Class I; Level of Evidence A). (Newrecommendation; Table 4)II. Interventional Approaches for the PatientWith Large-Artery AtherosclerosisA. Symptomatic Extracranial Carotid DiseaseMany clinical trials, randomized and nonrandomized, comparingsurgical intervention (carotid endarterectomy [CEA])plus medical therapy with medical therapy alone, have beenperformed and published over the past 50 years. In thesestudies, several of which are described below, best medicaltherapy did not include aggressive atherosclerotic medicalmanagement, including use of HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors(statins), alternative antiplatelet agents such as clopidogrelor combination sustained-release dipyridamoleaspirin,optimized BP control, and smoking cessation therapy.Surgical techniques have evolved as well. Furthermore, in thepast few years, carotid angioplasty and stenting (CAS) hasemerged as an alternative treatment for stroke prevention inpatients deemed at high risk for conventional endarterectomy.Ongoing clinical trials are comparing the efficacy of CASwith the gold standard CEA.Carotid EndarterectomyThree major prospective randomized trials have demonstratedthe superiority of CEA plus medical therapy over medicaltherapy alone for symptomatic patients with a high-grade(70% on angiography) atherosclerotic carotid stenosis. 175–177The European Carotid Surgery trial (ECST), the NorthAmerican Symptomatic Carotid Endarterectomy Trial(NASCET), and the Veterans Affairs Cooperative StudyProgram (VACS) each showed outcomes supporting CEAwith moderate-term follow-up (Table 5). Symptomatic patientsincluded those who had both 70% ipsilateral carotidstenosis and TIAs, transient monocular blindness, or nondisablingstrokes. Pooled analysis of the 3 largest randomizedtrials involving 3000 symptomatic patients (VACS,NASCET, and ECST) found a 30-day stroke and death rateof 7.1% in surgically treated patients. 178 Additionally, eachDownloaded from stroke.ahajournals.org by on March 8, 2011

Furie et al Prevention of Stroke in Patients With Stroke and TIA 237of these major trials showed that for patients with stenoses of50%, surgical intervention did not offer benefit in terms ofreduction of stroke risk.Controversy exists for patients with symptomatic stenosesin the range of 50% to 69%. Among symptomatic NASCETpatients with a stenosis of 50% to 69%, the 5-year rate ofany ipsilateral stroke was 15.7% in patients treated surgicallycompared with 22.2% in those treated medically(P0.045). 179 Thus, to prevent 1 ipsilateral stroke during the5-year follow-up, 15 patients would have to undergo CEA. 179The conclusions justify use of CEA only with appropriatecase selection when the risk-benefit ratio is favorable for thepatient. Patients with a moderate (50% to 69%) stenosis whoare at reasonable surgical and anesthetic risk may benefitfrom an intervention performed by a surgeon with excellentoperative skills and a perioperative morbidity and mortalityrate of 6%. 180Patient Selection Criteria Influencing Surgical RiskThe effect of sex on CEA results has been controversial.Some studies have identified a clear gender effect on perioperativestroke and death rates, though many such seriescombine both asymptomatic and symptomatic patients. Subgroupanalyses of the NASCET trial questions the benefit ofCEA in symptomatic women, although women were not wellrepresented and the effect of sex was not overwhelming. 179,181These data suggest that women are more likely to have lessfavorable outcomes, including surgical mortality, neurologicalmorbidity, and recurrent carotid stenosis (14% in womenversus 3.9% in men, P0.008). 182 It has also been hypothesizedthat women are more prone to develop recurrentstenosis due to smaller-caliber vessels, particularly withpatching, although this remains controversial. Of course,outcome differences in age and sex, along with medicalcomorbidities, must be considered when deciding whether ornot to proceed with carotid revascularization.With modern perioperative care and anesthetic techniques,the effects of age and controlled medical comorbidities onoutcomes following CEA are also ambiguous. Though octogenarianswere excluded from the NASCET, case series havedocumented the safety of CEA in those 80 years of age. 183Timing of Carotid RevascularizationThe timing of CEA after an acute neurological event remainscontroversial, with experts advocating waiting anywherefrom 2 to 6 weeks. The optimal timing for CEA after a minoror nondisabling stroke with stabilized or improving neurologicaldeficits has been a subject of much debate. Thoserecommending early CEA (within 6 weeks) report excellentresults without an increased risk of recurrent stroke. Earlyintervention may be beneficial in those without initial evidenceof intraparenchymal brain hemorrhage. Very earlyintervention (3 weeks) may also be performed safely inlow-risk patients with TIAs or minor strokes. 184,185 Pooledanalyses from endarterectomy trials have shown that earlysurgery is associated with increased benefits compared withdelayed surgery. Benefit from surgery was greatest in men75 years of age and those randomized within 2 weeks aftertheir last ischemic event; benefit fell rapidly with increasingdelay. 186Carotid Angioplasty and StentingCAS has emerged as a therapeutic alternative to CEA fortreatment of extracranial carotid artery occlusive disease.Carotid artery angioplasty is a less invasive percutaneousprocedure that was first reported by Kerber et al in 1980. 187The expansion of this technique to include stenting has beenunder investigation in the United States since 1994. 188 Advancesin endovascular technology, including embolic protectiondevices and improved stent design, have resulted inimprovements in the technical aspects of CAS and improvedoutcomes. Existing available data suggest success and complicationrates comparable to CEA. 189,190 The proposed advantagesof CAS are its less invasive nature, decreasedpatient discomfort, and a shorter recuperation period, but itsdurability remains unproven. Clinical equipoise exists withrespect to its comparison with CEA. Currently, CAS ismainly offered to those patients considered high risk for openendarterectomy based on the available data from large,multicenter, prospective, randomized studies. High risk isdefined as (1) patients with severe comorbidities (class III/IVcongestive heart failure, class III/IV angina, left main coronaryartery disease, 2-vessel coronary artery disease, leftventricular ejection fraction [LVEF] 30%, recent MI, severelung disease, or severe renal disease), or (2) challengingtechnical or anatomic factors, such as prior neck operation(ie, radical neck dissection) or neck irradiation, postendarterectomyrestenosis, surgically inaccessible lesions (ie, aboveC2, below the clavicle), contralateral carotid occlusion, contralateralvocal cord palsy, or the presence of a tracheostomy.Anatomic high risk has generally been accepted, but severalrecent studies have called medical high risk into question,given improved anesthetic and critical care management. 191Most reported trials have been industry sponsored and evaluatedthe efficacy of a single stent/neuroprotection system. Thefirst large randomized trial was the Carotid and Vertebral ArteryTransluminal Angioplasty Study (CAVATAS). 192 In this trial,published in 2001, symptomatic patients suitable for surgerywere randomly assigned to either stenting or surgery. Patientsunsuitable for surgery were randomized to either stenting ormedical management. CAVATAS showed CAS to havecomparable outcomes to surgery (30-day rate of stroke ordeath, 6% in both groups); however, only 55 of the 251patients in the endovascular group were treated with a stent,and embolic protection devices were not used. Preliminarylong-term data showed no difference in the rate of stroke inpatients up to 3 years after randomization.Embolic protection devices have reduced periproceduralstroke rates and are required in procedures reimbursed by theCenters for Medicare and Medicaid. The SAPPHIRE trial(Stenting and Angioplasty with Protection in Patients at HighRisk for Endarterectomy) had the primary objective ofcomparing the safety and efficacy of CAS with an embolicprotection device with CEA in 334 symptomatic and asymptomatichigh-risk patients. 193 The perioperative 30-day combinedstroke, death, and MI rates were 9.9% for surgeryversus 4.4% for stenting. The 1-year primary end point ofdeath, stroke, or MI at 30 days plus ipsilateral stroke or deathdue to neurological causes within 31 days to 1 year was 20.1%for surgery and 12.0% for stenting (P0.05). Despite the factDownloaded from stroke.ahajournals.org by on March 8, 2011

238 Stroke January 2011Table 6. Hazard Ratio for CAS Versus CEA in 1321 Symptomatic Patients byTreatment GroupPeriproceduralHR (95% CI)4-Year Study PeriodHR (95% CI)MI 0.45 (0.18–1.11) …Any periprocedural stroke or postprocedural ipsilateral stroke 1.74 (1.02–2.98) 1.29 (0.84–1.98)Any periprocedural stroke, death, or postprocedural ipsilateral stroke 1.89 (1.11–3.21) 1.37 (0.90–2.09)Any periprocedural stroke, MI, death, or postprocedural ipsilateral stroke 1.26 (0.81–1.96) 1.08 (0.74–1.59)that these differences primarily represented differences inperiprocedural MI rates, the major conclusion from this trial wasthat CAS was not inferior to CEA in this specific high-riskpatient cohort. However, only 30% of the study population wassymptomatic, and no subset analyses were performed.Other randomized trials, EVA-3S (Endarterectomy VersusAngioplasty in Patients with Symptomatic Severe CarotidStenosis) and SPACE (Stent-supported Percutaneous Angioplastyof the Carotid artery versus Endarterectomy), had anoninferiority design comparing CAS to CEA in symptomaticpatients. 194,195 Both trials were stopped prematurely forreasons of safety and futility because of a higher 30-daystroke and death rate in the CAS group. In the EVA-3S trial,the 30-day combined stroke and death rate for CAS was 9.6%compared with 3.9% for CEA, with a relative risk of 2.5 forany stroke or death for CAS. 194 Furthermore, at 6 months, therisk for any stroke or death with CAS was 11.7% comparedwith 6.1% with CEA. Both trials have been criticized forinadequate and nonuniform operator experience, which mayhave had a negative impact on CAS.The Carotid Revascularization Endarterectomy versusStent Trial (CREST) was a prospective, randomized trialcomparing the efficacy of CAS with CEA. Results of theCREST lead-in period demonstrated 30-day stroke and deathrates for symptomatic patients comparable to CEA. 196 Interimoutcomes from the lead-in data, however, showed an increasingrisk of stroke and death with increasing age (P0.0006):1.7% of patients 60 years of age, 1.3% of patients 60 to 69years of age, 5.3% of patients 70 to 79 years of age, and12.1% of patients 80 years of age. 196 CREST randomized2502 symptomatic and asymptomatic patients with carotidstenosis (70% by ultrasonography or 50% by angiography)at 117 centers in the United States and Canada. Therewas no significant difference in the composite primaryoutcome (30-day rate of stroke, death, MI, and 4-yearipsilateral stroke) in patients treated with CAS (n1262)versus CEA (n1240; 7.2% versus 6.8%; HR for stenting,1.1; 95% CI, 0.81 to 1.51, P0.51) at a median follow-up of2.5 years. In symptomatic patients the 4-year rate of stroke ordeath was 8% with CAS versus 6.4% with CEA (HR, 1.37;P0.14). In the first 30 days, in symptomatic patients the rateof any periprocedural stroke or postprocedural ipsilateralstroke was significantly higher in the CAS group than in theCEA group (5.50.9% versus 3.20.7%; P0.04). However,in symptomatic patients the rate of MI was higher in theCEA group (2.30.6% with CEA versus 1.00.4% withCAS; P0.08). Periprocedural and 4-year event hazard ratiosare summarized in Table 6. When all patients were analyzed(symptomatic and asymptomatic), there was an interactionbetween age and treatment efficacy (P0.02). For patients70 years of age, CAS showed greater efficacy, whereas forpatients 70 years, CEA results were superior. There was nodifference by sex. 197Extracranial-Intracranial Bypass SurgeryExtracranial-intracranial (EC/IC) bypass surgery was not foundto provide any benefit for patients with carotid occlusion or thosewith carotid artery narrowing distal to the carotid bifurcation. 198New efforts are ongoing, using more sensitive imaging, such as15 O 2 /H 2 15 O positron emission tomography (PET), to selectpatients with the greatest hemodynamic compromise for arandomized controlled trial using EC/IC bypass surgery (CarotidOcclusion Surgery Study [COSS]). 198–200Recommendations1. For patients with recent TIA or ischemic stroke withinthe past 6 months and ipsilateral severe (70% to 99%)carotid artery stenosis, CEA is recommended if theperioperative morbidity and mortality risk is estimatedto be 70%) in whom the stenosis is difficult to accesssurgically, medical conditions are present thatgreatly increase the risk for surgery, or when otherspecific circumstances exist, such as radiationinducedstenosis or restenosis after CEA, CAS maybe considered (Class IIb; Level of Evidence B).7. CAS in the above setting is reasonable when performedby operators with established periproceduralmorbidity and mortality rates of 4% to 6%,similar to those observed in trials of CEA and CAS(Class IIa; Level of Evidence B).Downloaded from stroke.ahajournals.org by on March 8, 2011

Furie et al Prevention of Stroke in Patients With Stroke and TIA 239Table 7.Recommendations for Interventional Approaches to Patients With Stroke Caused by Large-Artery Atherosclerotic DiseaseRisk FactorRecommendationsSymptomatic extracranial For patients with recent TIA or ischemic stroke within the past 6 months and ipsilateral severecarotid disease(70% to 99%) carotid artery stenosis, CEA is recommended if the perioperative morbidity andmortality risk is estimated to be 6% (Class I; Level of Evidence A).For patients with recent TIA or ischemic stroke and ipsilateral moderate (50% to 69%) carotidstenosis, CEA is recommended depending on patient-specific factors such as age, sex, andcomorbidities if the perioperative morbidity and mortality risk is estimated to be 6% (Class I;Level of Evidence B).When the degree of stenosis is 50%, there is no indication for carotid revascularization byeither CEA or CAS (Class III; Level of Evidence A).When CEA is indicated for patients with TIA or stroke, surgery within 2 weeks is reasonablerather than delaying surgery if there are no contraindications to early revascularization (ClassIIa; Level of Evidence B).CAS is indicated as an alternative to CEA for symptomatic patients at average or low risk ofcomplications associated with endovascular intervention when the diameter of the lumen ofthe internal carotid artery is reduced by 70% by noninvasive imaging or 50% by catheterangiography (Class I; Level of Evidence B).Among patients with symptomatic severe stenosis (70%) in whom the stenosis is difficult toaccess surgically, medical conditions are present that greatly increase the risk for surgery, orwhen other specific circumstances exist, such as radiation-induced stenosis or restenosis afterCEA, CAS may be considered (Class IIb; Level of Evidence B).CAS in the above setting is reasonable when performed by operators with establishedperiprocedural morbidity and mortality rates of 4% to 6%, similar to those observed in trials ofCEA and CAS (Class IIa; Level of Evidence B).For patients with symptomatic extracranial carotid occlusion, EC/IC bypass surgery is notroutinely recommended (Class III; Level of Evidence A).Optimal medical therapy, which should include antiplatelet therapy, statin therapy, and risk factormodification, is recommended for all patients with carotid artery stenosis and a TIA or strokeas outlined elsewhere in this guideline (Class I; Level of Evidence B). (New recommendation)ExtracranialOptimal medical therapy, which should include antiplatelet therapy, statin therapy, and risk factorvertebrobasilar diseasemodification, is recommended for all patients with vertebral artery stenosis and a TIA or strokeas outlined elsewhere in this guideline (Class I; Level of Evidence B). (New recommendation)Endovascular and surgical treatment of patients with extracranial vertebral stenosis may beconsidered when patients are having symptoms despite optimal medical treatment (includingantithrombotics, statins, and relevant risk factor control) (Class IIb; Level of Evidence C).IntracranialFor patients with a stroke or TIA due to 50% to 99% stenosis of a major intracranial artery,atherosclerosisaspirin is recommended in preference to warfarin (Class I; Level of Evidence B). Patients in theWASID trial were treated with aspirin 1300 mg/d, but the optimal dose of aspirin in thispopulation has not been determined. On the basis of the data on general safety and efficacy,aspirin doses of 50 mg/d to 325 mg/d are recommended (Class I; Level of Evidence B). (Newrecommendation)For patients with stroke or TIA due to 50% to 99% stenosis of a major intracranial artery,long-term maintenance of BP 140/90 mm Hg and total cholesterol level 200 mg/dL maybe reasonable (Class IIb; Level of Evidence B). (New recommendation)For patients with stroke or TIA due to 50% to 99% stenosis of a major intracranial artery, theusefulness of angioplasty and/or stent placement is unknown and is considered investigational(Class IIb; Level of Evidence C). (New recommendation).For patients with stroke or TIA due to 50% to 99% stenosis of a major intracranial artery, EC/ICbypass surgery is not recommended (Class III; Level of Evidence B). (New recommendation)*See Tables 1 and 2 for explanation of class and level of evidence.Class/Level ofEvidence*Class I; Level AClass I; Level BClass III; Level AClass IIa; Level BClass I; Level BClass IIb; Level BClass IIa; Level BClass III; Level AClass I; Level BClass I; Level BClass IIb; Level CClass I; Level BClass IIb; Level BClass IIb; Level CClass III; Level B8. For patients with symptomatic extracranial carotidocclusion, EC/IC bypass surgery is not routinelyrecommended (Class III; Level of Evidence A).9. Optimal medical therapy, which should include antiplatelettherapy, statin therapy, and risk factormodification, is recommended for all patients withcarotid artery stenosis and a TIA or stroke asoutlined elsewhere in this guideline (Class I; Level ofEvidence B). (New recommendation; Table 7)B. Extracranial Vertebrobasilar DiseaseIndividuals with occlusive disease of the proximal andcervical portions of the vertebral artery are at relatively highrisk for posterior or vertebrobasilar circulation ischemia. 201Indeed, a systematic review suggested that patients withsymptomatic vertebral artery stenosis may have a greaterrecurrent stroke risk in the first 7 days after symptom onsetthan patients with recently symptomatic carotid stenosis. 202Downloaded from stroke.ahajournals.org by on March 8, 2011

240 Stroke January 2011Nevertheless, the best medical therapy for these patients isunclear, and the precise role of invasive treatment remainsuncertain.Medical therapy has generally been the mainstay of treatmentfor this condition because of the high rate of morbidityassociated with surgical correction (endarterectomy or reconstruction),but several case series have indicated that revascularizationprocedures can be performed on patients withextracranial vertebral artery stenosis who are having repeatedvertebrobasilar TIAs or strokes despite medical therapy. 203To date, the only randomized study to compare outcomesafter endovascular treatment versus optimal medical treatmentalone among patients with vertebral artery stenosis wasCAVATAS. 204 In this small trial, 16 subjects with symptomsin the vascular territory supplied by a stenosed vertebralartery were randomized to receive either endovascular therapy(with medical treatment) or medical management aloneand followed for 4.7 years. The primary outcome was the riskof fatal and nonfatal vertebrobasilar territory strokes duringfollow-up in the 2 treatment groups. Secondary end pointsincluded the risk of vertebrobasilar TIA, fatal and nonfatalcarotid territory stroke, and fatal MI. 204In the endovascular group, 6 patients underwent percutaneoustransluminal angioplasty alone and 2 had primarystenting. There was no difference in the 30-day risk ofcerebrovascular symptoms between the treatment groups(P0.47), and beyond the initial 30-day periprocedural orpostrandomization period, no patient experienced the primarytrial outcome. 204 The trial was underpowered, and the relativelylong interval (mean, 92 days) between the index eventand randomization excluded patients at high risk of recurrence.204 Larger randomized trials will be necessary to betterdefine evidence-based recommendations for these patientsand assess whether vertebral artery stenting is of relevance inpatients at higher risk of vertebrobasilar stroke.Recommendations1. Optimal medical therapy, which should include antiplatelettherapy, statin therapy, and risk factormodification, is recommended for all patients withvertebral artery stenosis and a TIA or stroke asoutlined elsewhere in this guideline (Class I; Level ofEvidence B). (New recommendation)2. Endovascular and surgical treatment of patientswith extracranial vertebral stenosis may be consideredwhen patients are having symptoms despiteoptimal medical treatment (including antithrombotics,statins, and relevant risk factor control) (ClassIIb; Level of Evidence C) (Table 7).C. Intracranial AtherosclerosisPatients with symptomatic intracranial atherosclerotic stenosisare at high risk of subsequent stroke. The natural historyis known predominantly from studies designed to measure theeffect of 1 or more treatments, so the natural history of thedisease without treatment presumably is even more ominousthan it appears in treatment trials. In the EC/IC Bypass Study,189 patients with stenosis of the middle cerebral artery wererandomly assigned to undergo bypass surgery or medicaltreatment with aspirin. 198,205 The medically treated patientswere followed up for a mean of 44 months and had an annualstroke rate of 9.5% and an ipsilateral stroke rate of 7.8%. Thesurgically treated patients had worse outcomes than thosetreated medically, so this procedure has largely been abandonedas a treatment for intracranial stenosis.In the WASID study, 569 patients with stroke or TIAresulting from intracranial stenoses of the middle cerebralartery, intracranial internal carotid artery, intracranial vertebralartery, or basilar artery were randomly assigned toreceive aspirin 1300 mg or warfarin (target internationalnormalized ratio [INR] 2.0 to 3.0). 206 This study, which wasstopped early due to safety concerns in the warfarin arm,showed no significant difference between groups in terms ofthe primary end point (ischemic stroke, brain hemorrhage,and vascular death; HR, warfarin versus aspirin, 0.96; 95%CI, 0.68 to 1.37), but there was more bleeding with warfarin.In the first year after the initial event the overall risk ofrecurrent stroke was 15% and the risk of stroke in the territoryof the stenosis was 12%. For patients with a stenosis 70%,the 1-year risk of stroke in the territory of the stenotic arterywas 19%. 207 Multivariate analysis showed that risk for strokein the symptomatic vascular territory was highest for a severestenosis (70%), and patients enrolled early (17 days) afterthe initial event. Women also appeared to be at increased risk.Although the type of initial cerebrovascular event (stroke orTIA) was not significantly associated with the risk of strokein the territory, those presenting with a TIA and an intracranialarterial stenosis of 70% had a low rate of same-territorystroke at 1 year (3%), whereas those presenting with a strokeand an intracranial arterial stenosis 70% had a very highrate of a recurrent stroke in the same territory at 1 year (23%).Patients presenting with a TIA and an intracranial arterialstenosis 70% and those presenting with a stroke and anintracranial arterial stenosis of 50% to 69% had an intermediaterisk.In the Groupe d’Etude des Stenoses Intra-Craniennes Atheromateusessymptomatiques (GESICA) study, 208 a prospectivecohort of 102 patients with symptomatic intracranial arterialstenosis received medical treatment at the discretion of theirphysicians and were followed up for a mean of 23 months. Therisk of subsequent stroke was 13.7%. Notably, 27% of patientshad hemodynamic symptoms, defined as those “related to thestenosis that occurred during a change or position (supine toprone), an effort, or the introduction or increase or an antihypertensivemedication,” and if the stenosis was deemed hemodynamicallysymptomatic, the subsequent risk of cerebrovascularevents increased substantially.Intracranial angioplasty or stenting or both provide anopportunity to alleviate the stenosis, improve cerebral bloodflow, and hopefully reduce the risk of subsequent stroke,particularly in those patients with the risk factors describedabove. Several published series, 209–218 both retrospective andprospective, suggest that the procedure can be performed witha high degree of technical success. The Wingspan stent(Boston Scientific) is approved for clinical use under ahumanitarian device exemption from the FDA for “improvingcerebral artery lumen diameter in patients with intracranialatherosclerotic disease, refractory to medical therapy, inintracranial vessels with 50% stenosis that are accessible toDownloaded from stroke.ahajournals.org by on March 8, 2011

Furie et al Prevention of Stroke in Patients With Stroke and TIA 241the system,” but the effectiveness of this approach has notbeen established. 219,220 In the largest prospective registryinvolving this stent, 129 patients with symptomatic intracranialstenosis of 70% to 99% were followed. 218 The technicalsuccess rate was 97%. The frequency of any stroke, ICH, ordeath within 30 days or ipsilateral stroke beyond 30 days was14% at 6 months, and 25% of patients had recurrent stenosisof 50% on follow-up angiography. It therefore remainspossible that stenting could be associated with a substantialrelative risk reduction, but superiority over medical managementhas not been proved. It is also not clear that stenting,compared with angioplasty alone, confers any benefit inlong-term clinical or angiographic outcome. A randomizedclinical trial (Stenting and Aggressive Medical Managementfor Preventing Recurrent stroke in Intracranial Stenosis[SAMMPRIS]) is under way to determine whether intracranialstenting is superior to medical therapy.Aggressive medical treatment of vascular risk factors forpatients with intracranial stenosis may also reduce the risk ofsubsequent stroke. Although there had been concern that BPlowering might impair cerebral blood flow and therebyincrease stroke risk in patients with large-vessel stenosis, 221post hoc analysis of the WASID trial data suggested thatpatients with intracranial stenosis had fewer strokes and othervascular events (HR, 0.59; 95% CI, 0.40 to 0.79) whenlong-term BP was 140/90 mm Hg. 222,223 Patients also hadlower subsequent stroke risk (HR, 0.69; 95% CI, 0.48 to 0.99)if the total cholesterol level was 200 mg/dL. 223 This BPtarget does not necessarily apply in the acute setting.Recommendations1. For patients with stroke or TIA due to 50% to 99%stenosis of a major intracranial artery, aspirin isrecommended in preference to warfarin (Class I;Level of Evidence B). Patients in the WASID trialwere treated with aspirin 1300 mg/d, but the optimaldose of aspirin in this population has not beendetermined. On the basis of the data on generalsafety and efficacy, aspirin doses of 50 mg to 325 mgof aspirin daily are recommended (Class I; Level ofEvidence B). (New recommendation)2. For patients with stroke or TIA due to 50% to 99%stenosis of a major intracranial artery, long-termmaintenance of BP

242 Stroke January 2011prevention in AF patients who are allergic to aspirin. 230 TheAtrial Fibrillation Clopidogrel Trial with Irbesartan for Preventionof Vascular Events (ACTIVE W) evaluated the safetyand efficacy of the combination of clopidogrel and aspirinversus warfarin in AF patients with at least 1 risk factor forstroke. This study was stopped prematurely by the safetymonitoring committee after 3371 patients were enrolledbecause of the clear superiority of warfarin (INR 2.0 to 3.0)over the antiplatelet combination (RR, 1.44; 95% CI 1.18 to1.76; P0.0003). 231An additional arm of this study (ACTIVE A) comparedaspirin versus clopidogrel plus aspirin in AF patients whowere considered “unsuitable for vitamin K antagonist therapy”and reported a reduction in the rate of stroke withclopidogrel plus aspirin. Stroke occurred in 296 patientsreceiving clopidogrel plus aspirin (2.4% per year) and 408patients receiving aspirin monotherapy (3.3% per year; RR,0.72; 95% CI, 0.62 to 0.83; P0.001). Major bleedingoccurred in 251 patients receiving clopidogrel plus aspirin(2.0% per year) and in 162 patients receiving aspirin alone(1.3% per year; RR, 1.57; 95% CI, 1.29 to 1.92; P0.001). 232An analysis of major vascular events combined with majorhemorrhage showed no difference between the 2 treatmentoptions (RR, 0.97; 95% CI, 0.89 to 1.06; P0.54). Themajority of patients enrolled in this study were deemed to beunsuitable for warfarin based on physician judgment orpatient preference; only 23% had increased bleeding risk orinability to comply with monitoring as the reason for enrollment.Therefore, on the basis of uncertainty of how toidentify patients who are “unsuitable” for anticoagulation, aswell as the lack of benefit in the analysis of vascular eventsplus major hemorrhage, aspirin remains the treatment ofchoice for AF patients who have a clear contraindication tovitamin K antagonist therapy but are able to tolerate antiplatelettherapy.The superior efficacy of anticoagulation over aspirin forstroke prevention in patients with AF and a recent TIA orminor stroke was demonstrated in the European Atrial FibrillationTrial (EAFT). 233 Therefore, unless a clear contraindicationexists, AF patients with a recent stroke or TIA shouldreceive long-term anticoagulation rather than antiplatelettherapy. There is no evidence that combining anticoagulationwith an antiplatelet agent reduces the risk of stroke or MIcompared with anticoagulant therapy alone in AF patients,but there is clear evidence of increased bleeding risk. 234Therefore, in general, addition of aspirin to anticoagulationtherapy should be avoided in AF patients.The narrow therapeutic margin of warfarin in conjunctionwith numerous associated food and drug interactions requiresfrequent INR testing and dose adjustments. These liabilitiescontribute to significant underutilization of warfarin even inhigh-risk patients. Therefore, alternative therapies that areeasier to use are needed. A number of recent and ongoingtrials are evaluating alternative antithrombotic strategies inAF patients, including direct thrombin inhibitors and factorXa inhibitors. To date, the most successful alternative anticoagulantevaluated is the oral antithrombin dabigatran,which was tested in the Randomized Evaluation of Long-Term Anticoagulation Therapy (RE-LY) study. 235 RE-LY, arandomized open-label trial of 18 000 AF patients, demonstratedthat at a dose of 150 mg twice daily, dabigatran wasassociated with lower rates of stroke or systemic embolismand rates of major hemorrhage similar to those of doseadjustedwarfarin. The absolute reduction in stroke or systemicembolism was small (1.69% in the warfarin groupversus 1.11% in the dabigatran 150 mg twice-daily group;RR, 0.66 [0.53 to 0.82]; P0.001). No significant safetyconcerns were noted with dabigatran other than a small butstatistically significant increase in MI (0.74% per year versus0.53% per year). No recommendation will be provided fordabigatran in the current version of these guidelines becauseregulatory evaluation and approval has not yet occurred.However, the availability of a highly effective oral agentwithout significant drug or food interactions that does notrequire coagulation monitoring would represent a majoradvance for this patient population.An alternative strategy for preventing stroke in AF patientsis percutaneous implantation of a device to occlude the leftatrial appendage. The PROTECT AF (WATCHMAN LeftAtrial Appendage System for Embolic Protection in Patientswith Atrial Fibrillation) study demonstrated that use of anocclusion device is feasible in AF patients and has thepotential to reduce stroke risk. 236 In this open-label trial, 707warfarin-eligible AF patients were randomly assigned toreceive either the WATCHMAN left atrial appendage occlusiondevice (n463) or dose-adjusted warfarin (n244).Forty-five days after successful device implantation, warfarinwas discontinued. The primary efficacy rate (combination ofstroke, cardiovascular or unexplained death, or systemicembolism) was low in both the device versus the warfaringroup and satisfied the noninferiority criteria established forthe study. The most common periprocedural complicationwas serious pericardial effusion in 22 patients (5%; 15 weretreated with pericardiocentesis and 7 with surgery). Fivepatients (1%) had a procedure-related ischemic stroke and 3had embolization of the device. This approach is likely tohave greatest clinical utility for AF patients at high stroke riskwho are poor candidates for oral anticoagulation; however,more data are required in these patient populations before arecommendation can be made.Available data do not show greater efficacy of the acuteadministration of anticoagulants over antiplatelet agents inthe setting of cardioembolic stroke. 237 More studies arerequired to clarify whether certain subgroups of patients whoare perceived to be at high risk of recurrent embolism maybenefit from urgent anticoagulation (eg, AF patients forwhom transesophageal echocardiography [TEE] shows a leftatrial appendage thrombus).No data are available to address the question of optimaltiming for initiation of oral anticoagulation in a patient withAF after a stroke or TIA. In the EAFT trial, 233 oral anticoagulationwas initiated within 14 days of symptom onset inabout one half of patients. Patients in this trial had minorstrokes or TIAs and AF. However, for patients with largeinfarcts, extensive hemorrhagic transformation, or uncontrolledhypertension, further delays may be appropriate.For patients with AF who suffer an ischemic stroke or TIAdespite therapeutic anticoagulation, there are no data toDownloaded from stroke.ahajournals.org by on March 8, 2011

Furie et al Prevention of Stroke in Patients With Stroke and TIA 243indicate that either increasing the intensity of anticoagulationor adding an antiplatelet agent provides additional protectionagainst future ischemic events. In addition, both of thesestrategies are associated with an increase in bleeding risk. Forexample, in the Stroke Prevention using an ORal Thrombininhibitor in Atrial Fibrillation study (SPORTIF), AF patientswith prior stroke or TIA who were treated with the combinationof aspirin and warfarin were at considerably higherrisk of major bleeding (1.5% per year with warfarin and4.95% per year with warfarin plus aspirin; P0.004) and noreduction in ischemic events. 234 High INR values are clearlyassociated with increased risk of hemorrhage; risk of ICHincreases dramatically at INR values 4.0. 229Patients with AF and prior stroke or TIA have increasedstroke risk when oral anticoagulant therapy is temporarilyinterrupted (typically for surgical procedures). The issue ofwhether to use bridging therapy with intravenous heparin or alow-molecular-weight heparin (LMWH) in these situations iscomplex and has been recently reviewed. 238 In general, bridginganticoagulation is recommended for AF patients assessed to beat particularly high risk (stroke or TIA within 3 months,CHADS 2 score of 5 or 6, or mechanical or rheumatic valvedisease). The preferred method for bridging is typically LMWHadministered in an outpatient setting in full treatment doses (asopposed to low prophylactic doses). 238About one quarter of patients who present with AF andischemic stroke will be found to have other potential causesof the stroke, such as carotid stenosis. 239 For these patients,treatment decisions should focus on the presumed most likelystroke etiology. In many cases it will be appropriate to initiateanticoagulation because of the AF, as well as an additionaltherapy (such as CEA).Recommendations1. For patients with ischemic stroke or TIA withparoxysmal (intermittent) or permanent AF, anticoagulationwith a vitamin K antagonist (target INR2.5; range, 2.0 to 3.0) is recommended (Class I; Levelof Evidence A).2. For patients unable to take oral anticoagulants, aspirinalone (Class I; Level of Evidence A) is recommended.The combination of clopidogrel plus aspirin carries arisk of bleeding similar to that of warfarin and thereforeis not recommended for patients with a hemorrhagiccontraindication to warfarin (Class III; Level ofEvidence B). (New recommendation)3. For patients with AF at high risk for stroke (strokeor TIA within 3 months, CHADS 2 score of 5 or 6,mechanical or rheumatic valve disease) who requiretemporary interruption of oral anticoagulation,bridging therapy with an LMWH administered subcutaneouslyis reasonable (Class IIa; Level of EvidenceC). (New recommendation; Table 8)B. Acute MI and LV ThrombusWithout acute reperfusion therapy, intracardiac thrombusoccurs in about one third of patients in the first 2 weeks afteranterior MI and in an even greater proportion of those withlarge infarcts involving the LV apex. 224,240–243 In the absenceof anticoagulant therapy, clinically evident cerebral infarctionoccurs in approximately 10% of patients with LV thrombusfollowing MI. 241 Thrombolytic therapy may result in a lowerincidence of LV thrombus formation, 242,244,245 but the magnitudeof risk reduction is controversial. 246 The remainder ofventricular mural thrombi occur in patients with chronicventricular dysfunction resulting from coronary disease, hypertension,or other forms of dilated cardiomyopathy, whoface a persistent risk of stroke and systemic embolismwhether or not AF is documented.Over the past 20 years, 3 large trials involving patients withacute inferior and anterior MIs concluded that initial treatmentwith heparin followed by administration of warfarinreduced the occurrence of cerebral embolism from 3% to 1%compared with no anticoagulation. Differences were statisticallysignificant in 2 of the 3 studies, with a concordant trendin the third. 242,244,245 Four randomized studies involvingpatients with acute MI have addressed the relationship ofechocardiographically detected LV thrombus and cerebralembolism. 247–250 In aggregate, thrombus formation was reducedby 50% with anticoagulation; individually, however,each trial had insufficient sample size to detect significantdifferences in embolism.On the basis of available clinical trial results, Class Irecommendations have been promulgated for oral anticoagulanttreatment of patients with echocardiographically detectedLV thrombi after anterior MI. There is no consensusregarding the duration of anticoagulant treatment. 251 Thepersistence of stroke risk for several months after infarctionin these patients is suggested by aggregate results of a numberof studies, but alternative antithrombotic regimens have notbeen systematically evaluated. The risk of thromboembolismseems to decrease after the first 3 months, and in patients withchronic ventricular aneurysm, the risk of embolism is comparativelylow, even though intracardiac thrombi occur frequentlyin this condition.Recommendation1. Patients with ischemic stroke or TIA in the setting ofacute MI complicated by LV mural thrombus formationidentified by echocardiography or anothercardiac imaging technique should be treated withoral anticoagulation (target INR 2.5, range 2.0 to3.0) for at least 3 months (Class I; Level of EvidenceB) (Table 8).C. CardiomyopathyAlthough numeric estimates are difficult to verify, approximately10% of patients with ischemic stroke have an LVEF30%. 252 The first randomized trial to study warfarin inpatients with heart failure in the era of modern heart failuremanagement, the Warfarin and Antiplatelet Therapy inChronic Heart Failure trial (WATCH) was terminated withoutadequate power to define the effect of warfarin comparedwith aspirin or clopidogrel on stroke. 253Similarly, no adequately powered randomized studies ofaspirin or other platelet inhibitor drugs have been carried out inpatients with chronic heart failure. An ongoing trial, Warfarinversus Aspirin in Reduced Cardiac Ejection Fraction(WARCEF), is designed to compare the efficacy of warfarin(INR 2.5 to 3.0) and aspirin (325 mg daily) with regard to thecomposite end point of death or stroke (ischemic or hemor-Downloaded from stroke.ahajournals.org by on March 8, 2011

244 Stroke January 2011Table 8.Recommendations for Patients With Cardioembolic Stroke TypesRisk FactorAtrial fibrillationAcute MI andLV thrombusCardiomyopathyNative valvularheart diseaseProsthetic heartvalvesRecommendationsFor patients with ischemic stroke or TIA with paroxysmal (intermittent) or permanent AF, anticoagulation with avitamin K antagonist (target INR 2.5; range, 2.0 to 3.0) is recommended (Class I; Level of Evidence A).For patients unable to take oral anticoagulants, aspirin alone (Class I; Level of Evidence A) is recommended.The combination of clopidogrel plus aspirin carries a risk of bleeding similar to that of warfarin and therefore is notrecommended for patients with a hemorrhagic contraindication to warfarin (Class III; Level of Evidence B). (Newrecommendation)For patients with AF at high risk for stroke (stroke or TIA within 3 months, CHADS 2 score of 5 or 6, mechanicalvalve or rheumatic valve disease) who require temporary interruption of oral anticoagulation, bridging therapywith an LMWH administered subcutaneously is reasonable (Class IIa; Level of Evidence C). (Newrecommendation)Patients with ischemic stroke or TIA in the setting of acute MI complicated by LV mural thrombus formationidentified by echocardiography or another cardiac imaging technique should be treated with oral anticoagulation(target INR 2.5; range 2.0 to 3.0) for at least 3 months (Class I; Level of Evidence B).In patients with prior stroke or transient cerebral ischemic attack in sinus rhythm who have cardiomyopathycharacterized by systolic dysfunction (LVEF 35%), the benefit of warfarin has not been established (Class IIb;Level of Evidence B). (New recommendation)Warfarin (INR 2.0 to 3.0), aspirin (81 mg daily), clopidogrel (75 mg daily), or the combination of aspirin (25 mgtwice daily) plus extended-release dipyridamole (200 mg twice daily) may be considered to prevent recurrentischemic events in patients with previous ischemic stroke or TIA and cardiomyopathy (Class IIb; Level of Evidence B).For patients with ischemic stroke or TIA who have rheumatic mitral valve disease, whether or not AF is present,long-term warfarin therapy is reasonable with an INR target range of 2.5 (range, 2.0 to 3.0) (Class IIa; Level ofEvidence C).To avoid additional bleeding risk, antiplatelet agents should not be routinely added to warfarin (Class III; Level ofEvidence C).For patients with ischemic stroke or TIA and native aortic or nonrheumatic mitral valve disease who do not haveAF, antiplatelet therapy may be reasonable (Class IIb; Level of Evidence C).For patients with ischemic stroke or TIA and mitral annular calcification, antiplatelet therapy may be considered(Class IIb; Level of Evidence C).For patients with MVP who have ischemic stroke or TIA, long-term antiplatelet therapy may be considered(Class IIb; Level of Evidence C).For patients with ischemic stroke or TIA who have mechanical prosthetic heart valves, warfarin is recommendedwith an INR target of 3.0 (range, 2.5 to 3.5) (Class I; Level of Evidence B).For patients with mechanical prosthetic heart valves who have an ischemic stroke or systemic embolism despiteadequate therapy with oral anticoagulants, aspirin 75 mg/d to 100 mg/d in addition to oral anticoagulants andmaintenance of the INR at a target of 3.0 (range, 2.5 to 3.5) is reasonable if the patient is not at high bleedingrisk (eg, history of hemorrhage, varices, or other known vascular anomalies conveying increased risk ofhemorrhage, coagulopathy) (Class IIa; Level of Evidence B).For patients with ischemic stroke or TIA who have bioprosthetic heart valves with no other source ofthromboembolism, anticoagulation with warfarin (INR 2.0 to 3.0) may be considered (Class IIb; Level of Evidence C).LV indicates left ventricular; and MVP, mitral valve prolapse.*See Tables 1 and 2 for explanation of class and level of evidence.Class/Level ofEvidence*Class I; Level AClass I; Level AClass III; Level BClass IIa; Level CClass I; Level BClass IIb; Level BClass IIb; Level BClass IIa; Level CClass III; Level CClass IIb; Level CClass IIb; Level CClass IIb; Level CClass I; Level BClass IIa; Level BClass IIb, Level Crhagic) among patients with LVEF 35% without documentedAF, mechanical prosthetic heart valve, or other indication foranticoagulant therapy. 254 The trial is not designed to addressquestions of which antithrombotic strategy is superior for preventionof initial or recurrent stroke in this population, 255whether clopidogrel or another thienopyridine platelet inhibitorprovides results comparable or superior to aspirin, or whethercombination therapy with a platelet inhibitor plus an anticoagulantis superior to treatment with either agent alone.Recommendations1. In patients with prior stroke or transient cerebralischemic attack in sinus rhythm who have cardiomyopathycharacterized by systolic dysfunction(LVEF

Furie et al Prevention of Stroke in Patients With Stroke and TIA 245forms of native valvular heart disease and in patients withmechanical and biological heart valve prostheses must bebalanced against the risk of bleeding.Rheumatic Mitral Valve DiseaseRecurrent embolism occurs in 30% to 65% of patients withrheumatic mitral valve disease who have a history of aprevious embolic event. 256–259 Between 60% and 65% ofthese recurrences develop within the first year, 256,257 mostwithin 6 months. Mitral valvuloplasty does not seem toeliminate the risk of thromboembolism 260,261 ; therefore, successfulvalvuloplasty does not eliminate the need for anticoagulationin patients requiring long-term anticoagulationpreoperatively. Although not evaluated in randomized trials,multiple observational studies have reported that long-termanticoagulant therapy effectively reduces the risk of systemicembolism in patients with rheumatic mitral valve disease. 262–265Long-term anticoagulant therapy in patients with mitralstenosis who had left atrial thrombus identified by TEE hasbeen shown to result in the disappearance of the left atrialthrombus. 266 The ACC/AHA Task Force on Practice Guidelineshas published guidelines for the management of patientswith valvular heart disease. 267The safety and efficacy of combining antiplatelet andanticoagulant therapy have not been evaluated in patientswith rheumatic valve disease. On the basis of extrapolationfrom similar patient populations, it is clear that combinationtherapy increases bleeding risk. 268,269Mitral Valve ProlapseMitral valve prolapse (MVP) is the most common form ofvalve disease in adults. 270 Although generally innocuous, it issometimes symptomatic, and thromboembolic phenomenahave been reported in patients with MVP in whom no othersource could be found. 271–275 However, more recentpopulation-based prospective studies, such as the FraminghamHeart Study, have failed to clearly identify an increasedrisk of stroke. 276,277No randomized trials have addressed the efficacy ofantithrombotic therapies for this specific subgroup of strokeor TIA patients.Mitral Annular CalcificationMAC, 278 which is predominantly found in women, is sometimesassociated with significant mitral regurgitation and isan uncommon nonrheumatic cause of mitral stenosis. Althoughthe incidence of systemic and cerebral embolism isnot clear, 279–284 thrombus has been found at autopsy onheavily calcified annular tissue, and echogenic densities havebeen identified in the LV outflow tract in patients with MACwho experience cerebral ischemic events. 280,282 Aside fromthe risk of thromboembolism, spicules of fibrocalcific materialmay embolize from the calcified mitral annulus. 279,281,283The relative frequencies of calcific and thrombotic embolismare unknown. 279,284There has been uncertainty whether MAC is an independentrisk factor for stroke. In a recent cohort study of AmericanIndians, MAC was found to be a strong risk factor for stroke,even after adjustment for other risk factors. 273 A cross-sectionalstudy of patients referred for TEE for evaluation of cerebralischemia found that MAC was significantly associated withproximal and distal complex aortic atheroma. 285There are no relevant data comparing the safety andefficacy of anticoagulant therapy versus antiplatelet therapyin patients with TIA or stroke.Aortic Valve DiseaseClinically detectable systemic embolism in isolated aorticvalve disease is increasingly recognized as due to microthrombior calcific emboli. 286 In the absence of associatedmitral valve disease or AF, systemic embolism in patientswith aortic valve disease is uncommon. No randomized trialsof selected patients with stroke and aortic valve disease exist,so recommendations are based on the evidence from largerantiplatelet trials of stroke and TIA patients.Recommendations1. For patients with ischemic stroke or TIA who haverheumatic mitral valve disease, whether or not AF ispresent, long-term warfarin therapy is reasonablewith an INR target range of 2.5 (range, 2.0 to 3.0)(Class IIa; Level of Evidence C).2. To avoid additional bleeding risk, antiplatelet agentsshould not be routinely added to warfarin (Class III;Level of Evidence C).3. For patients with ischemic stroke or TIA and nativeaortic or nonrheumatic mitral valve disease who donot have AF, antiplatelet therapy may be reasonable(Class IIb; Level of Evidence C).4. For patients with ischemic stroke or TIA and mitralannular calcification, antiplatelet therapy may beconsidered (Class IIb; Level of Evidence C).5. For patients with MVP who have ischemic stroke orTIAs, long-term antiplatelet therapy may be considered(Class IIb; Level of Evidence C) (Table 8).E. Prosthetic Heart ValvesEvidence that oral anticoagulants are effective in preventingthromboembolism in patients with prosthetic heart valvescomes from a trial that randomized patients to either 6 monthswith warfarin of uncertain intensity versus 2 different aspirincontainingplatelet-inhibitor drug regimens. 287 Thromboemboliccomplications occurred significantly more frequently inthe antiplatelet groups than in the anticoagulation group(event rates were 8% to 10% per patient-year in the antiplateletgroups versus 2% per year in the anticoagulation group).The incidence of bleeding was higher in the warfarin group.Other studies yielded variable results depending on the typeand location of the prosthesis, the intensity of anticoagulation,and the addition of platelet inhibitor medication; nonespecifically addressed secondary stroke prevention.In 2 randomized studies, concurrent treatment with dipyridamoleand warfarin reduced the incidence of systemicembolism in patients with prosthetic heart valves. 288,289 Anothertrial showed that the addition of aspirin 100 mg/d towarfarin (INR 3.0 to 4.5) improved efficacy compared withwarfarin alone. 290 This combination of low-dose aspirin andhigh-intensity warfarin was associated with a reduced allcausemortality, cardiovascular mortality, and stroke at theexpense of increased minor bleeding; the difference in majorDownloaded from stroke.ahajournals.org by on March 8, 2011

246 Stroke January 2011bleeding, including cerebral hemorrhage, did not reach statisticalsignificance.Bioprosthetic valves are associated with a lower rate ofthromboembolism than mechanical valves. In patients withbioprosthetic valves who have an otherwise unexplainedischemic stroke or TIA, oral anticoagulation (INR 2.0 to 3.0)is suggested.Recommendations1. For patients with ischemic stroke or TIA who havemechanical prosthetic heart valves, warfarin is recommendedwith an INR target of 3.0 (range, 2.5 to3.5) (Class I; Level of Evidence B).2. For patients with mechanical prosthetic heart valveswho have an ischemic stroke or systemic embolismdespite adequate therapy with oral anticoagulants,aspirin 75 mg/d to 100 mg/d in addition to oralanticoagulants and maintenance of the INR at atarget of 3.0 (range, 2.5 to 3.5) is reasonable if thepatient is not at high bleeding risk (eg, history ofhemorrhage, varices, or other known vascularanomalies conveying increased risk of hemorrhage,coagulopathy) (Class IIa; Level of Evidence B).3. For patients with ischemic stroke or TIA who havebioprosthetic heart valves with no other source ofthromboembolism, anticoagulation with warfarin(INR 2.0 to 3.0) may be considered (Class IIb; Levelof Evidence C) (Table 8).IV. Antithrombotic Therapy forNoncardioembolic Stroke or TIA (Specifically,Atherosclerotic, Lacunar, orCryptogenic Infarcts)A. Antiplatelet AgentsFour antiplatelet drugs have been approved by the FDA forprevention of vascular events among patients with a stroke orTIA: aspirin, combination aspirin/dipyridamole, clopidogrel,and ticlopidine. On average, these agents reduce the relativerisk of stroke, MI, or death by about 22%, 291 but importantdifferences exist between agents that have direct implicationsfor therapeutic selection.AspirinAspirin prevents stroke among patients with a recent stroke orTIA. 233,292–294 In a meta-regression analysis of placebocontrolledtrials of aspirin therapy for secondary strokeprevention, the relative risk reduction for any type of stroke(hemorrhagic or ischemic) was estimated at 15% (95% CI,6% to 23%). 295 The magnitude of the benefit is similar fordoses ranging from 50 mg to 1500 mg, 233,291,292,294–296 althoughthe data for doses 75 mg are limited. 291 In contrast,toxicity does vary by dose; the principal toxicity of aspirin isgastrointestinal hemorrhage, and higher doses of aspirin areassociated with greater risk. 292,294 For patients who uselow-dose aspirin (325 mg) for prolonged intervals, theannual risk of serious gastrointestinal hemorrhage is about0.4%, which is 2.5 times the risk for nonusers. 292,294,297,298Aspirin therapy is associated with an increased risk ofhemorrhagic stroke that is smaller than the risk for ischemicstroke, resulting in a net benefit. 299TiclopidineTiclopidine is a platelet adenosine diphosphate (ADP) receptorantagonist that has been evaluated in 3 randomized trialsof patients with cerebrovascular disease. 300–302 The CanadianAmerican Ticlopidine Study (CATS) compared ticlopidine(250 mg twice a day) with placebo for prevention of stroke,MI, or vascular death in 1053 patients with ischemicstroke. 302 After a mean follow-up duration of 2 years, patientsassigned to ticlopidine therapy had fewer outcomes per year(11.3% compared with 14.8%; relative risk reduction [RRR],23%; 95% CI, 1% to 41%). The Ticlopidine Aspirin StrokeStudy (TASS) compared ticlopidine 250 mg twice a day withaspirin 650 mg twice a day in 3069 patients with recent minorstroke or TIA. 301 After 3 years, patients assigned to ticlopidinehad a lower rate for the primary outcome of stroke ordeath (17% compared with 19%; RRR, 12%; 95% CI, 2% to26%; P0.048 by Kaplan-Meier estimates). Finally, theAfrican American Antiplatelet Stroke Prevention Study enrolled1809 black patients with recent noncardioembolicischemic stroke who were allocated to receive ticlopidine 250mg twice a day or aspirin 325 mg twice a day. 300 The studyfound no difference in risk of the combination of stroke, MI,or vascular death at 2 years. Side effects of ticlopidine includediarrhea and rash. Rates of gastrointestinal bleeding arecomparable or less than with aspirin. Neutropenia occurred in2% of patients treated with ticlopidine in CATS and TASS;however, it was severe in about 1% and was almost alwaysreversible with discontinuation. Thrombotic thrombocytopenicpurpura has also been described. 303ClopidogrelAnother platelet ADP receptor antagonist, clopidogrel, becameavailable after aspirin, combination aspirin/dipyridamole,and ticlopidine were each shown to be effective forsecondary stroke prevention. As a single agent, clopidogrelhas been tested for secondary stroke prevention in 2 trials,one comparing it with aspirin 298 alone and one comparing itwith combination aspirin/dipyridamole. 304 In each trial, ratesof primary outcomes were similar between the treatmentgroups. Clopidogrel has not been compared with placebo forsecondary stroke prevention. 305Clopidogrel was compared with aspirin alone in the Clopidogrelversus Aspirin in Patients at Risk of Ischemic Events(CAPRIE) trial. 298 More than 19 000 patients with stroke, MI,or peripheral vascular disease were randomly assigned toaspirin 325 mg/d or clopidogrel 75 mg/d. The annual rate ofischemic stroke, MI, or vascular death was 5.32% amongpatients assigned to clopidogrel compared with 5.83% amongpatients assigned to aspirin (RRR, 8.7%; 95% CI, 0.3 to 16.5;P0.043). Notably, in a subgroup analysis of patients whoentered CAPRIE after a stroke, the effect of clopidogrel wassmaller and did not reach statistical significance. In thissubgroup the annual rate of stroke, MI, or vascular death was7.15% in the clopidogrel group compared with 7.71% in theaspirin group (RRR, 7.3%; 95% CI, 6% to 19%; P0.26).CAPRIE was not designed to determine if clopidogrel wasequivalent to aspirin among stroke patients.Clopidogrel was compared with combination aspirin andextended-release dipyridamole in the PRoFESS trial, whichDownloaded from stroke.ahajournals.org by on March 8, 2011

Furie et al Prevention of Stroke in Patients With Stroke and TIA 247was designed as a noninferiority study. Among 20 332patients with ischemic stroke who were followed for a meanof 2.5 years, recurrent stroke occurred among 9.0% ofparticipants assigned to aspirin/dipyridamole compared with8.8% assigned to clopidogrel (HR, 1.01; 95% CI, 0.92 to1.11). Because the upper bound of the confidence intervalcrossed the noninferiority margin (HR, 1.075), the investigatorsconcluded that the results failed to show that aspirin/dipyridamolewas not inferior to clopidogrel.Overall the safety of clopidogrel is comparable to that ofaspirin with only minor differences. 298 As with ticlopidine,diarrhea and rash are more frequent than with aspirin, butaside from diarrhea, gastrointestinal symptoms and hemorrhagesare less frequent. Neutropenia did not occur morefrequently among patients assigned to clopidogrel, comparedwith aspirin or placebo, in published trials, 298,306 but a fewcases of thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura have beendescribed. 303 Recently, evidence has emerged that protonpump inhibitors (PPIs), such as esomeprazole, reduce theeffectiveness of clopidogrel. 307 Coadministration of clopidogrelwith a PPI may lead to increased risk for majorcardiovascular events, including stroke and MI. When antacidtherapy is required in a patient on clopidogrel, an H2 blockermay be preferable to a PPI if the PPI is metabolized at theCYP2C19 P-450 cytochrome site. 308 In addition, functionalgenetic variants in CYP genes can affect the effectiveness ofplatelet inhibition in patients taking clopidogrel. Carriers of atleast 1 CYP2C19 reduced-function allele had a relativereduction of 32% in plasma exposure to the active metaboliteof clopidogrel compared with noncarriers (P0.001). 309Dipyridamole and AspirinDipyridamole inhibits phosphodiesterase and augmentsprostacyclin-related platelet aggregation inhibition. The effectof dipyridamole combined with aspirin among patientswith TIA or stroke has been examined in 4 large randomizedclinical trials. Together these trials indicate that the combinationis at least as effective as aspirin alone for secondarystroke prevention but less well tolerated by patients.The first of the large trials was the European StrokePrevention Study (ESPS-1), 310 which randomly assigned2500 patients to placebo or the combination of 325 mg aspirinplus 75 mg immediate-release dipyridamole 3 times a day.After 24 months the rate of stroke or death was 16% amongpatients assigned to aspirin/dipyridamole compared with 25%among patients assigned to placebo (RRR, 33%; P0.001).The next large study was ESPS-2, which randomized 6602patients with prior stroke or TIA in a factorial design to 4groups: (1) aspirin 25 mg twice a day plus extended-releasedipyridamole 200 mg twice a day, (2) aspirin 25 mg twicedaily, (3) extended-release dipyridamole alone, and (4) placebo.311 Compared with placebo, risk of stroke was reducedby 18% with aspirin (P0.013), 16% with dipyridamole(P0.039), and 37% with the combination (P0.001). Comparedwith aspirin alone, combination therapy reduced therisk of stroke by 23% (P0.006) and stroke or death by 13%(P0.056). Bleeding was not significantly increased bydipyridamole, but headache and gastrointestinal symptomswere more common among the combination group. Theinterpretation of this study was complicated by problems indata quality reported by the investigators, a relatively lowdose of aspirin, and the choice of a placebo at a time whenaspirin was standard therapy in many countries.The third large trial, European/Australasian Stroke Preventionin Reversible Ischemia Trial (ESPRIT), used a prospective,randomized, open-label, blinded end point evaluationdesign to compare aspirin alone with aspirin plus dipyridamolefor prevention of stroke, MI, vascular death, or majorbleeding among men and women with a TIA or ischemicstroke within 6 months. 312 Although the dose of aspirin couldvary at the discretion of the treating physician from 30 mg to325 mg daily, the mean dose in each group was 75 mg.Among patients assigned to dipyridamole, 83% took theextended-release form and the rest took the immediatereleaseform. After 3.5 years the primary end point wasobserved in 13% of patients assigned to combination therapycompared with 16% among those assigned to aspirin alone(HR, 0.80; 95% CI, 0.66 to 0.98; absolute risk reduction[ARR], 1.0% per year; 95% CI, 0.1 to 1.8). In this open-labeltrial, bias in reporting of potential outcome events might haveoccurred if either patients or field researchers differentiallyreported potential vascular events to the coordinating center.The unexpected finding of a reduced rate of major bleeding inthe combination group (35 compared with 53 events) may bean indication of this bias. Finally, the investigators did notreport postrandomization risk factor management, which, ifdifferential, could partially explain differing outcome rates.The fourth trial was the PRoFESS study describedabove, 304 which showed no difference in stroke recurrencerates among patients assigned to clopidogrel compared withpatients assigned to combination dipyridamole and aspirin.Major hemorrhagic events were more common among patientsassigned to aspirin and extended-release dipyridamole(4.1% compared with 3.6%) but did not meet statisticalsignificance. Adverse events leading to drug discontinuation(16.4% compared with 10.6%) were more common amongpatients assigned to aspirin and extended-release dipyridamole.The combination therapy was shown to be less welltolerated than single antiplatelet therapy.Combination of Clopidogrel and AspirinThe effectiveness of clopidogrel 75 mg plus aspirin 75 mg,compared with clopidogrel 75 mg alone for prevention ofvascular events among patients with a recent TIA or ischemicstroke, was examined in the Management of Atherothrombosiswith Clopidogrel in High-Risk Patients with RecentTransient Ischemic Attacks or Ischemic Stroke (MATCH)trial. 313 A total of 7599 patients were followed for 3.5 yearsfor the occurrence of the primary composite outcome ofischemic stroke, MI, vascular death, or rehospitalization forany central or peripheral ischemic event. There was nosignificant benefit of combination therapy compared withclopidogrel alone in reducing the primary outcome or any ofthe secondary outcomes. The risk of major hemorrhage wassignificantly increased in the combination group comparedwith clopidogrel alone, with a 1.3% absolute increase inlife-threatening bleeding. Although clopidogrel plus aspirin isrecommended over aspirin for acute coronary syndromes, theDownloaded from stroke.ahajournals.org by on March 8, 2011

248 Stroke January 2011results of MATCH do not suggest a similar risk-benefit ratiofor patients with stroke and TIA who start therapy beyond theacute period.Combination clopidogrel and aspirin has been comparedwith aspirin alone in 2 secondary prevention trials: 1 small 314and 1 large. 315 Neither demonstrated a benefit from combinationtherapy. The Clopidogrel for High AtherothromboticRisk and Ischemic Stabilization, Management, and Avoidance(CHARISMA) trial 315 enrolled 15 603 patients withclinically evident cardiovascular disease or multiple riskfactors. After a median of 28 months the primary outcome(MI, stroke, or death due to cardiovascular causes) wasobserved in 6.8% of patients assigned to combination therapycompared with 7.3% assigned to aspirin (RR, 0.93; 95% CI,0.83 to 1.05; P0.22). An analysis among the subgroup ofpatients who entered after a stroke showed increased bleedingrisk but no statistically significant benefit of combinationtherapy compared with aspirin alone. The Fast Assessment ofStroke and Transient ischemic attack to prevent Early Recurrence(FASTER) trial 314 was designed to test the effectivenessof combination therapy compared with aspirin alone forpreventing stroke among patients with a TIA or minor strokewithin the previous 24 hours. The trial was stopped earlybecause of slow recruitment. Results were inconclusive.Selection of Oral Antiplatelet TherapyThe evidence described above indicates that aspirin, ticlopidine,and the combination of aspirin and dipyridamole areeach effective for secondary stroke prevention. No studieshave compared clopidogrel with placebo, and studies comparingit with other antiplatelet agents have not clearlyestablished that it is superior to or even equivalent to any oneof them. Observation of the survival curves from CAPRIEand PRoFESS indicate that it is probably as effective asaspirin and combination aspirin/dipyridamole, respectively.Selection among these 4 agents should be based on relativeeffectiveness, safety, cost, patient characteristics, and patientpreference. The combination of aspirin and dipyridamole maybe more effective than aspirin alone for prevention ofrecurrent stroke 311 and the combination of stroke, MI, death,or major bleeding. 312 On average, compared with aspirinalone, the combination may prevent 1 event among 100patients treated for 1 year. 312 Ticlopidine may be moreeffective than aspirin for secondary prevention, 301 but safetyconcerns limit its clinical value.Risk for gastrointestinal hemorrhage or other major hemorrhagemay be greater for aspirin or combination aspirin/dipyridamolethan for clopidogrel. 298,304 The difference issmall, however, amounting to 1 major hemorrhage event per500 patient-years. 304 The risk appears to be similar for aspirinat doses of 50 mg to 75 mg compared with the combinationof aspirin/dipyridamole. However, the combination of aspirin/dipyridamoleis less well tolerated than either aspirin orclopidogrel, primarily because of headache. Ticlopidine isassociated with thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura andshould be used only cautiously in patients who cannot tolerateother agents.In terms of cost, aspirin is by far the least expensive agent.The cost of aspirin at acquisition is at least 20 times less thanany of the other 3 options.Patient characteristics that may affect choice of agentinclude tolerance of specific agents and comorbid illness. Forpatients who cannot tolerate aspirin because of allergy orgastrointestinal side effects, clopidogrel is an appropriatechoice. For patients who do not tolerate dipyridamole becauseof headache, either aspirin or clopidogrel is appropriate. Thecombination of aspirin and clopidogrel may be appropriatefor patients with acute coronary syndromes 306 or recentvascular stenting. 306,316Selection of Antiplatelet Agents for Patients WhoExperience a Stroke While on TherapyPatients who present with a first or recurrent stroke arecommonly already on antiplatelet therapy. Unfortunately,there have been no clinical trials to indicate that switchingantiplatelet agents reduces the risk for subsequent events.B. Oral AnticoagulantsRandomized trials have addressed the use of oral anticoagulantsto prevent recurrent stroke among patients with noncardioembolicstroke, including strokes caused by large-arteryextracranial or intracranial atherosclerosis, small penetratingartery disease, and cryptogenic infarcts. The Stroke Preventionin Reversible Ischemia Trial (SPIRIT) was stopped earlybecause of increased bleeding among those treated withhigh-intensity oral anticoagulation (INR 3.0 to 4.5) comparedwith aspirin (30 mg/d) in 1316 patients. 317,318 The trial wasthen reformulated as ESPRIT, using a medium-intensitywarfarin dose (INR 2.0 to 3.0) compared with either aspirinalone (30 mg to 325 mg daily) or aspirin plus extendedreleasedipyridamole 200 mg twice daily. The trial was againended early due to the superiority demonstrated by thecombination of aspirin and dipyridamole over aspirinalone. 312 Mean follow-up was 4.6 years and mean INRachieved was 2.57. Patients treated with warfarin experienceda significantly higher rate of major bleeding (HR, 2.56; 95%CI, 1.48 to 4.43) but lower rate, albeit not statisticallysignificant, in ischemic events (HR, 0.73; 95% CI, 0.52 to1.01) 319 compared with aspirin alone.The ESPRIT results confirmed those reported earlier by theWarfarin Aspirin Recurrent Stroke Study (WARSS), in whichwarfarin (INR 1.4 to 2.8) was compared with aspirin (325 mgdaily) among 2206 patients with a noncardioembolic stroke. 320This randomized, double-blind, multicenter trial found nosignificant difference between treatments for prevention ofrecurrent stroke or death (warfarin, 17.8%; aspirin, 16.0%). Incontrast to ESPRIT, rates of major bleeding were not significantlydifferent between the warfarin and aspirin groups(2.2% and 1.5% per year, respectively). A variety of subgroupswere evaluated, with no clear evidence of efficacyobserved across baseline stroke subtypes, including largearteryatherosclerotic and cryptogenic categories. The aforementionedWASID trial compared warfarin with aspirin inpatients with intracranial stenoses and found no significantbenefit and a higher risk of hemorrhage with warfarin therapy(see “Intracranial Atherosclerosis”).The role of anticoagulation for specific stroke etiologies isdescribed elsewhere in this document.Downloaded from stroke.ahajournals.org by on March 8, 2011

Furie et al Prevention of Stroke in Patients With Stroke and TIA 249Table 9. Recommendations for Antithrombotic Therapy for Noncardioembolic Stroke or TIA (Oral Anticoagulant andAntiplatelet Therapies)RecommendationsFor patients with noncardioembolic ischemic stroke or TIA, the use of antiplatelet agents rather than oral anticoagulation is recommendedto reduce risk of recurrent stroke and other cardiovascular events (Class I; Level of Evidence A).Aspirin (50 mg/d to 325 mg/d) monotherapy (Class I; Level of Evidence A), the combination of aspirin 25 mg and extended-releasedipyridamole 200 mg twice daily (Class I; Level of Evidence B), and clopidogrel 75 mg monotherapy (Class IIa; Level of Evidence B) areall acceptable options for initial therapy. The selection of an antiplatelet agent should be individualized on the basis of patient risk factorprofiles, cost, tolerance, and other clinical characteristics.The addition of aspirin to clopidogrel increases risk of hemorrhage and is not recommended for routine secondary prevention afterischemic stroke or TIA (Class III; Level of Evidence A).For patients allergic to aspirin, clopidogrel is reasonable (Class IIa; Level of Evidence C).For patients who have an ischemic stroke while taking aspirin, there is no evidence that increasing the dose of aspirin providesadditional benefit. Although alternative antiplatelet agents are often considered, no single agent or combination has been studied inpatients who have had an event while receiving aspirin (Class IIb; Level of Evidence C).*See Tables 1 and 2 for explanation of class and level of evidence.Class/Level ofEvidence*Class I; Level AClass I; Level A;Class I; Level B;Class IIa; Level BClass III; Level AClass IIa; Level CClass IIb; Level CNewer AgentsAt least 3 additional antiplatelet agents have recently beeninvestigated for their potential effectiveness in secondarystroke prevention: triflusal, cilostazol, and sarpogrelate. 321–323A recent noninferiority trial failed to show that sarpogrelatewas not inferior to aspirin. 321 Triflusal has been examinedonly in a pilot trial. 323 Cilostazol is currently FDA approvedfor treatment of intermittent claudication and is further alongin development as a stroke treatment. The effectiveness ofcilostazol (dose not specified) compared with aspirin (dosenot specified) was recently examined in a randomized,double-blind pilot study that enrolled 720 patients with arecent ischemic stroke. 322 During 12 to 18 months of followup,stroke was observed in 3.26 patients assigned to cilostazolper year compared with 5.27 patients assigned to aspirin peryear (P0.18). Headache, dizziness, and tachycardia, but nothemorrhage, were more common in the cilostazol group.Thus far, none of these newer agents have been approved bythe FDA for prevention of recurrent stroke.Recommendations1. For patients with noncardioembolic ischemic strokeor TIA, the use of antiplatelet agents rather thanoral anticoagulation is recommended to reduce therisk of recurrent stroke and other cardiovascularevents (Class I; Level of Evidence A).2. Aspirin (50 mg/d to 325 mg/d) monotherapy (Class I;Level of Evidence A), the combination of aspirin 25mg and extended-release dipyridamole 200 mg twicedaily (Class I; Level of Evidence B), and clopidogrel75 mg monotherapy (Class IIa; Level of Evidence B)are all acceptable options for initial therapy. Theselection of an antiplatelet agent should be individualizedon the basis of patient risk factor profiles,cost, tolerance, and other clinical characteristics.3. The addition of aspirin to clopidogrel increases therisk of hemorrhage and is not recommended forroutine secondary prevention after ischemic strokeor TIA (Class III; Level of Evidence A).4. For patients allergic to aspirin, clopidogrel is reasonable(Class IIa; Level of Evidence C).5. For patients who have an ischemic stroke while takingaspirin, there is no evidence that increasing the dose ofaspirin provides additional benefit. Although alternativeantiplatelet agents are often considered, no singleagent or combination has been studied in patients whohave had an event while receiving aspirin (Class IIb;Level of Evidence C) (Table 9).V. Treatments for Stroke Patients With OtherSpecific ConditionsA. Arterial DissectionsDissections of the carotid and vertebral arteries are relativelycommon causes of TIA and stroke, particularly among youngpatients. Dissections may occur as a result of significant headand neck trauma, but about half occur spontaneously or aftera trivial injury. 324 A number of underlying connective tissuedisorders appear to be risk factors for spontaneous dissection,including fibromuscular dysplasia, Marfan syndrome, Ehlers-Danlos syndrome (type IV), osteogenesis imperfecta, and geneticconditions in which collagen is abnormally formed. 325–327At present none of these underlying conditions are amenableto treatment. Noninvasive imaging studies such as MRI andmagnetic resonance angiography with fat saturation protocolsor computed tomography angiography are commonlyused for diagnosis of extracranial dissection, 328 althoughconventional angiography is often necessary for the diagnosisof intracranial dissection. Ischemic stroke related todissection may be a result of thromboembolism or hemodynamiccompromise, although the former seems to be thedominant mechanism. 328–330 In some cases, dissections canlead to formation of a dissecting aneurysm, which can alsoserve as a source of thrombus formation. Intracranialdissections, particularly in the vertebrobasilar territorypose a risk of subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH), as well ascerebral infarction. 331 Hemorrhagic complications of dissectionsare not discussed further in this guideline.The optimal strategy for prevention of stroke in patientswith arterial dissection is controversial. Options includeanticoagulation, antiplatelet therapy, angioplasty with orwithout stenting, or conservative observation without specificmedical therapy. Surgical approaches are unconventional.Early anticoagulation with heparin or LMWH has long beenrecommended at the time of diagnosis, 332–334 particularlyDownloaded from stroke.ahajournals.org by on March 8, 2011

250 Stroke January 2011since the risk of stroke is greatest in the first few days afterthe initial vascular injury. 332,334–337 There have been nocontrolled trials supporting the use of any particular antithromboticregimen. A Cochrane systematic review of 327patients with carotid dissection in 26 case series reported nostatistically significant difference in death or disability betweenantiplatelet and anticoagulant therapy (23.7% withantiplatelet versus 14.3% with anticoagulant; odds ratio [OR]1.94; 95% CI, 0.76 to 4.91). 338 Recurrent stroke was seen in1.7% of patients receiving anticoagulation, 3.8% receivingantiplatelet therapy, and 3.3% receiving no therapy. Anothersystematic review that included 762 patients with carotid orvertebral artery dissection from 34 case series showed nosignificant difference in risk of death (antiplatelet, 5/268 [1.8%];anticoagulation, 9/494 [1.8%]; P0.88), stroke (antiplatelet,5/268 [1.9%]; anticoagulant, 10/494 [2.0%]; P0.66), or strokeand death. 339 These pooled data from small studies must beconsidered severely limited and likely subject to publicationbias. Two larger studies, including a retrospective cohort of432 patients with carotid or vertebral artery dissection 340 anda prospective cohort of 298 subjects with only carotiddissection, 341 reported a much lower risk of subsequentstroke: 0.3% over the 3- to 12-month period after dissection.The latter study also included a nonrandomized comparisonof anticoagulation versus antiplatelet therapy and found nodifference in risk of recurrent stroke (0.5% versus 0%,P1.0), and major bleeding events occurred numericallymore often than recurrent stroke with both interventions (2%versus 1%). These observational data suggest that antiplatelettherapy and anticoagulation are associated with similar risk ofsubsequent stroke but that the former is likely safer. Arandomized trial comparing these strategies is under way inthe United Kingdom.Dissections usually heal over time, and patients are commonlymaintained on antithrombotic therapy for at least 3 to6 months. This duration of therapy is arbitrary, and someauthors suggest that imaging studies be repeated to confirmrecanalization of the dissected vessel before a change intherapy. 336,342,343 Anatomic healing of the dissection withrecanalization occurs in the majority of patients. 344 Thosedissections that do not fully heal do not appear to beassociated with an increased risk of recurrent strokes. 340,345 Adissecting aneurysm may also persist, but these appear topose a low risk for subsequent stroke or rupture and thereforedo not usually warrant aggressive intervention. 345Although most ischemic strokes due to dissection are aresult of early thromboembolism, a minority are attributed tohemodynamic compromise. 346,347 The prognosis may beworse in these cases, and revascularization procedures suchas stenting or bypass surgery have been proposed in thissetting, 346,348–350 although prospective studies do not currentlyexist.Many experts advise patients who experience a cervicalarterial dissection to avoid activities that may cause sudden orexcessive rotation or extension of the neck, such as contactsports, activities that cause hyperextension of the neck,weight lifting, labor in childbirth, strenuous exercise, andchiropractic manipulation of the neck, 351 but no real data existto define the limits of activity for these patients. There is noestablished reason to manage their physical therapy differentlyduring rehabilitation after stroke because of the dissection.Recommendations1. For patients with ischemic stroke or TIA and extracranialcarotid or vertebral arterial dissection,antithrombotic treatment for at least 3 to 6 months isreasonable (Class IIa; Level of Evidence B).2. The relative efficacy of antiplatelet therapy comparedwith anticoagulation is unknown for patientswith ischemic stroke or TIA and extracranial carotidor vertebral arterial dissection (Class IIb; Level ofEvidence B). (New recommendation)3. For patients with stroke or TIA and extracranialcarotid or vertebral arterial dissection who have definiterecurrent cerebral ischemic events despite optimalmedical therapy, endovascular therapy (stenting) maybe considered (Class IIb; Level of Evidence C).4. Patients with stroke or TIA and extracranial carotidor vertebral arterial dissection who fail or are notcandidates for endovascular therapy may be consideredfor surgical treatment (Class IIb; Level ofEvidence C) (Table 10).B. Patent Foramen OvaleCauses of right to left passage of embolic material to the braininclude patent foramen ovale (PFO) and pulmonary arteriovenousmalformations. A PFO is an embryonic defect in theinteratrial septum. It may or may not be associated with anatrial septal aneurysm, defined as a 10 mm excursion in theseptum. PFO is common in up to 15% to 25% of the adultpopulation according to data from Olmstead County, Minnesota,352,353 and the Northern Manhattan Study (NOMAS) 354 inNew York. The prevalence of isolated atrial septal aneurysm,estimated at 2% to 3%, is much lower than PFO. 352–354The meta-analysis of Overell et al 355 published in 2000concluded that PFO and atrial septal aneurysm were significantlyassociated with increased risk of stroke in patients 55years of age. For those 55 years, the data were lesscompelling but indicated some increased risk, with an OR of1.27 (95% CI, 0.8 to 2.01) for PFO; 3.43 (95% CI, 1.89 to6.22) for atrial septal aneurysm; and 5.09 (95% CI, 1.25 to20.74) for both PFO and atrial septal aneurysm. The reportedORs for ischemic stroke in patients 55 years of age were 3.1(95% CI, 2.29 to 4.21) for PFO; 6.14 (95% CI, 2.47 to 15.22)for atrial septal aneurysm, and 15.59 (95% CI, 2.83 to 85.87)for both PFO and atrial septal aneurysm, all compared withthose with neither PFO nor atrial septal aneurysm. 355Older data are reviewed in detail in the 2006 statement, 355abut 2 studies that provided information important to therecommendations are summarized here. The Patent ForamenOvale in Cryptogenic Stroke (PICSS) substudy of WARSSprovided data on both the contribution of PFO and atrialseptal aneurysm to risk of recurrent stroke in a randomizedclinical trial setting and comparative treatment data. In thatstudy, 630 patients underwent TEE. In this subgroup, selectedon the basis of their willingness to undergo TEE, about 34%had PFO. After 2 years of follow-up, there were no differences(HR, 0.96; P0.84) in rates of recurrent stroke in thosewith (2-year event rate, 14.8%) or without PFO (15.4%), aswell as no demonstrated effect on outcomes based on PFODownloaded from stroke.ahajournals.org by on March 8, 2011

Furie et al Prevention of Stroke in Patients With Stroke and TIA 251Table 10.Recommendations for Stroke Patients With Other Specific ConditionsRisk FactorArterial dissectionsPatent foramen ovaleHyperhomocysteinemiaInheritedthrombophiliasAPL antibodiesSickle cell diseaseCerebral venous sinusthrombosisFabry diseasePregnancyRecommendationsFor patients with ischemic stroke or TIA and extracranial carotid or vertebral arterial dissection, antithrombotictreatment for at least 3 to 6 months is reasonable (Class IIa; Level of Evidence B).The relative efficacy of antiplatelet therapy compared with anticoagulation is unknown for patients withischemic stroke or TIA and extracranial carotid or vertebral arterial dissection (Class IIb; Level of EvidenceB). (New recommendation)For patients with stroke or TIA and extracranial carotid or vertebral arterial dissection who have definiterecurrent cerebral ischemic events despite optimal medical therapy, endovascular therapy (stenting) may beconsidered (Class IIb; Level of Evidence C).Patients with stroke or TIA and extracranial carotid or vertebral arterial dissection who fail or are notcandidates for endovascular therapy may be considered for surgical treatment (Class IIb; Level ofEvidence C).For patients with an ischemic stroke or TIA and a PFO, antiplatelet therapy is reasonable (Class IIa; Level ofEvidence B).There are insufficient data to establish whether anticoagulation is equivalent or superior to aspirin forsecondary stroke prevention in patients with PFO (Class IIb; Level of Evidence B). (New recommendation)There are insufficient data to make a recommendation regarding PFO closure in patients with stroke and PFO(Class IIb; Level of Evidence C).Although folate supplementation reduces levels of homocysteine and may be considered for patients withischemic stroke and hyperhomocysteinemia (Class IIb; Level of Evidence B), there is no evidence thatreducing homocysteine levels prevents stroke recurrence.Patients with arterial ischemic stroke or TIA with an established inherited thrombophilia should be evaluatedfor DVT, which is an indication for short- or long-term anticoagulant therapy depending on the clinical andhematologic circumstances (Class I; Level of Evidence A).Patients should be fully evaluated for alternative mechanisms of stroke. In the absence of venous thrombosisin patients with arterial stroke or TIA and a proven thrombophilia, either anticoagulant or antiplatelettherapy is reasonable (Class IIa; Level of Evidence C).For patients with spontaneous cerebral venous thrombosis and/or a history of recurrent thrombotic events andan inherited thrombophilia, long-term anticoagulation is probably indicated (Class IIa; Level of Evidence C).For patients with cryptogenic ischemic stroke or TIA in whom an APL antibody is detected, antiplatelettherapy is reasonable (Class IIa; Level of Evidence B).For patients with ischemic stroke or TIA who meet the criteria for the APL antibody syndrome, oralanticoagulation with a target INR of 2.0 to 3.0 is reasonable (Class IIa; Level of Evidence B).For adults with SCD and ischemic stroke or TIA, the general treatment recommendations cited above arereasonable with regard to control of risk factors and the use of antiplatelet agents (Class IIa; Level ofEvidence B).Additional therapies that may be considered to prevent recurrent cerebral ischemic events in patients withSCD include regular blood transfusions to reduce hemoglobin S to 30% to 50% of total hemoglobin,hydroxyurea, or bypass surgery in cases of advanced occlusive disease (Class IIb; Level of Evidence C).Anticoagulation is probably effective for patients with acute CVT (Class IIa; Level of Evidence B).In the absence of trial data to define the optimal duration of anticoagulation for acute CVT, it is reasonable toadminister anticoagulation for at least 3 months followed by antiplatelet therapy (Class IIa; Level of Evidence C).For patients with ischemic stroke or TIA and Fabry disease, alpha-galactosidase enzyme replacement therapyis recommended (Class I; Level of Evidence B). (New recommendation)Other secondary prevention measures as outlined elsewhere in this guideline are recommended for patientswith ischemic stroke or TIA and Fabry disease (Class I; Level of Evidence C). (New recommendation)For pregnant women with ischemic stroke or TIA and high-risk thromboembolic conditions such ashypercoagulable state or mechanical heart valves, the following options may be considered: adjusted-doseUFH throughout pregnancy, for example, a subcutaneous dose every 12 hours with monitoring of activatedpartial thromboplastin time; adjusted-dose LMWH with monitoring of anti-factor Xa throughout pregnancy;or UFH or LMWH until week 13, followed by warfarin until the middle of the third trimester andreinstatement of UFH or LMWH until delivery (Class IIb; Level of Evidence C).In the absence of a high-risk thromboembolic condition, pregnant women with stroke or TIA may beconsidered for treatment with UFH or LMWH throughout the first trimester, followed by low-dose aspirin forthe remainder of the pregnancy (Class IIb; Level of Evidence C).Class/Level ofEvidence*Class IIa; Level BClass IIb; Level BClass IIb; Level CClass IIb; Level CClass IIa; Level BClass IIb; Level BClass IIb; Level CClass IIb; Level BClass I; Level AClass IIa; Level CClass IIa; Level CClass IIa; Level BClass IIa; Level BClass IIa; Level BClass IIb; Level CClass IIa; Level BClass IIa; Level CClass I; Level BClass I; Level CClass IIb; Level CClass IIb; Level C(Continued)Downloaded from stroke.ahajournals.org by on March 8, 2011

252 Stroke January 2011Table 10.ContinuedRisk FactorPostmenopausalhormone replacementtherapyUse of anticoagulationafter intracranialhemorrhageSpecial approaches toimplementingguidelines and theiruse in high-riskpopulationsRecommendationsFor women who have had ischemic stroke or TIA, postmenopausal hormone therapy (with estrogen with orwithout a progestin) is not recommended (Class III; Level of Evidence A).For patients who develop ICH, SAH, or SDH, it is reasonable to discontinue all anticoagulants and antiplateletsduring the acute period for at least 1 to 2 weeks and reverse any warfarin effect with fresh frozen plasmaor prothrombin complex concentrate and vitamin K immediately (Class IIa; Level of Evidence B).Protamine sulfate should be used to reverse heparin-associated ICH, with the dose depending on the timefrom cessation of heparin (Class I; Level of Evidence B). (New recommendation)The decision to restart antithrombotic therapy after ICH related to antithrombotic therapy depends on the riskof subsequent arterial or venous thromboembolism, risk of recurrent ICH, and overall status of the patient.For patients with a comparatively lower risk of cerebral infarction (eg, AF without prior ischemic stroke)and a higher risk of amyloid angiopathy (eg, elderly patients with lobar ICH) or with very poor overallneurological function, an antiplatelet agent may be considered for prevention of ischemic stroke. In patientswith a very high risk of thromboembolism in whom restarting warfarin is considered, it may be reasonableto restart warfarin at 7 to 10 days after onset of the original ICH (Class IIb; Level of Evidence B). (Newrecommendation)For patients with hemorrhagic cerebral infarction, it may be reasonable to continue anticoagulation, dependingon the specific clinical scenario and underlying indication for anticoagulant therapy (Class IIb; Level ofEvidence C).It can be beneficial to embed strategies for implementation within the process of guideline development anddistribution to improve utilization of the recommendations (Class IIa; Level of Evidence B). (Newrecommendation)Intervention strategies can be useful to address economic and geographic barriers to achieving compliancewith guidelines and to emphasize the need for improved access to care for the aged, underserved, andhigh-risk ethnic populations (Class IIa; Level of Evidence B). (New recommendation)Class/Level ofEvidence*Class III; Level AClass IIa; Level BClass I; Level BClass IIb; Level BClass IIb; Level CClass IIa; Level BClass IIa; Level BAPL indicates antiphospholipid; CVT, cerebral venous thrombosis; DVT, deep vein thrombosis; SCD, sickle cell disease; SDH, subdural hematoma; and UFH,unfractionated heparin.*See Tables 1 and 2 for explanation of class and level of evidence.size or presence of atrial septal aneurysm. No differences(HR, 1.17; P0.65) were seen in outcome in patients withcryptogenic stroke and PFO between those treated withaspirin (2-year event rates, 13.2%) versus warfarin (16.5%).Although these data are from a randomized clinical trial, thissubstudy was not designed specifically to test the superiorityof one medical treatment in this subset. 356In contrast, the European PFO-ASA study reported by Maset al 357 in 2002 reported recurrence rates of stroke on 4-yearfollow-up of 581 stroke patients with stroke of unknowncause. The patients were 18 to 55 years of age, and all weretreated with 300 mg of aspirin. The rate of recurrence was2.3% (0.3 to 4.3) in those with PFO alone, 15.2% (1.8 to 28.6)in patients with PFO and atrial septal aneurysm, and 4.2%(1.8 to 6.6) in patients with neither cardiac finding. Theimportance of PFO with or without atrial septal aneurysm andits optimal treatment remain in question. 357 Three largeprospective studies have examined the risk of first stroke withPFO and cast doubt on the strength of the relationshipbetween PFO and stroke risk. 13,252,352,354More recently, Handke et al 358 examined 503 consecutivepatients with stroke, including 227 patients with cryptogenicstroke and 276 patients with stroke of known cause. TEE wasperformed after stroke classification. PFO was detected moreoften in cryptogenic stroke for both younger patients (43.9%versus 14%; OR, 4.7; 95% CI, 1.89 to 11.68; P0.001) andolder patients (28.3% versus 11.9%; OR, 2.92; 95% CI, 1.70to 5.01; P0.001). An atrial septal aneurysm was presentwith a PFO in 13.4% versus 2.0% of younger patients(cryptogenic versus known; OR, 7.36; 95% CI, 1.01 to 326)and in older patients (15.2% versus 4.4%; OR, 3.88; 95% CI,1.78 to 8.49; P0.001). 358 The Prospective Spanish Multicenter(CODICIA) Study examined 486 patients with cryptogenicstoke and quantified the magnitude of right-to-leftshunt using contrast transcranial Doppler ultrasonography.Massive right-to-left shunt was detected in 200 patients(41%). Stroke recurrence was low (5.8%) and was notassociated with the degree of the shunt. 359Given these data, overall, the importance of PFO with orwithout atrial septal aneurysm for a first stroke or recurrentcryptogenic stroke remains in question. No randomizedcontrolled clinical trials comparing different medical therapies,medical versus surgical closure, or medical versustranscatheter closure have been reported, although severalstudies are ongoing. Nonrandomized comparisons of variousclosure techniques with medical therapy have generallyshown reasonable complication rates and recurrence riskwith closure at or below those reported with medicaltherapy. 360–370 One study suggested a particular benefit inpatients with 1 stroke at baseline. 370In summary, these studies provide new information onoptions for closure of PFO and generally indicate thatshort-term complications with these procedures are rare andfor the most part minor. Unfortunately, long-term follow-upis lacking. Event rates over 1 to 2 years after transcatheterclosure ranged from 0% to 3.4%. Studies in which closureDownloaded from stroke.ahajournals.org by on March 8, 2011

Furie et al Prevention of Stroke in Patients With Stroke and TIA 253was compared with medical treatment alone indicate trendstoward better outcomes with closure. 361,362,370 Windecker et alreported a very high 3-year event rate of 33.2% in 44medically treated patients compared with 7.3% in 59 similarpatients treated with PFO closure. 370 The generally low ratesof stroke in the closure series, the lack of robust outcomedifferences in the 3 nonrandomized comparison studies, andthe overall absence of controlled comparisons of closurestrategies with medical treatment alone, reinforce the need tocomplete randomized clinical trials comparing closure withmedical therapy. A 2009 statement from the AHA/ASA/ACCstrongly encourages all clinicians involved in the care ofappropriate patients with cryptogenic stroke and PFO—cardiologists, neurologists, internists, radiologists, and surgeons—toconsider referral for enrollment in these landmarktrials to expedite their completion and help resolve theuncertainty regarding optimal care for this condition. 371Recommendations1. For patients with an ischemic stroke or TIA and aPFO, antiplatelet therapy is reasonable (Class IIa;Level of Evidence B).2. There are insufficient data to establish whether anticoagulationis equivalent or superior to aspirin forsecondary stroke prevention in patients with PFO(Class IIb; Level of Evidence B). (New recommendation)3. There are insufficient data to make a recommendationregarding PFO closure in patients with strokeand PFO (Class IIb; Level of Evidence C) (Table 10).C. HyperhomocysteinemiaCohort and case-control studies have consistently demonstrateda 2-fold greater risk of stroke associated with hyperhomocysteinemia.372–377 In a meta-analysis of clinical trialsevaluating the efficacy of folate supplementation for strokeprevention, folate was associated with an 18% reduction (RR,0.82; 95% CI, 0.68 to 1.00; P0.045) in primary strokerisk. 378 Supplementation also appeared to be beneficial forstroke prevention in patients receiving folate for 36 months,cases with 20% reduction in homocysteine, and in populationswithout folate grain supplementation. Despite this,clinical trials focusing on secondary prevention in patientswith cardiovascular disease or stroke have failed to demonstratea benefit for homocysteine-reducing vitamins. TheHeart Outcomes Prevention Evaluation (HOPE-2) trial was arandomized, placebo-controlled trial comparinghomocysteine-lowering vitamins (2.5 mg of folic acid, 50 mgof vitamin B 6 , 2 mg of vitamin B 12 ) or placebo in 5522patients 55 years of age with vascular disease or diabetes,irrespective of baseline homocysteine. 379 Approximately 12%of the population had a TIA or stroke at study entry. Subjectswere followed up for 5 years. The primary outcome was thecomposite of death due to cardiovascular causes, MI, orstroke. Vitamin therapy did not reduce the risk of the primaryend point, but there was a lower risk of stroke (4.0% versus5.3%; RR, 0.75; 95% CI, 0.59 to 0.97; P0.03) in the activetherapy group. The Vitamin Intervention for Stroke Prevention(VISP) study randomly assigned patients with a noncardioembolicstroke and mild to moderate hyperhomocysteinemia(9.5 mol/L for men and 8.5 mol/L for women) toreceive either a high- or low-dose vitamin therapy (eg, folate,B 6 ,orB 12 ) for 2 years. 380 The risk of stroke was related tolevel of homocysteine; the mean reduction in homocysteinewas greater in the high-dose group, but there was no reductionin stroke rates in patients treated with the high-dosevitamins. Two-year stroke rates were 9.2% in the high-doseand 8.8% in the low-dose arms. At present there is no provenclinical benefit for high-dose vitamin therapy for mild tomoderate hyperhomocysteinemia.Recommendation1. Although folate supplementation reduces levels of homocysteineand may be considered for patients withischemic stroke and hyperhomocysteinemia (Class IIb;Level of Evidence B), there is no evidence that reducinghomocysteine levels prevents stroke recurrence(Table 10).D. Hypercoagulable StatesInherited ThrombophiliasLittle is known about the effect of inherited thrombophilias onthe risk of recurrent stroke after stroke or TIA. Studies reportedin the literature have been limited to case reports, case series, andsmall case-control studies in patients with initial stroke. Thereare inconsistent data on the relative risk associated with ahomozygous, as opposed to heterozygous, state and the subsequentrisk of stroke. This is likely a result of heterogeneity in thepatient populations and varied outcome definitions. No clinicalstroke trial has compared the efficacy of different antithromboticapproaches based on genotype.Inherited thrombophilias (eg, protein C, protein S, orantithrombin III deficiency; factor V Leiden; or the prothrombinG20210A mutation), and the methylenetetrahydrofolatereductase (MTHFR) C677T mutation rarely contribute toadult stroke but may play a larger role in pediatricstroke. 381,382 The most prevalent inherited coagulation disorderis activated protein C (APC) resistance, caused by amutation in factor V (most commonly the factor V Leidenmutation, Arg506Gln). More commonly a cause of venousthromboembolism, APC resistance has been linked to ischemicstroke in case reports. 383–385 The link between APCresistance and arterial stroke is tenuous in adult stroke butmay be more significant in pediatric stroke. 225,386 Both thefactor V Leiden (FVL) and the G20210A polymorphism inthe prothrombin gene (PT G20210A) have been similarlylinked to venous thrombosis, but their role in ischemic strokeremains controversial. 377,387–398Studies in younger patients (55 years of age) have shownan association between these prothrombotic genetic variantsand ischemic stroke, but this association remains controversialin an older population with vascular risk factors andcompeting high-risk stroke mechanisms. Even in the young,results have been inconsistent. In a small study of cryptogenicstroke patients 50 years of age, there was an increased risk(OR, 3.75; 95% CI, 1.05 to 13.34) associated with the PTG20210A mutation, but no significant association withFVL. 399 In contrast, 2 other studies of young (50 years)patients found no association between ischemic stroke andthe FVL, PT G20210A, or the MTHFR C677T mutations.377,400 Genetic factors associated with venous thrombo-Downloaded from stroke.ahajournals.org by on March 8, 2011

254 Stroke January 2011embolism were compared in a study of young stroke patients(45 years of age) to determine whether there was a higherprevalence of prothrombotic tendencies in those with PFO,which could reflect a susceptibility to paradoxical embolism.The PT G20210A mutation, but not FVL, was significantlymore common in the PFO plus group than in PFO minus ornonstroke controls. 397Three meta-analyses have examined the most commonlystudied prothrombotic mutations in FVL, MTHFR, and PT.The first pooled ischemic stroke candidate gene associationstudies involving Caucasian adults found statistically significantassociations between stroke and FVL (OR, 1.33; 95%CI, 1.12 to 1.58), MTHFR C677T (OR, 1.24; 95% CI, 1.08 to1.42), and PT G20210A (OR, 1.44; 95% CI, 1.11 to 1.86). 401A second meta-analysis explored the association betweenFVL, PT G20210A, and MTHFR C677T and arterial thromboticevents (MI, ischemic stroke, or peripheral vasculardisease) and found no significant link to FVL mutation andmodest associations with PT G20210A (OR, 1.32; 95% CI,1.03 to 1.69) and MTHFR C677T (OR, 1.20; 95% CI, 1.02 to1.41). These associations were stronger in the young (55years of age). 402 A third meta-analysis focused on theMTHFR C677T polymorphism, which is associated with highlevels of homocysteine. The OR for stroke was 1.26 (95% CI,1.14 to 1.40) for the homozygous mutation (TT) versus thecommon alleles. 401 Thus, although there appears to be a weakassociation between these prothrombotic mutations and ischemicstroke, particularly in the young, major questions remainabout the mechanism of risk (eg, potential for paradoxicalvenous thromboembolism), effect of gene-environment interaction,and optimal strategies for stroke prevention.The presence of venous thrombosis is an indication for shortorlong-term anticoagulant therapy depending on the clinical andhematologic circumstances. 403,404 Although there are guidelinesfor the general management of acquired hypercoagulable statessuch as protein C, S, and ATIII deficiencies, heparin-inducedthrombocytopenia, disseminated intravascular coagulation, orcancer-related thrombosis, none are specific for the secondaryprevention of stroke. 405–408Recommendations1. Patients with arterial ischemic stroke or TIA with anestablished inherited thrombophilia should be evaluatedfor deep vein thrombosis (DVT), which is anindication for short- or long-term anticoagulanttherapy depending on the clinical and hematologiccircumstances (Class I; Level of Evidence A).2. Patients should be fully evaluated for alternativemechanisms of stroke. In the absence of venousthrombosis in patients with arterial stroke or TIAand a proven thrombophilia, either anticoagulant orantiplatelet therapy is reasonable (Class IIa; Level ofEvidence C).3. For patients with spontaneous cerebral venousthrombosis and/or a history of recurrent thromboticevents and an inherited thrombophilia, long-termanticoagulation is probably indicated (Class IIa;Level of Evidence C) (Table 10).Antiphospholipid AntibodiesAntiphospholipid (APL) antibody prevalence ranges from1% to 6.5%; it is higher in the elderly and patients withlupus. 409 Less commonly the APL antibody syndromeconsists of venous and arterial occlusive disease in multipleorgans and fetal loss. 410 In addition to having athrombotic episode or fetal loss, anticardiolipin antibodyof IgG and/or IgM isotype or lupus anticoagulant must bepresent in the blood in medium or high titers on 2occasions at least 6 weeks apart. 411 The association betweenAPL antibodies and stroke is strongest for youngadults (50 years of age). 412,413 In the AntiphospholipidAntibodies in Stroke Study (APASS), 9.7% of ischemicstroke patients and 4.3% of controls had demonstrableanticardiolipin antibodies. 414 In the Antiphospholipid Antibodiesin Stroke substudy of the Warfarin Aspirin RecurrentStroke Study (WARSS/APASS), APL antibodieswere detected in 40.7% of stroke patients, were low titer,and had no significant effect on risk of strokerecurrence. 415Multiple studies have shown high recurrence rates in patientswith APL antibodies in the young. 416–418 In 1 study of patientswith arterial or venous thrombotic events, high-intensity warfarin(INR 3.1 to 4.0) therapy was not more effective thanmoderate-intensity warfarin (INR 2.0 to 3.0) for prevention ofrecurrent thrombosis in patients with APL antibodies. 419 Thereare conflicting data on the association between APL antibodiesand stroke recurrence in the elderly. 416,420–422The WARSS/APASS collaboration was the first study tocompare randomly assigned warfarin (INR 1.4 to 2.8) withaspirin (325 mg) for prevention of a second stroke in patientswith APL antibodies. APASS enrolled 720 APL antibody–positive WARSS participants. 415 The overall event rate was22.2% among APL-positive patients and 21.8% among APLnegativepatients. Patients with both lupus anticoagulant andanticardiolipin antibodies had a higher event rate (31.7%) thanpatients negative for both antibodies (24.0%), but this was notstatistically significant. There was no difference between risk ofthe composite end point of death due to any cause, ischemicstroke, TIA, MI, DVT, pulmonary embolism, and other systemicthrombo-occlusive events in patients treated with either warfarin(RR, 0.99; 95% CI, 0.75 to 1.31; P0.94) or aspirin (RR, 0.94;95% CI, 0.70 to 1.28; P0.71).Recommendations1. For patients with cryptogenic ischemic stroke orTIA in whom an APL antibody is detected, antiplatelettherapy is reasonable (Class IIa; Level ofEvidence B).2. For patients with ischemic stroke or TIA who meet thecriteria for the APL antibody syndrome, oral anticoagulationwith a target INR of 2.0 to 3.0 is reasonable(Class IIa; Level of Evidence B) (Table 10).E. Sickle Cell DiseaseStroke is a common complication of sickle cell disease(SCD). The highest risk of stroke is in patients with SSgenotype, but stroke can occur in patients with other genotypes.423 For adults with SCD, the risk of having a first strokecan be as high as 11% by age 20, 15% by age 30, and 24%by age 45. 423 In SCD patients who had their first stroke as anadult (age 20 years), the recurrent stroke rate has been reportedat 1.6 events per 100 patient-years, 423 and most recurrent eventsin adults occur within the first few years. 423,424 The character-Downloaded from stroke.ahajournals.org by on March 8, 2011

Furie et al Prevention of Stroke in Patients With Stroke and TIA 255istics of patients with SCD that have been associated withincreased risk of ischemic stroke include prior TIA (RR, 56;95% CI, 12 to 285, P0.001), 423 greater degree of anemia(RR, 1.85 per 1 g/dL decrease in steady-state hemoglobin;95% CI, 1.32 to 2.59; P0.001), 423,425 prior acute chestsyndrome (a new infiltrate on chest x-ray associated with 1 ormore new symptoms: fever, cough, sputum production, dyspnea,or hypoxia) within 2 weeks (RR, 7.03; 95% CI, 1.27 to4.48; P0.001), 423 annual rate of acute chest syndrome (RR,2.39 per event per year; 95% CI, 1.27 to 4.48; P0.005), 423increased leukocyte count at age 1 year (20.7910 9 /L instroke group versus 17.2110 9 /L in those without stroke;P0.05), 425 nocturnal hypoxemia (HR, mean Sao 2 96%,5.6; 95% CI, 1.8 to 16.9; P0.0026), 426 and higher systolicBP (RR, 1.31/10-mm Hg increase; 95% CI, 1.03 to 1.67;P0.33). 423,424The most common mechanism of ischemic stroke inSCD patients appears to be large-artery arteriopathy, 427,428which is believed to be due to intimal hyperplasia relatedto repeated endothelial injury, 429 but other mechanisms ofstroke can occur. Low protein C and S levels have beenassociated with ischemic stroke, 430 and other markers ofhypercoagulability have been reported in SCD patients,albeit not directly linked to stroke. 431,432 Cerebral venoussinus thrombosis is another mechanism of brain ischemiareported in SCD patients. 433 Cardiac disease causing cerebralembolus is either rare or underreported. Becausemechanisms other than large-artery arteriopathy can resultin stroke in SCD patients, and data on the possibleinteraction between SCD-specific risk factors and vascularrisk factors (eg, diabetes or hyperlipidemia) are not available,identification and treatment of other potential strokemechanisms and traditional risk factors should be consideredand an appropriate diagnostic workup undertaken.Recommendations for treatment of SCD patients withlarge-artery arteriopathy are largely based on stroke preventionstudies performed in a pediatric population. TheStroke Prevention Trial in Sickle Cell Anemia (STOP) trialwas a randomized, placebo-controlled trial that showedtransfusion was effective for primary prevention of strokein children with SCD and high transcranial Dopplervelocities. 434 The STOP results are not directly applicableto these guidelines and are summarized in the AHAstatements on primary prevention 13 and management ofstroke in infants and children. 435 For secondary strokeprevention there are no randomized controlled trials tosupport transfusion in adults or children. A retrospectivemulticenter review of SCD patients with stroke, eitherobserved or transfused, suggested that regular blood transfusionsufficient to suppress native hemoglobin S formationreduced recurrent stroke risk. The transfusion targetmost often used is the percentage of hemoglobin S as afraction of total hemoglobin assessed just before transfusion.Reduction of hemoglobin S to 30% (from a typicalbaseline of 90% before initiating regular transfusions) wasassociated with a significant reduction in the rate ofrecurrent stroke during a mean follow-up of 3 yearscompared with historical controls followed for an unknownduration (13.3% versus 67% to 90%; P0.001). 436Most of the patients in this series were children, and it isnot clear whether adults have the same untreated risk orbenefit from treatment. In addition to the effects oftransfusion therapy on clinical events, transfusion has beenassociated with less progression of large-vessel stenoseson angiography (P0.001) 437 and decreased incidence ofsilent infarcts seen on MRI in SCD patients with elevatedtranscranial Doppler velocities (P0.001) compared withpatients who did not receive transfusions. 438 Regulartransfusions are associated with long-term complications,especially iron overload, making long-term use problematic.Some experts recommend using transfusion for 1 to 3years after stroke, a presumed period of higher risk forrecurrence, then switching to other therapies.Other therapies for secondary stroke prevention in adultSCD patients also have limited evidence to support theirefficacy. Several small studies of secondary stroke preventionin children and young adults with SCD and stroke reportedencouraging results using hydroxyurea to replace regularblood transfusion after 3 years of transfusion therapy. 439–441Hydroxyurea has been reported to decrease transcranialDoppler velocities from baseline in SCD patients(P0.001) 442 and may improve cerebral vasculopathy 443 aswell. A phase III randomized clinical trial comparing longtermtransfusion with transfusion followed by hydroxyurea inchildren with SCD (Stroke With Transfusions Changing toHydroxyurea [SWiTCH]) is currently under way. Bone marrowtransplantation can be curative from a hematologicperspective for a small number of SCD patients with asuitable donor and access to expert care but is usuallyundertaken in young children, not adults. Stroke and otherbrain-related concerns are frequently cited as reasons forundertaking bone marrow transplantation. Experience is limited,but both clinical and subclinical infarctions have beenreported to be arrested by this procedure. 444 Surgical bypassoperations have also been reported to have successfullyimproved outcomes in a few small series of SCD patientswith moyamoya vasculopathy, but no randomized or controlleddata are available. 445,446 Given the lack of systematicexperience with antiplatelet agents, anticoagulants, and antiinflammatoryagents for secondary stroke prevention in SCDpatients, specific stroke prevention medications cannot berecommended outside of general treatment recommendations.Preliminary data from animal studies suggest that statins maydecrease endothelial tissue factor expression in SCD, 447 butuntil further evidence of the benefit of statins in SCD patientshas been demonstrated, risk factor reduction with statins andantihypertensives can only be recommended on the basis oftheir importance in the general population.Recommendations1. For adults with SCD and ischemic stroke or TIA,the general treatment recommendations citedabove are reasonable with regard to control of riskfactors and the use of antiplatelet agents (Class IIa;Level of Evidence B).2. Additional therapies that may be considered toprevent recurrent cerebral ischemic events in patientswith SCD include regular blood transfusionsto reduce hemoglobin S to

256 Stroke January 2011hemoglobin, hydroxyurea, or bypass surgery incases of advanced occlusive disease (Class IIb; Levelof Evidence C) (Table 10).F. Cerebral Venous Sinus ThrombosisThe estimated annual incidence of cerebral venous thrombosis(CVT) is 3 to 4 cases per 1 million population. 448Although CVT accounts for 1% of all strokes, it is animportant diagnostic consideration because of the differencesin its management from that of arterial strokes. 448Early anticoagulation is often considered as both treatmentand early secondary prophylaxis for patients with CVT,although controlled trial data remain limited to 2 studies.449,450 The first trial compared dose-adjusted unfractionatedheparin (UFH; partial thromboplastin time at least 2times control) with placebo. The study was terminated earlyafter only 20 patients had been enrolled, because of thesuperiority of heparin therapy (P0.01). Eight of the 10patients randomly assigned to heparin recovered completely,and the other 2 patients had only mild neurological deficits. Inthe placebo group, only 1 patient had a complete recovery; 3patients died. 449 The same research group also reported aretrospective study of 43 patients with cerebral venous sinusthrombosis associated with intracranial bleeding; 27 of thesepatients were treated with dose-adjusted heparin. The mortalityrate in the heparin group was considerably lower than inthe nonanticoagulation group. 449A more recent and slightly larger randomized study ofcerebral venous sinus thrombosis (n59) compared nadroparin(90 anti–Xa U/kg twice daily) with placebo. 450 After 3months of follow-up, 13% of patients in the anticoagulationgroup and 21% in the placebo group had poor outcomes(RRR, 38%; PNS). Two patients in the nadroparin groupdied, compared with 4 patients in the placebo group. Patientswith intracranial bleeding were included, and no new symptomaticcerebral hemorrhages occurred in either group.In a Cochrane meta-analysis of these 2 trials, anticoagulanttherapy was associated with a pooled relative risk of death of0.33 (95% CI, 0.08 to 1.21) and death or dependency of 0.46(95% CI, 0.16 to 1.31). No new symptomatic ICHs wereobserved in either study. One major gastrointestinal hemorrhageoccurred after anticoagulant treatment. Two controlpatients (on placebo) had a diagnosis of probable pulmonaryembolism (one fatal). 451 On the basis of these 2 trials, the useof anticoagulation with heparin or LMWH given acutely inthe setting of CVT is recommended, regardless of thepresence of hemorrhagic conversion.No randomized trial data exist to guide duration of anticoagulationtherapy. For an initial event, periods between 3 and12 months have been reported. Patients with inherited thrombophiliaoften undergo anticoagulation for longer periodsthan someone with a transient (reversible) risk factor such asoral contraceptive use. Given the absence of data on durationof anticoagulation in patients with CVT, it is reasonable tofollow the externally established guidelines set for patientswith extracerebral DVT, which includes anticoagulationtreatment for 3 months for first-time DVT in patients withtransient risk factors and at least 3 months for an unprovokedfirst-time DVT and anticoagulation for an indefinite period inpatients with a second unprovoked DVT. 452 Antiplatelettherapy is generally given indefinitely after discontinuation ofwarfarin.Given the relatively high proportion of pregnancy-relatedCVT, which ranges from 15% to 31%, 453 the risk forrecurrent CVT during subsequent pregnancies is a commonlyencountered question. Sixty-three pregnancies in patientswith prior CVT have been reported in the literature, including21 with pregnancy-related CVT, with normal delivery and norecurrence of CVT. Although this suggests that future pregnanciesare not an absolute contraindication, given the scarcityof available data, decisions about future pregnanciesmust be individualized. 454Recommendations1. Anticoagulation is probably effective for patientswith acute CVT (Class IIa; Level of Evidence B).2. In the absence of trial data to define the optimalduration of anticoagulation for acute CVT, it isreasonable to administer anticoagulation for at least3 months, followed by antiplatelet therapy (ClassIIa; Level of Evidence C) (Table 10).G. Fabry DiseaseFabry disease is a rare X-linked inherited deficiency of thelysosomal enzyme -galactosidase, which causes lipid depositionin the vascular endothelium and results in progressivevascular disease of the brain, heart, skin, and kidneys. 455Stroke may occur due to dolichoectasia of the vertebral andbasilar arteries, cardioembolism, or small-vessel occlusivedisease. 455–457 Fabry disease may be underdiagnosed as acause of seemingly cryptogenic stroke in the young. 458Antiplatelet agents are believed to be useful in preventingischemic events related to existing vascular disease, 458 but thedisease itself was untreatable and the prognosis quite pooruntil recombinant -galactosidase A became available. Inrandomized controlled trials, administration of intravenous-galactosidase (also known as agalsidase beta) at a dose of1 mg/kg every other week reduced new and cleared oldmicrovascular endothelial deposits in the kidneys, heart, andskin 459 and modestly reduced the composite of renal, cardiac,or cerebrovascular events or death (HR, 0.47; 95% CI, 0.21 to1.03). 460 Enzyme replacement therapy also leads to clinicalimprovements in kidney function, 460,461 but the impact oncardiac function has been inconsistent. 462,463 Enzyme replacementtherapy has been shown to have a favorable effect oncerebral blood flow, 464 but the risk of stroke appears substantialdespite therapy. 465 Earlier intervention or higher enzymedoses or both may be needed for stroke prevention, and thisis an area of active research. 466 The major adverse effects ofrecombinant -galactosidase A infusions are fever and rigors,which may occur in 25% to 50% of treated patients but maybe minimized with slow infusion rates and premedicationwith acetaminophen and hydroxyzine. An expert panel recommendedenzyme replacement therapy for all male patientsstarting at age 16 and all other patients if there is evidence ofsymptoms or progressive organ involvement. 467Recommendations1. For patients with ischemic stroke or TIA and Fabrydisease, -galactosidase enzyme replacement ther-Downloaded from stroke.ahajournals.org by on March 8, 2011

Furie et al Prevention of Stroke in Patients With Stroke and TIA 257apy is recommended (Class I; Level of Evidence B).(New recommendation)2. Other secondary prevention measures as outlinedelsewhere in this guideline are recommended forpatients with ischemic stroke or TIA and Fabrydisease (Class I; Level of Evidence C). (New recommendation;Table 10)VI. Stroke in WomenA. PregnancyStroke can occur during pregnancy, the puerperium, orpostpartum. Incidence of pregnancy-related stroke variesbetween 11 and 26 per 100 000 deliveries, with the greatestrisk in the postpartum period and the 3 days surroundingbirth. 468–470 Pregnancy also complicates the selection ofantithrombotic treatments among women who have had aprior TIA or stroke mainly because of potential teratogeniceffects on the fetus or increasing risk of bleeding.For stroke prevention treatment during pregnancy, recommendationsare based on 2 scenarios: (1) the presenceof a high-risk condition that would require anticoagulationwith warfarin, or (2) a lower or uncertain risk situationexists and antiplatelet therapy would be the treatmentrecommendation if pregnancy were not present. A fullreview of this complex topic is beyond the scope of theseguidelines; however, a recent detailed discussion of options isavailable from a writing group of the American College of ChestPhysicians. 471There are no randomized clinical trials regarding strokeprevention among pregnant women; therefore, the choice ofagents must be made by inference from other studies, primarilyprevention of DVT and the use of anticoagulants in women withhigh-risk cardiac conditions. In cases where anticoagulation isrequired, for example, because of the existence of a knownthrombophilia or prosthetic cardiac valve, vitamin K antagonists,UFH, or LMWH has been used during pregnancy. Becausewarfarin crosses the placenta and can have potential deleteriousfetal effects, UFH or LMWH is usually substituted throughoutpregnancy. In some high-risk cases with concerns about theefficacy of UFH or LMWH, warfarin has been used afterthe 13th week of pregnancy and replaced by UFH or LMWH atthe time of delivery. 471 LMWH is an acceptable option to UFHand may avoid the problem of heparin-induced thrombocytopeniaand osteoporosis associated with long-term heparin therapy.Pharmacokinetic changes have been observed among pregnantwomen taking LMWH, so doses must be normalized for bodyweight changes and anti-Xa levels need to be monitored moreclosely. 472An expert survey on treatment of pregnant women with theAPL antibody syndrome concluded that such women shouldbe treated with LMWH and low-dose aspirin. 473 Women athigh risk and with prior stroke or severe arterial thromboseswere thought to be acceptable candidates for warfarin from14 to 34 weeks’ gestation. They also suggested that intravenousimmunoglobulin be restricted to patients with pregnancylosses despite treatment.Among lower-risk pregnant women, low-dose aspirin (50mg/d to 150 mg/d) appears safe after the first trimester. A largemeta-analysis of randomized trials among women at risk forpre-eclampsia has not shown any significant risk of teratogenicityor long-term adverse effects of low-dose aspirin during thesecond and third trimesters of pregnancy. 474 Low-dose aspirinwas used in a randomized study among women with preeclampsiaafter the second trimester and was not found toincrease adverse effects in the mother or fetus except for a higherrisk of transfusion after delivery among those assigned toaspirin. 475 The use of aspirin during the first trimester remainsuncertain. Although there was no overall increase in congenitalanomalies associated with aspirin use in another meta-analysis,there was an increase in a rare congenital defect in the risk ofgastroschisis. 476 Use of alternative antiplatelet agents has notbeen investigated during pregnancy.Recommendations1. For pregnant women with ischemic stroke or TIAand high-risk thromboembolic conditions such ashypercoagulable state or mechanical heart valves,the following options may be considered: adjusteddoseUFH throughout pregnancy, for example, a subcutaneousdose every 12 hours with monitoring ofactivated partial thromboplastin time; adjusted-doseLMWH with monitoring of anti-factor Xa throughoutpregnancy; or UFH or LMWH until week 13, followedby warfarin until the middle of the third trimester andreinstatement of UFH or LMWH until delivery (ClassIIb; Level of Evidence C).2. In the absence of a high-risk thromboembolic condition,pregnant women with stroke or TIA may beconsidered for treatment with UFH or LMWHthroughout the first trimester, followed by low-doseaspirin for the remainder of the pregnancy (ClassIIb; Level of Evidence C) (Table 10).B. Postmenopausal Hormone TherapyDespite prior suggestions from observational studies thatpostmenopausal hormone therapy may be beneficial for theprevention of cardiovascular disease, randomized trials instroke survivors and primary prevention trials have failed todemonstrate any significant benefits and have found increasedrisk for stroke among women who use hormones. TheWomen’s Estrogen for Stroke Trial (WEST), conductedamong 664 women with a prior stroke or TIA, failed to showany reduction in risk of stroke recurrence or death withestradiol over a 2.8-year follow-up period. 477 The women inthe estrogen therapy arm had a higher risk of fatal stroke (HR,2.9; 95% CI, 0.9 to 9.0). Moreover, those who had a recurrentstroke and were randomized to hormone therapy were lesslikely to recover. The Heart and Estrogen/progestin ReplacementStudy (HERS) Trial of 2763 postmenopausal womenwith heart disease did not demonstrate any reduction in strokerisk or any cardiovascular benefit of hormone therapy. 478 TheWomen’s Health Initiative (WHI) randomized, primary prevention,placebo-controlled clinical trial of estrogen plusprogestin among 16 608 postmenopausal women 50 to 79years of age found a 44% increase in all stroke (HR, 1.44;95% CI, 1.09 to 1.90). 479,480 The parallel trial of estrogenalone among 10 739 women found a similar increase in risk(HR, 1.53; 95% CI, 1.16 to 2.02). 480 Because animal studiesappeared to show a protective effect of estrogen on the brain,the possibility was raised that hormone therapy given toDownloaded from stroke.ahajournals.org by on March 8, 2011

258 Stroke January 2011younger postmenopausal or perimenopausal women might beprotective, sometimes referred to as taking advantage of the“window of opportunity.” 481 Despite this, neither observationalstudies nor the WHI clinical trials have supported sucha hypothesis. The Nurses’ Health Study indicated that theincreased risk of stroke was not associated with timing ofinitiation of hormone therapy. 482 In the WHI trial, stroke riskwas elevated regardless of years since menopause whenhormone therapy was started. 483Recommendation1. For women who have had ischemic stroke or TIA,postmenopausal hormone therapy (with estrogenwith or without a progestin) is not recommended(Class III; Level of Evidence A) (Table 10).VII. Use of Anticoagulation AfterIntracranial HemorrhageOne of the most difficult problems that clinicians face isthe management of antithrombotic therapy in patients whosuffer an intracranial hemorrhage. There are several keyvariables to consider, including the type of hemorrhage,patient age, risk factors for recurrent hemorrhage, andindication for antithrombotic therapy. Most studies or caseseries have focused on patients receiving anticoagulantsfor a mechanical heart valve or AF who develop an ICH orsubdural hematoma (SDH). There are very few case seriesaddressing SAH. In all cases, the risk of recurrent hemorrhagemust be weighed against the risk of an ischemiccerebrovascular event. Overall there is a paucity of datafrom large, prospective, randomized studies to answerthese important management questions.In the acute setting of a patient with an ICH or SDH andan elevated INR, it is generally thought that the INRshould be reduced as soon as possible through the use ofclotting factors, vitamin K, and/or fresh frozen plasma.484,485 Studies have shown that 30% to 40% of ICHsexpand during the first 12 to 36 hours of formation, 486 andthis may be prolonged when the patient is receivinganticoagulation. 487 Such expansions are usually associatedwith neurological worsening. 488 Elevated INRs have beenshown to be associated with larger hematoma volumeswhen corrected for age, sex, race, antiplatelet use, hemorrhagelocation, and time from onset to scan. 489 In thisretrospective study of 258 patients, hematoma volume wassignificantly higher in patients with an INR 3.0 (comparedwith those with an INR 1.2; P0.02). Rapidreversal of anticoagulation is generally recommended forany patient with an ICH or subdural hematoma, 490,491 butthere are no data on the preferred methods or consequencesof this practice. Prothrombin complex concentrate normalizesthe INR within 15 minutes of administration and ispreferred over fresh frozen plasma in most national guidelinesfor the treatment of serious bleeding because of itsease of administration and fast action. 492 Vitamin K shouldbe administered in combination with either product tomaintain the beneficial effect. It is possible that rapidreversal to a normal INR will put high-risk patients at riskfor thromboembolic events. Any reversal should be undertakenwith a careful weighing of the risks and benefits ofthe treatment.The appropriate duration of interruption of anticoagulationamong high-risk patients is unknown. Several case serieshave followed up patients who were off anticoagulants forseveral days and weeks, with few reported instances ofischemic stroke. One study found that among 35 patients withhemorrhages followed for up to 19 days off warfarin, therewere no recurrent ischemic strokes. 485 In a study of 141patients with an ICH while taking warfarin, warfarin wasreversed and stopped for a median of 10 days. The risk of anischemic event was 2.1% within 30 days. The risk of anischemic event during cessation of warfarin was 2.9% inpatients with a prosthetic heart valve, 2.6% in those with AFand prior embolic stroke, and 4.8% for those with a prior TIAor ischemic stroke. 493 None of the 35 patients in whomwarfarin was restarted had another ICH during hospitalization.493 Another study of 28 patients with prosthetic heartvalves found that during a mean period of 15 days of noanticoagulation, no patient had an embolic event. 494 A studyof 35 patients with an ICH or spinal hemorrhage reported norecurrent ischemic events among the 14 patients with prostheticvalves after a median of 7 days without anticoagulation.485 One study of 100 patients who underwent intracranialsurgery for treatment of cerebral aneurysm found that 14%developed evidence of DVT postoperatively. These patientswere treated with systemic anticoagulation without anybleeding complications. 495The relative risks of recurrent ICH versus ischemia mustbe considered when deciding whether to reinstitute antithrombotictherapy after ICH. In a recent large study of768 ICH patients followed for up to 8 years, the risk ofrecurrent ICH was higher than that of ischemic stroke inthe first year (2.1% versus 1.3%), but there was nodifference beyond that period (1.2% versus 1.3%). In thislargely Caucasian population, it appeared that reinstitutionof antithrombotic therapy soon after ICH was not beneficial,particularly in lobar ICH, where recurrence rates werehighest. 496 Lobar hemorrhage poses a greater risk ofrecurrence when anticoagulation is reinstituted, possiblybecause of underlying cerebral amyloid angiopathy. Adecision analysis study recommended against restartinganticoagulation in patients with lobar ICH and AF. 497Several other risk factors for new or recurrent ICH havebeen identified, including advanced age, hypertension,degree of anticoagulation, dialysis, leukoaraiosis, and thepresence of microbleeds on MRI. 498–501 The presence ofmicrobleeds on MRI (often seen on gradient echocardiographicimages) may signify an underlying microangiopathyor the presence of cerebral amyloid angiopathy. Onestudy found the risk of ICH in patients receiving anticoagulationto be 9.3% in patients with microbleeds comparedwith 1.3% in those without MRI evidence of priorhemorrhage. 499In patients with compelling indications for early reinstitutionof anticoagulation, some studies suggest that intravenousheparin (with partial thromboplastin time 1.5 to 2.0 timesnormal) or LMWH may be safer options for acute therapythan restarting oral warfarin. 484 Failure to reverse the warfarinand achieve a normal INR has been associated with anincreased risk of rebleeding, and failure to achieve a thera-Downloaded from stroke.ahajournals.org by on March 8, 2011

Furie et al Prevention of Stroke in Patients With Stroke and TIA 259peutic partial thromboplastin time using intravenous heparinhas been associated with increased risk of ischemic stroke. 484Intravenous heparin can be easily titrated, discontinued, andrapidly reversed with protamine sulfate should bleedingrecur. Heparin boluses are not recommended because studieshave shown that bolus therapy increases the risk of bleeding.502 There is a paucity of data from prospective, randomizedstudies with regard to the use of other agents foranticoagulation in this setting.Hemorrhagic transformation within an ischemic strokeappears to have a different course and natural history comparedwith ICH. In general, these hemorrhages are oftenasymptomatic or cause minimal symptoms, rarely progress insize or extent, and are relatively common occurrences. 503,504Some case series suggest continuing anticoagulation even inthe presence of hemorrhagic transformation as long as there isa compelling indication and the patient is not symptomaticfrom the hemorrhagic transformation. 505 Each case must beassessed individually on the basis of variables such as size ofhemorrhagic transformation, patient status, and indication foranticoagulation.Recommendations1. For patients who develop ICH, SAH, or SDH, it isreasonable to discontinue all anticoagulants and antiplateletsduring the acute period for at least 1 to 2weeks and reverse any warfarin effect with freshfrozen plasma or prothrombin complex concentrateand vitamin K immediately (Class IIa; Level ofEvidence B).2. Protamine sulfate should be used to reverse heparinassociatedICH, with the dose depending on the timefrom cessation of heparin (Class I; Level of EvidenceB). (New recommendation)3. The decision to restart antithrombotic therapy afterICH related to antithrombotic therapy depends on therisk of subsequent arterial or venous thromboembolism,risk of recurrent ICH, and overall status of thepatient. For patients with a comparatively lower risk ofcerebral infarction (eg, AF without prior ischemicstroke) and a higher risk of amyloid angiopathy (eg,elderly patients with lobar ICH) or with very pooroverall neurological function, an antiplatelet agent maybe considered for prevention of ischemic stroke. Inpatients with a very high risk of thromboembolism inwhom restart of warfarin is considered, it may bereasonable to restart warfarin therapy at 7 to 10 daysafter onset of the original ICH (Class IIb; Level ofEvidence B). (New recommendation)4. For patients with hemorrhagic cerebral infarction, itmay be reasonable to continue anticoagulation, dependingon the specific clinical scenario and underlyingindication for anticoagulant therapy (Class IIb;Level of Evidence C) (Table 10).VIII. Special Approaches to ImplementingGuidelines and Their Use inHigh-Risk PopulationsNational consensus guidelines are published by manyprofessional societies and government agencies to increasehealthcare providers’ awareness of evidence-based approachesto disease management. This method of knowledgedelivery assumes that increased awareness of guidelinecontent alone can lead to substantial changes inphysician behavior and ultimately patient behavior andhealth outcomes. Experience with previously publishedguidelines suggests otherwise, and compliance with secondarystroke and coronary artery disease preventionstrategies based on guideline dissemination has not increaseddramatically. 506–510 For example, treatment ofhypertension to reduce stroke risk has been the subject of manyguidelines and public education campaigns. Among adults withhypertension, 60% are on therapy, but only half of those areactually at their target BP goal, whereas another 30% areunaware that they even have the disease. 511 In a survey ofphysicians who were highly knowledgeable about target cholesterolgoals for therapy, few were successful in achieving thesegoals for patients in their own practice. 512 The use of retrospectiveperformance data to improve compliance has producedsmall changes in adherence to guideline-derived measures inprevention of coronary artery disease. 506Systematic implementation strategies must be coupled withguideline dissemination to change healthcare provider practice.The Third Report of the Expert Panel on Detection,Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Cholesterol inAdults 513 identified the need for enabling strategies (eg, officereminders), reinforcing strategies (eg, feedback), and predisposingstrategies (eg, practice guidelines) to improve thequality of practice. One such example is the AHA voluntaryquality improvement program, Get With The Guidelines(GWTG), which has 3 individual modules on secondaryprevention of coronary heart disease, heart failure, and stroke.The GWTG–Stroke program was implemented nationally in2003; as of 2008, 1000 hospitals are participating in theprogram. Participation was associated with improvements inthe following measures related to secondary stroke preventionfrom baseline to the fifth year 514 : discharge antithrombotics,anticoagulation for AF, lipid treatment for LDL-C100 mg/dL, and smoking cessation. GWTG–Stroke wasassociated with a 1.18-fold yearly increase in the odds ofadherence to guidelines, independent of secular trends.Other organizations have also recognized the need forsystematic approaches. The National Institutes of HealthRoadmap for Medical Research was implemented to addresstreatment gaps between clinically proven therapies and actualtreatment rates in the community. 515 To ensure that scientificknowledge is translated effectively into practice and thathealthcare disparities are addressed, the Institute of Medicineof the National Academy of Sciences has recommended theestablishment of coordinated systems of care that integratepreventive and treatment services and promote patient accessto evidence-based care. 516Although data link guideline compliance with improvedhealth and cost outcomes in acute stroke, secondary preventionhas been less well studied. The Italian Guideline Applicationfor Decision Making in Ischemic Stroke (GLADIS)Study demonstrated better outcomes, reduced length of stay,and lower costs for patients with acute stroke who weretreated according to guidelines. Guideline compliance andstroke severity were independent predictors of cost. 517,518 TheDownloaded from stroke.ahajournals.org by on March 8, 2011

260 Stroke January 2011Stroke PROTECT (Preventing Recurrence Of ThromboembolicEvents through Coordinated Treatment) program examined8 medication/behavioral secondary prevention measuresduring hospitalization and found good but variable compliancewith guidelines at 90 days. There was no analysis of recurrencerates, quality of life, or healthcare costs in this population. 519 Ithas been proposed that linking financial reimbursement tocompliance might improve the quality of care for stroke survivors.A UK study examined the relationship between the Qualityand Outcomes Framework (QOF), which calculated “qualitypoints” for stroke using computer codes and reimbursed physiciansaccordingly. Higher-quality points did not correlate withbetter adherence to national guidelines, however, indicating thatadditional research is needed to determine how best to effect andmeasure these practices. 520Identifying and Responding to Populations atHighest RiskStudies highlight the need for special approaches forpopulations at high risk for recurrent stroke and TIA,either because of increased predisposition or reducedhealth literacy and awareness. Those at high risk have beenidentified as the aged, socioeconomically disadvantaged, and specificethnic groups. 521–523The elderly are at greater risk of stroke and at the highestrisk of complications from treatments such as oral anticoagulantsand carotid endarterectomy. 524,525 Despite theneed to consider different approaches in these vulnerablepopulations, some trials do not include a sufficient numberof subjects 80 years of age to fully evaluate the efficacy ofa therapy within this important and ever-growing subgroup.In SAPPHIRE, only 11% (85 of 776 CEA patients) were 80years of age, and comparison of high- and low-risk CEAsdemonstrated no difference in stroke rates. 526 By contrast,trials of medical therapies such as statins have includedrelatively large numbers of elderly patients with coronaryartery disease and support safety and event reduction in thesegroups, although further study in the elderly may still beneeded. 527–530The socioeconomically disadvantaged constitute that populationat high risk for stroke primarily because of limitedaccess to care. 531,532 As indicated in the report of the AmericanAcademy of Neurology Task Force on Access toHealthcare in 1996, access to medical care in general and forneurological conditions such as stroke remains limited. Theselimitations to access may be due to limited personal resourcessuch as lack of health insurance, geographic differences inavailable facilities or expertise, as is often the case in ruralareas, or arrival at a hospital after hours. Hospitalized strokepatients with little or no insurance receive fewer angiogramsand endarterectomies. 533–536Many rural institutions lack the resources for adequateemergency stroke treatment and the extensive communityand professional educational services that address strokeawareness and prevention compared with urban areas.Telemedicine is emerging as a tool to support improvedrural health care and the acute treatment and primary andsecondary prevention of stroke. 537 Stroke prevention effortsare of particular concern in those ethnic groupsidentified as being at the highest risk. 132 Although deathrates attributed to stroke have declined by 11% in theUnited States from 1990 through 1998, not all groups havebenefited equally, and substantial differences among ethnicgroups persist. 538 Even within minority ethnic populations,gender disparities remain, as evidenced by the factthat although the top 3 causes of death for black men areheart disease, cancer, and HIV infection/AIDS, strokereplaces HIV infection as the third leading cause in blackwomen. 539 black women are particularly vulnerable toobesity, with a prevalence rate of 50%, and their highermorbidity and mortality rates from heart disease, diabetes,and stroke have been attributed in part to increased bodymass index. In the Michigan Coverdell Registry, 540 AfricanAmericans were less likely to receive smoking cessationcounseling (OR, 0.27; CI, 0.17 to 0.42). The BASICProject noted the similarities in stroke risk factor profilesin Mexican Americans and non-Hispanic whites. 541 Therole of hypertension in blacks and its disproportionateimpact on stroke risk has been clearly identified, 542–544 yetstudies indicate that risk factors differ between differentethnic groups within the worldwide black population. 545For the aged, socioeconomically disadvantaged, and specificethnic groups, inadequate implementation of guidelinesand noncompliance with prevention recommendations arecritical problems. Expert panels have indicated the need for amultilevel approach to include the patient, provider, andorganization delivering health care. The evidence for thisapproach is well documented, but further research is sorelyneeded. 546 The NINDS Stroke Disparities Planning Panel,convened in June 2002, developed strategies and programgoals that include establishing data collection systems andexploring effective community impact programs and instrumentsin stroke prevention. 547 The panel encouraged projectsaimed at stroke surveillance projects in multiethnic communitiessuch as those in southern Texas, 541 northern Manhattan,544 Illinois, 548 and suburban Washington, 549 and strokeawareness programs targeted directly at minoritycommunities.Alliances with the federal government through the NINDS,Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, nonprofit organizationssuch as the AHA/ASA, and medical specialtygroups such as the American Academy of Neurology and theBrain Attack Coalition are needed to coordinate, develop, andoptimize implementation of evidence-based stroke preventionrecommendations. 550Recommendations1. It can be beneficial to embed strategies for implementationwithin the process of guideline developmentand distribution to improve utilization of therecommendations (Class IIa; Level of Evidence B).(New recommendation)2. Intervention strategies can be useful to address economicand geographic barriers to achieving compliancewith guidelines and to emphasize the need forimproved access to care for the aged, underserved, andhigh-risk ethnic populations (Class IIa; Level of EvidenceB). (New recommendation; Table 10)Downloaded from stroke.ahajournals.org by on March 8, 2011

Furie et al Prevention of Stroke in Patients With Stroke and TIA 261DisclosuresWriting Group DisclosuresWriting GroupMember Employment Research GrantOther ResearchSupportSpeakers’Bureau/HonorariaExpertWitnessOwnershipInterestConsultant/AdvisoryBoardOtherKaren L. Furie MassachusettsGeneral HospitalASA-Bugher†; NINDS† None None None None None Cardiovascular EventsCommittee member (Quintilessponsored) supportingBiosante’s Multi-Center Studyof the Safety of LibigeL forthe Treatment of HSDD inMenopausal Women*EAC Member for InChoir(through MSSM) for NHLBIsupported trials*Chair, NINDS NSD-K studysection*Chair, NINDS ARUBA DSMB*Member, NINDS SPS3 DSMB*Scott E.KasnerRobert J.AdamsGregory W.AlbersRuth L. BushSusan C.FaganJonathan L.HalperinS. ClaiborneJohnstonUniversity ofPennsylvania MedicalCenterGore Associates†; NIH† None None None None AstraZeneca*;Cardionet*NoneMedical University ofNHLBI† None Boehringer None None Novartis*; PenumbraNoneSouth CarolinaIngelheim†;Corporation*Genentech*;Novartis*;Sanofi-Aventis*Stanford University Boehringer Ingelheim†; NMT† None None None None Boehringer Ingelheim*;NoneLundbeck*Scott & WhiteNone None None None None None NoneHospital, Texas A&MUniversity HealthScience CenterUniversity of GeorgiaPfizer, Inc† None Boehringer None None Boehringer Ingelheim*;NoneCollege of PharmacyIngelheim*Pfizer*Mt. Sinai Hospital NIH-NHLBI† None None None None Astellas Pharma*; Member of DSMB for Phase IIBayer HealthCare*; trial of an oral anticoagulantBiotronik, Inc†; for stroke prevention inBoehringer Ingelheim*; patients with atrial fibrillation*Daiichi SankyoPharma*; Johnson &Johnson*; Portola*;Sanofi-Aventis*UCSF Medical Boehringer Ingelheim†; Boston None None None None Daiichi Sankyo* National Stroke Association*Center/Dept of Scientific†; NINDS†; On behalfNeurology of NINDS/NIH, received drugand placebo for the POINTtrial from Sanofi-Aventis†Irene Katzan Cleveland Clinic CDC and the Ohio Departmentof Health*; NINDS†;None None None None None Novartis (End pointadjudication committee)†Schering-Plough*Walter N.Yale UniversityNINDS†; TakedaNone None None None None NoneKernanSchool of MedicinePharmaceuticals†Pamela H.University ofNIH† None None None None None NoneMitchellWashingtonBruceUniversity ofNone None None None None None NoneOvbiageleCalifornia at LosAngeles (UCLA)Yuko Y.Medical University of Boehringer Ingelheim* None None None None None NonePaleschSouth CarolinaRalph L. Sacco University of Miami NHLBI; Evelyn A. McKnightFoundation*; NINDS†None None None Boehringer Ingelheim*;Sanofi-Aventis*Member of DSMB sponsoredby Population HealthResearch Institute (McMasterUniversity in Ontario)–Clinicaltrial on stroke prevention inAF–support received fromBristol-Myers Squibb andPfizer and goes to Universityof Miami)*(Continued)Downloaded from stroke.ahajournals.org by on March 8, 2011

262 Stroke January 2011Writing Group Disclosures, ContinuedWriting GroupMember Employment Research GrantOther ResearchSupportSpeakers’Bureau/HonorariaExpertWitnessOwnershipInterestConsultant/AdvisoryBoardOtherLee H.SchwammSylviaWassertheil-SmollerTanya N.TuranDeidreWentworthMassachusettsGeneral Hospital; MITAlbert EinsteinCollege of MedicineMedical University ofSouth CarolinaMercy GeneralHospital-Sacramento,CaliforniaCDC Conference Grant forStroke Consortium†NoneUniversity andAcademicHospital grandrounds and otheracademicsponsoredCMEevents*None None CryoCath†; Mass.Department of PublicHealth†; Phreesia,Inc†Occasionally reviews medicalrecords in alleged malpracticecases*NHLBI† None None None None None NoneAAN Foundation†; NINDS† None None None None None NoneNone None None None None None NoneThis table represents the relationships of writing group members that may be perceived as actual or reasonably perceived conflicts of interest as reported on theDisclosure Questionnaire, which all members of the writing group are required to complete and submit. A relationship is considered to be “significant” if (1) the personreceives $10 000 or more during any 12-month period, or 5% or more of the person’s gross income; or (2) the person owns 5% or more of the voting stock or shareof the entity, or owns $10 000 or more of the fair market value of the entity. A relationship is considered to be “modest” if it is less than “significant” under thepreceding definition.*Modest.†Significant.Reviewer DisclosuresReviewerOscarBenaventeLarry B.GoldsteinPhilip B.GorelickElaine L.MillerBarney SternEmploymentResearchGrantOtherResearchSupportSpeakers’Bureau/HonorariaExpertWitnessOwnershipInterestConsultant/AdvisoryBoard OtherUniversity of Texas NIH/NINDS† Sanofi/BMS† None None None None NoneHealth ScienceCenterDuke University None None None None None None NoneUniversity ofIllinoisUniversity ofCincinnatiUniversity ofMarylandNone None Boehringer-Ingelheim†None None Genentech,*BoehringerIngelheim†; BMSSanofi*; Pfizer*;Daiichi Sankyo*None None None None None None NoneNIH/NINDS†;NIH/NINDS†;NIH/NINDS*NoneNone AAN* None None None NoneThis table represents the relationships of reviewers that may be perceived as actual or reasonably perceived conflicts of interest as reported on the DisclosureQuestionnaire, which all reviewers are required to complete and submit. A relationship is considered to be “significant” if (1) the person receives $10 000 or moreduring any 12-month period, or 5% or more of the person’s gross income; or (2) the person owns 5% or more of the voting stock or share of the entity, or owns$10 000 or more of the fair market value of the entity. A relationship is considered to be “modest” if it is less than “significant” under the preceding definition.*Modest.†Significant.References1. Johnston SC, Fayad PB, Gorelick PB, Hanley DF, Shwayder P, vanHusen D, Weiskopf T. Prevalence and knowledge of transient ischemicattack among US adults. Neurology. 2003;60:1429–1434.2. Measuring and improving quality of care: a report from the AmericanHeart Association/American College of Cardiology First ScientificForum on Assessment of Healthcare Quality in Cardiovascular Diseaseand Stroke. Circulation. 2000;101:1483–1493.3. Johnston SC, Gress DR, Browner WS, Sidney S. Short-term prognosis afteremergency department diagnosis of TIA. JAMA. 2000;284:2901–2906.4. Rothwell PM, Warlow CP. Timing of TIAs preceding stroke: timewindow for prevention is very short. Neurology. 2005;64:817–820.5. Easton JD, Saver JL, Albers GW, Alberts MJ, Chaturvedi S, FeldmannE, Hatsukami TS, Higashida RT, Johnston SC, Kidwell CS, Lutsep HL,Miller E, Sacco RL. Definition and evaluation of transient ischemicattack: a scientific statement for healthcare professionals from theAmerican Heart Association/American Stroke Association StrokeCouncil; Council on Cardiovascular Surgery and Anesthesia; Council onCardiovascular Radiology and Intervention; Council on CardiovascularNursing; and the Interdisciplinary Council on Peripheral VascularDisease. Stroke. 2009;40:2276–2293.6. Ovbiagele B, Kidwell CS, Saver JL. Epidemiological impact in theUnited States of a tissue-based definition of transient ischemic attack.Stroke. 2003;34:919–924.Downloaded from stroke.ahajournals.org by on March 8, 2011

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AHA/ASA Guideline Guidelines for the Prevention of Stroke in ...

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