Indian Medicinal Plants An Illustrated Dictionary

Indian Medicinal Plants

C.P. Khare (Ed.) 

Indian Medicinal Plants 

An Illustrated Dictionary 

With 215 Pictures of Crude Herbs 

123

Author 

C.P. Khare 

B-1/211, Janak Puri 

New Delhi-110 058 

India 

chandrma_khare@yahoo.com 

Library of Congress Control Number: 2007922446 

ISBN: 978-0-387-70637-5 Springer-Verlag Berlin/Heidelberg 

© 2007 Springer Science+Business Media, LLC. 

All rights reserved. This work may not be translated or copied in whole or in part without the 

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Dedicated to 

the distinguished scientist 

Dr.A.P.J.AdbulKalam 

who revived the glory of 

Indian medicinal and aromatic plants 

in the Rashtrapati Bhawan.

Guiding Factors 

First of all, let me acknowledge with gratitude the contribution of the following 

reference works which synchronised the synonyms and medicinal properties of 

Indian medicinal plants: 

• A Catalogue of Indian Synonyms of the Medicinal Plants of India by Moodeen 

Sheriff (1869). (The first exhaustive compilation of synonyms of Indian medicinal 

plants in 12 regional languages, besides Latin and English). 

• Indian Medicinal Plants by Lt. Col. K.R. Kirtikar and Major B.D. Basu (1918). 

• Glossary of Indian Medicinal Plants by Col. Sir Ram Nath Chopra et al. (CSIR, 

1956). 

• Useful Plants of India (CSIR, 1986;basedonThe Wealth of India series, Vol. I 

1948,Vol.XI1976). 

• Dictionary of Indian Medicinal Plants by Akhtar Husain et al. (CIMAP, 1992). 

Based on this legacy, Indian Medicinal Plants. An Illustrated Dictionary is aimed 

at bringing out an updated Active Study Dictionary of plant sources of Indian 

medicine, as a companion volume of my earlier book Encyclopedia of Indian 

Medicinal Plants/Indian Herbal Remedies, published by Springer. 

Ayurvedic synonyms have been selected from the following sources: 

• The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India (Vol. I to IV). 

• Standard Nomenclature of Ayurvedic Medicinal Plants (CCRAS, 1999). 

• Medicinal Plants used in Ayurveda (Rashtriya Ayurveda Vidyapeeth/ National 

Academy of Ayurveda, 1998). 

• Plants of Sharangadhara Samhita by Prof. K.C. Chunekar and Dr. K. Pondel 

(National Academy of Ayurveda, 1999).

VIII Guiding Factors 

• Plants of Bhava Prakash by Prof. K.C. Chunekar and Dr. N.P. Hota (National 

Academy of Ayurveda, 1998). 

• Central Council for Research in Ayurveda and Siddha (CCRAS). Published 

literature. 

• Dravyagun Vigyaan, Vol. II (Hindi) by Dr. Priyavrata Sharma (1991). 

Unani synonyms have been selected from the following sources: 

• The National Formulary of Unani Medicine. 

• Central Council for Research in Unani Medicine (CCRUM). Published literature. 

• Unani Dravyagunaadarsh (Hindi) by Daljit Singh (Ayurvedic and Tibbi Academy, 

Uttar Pradesh, Lucknow, 1974). 

Siddha/Tamil synonyms have been selected from the following sources: 

• Formulary of Siddha Medicine. (Indian Medical Practitioners’ Cooperative 

Pharmacy and Store Ltd., IMPCOPS, Chennai). 

• The Wealth of India (Vol. II to XI). 

• Dictionary of Indian Medicinal Plants (CIMAP). 

• The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India (Vol. I to IV). 

• Central Council for Research in Ayurveda and Siddha (CCRAS). Published 

literature. 

The medicinal plants shortlisted by the National Academy of Ayurveda and 

the department of Indian Systems of Medicine (AYUSH) have been included in 

the book. 

Key applications of medicinal plants are based on the following sources: 

• German Commission E monographs. 

• ESCOP monographs. 

• WHO monographs. 

• Indian Herbal Pharmacopoeia. 

• The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India (Vol. I to IV) for traditionally recognised 

applications.

• The British Herbal Pharmacopoeia. 

• The British Herbal Compendium. 

• Natural Medicines Comprehensive Database, 2007. 

Guiding Factors IX 

For further study, all major findings and leads, including references to research 

documents and journals, can be reached through the following books (in 

sequence): 

• The Wealth of India First Supplement Series (Vol. I to V). 

• The Wealth of India original series (Vol. II to XI and revised Vol. 1 to 3). 

• Compendium of Indian Medicinal Plants (Vol. I to V, CDRI). 

• Potter’s New Cyclopaedia of Botanical Drugs and Preparations (1998 edn). 

• Natural Medicines Comprehensive Database, 2007. 

• PDR for Herbal Medicines, 2004. 

• The Treatise on Indian Medicinal Plants (Vol. I to VI). 

• Additional sources, as cited at appropriate places. 

Dosage of crude herbs is based on the recommendations of The Ayurvedic 

Pharmacopoeia of India (Vol. I to IV) and Standard Nomenclature of Ayurvedic 

Medicinal Plants (CCRAS). 

Roman spellings of Ayurvedic synonyms, introduced for the first time by 

Rashtriya Ayurveda Vidyapeeth (National Academy of Ayurveda), New Delhi- 

110 026, have been followed. Asiatic Society’s markings are now obsolete. The 

text has been formatted following the style-manual of The Wealth of India series 

of CSIR. 

Detailed references of research journals are beyond the purview of this project. 

The text is based on authentic treatises which are the outcome of scientific 

screening and critical evaluation by eminent scholars. As I have already indicated, 

readers, if they so desire, can always refer back to a particular research paper 

cited in the original source. I did not follow the trend of enumerating research 

papers which were not actually consulted by me. Researchers should consult the 

Database on Medicinal Plants used in Ayurveda series (CCRAS) andReviews on 

Indian Medicinal Plants series (ICMR) for detailed bibliography. 

All Indian common names have been spelled according to their actual pronunciation. 

The way was shown by the National Academy of Ayurveda by 

introducing aa in the spellings. In The Review of Natural Products (Facts and 

Comparisons) 2005 edition., Khat, Chaat, Chat, qaad, jaad and Miraa have been

X Guiding Factors 

included among the common names of Catha edulis, while the common name 

of Gymnema sylvestre is spelled as Gurmar instead of Gurmaar. Perhaps the 

actual pronunciation was not known to the editors. In India, O is pronounced 

in a specific ascent, as in Om, that is the reason uu is used instead of oo. Similarly, 

Sanskrit synonyms end with a, that is why aa is used for facilitating proper 

pronunciation. These changes have been included so that Indian names are 

pronounced correctly. 

A few words of gratitude. Dr.V.K.AgarwalPh.D.(MedicinalChemistry),who 

was the senior editor (chemistry and pharmacology) of The Wealth of India series 

for 28 years, reviewed the entire text. He remained closely associated with all my 

projects and deserves much more than a few formal words of thanks. Sarita Joshi, 

my research associate, bore the brunt of the workload throughout the difficult 

phases of the project. For this she also deserves a special mention. 

Finally, I would like to add that a concerted effort has been made in the book 

to rationalise the therapeutic coverage of Indian medicinal plants as part of my 

commitment to scientific herbalism. 

C.P. Khare 

Society for New Age Herbals 

B-1/211, Janak Puri, New Delhi-110 058

Abelmoschus esculentus 

(Linn.) Moench. 

Synonym ◮ Hibiscus esculentus Linn. 

Family ◮ Malvaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Native to tropical Africa; 

cultivated throughout India, up to 

1,350 m. 

English ◮ Gumbo, Lady Finger, Okra. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Bhaandi, Bhindaka, 

Bhendaa. 

Unani ◮ Baamiyaa. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Vendai. 

Folk ◮ Bhindi, Raamturai. 

Action ◮ Immature pods (decoction)—emollient, 

demulcent and 

diuretic (in catarrhal affections, 

ardor urine, dysuria, dysentery). 

Seeds—antispasmodic. 

Fatty fraction of the fresh watery extract 

of the seeds causes destruction 

of cancerous cell growth in vitro. The 

pods are reported to exhibit antitumour 

activity. An ethanolic extract 

of pods was effective against Grampositive 

bacteria. 

The ripe fruits contain quercetin, 

hyperin (hyperoside), hydrolysate of 

precipitated mucilage, proanthocyanidins, 

D-glucose, D-glucuronic and 

galacturonic acids. 

Fresh flowers contain flavonol glycosides 

and anthocyanins. 

A 

Abies pindrow Royle. 

Synonym ◮ A. pindrow Spach. 

A. webbiana Lindl. var. pindrow 

Brandis. 

Pinus pindrow Royle. 

Family ◮ Pinaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Kashmir, Himachal 

Pradesh, Tehri-Garhwal and other 

areas of northern India, at altitudes 

of 2,100–3,600 m. 

English ◮ Pindrow-Fir, Silver-Fir, The 

West-Himalayan Low-Level Fir. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Taalisha (related sp.). 

Folk ◮ Badar, Morinda, Raisalla, 

Ransla. 

Action ◮ Uses similar to those of A. 

webbiana. 

Terpenoids, flavonoids, glycosides 

and steroids of the leaf were found 

to have mast cell stabilizing action in 

rats. Terpenoids and flavonoids offered 

bronchoprotection against histamine 

challenge in guinea pigs. The 

ulcer protective action of petroleum 

ether, benzene and chloroform fraction 

has been attributed to steroidal 

contents. Terephthalic acid demethyl 

ester (TADE), isolated from the leaf, 

exhibited protection against inflammation 

and bronchospasm in guinea pigs. 

Ethanolic extract of leaves showed significant 

anxiolytic effects on all the 

paradigms of anxiety, barbiturate hypnosis 

potentiation. 

Pindrolactone, a lanostane-based 

triterpene lactone, isolated from the

A 

2 Abies webbiana Lindl. 

leaves, showed mild activity against 

Gram-positive bacteria but exhibited 

potent antibacterial activity against 

Gram-negative bacteria E. coli. 

Abies webbiana Lindl. 

Synonym ◮ A. spectabilis (D. Don) 

Spach. 

Pinus webbiana Wall. 


Habitat ◮ The Himalayas from 

Kashmir to Assam at altitudes of 

1,600–4,000 m. 

English ◮ Indian Silver Fir, The 

West-Himalayan High-Level Fir, 

The East-Himalayan Fir. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Taalisa, Taalisapatra, 

Taalisha, Patraadhya, Dhaatriparni, 

Dhaatripatra. 

Unani ◮ Taalisapattar. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Taalispatri. 

Folk ◮ Badar, Chilrow, Morinda, 

Raisalla, Taalispatra. (Tallispatra, 

Taalispatri and Talespattre are 

also equated with the leaves of 

Cinnamomum tamala Nees.) 

Action ◮ Expectorant, bronchial sedative, 

decongestant, anticatarrhal, 

antiseptic, carminative. 

Key application ◮ Fir (Abies alba 

Miller) needle oil—in catarrhal illness 

of upper and lower respiratory 

tract (internally and externally); 

externally in rheumatic and neuralgic 

pains. Contraindicated in 

bronchial asthma and whooping 

cough. (German Commission E.) 

A biflavonoid, abiesin, n-triacontanol, 

beta-sitosterol and betuloside are 

present in the leaves. 

The essential oil from leaves contains 

alpha-pinene, l-limonene, deltacarene, 

dipentene, l-bornyl acetate and 

l-cardinene as major constituents. 

Dosage ◮ Needles—2–6 g powder. 

(API Vol. IV.) 

Abroma augusta Jacq. 

Synonym ◮ Ambroma augusta 

Linn. f. 

Family ◮ Sterculiaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Throughout the hotter and 

moister parts of India, from Punjab 

and Uttar Pradesh, eastwards 

to Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, 

Meghalaya and Tripura, ascending 

to 1,200 m, southwards in Peninsular 

India. 

English ◮ Perennial Indian Hemp, 

Devil’s Cotton. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Pishaacha Kaarpaasa, 

Pivari. 

Unani ◮ Ulat-kambal. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Sivapputtuti. 

Folk ◮ Kumal, Sanukapaasi. 

Action ◮ Rootbark—emmenagogue 

(used for dysmenorrhoea, 

amenorrhoea), abortifacient, galactotrophic. 

The root contains abromine (betaine), 

friedelin, abromasterol, abromasterol 

A, choline, beta-sitosterol, 

stigmasterol and octacosanol. Leaves, 

reported to be useful in treating uterine

disorders, contain taraxerol, its acetate 

and lupeol. 

Dosage ◮ Leaf juice—10–20 ml. 

Rootbark powder—3–6 g. (CCRAS.) 

Abrus precatorius Linn. 

Family ◮ Papilionaceae; Fabaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Throughout the country, 

ascending to an altitude of about 

1,050 m in the outer Himalayas. 

English ◮ Indian Wild Liquorice, 

Jequirity, Crab’s Eye, Precatory 

Bean. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Gunjaa, Gunjaka, 

Chirihintikaa, Raktikaa, Chirmiti, 

Kakanti, Kabjaka, Tiktikaa, 

Kaakananti, Kaakchinchi. (Not to 

be used as a substitute for liquorice.) 

Unani ◮ Ghunghchi, Ghamchi. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kunri. 

Folk ◮ Chirmiti, Ratti. 

Action ◮ Uterine stimulant, abortifacient, 

toxic. Seeds—teratogenic. A 

paste of seeds is applied on vitiligo 

patches. 

Along with other therapeutic applications, 

The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia 

of India has indicated the use of seeds 

in baldness. 

Seeds contain abrin, a toxalbumin, 

indole derivatives, anthocyanins, sterols, 

terpenes. Abrin causes agglutination 

of erythrocytes, haemolysis and 

enlargement of lymph glands. A nontoxic 

dose of abrin (1.25 mcg/kg body 

weight), isolated from the seeds of red 

var., exhibited a noticeable increase in 

Abutilon indicum Linn. Sweet. 3 

antibody-forming cells, bone marrow 

cellularity and alpha-esterase-positive 

bone marrow cells. 

Oral administration of agglutinins, 

isolated from the seeds, is useful in the 

treatment of hepatitis and AIDS. 

The seed extract exhibited antischistosomal 

activity in male hamsters. 

The methanolic extract of seeds inhibited 

the motility of human spermatozoa. 

The roots contain precol, abrol, glycyrrhizin 

(1.5%) and alkaloids—abrasine 

and precasine. The roots also contain 

triterpenoids—abruslactone A, 

methyl abrusgenate and abrusgenic 

acid. 

Alkaloids/bases present in the roots 

are also present in leaves and stems. 

A. fruticulosus Wall. Ex Wight and 

Arn. synonym A. pulchellus Wall., A. 

laevigatus E. May. (Shveta Gunjaa) is 

also used for the same medicinal purposes 

as A. precatorius. 

Dosage ◮ Detoxified seed—1–3 g 

powder.Rootpowder—3–6g.(API 

Vols. I, II.) 

Abutilon indicum Linn. Sweet. 

Synonym ◮ A. indicum G. Don. 


Habitat ◮ Throughout the hotter 

parts of India. Found as a weed in 

the sub-Himalayan tract and other 

hills up to 1,200 m. 

English ◮ Country Mallow, Flowering 

Maples, Chinese Bell-flowers. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Atibalaa, Kankatikaa, 

Rishyaproktaa. 

A

A 

4 Acacia arabica Willd. var. indica Benth. 

Unani ◮ Kanghi, Musht-ul-Ghaul, 

Darkht-e-Shaan. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Thutthi. 

Folk ◮ Kanghi, Kakahi, Kakahiyaa. 

Action ◮ Dried, whole plant— 

febrifuge, anthelmintic, demulcent, 

diuretic, anti-inflammatory (in 

urinary and uterine discharges, 

piles, lumbago). Juice of the plant— 

emollient. Seeds—demulcent 

(used in cough, chronic cystitis), 

laxative. Leaves—cooked and 

eaten for bleeding piles. Flowers— 

antibacterial, anti-inflammatory. 

Bark—astringent, diuretic. Root— 

nervine tonic, given in paralysis; 

also prescribed in strangury. 



of India indicates the use of the root in 

gout, polyuria and haemorrhagic diseases. 

The plant contains mucilage, tannins, 

asparagines, gallic acid and sesquiterpenes. 

Presence of alkaloids, 

leucoanthocyanins, flavonoids, sterols, 

triterpenoids, saponins and cardiac 

glycosides is also reported. 

Asparagine is diuretic. Gallic acid 

is analgesic. Mucilages act by reflex, 

loosen cough as well as bronchial tension. 

Essential oil—antibacterial, antifungal. 

The drug exhibits immunological 

activity. It augments antibody in 

animals. EtOH (50%) extract of A. 

indicum ssp. guineense Borssum, synonym 

A. asiaticum (Linn.) Sweet, exhibits 

anticancer activity. 

Related sp. include: Abutilon avicennae 

Gaertn., synonym A. theophrastii 

Medic.; A. fruticosum Guill. et al.; 

A. hirtum (Lam.) Sweet, synonym A. 

graveolens Wt. and Arn.; A. muticum 

Sweet, synonym A. glaucum Sweet; and 

A. polyandrum Wight and Arn., synonym 

A. persicum (Burm. f.) Merrill 

(known as Naani-khapaat, Jhinakikhapaat, 

Kanghi, Makhamali-khapaat 

and Khaajavani-khapaat, respectively, 

in folk medicine). 

Dosage ◮ Root—3–6 g powder. (API 

Vol I.) 

Acacia arabica Willd. var. 

indica Benth. 

Synonym ◮ A. nilotica (Linn.) Delile 

subsp. indica (Benth.) Brenan. 

Family ◮ Mimosaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Throughout the drier parts 

of India. 

English ◮ Babul, Black Babul, Indian 

Gum arabic tree. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Babbuula, Babbuuri, 

Baavari, Aabhaa, Shuulikaa, 

Shitaka, Kinkiraata, Yugmakantaka, 

Sukshmapatra, Pitapushpaka. 

Unani ◮ Aqaaqia, Babuul, Kikar, 

Mughilaan, Samur. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Karu-velamaram, 

Karuvelei. Velampisin (gum). 

Action ◮ Stembark—astringent, 

spasmolytic, hypoglycaemic. 

Gum—demulcent (soothing agent 

for inflammatory conditions of the 

respiratory, digestive and urinary 

tracts). Pods—used in urogenital 

disorders. Seeds—hypoglycaemic 

in normal rats; no such effect in

diabetic rats. Seed oil—antifungal. 

Flowers, pods and gum resin—used 

in diarrhoea and dysentery. 



of India indicates the use of stembark 

in acute diarrhoea and helminthiasis. 

Tannin contents of the bark varies 

considerably (12–20%). Several polyphenolic 

compounds have been reported 

in the bark, also in the pods. 

The whole pod contains 12–19% tannins 

and 18–27% after the removal of 

seeds. 

The seeds of A. benthamii, A. nilotica 

ssp. subulata, probably same as ssp. indica, 

are considered hypoglycaemic. 

Some seed components stimulate insulin 

secretion by beta cells. 

The gum contains galactose; l-arabinose, 

l-rhamnose and aldobiouronic 

acids, also arabinobioses. 

The flowers contain flavonoids— 

kaempferol-3-glucoside, iso-quercitrin 

and leucocyanidin. 

Dosage ◮ Stembark—20–30 g for 

decoction. (API Vol. I.) 

Acacia canescens Grab. 


Habitat ◮ Bihar and South India. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Aadaari (related sp.) 

Folk ◮ Ari, Araara. 

Action ◮ See A. torta. 

Acacia catechu (Linn. f.) Willd. 


Acacia catechu (Linn. f.) Willd. 5 

Habitat ◮ Drier regions of India, 

particularly Punjab, Madhya 

Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, 

Andhra Pradesh, Orissa and 

Rajasthan. 

English ◮ Cutch tree, Catechu. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Khadira, Kadara, 

Somavalka, Gaayatri, Dantdhaavan, 

Kantaki, Raktasaara (heartwood 

extract). 

Unani ◮ Khair, Kaat, Katthaa 

(heartwood extract). 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Karunkaali 

(bark), Kalippakku, Kadiram. 

Katthakkaambu, Kaasukkatti 


Action ◮ Cutch from wood— 

powerful astringent (in urinary and 

vaginal discharge), antidiarrhoeal, 

haemostatic; used for treating 

excessive mucous discharges, 

haemorrhages, relaxed conditions 

of gums, throat and mouth, 

stomatitis, irritable bowel; also used 

as an antileprotic drug. 



of India indicates the use of dried pieces 

of heartwood in inflammations, skin 

diseases and urinary disorders, recommendsitsuseasabloodpurifier,in 

diseases caused by lipid disorders. 

Cutch (the concentrated extract) 

contains tannins 2–20%, catechin 25– 

33%, phlobatannins including catechutannic 

acid 20–50%; flavonoids including 

quercetin, quercitrin, fisetin; 

gums, resins, pigments. The gum from 

A. catechu is a good substitute for Gum 

arabic. 

A

A 

6 Acacia chundra Willd. 

Seed extract—hypoglycaemic to 

normal albino rats, but not effective 

in diabetic rats. The saline extract of 

seeds shows leuco-agglutinating activity 

against leukaemic cells. It agglutinates 

white cells from patients with 

different types of leukaemia. The activity 

is inhibited by simple sugars. Root 

extract shows antibacterial and fungicidal 

activity. 

The heartwood contains a hepatoprotective 

principle—cyanidanol. 

Astringent and antibacterial properties 

of catechu result from its high 

tannin content. 

Gambrine in pale catechu shows hypotensive 

effects. 

Fisetininblackcatechuand(+)catechin 

in black and pale catechu 

may protect against liver damage; (+)catechin 

is also thought to protect 

against experimentally induced ulcers 

in animals; (+)-catechin (cianidanol) is 

associated with fatal anaemia. Methylcatechin, 

one of the major metabolites 

of (+)-catechin, inhibits the binding 

of monocytes to vascular endothelial 

cells; thus, the catechin found in catechu 

may reduce atherosclerosis. (Natural 

Medicines Comprehensive Database, 

2007.) 

Dosage ◮ Heartwood—20–30 g for 


Acacia chundra Willd. 

Synonym ◮ A. sundra DC. 


Habitat ◮ Rajasthan, Gujarat, 

Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu and 

Andhra Pradesh on dry and rocky 

soils. 

English ◮ Red Cutch. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Khadira (related sp.). 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Katthakkaambu 


Folk ◮ Laal Khair. 

Action ◮ Uses similar to those of A. 

catechu heartwood extract. 

The bark and leaves are used for ulcerated 

abscesses and toothache; wood 

for leucoderma. 

EtOH (50%) extract—spermicidal 

and spasmolytic. 

Acacia concinna (Willd.) DC. 

Synonym ◮ Asinuata(Lour.) Merrill; 

A. rugata (Lamk.) Ham. 


Habitat ◮ Tropical jungles throughout 

India, especially in the Deccan. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Saptalaa, Shitalaa, 

Saatalaa, Shrivalli, Kantvalli. 

Unani ◮ Shikaakaai, Kharunb Nabti. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Seekai, Sigakai. 

Folk ◮ Ban-Reethaa. 

Action ◮ Febrifuge, expectorant, 

emetic, spasmolytic, diuretic, 

antidiarrhoeal. Leaves—an infusion 

is given in malarial fever. Pods and 

seeds—decoction is used to remove 

dandruff (known as Shikaakaai), 

extensively used as a detergent. An 

ointment is used for skin diseases. 

Bark—extract is used in leprosy.

The bark yields a saponin which, 

on hydrolysis, yields lupeol, alphaspinasterol 

and acacic acid lactone. 

Pods also yield saponins (20.8%). Sugars 

identified are glucose, arabinose 

and rhamnose. 

The leaves contain alkaloids, nicotine 

and colycotomine, a triterpenoid 

saponin and oxalic, tartaric, citric, succinic 

and ascorbic acids. 

The bark saponins are spermicidal, 

also haemolytic and spasmolytic. A decoction 

of pods relieves biliousness and 

acts as a purgative. 

Acacia farnesiana (L.) Willd. 


Habitat ◮ Native to West Indies; now 

occurring throughout India. 

English ◮ Cassie Flower, Cassie 

Absolute, Sweet Acacia. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Arimeda, Vitkhadira. 

Unani ◮ Vilaayati Kikar, Gandbabuul, 

Guyaa Babuul, Durgandh Khair. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kastuurivel, Veddayala. 

Action ◮ Bark—astringent, demulcent, 

anthelmintic, antidysenteric, 

anti-inflammatory (used in stomatitis, 

ulcers, swollen gums, dental 

caries, bronchitis, skin diseases). 

Ripe pods contain tannins and several 

polyphenolic compounds. Essential 

oil from pods—direct muscle relaxant, 

cardiac depressant and sedative. 

Various plant parts are used in insanity, 

epilepsy, delirium and convulsions. 

Acacia leucophloea Willd. 7 

The ethanolic extract of unripe pods 

yields a glycosidal fraction (0.28%) 

which exhibits anti-inflammatory activity. 

It also shows significant antibacterial 

activity. 

Theplantactsasanantisepticagent 

for curing sores, gums and loose teeth. 

The flowers are the source of Cassie 

perfume. 

The main constituents of the flowers 

are benzyl, anisic, decylic and cuminic 

aldehydes, as well as traces of geraniol, 

farnesol and linalool. 

Acacia leucophloea Willd. 

Synonym ◮ A. alba Willd. 


Habitat ◮ Dry regions of the country, 

especially in Punjab, Rajasthan and 

Madhya Pradesh. 

English ◮ White Babul. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Arimeda, Arimedaka, 

Arimanja, Irimeda, Vitakhadir, 

Godhaa-skandha, Raamaka. 

Unani ◮ Kath Safed, Vilaayati Babuul, 

Guyaa Babuul. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Valval, Velvayalam. 

Folk ◮ Safed Babuul, Safed Kikar, 

Renvaa. 

Action ◮ Bark—bitter, demulcent and 

cooling; used in biliousness and 

bronchitis. Seeds—haemagglutinating 

activity has been reported. 

Leaves—antisyphilitic and antibacterial. 

Gum—demulcent. 

EtOH (50%) extract of aerial parts— 

hypotensive and central nervous system 

depressant. 

A

A 

8 Acacia pennata (L.) Willd. 

The rootbark contains leucophleol, 

leucophleoxol and leucoxol. 

Acacia pennata (L.) Willd. 


Habitat ◮ Throughout India; ascending 

to 1,700 m in the Himalayas. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Lataakhadira, Aadaari, 

Ari. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Indan, Indu. Iyak 

Koluntu (tender leaves). 

Folk ◮ Aila. 

Action ◮ Bark—antibilious, antiasthmatic. 

Leaf—stomachic, styptic 

(for bleeding gum), antiseptic (for 

scalding of urine). A decoction of 

young leaves is taken for body pain, 

headache and fever. 

The bark contains tannin 9%, lupeol 

and alpha-spinasterol. Stem yields 

sitosterol. 

Acacia senegal Willd. 

Synonym ◮ A. verek Guillem and 

Perr. 


Habitat ◮ Native to Sudan. Cultivated 

in dry parts of western India. 

English ◮ Gum arabic tree. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Shveta Babbuula. 

Action ◮ The tree yields the true Gum 

arabic of commerce. Mucilaginous, 

demulcent, emulsifying agent. Used 

as an ingredient in compounds for 

treatment of diarrhoea, catarrh. 

Bechic, antihaemorrhagic, antiinflammatory.Stembark—antiinflammatory, 

spasmolytic. Root— 

used for dysentery and urinary 

discharges. 

The gum consists mainly of arabin. 

It is the salt of an organic acid, arabic 

acid, with metals such as calcium, 

magnesium and potassium. 

The stembark gives octacosanol, 

beta-amyrin, uvaol, beta-stosterol and 

its glucoside and erthrodiol. An alkaloid, 

dimethyltryptamine has been 

isolated from the leaves. 

Acacia suma Buch.-Ham. 

Synonym ◮ A. polycantha Willd. 


Habitat ◮ WestBengal,Bihar,western 

peninsula. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Shveta Khadira, Kadara, 

Somavalkala. 

Unani ◮ Khor, Safed Khair. 

Action ◮ Cutch is prepared from the 

heartwood. See A. catechu. 

Acacia ferruginea DC. is also equated 

with Shveta Khadira. 

Acacia torta (Roxb.) Craib. 

Synonym ◮ A. intsia Willd. 

A. caesia Wright and Arn. non- 

Willd. 


Habitat ◮ Throughout India in the dry 

and intermediate zones; ascending 

to an altitude of about 1,200 m in 

the Himalayas.

Ayurvedic ◮ Aadaari, Lataa Khadira 

(related sp., see. A. pennata). 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kariyundu, Ingu. 

Folk ◮ Araar, Chilar (Punjab), Aila 

(Maharashtra). 

Action ◮ Flower—emmenagogue. 

Bark—anti-inflammatory, antiseptic 

(in skin diseases). Bark contains 

17% tannins, triterpene alcohol, 

saponins of acacic acid, lupeol and 

a steroid, acaciol. An alkaloid, 

tryptamine, is present in the root 

and stem bark. 

Various plant parts are used in 

cough, bronchitis, measles, tubercular 

fistula and in the treatment of menstrual 

disorders. The bark is used for 

washing the hair. 

Acalypha ciliata Forsk. 

Family ◮ Euphorbiaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Common in plains, 

as a weed in gardens; also in 

wastelands, especially in Bangalore 

and Pachmarhi. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Kuppi (smaller var.). 

Folk ◮ Daadari (Gujarat). 

Action ◮ See A. indica. 

Acalypha fruticosa Forsk. 


Habitat ◮ Orissa, Tamil Nadu, 

Karnataka and Kerala. 

English ◮ Birch-leaved Acalypha. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kuppaimeni. 

Acanthospermum hispidum DC. 9 

Folk ◮ Chinnivara. 

Action ◮ Leaves—stomachic, alterative; 

prescribed in digestive 

disorders, dyspepsia, colic, diarrhoea. 

Acalypha indica Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Occurs throughout the 

plains of India, ascending the hills 

in Orissa up to 210 m. 

English ◮ Indian Acalypha. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Kuppi, Muktavarchaa, 

Haritamanjari 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kuppaimeni. 

Folk ◮ Khokli,Kuppi,Aamaabhaaji. 

Action ◮ Antibacterial (leaf used in 

scabies). Plant—emetic, expectorant 

(used in bronchitis, asthma, 

pneumonia). Tincture of fresh 

plant is used in homoeopathy 

for incipient phthisis with bloody 

expectorations, emaciation and 

arterial haemorrhage. 

The plant contains kaempferol; 

leaves and twigs contain acalyphamide 

and other amides, quinone, sterols, 

cyanogenic glycoside. 

The herb causes intestinal irritation. 

Acanthospermum hispidum 

DC. 

Family ◮ Compositae; Asteraceae. 

Habitat ◮ Native to Brazil; found as 

a weed throughout the greater part 

of India. 

A

A 

10 Acanthus ilicifolius Linn. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Trikantaka. (Different 

from Gokshura; also equated with 

Martynia diandra, Martineacea, 

known as Kaakanaasaa.) 

Action ◮ Used in dermatological 

affections. 

The essential oil (yield 0.2%) showed 

antibacterial and antifungal activity. 

Acanthus ilicifolius Linn. 

Family ◮ Acanthaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Common in tidal forests 

along the East and West coasts; also 

distributed in Meghalaya and the 

Andamans. 

English ◮ Sea Holly. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Krishna Saraiyaka. 

(Blue-flowered Katasaraiyaa.) 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kollimulli. 

Folk ◮ Hargozaa. 

Action ◮ Decoction—antacid (used 

in dyspepsia with acid eructations), 

also diuretic (used in dropsy and 

bilious swellings). Aerial parts show 

effect on nictitating membrane. 

The root is a cordial attenuant and 

is used in debility associated with 

asthma, paralysis, leucorrhoea. 

The air-dried plant contains an alkaloid, 

acanthicifoline, and a flavone. 

Achillea millefolium Linn. 

Synonym ◮ A. lanulosa Nutt. 


Habitat ◮ The western Himalayas 

from Kashmir to Kumaon. 

English ◮ Milfoil, Yarrow, Thousand 

Leaf. 

Unani ◮ Biranjaasif. National 

Formulary of Unani Medicine 

also equates Leonurus cardica 

Linn. (Labiatae) with Biranjaasif. 

Folk ◮ Gandana, Rojmari. 

Action ◮ Anti-inflammatory, antispasmodic 

(used in cold, flatulent 

colic, heartburn), emmenagogue, 

cicatrizant, antidysenteric, antihaemorrhagic, 

antipyretic, diaphoretic, 

diuretic, urinary antiseptic. 

Key application ◮ In dyspeptic 

ailments, such as mild, spastic 

discomforts of the gastrointestinal 

tract. As astringent, antispasmodic, 

choleretic, antibacterial. (German 

Commission E.) As diaphoretic. (The 

British Herbal Pharmacopoeia.) Internally 

for feverish conditions, 

common cold and digestive complaints; 

topically for slow-healing 

wounds and skin inflammations. 

(The British Herbal Compendium.) 

The plant contains flavonoids, alkaloids 

(achilleine), polyacetylenes, 

triterpenes, coumarins, tannins, salicylic 

acid, a volatile oil containing 

linalool, camphor, sabinene, chamazulene 

and other azulenes. 

Sesquiterpene lactones are bitter and 

tonic. Achilleine helps arrest internal 

and external bleeding. Flavonoids contribute 

to the antispasmodic action. 

The flavonoid apigenin is anti-inflammatory, 

antiplatelet and spasmolytic. 

Alkaloids and bases are antiinflammatory. 

Alkaloid betoncine is

haemostatic. Salicylic acid is antiinflammatory. 

Chamazulene is antiinflammatory 

and antiallergenic. (Natural 


2007.) 

Anextractoftheplantwasfound 

to be rich in luteolin or luteolin 7glucoside 

and can be used for the treatment 

of hyperpigmentation of skin. 

Achras zapota Linn. 

Synonym ◮ Manilkara zapota (Linn.) 

P. van Royan 

Manilkara achras (Mill.) Fosberg 

Sapota achras Mill. 

Family ◮ Sapotaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Native to Central America. 

Cultivated chiefly in Maharashtra, 

Tamil Nadu and West Bengal. 

English ◮ Sapota, Sapodilla Plum, 

Chicle. 

Unani ◮ Sapotaa, Cheeku. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Shimai eluppai. 

Action ◮ Fruit—antibilious. Seed— 

diuretic. Fruit and bark—febrifuge. 

The bark contains latex (20–25% 

of which consists of gutta-percha-like 

substance); also contains tannin 

(11.8%). The seeds contain quercitol. 

Chewing gum consists of approximately 

20% chicle, plus sugar, corn 

syrup and flavourings. 

Achyranthes aspera Linn. 

Family ◮ Amaranthaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Throughout the tropical 

and subtropical regions, up to an 

Achyranthes aspera Linn. 11 

altitude of 2,100 m, in the southern 

Andaman Islands. 

English ◮ Prickly Chaff Flower. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Apaamaarga, Chirchitaa, 

Shikhari, Shaikharika, Adahshalya, 

Mayura, Mayuraka, Kharamanjari, 

Kharapushpaa, Pratyakpushpaa, 

Aaghaat, Vashira, Kanihi. 

Unani ◮ Chirchitaa. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Naayuruvi. 

Folk ◮ Chirchitta, Chichidaa, 

Latjeeraa. 

Action ◮ Astringent, pectoral (ashes 

of the plant used in asthma and 

cough), diuretic, hepatoprotective, 

emmenagogue. Benzene extract of 

the plant exhibited abortifacient 

activity. The flowers, ground and 

mixed with sugar, are given for 

menorrhagia. Roots—astringent, 

haemostatic. Seeds—emetic; used 

for biliousness. Essential oil— 

antifungal. 

Key application ◮ As astringent, 

emetic. (Indian Herbal Pharmacopoeia.) 



of India indicates the use of the whole 

plant in lipid disorders and obesity, the 

root for its blood-purifying property. 

The plant juice and ash are used 

for treating bleeding piles. An alkaline 

powder of the plant is used in 

preparing Kshaarasutra of Ayurvedic 

medicine, which is recommended for 

treating fistula-in-ano. 

The whole plant contains the alkaloids 

achyranthine and betaine. Achyranthine, 

a water-soluble alkaloid, is 

A

A 

12 Achyranthes bidentata Blume 

reported to dilate blood vessels, lower 

blood pressure, decrease heart rate 

and increase the rate and amplitude of 

respiration. It also shows spasmodic 

effects on the rectus muscle of frog, diuretic 

and purgative action in albino 

rats. 

The presence of ecdysterone and 

oleanolic acid is also reported in the 

root. 

The ashes of the plant yield large 

quantities of potash. The seeds yield 

saponins and oleanolic acid and its ester. 

The presence of tannins and glycosidesisalsoreportedintheplant. 

Dosage ◮ Whole plant—20–30 g for 

decoction. Root—5–10 g. (API 

Vols. II, III.) Ash—500 mg to 2 g. 

(CCRAS.) 

Achyranthes bidentata Blume 


Habitat ◮ The temperate and subtropical 

Himalayas from Kishtwar 

to Sikkim at 1,200–3,200 m, Khasi 

hills. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Shveta Apaamaarga. 

(Rakta Apaamaarga is equated 

with Achyranthes rubra-fusca 

Hook. f. and A. verschaffeltii Lam., 

synonym Iresine herbstii Hook. f.) 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Naayurivi. 

Action ◮ Astringent, diuretic, 

spasmolytic. Plant is given 

in whooping cough, roots in 

hemicrania. 

A water-soluble oligosaccharide, 

composed of six glucose units and 

three mannose units, has been isolated 

from the roots. It enhanced immune 

response and prolonged survival time 

of mice bearing Ehrlich carcinoma. 

The roots contain free oleanolic acid 

(0.096%) and its saponins (1.93%). An 

alcoholic extract of the root showed 

presence of amino acids, steroids, triterpenoids, 

alkaloids and coumarins. 

The seeds afforded achyranthin. 

Extract of the plant—antimicrobial. 

Aconitum atrox 

(Bruchl) Mukherjee. 

Synonym ◮ Aconitum balfourii Stapf. 

Family ◮ Ranunculaceae. 

Habitat ◮ The sub-alpine and alpine 

Himalayas between 3,300 and 

3,900 m. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Vatsanaabha (related 

sp.). 

Folk ◮ Banwaa. 

Action ◮ Poisonous, highly toxic. 

Air-dried roots contain 1.2% total 

alkaloids of which pseudoaconitine is 

0.4%. Pseudoaconitine is biologically 

1.5 times as active as aconitine. (A. 

atrox is a poisonous species and is one 

of the common constituents of Aconitum 

ferox of commerce.) 

Aconitum chasmanthum 

Stapf ex Holmes. 



from Hazara to Kashmir and

Chamba in Himachal Pradesh, 

between altitudes of 2,100 m and 

3,600 m. 

English ◮ Indian Napellus. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Visha, Shringika-Visha, 

Vatsanaabha (related sp.). 

Folk ◮ Mohri, Meethaa Zahar. 

Action ◮ Sedative, antirheumatic, 

analgesic, antitussive, antidiarrhoeal. 

Ayurvedic Formulary of 

India, Part I and Part II, equated 

A. chasmanthum with Vatsanaabha. 

(See A. ferox.) It has the same uses 

as A. ferox. The alkaloid content 

of the root ranges from 2.98 to 

3.11%; includes chasmaconitine and 

chasmanthinine. 

Napellus, equated with Aconitum 

napellus Linn., is indigenous to Central 

Europe (named after the Black sea 

port Aconis and known as Wolfsbane, 

Monkshood). Aconitum of homoeopathic 

medicine is an alkaloid obtained 

from the roots and stems of A. nepellus. 

Used as an analgesic and sedative. It 

contains terpenoids up to 1.2%, including 

aconitine and aconine. 

Toxic constituents of A. napellus 

are aconitine, mesaconitine, hypaconitine, 

3-acetylacoitine, lappaconitine 

(diterpenoid-ester alkaloids), benzaconine, 

benzoylaconine. 

Aconitine, mesaconitine and hypaconitine 

exert widespread effects on 

cardiac, neural and muscle tissue by 

activitating sodium channels. (Natural 


2007.) 

Aconitine is absorbed through mucus 

membranes and the skin. (Francis 

Brinker.) It is a cardiotoxin and 

Aconitum falconeri Stapf. 13 

interacts with antiarrhythmics, antihypertensives, 

Digoxin/cardiac glycosides. 

(Sharon M. Herr.) 

Dosage ◮ Root—10–15 mg powder. 

(CCRAS.) 

Aconitum deinorrhizum Stapf. 


Habitat ◮ Alpine regions of Chattadhar 

and Bhalesh ranges of 

Bhadarwah district in Jammu and 

Kashmir. 


sp.). 

Folk ◮ Bashahr-Mohra, Dudhiyaa 

Bish, Safed Bikh. 

Action ◮ Roots and leaves are used in 

rheumatism, rheumatic fever and 

acute headache. 

The roots contain 0.9% total alkaloids, 

of which 0.51% is pseudoaconitine. 

Aconitum falconeri Stapf. 



zones of the Garhwal Himalayas. 


sp.). 

Folk ◮ Bikh, Bis, Meethaa Telia. 

Action ◮ Sedative, carminative, 

anti-inflammatory (used for the 

treatment of nervous system, 

digestive system; rheumatism, 

fever). 

A

A 

14 Aconitum ferox Wall. ex Ser. 

The root alkaloids contain bishatisine, 

bishaconitine, falconitine and 

mithaconitine. Treatment with cow’s 

milk reduces cardiotoxic effect of the 

root. 

Aconitum ferox Wall. ex Ser. 


Habitat ◮ The alpine Himalayas from 

Sikkim to Garhwal and Assam. 

English ◮ Indian Aconite, Wolfsbane, 

Monkshood. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Vatsanaabha, Visha, 

Amrita, Vajraanga, Sthaavaravisha, 

Vatsanaagaka, Shrangikavisha, 

Garala. 

Unani ◮ Bish, Bishnaag. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Vasanaavi, Karunaabhi. 

Folk ◮ Bacchanaag, Bish, Mithaa 

Zahar, Telia Visha. 

Action ◮ Narcotic, sedative, antileprotic, 

anti-inflammatory. Extremely 

poisonous. (Roots possess depressant 

activity, but after mitigation in 

cow’s milk for 2–3 days, they exhibit 

stimulant activity.) 

Key application ◮ In neuralgia. 

(Aconitum napellus L. has been 

listed by German Commission E 

among unapproved herbs.) 

The root contains diterpenoid alkaloids, 

which act as a powerful poison 

that affects the heart and central nervous 

system. Aconitine has a shortlived 

cardiotonic action followed by 

cardiac depression. Topically, aconitine 

has analgesic, anti-inflammatory 

and anaesthetic activity. 

Aconitum heterophyllum 

Wall. ex Royle. 


Habitat ◮ Cultivated at Manali and 

Rahla in Himachal Pradesh. Also 

found in northwestern Himalayas 

at altitudes ranging from 2,000 to 

4,000 m. 

English ◮ Atis Root, Aconite. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Ativishaa, Arunaa, 

Vishaa, Shuklakandaa, Bhanguraa, 

Ghunapriyaa, Ghunavallabhaa, 

Kaashmiraa, Shishubhaishajyaa 

(indicating its use in paediatrics), 

Vishwaa. 

Unani ◮ Atees. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Athividayam. 

Folk ◮ Patis. 

Action ◮ Often regarded as nonpoisosnous, 

antiperiodic, antiinflammatory, 

astringent (used 

in cough, diarrhoea, dyspepsia), 

tonic (used after fevers), febrifuge, 

antispasmodic (used in irritability 

of stomach and abdominal 

pains). 



of India indicates the use of the dried, 

tuberous root in emesis and helminthiasis. 

The roots yield 0.79% of total alkaloids, 

of which atisin is 0.4%. Atisine 

is much less toxic than aconitine and

pseudoaconitine. (The inert character 

of the plant is well known to the hill 

people, who often use it as a vegetable.) 

The plant possesses potent immunostimulant 

properties. 

Dosage ◮ Root—0.6–2.08 g. (API 

Vol. I.) 

Aconitum laciniatum 

(Bruhl) Stapf. 



Himalayas of Sikkim between 

altitudes of 3,330 m and 4,200 m. 


sp.). 

Folk ◮ Kaalo Bikhmo. 

Action ◮ Poisonous. (Found mixed 

with the roots of A. ferox and 

A. spicatum of commerce.) 

Aconitum luridum 

Hook. f. and Thoms. 


Habitat ◮ The Himalayas from eastern 

Nepal to Chumbi at altitudes of 

3,600 to 4,200 m. 


sp.). 

Action ◮ As potent as Aconitum ferox. 

Aconitum palmatum D. Don. 

Synonym ◮ A. bisma (Buch.-Ham.) 

Rapaics. 

Aconitum violaceum Jacq. ex Stapf. 15 


Habitat ◮ The alpine Himalayas of 

Sikkim, Nepal, the adjoining parts 

of southern Tibet, between altitudes 

of 3,000 m and 4,800 m. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Prativishaa, Shyaamkandaa, 

Patis. 

Folk ◮ Bikhamaa. 

Action ◮ Root—antiemetic, antidiarrhoeal, 

antirheumatic, antiperiodic. 

The root contains diterpenoid alkaloids 

and a nitrogenous non-alkaloid 

compound, benzamide. Alkaloids include 

vakognavine, palmatisine, vakatisine, 

vakatisinine and vakatidine. 

The root is intensely bitter, like quinine, 

is used with Piper longum for diarrhoea 

and vomiting; used externally 

as an application for rheumatism. 

Aconitum spicatum Stapf. 


Habitat ◮ The alpine zone of the 

Himalayas of Sikkim and Chumbi. 

Principal source of Bikh or Bish of 

Kolkata market. 

English ◮ Nepal Aconite. 


sp.). 

Action ◮ Antipyretic, analgesic. 

The roots yield 1.75% of alkaloids 

which contain mainly pseudoaconitine 

and bikhaconitine. 

Aconitum violaceum 

Jacq. ex Stapf. 


A

A 

16 Acorus calamus Linn. 

Habitat ◮ The alpine zone of the 

Himalayas from Gilgit to Kumaon. 


sp.). 

Folk ◮ Tilia Kachnaag, Dudhia. 

Action ◮ Nervine tonic. 

Air-dried roots of the plant are reported 

to contain 1% indaconitine. 

Acorus calamus Linn. 

Family ◮ Araceae. 

Habitat ◮ Wild and cultivated 

throughout India in damp marshy 

places from 900 to 1,800 m; common 

in Manipur and Naga Hills. 

English ◮ Sweet Flag, Calamus. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Vachaa, Ugragandhaa, 

Ugraa, Golomi, Shadgranthaa, 

Shataparvaa, Tikshnagandhaa, 

Kshudra-patra, Maangalyaa, Ghorbach. 

Unani ◮ Waj-e-Turki, Waj. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Vasambu. 

Action ◮ Rhizome—nervine tonic, 

hypotensive, tranquilizer, sedative 

(with neuroleptic and antianxiety 

properties), analgesic, spasmolytic, 

anticonvulsant; used for bronchial 

catarrh, chronic diarrhoea and 

dysentery. 



of India indicates the use of the dried 

rhizomes as a brain tonic in weak memory, 

psychoneurosis and epilepsy. 

Four types of Calamus are used 

in herbal medicine: type I—Acorus 

calamus L. var. americanus, adiploid 

American var.; type II—var. vulgaris 

L. (var. calamus), a European triploid; 

type III and type IV—var. augustatus 

Bess. and var. versus L., subtropical 

tetraploids. 

Beta-asarone is carcinogenic in animals. 

Volatile oil of types II, III and 

IV—major constituent is usually betaasarone 

(isoasarone), up to 96%. Indian 

calamus oil contains asarone up 

to 82% and its beta-isomer. In type I, 

beta-asarone and other phenylpropanoids 

are absent. It is superior in spasmolytic 

activity to the other types. 

Indian practitioners mostly use A. 

calamus externally. Shveta Vachaa 

(Haimavati, equated with Acorus gramineus 

Scoland. Ex Ait., a diploid, is 

used internally. Unani physicians use 

Paris polyphylla Sim. as Khuraasaani 

Bach. 

The essential oil-free alcoholic extract 

of A. calamus possesses sedative 

and analgesic properties. 

Alpha-asarone potentiates pentobarbital, 

accounts for some, but not all, 

neurodepressive activity. Beta-asarone 

is reportedly hallucinogenic. (Francis 

Brinker.) 

The ethanolic extract of rhizomes 

show significant antisecretory and antiulcerogenic 

activity; also, protective 

effect against cytodestructive agents, 

experimentally. 

Dosage ◮ Rhizome—60–120 mg 

powder. (API Vol. II.) 

Acorus gramineus Soland. ex Ait. 

Family ◮ Araceae.

Habitat ◮ Native to Japan, occasionallymetwithinSikkimatanaltitude 

of 1,800 m, in Khasi Hills up to 

1,500 m. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Haimavati (white var. of 

Vachaa). 

Action ◮ Antispasmodic (used in 

abdominal colic). See A. calamus. 

Actaea spicata Linn. 

Synonym ◮ A. acuminata Wall. ex 

Royle 


Habitat ◮ Native to Europe; grows in 

temperate Himalayas from Hazara 

to Bhutan. 

English ◮ Baneberry Grapewort. 

Folk ◮ Visha-phale (Kannada). 

Action ◮ Root—antirheumatic, 

anti-inflammatory, nerve sedative, 

emetic, purgative; used in the 

treatment of rheumatic fever, 

lumbago, scrofula, nervous disorders, 

chorea. 

The plant is reported to contain 

trans-aconitic acid, which shows a 

strong cytostatic action. Its Me ether 

is active against Ehrlich’s ascites tumours. 

In folk medicine, roots are used in 

cases of ovarian neuralgia, uterine tenderness 

and sub-involution. They are 

adulterant of the roots of Helleborus 

niger. Berries are poisonous; used topically 

for skin diseases. The toxic constituent 

is protoanemonin (lactone). It 

is irritant to mucous membrane. 

Actinodaphne hookeri Meissn. 17 

Actiniopteris dichotoma Kuhn. 

Synonym ◮ A. australis (L. f.) Link. 

A. radiata (Sw.) Link. 

A. dichotoma Kuhn. 

Family ◮ Adiantaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Throughout India, especially 

common in Kumaon Hills 

and the Nilgiris, below an altitude 

of 1,200 m. 

English ◮ Peacock’s tail. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Mayurshikhaa, Madhuchhadaa, 

Sahastrahi, Vahrishikhaa. 

Action ◮ Styptic, antibacterial, 

antipyretic. 

The stems and leaves contain rutin, 

a styptic active principle. Anthelmintic 

activity, attributed to the fern, was not 

observed in experiments on mice. 

Dosage ◮ Root—3–5 g powder. 

(CCRAS.) 

Actinodaphne hookeri Meissn. 

Synonym ◮ A. angustifolia Nees. 

Family ◮ Lauraceae. 

Habitat ◮ The western Ghats, Orissa 

and Sikkim up to 1,500 m. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Thali, Paratathali. 

Folk ◮ Pisaa (Maharashtra). 

Action ◮ Infusion of leaves—urinary 

tract disinfectant, antidiabetic, 

spasmolytic. 

The leaves contain a very small 

amount of an amorphous alkaloid. 

They also contain beta-sitosterol, hentriacontanone, 

hentriacontanol and 

A

A 

18 Adansonia digitata Linn. 

quercetin-3-rhamnoside and hydrocarbons. 

The bark gives an alkaloid, actinodaphnine. 

Adansonia digitata Linn. 

Family ◮ Bombacaceae. 


common along the west coast of 

India. 

English ◮ Baobab, Monkey Bread 

tree, African calabash. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Sheet-phala, Ravanaamlikaa, 

Gorakshi, Panchparni. 

Unani ◮ Gorakh Imli. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Papparapuli. 

Folk ◮ Gorakh Imli; Gorakh 

Chinchaa. 

Action ◮ Cooling, refrigerant (allays 

burning sensation). Leaves— 

diaphoretic (used as a prophylactic 

against fevers). Fruit—antidysenteric, 

antiseptic, antihistaminic. 

The fruit pulp is a source of vitamin 

C (175.0–445.4 mg/100 g); dried 

pulp contains calcium and vitamin B1. 

Furfural (9.6%) is obtained after distillation 

of the fruit. In Africa, dried 

leaves provide much of the dietary calcium. 

Aqueous extract of the bark is 

used for treating sickle cell anaemia. 

An infusion of the leaves and flowers 

is given in respiratory disorders. 

(Powdered leaves prevented crisis in 

asthma induced by histamine in guinea 

pigs.) Dried fruit pulp also gives relief 

in bronchial asthma, allergic dermatitis 

and urticaria. 

The roots contain a flavanone glycoside. 

Adenanthera pavonina Linn. 

Family ◮ Leguminosae; Mimosaceae. 

Habitat ◮ The western Ghats, the 

Andamans and sub-Himalayan 

tract; also cultivated. 

English ◮ Coral Wood, Red Wood. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Rakta Kanchana, Rakta 

Kambala. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Anai-gundumani. 

Folk ◮ Ghumchi (bigger var.). 

Action ◮ Astringent and styptic 

(used in diarrhoea, haemorrhage 

from the stomach, haematuria), 

anti-inflammatory (in rheumatic 

affections, gout). Seeds— 

anticephalgic; also used for the 

treatment of paralysis. A decoction 

is given in pulmonary affections. 

The seed contains an anti-inflammatory 

active principle, O-acetylethanolamine. 

The leaves contain octacosanol, 

dulcitol, glucosides of betasitosterol 

and stigmasterol. The bark 

contains sitgmasterol glucoside. 

Adhatoda vasica Nees. 

Synonym ◮ A. zeylanica Medic. 

Justicia adhatoda Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Throughout India, up to an 

altitude of 1,300 m. 

English ◮ Malabar Nut, Vasaca.

Ayurvedic ◮ Vaasaa, Vaasaka, 

Vaasikaa, Simhaasya, Simhaparni, 

Simhavadanaa, Vaajidanta, Vrisha, 

Aataruushaka. 

Unani ◮ Arusaa. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Aadaathodai. 

Folk ◮ Vasaakaa. 

Action ◮ Expectorant (used in 

bronchial, asthmatic and pulmonary 

affections), antispasmodic, 

febrifuge. 

Key application ◮ As bronchodilatory, 

expectorant. (Indian Herbal 

Pharmacopoeia.) The Ayurvedic 

Pharmacopoeia of India indicates its 

use in dyspnoea. 

The chief quinazoline alkaloid vasicine 

is reported in all parts of the 

plant, the highest being in inflorescence. 

It is a bitter bronchodilator, respiratory 

stimulant, hypotensive, cardiac 

depressant, uterotonic and abortifacient. 

An aqueous solution of vasicinone 

hydrochloride, when studied 

in mice and dogs, was found to potentiate 

the bronchodilatory activity 

of aminophylline, also that of isoprenaline. 

Vasicinone exhibited smoothmuscle-relaxant 

properties of airways. 

Alkaloids present in the plant 

showed significant protection against 

allergin-induced bronchial obstruction 

in guinea pigs. 

The leaves are found to activate the 

digestive enzyme trypsin. 

An extract of the leaves showed 

significant antifungal activity against 

ringworm. 

Adhatoda beddomei C.B. Clarke, 

found in Kerala, is considered to be 

Adiantum capillus-veneris Linn. 19 

more powerful and active than A. vasica.Freshleafjuiceisusedinhaemoptysis 

and menorrhagia, also as an antiasthmatic. 

Jacobinia tinctoria Henl. is equated 

with the red-flowered var. of Vaasaa. 

Dosage ◮ Leaf—10–20 ml juice. 

Dried leaves—10–20 g for deoction. 

Root—3–6 g powder. (API Vols. I, 

IV.) 

Adiantum aethiopicum Linn. 

Synonym ◮ A. emarginatum Bedd. 


Habitat ◮ North Kanara and the 

Nilgiri and Palni hills at higher 

elevations. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Hansapadi (related sp.). 

Action ◮ Rhizomes—decoction 

abortifacient. Astringent and 

emetic. Emollient in coughs and 

diseases of the chest; sudorific. 

Adiantum capillus-veneris Linn. 


Habitat ◮ All along the Himalayas 

from Kashmir to Sikkim between 

altitudes of 1,800 and 2,700 m. 

English ◮ American Maidenhair 

Fern,VenusHair,RockFern. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Hansaraaja, Hansapadi 

(related sp.). 

Unani ◮ Parsiaavashaan. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Seruppadai. 

Folk ◮ Mubaaraka. 

A

A 

20 Adiantum incisum Forsk. 

Action ◮ Astringent, demulcent, 

expectorant, antitussive, stimulant, 

emmenagogue. Fonds used in 

chronic catarrh (as an ingredient 

of cough and bronchial medicines); 

also in cold imposthumes of uterus, 

hard swellings and hard tumours of 

spleen, liver and other viscera. 

The fern contains flavonoid glucosides, 

including rutin, isoquercetin, astragalin, 

kaempferol; hydroxycinnamic 

acid esters; terpenoids, including 

adiantone. 

Adiantum incisum Forsk. 

Synonym ◮ A. caudatum Linn. 


Habitat ◮ The plains and the lower 

slopes of the hills in Punjab, 

Rajasthan, West Bengal, Tamil 

Nadu and Maharashtra. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Nilakantha-shikhaa, 

Mayurshikhaa, Vahrishikhaa. 

Action ◮ Used in hemicrania, 

cough, fever; externally in skin 

diseases; used as a substitute for 

A. capillus-veneris. 

The fern yields adiantone, isoadiantone, 

fernene, hentriacontane, hentriacontanone-16, 

beta-sitosterol. 

Adiantum lunulatum Burm. 

Synonym ◮ A. philippense Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Throughout the greater 

part of India, up to an altitude of 

1,200 m. 

English ◮ Walking Maidenhair Fern. 

Black Maidenhair (A. venustum G. 

Don is also known as Hansaraaja.) 

Ayurvedic ◮ Hansapadi, Hansapaadi, 

Raktapaadi, Kitamaataa, Tripaadikaa, 

Hansaraaja; a substitute 

for Taamrachuda-paadikaa. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Seruppadai. 

Folk ◮ Raajhans, Mubaaraka. 

Action ◮ Febrifugal, antidysenteric, 

soothing agent in erysipelas. The 

rhizome is also prescribed for 

strangury, atrophy, emaciation or 

cachexy, muscular pain; emetic in 

large doses. 



of India indicates the use of the dried 

whole plant in psychosis-related fear. 

(It is one of the ingredients of the 

classical drug Maanasamitra Vataka, 

prescribed for mental disorders.) 

The chemical constituents are chlorophyll-degradation 

products and 

higher carotenoids. 

Dosage ◮ Whole plant—1-3 g (API 

Vol. III.) 

Adina cordifolia 

Hook. f. ex Brandis 

Family ◮ Rubiaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Indigenous in deciduous 

forests all over India. 

English ◮ Yellow Teak, Saffron Teak. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Haridru, Haraduaakadamba, 

Gaur-kadamba, 

Girikadamba, Dhaaraakadamba, 

Pitadaaru, Kadambapushpa.

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Manjakadambu. 

Folk ◮ Haladu, Kheta Kadam. 

Action ◮ Antibacterial, antiseptic, 

antidysenteric, antibilious (used 

in biliary colic), febrifuge. Root— 

astringent. 

The heartwood contains indole alkaloids; 

bark 7.27–9.27% tannin. The 

leaves contain ursolic acid and quercetin. 

Aegle marmelos 

(L.) Correa ex Roxb. 

Family ◮ Rutaceae. 

Habitat ◮ The plains and submountain 

regions of India, ascendingtoanaltitudeof1,200minthe 

western Himalayas; cultivated all 

over India. 

English ◮ Bael tree, Bengal Quince. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Bilva, Shriphala, 

Shaandilya, Shailuusha, Shalya, 

Sadaaphala, Mahaakapitha (Kapitha 

is equated with Feronia limonia), 

Maaluura, Rudrajataa, Rudranirmaalya, 

Shivajataakhya. 

Unani ◮ Bael. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Vilvam, Koovilam. 

Action ◮ Stomachic, antimicrobial 

(specific for diarrhoea, colitis, 

dysentery and enteric infections), 

digestive, astringent, spasmolytic, 

hypoglycaemic. 

Key application ◮ As antidiarrhoeal. 

(Indian Herbal Pharmacopoeia.) 

Along with other therapeutic 

applications, The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia 

of India indicates the 

Aerva javanica (Burm. f.) Juss. ex Schult. 21 

use of root in dysuria; stembark in 

diabetes and lipid disorders. 

A number of coumarins (including 

xanthotoxol and alloimperatorin 

methyl ether), flavonoids (including 

rutin and marmesin), alkaloids (including 

alpha-fagarine), sterols and 

essential oils have been isolated from 

plant parts. Pectin is an important 

constituent of the fruit. 

Alkaloid aegeline, present in the 

leaves, is efficacious in asthma. The 

active principle in aqueous extract of 

leaf shows hypoglycaemic activity similar 

to insulin. Leaves are also given 

in jaundice. Alcoholic extract of seeds 

shows antiallergic activity. 

Marmin, a coumarin isolated from 

the roots, shows anti-inflammatory effects 

experimentally. Marmin also inhibited 

gastric haemorrhagic lesions 

in rats and exhibited antiulcer effects. 

Seed oil showed beneficial effects in 

regeneration of tumour cells. 

Aurapten is found to be the most 

potent inhibitor of heart rate. Rootbark 

is used for palpitation of the heart. 

Dosage ◮ Pulp of unripe or half 

ripe fruit—3 g powder. Root—6 g 

powder. (API Vols. I, III.) 

Aerva javanica 

(Burm. f.) Juss. ex Schult. 

Synonym ◮ A. persica (Burm.f.) 

Merill 

A. tomentosa Frosk. 


Habitat ◮ Punjab, Central and 

Peninsular India. 

A

A 

22 Aerva lanata (L.) Juss. ex Schult. 

English ◮ Javanese Wool Plant. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Perumpoolai. 

Folk ◮ Dholphuli, Khul. Paashaanabheda 

(southern India). 

Action ◮ Anti-inflammatory, diuretic, 

anticalculus, insecticidal. Wooly 

seeds are used against rheumatism. 

The plant extract contains ascorbic 

acid, kaempferol, beta-amyrin and 

beta-sitosterol. The leaves also contain 

sitosterol and its glucoside. 

Aerva lanata (L.) Juss. ex Schult. 


Habitat ◮ The warmer parts of India, 

ascending to 1,000 m. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Paashaanabheda. 

Gorakshaganjaa, Aadaanpaaki, 

Shatkabhedi. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Sirupeelai. 

Folk ◮ Paashaanabheda (southern 

India), Gorakhagaanjaa. 

Action ◮ Anticalculus (used in 

lithiasis), diuretic, demulcent, 

anthelmintic, antidiarrhoeal, 

anticholerin, bechic; leaf used 

in hepatitis, root in strangury. 

A decoction of the plant is used in 

catarrh of bladder. The flowers and 

roots are used for headache. 

Key application ◮ As diuretic and 

lithontriptic. (The British Herbal 

Pharmacopoeia.) 

The plant contains palmitic acid, 

beta-sitosterol and alpha-amyrin. 

Aerva scandens Wall., synonym A. 

sanguinolenta Blume, is also known as 

Paashaanabheda in the south. 

Species used as Paashaanabheda: 

Bergenia ligulata (north), Aerva lanata 

(south), Coleus amboinicus (east) and 

Bryophyllum pinnatum (west). 

Dosage ◮ 50–100 ml decoction. 

(CCRAS.) 

Aesculus hippocastanum Linn. 

Family ◮ Hippocastanaceae; Sapindaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Endemic to the mountains 

of Balkan Peninsula and western 

Asia. Introduced into India; occasionally 

grown as an ornamental 

tree. 

English ◮ Horse Chestnut tree. 

Unani ◮ Baloot. (Quercus incana and 

Q. infectoria have also been equated 

with Baloot in National Formulary 

in Unani Medicine.) 

Folk ◮ Pu. 

Action ◮ Anti-inflammatory, vasodilator, 

astringent (used for 

rheumatism, venous congestion, 

haemorrhoids), febrifuge. Leaf— 

used in whooping cough. 

Key application ◮ In chronic venous 

insufficiency, varicosis, nocturnal 

systremma (cramps in the calves) 

and swelling of the legs. (Noninvasive 

treatment measures should 

also be followed.) (German 

Commission E, ESCOP, The British 

Herbal Pharmacopoeia.)

Horse Chestnut contains triterpenoid 

saponins (especially aescin, a 

complex mixture composed of acylated 

glycosides of protoaesigenin and 

barringtogenol-C, including hippocaesculin), 

coumarins and flavonoids. 

Aescin has been shown to eliminate 

oedema and reduce exudation. It antagonizes 

the effect of bradykinin, although 

it is not a direct bradykinin 

antagonist. It causes an increase in 

plasma levels of ACTH, corticosterone 

and glucose in rats. Hippocaesculin 

and barringtogenol-C-21-angelate 

show antitumour activity in vitro. 

The hydroxycoumarin aesculin 

leads to increased bleeding time. 

(Roasting seems to destroy the toxins.) 

A few fruits can cause severe 

toxic symptoms. (Francis Brinker.) In 

some countries, an intravenous mixture 

containing aescin is used after 

surgery. (Natural Medicines Comprehensive 

Database, 2007.) 

Aesculus indica Hook. 

Family ◮ Sapindaceae; Hippocastanaceae. 


Kashmir to western Nepal, Kulu 

and Chamba in Himachal Pradesh, 

Tehri-Garhwal and Kumaon in 

Uttar Pradesh at 900–3,600 m. 

English ◮ Indian Horse Chestnut, 

Himalayan Chestnut. 

Folk ◮ Bankhor. 

Action ◮ Antirheumatic, galactogenic, 

antileucorrhocic. 

Aframomum melegueta (Rosc.) K. Schum. 23 

The leaves contain aescin, quercetin 

and beta-sitosterol. Stems also contain 

rutin, astragalin, aesculin. Seeds 

contain aescin, aesculuside A and B, also 

aliphatic esters. Seeds possess antiinflammatory 

activity. 

The extract of seeds is considered 

to be active against P-388 lymphocytic 

leukaemia and human epidermoid 

carcinoma of nasopharynx. 

Aframomum melegueta 

(Rosc.) K. Schum. 

Synonym ◮ Amomum melegueta 

Rosc. 

Family ◮ Zingiberaceae. 


cultivated in Indian gardens. 

English ◮ Grains of Paradise, Alligator 

pepper, Meleguetta pepper. 

Unani ◮ Heel Habshi. 

Action ◮ Roots possess cardamomliketasteandaregivenasadecoction 

for constipation; also as a vermifuge 

for tapeworms. Juice of young 

leaves—styptic. The seeds contain 

an alkaloid, piperine; also gingerol, 

paradol, shogaol and zingerone. 

Gingerol and shogaol suppress gastric 

contractions; also have sedative 

and analgesic actions. Pungency of the 

grains is due to paradol. 

A decoction of the whole plant is 

taken internally as a febrifuge. 

High oxalic acid content in the fruit 

may cause reduced function of the 

heart. 

Aframomum korarima K. Schum., 

native to tropical Africa, known as 

A

A 

24 Aganosma dichotoma (Roth) K. Schum. 

False cardamom, is also equated with 

Heel Habshi. 

Aganosma dichotoma 

(Roth) K. Schum. 

Synonym ◮ A. caryophyllata G. Don 

Family ◮ Apocynaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Assam, West Bengal, Bihar, 

Orissa, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil 

Nadu;oftencultivatedinIndian 

gardens. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Madhumaalati. 

Action ◮ Antiseptic; anodyne (an 

ingredient in massage oils for 

paraplegia, neuralgia, sciatica); also 

anthelmintic and emetic. 

The leaves contain quercetin, kaempferol 

and phenolic acids. Shoot tips 

and flower buds contain tannin. 

Aganosma calycina A. DC. is also 

equated with Madhumaalati. 

Agaricus albus Linn. 

Family ◮ Agaricaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Punjab, Asia Minor. 

English ◮ Purging Agaric. 

Unani ◮ Gharaiqoon; also equated 

with Fomes officinalis (Vill. ex Fr.) 

Lloyd. 

Action ◮ Diuretic, laxative, deobstructant, 

expectorant; purgative 

and emetic in large doses; used in 

the treatment of night sweats in 

phthisis, and as a supporting drug 

for asthma. 

Active principle is agaric acid (agaricin), 

present to the extent of 14–16%. 

Agaricus campestris Linn. 

Synonym ◮ Psalliota campestris 

(Linn.) Fr. 


Habitat ◮ The fungi is distributed in 

many parts of India, particularly 

on the hills and plains of northern 

and eastern India. Grows during 

the rainy weather on dead organic 

matter, e.g. rotting leaves and 

manure. 

English ◮ Field mushroom, Edible 

mushroom. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Chhatraka, Bhuumichhatra. 

Unani ◮ Kammat. 

Siddha ◮ Venkodiveli. 

Folk ◮ Khumbi. 

Action ◮ A protein (2.74%) supplement 

and an excellent source of 

vitamins of B complex. Vitamins K, 

C and D are also present. Though 

all the amino acids are reported 

to be present, the concentration of 

tryptophane is particularly low. 

Extracts of A. campestris contain tyrosinase; 

lowered blood pressure of hypertensive 

animals when administered 

intravenously (exhibited no effect on 

normal animals). 

Fungal enzyme preparations have 

been used in digestive diseases. 

Field mushroom contains amylase, 

maltase, glycogenase, protease, catalase, 

tyrosinase, phosphomonoesteras-

es, polyphosphatases, polyphenoloxidase 

and dehydropeptidases. 

Agaricus ostreatus (Jacq.) Fries 


Habitat ◮ Artocarpus interifolia, 

indigenous to the western Ghats. 

English ◮ Oyster Mushroom (grows 

on Artocarpus integrifolia). 

Action ◮ Prevents excessive salivation. 

Also given internally in dysentery, 

diarrhoea, stomatitis; as a paste to 

gums in apthae. 

Agave americana Linn. 

Family ◮ Agavaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Native to America; grown 

in gardens for ornamentation. 

English ◮ Century Plant, American 

Aloe. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Kaantala (related sp.). 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Alagai. 

Folk ◮ Ban-Kevaraa. 

Action ◮ Leaf juice—used for 

warts, cancerous ulcers and putrid 

tumours. Leaves are also used as 

a resolvant in syphilis and scrofula. 

The leaves contain ten steroidal saponins 

(six of these are spirostanolic 

and four furostanolic), also hecogenin 

(0.20%) and piscidic acid. The seeds 

contain steroid sapogenins including 

hecogenin. The plant exhibits significant 

antibacterial activity. 

Aglaia roxburghiana Miq. Hiern 25 

Ageratum conyzoides Linn. 

Family ◮ Asteraceae, Compositae. 

Habitat ◮ Throughout India, up to an 


English ◮ Goat Weed, White Weed. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Dochunty, Uchunti, 

Sahadevi (related sp.). 

Action ◮ Anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, 

antifungal, styptic. 

The leaf is reported to contain stigmasterol 

(59.9%) and beta-sitosterol 

(26.7%) as major component of sterol 

faction. The dried flowering plant contains 

the pyrrolizidine alkaloids, lycopsamine 

and echinatine. 

An aqueous extract of leaves is reported 

to show haemostatic activity. 

The plant extract exhibited muscle relaxant 

activity experimentally. The 

ethanolic extract (95%) of roots possesses 

anti-inflammatory and analgesic 

properties. 

The aqueous extract of leaves exhibits 

antifungal and crude plant extract 

antibacterial properties. 

Aglaia roxburghiana Miq. Hiern 

Synonym ◮ A. elaegnoidea (A. Juss.) 

Benth. 

Milnea roxburghiana (Miq.) Wight 

and Arn. 

Family ◮ Meliaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Western Ghats, tropical 

forests in the hills of Andhra 

Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala and 

Andaman and Nicobar islands. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Priyangu (var.) 

A

A 

26 Agrimonia eupatoria auct non L. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Gnaazhal. (Dried 

flowers of Myristica malabarica 

Lam. are also used as Priyangu.) 

Action ◮ Fruit—cooling (in febrile 

complaints), antipyretic, astringent, 

antidiarrhoeal, antidysenteric, 

anti-inflammatory (seeds used for 

painful micturition). Fruits are 

also used for treating obstinate skin 

diseases and tumours. 

Bisamide alkaloids of the leaves exhibit 

anticancer activity (by inhibiting 

the growth of vinblastine-resistant KB 

cells). 

Agrimonia eupatoria auct non L. 

Synonym ◮ A. pilosa Hook.f. non 

Ledeb. 

A. pilosa Ledeb. var. nepalensis (D. 

Don) Nakai 

Family ◮ Rosacae. 


Kashmir to West Bengal at 900– 

3,000 m, and in Arunachal Pradesh, 

Nagaland and Meghalaya. 

English ◮ Agrimony, Stickle Wort. 

Unani ◮ Ghaafis. 

Folk ◮ Belu. 

Action ◮ Astringent, antiinflammatory, 

hepatic, cholagogue, 

diuretic, mild haemostatic, antibacterial. 

Used for irritations and 

infections of the intestinal tract, 

gallbladder diseases, hyperacidity, 

colic, urinary disorders (bedwetting, 

incontinence), sluggish 

liver, mucus membrane inflammations; 

externally for ulcerated 

and discharging skin, psoriasis and 

seborrhoic eczemas. 

Key application ◮ In mild, nonspecific, 

acute diarrhoea and 

in inflammation of oral and 

pharyngeal mucosa; as astringent. 

(German Commission E, The British 

Herbal Pharmacopoeia.) 

The herb contains condensed tannins 

up to 8%, coumarins, flavonoids 

(glucosides of luteolin, apigenin and 

quercetin), polysaccharides, volatile 

oil. Luteolin 7-glucoside shows a cholegogic 

action. Aqueous extracts inhibited 

Mycobacterium tuberculosis, also 

strains resistant to streptomycin and 

p-aminosalicylate. Essential oil is antibacterial, 

active against Bacillus subtilis. 

The ethanolic extracts of the herb 

are used for their antiviral properties. 

(Natural Medicines Comprehensive 


Coumarins interact with anticoagulants, 

and drugs that increase the risk 

of bleeding Furanocoumarin content 

increase photosensitivity. (Sharon M. 

Herr.) 

Agropyron repens Beauv. 

Synonym ◮ Triticum repens L. 

Family ◮ Gramineae; Poaceae. 

Habitat ◮ The western Himalayas and 

Kashmir at altitudes between 2,700 

and 3,600 m. 

English ◮ Couch grass, dog grass, 

wheat grass. 

Action ◮ Demulcent (used in 

cystitis, nephritis), aperient,

diuretic and urinary antiseptic, 

anticholesterolaemic. 

Key application ◮ In irrigation 

therapy for inflammatory diseases 

of the urinary tract and for the 

prevention of kidney gravel. 


Herbal Pharmacopoeia.) It is 

contraindicated in oedema due to 

cardiac or renal insufficiency. 

The juice of rhizomes is used for cystitis, 

nephritis, scirrhous liver; decoction 

for tonsils and as an adjuvant for 

cancer; also used for gout and rheumatism, 

and chronic skin disorders. 

The rhizome contains triticin, a carbohydrate 

allied to starch, a fructosan 

polysaccharide, inositol, mannitol; 

volatile oil up to about 0.05%, consisting 

mainly of agropyrene; vanillin 

glucoside; mucilage, gum, large quantities 

of silica; iron, minerals, vitamins, 

K salt. Agropyrene is reported 

to have broad antibiotic properties. Extracts 

show uric acid solvent properties. 

Agropyrene is antifungal. 

Ailanthus excelsa Roxb. 

Family ◮ Simaroubaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, 

Gujarat, Orissa and southern India. 

English ◮ Tree of Heaven, Maharukh. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Aralu, Katvanga, 

Dirghavranta, Puutivrksha, Bhalluka. 

(Mahaanimba is a synonym of 

Melia azedarach Linn.) 

Siddha ◮ Perru, Perumaruttu, 

Peruppi. 

Ailanthus glandulosa Desf. 27 

Action ◮ Bark—bitter, astringent, 

febrifuge, anthelminitic, antispasmodic, 

expectorant (used in asthma, 

bronchitis). Also used for dysentery 

as a substitute for Holarrhena 

antidysenterica. 

Barkand leaves—used as tonic in debility, 

especially after childbirth. 

Leaves—used as adulterant for Adhatoda 

zeylanica leaves. 




in high fevers and giddiness. 

The bark contains several quassinoids 

including ailanthone derivatives. 

They exhibit antitumour activity 

against P-388 lymphocytic leukaemia 

and are cytotoxic against KB test system. 

Dosage ◮ Stembark—1–3 g (API 

Vol. III.) Decoction—50–100 ml. 

(CCRAS.) 

Ailanthus glandulosa Desf. 

Synonym ◮ A. altissima (Mill.) 

Swingle 


Habitat ◮ Native of China and Japan. 

Found in the hills of northern India 

up to an altitude of 2,400 m. 

English ◮ Tree of Heaven, Ailanto. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Aralu (related sp.). 

Action ◮ Bark—astringent, antispasmodic, 

parasiticidal, narcotic, 

cardiac depressant (exercises powerful 

depressing influence on nervous 

system similar to that of tobacco). 

A

A 

28 Ailanthus malabarica DC. 

Leaves produce dermatitis; their accumulation 

in well-water produces 

chronic gastritis. 

Many quassinoids and ailanthone 

derivatives are vermifuge and amoebicidal. 

Constituents of the bark and 

stem, particularly ailanthone, have antimalarial 

activity in vitro against Plasmodium 

falciparum and in mice against 

P. berghei. (Alkaloids do not appear to 

have these properties.) Some quassinoids 

are antineoplastic, and are reported 

to have antileukaemic properties. 

The rootbark is used in traditional 

Chinese medicine for dysentery and 

leucorrhoea. In Africa, rootbark is 

used in epilepsy. 

Ailanthus malabarica DC. 

Synonym ◮ A. triphysa (Dennst.) 

Alston. 


Habitat ◮ The evergreen forests 

of western Ghats from Konkan 

southwards. 

Siddha ◮ Perumaram. 

Folk ◮ Guggul-dhuupa. (Maharashtra.) 

Action ◮ Bark—febrifuge, carminative 

(given in typhoid, dyspepsia 

and constipation). Oleo resin— 

used for dysentery and bronchitis. 

The bark and roots give a number 

of beta-carboline alkaloids. The resinuous 

exudates from trunk give several 

triterpenoids, including malabaricol 

and malabaricanediol. 

Ainsliaea aptera DC. 



Kashmir to Bhutan at altitudes of 

2,400 m, extending to Khasi hills of 

Meghalaya. 

Folk ◮ KaruiBuuti(Garhwal). 

Action ◮ Powdered roots—used for 

quick relief from acute stomach 

ache; diuretic. 

A related sp., A. latifolia Sch-Bip., is 

used as an adulterant to Podophyllum 

emodi. 

Ajuga bracteosa Wall. ex Benth. 

Family ◮ Labiatae Lamiaceae. 

Habitat ◮ The sub-Himalayan tract, 

plains of Punjab and the upper 

Gangetic plain. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Neelkanthi. 

Folk ◮ Ratapaati (Kumaon), Khurbanti 

(Punjab). 

Action ◮ Astringent, febrifugal (given 

in intermittent fever), stimulant, 

aperient, diuretic. Used for the 

treatment of gout and rheumatism; 

also for amenorrhoea. Juice of 

the leaves—blood purifier. The 

powder is used for burns and boils. 

The leaves are used in fever as 

a substitute for cinchona. 

An aqueous extract of the leaves 

showed diuretic activity. An alkaloidal 

fraction showed stimulant action on 

the perfused frog heart. The plant 

exhibited anticancer activity.

Alangium begoniaefolium 

(Roxb.) Baill. 

Synonym ◮ A. chinense (Lour.) 

Harms. 

Family ◮ Alangiaceae. 

Habitat ◮ The plains and foothills, up 

to an altitude of 2,100 m. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Ankola (related sp.). 

Folk ◮ Akhani. 

Action ◮ Bark and roots—sedative, 

anthelmintic. 

A triterpenoid was responsible for 

the sedative effect on motor activity of 

rat brain. 

Chloroform extract of the drug, 

which was devoid of anabasine, exhibited 

prominent sedative effect in 

rat. It significantly decreased concentration 

of norepinephrine in cortex, 

of dopamine and serotonin (5-HT) in 

brain stem, but increased concentration 

of 5-HT in cortex. 

Alangium lamarckii Thw. 

Synonym ◮ A. salviifolium (Linn. f.) 

Wang. 

Family ◮ Alangiaceae. 

Habitat ◮ The drier parts of India, 

in plains and foothills of southern 

India. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Ankola, Ankota, 

Taamraphala, Guptasneha, Dirghakeelaka. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Azinjil. 

Action ◮ Rootbark—astringent, 

spasmolytic, hypotensive, also diaphoretic 

and antipyretic. Leaves— 

Albizia amara (Roxb.) Boivin 29 

hypoglycaemic. Fruits—acidic, 

astringent, laxative and refrigerant. 

Used in haemorrhages, strangury 

and consumption. The bark is 

used as a substitute for Cephaelis 

ipecacuanha. It is a rich source 

of alkaloids structurally related to 

ipecac alkaloids (emetin). 

The bark contains the alkaloid alangine 

which shows a selective action of 

the parasympathetic mechanism, the 

action being more marked on gastrointestinal 

tract. The root extract shows 

hypotensive action. Flowers contain 

deoxytubulosine, a potent antiplatelet 

aggregation component, which has 

astrongbindingwithDNA. 

The plant extract possesses antineoplastic 

properties. 

Dosage ◮ Rootbark—1–2 g powder. 

(CCRAS.) 

Albizia amara (Roxb.) Boivin 


Habitat ◮ Throughout southern India 

in dry forests, up to 900 m, and in 

some parts of Madhya Pradesh. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Shirish (bark—grey or 

greenish). 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Thuringil. 

Action ◮ Leaf and flower—antiinflammatory, 

used for boils and 

ulcers. Leaf—used for erysipelas. 

Seeds—astringent, antidiarrhoeal, 

antibacterial. 

The seed extract showed DNA binding 

activity, which has been found to 

A

A 

30 Albizia lebbeck (Linn.) Willd. 

be due to pithecolibine alkaloids, budmunchiamines. 

Budmunchiamines 

are antibacterial, and they inhibit platelet 

aggregation and human lymphocyte 

transformation. They also show 

anti-inflammatory and cytotoxic activity. 

The leaves contain prodelphinidins, 

myricitrin, hyperin, quercitrin, transp-coumaric 

acid, cis-p-coumaric acid 

and trans-ferulic acid. 

The seeds contain echinocystic acid 

and taxifolin-3-O-beta-D xylopyranosyl-beta-D-arbinopyranoside. 

The oil from the seeds is said to cure 

leprosy and leucoderma. 

Albizia lebbeck (Linn.) Willd. 


Habitat ◮ All over India, from the 

plains up to 900 m in the Himalayas; 

also in the Andamans. 

English ◮ Siris tree, East Indian 

walnut. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Shirisha, Bhandi, 

Bhandila, Shitapushpa, Mridupushpa, 

Kapitana (bark—dusty 

black). 

Unani ◮ Siras. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Vaagei. 

Action ◮ Antiseptic, antibacterial, 

antiallergic, antidermatosis, 

antidysenteric. Bark—used in bronchitis; 

bark and seeds in piles; root 

in hemicrania; flowers in cough, 

bronchitis, tropical pulmonary 

eosinophilia, and asthma. Pod— 

antiprotozoal. 




in rhinitis, sinusitis and migraine. 

Analysis of the plant revealed the 

presence of flavonoids, triterpenoids 

and triterpenoid saponins; oleanolic 

acid, albigenic acid, albigenin and 

acacic acid. The bark contains 7–11% 

condensed tannin; also d-catechin and 

d-leucocyanidin. 

Aqueous extract of the bark decreased 

histamine-induced bronchospasm 

in guinea pigs. 

Alcoholic extract of stembark contains 

cardenolide glycosides of digitoxin 

nature. It showed antidermatophytic 

activity. Anthraquinone glycosides 

and its aglycone exhibited antibacterial 

activity. 

A saponin from seeds exhibited 

spermicidal activity in animals. EtOH 

(50%) extract of pods was found to 

be spermicidal against rat and human 

spermatozoa at 2% concentration. 

The therapeutic properties of Albizia 

julibrissin Durazz, Pink Siris, found in 

the outer Himalayas from the Indus 

eastwards to Sikkim, are the same as 

those of A. lebbeck. 

Dosage ◮ Stembark—3–6 g powder. 

20–50 g for decoction. (API 

Vol. III.) 

Albizia procera Benth. 


Habitat ◮ All over India. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Shveta Shirisha (bark— 

white or greenish-white).

Action ◮ Bark—a decoction is given 

in rheumatism and haemorrhage. 

The bark contains beta-sitosterol 

and yields 12–17% tannins. 

An oleanolic acid saponin, proceric 

acid saponin mixture from seeds and 

root saponin exhibit spermicidal activity. 

Aleurities moluccana 

(Linn.) Willd. 

Synonym ◮ A. triloba J. R. and G. 

Forst. 


Habitat ◮ Native to China; now 

mostlygrownontheteaestatesof 

Kangra Valley in Himachal Pradesh, 

and also in Assam and Bengal to 

provide shade for tea bushes. 

English ◮ Candlenut tree. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Akshota, Jangali 

Akharot. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Naatuakrottu. 

Action ◮ Oil from seeds—purgative; 

employed externally in rheumatism; 

ulcers; also as a hair tonic. Leaves— 

applied in acute rheumatism. 

Fruit—carminative and expectorant. 

Bark and flowers—used for 

asthma. 

Aleurites fordii Hemsl., Tung Oil 

tree, native to China, is also equated 

with Jangali Akharot. 

The tree was introduced on the tea 

estates of Assam, Bengal, Bihar, Coorg 

and Mysore. 

Alhagi pseudalhagi (Bieb.) Desv. 31 

Alhagi pseudalhagi (Bieb.) Desv. 

Synonym ◮ A. camelorum Fisch. ex 

DC. 

A. maurorum Medic. 


Habitat ◮ The drier parts of Rajasthan, 

Gujarat, Punjab and Uttar Pradesh. 

English ◮ Camel Thorn, Persian 

Manna Plant. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Yavaasaka, Yavaasa, 

Yaasa, Duhsparshaa, Duraalabhaa, 

Kunaashak. Substitute for 

Dhanvayaasa. Yaasa-sharkaraa 

(Alhagi-manna). 

Unani ◮ Jawaansaa. Turanjabeen 

(Alhagi-manna). 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Punaikanjuri, Kanchori. 

Action ◮ Laxative, antibilious, 

diuretic, diaphoretic, expectorant. 

Leaves—used for fever, headache, 

rheumatism. Flowers—blood 

coagulant, used for piles. Alhagimanna—expectorant, 

antiemetic, 

laxative. 



of India indicates the use of dried whole 

plantingoutandhaemorrhagicdisorders. 

The aerial parts contain flavonoids, 

tannins, sterols, triterpenes, saponins 

and anthroquinones. 

The proanthocyanidins derived 

from the plant possess hypolipidemic 

and antiatherosclerotic properties. The 

compounds prevented an increase in 

rat serum cholesterol and triglycerides, 

A

A 

32 Alkanna tinctoria (L.) Tausch. 

and they decreased the manifestation 

of atherosclerosis. 

A polymeric proanthocyanidin, extracted 

from the plant, improved energy 

metabolism and increased the work 

capacity in rats. 

Ethanolic extract of the aerial parts 

produced positive inotropic effect on 

rabbit heart. 

Dosage ◮ Whole plant—20–50 g 

for decoction. (API Vol. II.) 

Decoction—50–100 ml. (CCRAS.) 

Alkanna tinctoria (L.) Tausch. 

Family ◮ Boraginaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Cultivated in Central and 

southern Europe. 

English ◮ Alkanet, Dyers’ or Spanish 

Bugloss. 

Unani ◮ Ratanjot. National Formulary 

of Unani Medicine equated Ratanjot 

with Onosma echioides Linn., found 

in Kashmir and Kumaon. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Ratthapaalai, Surulpattai, 

Dineshavalli. 

Action ◮ Astringent, antimicrobial 

(used for indolent ulcers, wounds, 

erysipelas). 

The root contains up to 5% alkannins, 

which are lipophilic isohexenylnaphthazarin 

red pigments; tannins 

and wax. A pyrrolizidine (hepatotoxic) 

alkaloid has also been isolated from 

the herb. The alkannins have antimicrobial 

and wound-healing properties 

and are non-toxic in mice. They have 

been used clinically for indolent ulcers. 

Allemanda cathartica Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Native to Central America 

and Brazil. Grown in Indian 

gardens. 

English ◮ Golden Trumpet. 

Folk ◮ Zahari Sontakkaa. (Maharashtra). 

Action ◮ Leaves—cathartic (in 

moderate doses; emetic in large 

doses). Bark—hydragogue, in 

ascites. 

The purgative property of the aqueous 

extract of leaves was confirmed 

pharmacologically in rats. The extract 

also showed antifungal activity against 

ringworm causing fungi. Flower extract 

inhibits fungal growth. 

EtOH extract of roots showed invivo 

activity against P-388 leukaemia 

in mouse and in vitro against human 

carcinoma cells of nasopharynx (KB). 

The root contains antileukaemic iridoid 

lactone, allamandin and two other 

iridoids, allamandicin and allamdin. 

The stems and leaves contain betaamyrin, 

beta-sitosterol and ursolic 

acid. Petals gave flavonoids—kaempferol 

and quercetin. 

Allium ascalonicum Linn. 

Fam ◮ Liliaceae; Alliaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Native to Palestine; 

cultivated in India. 

English ◮ Shellot.

Ayurvedic ◮ Grnjana. 

Unani ◮ Gandanaa, Ek-daanaa 

Lehsun, Ek-potia Lehsum. (Also 

equated with Asphodelus tenuifolius 

Cav.) 

Action ◮ Anticoagulant, fibrinolytic, 

hypocholesterolaemic. 

The aqueous extract of the bulbs 

contains mainly fructose (50%), besides 

glucose, arabinose, galactose, 

mannose, rhamnose, glucosamine and 

uronic acid. It also contains lysine, glutamic 

acid and aspartic acid. It shows 

significant activity against P-388 lymphocytic 

leukaemia in mice. 

In experiments on rabbits, the alcoholic 

extracts of the bulb showed significant 

anticoagulant, fibrinolytic and 

hypocholesterolaemic properties. 

Allium cepa Linn. 

Family ◮ Liliaceae; Alliaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Cultivated as an annual 

all over the country. The most 

important onion-growing states are 

Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Andhra 

Pradesh., Karnataka and Madhya 

Pradesh. 

English ◮ Onion. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Palaandu, Durgandh. 

Unani ◮ Piyaaz. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Venkaayam. 

Action ◮ Antibiotic, antibacterial, 

antisclerotic, anticoagulant, 

anti-inflammatory, antiasthmatic, 

expectorant, carminative, anti- 

Allium cepa Linn. 33 

spasmodic, diuretic, hypotensive, 

antidiabetic. 

Key application ◮ For the prevention 

of atherosclerosis (German 

Commission E) and age-dependent 

changes in the blood vessels, and 

loss of appetite (WHO). 

The official onion bulb of the Pharmacopoeia 

of the People’s Republic of 

China is a different species, Allium 

macrostemon Bge., than that of the 

German Commission E monographs, 

A. cepa. Chinese onion is used for 

cough, dyspnoea, angina pectoris and 

dysentery. 

Scallions or Spring Onion of Chinese 

medicine are equated with Allium 

fistulosum. 

Onion bulbs contain a volatile oil 

with sulphurous constituents, including 

allylpropyldisulphide; sulphurcontaining 

compounds, including allicin, 

alliin; flavonoids; phenolic acids 

and sterols. 

Hypoglycaemic activity of the onion 

is attributed to the allylpropyldisulphide 

and allicin. Diphenylamine, isolated 

from mature bulbs, also exhibits 

potent antihyperglycaemic activity. 

Alliin and allicin have an inhibitory 

effect on platelet aggregation. Antibiotic 

activity is due mainly to allicin. 

Regular use of onion (50 g/day) reduces 

insulin requirement of a diabetic 

patientfrom40to20unitsaday. 

Thiosulphinates, isolated from onion 

juice, exhibited antiasthmatic activity 

in vivo. 

Dosage ◮ Juice of bulb—10–20 ml. 

(CCRAS.) 

A

A 

34 Allium macleanii Baker. 

Allium macleanii Baker. 

Family ◮ Liliaceae, Alliaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Native to Afghanistan. 

(A bulbous plant related to onion.) 

English ◮ Oriental Royal Salep. 

Unani ◮ Baadshaahi Saalab. 

Action ◮ Anabolic and gastrointestinal 

tonic. 

Allium porrum Linn. 

Synonym ◮ A. ameloprasum 

Hook. f. non Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Native to the Mediterranean 

region; cultivated in India. 

English ◮ Leek. 

Folk ◮ Vilaayati Piyaaz. Praan 

(Kashmir). Seemevangayam (Tamil 

Nadu). 

Action ◮ Expectorant; used as 

a substitute for garlic. 

Leek is poor in volatile oil content in 

comparison with garlic, but it contains 

sufficient amounts of non-toxic saponins, 

which perhaps give it expectorant 

properties. 

The bulbs contain several thiosulphinates, 

and also potentially anticarcinogenic 

flavonoids, quercetin and 

kaempferol. 

Allium sativum Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Native to Central Asia. 

Cultivated all over India. 

English ◮ Garlic. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Lashuna, Rasona, 

Yavaneshta, Ugragandha, Mahaushadh, 

Arishta. 

Unani ◮ Seer, Lahsun. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Ullippoondu, Vellaippondu. 

Action ◮ Antibiotic, bacteriostatic, 

fungicide, anthelmintic, antithrombic, 

hypotensive, hypoglycaemic, 

hypocholesterolaemic. Also used 

for upper respiratory tract infections 

and catarrhal conditions. 

Key application ◮ As a supportive to 

dietary measures for elevated levels 

of lipids in blood; as a preventive 

measure for age-dependent vascular 

changes. (German Commission E, 

ESCOP, WHO, The British Herbal 

Pharmacopoeia.) Also as an 

antimicrobial. (The British Herbal 

Pharmacopoeia). Garlic has been 

shown to be effective in respiratory 

infections and catarrhal conditions. 

(The British Herbal Compendium.) 

The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India 

indicates the use of the bulb as 

a brain tonic in epilepsy and psychic 

disorders. 

Heavy consumption of garlic prior 

to surgery led to increased clotting 

time or reduced platelet aggregation 

(in human case reports). Garlic tablets 

atadoseof400mgtwicedailyfor 

12 weeks reduced platelet aggregation 

59% compared with placebo in 80 patients 

(in human clinical study). (Francis 

Brinker.) 

Garlic cloves are high in sulphurcontaining 

amino acids known as alliin 

(no taste, no smell, no medicinal

action). With crushing or chewing alliin 

comes into contact with the enzyme 

alliinase. Alliinase, in less than 6 s, 

transforms alliin into allicin (strongly 

medicinal), which breaks down into 

a number of sulphur compounds including 

ajoene, vinyldithin and diallyl 

disulfide, and trisulfide. The antibiotic 

effect is attributed to allicin; hypoglycaemic 

effect to allicin and allylprophyldisulphide 

(also to S-allyl cysteine 

sulfoxide); anticarcinogenic activity to 

diallyl monosulfide; platelet aggregation 

inhibitory effect to diallyl-di- and 

tri-sulphides. Ajoene inactivated human 

gastric lipase, which is involved 

in digestion and absorption of dietary 

fats. 

Diallyltetra, penta-, hexa- and heptasulphides 

are potential antioxidants. 

Allium leptophyllum Wall. is equated 

with Vana Lashuna, Jangali Lahsun. 

Dosage ◮ Bulb—3 g (API Vol. III.) 

Allium schoenoprasum Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Native to temperate 

northern Europe and the U.S.; 

distributed in the western Himalayas 

from Kashmir to Kumaon at 

altitudes of 2,400–3,000 m. 

English ◮ Chives. 

Action ◮ Used in place of young 

onions. 

An alcoholic extract of the bulbs 

exhibited hypotensive and cardiac depressant 

activity. 

Alocasia indica (Lour.) Spach. 35 

The aerial parts (chives) gave alliins 

(alkylcysteine sulfoxides), particularly 

methyl alliin and pentylalliin. 

Allium tuberosum Rottl. ex Spreng, 

found in eastern India and western 

Himalayas, is equated with Chinese 

Chives. It is available in Meghalaya. 

Alocasia indica (Lour.) Spach. 

Synonym ◮ A. macrorrhiza (Linn.) 

G. Don 


Habitat ◮ AgenusoftopicalAsia, 

Malayasia and the Pacific. Found 

wild and cultivated all over India. 

English ◮ Giant Taro. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Maanaka, Maana, 

Maankanda, Kasaalu, Hastikarni. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Merukan kizhangu. 

Action ◮ Rootstock—mild laxative, 

diuretic (in anasarca); used in 

inflammations and diseases of 

abdomen and spleen. Leaf—astringent,styptic,antitumour.Rootand 

leaf—rubefacient. Tubers—used as 

vegetable after eliminating oxalate 

content. 

All parts of the plant, except tubers, 

contain cyanogenic principle, 

a mixture of triglochinin and isotriglochinin. 

The tubers contain sterols 

and high concentration of soluble oxalates 

(prolonged use may lead to calcium 

deficiency and oxaluria.) The 

tubers contain a trypsin/chymotrypsin 

inhibitor. The plant contains HCN 

(0.0027%). It is found to be mitogenic 

A

A 

36 Aloe barbadensis Mill. 

to human peripheral blood lymphocytes. 

Dosage ◮ Tuber—5–10 g powder. 

(CCRAS.) 

Aloe barbadensis Mill. 

Synonym ◮ A. vera Tourn. ex Linn. 

A. indica Royle 

A. littoralis Koening 

Family ◮ Liliaceae; Agavaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Cultivated throughout 

India, wild on coasts of Maharashtra, 

Gujarat and South India. 

English ◮ Curacao Aloe, Barbados 

Aloe, Indian Aloe, Jaffarabad Aloe. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Kanyaasaara, Eleyaka 

(dried juice of the leaves). Kumaari, 

Kumaarikaa, Kanyaa, Grihkanyaa, 

Ghritkumaarika (plant). 

Unani ◮ Gheekwaar, Sibr. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Sotru Kattraazhai, 

Kumaari. Moosaambaram (dried 

juice). 

Folk ◮ Elwaa, Musabbar (dried juice 

of leaves). 

Action ◮ Purgative (causes griping), 

emmenagogue. Gel—topically 

emollient, anti-inflammatory, 

antimicrobial (used for wound 

healing, sunburn). 

Key application ◮ In occasional 

constipation; contraindicated 

in intestinal obstruction and 

acutely inflamed intestinal diseases, 

ulcerative colitis, appendicitis. 

(German Commission E, ESCOP, 

WHO.) 

The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of 

India recommends the use of dried 

juice of leaves in dysmenorrhoea 

and diseases of the liver. 

Aloe vera improved the hypoglycaemic 

effect of glyburide (glibenclamide) 

when one tablespoonful aloe 

juice was given orally in the morning 

and at bedtime to 36 diabetic patients 

for 42 days. The juice (same dose) 

showed antihyperglycaemic activity 

(independently). (Francis Brinker.) 

Anthraquinone glycosides, known 

as aloin, in small doses act as a tonic 

to the digestive system, and at higher 

doses become a strong purgative, as 

well as increase colonic secretions and 

peristaltic contractions. Resin fraction 

is also as important as aloin in cathartic 

action. In A. barbadensis the highest 

percentage of aloin is 21.8%. 

Aloe produces pelvic congestion and 

is used for uterine disorders, generally 

with Fe and carminatives. The pulp is 

used in menstrual suppressions. 

A molecule in the Aloe vera gel, acemannan, 

stimulates macrophages and 

releases immune system potentiators; 

enhances function of T cells and interferon 

production. Animal studies 

have shown promising results in sarcoma. 

The carboxypeptidase and salicylate 

components of Aloe gel can inhibit 

bradykinin, a pain-producing agent; 

C-glycosyl chromone appears to reduce 

topical inflammation. Aloe gel 

also slows or inhibits the synthesis 

of thromboxane, which may accelerate 

the healing of burns. (Natural 


2007.)

Dosage ◮ Leaf pulp juice—10–20 ml. 

(CCRAS.) Dried leaf pulp juice— 

125–500 mg powder. (API Vol. I.) 

Alpinia galanga Willd. 


Habitat ◮ The Himalayas and 

southern region of western Ghats. 

English ◮ Greater Galangal. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Kulanjana, Sthuulagranthi, 

Sugandhaa, Ugragandhaa, 

Malaya Vachaa, Mahaabhari- 

Vachaa. Substitute for Raasnaa 

(Pluchea lanceolata). 

Unani ◮ Khulanjaan. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Perarattai. 

Action ◮ Rhizome—carminative (in 

dyspepsia), stomachic, circulatory 

stimulant, diaphoretic, antiinflammatory. 

Throughout southern India, the rhizome 

of Alpinia galanga is used as 

Raasnaa for rheumatism, intermittent 

fever, dyspepsia and respiratory ailments. 

(In the north, Vanda tessellata 

or Pluchea lanceolata is used as Raasnaa.) 

EtOH extract of the plant shows 

anti-inflammatoryactivity. Theethanolic 

extract also showed significant antiulcer 

activity in rats, which has been 

attributed to the antisecretory and cytoprotective 

properties of the plant. 

Major constituents of the essential 

oil are methyl cinnamate, cineole and 

d-pinene. In moderate doses, the oil 

exhibits antispasmodic action. 

Unani physicians use A. galanga as 

a sex tonic. In mice, the drug caused 

Alpinia officinarum Hance 37 

a significant gain in the weight of sexual 

organs and increased sperm motility 

and sperm count. 

Plants used as Raasnaa in Indian 

medicine: Alpinia galanga Willd. (Zingiberaceae) 

insouthernIndia;Pluchea 

lanceolata C. B. Clarke (Compositae; 

Asteraceae) in Uttar Pradesh; Vanda 

roxburghii R. Br. (Orchidaceae) in 

eastern Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal; 

Blepharispermum subsessile DC. 

(Compositae; Asteraceae) in Madhya 

Pradesh; and Dodonaea viscosa (Linn.) 

Jacq. (Sapindaceae)inAndhraPradesh. 

Dosage ◮ Rhizome—1–3 g powder. 

Decoction—50–100 ml. (CCRAS.) 

Alpinia malaccensis Rosc. 


Habitat ◮ Eastern Himalayas, Assam, 

Khasi Hills, Meghalaya, up to 

1,500 m, and western Ghats of 

Kerala. 

Folk ◮ Saliyeridumpa (Tamil). 

Action ◮ Rhizome—employed to 

cure sores. Fruits—emetic (used 

with salt). 

The rhizomes yield essential oil consisting 

of methyl cinnamate as chief 

constituent. 

Alpinia officinarum Hance 


Habitat ◮ Native to China; cultivated 

in northern India. 

English ◮ Lesser Galangal, Alpinia, 

Catarrh Root, Chinese Ginger. 

A

A 

38 Alpinia speciosa (Wendl.) K.Schum. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Kulanjan (var.). 

Unani ◮ Khulanjaan (smaller var.). 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Chitrarattai. 

Action ◮ Rhizome—a circulatory 

stimulant and carminative. 

Key application ◮ As a carminative. 

(The British Herbal Pharmacopoeia.) 

Aqueous and methanolic extracts of 

the rhizome, on oral administration, 

exhibited significant decrease in gastric 

secretioninrabbitsandshowedanticholinergic 

effect in pylorus-ligated 

rats. 

Flavones from rhizomes are strongly 

antifungal against a wide variety 

of pathogenic fungi, responsible for 

major skin diseases in eastern India. 

Flavones were also found to be active 

against a number of Gram-positive and 

Gram-negative bacteria. 

The gingerols and diaryheptanoids 

constituents of the rhizome are potent 

inhibitors of PG synthetase (prostaglandin 

biosynthesizing enzyme); they 

can also be active against 5-lipoxygenase, 

an enzyme involved in leukotriene 

biosynthesis. (Natural Medicines 

Comprehensive Database, 2007.) 

Alpinia speciosa 

(Wendl.) K.Schum. 

Synonym ◮ A. Zerumbet Burtt and 

R.M. Smith 


Habitat ◮ Native to East Indies. 

Occurs in the eastern Himalayas 

from West Bengal eastwards. 

English ◮ Light Galangal. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Chitraraththai. 

Action ◮ Rhizomes are used as 

a substitute for A. galanga and 

even for ginger; antiulcerative, 

spasmolytic. 

The leaves and rhizomes yield an 

essential oil which contains alpha-and 

beta-pinene, borneol, campene and cineole 

as major constituents. 

Alstonia scholaris R. Br. 


Habitat ◮ Throughout moist regions 

of India, especially in West Bengal 

and west-coast forests of southern 

India. 

English ◮ Devil’s tree, Dita Bark tree. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Saptaparna, Saptachhada, 

Saptaparni, Saptaahvaa, 

Vishaaltvak, Shaarada, Vishamchhada. 

Unani ◮ Chhaatim, Kaasim (Kaasim 

Roomi, Anjudaan Roomi is equated 

with Myrrhis odorata Scope.) 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Ezhilamippalai, 

Mukkampalai. 

Folk ◮ Chhitavan, Sataunaa. 

Action ◮ Bark—febrifuge, antiperiodic, 

spasmolytic, antidysenteric, 

uterine stimulant, hypotensive; used 

for internal fevers. 




in phosphaturia and recommends it as 

a blood purifier.

Alstonia sp. is known as Fever Bark. 

A. constricta is native to Australia; 

A. scholaris to Australia and Southeast 

Asia. The bark of both the species 

contains indole alkaloids. A. constricta 

contains reserpine (a hyptotensive 

agent). A. scholaris contains echitamine, 

which has also demonstrated 

hypotensive effects. Though A. scholaris 

produces fall in the temperature 

of human patients with fever, there 

are conflicting reports about the activity 

of echitamine against Plasmodium 

berghei. 

Dosage ◮ Stembark—20–30 g for 


Alstonia venenata R. Br. 


Habitat ◮ Peninsular India. 

Folk ◮ Pazh-munipala (Tamil), 

Addasarpa (Kannada), Palamunpala 

(Malyalam). 

Action ◮ Stembark and fruit— 

antiepileptic. 

The plant is a rich source of indole 

alkaloids. Major alkaloids in the stembark 

are alstovenine, venenatine, 3dehydroalstovenine, 

reserpine (0.003– 

0.3%), venoxidine and kopsinine. 

Alstovenine, in lower doses, exhibits 

monoamine oxidase inhibitor activity; 

in higher doses, shows marked central 

stimulant effect (reversal of reserpine 

effects). Venenatine exhibits reserpinelike 

profile of activity (sedation, ptosis, 

reduction in motor activity). 

The fruit contains vincadifformine 

type of alkaloids. Echitovenidine, the 

Alternanthera sessilis (Linn.) R. Br. ex DC. 39 

major alkaloid, shows monoamine 

oxidase-inhibitory activity both in vitro 

and in vivo. 

Alternanthera sessilis 

(Linn.) R. Br. ex DC. 

Synonym ◮ A. triandra Lam. 

A. denticulata R. Br. 

A. repens Gmel. Non-Link. 



parts of India, especially around 

tanks and ponds. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Matsyaakshi, Matsyaakshika(amultimeaningname, 

also indicating Braahmi, Aindri), 

Matsyagandhaa, Matsyaadini, 

Minaakshi, Bahli, Gandali, 

Gartkalambukaa, Vaahlikaa. 

Unani ◮ Machhechhi. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Ponnonkanni keerai. 

Folk ◮ Gudari Saag. 

Action ◮ Febrifuge, galactagogue, 

cholagogue. 



of India indicates the use of dried whole 

plant in diseases due to vitiated blood 

and obstinate skin diseases. 

Young shoots contain protein 5% 

and iron 16.7 mg/100 g. Leaves also 

contain a good amount of alpha- and 

beta-tocopherols. 

The plant gave stigmasterol, betasitosterol, 

a saturated aliphatic hydrocarbon 

and aliphatic ester. 



A

A 

40 Althaea officinalis Linn. 

Althaea officinalis Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Native to eastern Europe; 

found in Kashmir and Himachal 

Pradesh. 

English ◮ Marshmallow, Hollyhock. 

Unani ◮ Khatmi, Gul-Khairu (also 

equated with Althaea rosea Linn.). 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Shemai-tutti. 

Action ◮ Demulcent, emollient, 

antitussive (used for cough, 

bronchitis, gastritis, enteritis and 

cystitis), antilithic, diuretic. 

Key application ◮ (leaf and root) In 

irritation of the oral and pharyngeal 

mucosa and associated dry cough; 

in mild inflammation of the gastric 

mucosa. (German Commission E, 

ESCOP.) As demulcent. (The 

British Herbal Pharmacopoeia.) 

In gastroenteritis, peptic and 

duodenal ulceration, common 

and ulcerative colitis. (The British 

Herbal Compendium.) Topically 

for varicose veins, skin ulcers, 

abscesses, cuts, burns. 

Althaea rosea (L.) Cav., synonym Alcea 

rosea L., Hollyhock flower, is used 

as mucilage for prophylaxis and therapy 

of diseases and discomforts of the 

respiratory and gastrointestinal tract 

and for urinary complaints. (It is included 

among unapproved herbs by 

German Commission E.) 

The root contains starch, mucilage, 

pectin, flavonoids, phenolic acids, sucrose, 

tannins and asparagines. Mucilage 

(18–35%) consists of a number of 

polysaccharides. Flavonoids include 

kaempferol, quercetin and diosmetin 

glucosides. Polyphenolic acids include 

syringic, caffeic, salcyclic, vanillic and 

p-coumaric acids. 

The mucilages have proven biological 

activity including stimulation of 

phagocytosis in vitro. 

The root counters excess stomach 

acid, peptic ulceration and gastritis. 

Altingia excelsa Noronha 

Family ◮ Altingiaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Assam and Arunachal 

Pradesh. 

English ◮ Storax, Oriental Sweet 

Gum. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Shilaarasa, Turushka, 

Silhaka (substitute for Liquidamber 

orientalis, Hamamelidaceae). 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Neriyurishippal. 

Action ◮ Resin—carminative, stomachic, 

antiscorbutic expectorant, 

antipyretic, anti-inflammatory, antistress, 

hepatoprotective. Externally 

used in scabies and leucoderma. 

The ethyl acetate extract of the root 

of A. excelsa was studied for antistress 

effect in a variety of biological models 

of stress; also in stress-induced ulcers 

and CCl4-induced hepatotoxicity. Antistress 

was the most significant pharmacological 

property of the Storax. 

Amanita muscaria Linn. 

Family ◮ Agaricaceae; Amanitaceae. 

English ◮ Fly Agaric (mushroom), 

Aga, Soma.

Ayurvedic ◮ Identified as Soma of 

Rigveda (controversial). (Sushruta 

described 24 varieties of Soma and 

18 other drugs as its substitutes.) 

Intensely poisonous; used for 

intoxication. 

The fungus has been used in Russia 

for preparing an intoxicating drink. 

Toxic principles arecholine, muscarine 

and mycetoatropine (muscaridine). 

Muscarine stimulates postganglionic, 

cholinergic and neuroeffector 

junctions. The isoxazole constituents 

are psychoactive. 

2–4 Fly Agaric (more than 10 g fresh) 

are toxic; 20 (more than 100 g fresh) are 

lethal. (Francis Brinker.) 

A. pantherina is used in Japan for 

intoxication. 

Agaisnotatruehallucinogen.The 

illusions are a misinterpretation of sensory 

stimuli due to isoxazole, ibotenic 

acid, muscimol, muscazone and traces 

of muscarine. (Natural Medicines 


Amaranthus blitum Linn. var. 

oleraceus Duthie 


Habitat ◮ Throughout India. 

English ◮ Trailing Amaranth, Wild 

Blite. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Maarisha. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Aarumathathandu, 

Kiraitandu. 

Folk ◮ Marasaa. 

Action ◮ Cooling, stomachic, 

emollient. Used in biliousness, 

haemorrhagic diathesis. 

Amaranthus spinosus Linn. 41 

Amaranthus caudatus Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Grown as vegetable in 

northern India. 

English ◮ Love-Lies-Bleeding, Tassel 

Flower. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Raam-daanaa (grain). 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Pungikeerai, Sirukeerai. 

Folk ◮ Chuko. 

Action ◮ Blood-purifier, diuretic; 

used in piles, strangury, dropsy 

and anasarca; tea has been used 

for relieving pulmonary conditions; 

also given in scrofula and applied 

to scrofulous sores. Antimicrobial 

peptides have been isolated from 

seeds. 

In Western herbal medicine, Love- 

Lies-Bleeding is equated with Amaranthus 

hypochondriacus, andisusedfor 

ulcers, diarrhoea, as well as inflammation 

of the mouth and throat. 

Preliminary evidence suggests that 

Amaranth seed can reduce total cholesterol 

and LDL, while increasing HDL, 

but Amaranth muffins failed to reduce 

cholesterol levels in hypercholesterolemic 

adults beyond the reduction 

achieved by low-fat diet. (Natural 


2007.) 

Amaranthus spinosus Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Cultivated fields, waste 

places and along roadsides. 

A

A 

42 Amaranthus tricolor Linn. 

English ◮ Spiny Amaranth, Thorny 

Amaranth, Spiny Pigweed. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Tanduliya, Tandulaka, 

Meghnaad, Megharava, Vishaghn, 

Alpamaarish. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Mullukkeerai. 

Folk ◮ Katili-chaulai. 

Action ◮ Galactogenic, laxative, 

emollient, spasmolytic, diuretic. 

Pollen extract—used for allergic 

asthma and allergic rhinitis. Root— 

used in menorrhoea. 

Plant contains sterols. Leaves and 

stems contain alpha-spinasterol and 

hentriacontane. Leaves also contain 

amino acids with high content of lysine. 

Dosage ◮ Whole plant—10–20 ml 

juice; 400–800 mg powder. 

(CCRAS.) 

Amaranthus tricolor Linn. 

Synonym ◮ A. gangeticus Linn. 

A. melancholicus Linn. 

A. polygamus Linn. Hook. f. in part. 

A. tristis Linn. 



India. 

English ◮ Chinese Spinach, Garden 

Amaranth, Fountain Plant. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Maarisha-rakta (red 

var.). 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Arai-keerai, Sirukeerai, 

Thandu-keerai, Mulakkerai 

(Tamil). 

Folk ◮ Laal Shaak, Laal Marashaa. 

Action ◮ Astringent (in menorrhagia, 

leucorrhoea, dysentery, diarrhoea, 

haemorrhagic colitis); also used in 

cough, bronchitis and consumption; 

externally emollient. 

The plant contains amarantin, isoamarantin, 

betaine, amino acids, sterols. 

Dosage ◮ Leaf, seed, root—10–20 ml 

juice. (API Vol. III.) Powder—2– 

4g.(CCRAS.) 

Amberboa divaricata Kuntze 

Synonym ◮ Volutarella divaricata 

Benth. and Hook. F. 


Habitat ◮ Distributed in the Mediterranean 

region, extending to Central 

Asia and India. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Brahmadandi (Tricholepis 

glaberrima DC. of the 

same family is also equated with 

Brahmadandi.) 

Unani ◮ Baadaavard. 

Action ◮ Deobstruent, aperient, 

febrifuge, nervine (used in debility), 

antiseptic (used in leucoderma). 

Ammannia baccifera Linn. 

Family ◮ Lythraceae. 

Habitat ◮ Marshy areas throughout 

India, as a weed. 

English ◮ Blistering Ammannia. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Agnipatri.

Folk ◮ Daadmaari. (Also known as 

Paashaanabheda.) 

Action ◮ Stomachic, laxative, 

antirheumatic, febrifuge. Leaves— 

used externally for ringworm, 

herpic eruptions and other skin 

diseases; rubefacient. 

Leaves contain lawsone. Plant extract—antibacterial. 

Extracts of stem, 

leaf and inflorescence are more effective 

as compared with the seed and root 

extract. 

Ammi majus Linn. 

Family ◮ Umbelliferae; Apiaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Cultivated in Jammu and 

Himachal Pradesh. 

English ◮ Biship’s Weed-Amee, 

Greater Ammi. 

Unani ◮ Itarilaal, Khalah. 

Action ◮ Source of xanthotoxin, 

a drug employed in the treatment of 

leucoderma. Dried fruit powder or 

extractoftheplantisusedtopically 

in vitiligo. 

The fruits contain ammoidin (xanthotoxin), 

ammidin (imperatorin) and 

majudin (bergapten). All the three 

compounds are used in leucoderma. 

Maximum xanthotoxin content (1%) is 

found in green fruits from Jammu. 

The 8-MOP, methoxypsoralen constituent 

of the weed is one of the first 

agents used along with UVA radiation 

to treat psoriasis. (Natural Medicines 


Ammi visnaga (Linn.) Lam 

Ammi visnaga (Linn.) Lam 43 

Synonym ◮ Daucus visnaga Linn. 

Visnaga daucoides Gaertn. 


Habitat ◮ Cultivated as a garden 

ornamental; runs wild at many 

places in Jammu region. 

English ◮ Khella. 

Folk ◮ Paashaanabhedi (controversial; 

Bergenia ligulata has been equated 

with the classical Paashaanabheda). 

Action ◮ Antispasmodic in renal 

colic, bronchial asthma, whooping 

cough (used by Unani physicians), 

vasodilator (in angina pectoris). 

Key application ◮ German 

Commission E approved the 

herb on 13 March 1986, but due to 

information on potential risks, its 

status was changed to unapproved 

on 15 April 1994. 

Khella contains khellin (1%), visnagin, 

khellol glycoside, flavonoids, 

sterols, volatile oil (0.2%). Khellin and 

visnagin exert a powerful antispasmodic 

effect on the smaller bronchial 

muscles, the coronary arteries and on 

the urinary tubules. Khellin provides 

relief to asthmatic patients. The drug 

also relieves painful spasm of stone in 

kidney and bladder (no more used for 

expelling kidney stones). 

Khella does not reduce blood pressure 

in spite of being a vasodilator. 

Khellin is toxic at 100 mg. (Francis 

Brinker.) 

Khella is used topically for vitiligo 

and psoriasis. The Khellin constituent 

is similar to the psoralen nucle- 

A

A 

44 Amomum aromaticum Roxb. 

us and might be useful as a photosensitizer 

in patients with psoriasis. (Natural 


2007.) 

(Several modern drugs including 

amiodarone, nifedipine and cromolyn 

have been developed from Khella.) 

Amomum aromaticum Roxb. 


Habitat ◮ North Bengal and Assam. 

English ◮ Bengal Cardamom, 

Cardamom. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Sthula-elaa (var.) 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Perelam. 

Folk ◮ Morang-elaaichi. 

Action ◮ Similar to that of A. subulatum. 

The seeds yield on essential oil (1.0– 

1.2%) containing cineole as the principal 

constituent. 

Chinese practitioners avoid the use 

of cardamom in conditions marked by 

symptoms of excessive heat. 

Amomum subulatum Roxb. 


Habitat ◮ Cultivated in swampy 

places in Bengal, Sikkim, Assam 

and Tamil Nadu. 

English ◮ Greater or Nepal Cardamom. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Sthula-elaa, Bhadraa, 

Bhadrailaa, Bahulaa, Prithivikaa, 

Triputaa, Truti. 

Unani ◮ Heel Kalaan, Qaaqule 

Kubaar. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Peria Elam, Kattu 

Elam, Beraelam. 

Action ◮ Stomachic, antiemetic, antibilious, 

astringent, alexipharmic; 

used for the treatment of indigestion, 

biliousness, abdominal 

pains, vomiting, in congestion of 

liver. Pericarp—in headache and 

stomatitis. 

The seeds contain a chalcone (cardamonin), 

a flavonoid (alpinetin), petunidin-3, 

5-diglucoside and leucocyanidin 

glucocide; also a aurone glycoside 

subulin. The essential oil (2.5%) contains 

cineole. 

Dosage ◮ Seed–1–3 g powder. 

(CCRAS.) 

Amoora cucullata Roxb. 


Habitat ◮ Coastal forests of West 

Bengal and Andaman Islands. 

Folk ◮ Amur, Latmi, Natmi (Bengal). 

Action ◮ Leaf—anti-inflammatory. 

Amphicome emodi Lindl. 

Family ◮ Bignoniaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Temperate Himalaya from 

Kashmir to Kumaon at 600–2700 m. 

Folk ◮ Kaur (Kashmir). 

Action ◮ Plant—febrifuge; used as 

a substitute for Swertia chirayita.

An iridoid glycoside named amphicoside 

is reported from the plant. 

Amorphophallus campanulatus 

(Roxb.) Blume ex Decne. 


Habitat ◮ Native to tropical Asia; 

cultivated throughout India. 

English ◮ Elephant-foot Yam. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Suurana, Kanduula, 

Arshoghna, Kand-ayak, Kandala. 

Unani ◮ Zamin-qand, Zamikand. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Chenaikkizhangu. 

Kaathukarunai (wild var.) 

Action ◮ Corm is prescribed in 

bronchitis, asthma, abdominal pain, 

emesis, dysentery, enlargement of 

spleen, piles, elephantiasis, diseases 

due to vitiated blood, rheumatic 

swellings. 



of India indicates the use of corm in 

prostatic hyperplasia. 

(Thecormisirritantduetothepresence 

of calcium oxalate. It can be consumedafteritiswashedwellandboiled 

in tamarind water or butter milk.) 

The corm contains an active diastatic 

enzyme amylase, betulinic acid, 

tricontane, lupeol, stigmasterol, betasitosterol 

and its palmitate and glucose, 

galactose, rhamnose and xylose. 

Intake of 3.6-7.2 g of konjac (Amorphophallus 

konjac tuber) mannan for 

90 days reduced the dose of insulin or 

hypoglycaemic drugs (in human clinical 

study). (Francis Brinker.) 

Amygdalus persica Linn. 45 

Amorphophallus sylvatius Kunth. is 

equated with the wild var. of Suurana, 

used especially in the treatment 

of piles. 

Dosage ◮ Dried corm—2–10 g 

powder. (API Vol. III.) 3–5 g 

powder. (CCRAS.) 

Amygdalus communis Linn. 

Synonym ◮ Prunus amygdalus Baill. 

A. communis var. dulcis (sweet 

almond). 

A. communis var. amara (bitter 

almond). 

Family ◮ Rosaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Native to Asia Minor and 

Persia; cultivated in India in cooler 

parts of Punjab and Kashmir. 

English ◮ Almond 

Ayurvedic ◮ Vaataama, Vaataada. 

Unani ◮ Badaam, Loz. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Vaadumai. 

Action ◮ Sweet almonds—nutrient, 

nervine tonic, demulcent. Oil— 

externally for skin. Bitter almonds— 

not used medicinally. 

Almondflourandalmondbutterare 

free from starch and used in foods for 

diabetics and for patients with peptic 

ulcers. Chief protein in kernels is globulin. 

Amygdalus persica Linn. 

Synonym ◮ Prunus persica Batsch. 


A

A 

46 Anacardium occidentale Linn. 


in Himalayan regions; grows in 

tropical and semi-tropical regions 

and temperate climates. 

English ◮ Peach tree. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Aaruka. 

Unani ◮ Aaaduu, Khokh. 

Action ◮ Leaves and bark—expectorant 

(used in cough, whooping 

cough, and chronic bronchitis), 

sedative, stomachic, demulcent, 

antiscorbutic, diuretic. Fresh 

leaves—anthelmintic. Powder of 

leaves—styptic (externally). Fruit— 

stomachic, antiscorbutic. 

Anacardium occidentale Linn. 

Family ◮ Anacardiaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Native to tropical America, 

from Mexico to Peru and Brazil. 

Cultivated largely in Malabar, 

Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu 

and Andhra Pradesh, and to some 

extent in Maharashtra, Goa, Orissa 

and West Bengal. 

English ◮ Cashew Nut. 

Unani ◮ Kaaju. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Mindiri. 

Action ◮ Leaves and bark—fungicidal, 

vermicidal, protozoicidal, 

antimicrobial (used for toothache, 

sore gums). Karnel—eaten for 

its high protein content. Cashew 

apple—antiscorbutic. Resinous 

juice contained in the seeds—used 

in cases of mental derangement, 

memory disturbances, palpitation 

of heart, rheumatic pericarditis, 

sexual debility. 

The nut contains 45% fat and 20% 

protein. Leaves contain flavonoids, 

mainly glycosides of quercetin and 

kaempferol, and hydroxybenzoic acid. 

The bark contains a balsam-containing 

anacardic acid, anacardol, cardol and 

ginkgol. The caustic liquid in the 

shell contains about 39% anacardic 

acid, a mixture of alkyl salicylic acid 

derivatives. The leaves are febrifuge. 

Anacardic acid is bactericidal, fungicidal, 

vermicidal and protozoicidal. The 

leaves and bark exhibited hypotensive 

activity in rats. 

The phenolics of the cashew-nut 

shell oil have inhibited the enzymic 

activity of alpha-glucosidase, invertase 

and aldose reductase (anacardic acids 

being the most potent). Cardols have 

also shown antifilarial activity in vitro. 

Anacardic acids, cardols and methyl 

cardols have been found to exhibit 

moderate cytotoxic activity. 

Anacyclus pyrethrum DC. 

Synonym ◮ A. officinarum Hayne 



region; cultivated in Algeria. 

English ◮ Spanish, Pellitory, 

Pyrethrum Root. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Aakaarakarabha, 

Aakallaka, Aakulakrit, Agragraahi. 

Unani ◮ Aaqarqarhaa. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Akkiraakaaram.

Action ◮ Stimulant, cordial, rubefacient.A 

gargle of infusion is prescribed 

for relaxed vulva. Root— 

used for toothache, rheumatic and 

neuralgic affections and rhinitis. 

Roots, along with the root of Withania 

somnifera and Vitis vinifera, are 

used in epilepsy. 


Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia 

of India indicates the use of the root 

in sciatica, paralysis, hemiplegia and 

amenorrhoea. 

The root contains anacycline, isobutylamide, 

inulin and a trace of essential 

oil. 

The local anaesthetic activity of the 

alcoholic (2%) extract of the root was 

found to be comparable to that of xylocaine 

hydrochloride (2%) in dental 

patients. 

Use of the drug in patients with 

insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus 

reduces the dose of insulin. It decreased 

the plasma glucose and serum 

cholesterol levels after oral administration 

for 3–6 weeks. (The plant is 

mixed with Helleborus nigar in a ratio 

of 1:3.) The plant extract inhibited 

tobacco-induced mutagenesis by 47.5% 

at a concentration of 1 mg/plate. 

Dosage ◮ Root—500 mg to 1 g 


Anagallis arvensis Linn. 

Family ◮ Primulaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Northwestern Himalayas 

from Kashmir eastwards to Nepal, 

hills of West Bengal; Central and 

southern India. 

Anamirta cocculus (Linn.) Wight and Arn. 47 

English ◮ Bird’s Eye, Bird’s Tongue, 

Blue Pimpernel, Scarlet Pimpernel. 

Unani ◮ Anaaghaalis. 

Folk ◮ Jonkmaari (Maharashtra), 

Dhabbar (Punjab), Jighanaa, 

Jenghani. 

Action ◮ Plant—anti-inflammatory, 

astringent, deobstructant, antifungal, 

nematocidal; toxic to 

leeches. 

The plant yields anagalligenone B. 

The presence of quaternary alkaloids, 

gluco-fructoside and tannin have been 

reported. The root yields glycosidic 

saponins, including cyclamin. An 

acetyl saponin, isolated from the plant, 

was found to possess marked taenicidal 

activity but had no effect on roundworms. 

A methanolic extract of the aerial 

parts showed activity against herpes 

simplex I, adenovirus type II and polio 

type II. Triterepene saponins have 

oestrogenic activity. 

Anamirta cocculus 

(Linn.) Wight and Arn. 

Synonym ◮ A. paniculata Colebr. 

Family ◮ Menispermaceae. 

Habitat ◮ The Khasi Hills, Orissa and 

peninsular India. 

English ◮ Fish Berry, Levant Berry, 

Poison Berry, Crow Killer. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Kaakaadani, Kaakamaari. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kaakkaikkollividai. 

Action ◮ Insecticide, antifungal; 

highly valued in skin diseases; used 

A

A 

48 Ananas comosus (Linn.) Merrill 

externally to kill lice and other 

parasites. 

The leaves and fruit contain picrotoxin 

(up to 5%) and alkaloids. Picrotoxin 

(sesquiterpene glycoside) is 

a powerful poison and nerve stimulant. 

It is rarely taken internally. Cocculus 

(a tincture prepared from the powdered 

seeds of Cocculus indicus)isused 

internally as a homoeopathic medicine 

for convulsions, neurological disorders 

and psychosis-related fear. 

Picrotoxin at 20 mg is toxic, and 

two to three berries are lethal. (Francis 

Brinker.) 

Ananas comosus (Linn.) Merrill 

Family ◮ Bromeliaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Native to South America; 

cultivated mostly in Tamil Nadu, 

coastal Andhra Pradesh, Assam, 

Kerala, Karnataka, West Bengal, 

Tripura and Orissa. 

English ◮ Pineapple. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Anaanaasa, Bahunetra. 

Unani ◮ Anannaas. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Annanshippazham, 

Annasi. 

Action ◮ Anti-inflammatory (fresh 

juice used as a gargle for sore 

throat). A proteolytic enzyme, 

bromelain, is derived from the 

stem—anti-inflammatory, smooth 

muscle relaxant, digester, inhibitor 

of blood platelet aggregation. (It is 

used for cellulitis, post-operative 

oedema, sinusitis and for promoting 

digestion of proteins.) 

Key application ◮ Bromelain, the 

proteolytic enzyme, is used in acute 

postoperative and post-traumatic 

conditions of swellings, especially 

of the nasal and paranasal sinuses. 

(German Commission E.)InEurope, 

a patented tape that contains 

bromelain is used for debriding 

escharotic skin. (Internally, 

bromelain’s bioavailability has been 

questioned.) 

Anaphalis neelgerriana DC. 


Habitat ◮ The Nilgiri Hills at 2,100– 

2,500 m. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Raktaskandana. 

Folk ◮ Kaatplaaster (Nilgiri hills). 

Action ◮ Antiseptic. Fresh leaves are 

bruised and applied to wounds and 

cuts as plaster. 

An acyl flavonoid glycoside, anaphaloside, 

along with isoquercitrin and 

astragalin, has been isolated from the 

flowers of a related sp. Anaphalis contorta, 

used as an antibacterial and styptic. 

Anastatica hierochuntica Linn. 

Family ◮ Cruciferae. 

Habitat ◮ Arabia,Palestine,Syria. 

English ◮ Jericho Rose. 

Unani ◮ Kafemariyam, Kafe-aaishaa. 

Folk ◮ Garbha-phool. 

Action ◮ Used in difficult labour.

Anchusa italica Retz. 

Synonym ◮ A. azurea Mill. 


Habitat ◮ Indian gardens, and hills. 

English ◮ Cow’s Tongue Plant. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Gojihvikaa (considered 

as a vegetable, equated with Launaea 

asplenifolia Hook. f., Compositae, 

Asteraceae.) Unani Gaozabaan is 

a different drug. 

Unani ◮ Gaozabaan. (Now equated 

with species of Boraginaceae, 

particularly Borago officinalis Linn. 

Imported Unani drug Gaozabaan 

consists of the leaves and nutlets of 

Anchusa strigosa Labill and Echium 

amoenum Fisch. and Mey.) 

Action ◮ Stimulant, tonic, demulcent; 

used in bilious complaints, fever, 

cough, asthma; as diuretic in 

bladder and kidney stones. Oil—a 

rich source of vitamin E (0.72%), 

more than that of wheat-germ oil 

(0.18%). The nutlets show positive 

tests for alkaloids and tannins. The 

flowers yield anthocyanins and the 

leafy stems yield bornesitol. 

Andrographis echioides Nees 


Habitat ◮ Warmer parts of India. 

Folk ◮ Ranchimani (Maharashtra). 

Action ◮ Febrifuge, diuretic. 

The plant contains a flavone, echiodinin, 

and its glucoside, echioidin. 

EtOH (50%) extract of the plant exhibited 

diuretic activity in animal studies. 

Andrographis panicultata Wall. ex Nees 49 

Andrographis panicultata 

Wall. ex Nees 


Habitat ◮ Throughout India, from 

Himachal Pradesh to Assam and 

Mizoram, and all over southern 

India. 

English ◮ Creat. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Kaalmegha, Bhuunimba, 

Bhuuminimbaka, Vishwambharaa, 

Yavtikta, Kalpanaatha, Kiraata-tikta 

(var.). 

Unani ◮ Kiryaat. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Nilavembu. 

Action ◮ Hepatoprotective, cholinergic, 

antispasmodic, stomachic, 

anthelmintic, alterative, blood 

purifier, febrifuge. It acts well on 

the liver, promoting secretion of 

bile. Used in jaundice and torpid 

liver, flatulence and diarrhoea of 

children, colic, strangulation of 

intestines and splenomegaly; also 

for cold and upper respiratory tract 

infections. 

Key application ◮ As bitter tonic, 

febrifuge and hepatoprotective. 


Kaalmegha, officinal in IP, consists 

of dried leaves and tender shoots, 

which yield not less than 1% andrographolide 

on dry-weight basis. 

Several active constituents have been 

identified from the leaf and rhizome, 

including andrographolide, deoxyandrographolide 

and other diterpenes. 

Andrographolide exhibited strong 

choleretic action when administered 

i.p. to rats. It induces increase in bile 

A

A 

50 Andropogon muricatus Retz. 

flow together with change in physical 

properties of bile secretion. It was 

found to be more potent than silymarin. 

Andrographolide was found to be 

almost devoid of antihepatitis-B virus 

surface antigen-like activity (when 

compared with picroliv.) 

The leaf and stem extracts of Kaalmegha/andrographolide 

given s.c. or 

orally did not change blood sugar level 

of normal or diabetic rats. 

Alcoholic extract of the plant exhibited 

antidiarrhoeal activity against 

E. coli enterotoxins in animal models. 

Clinical evidence of effectiveness of 

andrographis in humans is limited to 

the common cold. Preliminary evidence 

suggests that it might increase 

antibody activity and phagocytosis by 

macrophages, and might have mast 

cell-stabilizing and antiallergy activity. 



The herb is contraindicated in bleeding 

disorders, hypotension, as well as 

male and female sterility (exhibited infertility 

in laboratory animals). 


juice; 50–100 ml decotion; 1–3 g 


Andropogon muricatus Retz. 

Synonym ◮ Vetiveria zizanioides 

(Linn.) Nash. 

Family ◮ Poaceae. 

Habitat ◮ All over India. 

English ◮ Vetiver, Cuscus. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Ushira. 

Unani ◮ Khas. 

Siddha ◮ Vettiveru. 

Action ◮ Roots—refrigerant, 

febrifuge, diaphoretic, stimulant, 

stomachic and emmenagogue; 

used in strangury, colic, flatulence, 

obstinate vomiting; paste used as 

a cooling application in fevers. 


oil are vetiselinenol and khusimol. Several 

sesquiterpenoids, including vetidiol, 

are also present. The two types of 

oils, laevorotatory and dextrorotatory, 

from northern India and southern India, 

respectively, are biochemically different. 

Andropogon sp.: see Cymbopogon 

sp. 

Anemone obtusiloba D. Don 

Synonym ◮ A. pulsatilla Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Native to Europe; thrives 

in dry grassland in central and 

northern parts of the continent. 

English ◮ Wind-Flower, Wood 

Anemone, Pasque Flower, Pulsatilla. 

Unani ◮ Gul-laalaa, Shaqaaq-un- 

Nomaan. 

Action ◮ Nervine and sedative 

(used for anxiety neurosis, nervous 

exhaustion, tension, headache, 

migraine, insomnia), antispasmodic 

(in catarrh); used for amenorrhoea, 

inflammation of ovaries, painful 

menstruation and genito-urinary 

infections. The rootstock is given 

with milk for concussions. The

Angelica archangelica Linn. var. himalaica (C.B.Clarke)KrishnaandBadhwar 51 

seeds cause vomiting and purging. 

The seed oil is used in rheumatism. 

Pulsatilla contains ranunculin, 

which hydrolyzes to a toxic, unstable 

compound protoanemonin, which 

readily dimerizes to non-toxic anemonin. 

Anemonin and protoanemonin exhibit 

sedative and antipyretic activity. 

Protoanemonin is also antimicrobial. 

(Topically, Pulsatilla is used for infectious 

diseases of the skin.) 

Anethum sowa Roxb. ex Flem. 

Synonym ◮ A. graveolens Linn. var. 

sowa Roxb. 

A. graveolens DC. 

Peucedanum sowa Roxb. 

Peucedanum graveolens Benth. 


Habitat ◮ Cultivated all over India. 

English ◮ Indian Dill, Sowa. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Shataahvaa. Shatapushpaa 

(also accepted as Foeniculum 

vulgare Mill., equated with 

Mishreya, Mishi, Madhurikaa). 

Unani ◮ Shibt, Soyaa. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Sadakuppai. 

Action ◮ Carminative, stomachic, 

antispasmodic. 

Key application ◮ In dyspepsia. 

(German Commission E.) 

The fresh and dried leaf is used for 

prevention and treatment of diseases 

and disorders of the gastrointestinal 

tract, kidney and urinary tract, for 

spasms and sleep disorders. (Included 

among unapproved herbs by German 

Commission E.) 

An aqueous dill extract, administered 

intravenously, lowers blood pressure, 

dilates blood vessels, stimulates 

respiration and slows heart rate in animals. 



Dill seeds contain up to 5% volatile 

oil (about half of which is carvone), 

flavonoids, coumarins, xanthones and 

triterpenes. The yield of the oil from 

Indian A. sowa varies from 1.3 to 3.5%. 

Carvone is the major constituent (19.5– 

69.7%).Theoilfromseedsisusedfor 

flatulence in children and enters into 

the preparations of gripe water. The oil 

is also antimicrobial and antifungal. 

Dill apiol is considered undesirable 

and toxic. Vizag fruit var. from 

Andhra Pradesh is dill-apiol-free and 

with 54–56%, carvone content having 

same flavonoid pattern as A. sowa. 

Dosage ◮ Dried fruit—3–6 g powder. 

(API Vol. III.) Fruit, leaf—1–3 g 


Angelica archangelica Linn. var. 

himalaica (C.B.Clarke)Krishna 

and Badhwar 


Habitat ◮ Native to Syria; now grown 

in Kashmir at 1,000–3,900 m. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Chandaa, Chandaamshuka, 

Kathachoraa. 

Action ◮ Expectorant, carminative, 

digestant, cholagogue, antispasmodic, 

diaphoretic, diuretic, 

anti-inflammatory, smooth muscle 

relaxant, antifungal, antibacterial. 

A

A 

52 Angelica glauca Edgew. 

Key application ◮ In flatulence and 

peptic discomforts. The root 

is a component in numerous 

gastrointestinal, cholagogue and 

biliary remedies in Germany. 

(Angelica root is an approved herb, 

whereas the seed and above-ground 

parts have been included among 

unapproved herbs by German 


Chinese angelica root, Dong Quai, 

is equated with Angelica sinensis. It 

is prescribed internally for menstrual 

irregularity, lack of menstruation and 

painful menstruation. 

The roots from Kashmir yield furocoumarins, 

phenol compounds and 

flavonoids. 

Xanthotoxol exhibited antihistamintic 

and antinicotinic activities on 

guinea-pig ileum. The dry extract has 

been shown to have anti-inflammatory 

activity. 

The root is reported to inhibit bacterial 

and fungal growth. 

Furocoumarins, especially psoralen 

and 8-methoxypsoralen, are used in 

the photochemotherapy of psoriasis 

and vitiligo. The biological activity 

is due to covalent linkage formed 

with DNA by irradiation with longwavelength 

UV light. 

Most of the coumarins have shown 

significant calcium antagonistic activity 

in vitro. 

Angelicin, a resin, is stimulating to 

the lungs and skin. contraindicated in 

bleeding disorders, peptic ulcers and 

pregnancy. (Sharon M. Herr.) 


(CCRAS.) 

Angelica glauca Edgew. 


Habitat ◮ Kashmir and Chamba in 

Himachal Pradesh, between 1,800– 

3,700 m. 

English ◮ Angelica. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Choraka, Chorakaa, 

Kopanaa, Chorakaakhya, 

Nishaachara, Dhanhar, Taskara, 

Kshemaka. 

Action ◮ Root—cordial and stimulant, 

carminative (used in constipation), 

expectorant, diaphoretic. 

The root contains furocoumarins, 

also dimeric, lingusticum lactone. 


(CCRAS.) 

Anisochilus carnosus Wall. 

Family ◮ Labiatae; Lamiaceae. 

Habitat ◮ The western Himalayas, 

Central and southern India. 

Folk ◮ Karpuravalli (southern 

region). 

Action ◮ Stimulant, expectorant and 

diaphoretic. Juice of fresh leaves is 

used in urticaria and other allergic 

conditions; a domestic remedy for 

coughs and cold. Alcoholic extract 

of the whole plant—antibacterial. 

Essential oil—antitubercular. 

The oil exhibits antihistaminic property 

in vitro on smooth muscles of the 

uterus and the intestines. It also possesses 

muscle-relaxant action; bactericidal 

and fungicidal properties. The

leaves contain glucosides of luteolin 

and apigenin. 

Anisomeles malabarica 

(Linn.) R. Br. ex Sims 


Habitat ◮ The western Ghats from 

Maharashtra to Karnataka; Andhra 

Pradesh, Kerala and Tamil Nadu. 

English ◮ Malabar Catmint. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Sprikkaa. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Irattaipeyameratti. 

Action ◮ Antispasmodic (used 

in dyspepsia, colic), antipyretic, 

diaphoretic, antiperiodic, emmenagogue, 

antirheumatic. The oil is 

used externally as an embrocation 

in rheumatic arthritis. 

The plant contains beta-sitosterol, 

letulinic acid, ovatodiolide and anisomelic 

acid. The essential oil from 

tops and flowers yield a terpene hydrocarbon, 

citral and geranic acid. 

Annona reticulata Linn. 

Family ◮ Annonaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Native to the West Indies. 

Cultivated in Bengal, Assam, Khasi 

Hills and southern India. 

English ◮ Bullock’s Heart, Common 

Custard Apple. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Raamphala. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Aninuna. 

Folk ◮ Luvuni. 

Annona squamosa Linn. 53 

Action ◮ Leaves—insecticide, anthelmintic, 

styptic, externally used 

as suppurant. Unripe and dried 

fruit—antidysenteric. Bark— 

powerful astringent, used as 

antidysenteric and vermifuge. 

Rootbark,leavesandstemsgaveisoquinoline 

alkaloids. Two acetogenins, 

annoreticuin and isoannoreticuin, isolated 

from the leaves, were found to be 

selectively cytotoxic to certain human 

tumours. 

The leaves and stems also gave alkaloids—dopamine, 

salsolinol and coclaurine. 

Annona reticulata, Annona muricata, 

Annona squamosa and Annona 

cherimola are known as Raamphala, 

Lakshman-phala, Sitaa-phala and 

Hanumaan-phala, respectively. 

Annona squamosa Linn. 


Habitat ◮ A native to South America 

and the West Indies; now cultivated 

throughout India. 

English ◮ Custard Apple, Sugar 

Apple, Sweet-sop. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Gandagaatra, Sitaa 

phala (also equated with Curcurbita 

maxima). 

Unani ◮ Sharifaa. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Sitaaphalam, Atta. 

Action ◮ Leaves—insecticide (seed 

powder, mixed with leaf juice is 

used for removing lice from scalp). 

Seeds—abortifacient. Root— 

purgative, used in blood dysentery. 

A

A 

54 Anogeissus latifolia Wall. ex Bedd. 

Fruit—invigorating, sedative to 

heart, antibilious, antiemetic, 

expectorant. Dried, powdered 

unripe fruits—used for treating 

ulcers. Ripe fruit made into paste 

withbetelleavesisappliedto 

tumour to hasten suppuration. 

Leaves, bark, unripe fruit—strongly 

astringent; used for diarrhoea and 

dysentery. 

A fraction of total alkaloid from 

roots exhibits antihypertensive, antispasmodic, 

antihistaminic and bronchodilatory 

properties. Leaves contain 

a cardiotonic alkaloid, quinoline. 

Squamone and bullatacinone were selectively 

cytotoxic to human breast carcinoma. 

In Cuban medicine, leaves are taken 

to reduce uric acid levels. 

Anogeissus latifolia 

Wall. ex Bedd. 

Family ◮ Combretaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Central and southern India. 

English ◮ Axle-wood, Button tree, 

Ghatti tree. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Dhava, Dhurandhara, 

Shakataahya. Indravrksha 

(A. acuminata Wall. ex Bedd. is 

a related sp. of Dhava). 

Unani ◮ Dhaawaa. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Vellaynaga. 

Folk ◮ Ghatti (Gum). 

Action ◮ Astringent, cooling, used 

in diarrhoea, dysentery, ulcers, 

piles, urinary disorders and dysuria. 

Gum—used as a tonic after delivery. 

The leaves, bark and heartwood 

yield quinic and shikmik acids; leaves 

contain gallotannin (90–95% of the 

tannins). The young leaves and shoots 

contain 50% tannins (dry basis). The 

bark contains 12–18% tannins. Heartwood 

contains gallic acid, ellagic acid, 

its derivatives, quercetin and myricetin. 

Thegumismainlythecalciumsalt 

of a complex, high molecular weight 

polysaccharic acid (ghattic acid). The 

gum is a substitute for Gum arabic. 

Anthemis nobilis Linn. 

Synonym ◮ Chamaemelum nobile (L.) 

Allioni. 

Family ◮ Asteraceae. 

Habitat ◮ The temperate regions of 

the Himalayas. Wild at several 

places. 

English ◮ Roman Chamomile, Double 

Chamomile. 

Unani ◮ Gul-e-Baabuuna. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Shimai chamantipu. 

Action ◮ Mild sedative, anticonvulsant, 

antispasmodic, antiinflammatory, 

mild analgesic; 

used externally for skin disorders, 

poultice of flowers in sprains and 

rheumatism. 

Key application ◮ Used mainly 

in France for mild spasmodic 

gastrointestinal disturbances and 

sluggishness of bowels, also for 

nervousness. (PDR.) (German 

Chamomile has been included 

by German Commission E among 

approved herbs, whereas Roman

chamomile remains unapproved 

due to lack of clinical evidence.) 

The British Herbal Pharmacopoeia 

recognizes antispasmodic activity 

of Anthemis nobilis. 

The flower heads contain volatile 

oil (including azulenes and bisabolol); 

sesquiterpene lactone (nobilin); flavonoids, 

cyanogenic glycoside, bitter glucoside 

(anthemic acid); acetylenic salicylic 

derivatives, coumarins (including 

scopolin), valerianic acid; tannins. 

Azulenes and bisabolol are antiinflammatory 

and antispasmodic, reducing 

histamine-induced reactions, 

including hay fever and asthma. Flavonoids, 

especially anthemidin, are also 

antispasmodic. Valerianic acid and 

cyanogenic glycosides are sedative. 

Anthocephalus cadamba Miq. 

Synonym ◮ A. indicus A. Rich. 

A. chinensis (Lam.) A. Rich. ex 

Walp. 


Habitat ◮ Assam, Bengal, southwards 

to Andhra Pradesh and western 

Ghats. 

English ◮ Kadam. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Kadamba, Priyaka, 

Vrtta-pushpa, Nipa, Halipriya. 

Kadambaka is equated with Adina 

cordifolia. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Venkadambu, Vellai 

Kadambam. 

Action ◮ Stembark—febrifugal, 

antidiuretic, anthelmintic, hypoglycaemic. 

Fruit—cooling; anticatarrhal, 

blood purifier, analgesic. 

Antiaris toxicaria Lesch. 55 

Flowers and root—abortifacient. 

Leaves—astringent. A decoction is 

used for gargling in stomatitis and 

aphthae. 



of India indicates the use of dried stembark 

in disorders of female genital tract 

and bleeding disorders. 

The dried bark contains alkaloids, 

steroids, reducing sugars and also tannins 

(4.61%). The ether-soluble alkaloid 

of the bark shows antibacterial activity. 

Dosage ◮ Stembark—0.5–1.5 g 


Antiaris toxicaria Lesch. 

Family ◮ Moraceae. 

Habitat ◮ Western Ghats from 

Konkan southwards to Trivandrum, 

up to 600 m. 

English ◮ Sacking tree, Upas tree. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Valkala vrksha. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Aranthelli, Mara-uri, 

Nettavil. 

Folk ◮ Jangali Lakuch, Jasund, 

Chaandakudaa. 

Action ◮ Seed—febrifuge, antidysenteric 

(in minute doses). Latex— 

circulatory stimulant (in minute 

doses.) 

The latex contains a series of poisonous 

cardenolides, of which alphaand/or 

beta-antiarin are the main components. 

The total amount of crystalline 

cardiac glycosides in the latex 

A

A 

56 Aphanamixis polystachya (Wall.) Parker. 

ranges from 0.1 to 2.5%; alpha-antiarin 

from 0.0 to 1.38% and beta-antiarin 

from 0.075 to 1.44%. Antiarins are said 

to act on the heart more powerfully 

than digitalin. Beta-antiarin is more 

potent than alpha-antiarin. 

Latex, in small quantities, is a mild 

cardiac and circulatory stimulant, 

whereas in large quantities it acts as 

a myocardial poison. It stimulates intestinal 

and uterine contractions. 

As many as 34 Kedde-positive substances 

were reported in the seed samplefromIndonesia.Thelatexsample 

showed the presence of 29 Keddepositive 

substances. 

Aphanamixis polystachya 

(Wall.) Parker. 

Synonym ◮ Amoora rohituka W. and 

A. 


Habitat ◮ The sub-Himalayas tracts, 

Sikkim, Assam, Bengal, western 

Ghats and the Andamans. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Rohitaka, Daadimachhada, 

Daadima-pushpaka, 

Plihaghna. Tecoma undulata G. 

Don., Bignoniaceae, is also equated 

with Rohitaka. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Malampuluvan. 

Action ◮ Bark—strongly astringent, 

used in the diseases of the liver and 

spleen, and for tumours, enlarged 

glands. Seed oil—used in muscular 

pains and rheumatism. All parts 

of the plant exhibit pesticidal 

activity. Seed extract—antibacterial, 

antifungal. 

An aqueous extract of the bark, 

when injected i.p. in normal guinea 

pigs, showed reduction in absolute 

lymphocyte count and an increase in 

spleen weight. The bark appears to be 

an effective immunosuppressive drug 

similar to prednisolone. 

The stembark contains a limonoid, 

ammorinin and a saponin, poriferasterol-3-rhamnoside. 

Apium graveolens Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Native to Europe; cultivated 

in northwestern Himalayas and in 

hills of Uttar Pradesh, Himachal 

Pradesh and southern India. 

English ◮ Celery. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Ajmodaa, Ajmoda, 

Ajmodikaa, Dipyaka. 

Unani ◮ Karafs. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Celery-keerai. 

Folk ◮ Ajmodaa. 

Action ◮ Anti-inflammatory (used in 

rheumatic disorders, inflammation 

of the urinary tract), diuretic, 

carminative, nervine, sedative, 

antiemetic, antispasmodic, antiseptic 

(used in bronchitis, asthma, as 

well as liver and spleen diseases), 

emmenagogue. Essential oil from 

seeds—tranquilizer, anticonvulsant, 

antifungal. Seeds are used in the 

treatment of chronic skin disorders 

including psoriasis. 

Key application ◮ As diuretic. (The 

British Herbal Pharmacopoeia.)

Celery yields an essential oil (3%), 

major constituent being d-limonene 

(50%) and phathalides and beta-selinene; 

coumarins, furanocoumarins 

(bergapten); flavonoids (apiin and apigenin). 

Alkaloid fraction of seeds 

showed tranquilizing activity in animals. 

The phthalides are sedative in 

mice and exhibit antiepileptic activity 

in rats and mice. The aqueous extract 

of the celery has been shown to 

reduce adjuvant-induced arthritis in 

rats, and to be hypotensive in patients 

as well as animals. The tincture of the 

plant exhibits drop in blood pressure 

accompaniedbyanincreaseinurine 

output. 

Apium leptophyllum 

(Pers.) F. Muell. ex Benth. 

Family ◮ Umbelliferae. 

Habitat ◮ Native to America; cultivated 

in Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, 

Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Ajmodaa, Dipyaka. 

Unani ◮ Ajmod, Karafs-e-Hindi. 

Siddha ◮ Omam. 

Action ◮ See Apium graveolens. 

The essential oil contains Meethers 

of thymol, carvacrol and thymoquinol; 

used as a carminative. The oil shows 

strong antifungal activity against Candida 

albicans, and moderate activity 

against Gram-positive and Gramnegative 

bacteria. 


(API Vol. II.) 

Aquilaria agallocha Roxb. 

Aquilaria agallocha Roxb. 57 

Synonym ◮ A. malaccensis Lamk. 

Family ◮ Thymelaceae. 

Habitat ◮ The hills of Assam, 

Meghalaya, Nagaland, Manipur and 

Tripura. 

English ◮ Aloewood, Eaglewood, 

Agarwood. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Aguru, Krimij, Krishnaaguru, 

Jongaka, Maaliyaka, Loha, 

Kaalaloha, Asitaka. 

Unani ◮ Ood-ul Hindi, Ood Gharqi. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Akil kattai, Agil. 

Action ◮ Heartwood—astringent, 

carminative, antiasthmatic, antidiarrhoeal, 

antidysenteric; used in 

gout, rheumatism and paralysis; as 

a stimulant in sexual debility; as 

a liniment in skin diseases. 

The agarwood or eaglewood of commerce 

is derived from the fungusinfected 

tree through wounds caused 

by the species of Aspergillus, Fusarium, 

Penicillium, and also by some of Fungi 

Imperfecti. Agarwood on distillation 

yields an essential oil, known as Agar 

Oil. 

The essential oil yields a number 

of agarofurans, sesquiterpene alcohols 

and spirosesquiterpene alcohols. 

The stemwood yields sesquiterpenoids—gmelofuran 

and agarol; also 

a coumarinolignan—aquillochin. 

(Agar is a different drug—extract of 

a seaweed, Gelidium Amansii, usedas 

a mild laxative.) 

Dosage ◮ Heartwood—1–3 g powder. 


A

A 

58 Arachis hypogaea Linn. 

Arachis hypogaea Linn. 

Family ◮ Papilionaceae; Fabaceae 

Habitat ◮ Native to Brazil, but widely 

grown for its pods in southern 

India, Maharashtra and Gujarat. 

English ◮ Groundnut, Peanut, 

Monkeynut. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Mandapi, Tailamudga, 

Bhuumimudga. 

Unani ◮ Moongphali. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Nelakadalai, 

Verkadalai. 

Action ◮ Kernels—contain protease 

inhibitors. Peanut skin— 

haemostatic. 

There is a haemostatic principle in 

the peanut flour, which is said to improve 

the condition of haemophiliacs. 

The protease inhibitor acts on the fibrinolytic 

system, primarily as an antiplasmin. 

It is reported to form complexes 

not only with the enzymes, but 

also with the corresponding zymogens. 

The peanut (red) skin contains bioflavonoids, 

which possess vitamin– 

P activity; tannins; a lipoxidase and 

aproteaseinhibitor. Capricacid,obtained 

from the (red) skin, showed 

antifungal activity against Aspergillus 

niger. 

Aralia binnatifida (Seem.) Clarke. 

Synonym ◮ A. pseudo-ginseng Wall. 

ssp. himalaicus Hara. 

Family ◮ Araliaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Nepal, Sikkim and Bhutan, 

Khasi Hills. 

Folk ◮ Taapamaari (Maharashtra). 

Action ◮ Stimulant, aphrodisiac, 

antipyretic, dyspeptic, expectorant. 

Arctium lappa Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Native to northern Europe; 

now found in western Himalayas, 

Kashmir and Simla. 

English ◮ Common or Great Burdock. 

Folk ◮ Phaggarmuul (Kashmir). 

Action ◮ Hypoglycaemic (plant 

extract caused reduction of blood 

sugarwithanincreaseincarbohydrate 

tolerance). Roots—inhibitory 

of tumour growth, cardiac stimulant, 

diuretic, spasmolytic. Leaves 

and seeds—anticutaneous (used in 

psoriasis, seborrhoic eczema). 

Key application ◮ As dermatological 

agent. (The British Herbal 


Important constituents of Burdock 

roots are fatty acids, organic acids, phenolic 

acids, lignans, sesquiterpenes, 

tannin, inulin and mucilage. 

Extracts of the fruit are reported to 

have hypoglycaemic activity in rats. 

Arctigenin (lignan) is a weak inhibitor 

of experimental tumour growth. The 

antimicrobial properties are due to 

polyacetylenes (of the root). The root 

exhibits antibiotic activity against 

Staphylococcus, and is used for fungal 

and bacterial infections. A flavonoid, 

arctiin, shows smooth muscle relaxant 

properties.

Arctostaphylos uva-ursi Spreng. 

Family ◮ Ericaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Native to North America, 

Europe and Asia. 

English ◮ Bearberry. 

Unani ◮ Inbud-dub, Angur-e-khiras, 

Reechh Daakh. 

Action ◮ Astringent, dirutic; used for 

urinary tract infections, dysuria, 

cystitis, urethritis, pyelitis. 

The leaves gave 0.8–1% of a flavanol 

glucoside, isoquercitin, arbutin and 

methyl arbutin. Total arbutin content 

varies from 7.5 to 10.7%; tannins 15 

to 20%. Arbutin hydrolyses to hydroquinone, 

a urinary antiseptic. 

Arbutin is antimicrobial, but the 

crude extract of uva-ursi is more effective 

than isolated arbutin. In rats, uvaursi 

showed anti-inflammatory activity 

against experimentally induced inflammation. 

(Natural Medicines comprehensive 


Areca catechu Linn. 

Family ◮ Palmae; Arecaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Native to Malaysia; now 

grownalong the coastsof Karnataka, 

Kerala, Tamil Nadu, West Bengal, 

Assam and Maharashtra. 

English ◮ Arecanut, Betel Nut. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Puuga, Puugi, Kramuka, 

Ghontaa, Guwaak, Ghorant. 

Unani ◮ Fufal, Chhaalia, Supaari. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kottai Paakku, 

Kamugu. 

Areca catechu Linn. 59 

Action ◮ Taeniacide (confined to 

veterinary medicine), astringent, 

stimulant. 

Along with other therapeutic application, 


of India indicates the use of dried ripe 

seed in leucorrhoea and vaginal laxity. 

Arecanut contains several alkaloids 

belonging to pyridine group, the most 

important being arecoline (0.1–0.5%). 

Arecaidine, guvacine and isoguvacine 

are also present. Arecoline is anthelmintic 

(in animals, not in humans). 

Arecaidine has no parasympathomimetic 

effects, but only stimulating 

properties; sedative in higher doses. 

Isoguvacine produces hypotension. 

Contraindicated in asthma due to 

bronchoconstrictive effects of the alkaloid 

arecoline (human case reports). 

(Francis Brinker.) 

Arecanut tannins (8.0–18.0%) are 

predominantly catechol tannins which 

closely resemble Mimosa bark tannins. 

Powdered nuts are prescribed in 

diarrhoea and urinary disorders. In 

combination with other astringent and 

stypticherbs,arecanutisusedasamajor 

constituent in confections of Indian 

medicine for gynaecological disorders. 

Aqueous extract of the nut exhibits 

direct vasoconstriction and adrenaline 

potentiation in rats. Antimicrobial 

activity is due to polyphenolic fraction. 

Tannins potentiated the action of 

acetylcholine in ileum and uterus of rat 

and noradrenaline on seminal vesicle 

at low concentration. 

Due to increased incidence of oral 

cancer associated with betel chewing, 

the use of arecanut as a masticatory is 

being discouraged. 

A

A 

60 Argemone mexicana Linn. 

Seeds are toxic at 8–10 g, fluid extract 

at 3.7 ml; and arecoline hydrobromide 

at 4.3–6.5 mg. (Francis Brinker.) 

Dosage ◮ Dried ripe fruit—1–2 g 

powder. (API Vol. I.) 

Argemone mexicana Linn. 

Family ◮ Papaveraceae. 

Habitat ◮ Native to America; 

naturalized throughout India. 

English ◮ Prickly Poppy, Mexican 

Poppy. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Katuparni, Svarnkshiri, 

Kaanchan-kshiri, Pitadugdhaa. 

Hemaahvaa, Himaavati, Hemavati. 

(Not to be equated with Brahmadandi—Tricholepis 

glaberrima.) 

Unani ◮ Satyaanaashi. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Piramathandu, 

Kudiyotti. 

Action ◮ Seed—responsible for 

epidemic dropsy. Causes diarrhoea 

and induces toxicity. Oil, leaf 

juice and root—used externally for 

indolent ulcers and skin diseases. 

The herb contains isoquinoline alkaloids. 

The fresh latex contains proteindissolving 

constituents and is used externally 

to treat warts, tumours and 

cancer. Latex contains alkaloid berberine 

(0.74%), protopine (0.36%) and free 

amino acids. Sanguinarine is the toxic 

factor in seeds. 

Argyreia speciosa Sweet. 

Synonym ◮ A. nervosa (Burm. f.) Boj. 

Family ◮ Convolvulaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Found all over India, 

ascending to 300 m. 

English ◮ Elephant Creeper. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Vriddhadaaruka, 

Vriddhadaaru, Vriddhadaaraka, 

Bastaantri, Sthavira, Sthaviradaaru, 

Atarunadaaru, Samudrashosha. 

(Seeds of Salvia plebeia R. Br. are 

also known as Samudrashosha.) 

Unani ◮ Samunder sokh. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Ambgar, Samuddirapacchai 

Folk ◮ Bidhaaraa. 

Action ◮ Root—aphrodisiac (considered 

as a rejuvenator), nervine 

(used in diseases of nervous system, 

sexual disorders), diuretic 

(used in strangury), antirheumatic. 

Seeds—hypotensive, spasmolytic. 

Leaves—used externally in skin 

diseases (ringworm, eczema, boils, 

swellings); rubefacient, topically 

stimulant. 

The seeds contain hallucinogenic 

ergoline alkaloids, the main ones being 

ergine and isoergine. EtOH (50%) 

extract of seeds exhibits hypotensive 

activity. (Seeds of all species of Argyreia 

contain ergoline alkaloids and 

are hypotensive.) Leaves of Argyreia 

sp. contain sitosterol and are antiphlogistic. 

In Indian medicine, A. speciosa is 

not used as a single drug for sexual 

disorders in men, but as a supportingdrugforexertingitsantiphlogistic, 

spasmolytic and hypotensive actions 

on the central nervous system. The

drug, in itself, did not show anaboliccum-androgen-like 

or spermogenetic 

activity experimentally. 

Ipomoea petaloidea Chois and Ipomoea 

biloba Forsk of the Convolvulacae 

family are also used as Vriddhadaaru. 

In Western herbal medicine, Hawaiian 

Baby Woodrose is equated with 

Argyreia nervosa (synonym Argyreia 

speciosa; grows in Florida, California 

and Hawaii). The seed is used for pain 

relief and as a hallucinogen. 

The seeds contain hallucinogens including 

ergonovine, isoergine (isolysergic 

acid amide) and ergine (lysergic 

acid amide). Four to eight seeds 

are equivalent to 10–100 mcg of LSD, 

a potent serotonin-1A (5-HT1A) agonist. 

The effects last 6–8 h. (Natural 


2007.) 


(CCRAS.) 

Aristolochia bracteolata Lam. 

Synonym ◮ A. bracteata Retz. 

Family ◮ Aristolochiaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Uttar Pradesh, Bengal, 

Madhya Pradesh and western 


English ◮ Bracteated Birthwort. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Kitamaari, Dhumrapatraa, 

Naakuli. 

Unani ◮ Kiraamaar. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Aadutheendaappaalai, 

Kattusuragam. 

Action ◮ Oxytocic, abortifacient, 

emmenagogue. 

Aristolochia indica Linn. 61 

Leaves and fruit contain ceryl alcohol, 

aristolochic acid and beta-sitosterol. 

Aristolochic acid is insecticidal, 

poisonous, nephrotoxic. Leaf juice— 

vermifuge. Seeds—strong purgative. 

Products containing aristolochic acid 

are banned in the U.S., Canada, Great 

Britain, European countries and 

Japan. 

The seed compounds, aristolochic 

acid and magnoflorine, induce contractions 

in the isolated uterus of pregnant 

rat and stimulate the isolated 

ileum of guinea pig. They also activate 

the muscarinic and serotonergic 

receptors in a variety of organs. 

Magnoflorine decreases arterial blood 

pressure in rabbits, and induces hypothermia 

in mice. 

See also A. longa. 

Aristolochia indica Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Throughout the country, 

mainly in the plains and lower hilly 

regions. 

English ◮ The Indian Birthwort. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Ishvari, Gandhnaakuli, 

Naagadamani, Arkamuula. 

Unani ◮ Zaraavand-Hindi. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Adagam. 

Folk ◮ Isarmuula, Isrola. 


emmenagogue. 

Aristolochia sp. contain aristolochic 

acids and aristolactams. 

A

A 

62 Aristolochia longa Linn. 

Aristolochia longa Linn. 


English ◮ European Birthwort. 

Unani ◮ Zaraawand Taweel. 


emmenagogue. 

Aristolochic acid and its Me ester—strongly 

abortifacient, showed 

damage to liver and kidney. Roots— 

anti-oestrogenic. A cytotoxic lignan, 

savinin, has been isolated from the 

roots. 

Aristolochic acid also has an effect 

against adenosarcoma and HeLa cells 

in culture; however, it is suspected to 

be carcinogenic. 

Aristolochia extracts show a pronounced 

enhancement of phagocytosis 

by leucocytes, granulocytes and peritoneal 

macrophages, due to the presence 

of aristolochic acids. 

Tardolyt-coated tablets, which contain 

0.3 mg of aristolochic acid, increase 

phagocytosis in healthy men. 

Aristolochic acid also exhibits reduction 

of some of the toxic effects 

of prednisolone, chloramphenicol and 

tetracycline in experiments in vitro, 

and a reduction in the rate of recurrent 

herpes lesions in vivo. 

Armoracia lapathifolia Gilib. 

Synonym ◮ A. rusticana Gaertn et al. 

Family ◮ Cruciferae; Brassicaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Native to Europe; grown 

in gardens in northern India and in 

hill stations of southern India. 

English ◮ Horseradish. 

Action ◮ Circulatory stimulant, 

diaphoretic, diuretic, antibiotic. 

Used for both urinary and respiratory 

tract infections. Root—liver, 

spleen and pancreatic stimulant; 

an alternative to Cayenne pepper; 

urinary antiseptic; diuretic; used 

in the treatment of gout, increases 

excretion of uric acid; also for 

proteinura and vaginal discharges. 

An infusion is used for hepatitis. 

Key application ◮ In catarrhs of the 

respiratory tract and as a supportive 

therapy for infections of the urinary 

tract; externally for catarrhs of the 

respiratory tract and hyperaemic 

treatment of minor muscle aches. 

(German Commission E.) Itis 

contraindicated in stomach and 

intestinal ulcers and kidney 

disorders; not to be administered to 

children under 4 years. 

The root contains glucosinolates, 

mainly sinigrin, which releases allyl 

isothiocyanate on contact with the enzyme 

myrosin during crushing. The 

oil exhibits broad-spectrum antibiotic 

activity due to allyl isothiocyanates 

and allied compounds; used internally 

as stimulant, sudorific and diuretic. 

Antibiotic activity is stronger against 

Gram-positive bacteria than against 

Gram-negative bacteria. The oil also 

exhibits cytotoxic activity. 

The root produces an inhibitory effect 

on the growth of Gram-negative 

bacteria of the typhoid-paratyphoidentertitis 

group. 

Kaempferol, a component of Horseradish, 

inhibits thyroid peroxidase, 

which is involved in the biosynthe-

sis of thyroid hormone. (Sharon M. 

Herr.) 

Arnebia benthamii 

(Wall. ex G. Don) Johnston. 

Synonym ◮ Macrotomia benthamii A. 

DC. 



Kashmir to Kumaon, at altitude of 

3,000–3,900 m, and in Nepal. 

Folk ◮ Kashmiri Gaozabaan, Kashmiri 

Kahzabaan. 

Action ◮ Stimulant, cardiac tonic, 

expectorant, diuretic (syrup and 

jam, used in diseases of the mouth 

and throat, also in the treatment 

of fevers and debility.) The roots 

possess antiseptic and antibiotic 

properties. 

Artabotrys hexapetalus 

(Linn. f.) Bhandari. 

Synonym ◮ A. odoratissimus R. Br. 


Habitat ◮ Southern India, largely 

growningardens. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Panasagandhi, (Harit) 

Champaka. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Manoranjidam. 

Folk ◮ Haraa champaa (north), 

Kathari champaa; Hirvaa champaa 


Action ◮ Cardiacstimulant,uterine 

stimulant, muscle relaxant. 

Artemisia absinthium Linn. 63 

The extract of the pericarp showed 

a positive ionotropic and chronotropic 

effect on all types of experimental animals. 

The cardiac stimulant and uterine 

stimulant activity is attributed to 

the glycosides, whereas the relaxant action 

on plain muscles and hypotensive 

effect, which could be partly cholinergic 

and partly resulting from vasodilatory 

action, are probably due to the 

presence of the volatile oil. 

The leaves are found to contain an 

antifertility principle. The root contains 

an antimalarial agent. 

Artemisia absinthium Linn. 

Synonym ◮ Absinthium vulgare 

Gaertn. 

A. officinale Lam. 


Habitat ◮ Kashmir at altitudes of 

1500–2100 m. 

English ◮ Wormwood, Maderwood. 

Unani ◮ Afsanteen, Vilaayati Afsanteen. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Machipatri. 

Folk ◮ Mastiyaaraa (Punjab), Titween 

(Kashmir). 

Action ◮ Choleretic (bile and gastric 

juice stimulant), anthelmintic, 

stomachic, carminative, antispasmodic, 

anti-inflammatory, emmenagogue, 

mild antidepressant; used 

in chronic fevers. 

Key application ◮ In loss of appetite, 

dyspepsia, biliary dyskinesia. (German 

Commission E.) Inanorexia, 

for example, after illness, and 

A

A 

64 Artemisia maritima Linn. 

dyspeptic complaints. (ESCOP.) 

It is contraindicated in gastric 

and duodenal ulcers. Excessive 

doses may cause vomiting, severe 

diarrhoea, retention of urine or 

dazed feeling and central nervous 

system disturbances. (ESCOP.) 

The herb contains a volatile oil of 

variable composition, with alpha- and 

beta-thujone as the major component, 

up to about 35%; sesquiterpene 

lactones (artabasin, absinthin, anabsinthin); 

azulenes; flavonoids; phenolicacids;lignans. 

Thujone is a toxic constituent which 

shows hallucinogenic and addictive activity 

found in Indian hemp. It stimulates 

the brain; safe in small doses, 

toxic in excess. The azulenes are antiinflammatory. 

The sesquiterpene lactones 

exhibit an antitumour effect and 

are insecticidal and anthelmintic. 

Essential oil from leaves—antibacterial, 

antifungal. The oil is toxic at 

10 ml. 

Artemisia maritima Linn. 




English ◮ Wormseed, Santonica. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Chauhaara, Kirmaani 

Yavaani, Chuhaari Ajawaayin; not 

related to Ajawaayin. 

Unani ◮ Dirmanah, Kirmaalaa, 

Afsanteen-ul-bahar. (Dirmanah 

Turki is equated with A. stechmaniana 

Besser.) 

Folk ◮ Kirmaani Ajawaayin, 

Kirmaani-owaa, Kirmaani-ajmo. 

Action ◮ Deobstructant, stomachic, 

anthelmintic (effective against 

roundworms), antifungal. 

A decoction of the fresh plant is given 

in cases of intermittent and remittent 

fever. 

A. maritima var. thomsoniana C. B. 

Clarke is a santonin-yielding var.; A. 

maritima var. fragrans (Willd.) Ledeb. 

is a non-santonin var. 

Immature flowerheads and leaves 

contain santonin. Roots, stems and 

twigs are devoid of santonin. Santonin, 

a sesquiterpene lactone, is used 

for the treatment of ascaris and oxyuris 

infections. Large doses (0.3 g is adults 

and 0.06 in children) are toxic. 

Beta-santonin is less anthelmintic in 

action than santonin; pseudosantonin 

is devoid of anthelmintic property. 

Studies is albino mice revealed that 

santonin had no androgenic, estrogenic, 

antiestrogenic, progestational 

and antiprogestational effects. 

Santonin is toxic at 60 mg in children; 

200 mg in adults. (Francis 

Brinker.) 



Artemisia vestita Wall. ex DC. 

Family ◮ Compositae, Asteraceae. 

Habitat ◮ Western Himalayas at 

2,100–3,000 m. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Gangaa Tulasi. 

Folk ◮ Kundiyaa, Chamariyaa.

Action ◮ Leaf—haemostatic. Essential 

oil—antibacterial, antifungal (in 

1:1000 dilution). 

The major components of the essential 

oil from leaves and flowering tops 

are alpha-terpinene, thujyl alcohol, terpenyl 

acetate, nerol, phellandrene, cineol,neral,thujylacetate,beta-thujone 

and artemisol. 

Related sp., known as Gangaa Tulasi, 

are Artemisia lacrorum Ledeb. and 

A. parviflora Wight. 

Artemisia vulgaris Linn. var. 

nilagirica Clarke. 

Synonym ◮ A. nilagirica (Clarke) 

Pamp. 


Habitat ◮ The hilly regions of India, 

also in Mount Abu in Rajasthan, in 

western Ghats, and from Konkan 

southward to Kerala. 

English ◮ Indian Wormwood, 

Fleabane, Dungwort, Mugwort, 

Wild Wormwood. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Damanaka, Pushpachaamara, 

Gandhotkata. (Related sp.: 

A. siversiana Ehrh. ex Willd.) 

Unani ◮ Afsanteen-e-Hindi. (National 

Formularly of Unani Medicine 

clubbed it with Baranjaasif.) 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Maasipattiri. 

Folk ◮ Daunaa, Damanaa. 

Action ◮ Leaf—emmenagogue, menstrual 

regulator, nervine, stomachic 

(in anorexia and dyspepsia), anthelmintic, 

choleretic, diaphoretic. 

Artocarpus integrifolia Linn. f. 65 

An infusion of flower tops is administered 

in nervous and spasmodic 

affections. The herb is also used 

as an antilithic. Oil from leaves— 

antibacterial, antifungal in 1:1000 

dilution. 

Key application ◮ As emmenagogue. 


The plant yields about 0.34% of an 

essential oil. Plants at lower altitude 

had more percentage of cineol, thujone, 

thujyl and citral, whereas from 

higher altitude terpenes are in higher 

percentage. The highest amount of 

cineol was reported to be 30%. 

The plant is also used as an inferior 

substitute for cinchona in fevers. 

Artocarpus integrifolia Linn. f. 

Synonym ◮ A. heterophyllus Lam. 


Habitat ◮ Cultivated throughout the 

hotter parts of India. 

English ◮ Jackfruit, Jack tree. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Panasa, Kantakiphala, 

Ativrihatphala, Aamaashayaphala. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Murasabalam. 

Folk ◮ Katahal, Phanasa. 

Action ◮ Latex—bacteriolytic, 

promotes healing of abscesses. 

Juice of the plant—applied to 

glandular swellings and abscesses 

for promoting suppuration. Root— 

used for diarrhoea, asthma, skin 

diseases. Unripe fruit—acrid, 

astringent. Ripe fruit—cooling, 

laxative, difficult to digest. Seeds— 

diuretic. Lactin extraction showed 

A

A 

66 Artocarpus lacucha Buch.-Ham. 

potent and selective stimulation of 

distinct human T and B cells. 

The seed extract stimulates the heart 

and causes a fall in arterial blood pressure 

of experimental animals pretreated 

with physostigmine. The seeds show 

equal inhibitory activity against trypsin 

and chymotrypsin. (The activity is destroyed 

when the seeds are boiled or 

baked.) 

The leaves and stems show presence 

of sapogenins, and exhibit estrogenic 

activity. 

An aqueous extract of mature leaves 

exhibited hypoglycaemic activity in 

experimental animals. Leaves contain 

cycloartenone, cycloartenol and 

beta-sitosterol. Heartwood contains 

flavonoids, artocarpesin and norartocarpetin 

and their structures. 

Dosage ◮ Fruit—50–100 ml decoction. 

(CCRAS.) 

Artocarpus lacucha Buch.-Ham. 

Synonym ◮ A. lakoocha Roxb. 


Habitat ◮ Cultivated in Uttar Pradesh, 

Bengal, Khasi Hills and western 

Ghats. 

English ◮ Monkey Jack. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Lakuch, Kshudra Panas, 

Granthiphala, Pitanaasha. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Ilangu, Irapala, 

Ottipilu (Tamil). 

Folk ◮ Badhar. 

Action ◮ Bark—when applied 

externally, draws out purulent 

matter; heals boils, cracked skin 

and pimples. Seeds—purgative, 

haemagglutinating. Stems— 

vermifuge. 

The stembark contains oxyresveratrol, 

used for tapeworm. 

A lectin, artocarpin, isolated from 

seeds, precipitates several galactomannans. 

It agglutinates rat lymphocytes 

and mouse ascites cells. 

Dosage ◮ Fruit—5–10 ml juice. 

(CCRAS.) 

Arundo donax Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Native to Mediterranean 

region; found in Kashmir, Assam 

and the Nilgiris, also grown in 

hedges. 

English ◮ Great Reed, Spanish- 

Bamboo-Reed, Giant-Bamboo- 

Reed. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Nala, Potgala, Shuunyamadhya, 

Dhamana. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Korukkai. 

Action ◮ Rhizome—sudorific, 

emollient, diuretic, antilactant, 

antidropsical; uterine stimulant 

(stimulates menstrual discharge), 

hypotensive. 

The rhizome yields indole-3-alkylamine 

bases, including bufotenidine 

and dehydro-bufontenine. The leaves 

yield sterols and triterpenoids. 

Bufotenidine possesses antiacetylcholine 

properties, histamine release

activity and is a uterine stimulant. Alkaloids 

from the flowers produced curarimetic 

effect of the non-polarizing 

type. 

Dosage ◮ Root—50–100 ml decoction. 

(CCRAS.) 

Asarum europaeum Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Indigenous to the northern 

parts of southern Europe, Central 

and East-Central Europe; cultivated 

in the United States. A related 

sp., Asarum himalaicum, synonym 

A. canadense, isreportedfromthe 

eastern Himalayas. 

English ◮ Asarbacca, Hazelwort, Wild 

Nard. 

Unani ◮ Asaaroon, Subul-e-Barri, 

Naardeen-Barri. 

Folk ◮ Tagar Ganthodaa. 

Action ◮ Brain and nervine tonic, 

diuretic, deobstructant and antiinflammatory; 

used in bronchial 

spasm and in preparations of 

cephalic snuffs. 

The volatile oil (0.7–4%) consists of 

asarone up to 50%, asaraldehyde 2–3%, 

methyleugenol 15–20%, with bornyl 

acetate, terpenes and sesquiterpenes. 

Asarone and its beta-isomer is found 

to be carcinogenic in animals. The rhizome,inaddition,containscaffeicacid 

derivatives and flavonoids. 

A related sp., Asarum canadense 

L., indigenous to North America and 

China, contains a volatile oil (3.5– 

Asclepias curassavica Linn. 67 

4.5%) with methyl eugenol (an important 

constituent of A. europaeum), and 

also aristolochic acid. (Aristolochic 

acid is carcinogenic and nephrotoxic.) 

Asarum sp. are not used as a substitute 

for ginger. 

Asclepias curassavica Linn. 

Family ◮ Asclepiadaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Naturalized in many parts 

of India as an ornamental. 

English ◮ Curassavian Swallow- 

Wort, West Indian Ipecacuanha, 

Blood-Flower. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Kaakanaasikaa (substitute). 

Folk ◮ Kaakatundi (Kashmir). 

Action ◮ Spasmogenic, cardiotonic, 

cytotoxic, antihaemorrhagic, 

styptic, antibacterial. Various 

plant parts, as also plant latex, 

are used against warts and cancer. 

Root—used as an astringent in 

piles. Leaves—juice, antidysenteric, 

also used against haemorrhages. 

Flowers—juice, styptic. Alcoholic 

extract of the plant—cardiotonic. 

An alcoholic extract of the Indian 

plant has been reported to contain 

a number of cardenolides, including 

calactin, calotropin, calotropagenin, 

coroglaucigenin, uzarigenin, asclepin, 

its glucosides and uzarin. Asclepin, the 

chief active principle, is spasmogenic 

and a cardiac tonic, having longer duration 

of action than digoxin (96 h in 

cat, as opposed to the 72 h of digoxin). 

Calotropin exhibits cytotoxic activity. 

A

A 

68 Asparagus adscendens Roxb. 

Pleurisy root of the U.S. is equated 

with Asclepias tuberosa. It is used 

for cold, flu and bronchitis in Western 

herbal medicine. 

Toxic principles of the herb include 

galitoxin and similar resins, and glucofrugoside 

(cardenolide). Toxicity is 

reduced by drying. 

Asparagus adscendens Roxb. 

Family ◮ Asparagaceae. 

Habitat ◮ The western Himalayas and 

Punjab, from Himachal Pradesh to 

Kumaon, up to 1,500 m. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Mushali, (white var.), 

Mahaashataavari. The black 

variety is equated with Taalamuuli, 

Chlorophytum arundinaceum Baker. 

Unani ◮ Shaqaaqul-e-Hindi. 

Action ◮ A substitute for A. officinalis. 

The root yields asparagin. Sapogenins 

A and B, isolated from the root, 

were identified as stigmasterol and 

sarsasapogenin. 

Asparagus officinalis Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Native to Europe and West 

Asia. 

English ◮ Asparagus, Sparrow grass. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Shataavari, Vari, 

Shatviryaa, Shatmuuli, Shatpadi, 

Bhiru, Naaraayani, Bahusutaa, 

Atirasaa. 

Unani ◮ Haliyun. 

Action ◮ Diuretic, laxative, cardiotonic, 

sedative, galactagogue; 

used for neuritis and rheumatism, 

as well as for cystitis and pyelitis. 



of the urinary tract and for 

prevention of kidney stones. 

(German Commission E.). It is 

contraindicated in kidney diseases 

and oedema because of functional 

heart. 

The root contains steroidal glycosides 

(asparagosides) and bitter glycosides; 

asparagusic acid and its derivatives; 

asparagines, arginine and tyrosine; 

flavonoids, including rutin, 

kaempferol and quercetrin; polysaccarides 

and inulin. Asparagine is 

a strong diuretic source of folic acid 

and selenium. 

A spirostanol glycoside, isolated 

from the methanolic extract of the 

fruits, has shown 100% immobilization 

of human spermatozoa. 


(CCRAS.) 

Asparagus racemosus willd. 


Habitat ◮ Foundwildintropicaland 

subtropical parts of India, including 

the Andamans and ascending in the 

Himalayas to 1,500 m. 

English ◮ Indian asparagus. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Shataavari, Shatmuuli, 

Atirasaa, Bahusutaa, Shatpadi, 

Shatviryaa, Bhiru, Indivari,

Vari. (Substitute for Medaa, 

Mahaamedaa.) 

Unani ◮ Sataavar. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Thanneervittan 

kizhangu, Sataavari Kizhangu. 

Action ◮ Used as a galactagogue 

and for disorders of female 

genitourinarytract;asastypticand 

ulcer-healing agent; as an intestinal 

disinfectant and astringent in 

diarrhoea; as a nervine tonic, and in 

sexual debility for spermatogenesis. 



of India indicates the use of the tuberous 

root in gout, puerperal diseases, 

lactic disorders, haematuria, bleeding 

disorders and also recommends it for 

hyperacidity. 

The plant contains saponins—shatavarins 

I–IV. Shatavarin IV is a glycoside 

of sarsasapogenin. The saponin 

in doses of 20–500 mcg/ml produces 

a special blockade of syntocinon (oxytocin)-induced 

contraction of rat, guinea-pig 

and rabbit uteri in vitro and 

in situ. It also blocks the uterine spontaneous 

motility. 

The dried root yields sitosterol; 4,6dihydroxy-2–O-(2’ 

hydroxyisobutyl) 

benzaldehyde and undecanyl cetanoate, 

and contains a large amount of saccharine 

matter, mucilage and minerals—Ca 

(0.172), Cu (0.033), Na (14.60), 

K (8.32), Mg (0.169), Mn (0.0074), 

Ni (0.105) and Zn (0.072) mg/g(dry 

weight). 

The root was found to reduce gastric 

emptying time comparable to that 

of metoclopramide. (J PostgradMed, 

1990, 36(2), 91–94). 

Asphodelus fistulosus Linn. 69 

The root extracts exhibited antiallergic 

activity in animal studies. 

The root, when fed orally, acted 

as immunomodulator against induced 

sepsis and peritonitis in rats and mice. 

Asparagus sarmentosus Linn. has 

been equated with Mahaa-shataavari. 

Other related sp. are Asparagus curillus 

Buch.-Ham., A. filicinus Buch.-Ham. 

and A. gracilis Royle. 

Dosage ◮ Dried root—3–6 g powder. 


Asphodelus fistulosus Linn. 

Synonym ◮ A. tenuifolius Cav. 

Family ◮ Liliaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Most parts of the plains 

from West Bengal westwards to 

Punjab and Gujarat, as a field weed. 

English ◮ Asphodel. 

Unani ◮ Piyaazi, Khunsaa, Asraash. 

(Asphodelus tenuifolius Cav. is 

equated with Shellot, Gandanaa.) 

Folk ◮ Bokat. 

Action ◮ Seeds—diuretic; applied 

externally to ulcer and inflamed 

parts. 

Seeds contain an ester, 1-O-17-methylstearylmyoinositol. 

The seed oil 

yields myristic, palmitic, oleic, linoleic, 

linolenic acids, beta-amyrin and 

beta-sitosterol. The oil, due to its 

high linolenic content (62.62%), may 

be of therapeutic value in preventing 

atherosclerosis. 

The mineral elements present in the 

weed are iron 178.4, zinc 44.5 and copper 

6.4 ppm. A triterpenoid, lupeol 

and quercetin are also present. 

A

A 

70 Aspidopterys indica Hochr. 

Aspidopterys indica Hochr. 

Synonym ◮ A. roxburghiana A. Juss. 

Family ◮ Malpighiaceae. 


Meghalaya, Orissa and peninsular 

India. 

Folk ◮ Chuttakulaa-tigaa (Telugu). 

Action ◮ The extract of aerial parts— 

hypotensive. 

Asplenium adiantum-nigrum 

Linn. 

Family ◮ Aspleniaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Kashmir at 1500–2000 m 

and extending to Dalhousie and 

Chamba in Himachal Pradesh. 

English ◮ Black Spleenwort. 

Folk ◮ Krishna fern. 

Action ◮ Fond—expectorant, pectoral, 

emmenagogue. Rhizome— 

anthelmintic. Plant—bitter, diuretic, 

laxative, anti-inflammatory. It 

is used for diseases of spleen and 

in jaundice; produces sterility in 

women. 

The fonds contain aliphatic hydrocarbons, 

the chief one being hentriacontane, 

non-acosane and triterpenoid 

hydrocarbons, mainly of 22 (29)hopene. 

Alcohols, sterols and fatty acids are 

also reported. 

Related sp. include: A. laciniatum D. 

Don (vitamin K3 and phthiocol have 

been isolated for the first time from 

the plant); A. adiantoides (L.) C. Chr., 

synonym A. falcatum Lam. (used in 

the treatment of enlarged spleen, in incontenence 

of urine, in calculus, jaundice 

and malaria); A. nidus Linn. synonym 

Thamnopteris nidus (L.) C. Presl., 

known as Bird’s Nest Fern (used as 

a depurative and sedative). 

Asteracantha longifolia Nees. 

Synonym ◮ Hygrophila spinosa T. 

Anders 


Habitat ◮ Common in moist places, 

paddy fields, throughout India and 

Sri Lanka. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Kokilaaksha, Kokilaakshi, 

Ikshura, Ikshuraka, Kaakekshu, 

Kshurak, Bhikshu. 

Unani ◮ Taalmakhaanaa. (Wrongly 

equated with Euryale ferox Salisb. 

(Fox Nut) in National Formulary of 

Unani Medicine, PartI,firstedn., 

1981.) 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Neermulli, Nerugobbi. 

Action ◮ Diuretic, used for catarrh of 

the urinary organs, also for dropsy 

when accompanied by hepatic 

obstruction. 


recommends the seed in lithiasis; 

the whole plant and root for gout. 

Aqueous extract of herb ash—diuretic 

in albino rats. EtOH (50%)— 

spasmolytic and hypotensive. The 

herb exhibits antihepatotoxic activity 

in dogs. Essential oil from whole 

plant—antibacterial. 

The plant gave lupeol, stigmasterol 

and hydrocarbons; seed gave sterols; 

flowers, apigenin glucuronide.

Aqueous extract decreased fasting 

glucose and improved glucose tolerance 

in rats. (Sharon M. Herr.) 

Dosage ◮ Whole plant—3–6 g, 

powder; dried seed—3–6 g powder; 

dried root—3–6 g for decoction. 

(API Vol. II.) Herb ash—1–3 g 

(CCRAS.) 

Astragalus candolleanus Royle. 

Family ◮ Fabaceae; Papilionaceae. 

Habitat ◮ The western Himalayas. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Rudanti, Rudravanti. 

Action ◮ Depurative, bechic, blood 

purifier (used in skin diseases). 

Root powder and decoction also 

used as an adjunct in tuberculosis. 

Dosage ◮ Fruit—3–5 g powder. 

(CCRAS.) 

Astragalus gummifer Labill. 


Habitat ◮ Highlands of Asia Minor, 

Iran, Greece, Syria and Russia. 

English ◮ Tragacanth Gum. 

Unani ◮ Katiraa, Kataad (Gum) 

Action ◮ Demulcent, emollient (used 

for irritation of the internal mucosa, 

colitis, dry coughs), laxative. 

Mucilage used as an application to 

burns. 

The gum contains polysaccharides 

and proteinaceous polysaccharides. 

Astragalus hamosus Linn. 71 

Tragacanthin is water-soluble, consisting 

of an arbinogalactan and tragacanthic 

acid. Bassorin is an insoluble 

methylated fraction (gel). The polysaccharides 

have been shown to have immunostimulating 

activity (stimulation 

of phagocytosis and an increase in plasma 

cell counts of T-lymphocytes. 

Although tragacanth increases 

weight of stool and decreases gastrointestinal 

transit time, it does not appear 

to affect cholesterol triglyceride 

or phospholipid levels as other soluble 

fibres do. (Natural Medicines Comprehensive 


Tragacanth has been shown to be 

active against a variety of tumours. It 

appears to inhibit growth of cancer 

cells. 

Astragalus hamosus Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Found in the plains of 

Punjab. 

English ◮ Tonkin bean, Melilot, 

King’s crown, King’s clover. 

Unani ◮ Naakhunaa, Ikil-ul-Malik. 

(It is also equated with Melilotus 

alba Desv. and Trigonela uncata 

Boiss. in National Formulary of 

Unani Medicine.) 

Action ◮ Nervine tonic (used in 

nervous and catarrhal affections), 

antirheumatic, anti-inflammatory, 

emollient, diuretic, galactogenic. 

The callus of the plant contains 

amino acids; roots contain saponins 

and sterols. The leaves yield 3-nitropropionic 

acid. 

A

A 

72 Astragalus sarcocola Dymock. 

Astragalus sarcocola Dymock. 


Habitat ◮ The mountainous regions 

from Asia Minor to Iraq and Iran. 

English ◮ Sarcocola. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Rudanti (substitute). 

Unani ◮ Anzaroot, Kohal Kirmaani 

(Gum). 

Action ◮ Gum—antirheumatic, 

aperient, anthelmintic, emollient. 

Astragalus strobiliferus Royle. 


Habitat ◮ The western Himalayas at 

2,400–3,900 m, and Kashmir. 

English ◮ Indian Gum tragacanth. 

Action ◮ Gum—an Indian substitute 

for tragacanth (A. gummifer gum). 

Atalantia monophylla 

(L.) Correa. 

Synonym ◮ A. floribunda Wt. 


Habitat ◮ Throughout India, especially 

in Assam, Meghalaya and 


English ◮ Wild Lime. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kattu Narangam, 

Kattu Elumichai. 

Folk ◮ Jungli Nimbu. 

Action ◮ Oil from leaves and berry— 

antibacterial, antifungal. Leaves— 

a decoction is applied to cutaneous 

affections. Fruit—juice, antibilious. 

The rootbark yields alkaloids, atalaphylline 

and its N-methyl derivatives 

and atalaphyllidine, which have close 

structural similarities with the antitumour 

alkaloid, acronycine, and its cogeners. 

The rootbark also contains the 

limonoid, atalantin. 

The leaf juice forms an ingredient of 

a compound liniment used in hemiplegia. 

The essential oil is used in paralysis. 

The oil contains higher terpene esters 

belonging to azulene group (29%). 

(Azulenes impart anti-inflammatory 

activity.) 

Atropa acuminata Royle ex Lindl. 

Synonym ◮ A. belladonna auct. non 

L. 

Family ◮ Solanaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Kashmir and Himachal 

Pradesh up to 2,500 m. 

English ◮ Indian Belladonna, Indian 

Atropa. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Suuchi. 

Unani ◮ Luffaah, Luffaah-Barri, 

Yabaruj, Shaabiraj. 

Action ◮ Highly poisonous; sedative, 

narcotic, anodyne, nervine, 

antispasmodic (used in paralysis); 

parkinsonism; encephalitis; carcinoma; 

spastic dysmenorrhoea; 

whooping cough, spasmodic asthma; 

colic of intestines, gall bladder 

or kidney, spasm of bladder and 

ureters; contraindicated in enlarged 

prostate. 

Key application ◮ In spasm and 

colic-like pain in the areas of

the gastrointestinal tract and bile 

ducts. (German Commission E, The 

British Herbal Pharmacopoeia.) It 

is contraindicated in tachycardiac 

arrhythmias, prostate adenoma, 

glaucoma, acute oedema of lungs. 

A. belladonna L. (European sp. Belladonna, 

Deadly Nightshade) is cultivated 

in Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh. 

The herb contains tropane (tropine) 

or solanaceous alkaloids (up to 0.6%), 

including hyoscamine and atropine; 

flavonoids; coumarins; volatile bases 

(nicotine). 

Tropane alkaloids inhibit the parasympathetic 

nervous system, which 

controls involuntary bodily activities; 

reduces saliva, gastric, intestinal and 

bronchial secretions, and also the activity 

of urinary tubules. Tropane alkaloids 

also increase the heart rate 

and dilate the pupils. These alkaloids 

are used as an additive to compound 

formulations for bronchitis, asthma, 

whooping cough, gastrointestinal hypermotility, 

dysmenorrhoea, nocturnal 

enuresis and fatigue syndrome. 

Atropine provides relief in parkinsonism 

and neurovegetative dystonia. 

The root is the most poisonous, the 

leaves and flowers less, and the berries 

the least. (Francis Brinker.) 

Dosage ◮ Leaf, root—30–60 mg 


Atylosia goensis Dalz. 

Synonym ◮ A. barbata Baker 


Avena sativa Linn. 73 

Habitat ◮ Subtropical tract of Assam, 

Maharashtra and Kerala, up to 

1050 m. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Maashaparni (substitute). 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Peruvidukol. 

Action ◮ Febrifuge, antibilious, antirheumatic 

(used in consumption 

and swellings). 

Atylosia scarabaeoides (L.) 

Benth. 


Habitat ◮ Throughout India; up to 

1,800 m in the western Himalayas. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Vana-kulattha. 

Folk ◮ Jangli Tur, Kulthi. 

Action ◮ Antidysenteric, anticholerin, 

febrifuge; also used in anaemia, 

anasarca and hemiplegia. Seeds— 

taeniafuge. 

A flavone glucoside, atyloside, has 

been isolated from the leaves. 

Avena sativa Linn. 


Habitat ◮ A cereal and fodder crop of 

Europe and America; also cultivated 

in India. 

English ◮ Oat, Common oat. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Yavikaa. (Indian sp. is 

equated with A. byzantina C. Koch.) 

Unani ◮ Sult (Silt), Jao Birahnaa, Jao 

Gandum. 

A

A 

74 Averrhoa bilimbi Linn. 

Action ◮ Nervine tonic (used 

in spermatorrhoea, palpitation, 

sleeplessness), cardiac tonic (used in 

debility), stimulant, antispasmodic, 

thymoleptic, antidepressant (used 

in menopausal phase). Also used 

in diarrhoea, dysentery, colitis. 

Externally, emollient. 

Key application ◮ Oat straw— 

externally in baths for inflammatory 

and seborrhoeic skin diseases. 

(German Commission E.) Theeffect 

on blood sugar is less than that from 

most of the fiber-containing herbs 

and foods. (Sharon M. Herr.) 

The seeds contain proteins and prolamines 

(avenins); C-glycosyl flavones; 

avenacosides (spirostanol glycosides); 

fixed oil, vitamin E, starch. 

Silicon dioxide (2%) occurs in the 

leaves and in the straw in soluble form 

as esters of silicic acid with polyphenols 

and monosaccharides and oligosaccharides. 

Oat straw contains a high content of 

iron (39 mg/kg dry weight), manganese 

(8.5 mg) and zinc (19.2 mg). 

In an experimental study, oat straw 

stimulated the release of luteinizing 

hormone from the adenohypophysis of 

rats. (Expanded Commission E Monographs.) 

An alcoholic extract of green oats 

was tried on opium addicts. Six chronic 

opium addicts gave up opium completely, 

two reduced their intake and 

twoshowednochangefollowingregular 

use of 2 ml three times daily (human 

clinical study). A significant diminishment 

of the number of cigarettes used 

by habitual tobacco smokers resulted 

from using 1 ml (four times daily) of 

fresh Avena alcoholic extract of mature 

plants; however, a few studies gave disappointing 

results. (Francis Brinker.) 

Oat polyphenol composition prevented 

the increase of cholesterol and 

beta-lipoprotein of blood serum of 

fasting rabbits. Antioxidant property 

of the oat flour remains unaffected 

by heat. Homoeopathic tincture 

ofseedsisusedasanervinetonic. 

Beta-glucan from the oats stimulated 

immune functions. 

Avenacosides exhibit strong antifungal 

activity in vitro. 

Averrhoa bilimbi Linn. 

Family ◮ Oxalidaceae; Averrhoaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Native to Malaysia; 

cultivated throughout the country. 

English ◮ Bilimbi, Tree Sorrel. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Karmaranga (var.). 

Unani ◮ Belambu (a variety of 

Kamrakh). 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Pilimbi, Pulichakkai. 

Action ◮ Asyrupmadefromthe 

fruits is used in febrile excitement, 

haemorrhages and internal haemorrhoids; 

also in diarrhoea, bilious 

colic and hepatitis. The fruit is used 

for scurvy. An infusion of flowers is 

given for cough. 

Averrhoa carambola Linn. 

Family ◮ Oxalidaceae; Averrhoaceae. 


cultivated throughout the warmer 

parts of India, especially in Kerala.

English ◮ Carambola, Star Fruit, 

Chinese Gooseberry. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Karmaranga. 

Unani ◮ Khamraq, Karmal. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Tamarattai. 

Folk ◮ Kamarakh. 

Action ◮ Root—antidote in poisoning. 

Leaf and shoot—applied 

externally in ringworm, scabies, 

chickenpox. Flower—vermicidal. 

Fruit—laxative, antidysenteric, 

antiphlogistic, febrifuge, antiinflammatory, 

antispasmodic (used 

in hepatic colic, bleeding piles). 

Seeds—galactogenic; in large doses 

act as an emmenagogue and cause 

abortion. 

The fruits are a fairly good source 

of iron but deficient in calcium. They 

also contain oxalic acid and potassium 

oxalate. The presence of fluorine 

is also reported. A wide variation of 

vitamin-C content (0.3–23.0 mg/100 g) 

is recorded from different places in India. 

Sugar (3.19%) consists mainly of 

glucose (1.63%). 

Avicennia officinalis Linn. 

Synonym ◮ A. alba Blume 

Family ◮ Verbenaceae; Avicenniaceae. 

Habitat ◮ A tree occurring in salt 

marshes and tidal creeks. 

English ◮ White mangrove. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Tuvara. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kandal. 

Folk ◮ Tivaria (Gujarat), Upattam 

(Tamil Nadu). 

Azadirachta indica A. Juss. 75 

Action ◮ Stem/bark—astringent. 

Pulp of unripe fruit—used for 

healing skin lesions of smallpox; 

fruits and immature seeds, used as 

cicatrizant of abscesses and ulcers. 

The bark contains 5% tannin, triacontanol 

and triterpenoids. Kernels 

contain lapachol, which possesses antitumour 

activity. Aerial parts yield 

beta-sitosterol, friedelin, lupenone, lupeol, 

betulinic and ursolic acids. 

Azadirachta indica A. Juss. 

Synonym ◮ Melia azadirachta Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Native to Burma; found all 

over India. 

English ◮ Neem tree, Margosa tree. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Nimba, Nimbaka, 

Arishta, Arishtaphala, Pichumarda, 

Pichumanda, Pichumandaka, 

Tiktaka, Sutiktak, Paaribhadra. 

Unani ◮ Aazaad-Darakht-e-Hindi. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Vemmu, Veppu, 

Veppan, Arulundi. 

Action ◮ Leaf, bark—antimicrobial, 

antifungal, anthelmintic, insecticidal, 

antiviral, antipyretic, antimalarial, 

antiperiodic, mosquito 

larvicidal, anti-inflammatory, 

antifertility, spermicidal, hypoglycaemic; 

used in inflammation of 

gums, gingivitis, periodonitis, sores, 

boils, enlargement of spleen, malarial 

fever, fever during childbirth, 

measles, smallpox, head scald and 

cutaneous affections. Oil—used 

A

A 

76 Azima tetracantha Lam. 

as a contraceptive for intravaginal 

use, for the treatment of vaginal 

infections, and as a mosquito 

repellent. 

Plant tetranortriterpenoids have 

been examined extensively for their antibiotic, 

antitumour, insecticidal, antibacterial 

and antifungal activities. 

The methanolic extract of the bark 

shows antimalarial activity against 

Plasmodium falciparum. 

The aqueous extract of leaves exhibited 

antiulcer and anti-inflammatory 

activity. 

The water-soluble portion of alcoholic 

extract of leaves reduces blood 

sugar in glucose-fed and adrenalineinduced 

hyperglycaemic rats (but not 

in normal and streptozotocin-induced 

diabetic rats). 

A volatile fraction of the Neem oil 

is reported to be responsible for spermicidal 

activity at a dose of 25 mg/ml 

for human sperm. The oil has been 

found to retard the growth of human 

immunodeficiency virus. 

Neem oil has caused mitochondrial 

injury in mice; poisonous in high 

doses. (Sharon M. Herr.) 

Dosage ◮ Dried leaf—1–3 g powder; 

10–20 g for decoction; stembark— 

2–4 g powder decoction for external 

use. (API Vol. II.) Leaf juice— 

10–20 ml; oil—5–10 drops; bark 

decoction—50–100 ml. (CCRAS.) 

Azima tetracantha Lam. 

Family ◮ Salvadoraceae. 

Habitat ◮ Peninsular India, Orissa, 

West Bengal. 

English ◮ Mistletoe Berrythorn. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Mulchangan. 

Folk ◮ Kundali. 

Action ◮ Root—diuretic (used in 

Siddha medicine for dropsy and 

rheumatism). Leaves—stimulant 

(used in rheumatism); expectorant, 

antispasmodic (used in cough and 

asthma); given to women after 

confinement. Bark—antiperiodic, 

astringent, expectorant. 

The leaves contain the alkaloids azimine, 

azcarpine and carpine. EtOH 

(50%) extract of aerial parts exhibited 

spasmogenic activity.

Bacopa monnieri (Linn.) Penn. 

Synonym ◮ Herpestis monnieria 

(Linn.) H.B.&K.Moniera 

cuneifolia Michx. 

Family ◮ Scrophulariaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Throughout the plains of 

India in damp marshy areas. 

English ◮ Thyme-leaved Gratiola. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Braahmi, Aindri, Nirbraahmi, 

Kapotavankaa, Bhaarati, 

Darduradalaa, Matsyaakshaka, 

Shaaluraparni, Mandukaparni (also 

equated with Centella asiatica Linn., 

synonym Hydrocotyle asiatica Linn. 

Umbelliferae, Apiaceae). 

Unani ◮ Brahmi. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Piramivazhukkai, 

Neerbrami. 

Folk ◮ Jalaneem, Safed-Chammi. 

Action ◮ Adaptogenic, astringent, 

diuretic, sedative, potent nervine 

tonic, anti-anxiety agent (improves 

mental functions, used in insanity, 

epilepsy), antispasmodic (used in 

bronchitis, asthma and diarrhoea). 

Key application ◮ In psychic disorders 

and as a brain tonic. (The Ayurvedic 

Pharmacopoeia of India; Indian 


B. monnieri has been shown to cause 

prolonged elevated level of cerebral 

glutamic acid and a transient increase 

B 

in GABA level. It is assumed that endogenous 

increase in brain glutamine 

may be helpful in the process of learning. 

The herb contains the alkaloids 

brahmine, herpestine, and a mixture 

of three bases. Brahmine is highly toxic; 

in therapeutic doses it resembles 

strychnine. The herb also contains 

the saponins, monnierin, hersaponin, 

bacosides A and B. Bacosides A and 

B possess haemolytic activity. Hersaponin 

is reported to possess cardiotonic 

and sedative properties. It 

wasfound,asincaseofreserpene, 

to deplete nor-adrenaline and 5-HT 

contentoftheratbrain. 

An alcoholic extract of the plant in 

adoseof50mg/kgproducedtranquilizing 

effect on albino rats and dogs, 

but the action was weaker than that 

produced by chlorpromazine. 



Balanites aegyptiaca 

(Linn.) Delile, 

Synonym ◮ B. roxburghii Planch. 

Family ◮ Simaroubaceae; Balanitaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Drier parts of India, 

particularly in Rajasthan, Gujarat, 

Madhya Pradesh and Deccan. 

English ◮ Desert Date.

B 

78 Balanophora involucrata Hook. f. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Ingudi, Angaar Vrksha, 

Taapasadrum, Taapasa vrksha, 

Dirghkantaka. 

Unani ◮ Hingan, Hanguul. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Nanjunda. 

Folk ◮ Hingol, Hingota, Hingothaa. 

Action ◮ Seed—expectorant, bechic. 

Oil—antibacterial, antifungal. 

Fruit—used in whooping cough; 

also in leucoderma and other skin 

diseases. Bark—spasmolytic. 

The plant is reported to be a potential 

source of diosgenin (used in 

oral contraceptives). The fruit pulp 

contains steroidal saponins. The diosgenin 

content of the fruit varies from 

0.3 to 3.8%. Aqueous extract of fruits 

showed spermicidal activity without 

local vaginal irritation in human up to 

4%; sperms became sluggish on contact 

with the plant extract and then 

became immobile within 30 s; the effect 

was concentration-related. 

Protracted administration of the 

fruit pulp extract produced hyperglycaemia-induced 

testicular dysfunction 

in dogs. An aqueous extract of mesocarp 

exhibited antidiabetic activity in 

streptozotocin-induced diabetes in 

mice. 

The seed contains balanitins, which 

exhibit cytostatic activity. 

Dosage ◮ Leaf, seed, bark, fruit— 

50–100 ml decoction. (CCRAS.) 

Balanophora involucrata 

Hook. f. 

Family ◮ Balanophoraceae. 


Kashmir to Sikkim and Darjeeling 

at altitudes of 1,800–3,400 m 

Ayurvedic ◮ Chavya (tentative 

synonym). 

Action ◮ Astringent. Used in piles, 

also in rheumatism. 

Arelated species, B. polyandra Griff., 

found in Nagaland, Manipur, West 

Bengal, Bihar, Orissa and Andhra Pradesh 

at 2,000 m, gave a phenolic glycoside, 

coniferin. The plant is used as 

an antiasthmatic. 

Baliospermum montanum 

(Willd.) Muell.-Arg. 

Synonym ◮ B. axillare Bl. 

B. polyandrum Wt. 

Croton polyandrus Roxb. 


Habitat ◮ The Himalayas, Assam, 

Khasi Hills, Bengal, Madhya 

Pradesh, Bihar and Peninsular 

India, ascending to 1,800 m. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Danti, Nikumbha, 

Udumbarparni, Erandphalaa, 

Shighraa, Pratyak-shreni, Vishaalya. 

Baliospermum calycinum Muell- 

Arg. is considered as Naagadanti. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Neeradimuthu, Danti. 

Folk ◮ Jangli Jamaalgotaa. 

Action ◮ Seed—purgative. Leaves— 

purgative (also used in dropsy), 

antiasthmatic (decoction is given in 

asthma). Latex—used for body ache 

and pain of joints. Root and seed 

oil—cathartic, antidropsical.



of India indicated the use of dried 

root in jaundice, abdominal lump and 

splenomegaly. 

The presence of steroids, terpenoids 

and flavonoids is reported in the leaves. 

The root contains phorbol derivatives. 

EtOH extract of roots showed in vivo 

activity in P-388 lymphocytic leukaemia. 

Dosage ◮ Root—103 g powder. (API 

Vol. III.) 

Balsamodendron mukul 

Hook. ex Stocks 

Synonym ◮ Commiphora mukul 

(Hook. ex Stocks) Engl. 

C. wightii (Arn.) Bhandari. 

Family ◮ Burseraceae. 

Habitat ◮ Rajasthan, Madhya 

Pradesh, Assam, Andhra Pradesh, 

Karnataka. 

English ◮ Indian Bdellium, Gum 

Guggul. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Guggul, Devadhoop, 

Kaushika, Pur, Mahishaaksha, 

Palankash, Kumbha, Uluukhala. 

Unani ◮ Muqallal yahood, Muql, 

Bu-e-Jahudaan 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Erumaikan 

Kungiliyam. 

Action ◮ Oleo-gum-resin—used for 

reducing obesity and in rheumatoid 

arthritis, osteoarthritis, sciatica. 

Key application ◮ In the treatment 

of hyperlipidemia, hypercholesterolaemia 

and obesity. (WHO.) 

Balsamodendron myrrha Nees. 79 

Guggulipid is hypocholesteremic. 

Guggul resin contains steroids—gugglsterones 

Z and E, guggulsterols I– 

V, diterpenoids; volatile oil, including 

other constituents, contains a terpene 

hydrocarbon cembrene A. E- and Zguggulsterones 

are characteristic constituents, 

which distinguish C. mukul 

from other Commiphore sp. 

Guggul resin increases catecholamine 

biosynthesis and activity in cholesterol-fed 

rabbits, inhibits platelet aggregation, 

exhibits anti-inflammatory 

activity and appears to activate the 

thyroidglandinratsandchicken. Zguggulsterone 

may increase uptake of 

iodine by thyroid gland and increase 

oxygen uptake in liver and bicep tissues. 

(Planta Med 1984,1,78–80.) 

The gum is also used in hemiplegia 

and atherosclerotic disorders; as a gargle 

in pyrrhoea aveolaris, chronic tonsilitis 

and pharyngitis. Fumes are recommended 

in hay fever, chronic bronchitis 

and nasal catarrh. 

Oleo-gum resin of Balsamodendron 

caudatum is also equated with Guggul 

in Siddha medicine. 

Dosage ◮ Oleo-gum-resin—2–4 g 

(API Vol. I.) 500 mg to 1 g (CCRAS.) 

Balsamodendron myrrha Nees. 

Synonym ◮ Commiphora molmol 

Engl. 

C. abyssinica (Berg.) Engl. 


Habitat ◮ Arabia, Somaliland. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Bola, Hiraabola, Surasa, 

Barbara, Gandharasa. 

B

B 

80 Balsamodendron opobalsamum Kunth. 

Unani ◮ Murmakki, Bol. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Vellaibolam. 

Action ◮ Oleo-gum-resin—emmenagogue 

(used for irregular 

menstruation and painful periods), 

anti-inflammatory (on pharyngitis 

and gingivitis), antiseptic, bacteriostatic, 

antiviral, astringent, 

stimulant, expectorant, stomachic, 

carminative (in dyspepsia), a leucocytogenic 

agent (increases number 

of white cells in the blood). Used 

externally for treating acne, boils 

and pressure sores, internally as 

a blood purifier. 

Key application ◮ In topical treatment 

of mild inflammations of the oral 

and pharyngeal mucosa. (German 

Commission E.) Asagargleor 

mouth rinse for the treatment 

of aphthous ulcers, tonsillitis, 

common cold and gingivitis. (The 

British Herbal Pharmacopoeia, 

ESCOP.) 

The gum (30–60%) contains acidic 

polysaccharides, volatile oil (2–10%) 

including other constituents, heerabolene, 

eugenol, furanosequiterpenes 

and monoterpenes. 

Myrrh is taken as a powder or a tincture, 

rather than as an infusion; used 

generally externally or as a gargle. 

Aqueous suspension of the gum 

resin decreased ethanol-induced and 

indomethacin-induced ulcer in rats. 

(JEthnopharmacol,1997, Jan 55(2), 141– 

150.) 

Dosage ◮ Gum-resin—3–5 g 

(CCRAS.) 

Balsamodendron 

opobalsamum Kunth. 

Synonym ◮ Commiphora opobalsamum 

(L.) Engl. 


Habitat ◮ Found in countries on 

both sides of Red Sea. 

English ◮ Balsam tree, Balsam of 

Mecca, Balsam of Gilead. 

Unani ◮ Balsaan, Roghan-e-Balsaan 

(oil), Hab-e-Balsaan (fruit). Ood-e- 

Balsaan (wood). 

Action ◮ Used in diseases of the 

urinary tract. Balsams are diuretic 

and stimulate mucous tissues in 

small doses (nauseatic and purgative 

in large doses). 

In Unani medicine, the fruit is used 

as an expectorant and emmenagogue, 

also for neurological affections. The 

wood is also used as an ingredient 

in compounds for epilepsy and other 

nervine disorders. The oil is used externally 

for its anti-inflammatory and 

revitalizing properties. 

Bambusa bambos (L.) Voss. 

Synonym ◮ B. arundinaceae (Retz.) 

Roxb. 

Arundo bambos L. 


Habitat ◮ Wild throughout India, 

especially in the hill forests of 

Western and Southern India. 

English ◮ Spiny or Thorny Bamboo.

Ayurvedic ◮ Vansha, Venu, Kichaka, 

Trinadhwaj, Shatparvaa, Yavphala. 

Vanshalochana, Vansharochanaa, 

Shubhaa, tugaa, Tugaakshiri, Tvakkshiri 

(Bamboo-manna). Starch 

of Curcuma angustifolia Roxb., 

Zingiberaceae, was recommended 

a substitute for Vanshalochana 

(Ayurvedic Formularly of India, Part 

I, First edn). 

Unani ◮ Qasab, Tabaashir (Bamboomanna). 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Moongil; Moongiluppu, 

(Bambo-manna.) 

Action ◮ Leaf bud and young 

shoots—used in dysmenorrhoea; 

externally in ulcerations. Leaf—emmenagogue, 

antileprotic, febrifuge, 

bechic; used in haemoptysis. Stem 

and leaf—blood purifier (used 

in leucoderma and inflammatory 

conditions). Root—poisonous. 

Burnt root is applied to ringworm, 

bleeding gums, painful joints. 

Bark—used for eruptions. Leaf 

and Bamboo-manna—emmenagogue. 

Bamboo-manna—pectoral, 

expectorant, carminative, cooling, 

aphrodisiac, tonic (used in debilitating 

diseases, urinary infections, 

chest diseases, cough, asthma). 

The plant gave cyanogenic glucoside—taxiphyllin. 

Bamboo-manna 

contains silicious crystalline substances. 

The starch obtained from Maranta 

arundinacea Linn., Marantaceae, is 

also used as Bamboo-manna (known 

as Koovai Kizhangu, Kookaineer and 

Araroottu Kizangu in Siddha medicine). 

Barleria buxifolia Linn. 81 

Dosage ◮ Manna—1–3 g (CCRAS.) 

Barbarea vulgaris R. Br. 

Family ◮ Brassicaceae, Cruciferae. 

Habitat ◮ Subalpine and temperate 

Himalayas, at altitudes of 1,800– 

3,750 m. 

English ◮ Bitter Cress, Hedge 

Mustard, Yellow Rocket, Winter 

Cress. 

Folk ◮ Cress. 

Action ◮ Diuretic, anthelmintic, 

stomachic, antiscorbutic, (leaves are 

rich in vitamin C 130 mg/100 g). 

Pulverised herb is used as an agent 

for stimulating spermatogenesis. 

The roots contain sinigrin; seeds 

contain a glucoside, glucobarbarin, 

and myrosin. 

The protein and phosphorus contents 

of the plant decrease with the 

maturity, whereas the calcium contents 

increase (tender stems are eaten 

as a salad). The leaves and buds are 

a rich source of provitamin A (betacarotene). 

Barleria buxifolia Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Peninsular India from 

Maharashtra southwards up to an 

altitude of 1,200 m. An ornamental 

hedge plant in gardens. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Sahachara (purple, blue, 

rose or white-flowered var.) 

Folk ◮ Jhinti. 

B

B 

82 Barleria cristata Linn. 

Action ◮ Roots and leaves are used 

in cough, bronchitis, inflammations 

(applied to swellings). 

Barleria cristata Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Subtropical Himalaya, 

Sikkim, Khasi Hills, Central and 

Southern India at 1,350 m. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Sahachara, Shveta- 

Rakta-pushpa Saireyaka (whiteand 

red-flowered var.). 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Ottamulli. 

Folk ◮ Katsaraiyaa. Raktajhinti. 

Action ◮ Extract of the plant— 

sasmogenic and hypoglycaemic. 

Root extract—given in anaemia. 

The leaves are chewed in toothache. 

Roots and leaves are applied to 

swellings. An infusion is given in 

cough. 

The roots contain anthraquinones; 

flowers gave apigenin, naringenin, 

quercetin and malvindin. 

Barleria prionitis Linn. 



parts of India. Also, commonly 

grown as a hedge plant in gardens. 

English ◮ Common Yellow Nail Dye 

Plant. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Sahachara, Baana, 

Kurantaka, Kuranta, Koranda, 

Korandaka, Shairiya, Pita-saireyaka 

(yellow-flowered var.). Also equated 

with Vajradanti. 

Unani ◮ Piyaabaansaa. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Chemmulli. 

Folk ◮ Piyaabaasaa, Jhinti, Katsaraiyaa. 

Action ◮ Leaf—juicegiveninstomach 

disorders, urinary affections; mixed 

with honey and given to children 

with fever and catarrh; leaf juice 

is applied to lacerated soles of feet 

in the rainy season, mixed with 

coconut oil for pimples. Leaves 

and flowering tops—diuretic. 

Bark—diaphoretic and expectorant. 

Roots—paste is applied over boils 

and glandular swellings. Plant 

(Vajradanti)—antidontalgic, used 

for bleeding gums in Indian 

medicine. Ash, obtained from the 

whole plant, mixed with honey, is 

given in bronchial asthma. 


recommends oil extract of the plant 

for arresting greying of hair. 

The leaves and flowering tops are 

diuretic, rich in potassium salts. Leaves 

and stems showed presence of iridoid 

glucosides, barlerin and acetylbarlerin. 

Flowers gave the flavonoid glycoside, 

scutellarein-7-neohesperidoside. The 

presence of beta-sitosterol is reported 

in the plant. 

In the south, Nila Sahachara is 

equated with Ecbolium linneanun Kurz. 

(known as Nilaambari), and Shveta Sahachara 

with Justica betonica Linn. 

Ecbolium linneanun plant is used for 

gout and dysuria; the root is prescribed 

for jaundice.


decoction. (API Vol. III.) 

Barleria strigosa Willd. 


Habitat ◮ The Himalayas from Uttar 

Pradesh to West Bengal, up to an 


Ayurvedic ◮ Sahachara (blueflowered 

var.). 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Nili. 

Folk ◮ Koilekhaa. 

Action ◮ Mild antiseptic, expectorant 

(given in spasmodic cough); also 

used as an antianaemic. 

The plant gave beta-and gammasitosterol. 

Barringtonia acutangula 

(Linn.) Gaertn. 

Synonym ◮ Eugenia acutangula L. 

Family ◮ Lecythidaceae; Barringtoniaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Sub-Himalayan tracts from 

the Ganges eastwards to Assam and 


English ◮ Indian Oak. (Oak is 

equated with Quercus robur L.) 

Ayurvedic ◮ Nichula, Hijjala, Ijjala, 

Vidula, Ambuj. (Central Council for 

Research in Ayurveda & Siddha has 

wrongly equated Hijjala, Nichula 

andVidulawithArgyreianervosa, 

Elephant Creeper.) 

Unani ◮ Samandarphal. (Samandarphal 

is also equated with 

Basella alba Linn. var. rubra Stewart. 83 

Rhus parviflora Roxb. in National 

Formulary of Unani Medicine.) 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kadappai, Samudraphullarni. 

Action ◮ Leaf juice—given in 

diarrhoea. Fruit—bitter, acrid, 

anthelmintic, haemolytic, vulnerary; 

prescribed in gingivitis as an 

expectorant. Powdered seeds— 

emetic and expectorant. Bark— 

astringent, used in diarrhoea and 

blennorrhoea. Febrifuge. Wood— 

haemostatic (in metrorrhagia). 



of India indicated the use of the fruit in 

goitre; also in psychological disorders. 

The bark contains tannins (16%), also 

ellagic acid. 

The fruits contain triterpenoid sapogenins. 

Saponins possess haemolytic 

properties. 

A related sp. B. racemosa (L.) Roxb., 

found in Assam, eastern and western 

coasts of India and the Andaman 

Islands, is also equated with Samudraphala 

and Hijjala. 

European Oak (Quercus robur)contains 

15–20% tannins, consisting of 

phlobatannin, ellagitannins and gallic 

acid. Thebarkisusedasastringent, 

antiseptic and haemostatic. 

Dosage ◮ Fruit—1–3 g (API Vol. III.) 

Basella alba Linn. var. 

rubra Stewart. 

Synonym ◮ B. rubra Linn. 

Family ◮ Basellaceae. 

B

B 

84 Bassia longifolia Koen. 

Habitat ◮ Grown as a pot herb in 

almost every part of India, except 

hills. 

English ◮ Indian Spinach. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Upodikaa, Potaki, 

Maalvaa, Amritvallari. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Vaslakkirai. 

Folk ◮ Poi. 

Action ◮ Demulcent, diuretic, 

laxative (a good substitute for 

spinach and purslane). Used as 

a cooling medicine in digestive 

disorders. Leaf juice is used in 

balanitis and catarrhal affections. 

Externally applied in urticaria, 

burns, scalds. Root—decoction is 

given to stop bilious vomiting and 

in intestinal complaints. Used as 

poultice to reduce local swellings; 

sap is used in acne. 

Used for checking malnutrition in 

children. 

The essential amino acids are arginine, 

leucine, isoleucine, lysine, threonine 

and tryptophan. The plant contains 

several vitamins and minerals, is 

rich in calcium and iron compounds 

and contains a low percentage of soluble 

oxalates. The leaves also contain 

carotenoids, organic acids and watersoluble 

polysaccharides, bioflavonoids 

and vitamin K. 


juice. (CCRAS.) 

Bassia longifolia Koen. 

Synonym ◮ Madhuca longifolia 

(Linn.) Macbride. 


Habitat ◮ South India; common in 

the monsoon forests of Western 

Ghats. 

English ◮ Mowra Butter tree, South 

Indian Mahua. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Illupei, Elupa, Naatu, 

Iluppei, Iruppei. 

Action ◮ Flowers—laxative, bechic 

(used in coughs, colds and bronchitis), 

stimulant and nervine 

tonic. Seed oil—galactogenic, 

anticephalalgic, laxative in cases 

of habitual constipation and piles; 

used externally in rheumatism and 

skin affections. Bark, seed oil and 

gum—antirheumatic. 

The herb contains 17% tannins and 

is used for bleeding and spongy gums, 

tonsillitis, ulcers, rheumatism and diabetes 

mellitus. Roots are applied to 

ulcers. 

Seed kernel gave protobassic acid (a 

sapogenol) and two major saponins— 

Mi-saponins A and B. Mi-saponins 

(bisdesmosides of protobassic acid) 

exhibit anti-inflammatory activity in 

rheumatism. 

The carollas are a rich source of sugars 

and contain an appreciable amount 

of vitamins and calcium (total sugars 

72.9%, calcium 140 mg/100 g). Sugarsareidentifiedassucrose,maltose, 

glucose, fructose, arabinose and rhamnose. 

Flowers are largely used in the 

preparation of distilled liquors. They 

constitute the most important raw material 

for fermentative production of 

alcohol.

Bauhinia acuminata Linn. 

Family ◮ Caesalpiniaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Central India. 

English ◮ Dwarf White Bauhinia. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Kaanchnaara, Kovidaara 

(white-flowered var.) 

Unani ◮ Kachnaal. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Vellaimandarai. 

Action ◮ Bark and leaves—a 

decoction is given in biliousness, 

stone in bladder, venereal diseases, 

leprosy and asthma. Root—boiled 

with oil is applied to burns. 

Bauhinia malabarica Roxb. 


Habitat ◮ 

Bengal. 

South India, Assam and 

English ◮ Malabar Mountain Ebony. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Ashmantaka var., 

Kaanchanaara var. (in the South). 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Malaiyatti. 

Folk ◮ Aapataa (Maharashtra), Amli, 

Amlosaa. 

Action ◮ Antidysenteric. 

The plant contains flavonoid glycosides—quercitroside,iso-quercitroside, 

rutoside, taxifoline rhamnoside, 

kaempferol glycosides and quercetol 

glycoside. 

Bauhinia purpurea Linn. 

Family ◮ Caesalpiniaceae 

Bauhinia racemosa Lamk 85 

Habitat ◮ The Himalayas, and 

distributed in Northern India, 

Assam, Khasi Hills. Also cultivated 

in gardens. 

English ◮ Camel’s Foot tree, Pink 

Bauhinia, Butterfly tree, Geramium 

tree, Orchid tree. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Kovidaara, Rakta 

Kaanchanaara. 

Unani/Siddha ◮ Sivappu mandaarai. 

Siddha ◮ Mandarai. 

Folk ◮ Koilaara, Khairwaal, Kaliaar, 

Rakta Kanchan. 

Action ◮ Bark—astringent, antidiarrhoeal. 

Flower buds and flowers, 

fried in purified butter, are given to 

patients suffering from dysentery. 

Extract of stems are used internally 

and externally for fractured 

bones. Plant is used in goitre. It 

exhibited antithyroid-like activity 

in experimental animals. 

The flowers contain astragalin, isoquercitrin 

and quercetin, also anthocyanins. 

Seeds contain chalcone glycosides. 

Bauhinia racemosa Lamk 


Habitat ◮ Sub-Himalayan tracts 

from Ravi eastwards, ascending 

to 1,000 m. in the Uttar Pradesh, 

West Bengal and Central and South 

India. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Ashmantaka, Kanchini. 

Unani ◮ Kachnaar. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kokku mandarai. 

B

B 

86 Bauhinia retusa Roxb. 

Folk ◮ Aapataa (Maharashtra), 

Kachnaala. 

Action ◮ Bark—highly astringent, 

anti-inflammatory (used 

in glandular inflammations, skin 

diseases, ulcers), cholagogue. 

Leaves—anthelmintic; with onion 

for diarrhoea. Flowers—used in 

haemorrhages, piles; also in cough. 

Seed—antibacterial. 

Octacosane, beta-amyrin and betasitosterol 

have been isolated from the 

bark. EtOH (50%) extract of seeds exhibited 


Bauhinia retusa Roxb. 

Synonym ◮ B. semla Wunderlin. 



up to 1500 m, also in Orissa, Madhya 

Pradesh and Andhra Pradesh. 

Siddha ◮ Nirpa (Telugu). 

Folk ◮ Semalaa, Kathmahuli. Gum— 

Thaur 

Action ◮ Gum—emmenagogue, 

diuretic. (Gum resembles Gum arabic; 

used as an external application 

for sores). Protein isolated from 

seeds—hypoglycaemic, hypocholesterolaemic 

in young, normal 

as well as alloxan-induced diabetic 

albino rats. 

The bark contains quercetin-3-Obeta-D-glucoside 

and rutin. 

Bauhinia tomentosa Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Southern India, Assam 

and Bihar. 

English ◮ Yellow Bauhinia, St. 

Thomas tree, Bell Bauhinia. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Pita Kovidaara (yellowflowered 

var.), Pita Kanchana. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kokkumandarai, 

Tiruvaatti, Kanjani. 

Folk ◮ Kachnaar. 

Action ◮ Antidysenteric. Fruit— 

diuretic. Bark—astringent. Root 

bark—vermifuge. A decoction of 

the root bark is prescribed for liver 

diseases. Seed—used for wound 

healing. 

Seeds yield a fatty oil called ebony 

oil, a water soluble mucilage and saponins. 

Flowers gave isoquercitrin (6%), 

rutin (4.6%) and quercetin (small 

amounts). 

Bauhinia variegata Linn. 

Synonym ◮ B. candida Roxb. 


Habitat ◮ Punjab, Western Peninsula 

and Assam. Also cultivated in 

gardens. 

English ◮ Mountain Ebony, Buddhist 

Bauhinia. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Kaanchanaara, Kaanchanaaraka, 

Kanchanak, Kaanchana, 

Gandhaari, Sonapushpaka, 

Ashmantaka. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Sivappumanchori. 

Action ◮ Buds—a decoction is given 

in piles (also used against tumours), 

haematuria, menorrhagia. Dried

uds are used in diarrhoea, 

dysentery, worm infestation, 

piles and tumours. Root— 

carminative, used in dyspepsia 

and flatulence (a decoction is 

reported to prevent obesity). 

Bark—astringent, anthelmintic; 

used externally in scrofula and skin 

diseases. Seeds—possess human 

blood agglutinating activity. Leaf— 

antifungal. 



of India indicated the use of the stem 

bark in lymphadenitis and goitre. (Kaanchnaar 

Guggulu is prescribed for 

glandular swellings and goitre.) 

Water-soluble portion of alcoholic 

extract of the plant showed preventive 

effect against goitre in rats. 

Flowers gave flavonoids, kaempferol-3-galactoside 

and kaempferol-3rhamnoglucoside. 

The stem bark 

yields hentriacontane, octacosanol and 

stigmasterol. Stem contains beta-sitosterol, 

lupeol and a flavanone glycoside. 

Dosage ◮ Stem bark—20–30 g for 


Begonia laciniata Roxb. var. 

nepalensis A. DC. 

Family ◮ Begoniaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Tropical and sub-tropical 

regions, especially in America. 

Found in Sikkim, Arunachal 

Pradesh, Assam, Meghalaya, 

Nagaland and Manipur, ascending 

to an altitude to 2,100 m. 

Belamcanda chinensis (L.) DC. 87 

English ◮ Beefsteak Geraniums, 

Elephant’s Ear. 

Folk ◮ Hooirjo (West Bengal), Teisu 

(Nagaland). 

Action ◮ A decoction of the root is 

given for liver diseases and fever. 

The extract from succulent stalks is 

used for venereal diseases in folk 

medicine. Fresh shoots are chewed 

for tooth troubles. Aqueous extracts 

of the leaves and flowers of Begonia 

sp. are active against Gram-positive 

and Gram-negative bacteria. 

Hooirjo and Teisu are also equated 

with B. palmata D. Don var. gamblei 

Hara, found in northeastern regions of 

India. 

Belamcanda chinensis (L.) DC. 

Family ◮ Iridaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Introduced from China; 

cultivated all over India, up to an 


Folk ◮ Surajkaanti (Assam), Dasbaha, 

Dasbichandi (Bengal). 

Action ◮ Rhizomes—expectorant, 

deobstruent, resolvent, used in 

tonsillitis, chest and liver complaints 

(antiviral against pneumonia). 

Presence of alkaloids is reported 

from the plant, glucoside, belamcandin 

from the roots. The leaves and 

flowers contain a glycoflavone. The 

seeds tested positive for leucoanthocyanins. 

B

B 

88 Benincasa hispida (Thunb.) Cogn. 

Benincasa hispida 

(Thunb.) Cogn. 

Synonym ◮ B. cerifera Savi. 

Cucurbita hispada Thunb. 

Family ◮ Cucurbitaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Cultivated largely in Uttar 

Pradesh, Punjab, Rajasthan and 

Bihar. 

English ◮ Ash Gourd, White Gourd, 

Wax Gourd, White Pumpkin. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Kuushmaanda, Kuushmaandaka, 

Kuushmaandanaadi. 

Unani ◮ Pethaa, Mahdabaa, Kaddue-Roomi. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Ven-poosani, 

Saambalpushani. 

Action ◮ Leaves—cooling, juice 

rubbed on bruises. Fruit decoction—laxative, 

diuretic, nutritious, 

styptic (given for internal haemorrhages 

and diseases of the 

respiratory tract.) Juice of fruit— 

used for treating epilepsy, insanity 

and other nervous diseases. The ash 

of fruit rind—applied on painful 

swellings. Seeds—anthelmintic. 

The fruits contain lupeol, beta-sitosterol, 

their acetates and several amino 

acids. The fruit juice produces tranquilizing 

activity and mild CNS depressant 

effect in mice. 

The roots of mature plant contain 

a pentacyclic triterpene, which exhibits 

antiallergic activity against both 

homologous passive cutaneous anaphylaxis 

and delayed hypersensitivity 

in mice. The fruit beverage contains 

pyrazine compounds. 

Isomultiflorenol acetate, a pentacyclic 

triterpene, has been isolated as 

the major constituent of wax coating 

of fruits. 

Dosage ◮ Dried pieces of the fruit— 

5–10 g (API Vol. IV.) Fruit juice— 

10–20 m (CCRAS.) 

Berberis aristata DC. 

Sub sp. ◮ B. asiatica Roxb. ex DC. 

Substi. ◮ B. lycium Royle & other 

species. 

Family ◮ Berberidaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Northwestern Himalayas, 

Nilgiris, Kulu and Kumaon. 

English ◮ Indian Barberry. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Daaruharidraa, Daaru, 

Daarvi, Daarunishaa, Daarurajani, 

Vrahitaphala, Valliphala, 

Sthirphala. Pushpaphala, Somakaa, 

Parjanyaa, Parjani, Kantkateri, 

Taarthya, Pachampachaa. Kaaliyaka 

is now equated with Pita Chandana 

(Coscinium fenestratum (Gaertn.) 

Colebr., Menispermaceae). Extract—Rasaanjana. 

Unani ◮ Daarhald. Rasaut (extract). 

Zarishk (fruit). 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Marmanjal. 

Action ◮ Rasaut, Rasasranjana 

(extract)—bitter, cholagogue, 

antidiarrhoeal, stomachic, laxative, 

diaphoretic, antipyretic, 

antiseptic. Used externally in 

opthalmia,conjunctivitis, ulcers, 

sores, swollen gums. Root bark— 

anti-inflammatory, hypoglycaemic

hypotensive, antiamoebic, anticoagulant, 

antibacterial. Bark— 

used in liver complaints, diarrhoea, 

dysentery, cholera, gastric disorders, 

enlargement of spleen and for 

regulating metabolism. Berries— 

antiscorbutic, laxative. 

Berberine hydrochloride and sulphate 

help in the diagnosis of latent 

malaria by releasing the parasites into 

the blood stream. 

Alkaloid berberine possesses antibacterial 

and anti-inflammatory activities. 

It is used as an intestinal antiseptic 

and bitter stomachic. It also 

exhibits antineoplastic properties. (Its 

synthetic derivative dihydroberberine 

is used in brain tumour.) 

Berberine has been found to inhibit 

the activity of enzymes trypsin (32%) 

and chymotrypsin (60%) in in-vitro 

studies. 

B. asiatica Roxb.ex Dc. is found in 

the Himalaya at 900–3,000 m, Assam 

and Bihar. 

See B. vulgaris. 

Dosage ◮ Extract—1–3 g (CCRAS.); 

dried stem—5–10 ml decoction. 

(API Vol. II.) 

Berberis chitria Lindl. 

Synonym ◮ B. aristata auct. 

Hook.f.&Thoms. 



Kashmir to Nepal, at altitudes of 

1,500–2,400 m. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Daaruharidraa (var.). 

Folk ◮ Totaro, Kintodaa (Garhwal). 

Berberis vulgaris Linn. 89 

Action ◮ Same as that of Berberis 

aristata. 

The root and stem bark contain alkaloids 

(5 and 4.2% respectively, calculated 

as berberine.) 

The alcoholic extract of the roots was 

found to be better antimicrobial agent 

than the aqueous extract. The alkaloid 

palmitine hydroxide possesses antispermatogenic 

properties. 

See B. aristata and B. vulgaris. 

Berberis ulicina Hook, known as 

Khicharmaa in Tibet, is also equated 

with Daaruharidraa. 

Berberis vulgaris Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Distributed in Northwestern 

Himalayas. 

English ◮ Common Barberry, True 

Barberry. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Daruharidraa (var.). 

Folk ◮ Chatrod, Kashmal. 

Action ◮ Root and bark—used 

for ailments of gastrointestinal 

tract, liver, gallbladder, kidney and 

urinary tract, respiratory tract, also 

as a febrifuge and blood purifier. 

Key application ◮ Listed by German 

Commission E among unapproved 

herbs. 

An extract with 80% berberine and 

additional alkaloids stimulated the bile 

secretion of rats by 72%. (PDR.) As 

cholagogue. (The British Herbal Pharmacopoeia.) 

The main alkaloid is berberine (well 

tolerated up to 0.5 g). Berries are safe. 

B

B 

90 Bergenia ligulata (Wall.) Engl. 

Bererine in small doses stimulates 

the respiratory system; poisonings 

have been observed from overdoses. 

Poisonings from the total herb have 

not been reported. (German Commission 

E.) 

Berberine is bactericidal, amoebicidal 

and trypanocidal. Berberine is antidiarrhoeal,asitentersintothecytosol 

or binds to the cell membrane and inhibits 

the catalytic unit of andenylate 

cyclase. It is active in vitro and in animals 

against cholera. 

Berberine stimulates bile secretion 

and shows sedative, hypotensive, anticonvulsant 

and uterine stimulant activity 

in animals. Alkaloid bermarine is 

also strongly antibacterial. It has been 

shown to increase white blood cell and 

platelet counts in animals with iatrogenic 

leukocytopaenia. 

Berberine, berbamine and jatrorrhizine 

are hypotensive and sedative. 

Many of the alkaloids are antineoplastic. 

The alkaloid berbamine (50 mg 

three times daily for 1–4 weeks) helped 

reverse leukopaenia induced by benzene, 

cancer chemotherapy or radiotherapy 

in a clinical study. (Francis 

Brinker.) 

Berberine, when combined with 

pyrimethamine, was more effective 

than combinations with other antibiotics 

in treating chloroquine-resistant 

malaria. (Sharon M. Herr.) 

Bergenia ligulata (Wall.) Engl. 

Synonym ◮ B. ciliata Sternb. 

Saxifraga ligulata Wall. 

Family ◮ Saxifragaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Temperate Himalaya 

from Kashmir to Bhutan, between 

altitudes of 900 and 3,000 m. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Paashaanabheda, 

Ashmaribhedikaa, Ashmaribhit, 

Ashmghna, Shilaabhit, Shilaabheda. 

(These synonyms are also equated 

with Aerva lanata Juss.) 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Padanbethi. 

Action ◮ Leaf and root—antiscorbutic, 

astringent, spasmolytic, 

antidiarrhoeal. Used in dysuria, 

spleen enlargement, pulmonary 

affections as a cough remedy, 

menorrhagia, urinary tract infections. 

Alcoholic extract of roots— 

antilithic. Acetone extract of rootbark—cardiotoxic, 

CNS depressant 

and anti-inflammatory; in mild 

doses diuretic but antidiuretic in 

higher doses. Anti-inflammatory 

activity decreases with increasing 

dosage. 

Due to its depressant action on the 

central nervous system, the drug 

is used against vertigo, dizziness 

and headache in moderate or low 

dosage. 

Key application ◮ In lithiasis, 

dysuria, polyuria. (The Ayurvedic 

Pharmacopoeia of India; Indian 


The rhizome contains an active principle 

bergenin (0.6%), gallic acid, glucose 

(5.6%), tannins (14.2–016.3%), 

mucilage and wax; a C-glycoside and 


Bergenin prevented stress-induced 

erosions in rats and lowered gastric 

outputs.

(Paashaanabheda indicates that the 

plant grows between rocks appearing 

to break them; it does not necessarilymeanthatitpossesseslithotriptic 

property.) 

Dosage ◮ Rhizome—20–30 g for 

decoction. (API Vol. I) 

Beta vulgaris Linn. subsp. cicla 

(L.) Moq. 

Synonym ◮ B. vulgaris auct. non L. 

Family ◮ Chenopodiacae. 


region; cultivated in North India, 

Maharashtra and South India. 

English ◮ Beet Root, Garden Beet, 

Chard. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Palanki. 

Folk ◮ Chukandar. 

Action ◮ Leaf—used in burns 

and bruises, also for diseases of 

spleen and liver. Tuber and seed— 

expectorant. Leaf and seed— 

diuretic. Leaf, tuber and seed— 

anti-inflammatory. Seed oil— 

analgesic. 

Beet roots are eaten raw as salad or 

cooked. The leaves are nutritionally 

superior to roots and are a good source 

of vitamins and minerals. 

The plant contains alkaloids of which 

betaine is a mild diuretic and emmenagogue. 

In research, using rats, chard increased 

regeneration of beta cells in 

pancreas. Maximum reduction of 

blood glucose was after 42 days of 

Betula utilis D. Don. 91 

administration. (J Ethnopharmacol, 

2000, 73: 251–259.) 

Beets are used orally as a supportive 

therapy in the treatment of liver diseases 

and fatty liver (possibly due to 

betaine). Ingestion of large quantities 

might worsen kidney disease. (Natural 


2007.) 

Betula alnoides 

Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don. 

Synonym ◮ B. acuminata Wall. 

Family ◮ Betulaceae. 

Habitat ◮ The temperate and 

subtropical Himalayas, Khasi Hills 

and Manipur. 

English ◮ Indian Birch, Naga Birch. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Bhojapatra (var.). 

Action ◮ Used in supportive therapy 

of rheumatic ailments. 

Methyl salicylate (92.8%) has been 

reported from the essential oil of the 

bark (of the plant growing in northeastern 

region of India). 

Betula utilis D. Don. 

Synonym ◮ B. bhojpattra Wall. 



Kashmir to Bhutan. 

English ◮ Himalayan Silver Birch, 

Indian Paper tree. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Bhuurja, Bahulvalkala, 

Bahuputa, Lekhyapatraka, Charmi, 

Chitrapatra, Bhutahaa. 

B

B 

92 Bidens pilosa Linn. 

Folk ◮ Bhojapatra. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Boorjapattram 

(leaves). 

Action ◮ Resin—laxative. Leaves— 

diuretic; used in the form of infusion 

in gout, rheumatism, dropsy, and as 

a solvent of stones in the kidneys; 

used in skin affections, especially 

eczema. Bark—used in convulsions. 

Oil—astringent, antiseptic. 

Key application ◮ (B. pendula) In 

irrigation therapy for bacterial 

and inflammatory diseases of the 

urinary tract and for kidney gravel; 

supportive therapy for rheumatic 

ailment. (German Commission E, 

ESCOP.) 

European Silver Birch is equated 

with Betula alba L., synonym B. pendula 

Roth. Astringent, diuretic, antiinflammatory, 

bitter, cholagogue; contains 

salicylates. Used for kidney and 

bladder complaints, sluggish kidney 

functions, rheumatism and gout. 

Methyl salicylate is obtained by distillationofthetwigs.InanIndiansp.,B. 

acuminata, methyl salicylate (92.8%) 

has been reported in the essential oil 

of the bark. B. utilis is also a close 

relative of B. pendula. 

Dosage ◮ Bark—3–5 g powder; 

decoction—50–100 ml (CCRAS.) 

Bidens pilosa Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Throughout India in 

gardens, waste places and tea 

plantations. 

Folk ◮ Phutium (Gujarat), Kuri 

(Garhwal). 

Action ◮ Plant—cytotoxic. Leaf— 

applied to ulcers and swollen glands. 

The plant contains a number of polyacetylenes 

which are toxic to bacteria, 

fungi and human fibroblast cells. 

Phenylheptatriyne is the major constituent 

of the leaves and stems. 

B. pilosa Linn. var. minor (Blume) 

Sherff, synonym B. pilosa Linn. var. bipinnata 

Hook. f. in part, gave phytosterin-B, 

which like insulin, showed hypoglycaemic 

activity both in normal 

and diabetic rats. B. pilosa auct. non 

Linn., synonym B. chinensis Willd., is 

used for leprosy, fistulae, pustules, tumours. 

Biophytum sensitivum 

(Linn.) DC. 

Synonym ◮ Oxalis sensitiva Linn. 

Family ◮ Oxalidaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Throughout tropical India. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Lajjaalu (var.) Vipareet 

Lajjaalu (non-classical), Alambushaa 

(Hindi commentators have 

equated it with Gorakh Mundi, 

Sphaeranthus indicus Linn., 

Asteraceae.) 

Folk ◮ Lajoni, Jhalai, Lakajana. 

Action ◮ Plant—used in insomnia, 

convulsions, cramps, 

chest-complaints, inflammations, 

tumours, chronic skin diseases. 

Ash—in stomachache. Leaves— 

diuretic, astringent, antiseptic. 

Paste is applied to burns, contusions

and wounds. Decoction is given 

in strangury, asthma and phthisis. 

Roots—decoction is given in lithiasis. 

Mature leaves are recommended 

in diabetes; contain an insulin-like 

principle. 

A saline extract of leaves showed hypoglycaemic 

activity in rabbits. 

Bixa orellana Linn. 

Family ◮ Bixaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Native to Central America, 

often cultivated in Madhya Pradesh 

and South India. 

English ◮ Annatto. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Sinduri, Sinduriyaa. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Jabara, Manjitti. 

Action ◮ Plant—astringent, antibilious, 

antiemetic, blood purifier. 

Leaves—infusion is given in jaundice, 

also in dysentery. Externally, 

scar-preventive. Root bark— 

febrifuge, antiperiodic. Seed pulp— 

haemostatic, antidysenteric, diuretic, 

laxative. Fruit—antidysenteric. 

An antimicrobial constituent, maslinic 

acid, alongwith gallic acid and 

pyrogallol, has been isolated from the 

leaves. Alcoholic extract of the leaves 

completely inhibited Micrococcus pyogenes, 

but was inactive against E. coli. 

The aqueous extract, however, showed 

partial inhibition against E. coli. The 

aqueous extract also showed potent inhibitory 

activity towards lens aldose reductase, 

which plays an important role 

in the management of diabetic complications. 

The activity is attributed to 

a flavonoid, isoscutelarein. 

Blepharis edulis Pers. 93 

Bixin, the main constituent of seed 

coat, shows cytostatic effect on the 

growth of human lymphoma cells. Bixin 

also has a hyperglycaemic effect and 

may disturb blood glucose control. 

Blepharis edulis Pers. 

Synonym ◮ B. persica (Burm.f.) 

Kuntze. 


Habitat ◮ Punjab and western 

Rajasthan. 

English ◮ Acanthus. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Utangana, Kaamavridhi, 

Chatushpatri, Ucchataa (equated 

with Scirpus or Cyperus sp. during 

the classical period; with Shveta 

Gunjaa, Abrus sp. during the 

medieval period.) 

Unani ◮ Utangan. 

Folk ◮ Karadu (Maharashtra). 

Action ◮ Roots—diuretic. Used 

for urinary discharges and dysmenorrhoea. 

Seeds—deobstruent, 

resolvent, diuretic (used in strangury 

and sexual debility). Powdered 

plant is applied locally on infections 

of the genitals and on burns. 

Key application ◮ Seed in dysuria 

and impotency. (The Ayurvedic 

Pharmacopoeia of India.) 

A benzoxazine glucoside, blepharin, 

has been isolated from seeds, and 

a saponin, which on hydrolysis gave 

lupeol. 

Dosage ◮ Dried seed—3–6 g powder. 


B

B 

94 Blepharis linariaefolia Pers. 

Blepharis linariaefolia Pers. 

Synonym ◮ B. sindica T. Anders. 


Habitat ◮ Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan 

and Gujarat. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Ushtrakaandi, Utangan 

(var.). 

Folk ◮ Utangana (Sindh). Asad. 

Action ◮ Seeds, boiled in milk, are 

taken as an invigorating tonic. 

Blepharis molluginifolia Pers., used 

for urinary discharges, is also equated 

with Utangana. 

Blepharispermum subsessile 

DC. 


Habitat ◮ Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, 

Karnataka. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Used as a substitute for 

Raasnaa in Madhya Pradesh. 

Action ◮ Anti-inflammatory (used 

internally and externally for 

rheumatic affections). 

Blumea balsamifera DC. 

Synonym ◮ B. densiflora Hook. f. in 

part. 


Habitat ◮ Subtropical Himalayas, 

Nepal, Sikkim, Assam and Khasi 

Hills at 700–1,350 m. 

English ◮ Ngai Camphor. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Kukundara, Gangaapatri. 

Unani ◮ Kakarondaa. 

Action ◮ Tranquilizer (used in 

excitement and insomnia), expectorant, 

sudorific. Given in intestinal 

diseases, colic, diarrhoea. Essential 

oil from leaves—hypotensive. 

The plant is a source of Ngai or 

Blumea Camphor. Camphor occurs in 

all parts of the plant, but is generally extracted 

from leaves. Ngai Camphor oil 

consists almost entirely of l-borneol. It 

is redistilled to obtain the refined camphor 

for use in medicine. 

The dried leaves contain sesquiterpene 

lactones. These lactones exhibit 

antitumour activity against Yoshida 

sacoma cells in tissue culture. 

The plant exhibits moderate antibacterial 

activity against E. coli. 

Blumea densiflora DC. 


Habitat ◮ Sub-tropical Himalayas, 

Nepal, Sikkim, Assam and Khasia 

hills. 

English ◮ Ngai Camphor. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Kukundara (var.). 

Action ◮ Juice of fresh leaves— 

insecticidal, mosquito repellant. 

The plant yields an essential oil 

which yields camphor. 

Aerial part contains sesquiterpene 

lactones, tagitinin A, tirolundin ethyl 

ether and iso-alantolactone derivatives.

Blumea eriantha DC. 


Habitat ◮ Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, 

Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, 

Kerala. 



Folk ◮ Nirmudi (Maharashtra). 

Action ◮ Juice of the herb— 

carminative. A warm infusion 

of leaves is given as a sudorific, 

while a cold infusion is considered 

diuretic and emmenagogue. The oil 

possesses significant antibacterial 

and antifungal properties. The oil 

also shows insecticidal activity. 

The essential oil contains 95% ketones, 

the chief constituent of which are 

d-carvotanacetone and l-tetrahydrocarvone 

and an alcohol. 

The plant contains a flavonol, crianthin 

(isolated from the flowers). It 

is identical to artemetin, isolated from 

Artemisia absinthium. 

Blumea fastulosa (Roxb.) Kurz. 

Synonym ◮ B. glomerata DC. 


Habitat ◮ Tropical Himalayas, and 

throughout the plains of Assam and 

Penninsular India. 



Action ◮ Plant—diuretic. Essential 

oil—CNS depressant. 

Blumea lacera. 95 

The steam non-volatile fraction of 

plant extract contained a mixture of 

n-alkanes. 

Blumea lacera. 



India, ascending to 700 m. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Kukundara, Kukuradru, 

Taamrachuuda. 


Siddha/Tamil ◮ Narakkarandai, Kaatu 

Mullangi. 

Folk ◮ Kakranda. 

Action ◮ Plant—antipyretic. Leaf— 

astringent, febrifuge, diuretic, 

deobstruent, anthelmintic (particularly 

in case of thread worm). 

Root—anticholerin. Essential oil— 

antibacterial, antifungal. 

The leaves on steam distillation yield 

0.5% essential oil from which camphor 

is isolated. 

The oil contains cineol 66, d-fenchone 

10 and citral about 6%. The 

plant gave a diester of coniferyl alcohol, 

acetylenic compounds, a thiophene 

derivative; aerial parts gave campesterol, 

hentriacontane, hentriacontanol, 

alpha-amyrin and its acetate, lupeol 

and its acetate and beta-sitosterol. 

The alcoholic extract of the plant 

showed marked anti-inflammatory activity 

in carrageenin and bradykinininduced 

inflammation in rats. 

Dosage ◮ Root—5–10 g paste. 

(CCRAS.) 

B

B 

96 Boerhavia diffusa Linn. 

Boerhavia diffusa Linn. 

Synonym ◮ B. repens Linn. 

B. procumbens Roxb. 

Family ◮ Nyctaginaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Throughout India as 

a weed. 

English ◮ Horse-purslane, Hogweed. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Rakta-punarnavaa, 

Punarnavaa, Katthilla, Shophaghni, 

Shothaghni. Varshaabhu (also 

equated with Trianthema portulacastrum 

Linn., which exhibits 

anti-inflammatory, antipyretic and 

analgesic activity). 

Unani ◮ Itsit, Bishkhaparaa. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Mookkirattai. 

Folk ◮ Gadaha-purnaa. 

Action ◮ Diuretic, anti-inflammatory, 

antiarthritic, spasmolytic, antibacterial 

(used for inflammatory renal 

diseases, nephrotic syndrome, in 

cases of ascites resulting from 

early cirrhosis of liver and chronic 

peritonitis, dropsy associated with 

chronic Bright’s diseases, for serum 

uric acid levels). Root—anticonvulsant, 

analgesic, expectorant, 

CNS depressant, laxative, diuretic, 

abortifacient. 

Key application ◮ As diuretic, 

hepatoprotective. (Indian Herbal 


B. repanda, synonym B. chinensis 

Linn., roots exhibited antihepatotoxic 

activity against carbon tetrachloride 

galactosamine-and paracetamolinduced 

intoxication in rats. Powdered 

root gave encouraging results in spermatorrhoea 

and leucorrhoea. 

The chloroform and methanolic extracts 

of the roots and aerial parts of 

B. diffusa also exhibited antihepatotoxic 

activity against carbon tetrachlorideinduced 

intoxication in rats. 

Punarnavaa is official in IP as a diuretic. 

The diuretic action of the drug is 

attributedtothepresenceofxanthone, 

beta-ecdysone. Flavonoid, arbinofuranoside, 

present in the drug, was found 

to lower serum uric acid in experimental 

animals, as also in humans. 

Punarnavaa has been reported to 

increase serum protein level and reduce 

urinary protein extraction in clinical 

trials in patients suffering with 

nephrotic syndrome. The activity is 

attributed to the presence of rotenoids 

in various parts of the plant. 

An antifibrinolytic agent, punarnavoside, 

has been found to stop 

IUCD-induced bleeding in monkeys. 

The drug contains quinolizidine alkaloids. 


decoction (API Vol. I); root—1–3 g 

powder; 10–20 ml fresh juice. (API 

Vol. III.) 

Boerhavia verticillata Poir. 


Habitat ◮ Throughout plains of 

India. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Shveta Punarnavaa, 

Vrshchiva, Vrshchiraka. (Vrishchira 

is also equated with Trianthema sp.) 

B. erecta, synonym B. punarnava 

Saha and Krishnamurthy, is also 

equated with the white-flowered 

species of Boerhavia. 

Action ◮ See B. diffusa.

Bombax ceiba Linn. 

See Salmalia malabarica Schott & Endl. 

Borago officinalis Linn. 


Habitat ◮ The Mediteranean region, 

Europe and Asia. 

English ◮ Borage, Cow’s Tongue 

Plant. 

Unani ◮ Gaozabaan (Onosma 

bracteatum Wall. has also been 

equated with Gaozabaan). 

Action ◮ Fresh herb (compounded 

with water)—refreshing, restorative 

and nervine tonic. Leaves 

and flowers—diuretic, febrifuge, 

expectorant, demulcent, emollient; 

promote the activity of kidneys; 

alleviate pulmonary affections. 

The drug strengthens adrenal glands 

and is given for stress, mental exhausion 

and depression; provides support 

to stomach and intestines in cases of 

infection and toxicity. Used as a tonic 

to counteract the lingering effects of 

steroid therapy. Seeds relieve irritable 

bowel syndrome and regulate menstruation. 

The leaves contain lycopsamine and 

supindine viridiflorate as the predominant 

unsaturated pyrrolizidine alkaloids. 

Due to low concentration of 

these alkaloids Borage is not toxic. 

The drug contains potassium and 

calcium, combined with mineral acids. 

The fresh juice affords 30%, the dried 

herb 3% of nitrate of potash. The 

stems and leaves supply much saline 

Borassus flabellifer Linn. 97 

mucilage. These saline qualities are 

mainly responsible for the wholesome 

invigorating properties of Borage. 

Borage imparts pleasant flavour and 

cooling effect to beverages. In India, 

squashes and syrups, sold during summer, 

contain Borage extract. 

Borage contains ascorbic acid 

(38 mg/100 g). Flowers contain cholin, 

glucose, fructose, amino acids, tannin 

(about 3%). Seeds contain protein 

(20.9%) and an oil (38.3%). The seed 

oil is one of the important sources of 

gamma-linoleic acid and linoleic acid. 

Borage oil, combined with Evening 

Primrose oil, is used in hypercholesterolaemia. 

Borage seed oil is used for rheumatoid 

arthritis, atopic eczema, infantile 

seborrhoeic dermatitis, neurodermatitis, 

also for PMS and for preventing 

heart disease and stroke. Only UPA 

(unsaturated pyrrolizidine alkaloids) 

free oil is given internally. 

Listed by German Commission E 

among unapproved herbs. 

It has been suggested that borage not 

be used with drugs known to lower the 

seizure threshold such as tricyclic antidepressants 

and phenothiazines due 

to GLA content (only borage seed oil 

contains significant amounts of GLA). 


Borassus flabellifer Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Coastal areas of Bengal, 

Bihar and Western and Eastern 

Peninsula. 

English ◮ Palmyra Palm, Brab tree. 

B

B 

98 Borreria articularis (Linn. f.) F. N. Williams. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Taala, Taada, Trinraj, 

Mahonnata, Lekhyapatra. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Panai, Panaimaram. 

Action ◮ Fresh sap—diuretic, cooling, 

antiphlegmatic, laxative, antiinflammatory. 

Slightly fermented 

juice is given in diabetes. Palmjaggery—used 

as an energy food 

for convalscents. Ash of dry 

spadix—antacid, antibilious (used 

in heartburn). Young root, terminal 

buds, leaf-stalks—used in gastritis 

and hiccups. 

Thesapisgivenasatonictoasthmatic 

and anaemic patients. Jaggery is 

given for anaemia, for diseases characterized 

by a marked loss of potassium. 

Palm candy is used in coughs and pulmonary 

affections and as a laxative for 

children. 


recommends dried male inflorescence 

in dysuria. 

Jaggery solution may be used in hypertension 

and oedema due to heart 

and liver diseases, also as a food for 

typhoid patients. 

The sap is an excellent source of biologically 

available riboflavin. 

Aqueous MeOH extract of young 

shoots contains heat-stable toxin; edible 

part of young shoot, neurotoxic to 

rats, but not hepatotoxic. 

Dosage ◮ Dried male inflorescence— 

1–3 g (API Vol. III.) 

Borreria articularis 

(Linn. f.) F. N. Williams. 

Synonym ◮ B. hispada (L.) K. Sch. 

Spermacoce hispida Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Throughout India, as 

a weed in cultivated and sallow 

lands and pastures. 

English ◮ Shaggy Button Weed. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Madana-ghanti. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Nathaichoori. 

Folk ◮ Ghanti-chi-bhaaji (Maharashtra), 

Gatbhanjan, Satgathiyaa. 

Action ◮ Herb—used in the treatment 

of headache. Root—prescribed as 

a mouthwash in toothache. Leaf— 

juiceisgivenasanastringent 

in haemorrhoids. Seeds—used 

as demulcent in diarrhoea and 

dysentery. 

The weed contains beta-sitosterol, 

ursolic acid and D-mannitol. It is rich 

in calcium and phosphorus. Isorhamnetin, 

a flavonoid, is reported in the 

seeds. 

Boswellia serrata Roxb. 


Habitat ◮ The drier parts of 


English ◮ Indian Frankincense, 

Indian Olibanum. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Shallaki, Susravaa, 

Gajabhakshyaa, Salai. Gum— 

Kunduru. 

Unani ◮ Kundur (gum). 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Parangisambirani, 

Kungli. 

Folk ◮ Salai Guggul.

Action ◮ Gum-resin—antiseptic, 

anti-inflammatory, antiatherosclerotic, 

emmenagogue, analgesic, 

sedative, hypotensive. Also used 

in obesity, diarrhoea, dysentery, 

piles, urinary disorders, scrofulous 

affections. Oil—used topically in 

chronic ulcers, ringworm. 

Nonphenolic fraction of gum-resin 

exhibited marked sedative and analgesic 

effect in rats. It produced a 

marked and long-lasting hypotension 

in anaesthetized dogs. 

Many derivatives of 3-keto-methylbeta-boswellic 

ester, isolated from the 

gum-resin., have been prepared; a pyrazoline 

derivative exhibited maximum 

anti-inflammatory activity. 

(Gum-resin is used in osteoarthritis, 

juvenile rheumatoid arthritis, soft 

tissue fibrositis and spondylitis, also 

for cough, bronchitis, asthma, mouth 

sores.) 

Essential oil from gum-resin—antifungal. 

Gum-resin contains triterpenes of 

oleanane, ursane and euphane series. 

Stem and fruit—hypoglycaemic. 

Dosage ◮ Gum-resin—1–3 g (API 

Vol. IV.) 

Brassica alba (L.) Boiss. 

Synonym ◮ Sinapis alba L. 


Habitat ◮ Native of Europe and West 

Asia. Cultivated in North India as 

acrop. 

English ◮ White Mustard. 

Brassica campestris Linn. var. rapa (L.) Hartm. 99 

Ayurvedic ◮ Siddhaartha, Shveta 

Sarshapa, Sarshapa-Gaura. 

Unani ◮ Khardal Safed. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Venkadugu. 

Folk ◮ Safed Raai. 

Action ◮ Stimulant to gastric mucosa, 

increases pancreatic secretions; 

emetic (used in narcotic poisoning), 

diaphoretic, rubefacient. (As 

a counter-irritant it increases 

flow of blood to a specific area.) 

Used externally as a poultice in 

bronchitis, pleurisy, intercostal 

neuralgia, chilbains. 

Seeds contain glucosinolates. 

Sinalbin in B. alba and sinigrin in B. 

juneja oil are toxic constituents. The 

oil with toxic constituents should be 

avoided in gastrointestinal ulcers and 

kidney disorders. When moistened, 

sinigrin in the seeds is degraded to 

allyl isothiocyanate, a potent irritant 

volatile oil. (Francis Brinker.) 

Glucosinolates are goitrogenic. Excessive 

consumption of Brassica sp. 

vegetables may alter absorption of thyroid 

hormone in G2 tract. (Sharon M. 

Herr.) 

Brassica campestris Linn. var. 

rapa (L.) Hartm. 


Habitat ◮ Cultivated as an oil-yielding 

crop. 

English ◮ Field Mustard, Turnip 

Rape. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Sarshapa, Siddhaartha. 

Unani ◮ Sarson. 

B

100 Brassica juncea (Linn.) Czern. & Coss. 

B 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kadugu. 

Action ◮ Stimulant, diuretic, emetic, 

rubefacient, counter-irritant. Used 

externally for bronchitis and 

rheumatic pains (increases flow of 

blood to a specific area). Powdered 

seeds are used as a tea for colds, 

influenza and fever. 

The seeds contain glycosinolates 

(the derivatives are responsible for toxicity). 

The concentration of the major 

glucosinolate, gluco-napin, variesfrom 

0.64 to 1.8% in the oil-free meal of 

Indian brassicas. The glucosinolates 

in rapeseed meal split upon enzymatic 

hydrolysis to produce glucose, potassium, 

hydrogen sulphate and a sulphurcontaining 

compound which undergoes 

intramolecular rearrangement to 

give rise to the antinutritional factors, 

isothiocyanates or thiocyanates. 

The volatile oil of mustard is given 

internally in colic; in overdoses it is 

highly poisonous and produces gastroenteric 

inflammations. It is employed 

externally as a liniment for rheumatic 

pains. 

Adulteration of mustard oil with 

argemone oil (Argemone mexicana is 

frequently found growing in brassica 

fields), by accident or by design, has led 

to the widespread epidemics of dropsy 

and glaucoma due to an alkaloid 

sanguinarine. 

Black mustard contains sinigrin, 

which on hydrolysis by enzyme myrosin, 

produces allyisothiocynate; the 

whitemustardcontainssinalbin, which 

produces p-hydroxybenzyl isothiocynate. 

Mucilage contains sinapine. 

Dosage ◮ Seed—500 mg to 1 g paste. 

(API Vol. III.) 

Brassica juncea 

(Linn.) Czern. & Coss. 


Habitat ◮ Cultivated in Punjab, West 

Bengal, Uttar Pradesh and Gujarat. 

English ◮ Chinese Mustard, Brown 

Mustard. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Raajikaa, Aasuri Raai, 

Tikshnagandhaa. 


Folk ◮ Raai 

Action ◮ Raai is a substitute for 

Mustard. Antidysenteric, stomachic, 

diaphoretic, anthelmintic. 

Increases pancreatic secretions. 

A decoction of seeds is given in 

indigestion, cough. Used externally 

as a counter-irritant in several 

complaints of nervous systems. 

Brassica napus Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Cultivated in Punjab, 

Bengal and Bihar. 

English ◮ Mustard, Indian Rape. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Krishna-Sarshapa, 

Raajakshavaka, Kattaka, Katusneha, 

Tantubha, Siddhaartha, 

Siddhaarthaka, Siddhaartha-sita, 

Rakshogna. (White variety of 

Sarshapa is also equated with 

Siddhaartha. Asita and Rakta seed 

varieties are reddish; Gaur and 

Siddhaartha are whitish.) 

Unani ◮ Kaali Sarson. 

Action ◮ Emollient, diuretic, 

anticatarrhal.

The oil gave brassino steroid—brasinolide. 

Seeds gave a antithyroid compound, 

5-vinyl-2-oxazolidinethone; 

thioglucosides and thioglucosinolates. 

The seed oil is said to dissolves gallstone. 

Brassica nigra (Linn.) Koch. 


Habitat ◮ Cultivated in Punjab, Uttar 

Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. 

English ◮ Black Mustard. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Banarasi Raai, Raajika 

(var.). 

Unani ◮ Khardal Siyah. 


Folk ◮ Raai. 

Action ◮ Seeds are used for treating 

coryza with thin excoriating discharge 

with lacrimation, sneezing 

and hacking cough, nostril blockage 

and dry and hot feeling of 

pharyngitis. 

The seeds contain glucosinolate sinigrin, 

which produces allyl isothiocyanate 

when mixed with warm water. 

Allyl isothiocynate acts as a counterirritant 

when diluted (1:50). 

Brayera anthelmintica Kunth. 

Synonym ◮ Hagenia abyssinica 

(Bruce)J.F.Gmelin. 


Habitat ◮ Indigenous to north-east 

Africa. Imported into Mumbai. 

Bridelia montana Willd. 101 

English ◮ Cusso, Brayera. 

Folk ◮ Kusso. 

Action ◮ Anthelmintic. Administered 

in the form of an infusion 

for the expulsion of tapeworm 

(ineffective against hookworm, 

roundworm, whipworm). Irritant 

to mucous membrane; produces 

nausea, vomiting and colic in large 

doses. 

Breynia retusa (Dennst.) Alston. 

Synonym ◮ B. patens Benth. 


Habitat ◮ The tropical Himalayas 

and Deccan peninsula. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Bahuprajaa, Kaamboji 

(doubtful synonym). 

Folk ◮ KaaliKamboi(Gujarat). 

Action ◮ Used as a galactagogue (as 

a supporting drug in herbal compound 

formulations). Spasmogenic. 

Bridelia montana Willd. 


Habitat ◮ The sub-Himalayan tract 

from Kashmir eastwards to Assam, 

and in Bihar, Orissa and Andhra 

Pradesh. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Ekaviraa. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Venge-maram. 

Folk ◮ Gondni, Asaanaa (Maharashtra). 

Action ◮ Bark and Root—astringent, 

anthelmintic. Used in the treatment 

of bone fracture. 

B

102 Bridelia retusa (Linn.) Spreng. 

B 

The root contains 5.7% tannins. 

The leaves contain beta-sitosterol, 

its beta-D-glucoside and a triterpenoid. 

Fructose, glucose and sucrose 

were identified as the components of 

the glycoside. 

Bridelia retusa (Linn.) Spreng. 


Habitat ◮ Throughout India up to an 

altitude of 1,000 m, except in very 

dry regions. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Mahaaviraa, Asana 

(Asana is equated with Pterocarpus 

marsupium Roxb., the Indian Kino 

tree.) 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Mulluvengai. 

Folk ◮ Gondani, Gondui, Khaajaa. 

Action ◮ Bark—astringent, used 

in the form of a liniment in 

rheumatism. Paste of the stem bark 

is applied to wounds. 

The bark contains 16–40% tannin. 

Presence of a triterpene ketone in the 

bark is reported. The bark exhibited 

hypotensive properties in pharmacological 

trials. The extract of the bark 

significantly increased the mean survival 

time of mice infected intracerebrally 

with vaccinia virus. Ripe fruit 

pulp contains beta-sitosterol and gallic 

and ellagic acids. 

Brucea sativa 

National Formulary of Unani Medicine, 

Part I, equated Jirjeer with Brucea sativa 

Mill. or Nasturtium officinale R. Br. 

Nasturtium officinale, found in Europe, 

is known as watercress. Indian 

cress is cultivated in gardens as a creeper. 

Brucea is a totally different species 

(Simaroubaceae). Taraamirra of Unani 

medicine should be equated with Eruca 

sativa and not with Brucea sativa. 

Action ◮ Taraamiraa (Jirjeer)— 

used in Unani medicine as a spermatic 

tonic (powder of seeds is 

administered with a half-fried egg), 

also as a blood purifier, diuretic, 

emmenagogue and deobstruent. 

Leaf juice—used as a lotion for 

blotches, spots and blemishes. 

Nasturtium officinale (Brassicaceae): 

Antiscorbutic and stimulant. A rich 

source of vitamins A and E, also of 

ascorbic acid. Seeds contain gluconcasturtin. 

Used for metabolic disorders, 

anaemia, strangury, kidney and 

bladder disorders and catarrh of the 

respiratory tract. 

Eruca sativa Mill.: Cultivated in 

North India; known as Taraamiraa, 

Siddhaartha, Bhutaghna. Seeds are 

used like mustard. Seeds—antibacterial. 

Crude juice of the plant inhibited 

E. coli, S. typhi and B. subtlis. Seeds 

contain (4-Me-thio)-Bu-glucosinolate 

(glucoerucin) as K and tetra-Me-N 

salts. A composition is used in induration 

of liver. 

Brugmansia suaveolens 

Bercht. & Presl. 

Synonym ◮ Datura suaveolens Humb. 

& Bonpl. ex Willd. 

Family ◮ Solanaceae.

Habitat ◮ Native to Mexico; grown 

in Indian gardens. 

English ◮ Angel’s Trumpet. 

Action ◮ Leaf and flower—used 

to treat asthma; to induce hallucinations. 

Can cause severe 

toxicity. 

All parts of the plant contain tropane 

alkaloids (concentration highest in 

the foliage and seeds), particularly 

atropine, hyoscyamine and hyoscine 

(scopolamine.) 

Brunella vulgaris Linn. 

Synonym ◮ Prunella vulgaris Linn. 




1,400–4,000 m, in Khasi Hills and 

hills of South India. 

English ◮ Self-heal. 

Unani ◮ Substitute for Ustukhudduus. 

(Lavandula stoechas Linn.) 

Folk ◮ Dhaaru. 

Action ◮ Wound healing, expectorant, 

antiseptic, astringent, 

haemostatic, antispasmodic. Leaf— 

used in piles; and as a cooling herb 

for fevers. 

The herb contains vitamins A, B, C 

and K; flavonoids; rutin. Flower spikes 

are liver-restorative, hypotensive, antioxidant. 

Lupeol, stigmasterol and beta-sitosterol 

are obtained from the unsaponifiable 

fraction from the leaves, the 

saponifiable fraction gave lauric, 

Bryophyllum pinnatum (Lam.) Kurz. 103 

stearic, palmitic, myristic, oleic and 

linoleic acids. 

Bryonopsis laciniosa 

(Linn.) Naud. 

Synonym ◮ Bryonia laciniosa Linn. 

Diplocyclos palmatus Jeff. 



English ◮ Bryony. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Lingini, Shivalingi, 

Chitraphalaa. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Iyaveli, Iyaviraali. 

Folk ◮ Lingadonda (Telugu). 

Action ◮ Seeds—anti-inflammatory, 

spasmolytic. Used for vaginal 

dysfunctions, as a fertility promoting 

drug. Powdered seeds, also 

roots, are given to help conception 

in women. Plant is also used in 

venereal diseases. 

Bryophyllum pinnatum 

(Lam.) Kurz. 

Synonym ◮ B. calycinum Salisb. 

Kalanchoe pinnata Pers. 

Family ◮ Crassulaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Throughout the warm 

and moist parts of India, especially 

abundant in West Bengal. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Parnabija, Airaavati. 

(Also known as Paashaanabheda.) 

Unani ◮ Zakhm-e-Hayaat. 

Action ◮ Leaf—disinfectant, antibacterial 

(used for boils, insect bites, 

swellings, burns, wounds). 

B

104 Buchanania axillaris (Desr.) Ramam. 

B 

Leaves, mixed with those of Aegle 

marmelos, are given in blood and 

amoebic dysentery. Leaves are also 

eaten to control diabetes. 

Leaves yield glycosides of quercetin 

and kaempferol, and fumaric acid. 

Plant extracts—antifungal. 


(CCRAS.) 

Buchanania axillaris 

(Desr.) Ramam. 

Synonym ◮ B. angustifolia Roxb. 


Habitat ◮ Dry deciduous forests in 


English ◮ Buchanan’s Mango, 

Cuddapah Almond. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Priyaal (var.). 

Unani ◮ Habb-us-Simanaa. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Mudaima, Saaraapparuppu. 

Action ◮ Kernel of seeds are 

considered best among Buchanania 

sp. Uses similar to those of B. 

lanzan. 

An ethanolic extract (50%) of the 

aerial part showed CNS-depressant activity 

in mice. 

Buchanania lanzan Spreng. 

Synonym ◮ B. latifolia Roxb. 


Habitat ◮ Drier parts of India. 

English ◮ Almondette tree, Cheronjee, 

Buchanan’s Mango. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Priyaala, Piyaala, 

Kharskandha, Bahulvalkala, Taapaseshtha, 

Sannakadru Dhanushpat, 

Chaar. 

Unani/Tamil ◮ Saaraapparuppu. 

Siddha ◮ Mudaima, Morala (Tamil). 

Action ◮ Kernel—laxative, febrifuge. 

An ointment made out of the 

kernels is used to cure itch of 

the skin and to remove blemishes 

from the face. Oil from kernels— 

substitute for almond oil. Applied 

to glandular swellings of the neck. 

The oil is a promising source of 

palmitic and oleic acids. 

Kernel lipids (65.6%), comprised 

mainly of neutral lipids (90.4%), consist 

mostly of triacylglycerol (82.2%), 

free fatty acids (7.8%)andsmallamount 

of diacylglycerols, monoacylglycerols 

and sterols. 

The kernels are used in Indian medicine 

as a brain tonic. The leaves are 

valued as a cardiotonic. 

The leaves contain 2.64% tannins 

(0.35% gallo-tannins). The presence 

of triterpenoids, saponins, flavonoids 

and reducing sugars are also reported. 

Powdered or crushed leaves are applied 

to wounds. 

The bark contains 13.40% tannins. 

The presence of alkaloids, saponins and 

reducing sugars is also reported. 

Gum (stem exudate) is antidiarrhoeal. 

Used internally in rheumatism. 

Dosage ◮ Stem bark—5–10 g (API 

Vol. IV.)

Bupleurum flacutum Linn. 



Kashmir to Bhutan and the Khasi 

Hills, at 1,000–4,000 m. 

English ◮ Hare’s Ear. 

Folk ◮ Shingu (Himachal Pradesh), 

Sipil (Punjab), Thaanyo (Garhwal). 

Action ◮ Roots—anti-inflammatory, 

haemolytic, antipyretic. Used in 

inflammations, muscle stiffness, 

neurosis, pain and pyrexia. Roots 

resolve inflammations of costal 

margin and diaphragm. 

Key application ◮ Extracts have 

been used for the treatment 

of chronic hepatitis, nephrotic 

syndrome and auto-immune 

diseases (WHO.). 

Therapeutic properties are attributed 

to saikoside or saikosaponins (yield 

from roots 2.06–3.02%), a complex 

mixture of triterpenic saponins. Saponin 

content varies with age. Saikosaponins 

are analgesic, antipyretic as 

well as antitussive; anti-inflammatory 

on oral administration. In Japan and 

China, roots have been used traditionally 

in auto-immune diseases. Saikosaponins 

form an ingredient of antitumour 

pharmaceuticals. A watersoluble 

crude polysaccharide fraction, 

prepared from the root, was reported to 

prevent HCl/ethanol-induced ulcerogenesis 

in mice significantly. Saikosaponin-d, 

at a concentration of more 

than 5 μm, inactivated measles virus 

and herpes simplex virus at room temperature. 

Butea monosperma (Lam.) Taub. 105 

Several sterols, possessing metabolic 

activities and plasma cholesterollowering 

activity, have also been isolated 

from the root. 

Butea monosperma (Lam.) Taub. 

Synonym ◮ B. frondosa Koenig ex 

Roxb. 


Habitat ◮ Throughout India, up to 

1,200 m except in very arid regions. 

English ◮ Flame of the Forest, Butea 

Gum, Bengal Kino. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Paalasha, Kimshuka, 

Raktapushpaka, Kshaarshreshtha, 

Brahmavriksha, Samidvar. 

Unani ◮ Dhaak, Samagh Dhaak, 

Kamarkas. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Palasam, Purasus. 

Folk ◮ Tesu. 

Action ◮ Bark—astringent, styptic 

(prescribed in bleeding piles, 

ulcers, haemorrhages, menstrual 

disorders), anthelmintic. Flowers— 

astringent, diuretic, emmenagogue 

(also given for leucorrhoea). 

A decoction of flowers is given in 

diarrhoea and haematuria, also to 

puerperal women. Seeds—clinical 

use of seeds as an anthelmintic drug 

is not considered safe in humans. 

Leaves—antibacterial. Stem bark— 

antifungal. 

An aqueous extract of flowers has 

shown hepatoprotective activity against 

CCl4-induced liver injury in albino 

rats. 

B

106 Butea superba Roxb. 

B 

Extracts of flowers have exhibited 

significant anti-oestrogenic activity in 

mice. The seed suspension, on oral 

administration to albino rats (175 and 

350 mg/kg body weight), showed 38.46 

and 68.75% cases, respectively, where 

pregnancy was not interrupted but foetus 

was malformed. 

Alcoholic extract of the whole plant 

produced persistent vasodepression in 

cats. 

The plant contains flavonoids and 

glucosides—butin, butrin, isobutrin 

and palastrin. Flowers contain butrin, 

coreopsin, monospermoside and their 

derivatives and sulphurein; also chalcones. 

Dosage ◮ Stem bark—5–10 g powder 

(API Vol. II); flower—3–6 g powder; 

seed—3 g powder; gum—0.5–1.5 g 


Butea superba Roxb. 


Habitat ◮ Central and Southern 

India. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Lataa-Palaash (orange 

or orange scarlet-flowered var.). 

Action ◮ Seeds—sedative and 

anthelmintic; decoction emollient 

and used topically for piles. Seed 

oil—anthelmintic and hypotensive. 

Seeds exhibit haemagglutinating 

activity against human ABO red 

cells. Roots—hypotensive. Watery 

sap from stems is used for drinking 

purposes.Barkisusedintonicsand 

elixirs. 

White-flowered var. is equated with 

Butea parviflora Roxb. 

Buxus wallichiana Baill. 

Synonym ◮ B. sempervirens Linn. 

Family ◮ Buxaceae. 

Habitat ◮ The Western and Central 

Himalayas and Punjab. 

English ◮ Himalayan Boxwood tree. 

Folk ◮ Chikri, Shamshaad. Paapari 

(Garhwal). 

Action ◮ Wood—diaphoretic. Bark— 

febrifuge. Leaves—purgative, 

diaphoretic; used in rheumatism. 

Poisonous. Not a safe drug for 

“purifying blood”. Symptoms of 

poisoning are severe—abdominal 

pain, vomiting, convulsions and 

death. 

The mixture of alkaloids is referred 

to as buxine. Buxenine-G is cytotoxic. 

There is preliminary evidence that 

a specific Boxwood leaf extract (SVP 

30) might delay disease progression in 

HIV-infected patients. The extract is 

available through internet sources or 

AIDS Buyers’ Clubs. (Natural Medicines 

Comprehensive Database, 2007.)

Caccinia crassifolia O. Kuntze. 

Synonym ◮ C. glauca Savi. 


Habitat ◮ Native to Baluchistan. 

AvailableinIndianmarketas 

Gaozabaan. 

Unani ◮ Gaozabaan. (According 

to National Formulary of 

Unani Medicine, Borago officinalis 

Linn. and other species of Boraginaceae 

are used as Gaozabaan.) 

Action ◮ Leaf—diuretic, antiinflammatory, 

demulcent; used for 

strangury, asthma and cough. 

The stems and leaves gave sapogenins—caccigenin, 

caccigenin lactone 

and 23-deoxycaccigenin; rutin and 

a saponin derived from caccigenin. 

The leaves also gave a glucoside, caccinin. 

Caccinin and its aglucone caccinetin 

(which is the dimethylallyl ester 

of caffeic acid) is diuretic; saponins 

exhibit anti-inflammatory activity. 

Flowers contain pyrrolizidine alkaloid, 

the diester of retronecine. Benzoic 

acid has also been isolated from 

the flowers. 

Cadaba fruticosa (L.) Druce. 

Synonym ◮ C. farinosa Forsk. 

C. indica Lam. 

Family ◮ Capparidaceae. 

C 

Habitat ◮ CommoninPunjab, 

Rajasthan, Gujarat, Madhya 

Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kattagatti, Vilivi, 

Villi. 

Folk ◮ Kodhab. 

Action ◮ Root and leaves— 

deobstruent, emmenagogue; used 

for uterine obstructions. 

The leaves and stem bark gave alkaloids, 

L-stachydrine and L-3-hydroxystachydrine. 

Presence of quercetin, 

isoorientin, hydroxybenzoic acid, syringic 

acid, vanillic acid and 2-hydroxy-4-methoxy 

benzoic acid has also 

been reported. The stembark contains 

an alkaloid cadabicine, and dry pods 

contain cadabalone. 

Caesalpinia bonduc 

(L.) Roxb. Dandy & Exell. 

Synonym ◮ C. bonducella Flem. 

C. crista Linn. 



partsofIndia. CommoninWest 

Bengal and South India. Often 

grown as hedge plant. 

English ◮ FeverNut,BonducNut, 

Nikkar Nut. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Puutikaranja, Lataakaranja, 

Kantaki Karanja, Karanjin, 

Kuberaakshi (seed).

108 Caesalpinia coriaria (Jacq.) Willd. 

C 

Unani ◮ Karanjwaa. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kazharchikkaai. 

Action ◮ Seed—antiperiodic, 

antirheumatic. Roasted and used 

as an antidiabetic preparation. 

Leaf, bark and seed—febrifuge. 

Leaf and bark—emmenagogue, 

anthelmintic. Root—diuretic, 

anticalculous. 

The seeds contain an alkaloid caesalpinine; 

bitter principles such as bonducin; 

saponins; fixed oil. 

The seed powder, dissolved in water, 

showed hypoglycaemic activity in 

alloxanized hyperglycaemic rabbits. 

Aqueous extract of the seeds produced 

similar effects in rats. The powder 

forms a household remedy for treatment 

of diabetes in Nicobar Islands. 

In Kangra, Himachal Pradesh, roots 

are used in intermittent fevers and diabetes. 

In homoeopathy, the plant is considered 

an excellent remedy for chronic 

fever. 

(Three plant species—Pongamia 

pinnata Pierre, Holoptelea integrifolia 

(Roxb.) Planch. and Caesalpinia 

bonduc (L.) Roxb. are being used as 

varieties of Karanja (because flowers 

impart colour to water). P. pinnata 

is a tree and is equated with Karanja, 

Naktamaala and Udakirya; H. integrifolia, 

also a tree, with Chirabilva, Putika 

(bad smell) and Prakiryaa; and C. 

bonduc, ashrub,withKantakiKaranja 

or Lataa Karanja.) 

Dosage ◮ Seed kernel—1–3 g powder. 

(CCRAS.) 

Caesalpinia coriaria 

(Jacq.) Willd. 


Habitat ◮ Grows abundantly in 

South India, also cultivated in 

North-western India and West 

Bengal. 

English ◮ American Sumac, Divi-divi 

Plant. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kodivelam. 

Folk ◮ Libi-dibi; Divi-divi. 

Action ◮ Bark—febrifuge, antiperiodic. 

Pod—astringent (in piles). 

Fruit—semen coagulant. 

All parts of the plant contain tannin, 

the maximum amount occurring 

in the pods (69.4%). The tannins from 

pods comprise pyrogallol type of hydrolysable 

tannins and consists of gallotannin 

and ellagitannin. Divi-divi 

closely resembles myrobalans both in 

nature and contents of tannins. Seeds 

contain little or no tannin. 

The plant is used for treating freckles. 

Leaves contain ellagic and gallic 

acids, catechol and tannins. 

Ethanolic extract of the leaves 

showed antifungal activity. 

Caesalpinia digyny Rottl. 


Habitat ◮ Bengal, Assam and 

Andamans up to 1,000 m. 

English ◮ Teri Pods. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Vaakeri. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Nunigatcha.

Action ◮ Root—astringent and 

antipyretic, used in phthisis and 

scrofulous affections. 

The roots gave a phenolic compound 

vakerin, identical with bergenin. The 

ethanol-water extract of roots inhibits 

the growth of Mycobacterium tuberculosis. 

The pods contain 28% tannin (without 

seeds, more than 54%). The bark 

contains 28% tannin (without seeds, 

more than 54%). The tannin is pure 

gallo-tannin and gallic acid. 


(CCRAS.) 

Caesalpinia pulcherrima Sw. 


Habitat ◮ Cultivated in gardens 


English ◮ Barbados Pride, Peacock 

Flower. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Padangam, Ratnagandhi, 

Krishnachuudaa. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Mayirkonrai, Nalal. 

Folk ◮ Guleturaa, Sankeshwara. 

Action ◮ Leaves—laxative, antipyretic. 

Used in Eastern India 

as a substitute for senna. Dried 

and powdered leaves are used in 

erysipelas. Flowers—anthelmintic. 

Also used for cough and catarrh. 

Root—a decoction is prescribed 

in intermittent fevers. Bark— 

emmenagogue, abortifacient. 

The plant contains a flavonoid, myricitroside. 

The leaves, flowers and 

Caesalpinia sappan Linn. 109 

fruits contain tannins, gums, resin, 

benzoic acid. Presence of cyanidin- 

3,5-diglucoside is also reported from 

the flowers, hydrocyanic acid from the 

leaves. The root contains caesalpin type 

diterpenoids along with sitosterol. 

The leaves have displayed anticancer 

activity in laboratory animals. A diterpenoid, 

isolated from the root, also 

showed anticancer activity. 

In Pakistan, the leaf and flower extract 

exhibited activity against Grampositive 

bacteria. 

Caesalpinia sappan Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Native to India and 

Malaysia. Cultivated in Bengal and 

South India, also grown as a hedge 

plant. 

English ◮ Sappan. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Pattanga, Patanga, 

Pattraanga, Raktasaara, Ranjana, 

Pataranjaka, Suranga, Kuchandana. 

Unani ◮ Bakam. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Patangam, Anaikuntrumani. 

Folk ◮ Patang. 

Action ◮ Wood decoction— 

emmenagogue, antidiarrhoeal; used 

in skin diseases. 

The heartwood gave an anti-inflammatory 

principle brazilin; amyrin glucoside, 

amino acids and carbohydrates. 

EtOH (50%) extract of stem exhibited 

semen coagulant activity. 

Aqueous and chloroform extracts of 

the wood exhibited inhibitory action 

C

110 Cajanus cajan (Linn.) Millsp. 

C 

on cyclic AMP phosphodiesterase. The 

methanolic extract of the sappan lignan 

showed sleep-time-elongation effect 

in mice. Significant anti-hypercholesterolaemic 

activity is attributed to benzilic 

compounds. 

The oil exhibited antibacterial and 

antifungal activity. 

Plant pigments find use in facials 

which are resistant to light, heat and 

water and are non-irritating. 

Dosage ◮ Heartwood—5–10 g (API 

Vol. IV.) 

Cajanus cajan (Linn.) Millsp. 

Synonym ◮ C. indicus Spreng. 


Habitat ◮ Cultivated as pulse crop, 

chiefly in Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, 

Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, 

Uttar Pradesh and Karnataka. 

English ◮ Pigeon Pea, Red Gram. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Aadhaki, Tuvari, Tuvara, 

Shanapushpikaa. 

Unani ◮ Arhar. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Thuvarai. 

Action ◮ Green leaves are considered 

hypocholesterolaemic. Pulse shows 

cholesterol and phospholipid 

lowering effect (reported to cause 

flatulence). A paste of leaves with 

salt and water, is taken on an empty 

stomach for jaundice. Leaves are 

used in diseases of the mouth, and 

topically for treating measles and 

other eruptions. 


indicated the use of the seed in 

lipid disorders and obesity; externally 

for promoting breast development, 

and attributed blood purifying properties 

to the root. 

Amino acid analysis of the seed extract 

showed that phenylalanine 

(26.3% of the total amino acids) is 

responsible for about 70% of the antisickling 

potency of the seed extract. 

Seeds also contain riboflavin and 

pyridoxine. Root bark contains isoflavones, 

sterols, triterpenoids, flavones, 

anthraquinone derivatives. Plant also 

contains an isoflavone, cajanol. 

The aqueous extract of leaves 

showed vasodilatory effect in experimental 

animals. 

Unroasted nuts had hypoglycaemic 

effect in mice; roasted seeds, in contrast, 

had a hyperglycaemic effect. 



Vol. III.) 

Calamus rotang Linn. 

Synonym ◮ C. roxburghii Griff. 


Habitat ◮ Central and South India. 

English ◮ Rotang, Rattan, Chair 

Bottom Cane. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Vetra, Abhrapushpa. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Pirambu. 

Action ◮ Astringent, antidiarrhoeal, 

anti-inflammatory (used in chronic 

fevers,piles,abdominaltumours, 

strangury), antibilious, spasmolytic. 

Wood—vermifuge.

The plant is used in convulsions and 

cramps. Thepresenceofasaponinin 

the stem, an alkaloid in the leaves and 

a flavonoid in the root is reported. 

Calamus tenuis Roxb. 

Synonym ◮ C. amarus Lour. 



from Dehra Dun to Assam. 

English ◮ Bareilly Cane. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Vetra (var.) (Vetasa, 

Salix caprea Linn., is a different 

drug). 

Action ◮ See C. rotang. 

Calamus travancoricus 

Bedd. ex Hook. f. 


Habitat ◮ Deccan peninsula, from 

Malabar to Travancore. 

English ◮ Cane. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Vetra. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Pirambu. 

Action ◮ Tender leaves are used in 

dyspepsia, biliousness and as an 

anthelmintic. See C. rotang. 

Calendula officinalis Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Throughout India; wild in 

Punjab. 

English ◮ Pot-Marigold, Marigold; 

Calendula. 

Unani ◮ Zergul. 

Calendula officinalis Linn. 111 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Thulvkka Saamanthi. 

Action ◮ Flowers—anti-inflammatory, 

antiseptic, stimulant, 

antispasmodic, emmenagogue, 

antihaemorrhagic, styptic. Used 

in gastric and duodenal ulcers 

and dysmenorrhoea; externally 

for cuts, bruises, burns, scalds. 

Plant—antiprotozoal. Flower— 

antimicrobial. Essential oil— 


Key application ◮ In inflammation of 

the oral and pharyngeal mucosa, internally 

and externally. Externally, 

on poorly healing wounds, ulcuscruris. 

(German Commission E, 

WHO, ESCOP.) Anti-inflammatory, 

vulnerary. (The British Herbal 


The flowers contain triterpenes, 

sterols, flavonoids, carotenes, bitter 

glycosides, resins, volatile oil, mucilage 

(do not contain tannins). Polysaccharides 

from flowers exhibited immunostimulating 

and antitumour activity in 

several in vitro test systems. 

An alcoholic extract has been shown 

to have antitrichomonal activity. 

Wound healing and anti-inflammatory 

properties are attributed to Mn 

and carotene. An aqueous alcoholic extract 

of florets showed CNS inhibitory 

effect with marked sedative activity in 

experimental animals. 

The extract of flower-heads exhibited 

estrogenic activity (reduces period 

pains and regulates menstrual bleeding). 

Calephlone, the extract containing 

the total polyphenols of the inflores- 

C

112 Callicarpa macrophylla Vahl. 

C 

cence, has a marked cholagogic effect 

in rats and has been found helpful in 

the treatment of CCl4-induced hepatitis. 

A hypocholesterolaemic saponin 

has been extracted from the plant. 

Callicarpa macrophylla Vahl. 

Synonym ◮ C. incana Roxb. 

Family ◮ Verbenaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Sub-Himalayan tracts, 

from Hazara eastwards to Assam, 

up to 1,500 m. 

English ◮ Perfumed Cherry. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Priyangu, Priyangukaa, 

Priyaka, Gandhphali, 

Gandhpriyangu, Phalini, Vanitaa, 

Kaantaa, Kaantaahvaa, Shyamaa, 

Anganaapriya. 

Unani ◮ Habb-ul-Mihlb (Prunus 

mahaleb Linn., Rosaceae). 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Gnazhal, Chokkala. 

(Fruits of Aglaia roxburghiana Miq. 

are used as Priyangu.) 

Action ◮ Leaves—applied hot in 

rheumatic pains. Smoked to relieve 

headache. Seed—paste used in 

stomatitis. Wood—paste used in 

mouth and tongue sores. Seeds 

and roots—employed as stomachic. 

Bark—used in rheumatism and 

diseases of genitourinary tract. 


India indicated the use of the fruit 

in emesis and giddiness. 

The seeds and leaves contain calliterpenone 

and its monoacetate; the 

former also contain fatty acids, betasitosterol 

and its beta-D-glucoside. 

Dosage ◮ Dried inflorescences 

powder—1–3 g (API Vol. II); fruit 

powder—1–2 g. (API Vol. IV.) 

Calophyllum apetalum Willd. 

Synonym ◮ C. wightianum T. Anders. 

Family ◮ Guttiferae; Clusiaceae. 

Habitat ◮ The evergreen forests of 

Western Ghats up to 330 m. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Shirupinnai. 

Action ◮ Resin—antiphlogistic, 

anodyne. Seed oil—antileprotic. 

The leaves, stem, bark and root contain 

friedelin. Leaves also contain 

canophyllol and a triterpene lactone; 

stem, beta-amyrin; bark, apetalic acid. 

Heartwood contains a clathrate named 

wightianone palmitic acid. Wood contains 

mesoinositol. 

Calophyllum inophyllum Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Coastal regions, particularly 

Orissa, Karnataka, Maharashtra 

and the Andamans. Also cultivated 

as an ornamental tree. 

English ◮ Indian Laurel, Alexandrian 

Laurel. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Punnaaga, Tunga, 

Sultaan champaa, Naagchampaa, 

Raajchampaa. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Punnai, Punnagam. 

Action ◮ Oil of seeds—specific for 

scabies and other skin diseases, 

and for rheumatism. Used in the

treatment of genitourinary and 

venereal diseases. Bark—juice is 

taken as purgative; pounded with 

water is applied in orchitis, and 

for dressing ulcers. Root bark— 

antibacterial, used for indolent 

ulcers. Leaf—used in vertigo and 

migraine, also for chicken pox, skin 

inflammations, scabies, sunburn. 

Flowers and stamens—used as 

a substitute for Naagakesara (Mesua 

ferrea Linn.) 

The root bark and heartwood contain 

xanthones. The xanthones exhibited 

anti-inflammatory activity in rats 

against carrageenan-induce oedema; 

also CNS depressant activity. Jacareubin 

and 6-deoxy derivatives exhibited 

antiulcer activity in rats. 

Calophyllolide, a complex 5-Phcoumarin 

isolated from nuts, showed 

antiarrhythmic (as effective as quinidine), 

bradycardiac coronary dilator, 

and anticoagulant, also anti-inflammatory 

and antiarthritic activity. 

Dosage ◮ Leaf, flower, bark—3–5 g 

powder; 50–100 ml decoction. 

(CCRAS.) 

Calotropis gigantea 

(Linn.) R.Br. ex.Ait. 



English ◮ Madar (white-flowered), 

Giant Milk-weed. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Alarka, Raajaarka, 

Shvetaarka, Vasuka, Mandaar, 

Bhaasvanmuula, Dinesh, Prabhaakara, 

Ravi, Bhaanu, Tapana. 

Calotropis procera (Ait.) R.Br. 113 

Unani ◮ Madaar, Aak. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Erukku. 

Action ◮ Flowers—stomachic, 

bechic, antiasthmatic. Milky juice— 

purgative (gastrointestinal irritant). 

Roots—used in lupus, tuberculous 

leprosy, syphilitic ulceration. 

Leaves—juice poisonous. Used in 

external swellings. All parts—used 

against bronchitis and asthma. 

The leaf extract showed antitussive 

activity due to the presence of alkaloids 

and glycosides. The root contains glycosides 

0.60–1.42% on dry basis. The 

latex contains akudarin. Flowers contain 

beta-amyrin and stigmasterol. 

Dosage ◮ Milky juice—500 mg; leaf, 

flower, root bark—3–5 g powder. 

(CCRAS.) 

Calotropis procera (Ait.) R.Br. 


Habitat ◮ An evergreen shrub 

distributed in West and Central 

India. 

English ◮ Swallow-Wart, Milk Weed, 

(purple-flowered), King’s Crown. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Alarka, Surya, Suuryaahvya, 

Vikirna, Vasuka, 

Tapana, Tuulaphala, Kshirparna, 

Arkaparna, Aasphota. 

Unani ◮ Aakh, Madaar, Ashar. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Vellerukku, Erukku. 

Action ◮ The plant is used against 

bronchial asthma (especially flowers 

with black pepper). Leaves—used 

for treating chronic cases of 

C

114 Caltha palustris Linn. 

C 

dyspepsia, flatulence, constipation 

and mucus in stool. Seed oil— 

geriatric and tonic. Leaves, flowers 

and root-bark oil—antimicrobial 

(maximum activity in leaves). 


India indicated the use of the root 

and leaf in asthma and dyspnoea; 

stem bark in diseases of the spleen. 

Root bark contains benzoyllineolone 

and benzolisolineolone. Root, 

stem and leaves, also latex contain 

beta-amyrin. Flowers contain evanidin 

3-rhamnoglucoside. The plant contains 

a cardenolide, proceragenin, an 

antibacterial principle. 

The latex is given for treating epilepsy, 

also in painful, joints and swellings. 

The latex exhibited anti-inflammatory 

activity in carrageenan-and formalininduced 

rat paw oedema model. 

The herb can alter menstrual cycle 

and temporarily inhibit ovulation. Cardiac 

glycosides may be additive when 

combined with Digoxin. (Sharon M. 

Herr.) 

Dosage ◮ Leaf—250–750 mg powder; 

root—1–3 g for decoction (API Vol. 

I); stem bark—0.5–1 g powder (API 

Vol. III). Milky juice—500 mg to 1 g 

(CCRAS.) 

Caltha palustris Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Western temperate 

Himalayas from 2,500 to 4,000 m. 

English ◮ American cowslip, Marsh 

Marigold, Water Buttercup. 

Folk ◮ Mamiri (Punjab). 

Action ◮ Anti-inflammatory. Root— 

hypocholesterolaemic. Poisonous 

tohumanbeingsinmaturestages. 

The flowers contain flavonoids, 7rhamnosides, 

3-glucosides and 3-gluco-7-rhamnosides 

of kaempferol and 

quercetin. Roots gave triterpenoid 

glycosides, which decreased serum 

cholesterol and total protein and increased 

blood sugar equivalent to butadione 

in rats. 

EtOH (50%) extract of the plant exhibits 

CNS depressant and hypotensive 

activity in rat. 

Calycopteris floribunda Lam. 


Habitat ◮ Madhya Pradesh, Peninsular 

India and Assam. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Sushavi, Paaniyavalli. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Minnargodi. 

Action ◮ Leaf—antidysenteric; used 

externally for ulcers. Fruit—used in 

jaundice. 

Leaves contain flavanolcalycopterin; 

flowers calycopterin and quercetin. 

Camellia sinensis 

(Linn.) O. Kuntze. 

Family ◮ Theaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Cultivated in Assam, 

Darjeeling, Travancore, the Nilgiris, 

Malabar, Bengal, Dehra Dun and 

Kumaon. 

English ◮ Tea.

Unani ◮ Chaai, Shaahi, Shaayi. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Thaeyilai. 

Action ◮ Stimulant, diuretic, 

astringent. In China, used for 

diarrhoea and dysentery (causes 

gastrointestinal upsets and nervous 

irritability when consumed in 

excess). Green tea: anticancer 

effects have been observed in 

Chinese green tea, Camellia thea, 

extract; the extract of Japanese green 

tea showed antihepatotoxic effects. 

Important constituents of leaf buds 

and very young leaves are: caffeine, 

with a much smaller amount of other 

xanthines (theophylline and theobromine); 

tannins (the main tannin 

in green tea is (−)-epigallocatechin); 

flavonoids, quercetin, kaempferol. The 

stimulant and diuretic are due to caffeine 

content, the astringency due to 

the tannins. 

Drinking tea lowers thiamine and 

thiamine diphosphate losses in urine 

and blood serum respectively but increases 

niacin losses. Hot water extract 

of black tea facilitates Ca absorption in 

the body experimentally. Tea may decrease 

zinc bioavailability. 

The tea, if added to the meal, significantly 

lower the availability of iron. 

Milk is as effective as ascorbic acid in 

countering the depressing effect of tea 

on iron availability (in vitro). 

The green tea catechin inhibited carcinogenesis 

in small intestines when 

givenduringoraftercarcinogentreatment 

to experimental rats. (−)-epigallocatechin 

gallate and theaflavin digallate 

from green tea inhibited the infectivity 

of both influenza A and B virus 

(in vitro). 

Canarium strictum Roxb. 115 

Green tea, when added to a lardcholesterol 

diet, decreased the cholesterol 

and triglyceride levels in fowls. 

Tea polyphenols exhibit hypocholesterolaemic 

activity. 

Tea polyphenols—(−)-epicatechin 

gallate, (−)-epigallocatechine galate, 

theaflavin monogallate A or B, and 

or theaflavin digallate—are used for 

treating hyperglycaemia. 

Saponins from tea are used as antiulcer 

agents. 

Concurrent use of tea and betaadrenergic 

agonists may increase the 

risk of cardiac arrhythmias. Caffeine, 

a component of tea, may increase insulin 

resistance. (Sharon M. Herr.) 

Canarium commune Linn. 

Synonym ◮ C. vulgare Leench. 


Habitat ◮ Atreeindigenousto 

Malaysia. Now grown in South 

India, particularly in Kerala and 

Tamil Nadu. 

English ◮ Java Almond, Kenari Nut. 

Folk ◮ Jangali Baadaam. 

Action ◮ Fruit—laxative. Resin— 

anti-inflammatory. Tuber—styptic, 

bechic, diaphoretic. 

The essential oil from oleoresin contain 

34% anethole and a small quantity 

of terpenes. 

Canarium strictum Roxb. 

Synonym ◮ C. sikkimense King 

C

116 Cannabis sativa Linn. 

C 

Family ◮ Burseraceae 

Habitat ◮ A large, deciduous tree 

distributed in West Ghats, Assam 

and Sikkim. 

English ◮ Black Dammar. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Raal Dhuup, Mand 

Dhuup. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Karunkungiliyam 

(gum). 

Action ◮ Resin—used for chronic 

cutaneous diseases, such as psoriasis, 

pityriasis; as a linament in 

rheumatic affections. Dammer 

Oil—used for rheumatism, asthma, 


Black dammer resin contains (+)junenol, 

canarone and epikhusinal. 

The plant contains a sesquiterpene 

ketone—canarone. 

Canarium sikkimense King is known 

as Gogul Dhuup in Nepal. 

Cannabis sativa Linn. 

Synonym ◮ C. indica Linn. 

Family ◮ Cannabinaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Cultivated all over the 

country. Commonly occurs in 

waste grounds, along road side, 

often becoming gregarious along 

the irrigation channels of gardens. 

English ◮ Hemp, Indian Hemp. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Vijayaa, Bhangaa, 

Maadani, Maatulaani, Indraasana, 

Trailokya-vijayaa, Tribhuvanavijayaa, 

Shukranaashana, Ganjaa, 

Bhangaa. (Bhangaa is consumed 

orally; Ganjaa and charas are usually 

smoked.) 

Unani ◮ Bhang, Charas, Qinnab. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Ganja. 

Folk ◮ Bhaanga. 

Action ◮ Hallucinogenic, hypnotic, 

sedative, analgesic, antiinflammatory, 

Hemp derivatives 

are suggested for treating glaucoma 

and as an antiemetic in cancer 

chemotherapy. All variants produce 

initial excitement followed by 

depression. 

Cannabis yields 421 chemicals of 

various classes—cannabinoids, cannabispirans 

and alkaloids. More than 

60 cannabinoids have been isolated, 

the most important one is delta-9tetrahydrocannabinol 

(THC). 

Toxic constituents are readily absorbed, 

excreted in urine and feces, 

stored in lipid tissues, especially CNS, 

crosses placenta. High doses in animals 

have damaged developing embryos 

and resulted in birth defects. 


Dosage ◮ Dried leaves, after 

removing turbity—125–250 mg 


Canscora decussata Schult. 

Family ◮ Gentianaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Throughout India, 


Ayurvedic ◮ Daakuni (used as 

a substitute for Shankhapushpi in 

West Bengal) 

Unani ◮ Sankhaahuli. 

Folk ◮ Daankuni.

Action ◮ Anticonvulsant, CNS 

depressant, anti-inflammatory, 

hepatoprotective. 

The plant contains calcium 0.38; 

magnesium 0.16; potassium 1.66 and 

iron 0.23 g/100 g; copper 18.97, zinc 

70.50; manganese 9.60, cobalt 3.15 and 

chromium 0.60 mcg/g. 

Roots contain beta-amyrin, friedelin, 

genianine and 16 xanthones including 

mangiferin. Mangiferin is protective 

activity against induced liver injury 

in albino rats. Xanthones also showed 

activity against Mycobacterium tuberculosis. 

Dried crude powder of the whole 

plant exhibited anticonvulsant activity 

in albino rats. 

Canscora diffusa (Vahl) R. Br. ex 

Roem. & Schultes (synonym C. lawii 

Wt.), found throughout India at 

1,100 m, is used as a substitute for 

C. decussata. 

Canthium parviflorum Lam. 

Synonym ◮ Plectronia parviflora 

(Lam.) Bedd. 


Habitat ◮ Throughout the Deccan 

Peninsula, from Gujarat and 

Maharashtra southwards, and in 

Bihar and Orissa. 

English ◮ Wild Jasmine. 

Folk ◮ Kaari. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Karai, Kadan Karai, 

Nalla Karai, Kudiram. 

Action ◮ Leaves and fruits— 

astringent, antispasmodic; used 

Capparis aphylla Roth. 117 

against cough. A decoction of 

the root and leaves is given in flu. 

Bark—antidysenteric. 

The plant contains mannitol (0.5%) 

and alkaloids. Canthium umbellatum 

Wight is also known as Kaari. 

Capparis aphylla Roth. 

Synonym ◮ C. decidua Edgew. 


Habitat ◮ Rajasthan, Punjab and 

Sindh; southward to Karnataka and 

Tamil Nadu. 

English ◮ Caper Berry. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Karira, Krakar, Apatra, 

Granthila, Marubhoo-ruuha, 

Niguudhapatra, Karila. 

Unani ◮ Kabar, Kabar-ul-Hind, 

Kabar-e-Hindi; Tenti. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Chhengan. 

Folk ◮ Tenti. 

Action ◮ Anti-inflammatory (used for 

enlarged cervical glands, sciatica, 

rheumatoid arthritis; externally 

on swellings, skin eruptions, 

ringworm). Fruits and seeds—used 

for urinary purulent discharges and 

dysentery. Flowers and seeds— 

antimicrobial. The fruit is used as 

apickle. 

The root bark contains spermidine 

alkaloids, used for inflammations, 

asthma and gout. 

Activity of the seed volatiles against 

vibro cholerae has been recorded. 

Aqueous extract of the plant exhibits 

anthelmintic activity; seeds contain antibacterial 

principles—glucocapparin; 

C

118 Capparis moonii Wight. 

C 

isothiocynate aglycone of glucocapparin. 

The blanched fruits, when fed to 

rats at 10% dietary fibre level, showed 

a significant hypocholesterolaemic effect, 

which is attributed to its hemicellose 

content. 

Pickled fruits are use for destroying 

intestinal worms. 

Dosage ◮ Leaf, root—50–125 mg 

(CCRAS.) 

Capparis moonii Wight. 


Habitat ◮ Indigenous to New 

Zealand. Now distributed in 

Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Rudanti. 

Action ◮ Fruit—used in puerperal 

sepsis and septic wounds, also for 

debility and cough. 

EtOH (50%) extract of aerial parts 

is CNS depressant. 

Fruits contain l-stachydrine, rutin 

and beta-sitosterol. 

Capparis sepiaria Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Dry regions of the country, 

also planted as a hedge plant. 

English ◮ Indian Caper. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Himsraa, Gridhnakhi, 

Duh-pragharshaa, Kaakdaani, 

Kabara, Kanthaari. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Karunjurai. 

Folk ◮ Hains, Kanthaar. 

Action ◮ Antiseptic, antipyretic. 

Used for eczema and scabies. 

Leaves contain taraxasterol, alphaand 

beta-amyrin and beta-sitosterol, 

erythrodiol and betulin. 


(CCRAS.) 

Capparis spinosa Linn. 

Family ◮ Cappariadaceae. 


region. Distributed in 

North-west India, Rajasthan, and 


English ◮ Caper Bush. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Himsraa, Kaakdaani, 

Kabara. 

Unani ◮ Kabar. 

Action ◮ Anti-inflammatory, deobstruent 

to liver and spleen, diuretic, 

anthelmintic, vasoconstrictive. 

Bark—given in splenic, renal and 

hepatic complaints. Juice of leaves 

and fruits—anticystic, bactericidal 

and fungicidal. Dried flower buds— 

used in scurvy. 

Plant gave glucosinolates—glucoiberin, 

glucocapparin, sinigrin, glucocleomin 

and glucocapangatin. Rutin 

has also been reported from plant. 

The root bark, cortex and leaves gave 

stachydrine. Stachydrine, when given 

to dogs, rabbits and rats, quickened the 

coagulation of blood and reduced loss 

of blood.

Capparis zeylanica Linn. 

Synonym ◮ C. horrida Linn.f. 

Family ◮ Cappariadaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Common in plains as 

ahedgeplant. 

English ◮ Ceylon Caper. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Ahimsra (Himsraa 

and Ahimsra are synonyms). 

Vyaaghranakhi. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Aathondai. 

Folk ◮ Kareruaa. 

Action ◮ Root bark—sedative, 

stomachic, anticholerin, diuretic 

febrifuge. Leaves—applied as 

poultice to piles, swellings, boils. 

The plant contains a saponin and phydroxybenzoic, 

syringic, vanillic, ferulic 

and p-coumaric acids. The leaves 

contain beta-carotene. The leaves and 

seeds contain glucocapparin, alphaamyrin, 

n-triacontane and a fixed oil. 

Aerial parts exhibited spasmolytic 

activity. 

Capsella bursa-pastoris 

(Linn.) Moench. 



a weed in cultivated areas and waste 

places, particularly in the temperate 

regionsuptoanaltitudeof4,200m. 

English ◮ Shepherd’s Purse, St. 

James’s Wort. 

Folk ◮ Mumiri. 

Action ◮ The herb or its juice extracts 

are employed to check menorrhagia 

Capsicum annuum Linn. 119 

and haemorrhages from renal and 

genitourinary tract. Also used in 

diarrhoea and dysentery and as 

adiuretic. 

Key application ◮ In symptom-based 

treatment of mild menorrhagia 

and metrorrhagia. (German Commission 

E.) The British Herbal 

Pharmacopoeia reported antihaemorrhagic 

action. 

Aerial parts contain flavonoids, 

polypeptides, choline, acetylcholine, 

histamine and tyramine. 

The extract of dried or green plant 

causes strong contraction of the small 

intestines and uterus of guinea pigs. 

A quarternary ammonium salt has 

been isolated from the herb which 

is reported to be responsible for its 

pharmacological activity. 

Young leaves contain vitamin A 

(5,000 IU/100 g) and ascorbic acid 

(91 mg/100 g); among other constituents 

are hesperidin and rutin, which 

reduced permeability of blood vessel 

walls in white mice. A neoplasm inhibitory 

substance has been identified 

as fumaric acid. An inhibitory effect 

of the extracts of the herb on Ehrlich 

solid tumour in mice was found to be 

due to the fumaric acid. 

Major constituent of the essential oil 

is camphor. 

Capsicum annuum Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Native to the West 

Indies and tropical America; now 

cultivated throughout tropical 

regions of India. 

C

120 Capsicum frutescens Linn. 

C 

English ◮ Chilli, Red Pepper. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Raktamaricha, Lankaa, 

Katuviraa. 

Unani ◮ Mirch, Filfil-e-Ahmar, 

Filfl-e-Surkh, Surkh Mirch. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Milagay. 

Action ◮ Stimulant, accelerates 

oxygenation of cells, encourages 

adrenal glands to produce corticosteroids, 

increases gastrointestinal 

secretion. Carminative, antispasmodic, 

antiseptic. Used externally 

for rheumatism, backache, lumbago, 

neuralgia, painful muscle 

spasm. 

Red chilli contains capsaicin (0.1– 

1.5%), carotenoids, flavonoids, volatile 

oil; steroidal saponins (capsicidins, only 

in seeds). 

Capsaicin stimulates the circulation 

and alters temperature regulation; topically 

desensitizes nerve endings and 

acts as a local analgesic. 

Capsaicin produces a protective effect 

in rat lung and liver by strengthening 

the pulmonary antioxidant enzyme 

defence system. Acute capsaicin 

treatment causes release of substance 

desensitization of the respiratory tract 

mucosa to a variety of lung irritants. 

Red pepper or an equivalent amount 

of capsaicin, when fed along with 

cholesterol-containing diets to female 

albino rats, prevented significantly the 

rise of liver cholesterol levels. 

Vitamin P has been isolated from the 

chillies. Vitamin C gradually increases 

during maturation and reaches maximum 

at the semi-ripe or pink coloured 

stage and decreases thereafter. 

Capsaicin exhibited a hypoglycaemic 

effect in dogs; insulin release was 

increased. (Phytother Res, 2001, Aug 

15(5), 391–4.) 

Dosage ◮ Fruit—30–60 mg powder. 

(CCRAS.) 

Capsicum frutescens Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Cultivated as a condiment 

crop. 

English ◮ Bird Chilli. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Katuviraa. 

Unani ◮ Surkh Mirch. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Musi Milagay. 

Action ◮ See Capsicum annuum. 

Key application ◮ Externally, in 

painfulmusclespasmsinareas 

of shoulder, arm and spine; for 

treating arthritis, rheumatism, 

neuralgia, lumbago and chilbains. 

(German Commission E.) The 

British Pharmacopoeia reported 

rubefacient and vasostimulant 

action. 

The plant contains hydroxybenzoic 

acid, hydroxycinnamic acid and ascorbic 

acid. Fruits contain up to 1% of 

capsaicin. 

Carallia brachiata (Lour.) Merr. 

Synonym ◮ C. integerrima DC. 

C. lucida Roxb. ex Kurz. 


an altitude of 1,300 m, and in the 

Andamans.

Folk ◮ Karalli, Kierpa. Varanga 

(Malyalam). 

Action ◮ Leaves—used in the 

treatment of sapraemia. Bark—used 

for treating oral ulcers, stomatitis, 

inflammation of the throat. 

The leaves contain alkaloids (0.2% 

dry basis), the major being (+)-hygroline. 

Cardiospermum halicacabum 

Linn. 

Family ◮ Sapindaceae. 


India, as a wild climber. 

English ◮ Ballon Vine, Winter 

Cherry, Heartseed. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Kaakatiktaa, 

Kaakaadani, Karnsphotaa, 

Shatakratulataa. 

Unani ◮ Habb-e-Qilqil. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Mudukottan, 

Kottavan. 

Folk ◮ Kanphotaa, Kanphuti, 

Lataaphatakari. Used as Jyotishmati 

in Bengal. 

Action ◮ Used in rheumatism, 

lumbago, skeletal fractures, nervous 

diseases, amenorrhoea, haemorrhoids, 

erysipelas. The herb is used 

in hairoils for treating dandruff, 

alopecia and for darkening hair. 

The plant extract showed significant 

analgesic and anti-inflammatory activity 

and sedative effect on CNS. The 

drug also showed (transient) vasodepressant 

activity. 

Careya arborea Roxb. 121 

The leaves contain beta-sitosterol 

and its D-glucoside, an alkaloid, oxalic 

acid and amino acids. The presence of 

a saponin and quebrachitol is reported 

in the plant. 

The leaves and stem are used in 

preparations used against common 

cold. Alcoholic extract of the plant 

exhibits antisickling and antiarthritic 

activity. Seeds have positive anabolic 

activity and increase body weight by 

inducing a positive nitrogen balance. 

The alkaloid fraction from the seeds 

showed hypotensive activities and cardiac 

inhibition in anaesthetized dogs; 

blocked spasmogenic effects of acetylcholine, 

histamine and 5-HT on guinea 

pig ileum, biphasic effort on frog rectus 

abdominis muscle. The seeds also 

showed antibacterial activity. 


decoction. (CCRAS.) 

Careya arborea Roxb. 

Family ◮ Barringtoniaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Sub-Himalayan tract, from 

Jammu eastwards to West Bengal, 

Madhya Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. 

English ◮ Kumbi, Slow-Match tree. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Katabhi, Kumbhika, 

Kumbhi, Kumbi, Kaitrya, 

Kumudikaa. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kumbi, Ayma. 

Action ◮ Bark—demulcent (in 

coughs and colds), antipyretic and 

antipruritic (in eruptive fevers), 

anthelmintic, antidiarrhoeal. An 

infusion of flowers is given after 

child birth. 

C

122 Carica papaya Linn. 

C 

Seeds contain triterpenoid sapogenols, 

sterols; leaves contain a triterpene 

ester, beta-amyrin, hexacosanol, 

taraxerol, beta-sitosterol, quercetin 

and taraxeryl acetate. 

Careya herbacea Roxb., a related 

species, is known as Kumbhaadu-lataa 

in Bengal. 

Dosage ◮ Bark—50–100 ml decoction. 

(CCRAS.) 

Carica papaya Linn. 

Family ◮ Caricaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Native to West Indies and 

Central America; now cultivated in 

Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Rajasthan, 

Gujarat, Maharashtra and South 

India. 

English ◮ Papaya, Papaw. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Erand-karkati, Papitaa. 

Unani ◮ Papitaa Desi. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Pappaali, Pappayi. 

Action ◮ Ripe fruit—stomachic, 

digestive, carminative, diuretic, 

galactagogue. Useful in bleeding 

piles, haemoptysis, dysentery 

and chronic diarrhoea. Seeds— 

emmengagogue, abortifacient, 

vermifuge. Juice of seeds is 

administered in enlarged liver 

and spleen, and in bleeding 

piles. 

Key application ◮ Papain, the 

enzyme mixture extracted from raw 

papain (latex of Carica papaya), has 

been included among unapproved 

herbs by German Commission E. 

Experiment-based as well as clinical 

research indicate that papain may 

be effective (in the treatment of 

inflammations) in high doses (daily 

dose 1500 mg corresponding to 

2520 FIP units). 

Unripe fruit—emmengagogue and 

abortifacient. Latex—applied topically 

on eczema, ringworm, psoriasis, corns, 

warts, sloughing wounds, carbuncles 

and eschar of burns. 

Green parts of the plant and seed 

contain an alkaloid carpaine. Seeds 

also contain carpasemine. 

Latex contain enzymes—papain and 

chymopapain and alkaloids carpaine 

and pseudocarpaine. A proteinaceous 

material from latex showed anticoagulant 

activity; in higher doses it is 

heart depressant and as a spasmogen 

on smooth muscle of guinea pig ileum. 

An alkaloid solution showed depressant 

action on heart, blood pressure 

and intestine. 

The anthelmintic action of seeds 

against Ascaris lumbricoides is due to 

carpasemine. 

Papain, an enzyme mixture prepared 

from the fruit, seeds and leaf, 

hydrolyses polypeptides, amides and 

esters, particularly when used in an 

alkaline environment, and is used in 

digestive disorders. 

Papain inhibits platelet aggregation, 

which may further increase the risk of 

bleeding in patients also taking anticoagulants. 

Concurrent administration 

of cyclophosphamide with papain 

caused sever damage to lung tissues in 

rats. (Sharon M. Herr.) 

Chymopapin C is an immunosuppressive 

enzyme from plant extract. 

Carpaine, extracted from the plant,

exhibited anti-tubercular activity, also 

antitumour in vitro, and hypotensive. 

Dosage ◮ Leaf—40–80 ml infusion; 

latex—3–6 g (CCRAS.) 

Carissa carandas Linn. var. 

congesta (Wt.) Bedd. 



English ◮ Christ’s Thorn, Bengal 

Currant. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Karinkaara, Karamarda, 

Krishnapaakphal, Kshirphena, 

Sushena, (Karamardakaa is equated 

with C. spinarum Linn.) 

Unani ◮ Karondaa. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kalakke. 

Action ◮ Used for acidity, flatulence, 

poor digestion, as a slimming diet. 

Juice of the fresh plant is used for 

infected wounds that refuse to heal. 

Root—paste used for diabetic ulcer. 


indicated the stem bark in obstinate 

skin diseases, and the root in urinary 

disorders. 

Alcoholic extract of roots exhibit 

hypotensive activity. Roots yield cardioactive 

compounds; cardiotonic activity 

is due to glucoside of odoroside 

H. 

Fresh fruits are rich in ascorbic acid 

(105 g/100 g fruit juice). The seeds are 

rich in potassium (360 mg/100 g fresh 

matter). 

Dosage ◮ Stem bark—48 g for 

decoction. (API Vol. II); root— 

1–3 g (API Vol. III). 

Carthamus tinctorius Linn. 123 

Carissa opaca Stapf. Ex Haines. 

Synonym ◮ C. spinarum auct. non L. 


Habitat ◮ Throughout the country 

in dry regions, especially in Punjab 

and Kashmir. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Karamardikaa. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Chirukila Chiru. 

Folk ◮ Jangali Karondaa. Garnaa 

(Punjab). 

Action ◮ Plant—cardiotonic. Root— 

purgative. 

The root contains caffeic acid, cardiac 

glycosides—odorosides B, C, G 

and H, and evomonoside. 

Carissa paucinervia A. DC. is also 

equated with the wild var. of Karondaa. 

Carthamus tinctorius Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Cultivated mainly as an 

oil-seed crop in Madhya Pradesh, 

Maharashtra. 

English ◮ Safflower. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Kusumbha, Vahinshikhaa, 

Vastraranjaka, Kusum. 

Unani ◮ Qurtum. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Chendurakam. 

Action ◮ Oil—aids prevention of 

arteriosclerosis, coronary heart 

disease and kidney disorders as 

a polyunsaturated fat. Flowers— 

stimulant, sedative, diuretic, 

emmenagogue; used in fevers and 

eruptive skin conditions, measles. 

C

124 Carum bulbocastanum W. Koch. 

C 

Charred safflower oil is used in 

rheumatism and for healing sores. 

Key application ◮ Dried flowers— 

in cardiovascular diseases, amenorrhoea, 

dysmenorrhoea and 

retention of lochia; also in wounds 

and sores with pain and swelling. 

(Pharmocopoeia of the People’s 

Republic of China, 1997.) 

Safflower contains carthamone, lignans 

and a polysaccharide. The polysaccharide, 

composed of xylose, fructose, 

galactose, glucose, arabinose, 

rhamnose and uronic acid residues, 

stimulates immune function in mice. 

It induced antibody formation in mice 

following peritoneal injection. Extracts 

of flowers have also been tested 

in China on blood coagulation, where 

a prolongation of clothing time was observed 

and platelet aggregation inhibited. 

Chinese research indicates that 

Safflower flowers can reduce coronary 

artery disease, and lower cholesterol 

levels. Flowers and seeds exhibit lipase 

activity. The flower extract also exhibited 

anti-inflammatory, sedative and 

analgesic effect and inhibitory effect 

on spontaneous motor activity. 

The plant contains a propanetriol 

derivative, which can be used for the 

treatment of circulatory disorders. 

Recent research suggests that improving 

the lipid profile might not 

be as important to reducing the risk 

of cardiovascular disease as suggested. 



Safflower is contraindicated in pregnancy, 

gastric disorders, excessive 

menstruation, haemorrhagic diseases. 

Wild and thorny Safflower, growing 

in the arid tract of Haryana and 

Punjab (locally known as Kantiaari, 

Poli, Poiyan) is equated with C. oxycantha 

Bieb. The plant is diuretic. 

Seed oil is applied topically to ulcers. 

The plant contains a sesquiterpene glycoside. 

Aerial parts contain hinesolbeta-D-fucopyranoside. 

The plant also 

contains luteolin-7-glucoside. 

Dosage ◮ Leaf—3–6 g powder. 

(CCRAS.) 

Carum bulbocastanum W. Koch. 

Synonym ◮ Bunium persicum (Boiss.) 

Fedts. 

Family ◮ Umbelliferae; Apiaceae 

Habitat ◮ Cultivated in the hills and 

plains of North India and in the 


English ◮ Black Caraway. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Krishna jiraka, Kaashmira 

jirak. 

Unani ◮ Jiraa Siyaah, Kamoonarmani. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Shemai-shiragam, 

Pilappu-shiragam. 

Action ◮ See C. carvi. 

Carum carvi Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Native to Europe and 

West Asia. Now cultivated in Bihar, 

Orissa, Punjab, Bengal, Andhra 

Pradesh, and in the hills of Kumaon, 

Garhwal, Kashmir and Chamba.

Also found wild in the North 

Himalayan regions. 

English ◮ Caraway. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Krishna jiraka, Jiraa, 

Kaaravi, Asita Jiraka, Kaashmirajiraka, 

Prithvikaa, Upakunchikaa, 

Sugandha Udgaar, Shodhana. 

Unani ◮ Zeeraa Siyaah, Kamoon, 

Kamoon-roomi. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Shimai-shembu, 

Semai Seearagam, Karamjiragam. 

Action ◮ Carminative, antispasmodic, 

antimicrobial, expectorant, 

galactagogue, emmenagogue. 

Key application ◮ Seed oil—in 

dyspeptic problems, such as mild, 

sapstic conditions of the gastrointestinal 

tract, bloating and fullness. 


The British Herbal Pharmacopoeia.) 


India recommended the seed in 

chronic fevers. 

The fruit contains a volatile oil consisting 

of carvone (40–60%) and limolinewith 

otherconstituents; flavonoids, 

mainly quercetin derivatives, polysaccharides 

and a fixed oil; also calcium 

oxalate. 

The antispasmodic and carminative 

effects have been confirmed experimentally. 

The caraway has shown to 

reduce gastrointestinal foam. 

Both the seeds and the essential oil 

are classed as carminative in I.P. 

The essential oil shows moderate 

antibacterial and antifungal activity 

against several bacteria and fungi. 

Mixed with alcohol and castor oil, it is 

used for scabies. 

Casearia tomentosa Roxb. 125 

Dosage ◮ Seed—1–3 g powder. 

(CCRAS.) 

Casearia esculenta Roxb. 

Synonym ◮ C. ovata (Lamk) Willd.C. 

zeylanica (Gaertn.) Thw. 

Family ◮ Samydaceae; Flacourtiaceae 

Habitat ◮ Peninsular India, up to 

1,800 m. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Saptachakraa. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kakkaipilai, Kilar, 

Kottargovai. 

Folk ◮ Saptrangi (root and root 

bark). 

Action ◮ Root—antidiabetic (used 

in milder chronic diabetic cases), 

astringent, liver tonic. Frequently 

adulterated with the roots of Salacia 

chinensis Linn. and S. macrosperma 

Wight. 

The crude aqueous extract of the 

roots has shown hypoglycaemic activity. 

The root gave leucopelargonidin, 

beta-sitosterol, dulcitol, a flavonoid 

and arabinose. 

Casearia tomentosa Roxb. 

Synonym ◮ C. elliptica Willd. 

Family ◮ Samydaceae; Flacourtiaceae. 


Kashmir to Nepal, ascending to 

1,000 m; throughout tropical India. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Chilhaka. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kadichai. 

C

126 Cassia absus Linn. 

C 

Folk ◮ Chillaa, Saptrangi. 

Action ◮ Root—hypoglycaemic. 

Root bark is used as a tonic in 

anaemic conditions. 

Fruit pulp—diuretic, purgative, 

Leaves—anti-inflammatory. Fruit pulp 

—diuretic. 

Ethanolic (80%) extract of the leaves 

showed significant anti-inflammatory 

activity in rats. Oil extracted from the 

seeds in rubbed on sprains. Various 

plant parts are used in neuralgia. 

Cassia absus Linn. 



Ayurvedic ◮ Chakshushyaa, Aranyakulathhikaa, 

Kataka. 

Unani ◮ Chaaksu. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Muulaipalyirai, 

Kaattukollu. 

Folk ◮ Ban Kulathi. 

Action ◮ Seed—bitter, blood-purifier, 

astringent, stimulant, diuretic. Used 

topically for leucoderma, ringworm, 

venereal ulcers and other skin 

diseases. Roots—purgative. 

Seeds gave sitosterol-beta-D-glucoside 

and alkaloids—chaksine and isochaksine. 

Chaksine is found to be 

antibacterial against Micrococcus pyogenes 

var. aureus and Streptococcus 

haemolyticus. It stimulates contraction 

of different tissues of plain muscles, 

like uterus, intestine, bladder, 

and muscles in blood vessels. It depresses 

the parasympathetic nerveendings 

of certain organs like intestine 

and bladder. Chaksine has ganglionblocking 

property. Chaksine and isochaksine 

possess a local anaesthetic 

effect intradermally. It produces 

a sustained fall in blood pressure of 

anaesthetized animals and produces 

a weak anti-acetylcholine effect. Roots 

also contains anthraquinones and aloeemodin. 


(CCRAS.) 

Cassia alata Linn. 



Found wild almost throughout 

India. 

English ◮ Ringworm Cassia. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Dadrughna, Dadrumardana. 

Siddha ◮ Malanthakerai, Seemai 

agathi (Tamil). 

Folk ◮ Daadmaari. 

Action ◮ Leaf—usedinskindiseases 

like herpes, blotch, eczema, mycosis 

(washerman’s itch). Dried leaves— 

in leprosy. A strong decoction is 

used for ringworm, eczema and 

herpes. Leaves are also used as 

a purgative. 

Young pods contain rhein, emodin 

and aloe-emodin. The antibacterial 

activity of the leaves is reported to be 

due to rhein. The roots contain anthraquinone. 

Emodin, aloe-emodin 

and anthraquinone contribute to the 

purgative activity of the leaves and 

roots. Crushed leaves or roots are

ubbed on to the skin to cure ringworm 

and to control Tinea imbricata, 

askinfungus. 

Cassia angustifolia Vahl. 

Synonym ◮ C. senna Linn. var. senna. 


Habitat ◮ Native to Sudan and 

Arabia. Now cultivated mainly in 

Tirunelveli and Ramnathpuram 

districts and to a lesser extent in 

Madurai, Salem and Tiruchirapalli 

districts of Tamil Nadu. Also grown 

on a small scale in Cuddapah 

district of Andhra Pradesh and 

certain parts of Karnataka. 

English ◮ Indian Senna, Tinnevelly 

Senna. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Svarna-pattri, 

Maarkandikaa, Maarkandi. 

Unani ◮ Sannaa, Sanaa-makki, 

Senaai, Sonaamukhi, Sanaa-Hindi. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Nilaavaarai. 

Folk ◮ Sanaai. 

Action ◮ Purgative (free from 

astringent action of rhubark 

type herbs, but causes gripe), 

used in compounds for treating 

biliousness, distention of stomach, 

vomitingandhiccups.Alsousedas 

a febrifuge, in splenic enlargements, 

jaundice, amoebic dysentery. 

Contraindicated in inflammatory 

colon diseases. 

Key application ◮ Leaf and dried 

fruit—in occasional constipation. 

(German Commission E.) As 

a stimulant laxative. (The British 

Cassia auriculata Linn. 127 

Herbal Pharmacopoeia.) 1,8dihydoxy-anthracene 

derivatives 

have a laxative effect. This effect is 

due to the sennosides, specifically, 

due to their active metabolite in 

the colon, rheinanthrone. The 

effect is primarily caused by the 

influence on the motility of the 

colon by inhibiting stationary and 

stimulating propulsive contractions. 


WHO.) Seena has been included in 

I.P. as a purgative. 

Most of the Senna sp. contain rhein, 

aloe-emodin, kaempferol, isormamnetin, 

both free and as glucosides, 

together with mycricyl alcohol. The 

purgative principles are largely attributed 

to anthraquinone derivatives and 

their glucosides. 

Senna is an Arabian name. The drug 

was brought into use by Arabian physicians 

for removing capillary congestion 

(pods were preferred to leaves). 

The active purgative principle of 

senna was discovered in 1866. 

Cassia acutifolia Delile is also equated 

with Maarkandikaa, Svarna-pattri, 

Sanaai. 

Dosage ◮ Leaves—500 mg to 2 g 

(API Vol. I.) 

Cassia auriculata Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Wild in dry regions of 

Madhya Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and 

Rajasthan. Cultivated in other parts 

of India. 

English ◮ Tanner’s Cassia. 

C

128 Cassia fistula Linn. 

C 

Ayurvedic ◮ Aaavartaki, Aaadaari. 

Unani ◮ Tarwar. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Aavaarai. 

Folk ◮ Tarwar. 

Action ◮ Roots—used in skin 

diseases and asthma. Flowers 

enterintocompoundsfordiabetes, 

urinary disorders and nocturnal 

emissions. 

Pod husk contains nonacosane and 

nonacosan-6-one, chrysophanol, 

emodin and rubiadin. 


(CCRAS.) 

Cassia fistula Linn. 

Synonym ◮ C. rhombifolia Roxb. 


Habitat ◮ Cultivated as an ornamental 


English ◮ Indian Laburnum, Purging 

Cassia, Golden Shower. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Aaragvadha, Chaturaangula, 

Kritamaala, Kritmaalaka, 

Karnikaara, Shampaaka, Praagraha, 

Raajvrksha, Nripapaadapa, 

Raajadruma, Vyaadhighaataka, 

Aarevata. 

Unani ◮ Amaltaas, Khyaarshambar. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Sarakkonrai. 

Folk ◮ Amaltaasa. 

Action ◮ Flowers and pods— 

purgative, febrifugal, astringent, 

antibilious. Seed powder—used in 

amoebiasis. 


India indicated the fruit pulp for constipation, 

colic, chlorosis and urinary 

disorders. 

Pulp of the pod contains anthraquinone 

glycosides, sennosides A and 

B, rhein and its glucoside, barbaloin, 

aloin, formic acid, butyric acid, their 

ethyl esters and oxalic acid. Presence 

of pectin and tannin is also reported. 

Seeds gave galactomannan free sugars 

and free amino acids; extract laxative, 

carminative, cooling and antipyretic 

properties. 

Flowers gave ceryl alcohol, kaempferol, 

rhein and a bianthraquinone 

glycoside, fistulin. 

Leaves gave free rhein, its glycosides—sennosides 

A and B. 

Cassia javanica L., a related species 

found in West Bengal, Maharashtra 

and Tamil Nadu, is used as a substitute 

for Cassia fistula. 

Dosage ◮ Fruit pulp—5–10 g powder. 

(API Vol. I.) 

Cassia obovata (L.) Collad. 

Synonym ◮ C. obtusa Roxb. 

Family ◮ Calsalpiniaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Punjab, Delhi, Rajasthan, 

Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Maharashtra, 

Karnataka, Kerala and 

Tamil Nadu. 

English ◮ Spanish, Sudan Senna. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Maarkandikaa, Svarnapattri. 

(related species) 

Folk ◮ Sonaamukhi, Sanaai.

Action ◮ An adulterant of the true 

senna. Leaves and seeds—purgative 

and anthelmintic. 

Cassia obtusifolia Linn. 


Habitat ◮ From Jammu and Himachal 

Pradesh to West Bengal, also in 

central and western India, up to an 


Ayurvedic ◮ Chakramarda, Prapunnaada. 

Folk ◮ Chakondaa, Chakwar, 

Pumariaa. 

Action ◮ Pods—Antidysenteric, 

antibacterial, antifungal. Seeds— 

used for ringworm and skin diseases 

also for cough, cold, asthma, and as 

a mild purgative in liver complaints. 

Cassia occidentalis Linn. 



an altitude of 1,500 m. 

English ◮ Coffee Senna, Foetid 

Cassia, Negro Coffee. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Kaasamarda, Kaasaari. 

Unani ◮ Kasondi. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Paeyaavarai, Thagarai. 

Folk ◮ Kasondi (bigger var.). 

Action ◮ Purgative, diuretic, 

febrifugal,expectorant,stomachic. 

Leaves—used internally and 

externally in scabies, ringworm and 

other skin diseases. A hot decoction 

Cassia sophera Linn. 129 

is given as an antiperiodic. Seeds— 

used for cough, whooping cough 

and convulsions. Roasted seeds 

(roasting destroys the purgative 

property) are mixed with coffee for 

strength. 

The pods contain sennosides and 

anthraquinones; seeds polysaccharides, 

galactomannan; leaves dianthronic 

hetroside; pericarp apigenin; roots 

emodol; plant xanthone—cassiolin; 

seeds phytosterolin; flowers physcion 

and its glucosides, emodin and betasitosterol. 

The volatile oil obtained from the 

leaves, roots and seeds showed antibacterial 

and antifungal activity. 

The seeds, when fed to animals, resulted 

in weight loss and also were 

found to be toxic to experimental animals. 

Leaves are preferred to quinine as 

a tonic, seeds are considered as a haemateinic 

toxic and root is used as a hepatic 

tonic. 

Dosage ◮ Seed—3–6 g powder; 

leaf—10–20 ml juice; root bark— 


Cassia sophera Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Ingardensashedge 


English ◮ Sophera Senna. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Kaasamarda. 

Unani ◮ Kasondi. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Ponnaavaarai. 

Action ◮ Leaves, seeds, bark— 

cathartic; considered specific for 

C

130 Cassia tora Linn. 

C 

ringworm and other skin diseases 

(bark may cause dermatitis); used 

for bronchitis and asthma. 

A paste of leaves is used for treating 

piles. An infusion of fresh leaves, 

with sugar, is given in jaundice. Plant 

is spasmolytic. Alcoholic extract of 

leaves is intestinal and bronchial muscle 

relaxant. 

The leaves contain a flavone glycoside 

and sennoside. Root bark contains 

anthraquinones, chrysophanol, 

physcion and beta-sitosterol. Heartwood 

gave isomeric derivatives, 1,2, 

7-trihydroxy-3-methylanthraquinone, 

along with sopheranin, beta-sitosterol, 

chrysophanol, physcion, emodin, 1octadecanol 


Cassia tora Linn. 



a weed. 

English ◮ Sickle Senna, Ringworm 

Plant. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Chakramarda, Chakri, 

Prapunnaada, Dadrughna, Meshalochana, 

Padmaata, Edagaja. 

Unani ◮ Penwaad Taarutaa. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Ushittgarai. 

Folk ◮ Chakavad, Daadamaari. 

Action ◮ Leaves—taken internally 

to prevent skin diseases; applied 

against eczema and ringworm; 

pounded and applied on cuts, act 

like tincture of iodine. Seeds, 

soaked in water, are taken for 

spermatorrhoea. A paste made of 

equal parts of leaves and seeds is 

given for jaundice. Pods are used in 

dysentery. 



of India indicated the use of the seed in 

paralysis and hemiplegia as a supporting 

drug. 

The leaves contain chrysophanol, 

aloe-emodin, rhein and emodin. Mature 

leaves possess purgative properties 

and are sometimes utilized to adulterate 

the true senna; also used as an 

antiperiodic and anthelmintic. 

The leaf extract exhibited antifungal 

activity against the ringworm fungus 

Microsporon nanum. 

Seeds contain anthraquinone glycosides, 

naptho-pyrone glycosides, cassiaside 

and rubrofusarin-6-beta-gentiobioside. 

These constituents showed 

significant hepatoprotective activity. 

Thrachrysone, isolated from seeds, 

showed stronger antioxidant activity 

than tocopherol and BHA. 

Chrysophanic acid-9-anthrone, extracted 

from the seed, was found to be 

active against ringworm fungi. 

Dosage ◮ Seed—1–3 g powder. (API 

Vol. III.) 

Cassytha filiformis Linn. 

Family ◮ Lauraceae 


parts of India. 

English ◮ Doddar-Laurel, Love-Vine. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Amarvalli, Aakaashbel. 

(Cuscuta reflexa is also known as 

Amarvalli.)

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Erumaikkottan. 

Action ◮ Astringent, diuretic (given 

in dropsy and anasarca, also in 

biliousness, chronic dysentery, 

haemoptysis and for supressing 

lactation after still-birth); piscicidal 

and insecticidal (used as a hair-wash 

for killing vermin). 

The plant contains aporphine alkaloids. 

Castanea sativa Mill. 

Synonym ◮ C. vulgaris Lam. 

Family ◮ Fagaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Darjeeling, Khasi Hills, 

Punjab and Himachal Pradesh. 

English ◮ Spanish Chestnut, Sweet 

Chestnut. 

Folk ◮ Singhaaraa (not to be confused 

with water-chestnut, Tripa natans 

L.) 

Action ◮ Leaves—astringent, 

antitussive and febrifuge (used 

for fevers and diseases of the 

respiratory tract). An infusion is 

used as a gargle in pharyngitis, 

proxysmal coughs, catarrh and 

whooping cough. Nuts—extract, as 

platelet inhibitor in thrombosis and 

atherosclerosis. 

The leaves contain tannins (8–9%) 

flavone glycosides, triterpenoids, ursolic 

acid, lupeol and betulin. Heartwood 

contains 61.4% tannins and 25.7% nontannins. 

The wood and bark contain 7– 

14 and 8–14% tannins respectively. 

Nuts are eaten raw, roasted or boiled 

like potatoes. Nuts contain protein, 

Catharanthus roseus (L.) G. Don. 131 

calcium, phosphorus, thiamine, riboflavin 

and niacin; also tocopherols. 

Nuts, crushed with vinegar and barley 

flour, are used against indurations of 

breast. The extract of nuts exhibits possibility 

of its use as a platelet inhibitor in 

thrombosis and atherosclerosis. Leaves 

are inhibitors of pectinolytic enzymes. 

American chestnut and European 

chestnut are equated with Castanea 

dentata and C. sativa,respectively. Both 

are used for respiratory ailments. 

Casuarina equisetifolia Linn. 

Family ◮ Casuarinaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Cultivated in coastal 

regions of Peninsular India. 

English ◮ Casuarina, She-Oak, 

Australian or Whistling Pine, 

Beefwood. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Jhaau, Vilaayati Jhaau. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Savukku. 


Leaf—antispasmodic, 

used in colic. Aerial parts— 


The plant contains kaempferol glycoside, 

quercetin glycoside, cupressuflavone, 

tannins, shikimic acid, quinic 

acid, amino acids, sugars. 

Catharanthus roseus 

(L.) G. Don. 

Synonym ◮ Vinca rosea L. 

Lochnera rosea (L.) Reichub. 


C

132 Cayratia carnosa (Wall.) Gagnep. 

C 

Habitat ◮ Commonly grown in 

Indian gardens. 

English ◮ Madagascar Periwinkle 

(Vinca major L. Pich. and Vinca 

minor Linn. are known as Greater 

Periwinkle and Lesser Periwinkle 

respectively). 

Folk ◮ Sadaabahaar, Nayantaaraa, 

Nityakalyaani. 

Action ◮ The cytotoxic dimeric 

alkaloids, present in Madagascar 

Periwinkle, Catharanthus roseus L. 

Don, Vincea rosea L., and used for 

the treatment of certain type of 

cancer, have not been found in V. 

major. 

Catharanthus roseus (Madagascar 

Periwinkle) : cytostatic, anti-neoplastic, 

slows down growth of cells by supressing 

immune response. Vinblastine 

and Vincristine are said to prolong 

remission of leukaemia to more than 

five years. These chemotherapeutic 

agents are toxic to the nervous system. 

Vinblastine is also used for breast 

cancer and Hodgkin’s disease. 

Vinca major L. Pich. (Greater Periwinkle): 

astringent, anti-haemorrhagic; 

used for menorrhagia and leucorrhoea. 

Contains indole alkaloids 

including reserpinine and serpentine; 

tannins. 

Vinca minor Linn. (Lesser Periwinkle): 

astringent; circulatory stimulant. 

Leaves—stomachic and bitter. Root— 

hypotensive. Used for gastric catarrh, 

chronic dyspepsia, flatulence; also for 

headache, dizziness, behaviours disorders. 

A homoeopathic tincture is given 

for internal haemorrhages. 

Cayratia carnosa (Wall.) Gagnep. 

Synonym ◮ C. trifolia (L.) Domin. 

Vitis carnosa Wall. 

V.trifolia Linn. 

Family ◮ Vitaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Throughout the warmer 

parts of India, from Jammu and 

Rajasthan to Assam and up to 

300 m. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Gandira. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Tumans. 

Action ◮ Leaves, seeds, roots— 

astringent, applied to ulcers 

and boils. Leaves—diaphoretic 

(recommended in high fever). Rootgiven 

in anaemic conditions. Aerial 

parts—CNS active, hypothermic. 

The stems, leaves and roots 

contain hydrocyanic acid. Presence 

of delphinidin and cyanidin is 

reported in the leaves. 

Cayratia pedata (Wall.) Gagnep. 

Synonym ◮ Vitis pedata Vahl ex Wall. 


Habitat ◮ Bihar, West Bengal and 

Assam, up to 900 m. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Godhaapadi. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kattuppirandai. 

Action ◮ Leaves—astringent and refrigerant 

(used for ulcers, diarrhoea, 

uterine and other fluxes). 

Aerial parts—diuretic, spasmolytic. 

Cedrela toona Roxb. 

Synonym ◮ Toona ciliata M. Roem.


Habitat ◮ Sub-Himalayan tract, 

Assam and throughout hilly regions 

of Central and South India. 

English ◮ Red Cedar, Toon, Indian 

Mahogany tree. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Tuunikaa, Nandi Vrksha. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Tunumaram, 

Santhana Vembu. 

Folk ◮ Toonaa. 

Action ◮ Bark—astringent, antidysenteric, 

antiperiodic. Flowers—emmenagogue. 

Leaf— 

spasmolytic, hypoglycaemic, antiprotozoal. 

Bark and heartwood yielded tetranortriterpenoids, 

including toonacilin. 

Heartwood also gave a coumarin, geranylgernalol 

and its fatty esters. Toonacilin 

and its 6-hydroxy derivatives are 

antifeedant. 

Cedrus deodara (Roxb.) Loud. 

Synonym ◮ C. libani Barrel. var. 

deodara Hook. f. 


Habitat ◮ North-western Himalayas 

from Kashmir to Garhwal, from 

1,000 to 3,500 m. 

English ◮ Himalayan Cedar, Deodar. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Devadaaru, Suradruma, 

Suradaaru, Devakaashtha, 

Devadruma, Saptapatrika, Daaru, 

Bhadradaaru, Amarataru, Amaradaaru, 

Daaruka, Devaahvaa, 

Surataru, Surabhuruha. 

Unani ◮ Deodaar. 

Cedrus deodara (Roxb.) Loud. 133 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Thevathaaram. 

Action ◮ Bark—decoction is 

used internally as astringent, 

antidiarrhoeal and febrifuge. 

Essential oil—antiseptic (used in 

skin diseases). 


India indicated the use of the heartwood 

in puerperal diseases. 

The wood contains sesquiterpenoids; 

exhibits sapasmolytic activity. Alcoholic 

extract of the wood showed 

marked anti-inflammatory activity in 

mice; alcoholic extract showed antibacterial 

activity. 

The wood possesses diaphoretic, diuretic 

and carminative properties, and 

is used in fevers and in pulmonary and 

urinary disorders. 

Himalayan Cedarwood Oil contains 

two major sesquiterpenoids—alphaand 

beta-himchalenes. Presence of butyric 

and caproic acids is also reported. 

The oil shows in vitro antibacterial and 

antifungal activity. It increases vascular 

permeability. Needles, on steam 

distillation, yield a volatile oil, rich in 

borneol and its esters. An alcoholic extract 

of the needles shows significant 

antibacterial activity against diptheria 

bacteria. The juice shows antiviral activity 

against tobacco mosaic virus and 

potato virus. 

The bark contains 8-C methyltaxifoline, 

dihydroquercetin, 8-C methylquercetin, 

quercetin, sitosterol, and 

tannins 8.25%, non-tannins 6.95% 

(varies with the age of the tree). An 

alcoholic extract of the bark shows 

significant activity against diptheria 

bacteria; aqueous extract of the dried 

bark showed anti-inflammatory activ- 

C

134 Ceiba pentandra (Linn.) Gaertn. 

C 

ity against acute and chronic inflammations. 

Aqueous extract of the bark 

is found effective in reducing sugar 

content of diabetic patient’s urine and 

blood to normal levels. 

Dosage ◮ Heartwood—3–6 g 

powder. (API Vol. IV.) 

Ceiba pentandra (Linn.) Gaertn. 

Synonym ◮ Eriodendron anafractuosum 

DC. 


Habitat ◮ West and South India. 

Often found planted around villages 

and temples. 

English ◮ Kapok, White Silk Cotton. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Kuuta-Shaalmali, Shveta 

Shaalmali. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Ielavum (Tamil). 

Action ◮ Gum—laxative, astringent, 

demulcent (given in painful micturition). 

Unripe fruit—astringent. 

Root—diuretic, antidiabetic, antispasmodic 

(used in dysentery). 

Flowers—laxative; used in lochiorrhoea. 

Unripe pods—used in 

vertigo and migraine. Seed oil— 

used in rheumatism. 

The plant contains linarin (acacetin 

7-rutinoside). Seeds contain fatty acids, 

diglycerides and phospholipids. Leaves 

are considered a good source of iron 

and calcium. Stem-bark extract—antimicrobial. 

Celastrus paniculatus Willd. 

Family ◮ Celastraceae. 

Habitat ◮ Sub-Himalayan tract up to 

2,000 m and South Indian hills. 

English ◮ Staff tree, Intellect tree. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Jyotishmati, Paaraavatpadi. 

Kangunikaa, Kanguni, Vegaa, 

Maalkaanguni, Svarnalatikaa, 

Kaakaandaki, Katuveekaa. 

Unani ◮ Maalkangani. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Vaaluluvai. 

Action ◮ Seeds—nervine and 

brain tonic, diaphoretic, febrifugal, 

emetic. Seed-oil—used for treating 

mental depression, hysteria and for 

improving memory; also used for 

scabies, eczema, wounds, rheumatic 

pains, paralysis. A decoction of 

seeds is given in gout, rheumatism, 

paralysis and for treating leprosy 

and other skin diseases. Leaves— 

antidysenteric, emmenagogue. 

Root—a paste of root-bark is 

applied to swollen veins and 

pneumonic affections. 

Key application ◮ As a tranquilizer 

(Indian Herbal Pharmacopoeia) 

and brain tonic (The Ayurvedic 

Pharmacopoeia of India). The 

Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India 

indicated the use of ripe seed in 

leucoderma and vitiligo. 

The seeds are reported to contain the 

alkaloids, celastrine and paniculatine, 

which are the active principles of the 

drug. 

In experimental animals, the drug 

showed lowering of leptazol toxicity, 

motor activity and amphetamine toxicity, 

and raising the capacity for learning 

process. It showed significant CNS 

depressant effect and a clear synergism

with pentobarbital. The seed extract 

showed hypolipidaemic effect and prevented 

atherogenesis in rabbits. 

The seed oil showed tranquillizing 

effect and hastened the process 

of learning in experimental animals. 

It produced fall in blood pressure in 

anaesthetized dog, depressed the heart 

of frog, and was found to be toxic to 

rats. 

In addition to the seed, 70% alcoholic 

extract of the plant showed sedative, 

anti-inflammatory and antipyretic, 

anti-ulcerogenic effect in experimental 

animals. 

Methanolic extract of flowers 

showed both analgesic and antiinflammatory 

activities experimentally. 

Dosage ◮ Ripe seed, devoid of 

capsule wall—1–2 g; oil—5–15 

drops. (API Vol. II.) 

Celosia argentea Linn. 


Habitat ◮ A common weed, 


English ◮ Wild Cock’s Comb. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Shitivaaraka, Vitunna. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Pannaikeerai. 

Folk ◮ Shveta-murga, Sarvari, 

Sarvali, Surali. 

Action ◮ Flowers—used in menorrhagia, 

blood-dysentery. Seeds— 

antidiarrhoeal, also used in stomatitis. 

Whole plant—antibacterial, 

antiscorbutic and cooling. 

Centaurea behen Linn. 135 

Tender leaves are rich in potassium 

andinB1andB6.Analcoholicextract 

of the leaves and its flavonoids showed 

antibacterial activity, which was comparable 

to ampicillin and streptomycin. 

The seeds contain 11.6–17% of protein 

and 6.4–10.9% of a fatty oil. The 

seeds and roots yield triterpenoid saponins. 

An alcoholic extract of the seeds 

possess significant diuretic activity. 

Celosia cristata Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Indian gardens, as 

ornamental. 

English ◮ Cock’s Comb. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Jataadhaari. 

Folk ◮ Laal Murgaa. 

Action ◮ Seeds—demulcent; used 

for painful micturition, dysentery. 

Flowers—used in menorrhagia and 

diarrhoea. 

The plant contains betanin, and several 

sterols. The inflorescence contain 

amarantin, isoamarantin, celosianin 

and isocelosianin. The seeds contain 

10.1–12.8% of protein and yield 7.2– 

7.9% of a fatty oil. 

Choline esters of hyaluronic acid 

from the plant, when fed to rats, 

showed antiulcer and gastro-protective 

effect. 

Centaurea behen Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Indigenous to Iran. 

Imported into India. 

C

136 Centella asiatica (Linn.) Urban. 

C 

English ◮ White Rhapontic. 

Unani ◮ Behman Safed, Behmanabyaz. 

Action ◮ Root—nervine and anabolic 

tonic, strengthens central nervous 

system; also used in jaundice and 

affections of the kidney. 

The roots contain taraxasterol, its acetate 

and myristate. 

Centella asiatica (Linn.) Urban. 

Synonym ◮ Hydrocotyle asiatica 

Linn. 


Habitat ◮ In marshy places throughout 

India up to 200 m. 

English ◮ Asiatic Pennywort, Indian 

Pennywort. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Manduukaparni, 

Manduukaparnikaa, Maanduuki, 

Saraswati, Brahma-manduuki. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Vallaarai. 

Action ◮ Adaptogen, central 

nervous system relaxant, peripheral 

vasodilator, sedative, antibiotic, 

detoxifier, blood-purifier, laxative, 

diuretic, emmenagogue. Used 

as a brain tonic for improving 

memory and for overcoming 

mental confusion, stress, fatigue, 

also used for obstinate skin diseases 

and leprosy. 

Key application ◮ Extracts orally 

to treat stress-induced stomach 

and duodenal ulcers; topically to 

accelerate healing, particularly 

in cases of chronic postsurgical 

and post trauma wounds; also 

to treat second and third degree 

burns. Patients suffering from 

venous insufficiency were treated 

with a titrated extract of the drug. 

(WHO.) 

Used in Indian medicine as a brain 

tonic and sedative. (Indian Herbal 


Major constituents of the plant are: 

triterpenoid saponins—brahmoside, 

asiaticoside, thankuniside; alkaloids 

(hydrocotyline); bitter principles (vellarin). 

Brahmoside, present in the plant, is 

reported to exhibit tranquilizing and 

anabolic activity. Raw leaves are eaten 

or plant decoction is drunk to treat 

hypertension. 

Asiaticoside, extracted from leaves, 

gave encouraging results in leprosy. It 

dissolves the waxy covering of Bacillus 

leprae. Centelloside has also been 

found useful in leprosy. Asiaticoside 

reduced the number tubercular lesions 

in the liver, lungs, nerve ganglia and 

spleen in experimental animals. Another 

derivative of asiaticoside, oxyasiaticoside, 

inhibits growth of Tubercle 

bacillus at a concentration of 0.15 ml/ml 

Asiaticosides are also hyperglycaemic. 

The asiatic acid acts against resistant 

bacteria, particularly Mycobacterium 

tuberculosis and M. leprae as well as 

Gram-positive cocci. 

Asiaticosides elevate blood glucose, 

triglycerides and cholesterol levels. 

They seem to decrease blood urea 

nitrogen and acid phosphatase levels. 

(Pharmacological findings. Natural 


2007.)

Boiled leaves are eaten for urinary 

tract infections, and unfiltered juice for 

scrofula and syphilis. 

Extract of the fresh plant significantly 

inhibits gastric ulceration by cold restraint 

stress in rats. 

In research, using rats, the herb 

exhibited protective effect against alcohol-induced 

and aspirin-induced ulcers. 

(JExpBiol,2001, Feb, 39(2), 137– 

42.) 

Dosage ◮ Whole plant—3–6 g (API 

Vol. IV.) 

Centipeda orbicularis Lour. 

Synonym ◮ C. minima (Linn.) A.Br. 

&Asch. 


Habitat ◮ In damp places throughout 

the plains and low hills in India. 

English ◮ Sneezewort. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Kshavaka, Chhikkini, 

Chhikkikaa. 

Folk ◮ Nak-chhikani. 

Action ◮ Used for the treatment of 

rhinitis, sinusitis, nasopharyngeal 

tumors and obstructions, asthma 

and cold; also used in hemicrania. 

The plant extract showed a good antitussive 

and expectorant activity on 

mice. The flavonoids, sesquiterpenes 

andamideexhibitedsignificantantiallergy 

activity in passive cutaneous anaphylaxis 

(PCA) test. 


(CCRAS.) 

Centratherum anthelminticum Kuntze. 137 

Centratherum anthelminticum 

Kuntze. 

Synonym ◮ Vernonia anthelmintica 

Willd. 


Habitat ◮ Throughout India up to 

2,000 m in the Himalayas and Khasi 

Hills. 

English ◮ Purple Flea-bane, Achenes. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Aranya-Jiraka, Vanajiraka, 

Kaalijiri, Karjiri. Somaraaji (also 

equated with Psoralea corylifolia 

Linn., Papilionaceae). 

Unani ◮ Kamoon barri. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kaattu seerakam. 

Action ◮ Anthelmintic (against 

earthworms and tapeworms), 

stomachic, diuretic; used in skin 

diseases. 

Delta-7-avenasterol is the main active 

principle of seeds. Seed oil contains 

vernasterol. Seeds bitter principle 

is a demanolide lactone. Centratherin 

and germacranolide from the leaves 

and stem have been isolated. Leaves 

contain abscisic acid. EtOH extract of 

achenes exhibited good results in giardiasis. 

Various plant parts are used in 

syphilis. Clinical studies on vircarcika 

eczema validated the use of the drug in 

skin diseases. 

The drug exhibited smooth musclerelaxant 

and hypotensive activity in animals. 


(CCRAS.) 

C

138 Cephaelis ipecacuanha (Brot.) A. Rich. 

C 

Cephaelis ipecacuanha 

(Brot.) A. Rich. 

Synonym ◮ Psychotria ipecacuanha 

Stokes. 


Habitat ◮ Native to tropical America. 

Now cultivated in Darjeeling, 

Assam, in the Nilgiris, and in 

Sikkim. 

English ◮ Ipecac, Ipecacuanha. 

Action ◮ Root—Antiprotozal, 

expectorant (in low doses), diaphoretic, 

emetic (in high doses); used in 

amoebic dysentery, stubborn cough, 

whopping cough (for liquefying 

bronchial phlegm). 

Key application ◮ As expectorant, 

emetic. (The British Herbal 


The root contains isoquinoline alkaloids 

(consisting mainly of emetine 

and cephaeline); tannins (ipecacuanha 

and ipecacuanhic acid; glycosides 

including a monoterpene isoquinoline 

derivative); saponins; a mixture of glycoproteins; 

starch; choline; resins. 

The alkaloids are clinically useful in 

the treatment of amoebiasis. 

Emetine and cephaeline are emetic 

due to their irritating effect on stomach; 

cephaeline is more toxic. Emetine 

is a standard antiamoebic principle. In 

smaller doses, both are expectorant. 

The fluid extract is 14 times stronger 

than the syrup of the crude drug. The 

powder is toxic at 1–2 g. 

Emetine accumulates in liver, lungs, 

kidneys and spleen; traces are detectable 

after 40–60 days. (Francis 

Brinker.) 

Ceratonia siliqua Linn. 

Family ◮ Caesalpinaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Cultivated in Punjab. 

English ◮ Locust Bean; St. John’s 

Bread, Carob tree. 

Unani ◮ Kharnub Shaami. 

Action ◮ Pod and husk from seed— 

antidiarrhoeal (stools in gastroenteritis 

and colitis are known to 

solidify within 48 h). 

The pods contain tannin from 0.88 

to 4.09%. 

Pulp of the pod contains 30–70% 

sugars, fats, starch, protein, amino 

acids, gallic acid; leucoanthocyanins 

and related phenolics. Leaves contain 

catechols. 

Ceratophyllum demersum Linn. 

Family ◮ Ceratophyllaceae. 

Habitat ◮ All over India from 

temperate to tropics, in ponds and 

lakes. 

English ◮ Coontail, Hornwort. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Shaivaala (also equated 

with Vallisneria spiralis Linn., 

Hydrocharitaceae), Jalnili, Jalaja. 

Unani ◮ Tuhlub, Pashm Vazg. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Velampasi. 

Folk ◮ Sevaar. 

Action ◮ Purgative, antibilious, 


The herb is rich in protein, calcium 

and magnesium; contains ferredoxin 

and plastocyanin. EtOH (50%) 

extract—antimicrobial.

Dosage ◮ Whole plant—10– 

20 ml juice; 50–100 ml decoction. 

(CCRAS.) 

Cereus grandiflorus Mill. 

Family ◮ Cactaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Indian gardens. 

English ◮ Cereus, Night Blooming 

Cereus, Sweet Scented Cactus. 

Folk ◮ Nivadung Paanchkoni 


Action ◮ Fresh, young shoots—cardiac 

stimulant, anti-inflammatory. 

The plant contains glucose, fructose, 

starch, amino acids and citric, fumaric, 

maleic, malonic and oxalic acids. 

Tyramine, a cardiotonic amine, can 

strengthen heart muscle action. 

The flower, stem and young shoots of 

cereus can stimulate heart and dilate 

peripheral vessels, as well as stimulate 

spinal cord motor neurons. The 

reputed digitalis effect of cereus is 

claimed to be non-cumulative. (Natural 


2007.) 

Ceriops candolleana Arn. 

Synonym ◮ C. tagal (Perr.) 

C.B. Robins. 

Family ◮ Rhizophoraceae. 

Habitat ◮ Muddy shores and tidal 

creeks of India. 

English ◮ Compound Cymed 

Mangrove. 

Ceropegia bulbosa Roxb. 139 

Folk ◮ Kirrari (Sindh, Maharashtra). 

Chauri (Maharashtra). Goran 

(Bengal, Sundarbans). 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Pandikutti, Pavrikutti, 

Pavrikutti, Kandal, Chira. 

Action ◮ Plant—astringent. Stem 

bark—hypoglycaemic. Bark— 

haemostatic. A decoction is used 

to stop haemorrhage and is applied 

to malignant ulcers; also given after 

child birth. 

Shoots—used as a substitute for quinine. 

The leaves (dry basis) gave 15.45% 

tannin, 19.99% non-tannin; twig bark 

25.89%, tannin, 9.8% non-tannin; bole 

bark 41.42% tannin, 10.58% non-tannin. 

Presence of sitosterol, cholesterol, 

campesterol, stigmasterol, 28-isofucosterol 

and a hydrocarbon, squalene, 

is reported in the leaves. 

Ceropegia bulbosa Roxb. 

Family ◮ Asclepiadacae. 

Habitat ◮ Punjab and South India. 

Folk ◮ Khappar-kaddu, Bhuu-tumbi, 

Paataal-tumbi. Gilothi. Galot 

(Punjab). Gilodya. 

Action ◮ Tuberous root—used for 

diarrhoea and dysentery. 

The fresh tubers are eaten after 

removing the bitterness by boiling. 

The bitter principle is an alkaloid, 

ceropegine. The tuber contains 42.52% 

starch and possesses refrigerant property. 

C

140 Ceropegia juncea Roxb. 

C 

The aqueous extract of edible Ceropegia 

sp. contains steriods, polyphenols, 

sugars and potassium. It potentiated 

pentobarbitone hypnosis and exhibited 

analgesic and diuretic activities. 

It also antagonized histamine-induced 

asphyxia in guinea pigs. 

C. candelabrum L. var. biflora (L.) 

M. Y. Ansari, synonym C. biflora L., 

C. tuberosa Roxb., C. intermedia auct. 

non-Wt., are also equated with Bhuutumbi, 

Paataal-tumbi. 

Ceropegia juncea Roxb. 



Folk ◮ Kanvel (Maharashtra). Bellagada 

(Telugu, Andhra Pradesh). 

(Soma is a disputed synonym) 

Action ◮ The plant extract exhibits 

tranquilizing, hypotensive, hepatoprotective, 

antiulcer, antipyretic, 

topically anaesthetic activities in 


A pyridine alkaloid, cerpegin, together 

with a triterpene, lupeol has 

been isolated from the plant from 

Tiruneveli, Tamil Nadu. 

Cetraria islandica (Linn.) Ach. 

Family ◮ Parmeliaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Lichen found in the hills 

from Tehri Garhwal to East Nepal. 

English ◮ Cetraria, Iceland Lichen, 

Iceland Moss. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Shaileya (black var.) 

Folk ◮ Charela (black var.) 

Action ◮ A food and tonic in 

convalescence and exhausting 

diseases. Used for chronic catarrh 

and bronchitis. 

Key application ◮ In irritation of 

the oral and pharyngeal mucous 

membrane and accompanying 

dry cough. (German Commission 

E, ESCOP.) Asdemulcent. (The 

British Herbal Pharmacopoeia.) As 

a bitter remedy for lack of appetite. 

(ESCOP.) 

The moss contains lichen acids (depsidones); 

mainly cetraric, protocetraric, 

fumarprotocetraric, lichesteric 

and usnic acids; polysaccharides about 

50%—lichenin 40% and isolichenin 

10%; also furan derivatives, fatty acid 

lactones and terpenes. Lichenin is 

a moss-starch. Demulcent, expectorant 

and antiemetic properties are due 

mainly to the polysaccharides. 

The usnic acid and protolichesterinic 

acid in the lichen and its crude, 

aqueous extract showed antibacterial 

activity against several pathogenic bacteria. 

Contraindicated in gastric or duodenal 

ulcers due to its mucosa irritating 

properties. (Sharon M. Herr.) 

Lozenges containing 160 mg of an 

aqueous extract of Iceland moss, were 

determined to be positive in 86% cases 

with good gastric tolerance. (ESCOP 

1997.) 

Cheiranthus cheiri Linn. 

Family ◮ Cruciferae; Brassicaceae.

Habitat ◮ Native to South Europe, 

grownasanornamental. 

English ◮ Wall-flower, Gilli Flower. 

Unani ◮ Tudri (Surkh, Safed, Zard) 

Action ◮ Flowers—cardioactive, 

tonic, antispasmodic, purgative, 

emmenagogue, deobstruent (used 

in liver diseases and sexual debility). 

Seeds— stomachic, diuretic, 

expectorant (in bronchitis and 

asthma); also goitrogenic. Juice of 

leaves and seeds—antibacterial. 

Flowers contain flavonoids (quercetin 

and rhamnetin derivatives); seeds 

contain high levels of cardiac aglycones 

(30 cardiac glycosides have been isolated); 

oil contains cherinine, a glucoside 

of the digitalis group. 

In Unani medicine, the drug is used 

as a tonic to the male reproductive system, 

but recent findings do not validate 

its therapeutic use. The flavonoid, 

kaempferol, isolated from the young 

plant, inhibits spermatogenesis and alters 

leydig cell number and diameter, 

affecting the fertility. 

Chenopodium album Linn. 

Family ◮ Chenopodiaceae. 

Habitat ◮ A common herb. Its 

leaves and tender twigs are used as 

vegetable and fodder. 

English ◮ Fat Hen, Lamb’s Quarter, 

White Goosefoot, Wild Spinach, 

Pigweed. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Vaastuuka. 

Unani ◮ Bathuaa, Baathu. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Paruppukeerai. 

Chenopodium ambrosioides Linn. 141 

Folk ◮ Bathuaa, Chilli, Chilli-shaak. 

Action ◮ Laxative, anthelmintic 

against round-and hookworms, 

blood-purifier, antiscorbutic. 

An infusion is used for hepatic 

disorders, spleen enlargement, 

biliousness, intestinal ulcers. Used 

for treating burns. 

The leaves yield ascaridole, used for 

treating round-and hookworms. The 

oil also contain traces of ascaridole. 

Plant contains 8% saponins. Cryptomeridiol, 

isolated from the seeds, 

showed significant growth promoting 

activity. 

Chenopodium ambrosioides 

Linn. 



South America. Now distributed 

in South India, Bengal, Kashmir 

and Maharashtra in wet places with 

cultivated lands. 

English ◮ Indian Wormseed, Sweet 

Pigweed, Mexican Tea. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Sugandh-vaastuuka, 

Kshetra-vaastuuka. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kattasambadam. 

Folk ◮ Khatuaa. 

Action ◮ Antispasmodic, pectoral, 

haemostatic, emmenagogue. 

Employed in treating nervous 

affections, particularly chorea. 

Dried herb—anthelmintic against 

round and hookworms. 

C

142 Chenopodium botrys Linn. 

C 

Ascaridole, an active constituent of 

the oil, is highly active against roundworms, 

hookworms and small, but not 

large, tapeworms. It is highly toxic and 

can cause serious side effects. 

The oil has been found useful in 

amoebic dysentery and intestinal infections(shouldbeusedwithcaution). 

Leaves contain kaempferol-7-rhamnoside 

and ambroside. 

A decoction of the herb is given as an 

internal haemostatic and the infusion 

as an enema for intestinal ulceration. 

The infusion is sudorific and diuretic. 

The oil exhibits antimicrobial and 

strong antifungal activity against human 

pathogenic fungi. 

Chenopodium botrys Linn. 


Habitat ◮ The Himalaya, from 

Kashmir to Sikkim. 

English ◮ Feather Geramium, 

Jerusalem-Oak. 

Folk ◮ Jangaddi (Tibbet). Sahanik, 

Vaastuuka (Ladakh). 

Action ◮ Stimulant, diuretic, 

carminative, antispasmodic, emmenagogue, 

pectoral. Used in asthma, 

catarrh; diseases of the stomach and 

liver. Seeds are considered toxic. 

The herb contains flavonoids (including 

chrysoeriol and quercetin), also 

several sesquiterpenoids. Betaine is 

found in all parts of the plant. 

Fresh herb yields an essential oil; Indian 

oil is reported to be devoid of ascaridole, 

the anthelmintic principle. 

Chloris gayana Kunth. 

Family ◮ Poaceae, Gramineae. 

Habitat ◮ Annual grass introduced 

into India from South Africa; 

cultivated in tropical and subtropical 

low-lying areas where rainfall is less 

than 125 cm. 

English ◮ Giant Rhodes, Rhodes- 

Grass. 

Folk ◮ Rhoolsoohullu (Karnataka). 

Action ◮ Aproteinaceousfactor, 

phytotrophin, isolated from the 

grass, was found to have antigenic 

properties similar to those of animal 

sex hormones and human chorionic 

gonadotrophin. 

A related species, Chloris incompleta 

Roth.,knownasBamnaainRajasthan 

and Mathania in Uttar Pradesh, has 

been equated with Ayurvedic classical 

herbs Manthaanak and Trnaaddhip. 

Another species, C. virgata Benth. & 

Hook. f., known as Gharaniyaa-ghass 

in Rajasthan, is used for the treatment 

of colds and rheumatism. 

Chlorophytum arundinaceum 

Baker. 


Habitat ◮ The Himalaya from Nepal 

to Bhutan, Assam and Bihar. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Shveta-Musali. (Considered 

different from Asparagus 

adscendens Roxb.) 

Unani ◮ Musali Safed, Biskandri. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Vallaimusali. 

Folk ◮ Nising, Tibbati Ginseng.

Action ◮ Tuber—nervine and 

general tonic. The plant is used as 

a substitute for onion. Fried powder 

of the root is chewed in aphthae of 

mouth and throat. A decoction of 

the root with turmeric is given in 

rheumatism. 

The roots contain a bibenzyl xyloside, 

the steroidal sapogenins, besides 

stigmasterol and its glucoside, nonacosane 

and tetracosanoic, and triacontanoic 

acids. 

The root extract exhibited good 

adaptogenic properties. The fruits 

yield a polysaccharide, galactoglucan. 

Chlorophytum tuberosum 

Baker. 


Habitat ◮ Central and Peninsular 

India up to 1,350 m. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Musali, Mushali. 

Unani ◮ Musali. 

Siddha ◮ Vallaimusali. 

Action ◮ Dried tubers are used as 

tonic. 

The commercial drug, Safed Musali, 

contains the tubers of C. arundinaceum 

Baker, C. tuberosum Baker and C. indicum 

(Willd.) Dress, synonym C. attenuatum 

Baker. 

C. indicum is found on the hills in 

Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and on 

the hills near Udaipur in Rajasthan. 

Dosage ◮ Dried tuber—3–5 g 


Chondodendron tomentosum Ruiz et Par. 143 

Chloroxylon swietenia DC. 


Habitat ◮ Dry, deciduous forests, 

throughout Peninsular India. 

English ◮ Indian Satinwood tree. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Provisionally equated 

with Bhillotaka. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Karumboraju, 

Kudavuboraju, Poraju. 

Folk ◮ Bhirraa, Bharahula, Raktarohidi. 

Action ◮ Leaves—anti-inflammatory, 

antiseptic. A paste is applied 

to wounds; also in rheumatism. 

Bark—astringent. A decoction is 

used in contusions and for painful 

joints. (The wood, its dust, moist 

dust of freshly cut wood, cause skin 

irritation and dermatitis.) 

The bark contains the alkaloids— 

skimmianine, swietenidins A and B, 

chloroxylin and chloroxylonine. 

Chloroxylonine is a powerful irritant. 

The bark also contains the coumarins 

and lignans. 

The leaves yield an essential oil 

which shows antibacterial and antifungal 

activity. 

Chondodendron tomentosum 

Ruiz et Par. 


Habitat ◮ A native of Peru and Brazil. 

English ◮ False Pareira Brava. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Paatha, Ambashthaa 

(true Pareira is equated with 

Cissampelos pareira root). 

C

144 Chonemorpha macrophylla (Roxb.) G. Don. 

C 

Action ◮ Diuretic (used for chronic 

inflammation of urinary passages, 

calculus affections, jaundice, 

dropsy); also for leucorrhoea, 

rheumatism. 

Roots and stem contain alkaloids, 

including delta-tubocurarine and lcurarine. 

Tubocurarine is a potent 

muscle relaxant. The plant contains 

toxic derivatives and must be used in 

medicinal doses with caution. 

Tubocurarine alkaloid is used as 

tubocurarine chloride to paralyse 

body’s muscles during operations. 

Chonemorpha macrophylla 

(Roxb.) G. Don. 

Synonym ◮ C. fragrans (Moon) 

Alston. 


Habitat ◮ Dense moist forests 

throughout India up to 1,500 m 

altitude. 

English ◮ Wood Vine. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Used in the Southern 

states as Muurvaa. 

Action ◮ Powdered root and stems— 

laxative, antibilious. 

A lignan derivative has been isolated 

from the stem. It accelerated uptake of 

low density lipoprotein by Hep G2 cell 

by 67.0%. 

The root bark contains 3.03% of 

total alkaloids consisting mainly of 

chonemorphine. Chonemorphine dihydrochloride 

is an anti-amoebic principle. 

It showed in vitro activity against 

Entamoeba histolytica and trichomo- 

nas vaginalis. It proved efficacious 

against hepatic amoebiasis in golden 

hamsters and intestinal amoebiasis in 

Wister rats. 

Chrozophora plicata Hook. f. 

Synonym ◮ C. rottleri Klotzsh. 


Habitat ◮ Throughout India except 

Jammu & Kashmir and northeastern 

India as a weed. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Suuryaavart. 

Folk ◮ Nilakanthi. 

Action ◮ Ash of root—bechic. Leaf— 

depurative. Seed—cathartic. 

Roots contain xanthone glycosides 

and a chromone glycoside. Seeds gave 

oil rich in linoleate. The plant contains 

9.0% tannin. 

Chrysanthemum indicum Linn. 

Synonym ◮ Pyrethrum indicum L. 


Habitat ◮ Native to China and Japan. 

Cultivated as an ornamental. 

English ◮ Chrysanthemum. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Shatapatri. 

Unani ◮ Guldaaudi. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Samanthipoo, 

Akkarakkaram. 

Action ◮ Flowers—stomachic, aperient, 

anti-inflammatory. Leaves— 

prescribed in migraine (as circulatory 

stimulant). Uses same as those 

of chamomile.

The flowers contain daucosterol, 

cumambrin-A, glyceryl-l-monobehenate 

and palmitic acid. The flowers also 

contain chrysanthemol which showed 

strong anti-inflammatory activity in 

mice. The flavones, apigenin and luteolin, 

are reported to exhibit marked 

antitumour activity. 

Flowers yield an essential oil containing 

camphor (16.0%), trans-carane-trans-2-ol 

(15.0%), bornyl acetate 

(12.0%) and sabinene (7%). 

A related species C. parthenium 

(Linn.) Berhh., Feverfew, synonym 

Tanacetum parthenium, used for the 

management of migraine in Western 

herbal, is found in Jammu and Kashmir. 

The plant extracts have a powerful 

and prostaglandin-independent inhibitory 

effect on the secretion of granule 

content by leucocytes and platelets. 

The inhibition of the agonist-induced 

serotonins release by platelets could be 

accounted for the benefit in migraine. 

The compound responsible for the 

anti-secretory activity has been identified 

as sesquiterpene alpha-methylenegamma-lactone 

derivatives; parthenolide 

being the main constituent of the 

lactones. (Two fresh or frozen leaves 

a day are chewed or capsules or pills 

containing 86 mg of the leaf material 

is taken for migraine. Fresh leaves may 

cause mouth sores.) 

Chukrassia tabularis A. Juss. 


Habitat ◮ Hills of Sikkim, Maharashtra, 

Tamil Nadu and the 


Cicer arietinum Linn. 145 

English ◮ Bastard Cedar, White 

Cedar, Indian Red Wood. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Aglay, Melei Veppu. 

Folk ◮ Chikrassy. 

Action ◮ Bark—astringent, febrifuge, 

antidiarrhoeic, spasmolytic, diuretic. 

The plant is used in skeltal 

fractures. 

The bark contains sitosterol, melianone, 

scopoletin and 6,7-di-MeOcoumarin. 

The leaves gave quercetin 

galactoside, galloyl glucocide and 

tannic acid. The bark and young leaves 

contain 15 and 20% tannin respectively. 

Seeds contain tetranortriterpenoids. 

EtOH (50%) extract of the stem 

bark exhibited spasmolytic, hypotensive 

and diuretic activity. The saline 

extract of seeds showed haemagglutinating 

activity. 

Cicer arietinum Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Cultivated in most parts of 

India. 

English ◮ Bengal Gram, Chick pea. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Chanaka, Chanakaa, 

Harimantha, Vajimantha, Jivan, 

Sakal-priya. 

Unani ◮ Nakhud. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kadalai, Mookkukkadalai. 

Action ◮ Antibilious, hypocholesteremic, 

antihyperlipidemic, 

antistress. Acid exudate from 

the plant—used in indigestion, 

diarrhoea, dysentery. Seed coat 

C

146 Cichorium endivia Linn. 

C 

extract—diuretic, antifungal (externally). 

Dry leaf—refrigerant. 

Supplementation of gram in wheat 

based diet helps in lysine absorption 

which is otherwise a limiting amino 

acid in cereal based diets. Germination 

improves mineral bioavailability. 

In germinated gram flour, there is significant 

increase in nutritional quality 

of protein and very significant increase 

in ascorbic acid. 

The seeds contain pangamic acid, 

the stemina building, antistress and 

antihyperlipidemic principle of gram. 

Gram is given as preventive diet to 

atherosclerosis patients because of its 

rich phosphorus content. 

Isoflavones, biochanin A and formonetin 

exhibited hypolipidermic activity 

in rats. Total flavonoids reduced 

serum and liver cholesterol in rats. 

Seeds reduced postprandial plasma 

glucose in human. 

Cichorium endivia Linn. 



region, cultivated mainly in 

Northern India. 

English ◮ Succory, Endive. 

Unani ◮ Kaasani, Bustaani (Baaghi). 

Action ◮ Plant—antibilious. Root— 

demulcent, febrifuge, diuretic; used 

in dyspepsia; as a tonic for liver 

and digestive system. Milder than 

C.intybus. 

Roots contain sesquiterpene lactones. 

See C. intybus. 

Cichorium intybus Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Native to Europe; 

commonly occurs in North West 

India, Tamil Nadu and parts of 

Andhra Pradesh. 

English ◮ Chicory, Indian Endive. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Kaasani. 

Unani ◮ Kaasani Dashti (Barri). 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kasinikkeerai. 

Action ◮ Diuretic, laxative, cholagogue, 

mild hepatic. Excites 

peristalsis without affecting the 

functions of the stomach. Used 

in liver congestion, jaundice, 

rheumatic and gouty joints. 

Key application (herb and root) ◮ In 

loss of appetite, dyspepsia. (German 


The herb contains inulin (up to 58% 

in the root); sesquiterpene lactones 

(including lactucin and lactucopicrin); 

coumarins (chicoriin, esculetin, esculin, 

umbelliferone and scopoletin); 

the root includes a series of glucofructosans. 

Raw chicory root contains 

only citric and tartaric acids; roasted 

chicory contains acetic, lactic, pyruvic, 

pyromucic, palmitic and tartaric 

acids. The carcinogenic hydrocarbons 

and floranthene are also reported in 

the chicory (a potent carcinogen 3,4benzpyrene 

has been detected). 

Added to coffee, chicory root counteracts 

caffeine and helps in digestion. 

An alcoholic extract of the plant was 

found effective against chlorpromazine-induced 

hepatic damage in adult

albino rats. The cholagogue activity is 

attributed to polyphenols. 

The sedative effect of chicory is attributed 

to lactucopicrin. The sedative 

effect antagonizes the stimulant effect 

of tea and coffee. (Natural Medicines 


The extracts of roots were found to 

be active against several bacteria. 


leaf—10–20 ml juice; root—50– 

100 ml. (CCRAS.) 

Cimicifuga racemosa 

(Linn.) Nutt. 


Habitat ◮ Temperate Himalayas 

fromKashmirtoBhutanuptoat 

3,000–4,000 m. 

English ◮ Black Cohosh Root, Black 

Snake Root. 

Folk ◮ Cohosh, Jiuenti (Punjab). 

Action ◮ Sedative, anti-inflammatory, 

antitussive, diuretic, emmenagogue. 

Used in homoeopathy for rheumatic 

diseases of nervous, hysterical 

women, suffering from uterine 

affections; also for locomotor 

ataxia. 

Key application ◮ In climacteric 

(menopausal), neurovegetative 

ailments, premenstrual discomfort 

and dysmenorrhoea. (German 

Commission E, ESCOP.) 

The rhizome contains triterpene glycosides 

(including actein, cimigoside, 

cimifugine and racemoside; isofla- 

Cinchona officinalis Linn. 147 

ones (including formononetin; isoferulic 

acid; volatile oil, tannin. 

Pharmacological studies have 

shown that the menthol extract binds 

to oestrogen receptors in vitro and in 

rat uteri; this activity is thought to be 

due to the presence of formononetin. 

Racemoside exhibited antiulcer activity 

in mice. Isoferulic acid lowered 

body temperature in rats. 

The rhizome is hypotensive in animals; 

a central nervous system depressant 

and antispasmodic in mice; causes 

peripheral vasodilation in human. 

Also exhibits anti-inflammatory (The 

British Herbal Pharmacopoeia)andhypoglycaemic 

activity. 

Actein has been studied for use 

in treating peripheral arterial disease. 

(Expanded Commission E Monographs.) 

Clinically, the rhizome and root 

constituents of Black Cohosh does 

not seem to affect hormonal levels, 

such as estradiol, LH, FSH and prolactin. 



Cimicifuga foetida L. root is used 

in bronchial and rheumatic diseases. 

Aqueous EtOH extract is used in cosmetic 

preparations for protecting skin; 

also used for preventing oral diseases 

and bad breath. 

White Cohosh, used for urinogenital 

disorders, is equated with Actea 

pachypoda, synonym A. alba, A. rubra. 

Blue Cohosh has been identified as 

Caulophyllum thalictroides. It is toxic 

and abortifacient. 

Cinchona officinalis Linn. 

Synonym ◮ C. robusta How. 

C

148 Cinnamomum camphora (Linn.) Nees & Eberm. 

C 


Habitat ◮ Cultivated in West Bengal 


English ◮ Crown or Loxa Bark. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Quinine. 

Unani ◮ Al-keenaa, Kanakanaa. 

Action ◮ Antimalarial, febrifuge, astringent, 

orexigenic, sapasmolytic. 

Also prescribed in amoebic dysentery, 

jaundice, atonic dyspepsia, 

night cramps. Sometimes causes 

gastric and intestinal irritation. 

Key application ◮ In peptic discomforts 

such as bloating and 

fullness, loss of appetite. (German 


The bark contains alkaloids quinine 

(2.35–4.42%); quinidine (1.44–2.56%); 

cinchonine (0.10–0.66%); cinchonidine 

(0.49–0.89%) and other alkaloids, 

quinamine, javanine (0.14–0.63%). 

The leaves contain quercetin, kaempferol 

and avicularin. 

Quinine is antimalarial; quinidine is 

antiarrhythmic and cardiac tonic, also 

used in psychic treatments. 

The bark shows potent inhibitory activity 

against polymorphonuclear leucocytes; 

the activity is attributed to the 

alkaloids of the bark. Cinchona may 

potentiate coumarin derivatives. In 

large doses, it is sedative to CNS and 

cardiac plexus. 

Quinine is toxic at over 3 g, quinidine 

at 1 g. 

Related Cinchona sp.: C. calisaya 

Wedd. (Nilgiris and Sikkim); C. calisaya 

Wedd. var. ledgeriana How. 

(West Bengal, Khasi Hills and Tamil 

Nadu); and C. succirubra Pav. ex Klotz. 

(Nilgiris and Annamalis in Tamil 

Nadu, Sikkim and West Bengal). 

The bark of all the species contain 

quinine, quinidine, cinchonine and 

cinchonidine and exhibit antimalarial 

activity. The alcoholic extract of 

C. ledgeriana Moens ex Trimen bark 

exhibits antibacterial activity against 

Gram-positive bacteria comparable to 

sodium penicillin. The extract, however, 

exhibits lesser activity than dihydrostreptomycin 

sulphate against 


Cinnamomum camphora 

(Linn.) Nees & Eberm. 


Habitat ◮ A tree native to China and 

Japan and often grown as a hedge 

plant. 

English ◮ Camphor tree. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Karpura, Ghanasaara, 

Chandra, Chandra Prabhaa, 

Sitaabhra, Hima-valukaa, Himopala, 

Himakara, Shashi, Indu, 

Tushaara, Gandhadravya, Shitalraja. 

Unani ◮ Kaafoor. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Indu, Karupporam. 

Action ◮ Camphor taken internally in 

small doses (toxic in large doses) acts 

as a carminative, reflex expectorant 

and reflex stimulant of heart and 

circulation as well as respiration. 

Also used as a sedative and nervous 

depressant in convulsions, hysteria, 

epilepsy, chorea. Topically used as 

a rubefacient and mild analgesic.

Key application ◮ Externally in 

catarrhal diseases of the respiratory 

tract and muscular rheumatism; 

internally in hypotonic circulatory 

regulation disorders, Catarrhal 

diseases of the respiratory tract. 


The plant contains a volatile oil 

comprising camphor, safrole, linalool, 

eugenol and terpeneol. It also contains 

lignans (including secoisosolariciresinol 

dimethyl ether and kusunokiol). 

Safrole is thought to be carcinogenic. 

Theleafoilisanaturalsourceof 

linalool (94.9%); also contained citronellal 

(2.4%). 

Camphor in concentration of 500 

mcg/ml completely inhibits the growth 

of vibro parahaemolyticus, one of the 

causative agents of diarrhoea and dysentery. 

Ethanolic extract (50%) of 

fruits show antibacterial activity 

against several Gram-positive and 

Gram-negative bacteria. The essential 

oil from the plant possesses antifungal 

activity against many fungi. 

Camphor is toxic at 2–20 g. 

Dosage ◮ Concentrate—125–375 mg 

(CCRAS.) 

Cinnamomum cassia Blume. 

Synonym ◮ C. aromaticum Nees. 


Habitat ◮ Native to China, Indonesia 

and Vietnam. 

English ◮ 

Bark. 

Chinese Cinnamon, Cassia 

Ayurvedic ◮ Tvak, Daalchini (bark). 

Cinnamomum cassia Blume. 149 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Lavangappattai. 

Action ◮ Antispasmodic, carminative, 

antiputrescent, antidiarrhoeal, 

antiemetic, antimicrobial, mild 

analgesic. Used for flatulent 

dyspepsia, colic, irritable bowel, 

diverticulosis; also for influenza 

and colds. 


dyspeptic complaints such as mild 

spasma of gastrointestinal tract, 

bloating, flatulence. (German 

Commission E, The British Herbal 

Pharmacopoeia, ESCOP.) 

The bark yields an essential oil containing 

cinnamaldehyde (82.2%) and 

eugenol (1.5%) as major constituents. 

Cinnamaldehyde is a weak CNS 

stimulant at low doses and a depressant 

at high doses and has spasmolytic 

activity. It is hypotensive, hypoglycaemic 

and increases peripheral blood 

flow; it reduces platelet aggregability 

by inhibiting both cyclooxygenase and 

lipoxygenase pathways of arachidonic 

acid metabolism. 

Aqueous extract of the bark shows 

significant antiallergic activity in 

guinea pig. Diterpenes (Cinncassiols) 

are thought to be responsible for 

atleast some of the antiallergic effects. 

The herb inhibited ulcers induced 

by ethanol, also ulcers induced by 

phenylbutazone; failed to prevent ulcers 

induced by indomethacin. (Planta 

Med 1989,55(3),245–248.) 

The extract, when administered 

orally to rats with nephritis, prevents 

the increase of protein level in urine. 

The bark markedly reduces blood 

pressure in experimental rats; exhibits 

tranquilizing effect and is used as 

C

150 Cinnamomum tamala. 

C 

an antiepileptic and sedative agent in 

drugs of TCM. 

Cinnamomum tamala. 


Habitat ◮ The subtropical Himalayas, 

Khasi and Jaintia Hills. 

English ◮ Indian Cassia, Lignea. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Tejapatra, Patra, 

Patraka, Utkat, Tamaalpatra, 

Naalukaa, Naalikaa. 

Unani ◮ Saleekhaa, Saazaj Hindi (Also 

equated with Zarnab/Telispattar 

by National Formulary of Unani 

Medicine, Part I.) 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Talishpattiri (now 

equated with the leaf of Abies 

webbiana); Lavangappattiri. 

Folk ◮ Tejpaata. 

Action ◮ Leaf—Carminative, 

antidiarrhoeal, spasmolytic, antirheumatic, 


Essential oil—fungicidal. 

The oil from bark contains cinnamaldehyde 

(70–85%) as major constituent. 

(See.C.cassia.) Leaves from 

Nepal yield a volatile oil, containing 

mainly linalool 54.66%; cinnamaldehyde 

1.16%, alpha-and beta-pinene, pcymene 

and limonene. 

Cinnamomum wighti Meissn. is also 

equated with Tejapatra. The bud, 

known as Sirunaagappoo in Siddha/ 

Tamil, is used as Naagakeshara (black 

var.). (Naagakeshara is obtained from 

Mesua ferra and Dillenia pentagyne.) 

C. impressinervium Meissn. (Sikkim) 

and C. obtusifolium (Roxb.) Nees 

(the Central and Eastern Himalayas up 

to 2,100 m, Assam and Andaman Islands) 

are related species of Cinnamomum. 

The leaves and bark contain cinnamaldehyde. 

Dosage ◮ Dried leaves—1–3 g 


Cinnamomum zeylanicum. 

Synonym ◮ C. verum Persl. 


Habitat ◮ Western Ghats at low 

levels. Plantations of cinnamon are 

confined to Kerala State. 

English ◮ Cinnamon, Ceylon 

Cinnamon. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Tvak, Daaruchini, 

Chochaa, Choncha, Varaanga, 

Utkata, Daarusitaa (bark). 

Unani ◮ Daarchini (bark). 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Elavangappattai. 

Folk ◮ Daalchini. 

Action ◮ Bark—carminative, astringent, 

antispasmodic, expectorant, 

haemostatic, antiseptic. Leaf— 

antidiabetic. Ground cinnamon is 

used in diarrhoea and dysentery; 

for cramps of the stomach, gastric 

irritation; for checking nausea 

and vomiting; used externally in 

toothache, neuralgia and rheumatism. 

The bark is included in 

medicinal preparations for indigestion, 

flatulence, flu, mothwashes, 

gargles, herbal teas.

Key application ◮ As antibacterial 

and fungistatic. Internally, for loss of 

appetite, dyspeptic complaints such 

as mild spastic conditions of the 

gastrointestinal tract, bloating and 

flatulence. (German Commission 

E, ESCOP.) Contraindicated in 

stomach and duodenal ulcers. 

(WHO.) 


indicated the use of dried mature 

leaves of Cinnamomum tamala and 

dried inner bark of C. zeylanicum in 

sinusitis. 

Cinnamaldehyde is the major constituent 

(74%) of the essential oil from 

bark. 

Major constituent of the leaf oil is 

eugenol (28–98%) and that of rootbark 

oil camphor (60%). 

Cinnamaldehyde is hypotensive, 

spasmolytic and increases peripheral 

blood flow; and it inhibits cyclooxygenase 

and lipoxygenase enzymes of 

arachidonic acid metabolism. 

Cinnamaldehyde exhibits CNSstimulant 

effects at high doses. (Natural 


2007.) 

The bark oil and extracts exhibit antibacterial, 

antifungal and antiviral activities, 

and enhance trypsin activity. 

Eugenol content of the leaf oil is antiseptic 

and anaesthetic. It is not interchangable 

with the bark oil. 

Root bark oil acts as a stimulant in 

amenorrhoea. The bark contains tannins 

(6.5%) consisting of tetrahydroxyflavandiols; 

diterpenes, cinnzeylanin 

and cinnzeylanol. 

C. malabatrum (Burm. f.) Blume is 

equated with Jangali Daarchini. 

Cissampelos pareira Linn. 151 

Dosage ◮ Dried inner bark—1–3 g 


Cissampelos pareira Linn. 


Habitat ◮ The tropical and subtropical 


English ◮ Velvet-Leaf Pareira, Pareira 

Brava. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Paathaa, Ambashthaa, 

Varatiktaaa, Vriki, Aviddhakarni, 

Piluphalaa, Shreyashi.Bigger var., 

Raaja Paathaa, is equated with 

Stephania hernandifolia Walp.) 

Unani ◮ Paathaa. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Paadakkizhangu, 

Appatta. 

Action ◮ Root astringent, antispasmodic 

(used for cramps, 

painful menstruation), analgesic, 

antipyretic, diuretic, antilithic and 

emmenagogue. Prescribed for 

diarrhoea, dysentery, piles, urogenital 

affections (cystitis, nephritis, 

menorrhagia) Root paste is applied 

topically on scabies and eruptions 

on the body. Also used for 

preventing miscarriage. 


attributed blood purifying properties 

to the root and indicated it in lactal 

disorders. 

Hayatine (dl-beberine) is the principal 

alkaloid of the root. Its derivatives, 

methiodide and methochloride 

are reported to be potent neuromuscular-blocking 

agents. 

C

152 Cissus quadrangula Linn. 

C 

Not to be confused with Abuta grandiflora, 

a South American medicinal 

plant. 


Vol. I.) 

Cissus quadrangula Linn. 

Synonym ◮ Vitis quadrangula Wall. 



parts of India, also cultivated in 

gardens. 

English ◮ Square Stalked Vine, 

Adamant Creeper. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Asthisamhaara, 

Asthisamhrita. Asthi-samyojaka, 

Vajravalli, Chaturdhaaraa. 

Unani ◮ Hadjod. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Perandai. 

Action ◮ The anabolic and steroidal 

principles of the aerial part showed 

a marked influence in the rate of 

fracture-healing. The drug exerts 

influence both on the organic and 

mineral phase of fracture-healing. 

Stem—alterative in scurvy (the 

plant is rich in vitamin C) and 

irregular menstruation. 

The plant contains phytogenic steroid, 

ketosteroids, sitosterol, alphaamyrin, 

alpha-ampyrone and tetracyclic 

triterpenoids. Phytogenic steriods 

showed bone healing properties. 

Coloside-A possesses smooth muscle 

relaxant effect. The total alcoholic extract 

of the plant neutralizes the antianabolic 

effect of the cortisone in healing 

of fractures. The aqueous extract of 

the plant hastens fracture-healing by 

reducing the total convalescent period 

by 33% in experimental rats and dogs; 

it aids in recovery of the strength of 

the bones up to 90% in 6 weeks. 

Dosage ◮ Stem—10–20 ml juice. 


Citrullus colocynthis Schrad. 



English ◮ Colocynth Bitter Apple. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Indravaaruni, Indravalli, 

Indravaarunikaa, Gavaakshi, 

Chitraa, Chitraphalaa, Indraasuri, 

Mrigaani, Mrigairvaaru, Vishaalaa, 

Vishaalyka, Indraayana. Aindri 

(also equated with Bacopa 

monnieri). 

Unani ◮ Hanzal. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kumatti. 

Action ◮ Dried pulp of ripe fruit— 

cathartic, drastic purgative, irritant 

and toxic. The pulp is used for 

varicose veins and piles. A paste 

of root is applied to various 

inflammations and swellings. The 

cataplasm of leaves is applied in 

migraine and neuralgia. 


India indicated the use of the fruit in 

jaundice; the root in diseases of the liver 

and spleen and the leaf in cutaneous 

affections and alopecia. 

Colocynth contains up to 3% cucurbitacin. 

The drug and its preparations 

cause drastic irritation of the gastrointestinal 

mucosa and haemorrhages.

Cucurbitacins include cucurbitacin 

E-, J-, L-glucosides. In addition, the 

pulp contains caffeic acid derivatives 

(chlorogenic acid). 

Roots contain aliphatic compounds. 

Ethanolic extract (50%) shows significant 

anti-inflammatory activity in albino 

rats. 

Leaves and flowers contain quercetin 

and kaempferol. The ethanolic extract 

of leaves and flowers exhibits antibacterial 

activity against a number 

of Gram-positive and Gram-negative 

bacteria. 

The powder is toxic at 0.6–1.0 g. The 

fruit exhibited carcinogenic activity in 

animal studies. 

Dosage ◮ Dried fruit—125–500 mg 

powder. (API Vol. III.) Root—1– 

3g.powder.(CCRAS.) Dried leaf— 

for external use. (API Vol. II.) 

Citrullus vulgaris Schrad. 

Synonym ◮ C. lanatus (Thunb.) 

Matsumura & Nakai. 



India on sandy river beds, up to an 


English ◮ Watermelon. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Kalinga. 

Unani ◮ Tarbuz. 

Siddha ◮ Poiychaviral, Tharbuzapalam 

(Tamil. 

Action ◮ Pulp—cooling and 

refreshing, a rich source of pectin, 

carotenoids, surcose (as major 

sugar). Fruit juice is prescribed in 

Citrus aurantifolia (Christm.) Swingle. 153 

strangury and urinary complaints, 

also in hepatic congestion and 

intestinal catarrh. Seeds—cooling, 

purgative, diuretic, demulcent (used 

in urinary infections). Leaves— 

febrifuge. The pericarp is given in 

diarrhoea. 

Watermelon juice contains citrullin 

(0.17%) and arginine, which are 

thought to increase urea production 

in the liver, thus increasing the flow of 

urine. 

The seeds possess a high lipase activity 

comparable to that of wheat germ, in 

addition to high lipoxygenase, urease 

and trypsin-inhibitor activities. Aqueous 

extract of the seeds also exhibit 

amylase inhibitor activity. The seed oil 

is used as a substitute for almond oil. 

The roots of mature plant contain 

a triterpene, bryonolic acid. Bryonolic 

acid possesses a stronger antiallergic 

activity with lesser side effects than that 

of glycyrrhetinic acid, the aglycone of 

glycyrrhizin, used clinically in Japan 

for the treatment of allergy and hepatitis. 

Citrus aurantifolia 

(Christm.) Swingle. 

Synonym ◮ C. medica L. var. acida 

(Roxb.) Hook. f. 


Habitat ◮ Wild in the warm valleys 

of the outer Himalayas. Cultivated 

in the plains. 

English ◮ Acid or Sour Lime, 

Country Lime. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Nimbuka. 

C

154 Citrus aurantium Linn. 

C 

Unani ◮ Limu Kaghzi. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Elummichhai, 

Thurinjippazham. 

Folk ◮ Kaagazi Nimbu. 

Action ◮ Antiscorbutic, stomachic, 

appetizer, refrigerant. Used in 

bilious vomiting. Leaves—an 

infusion is given for fever in 

jaundice, for sore throat, thrush. 

Root—an infusion is given for colic 

and dysentery, also as febrifuge. 

Limes are rich in vitamins, minerals 

and alkaline salts, but not in fruit sugars. 

Lime peel contains ergosterol. An 

enzyme, 1,3-beta-glucan hydrolase has 

been reported from the bark and leaf 

extract. See C. limon. 

Citrus aurantium Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Cultivated in Khasi 

hills and Cachar. Also in Guntur 

(Andhra Pradesh). Found in semiwild 

state in the Naga and Khasi 

hills. 

English ◮ Citrus dulcis, Sour Orange, 

Sweet Orange. 

Folk ◮ Khattaa. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Mallikanarangi. 

Action ◮ Peel—laxative, feeble stomachic, 

emmenagogue. Leaves— 

prescribed in the treatment of 

arthritis and bronchitis. Flowers— 

aqueous extract is employed in 

scurvy, fever, inflammation, nervous 

and hysterical cases. Fruit— 

a decoction is used to recover 

from cachexia left by intermittent 

fever and in cases of enlarged 

spleen. Dried rind—used in atonic 

dyspepsia. 

Key application ◮ Cut peel—in loss 

of appetite and dyspeptic ailments. 

(German Commission E.). As a bitter 

tonic. (British Pharmacopoeia.) 

The main constituents of the peel include 

the alkaloid synephrine and Nmethyltyramine. 

Synephrine, an alpha 

1-adrenergic agonist, stimulates a rise 

in blood pressure through vasoconstriction. 

N-methyltyramine also raises 

blood pressure. 

The root gave xanthyletin. 

The essential oil exhibits antifungal 

activity, it was found effective in 

treatment-resistant fungal skin diseases. 

(Expanded Commission E Monographs.) 

Commercially available Citrus vulgaris 

(bitter orange) extracts are often 

promoted for weight loss due to purported 

thermogenic effects. In animal 

models, synephrine causes weight loss, 

but also increases cardiovascular toxicity. 



Citrus limon (Linn.) Burm.f. 


Habitat ◮ Cultivated all over India. 

English ◮ Lemon. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Jambira, Jambh, Jambhir, 

Jaamphal, Nimbu, Nimbuka, 

Naaranga, Limpaka, Dantashatha, 

Airaavata, Neebu (bigger var.). 

Unani ◮ Utraj.

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Periya elumuchhai. 

Action ◮ Fruit—antiscorbutic, carminative, 

stomachic, antihistaminic, 

antibacterial. Used during coughs, 

colds, influenza and onset of fever 

(juice of roasted lemon), hiccoughs, 

biliousness. Fruit juice—used externally 

for ringworm (mixed with 

salt), erysipelas, also in the treatment 

of leprosy and white spots. 

Leaves and stems—antibacterial. 

All parts of the plants of citrus 

sp. contain coumarins and psoralins. 

The fruits contain flavonoids and limonoids. 

The flavonoids comprise 

three main groups—flavanones, flavones 

and 3-hydroxyflavylium (anthocyanins); 

flavanones being predominantly 

followed by flavones and anthocyanins. 

Bitter flavonoids do not occur 

in lemon and lime. 

Lemon juice is a richer source of 

antiscorbutic vitamin (contains 40– 

50mg/100gofvitaminC)thanlime, 

and a fair source of carotene and vitamin 

B1. Volatile oil (about 2.5% of the 

peel) consists of about 75% limonene, 

alpha-and beta-pinenes, alpha-terpinene 

and citral. The fruit juice also 

contains coumarins and bioflavonoids. 

The acid content of the fruit, once digested, 

provides an alkaline effect within 

the body and is found useful in conditions 

where acidity is a contributory 

factor (as in case of rheumatic conditions). 

The bioflavonoids strengthen 

the inner lining of blood vessels, especially 

veins and capillaries, and help 

counter varicose veins, arteriosclerosis, 

circulatory disorders and infections of 

liver, stomach and intestines. 

Citrus maxima (Burm.) Merrill. 155 

Major flavonoid glycosides, isolated 

from citrus peels and juices, include 

hesperidin (with properties of vitamin 

P). Rutin and other flavanones, isolated 

from citrus fruits, form the principal 

components of vitamin P. Flavanone 

glycosides contained in lemon and lime 

juices are eriocitrin 47 and 94; hesperidin 

84 and 196 mg/l, respectively. 

The composition of cold pressed 

lime oil is quite similar to lemon oil, 

but citral content of lime oil is higher. 

Monoterpene alcohols and their esters, 

aldehydes—geraniol, geranial and 

neral, contribute to the characteristic 

aroma of lemon and lime. 

Dosage ◮ Fruit—6–12 g (Juice—5– 

10 ml). (API Vol. IV.) 

Citrus maxima (Burm.) Merrill. 

Synonym ◮ C. decumana Watt. 

C. grandis (L.) Osbeck. 


Habitat ◮ North-eastern region up 

to 1,500 m in Assam and Tripura. 

English ◮ Pummelo, Shaddock. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Madhukarkatikaa. 

Unani ◮ Chakotra. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Pambalimasu. 

Folk ◮ Mahaa-nibu, Sadaaphal. 

Action ◮ Fruit—cardiotonic. Leaves, 

flowers and rind—used as a sedative 

in nervous affections. Leaves— 

used in convulsive cough, chorea, 

epilepsy, also in the treatment of 

haemorrhagic diseases. A lotion of 

boiled leaves used hot in painful 

swellings. The essential oil from 

C

156 Citrus medica Linn. 

C 

fresh leaves exhibits dermatophytic, 

and fungistatic activity. 

The root-bark contains beta-sitosterol 

and acridone alkaloids. It also 

contains several coumarins. The alkaloids 

and coumarins show antimicrobial 

acitivity. 

The essential oil from the leaves 

and unripe fruits contain 20% limonin, 

30% nerolol, 40% nerolyl acetate and 

3% geraniol. 

Citrus medica Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Khasi Hills, submountainous 

Himalayan ranges in Garhwal, 

Kumaon in U.P., Maland areas 

of South, Pachmarhi (Madhya 

Pradesh), Sikkim and Western 

Ghats. 

English ◮ Citron. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Maatulunga, Lunga, 

Maatulaka, Mahaalunga, Bijpuura, 

Bijaahva. 

Unani ◮ Turanj. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kadaranrathai, 

Naarthankai, Thurinjippazham. 

Folk ◮ Bijoraa. 

Action ◮ Fruit—antiscorbutic, 

refrigerant, astringent, carminative, 

stomachic, antibacterial. Used 

for dyspepsia, bilious vomiting, 

cold, fever, hiccough. Root— 

anthelmintic. Flowers and buds— 

astringent. 

The peel contains coumarins, limettin, 

scoparone, scopoletin and umbelliferon; 

besides nobiletin, limonin, 

diosmin, beta-sitosterol and beta-Dglucoside. 

The roots contain campesterol, 

stigmasterol, sitosterol and cholesterol. 

Aqueous extract of the peel showed 

hypotensive action in dogs. 

The fruits and seeds are a cardiotonic; 

found useful in palpitation. 

Dosage ◮ Fruit—10–20 ml juice. (API 

Vol. III.) Leaf, flower, fruit, root— 


Citrus paradisi Macf. 



Commercialized in the USA. 

Cultivated mainly in Punjab. 

English ◮ Grapefruit, ‘Marsh’ 

Grapefruit. 

Folk ◮ Chakotraa. Chima Bombilimaas 

(Tamil Nadu). 

Action ◮ Young leaves—decoction 

is used to relieve cold or headache. 

Fruit—used for developing resistance 

against colds and influenza. 

Grapefruit is rich in vitamins, minerals, 

potassium and pectin, which balance 

the acid reaction in the stomach 

and stimulate appetite. Half grapefruit 

contains vitamin A 318 IU, vitamin 

C 46.8 mg, niacin 0.2 mg, potassium 

158 mg. The fruit contains betacarotene 

and cartenoid lycopene. Lycopene 

is especially noted for reducing 

the risk of prostate cancer. The 

fruit juice contains furanocoumarins, 

including bergamottin, also naringin, 

naringenin, limonin, quercetin, kaempferol 

and obacunone.

For drug interactions with grapefruit 

juice, see Natural Medicines Comprehensive 

Database, 2007. 

Grapefruit is not to be confused with 

grape (Vitis vinifera). 

Clausena pentaphylla 

(Roxb.) DC. 



from Garhwal to Sikkim; also in 

Chakrata range. 

Folk ◮ Ratanjot (var.), Rowana. 

Surasi is a doubtful synonym. 

Action ◮ Bark—anti-inflammatory, 

spasmolytic; used in veterinary 

medicine for wounds and sprains. 

Aerial parts contain coumarins— 

clausmarins A and B. Coumarins exhibit 

spasmolytic activity. The root also 

contains coumarins. Root and stem 

bark of Clausena excavata Burm. f. 

Eastern sub-Himalayan tract, Orissa 

and Bihar) also contain coumarins— 

clausenin and clausenidin. The root 

bark exhibits antibacterial activity 

against both Gram-positive and Gramnegative 

bacteria. 

A related species, C. anisata (Willd.) 

Oliver, is reported from Uttar Pradesh. 


exhibited spasmolytic activity. The furanocoumarins, 

anisolactone, xanthotoxol, 

indicolactone, imperatorin and 

2 ′ , 3 ′ -epoxy-anisolactone have been 

isolated from the extract. 

In West African traditional medicine, 

the decoction of the root is given 

to control convulsions in children. The 

Claviceps purpurea (Fr.) Tul. 157 

anticonvulsant agent has been found 

to be heliettin, extracted from the stem 

bark and roots. 

Claviceps purpurea (Fr.) Tul. 

Family ◮ Hypocreaceae. 

Habitat ◮ A fungous parasite on 

a number of grasses particularly in 

rye, cultivated in the Nilgiris and at 

Chakrohi farm in Jammu. 

English ◮ Ergot of Rye. Fungus of 

Rye. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Annamaya, Sraavikaa. 

Unani ◮ Argot. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Ergot. 

Action ◮ Uterine stimulant. Oxytocic, 

abortifacient, parturient, 

vasoconstrictor, haemostatic. Used 

in obstetrics (difficult childbirth, 

for exciting uterine contractions in 

the final stages of parturition). Also 

used after abortion for removal of 

the placenta. It is no more employed 

in internal haemorrhages, as it has 

been found to raise blood pressure 

in pulmonary and cerebral haemorrhage. 

Included among unapproved 


The fungus gave indole alkaloids. 

The ergometrine or ergonovine group 

includes ergometrine and ergometrinine. 

The ergotamine group includes 

ergotamine and ergotaminine. The ergotoxine 

group includes ergocristine, 

ergocristinine, ergocryptine, ergocryptinine, 

ergocornine and ergocorninine. 

The fungus also contains 

histamine, tyramine and other amines, 

sterols and acetylcholine. 

C

158 Clematis gouriana Roxb. 

C 

The alkaloids of ergot are being 

used independently (not as a herbal 

medicine). Ergotamine is used to relieve 

migrainous headaches as it is 

a vasoconstrictor and has antiserotonin 

activity. Ergometrine is used 

after childbirth in the third stage of 

labour and for post-partum haemorrhage, 

as it is a powerful uterine 

stimulant, particularly of the puerperal 

uterus. (Both the constituents are 

used under medical supervision). Ergocornine 

significantly inhibited the 

development of induced mammary tumours 

in rats. The derivatives of ergot 

alkaloids are known to have suppressing 

effect on human breast cancer in 

initial stages. This activity is linked to 

prolactin inhibitory action. 

The extract is toxic at 1.0–3.9 g, 

ergot alkaloids at 1 g in adults, 12 mg 

in infants. (Francis Brinker). 


infusion. (CCRAS.) 

Clematis gouriana Roxb. 



plains. 

English ◮ Commercially known as 

Muurvaa. 

Folk ◮ Belkangu (used as substitute 

for Muurvaa in Maharashtra). 

Action ◮ Leaf and stem—vesicant, 

poisonous. 

Aerial parts and roots contain a quaternary 

aporphine alkaloid, magnofluorine. 

The leaves yield protoanemonin, 

a fungitoxic compound. 

A related species, C. napaulensis 

DC. is used in leprosy. C. recta (Upright 

Virgin’s Bower) is used in homoeopathic 

medicine for cancerous 

and foul ulcers; orally for rheumatic 

pains, varicose veins, gout and as 

adiuretic. 

Cleome brachycarpa Vahl ex DC. 

Synonym ◮ C. vahliana Farsen. 


Habitat ◮ Northwestern Rajasthan, 

Punjab plains and Delhi. 

Unani ◮ Panwaar. 

Folk ◮ Madhio (Rajasthan). 

Action ◮ Anti-inflammatory, 

antirheumatic, antidermatosis (used 

in scabies, also in leucoderma). 

The plant contains trinortriterpenoids 

and cabralealactone, besides ursolic 

acid. 

Cleome icosandra Linn. 

Synonym ◮ C. viscosa Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Throughout India; Tripura, 

West Bengal and Gangetic valley, as 

a weed. 

English ◮ Wild Mustard. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Tilaparni, Hurhur 

(yellow var.), Aadityabhakta. 

Unani ◮ Panwaar, Hulhul. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Nayikkadugu, 

Nalvellai.

Action ◮ Seed—carminative, 

antiseptic, anthelmintic (for round 

worms). Leaf—sudorific. Bark— 

externally rubefacient, vesicant. 

Root—vermifuge. 

The aerial parts contain a macrocyclic 

diterpene, cleomaldeic acid, and 

a bicyclic diterpene, cleomeolide. The 

seeds contain coumarino-lignans, 

cleomiscosin A,B,C and D. The leaf 

extract exhibited fungitoxicity against 

ringworm causing fungi with reported 

mycelian inhibitions. 

The aqueous extract of seeds exhibited 

significant analgesic and local 

anaesthetic activities in mice and 

guinea pigs, respectively. It failed to 

protect rats against convulsions induced 

by picrotoxin, though it potentiated 

the barbiturate sleeping time. 

The purple var. of Hurhur is equated 

with Cleome monophylla L. (Bihar, 

Orissa, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil 

Nadu). 

Clerodendrum indicum 

(Linn.) Kuntze. 

Synonym ◮ Clerodendron siphonanthus 

(R. Br.) C. B. Clarke. 


Habitat ◮ Cultivated as an ornamental 

throughout India, especially in 

South and Eastern India. 

English ◮ Turk’s Turban, Tube- 

Flower. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Vaamana-haati (a 

substitute for Bhaarangi). 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kavalai, Narivalai. 

Clerodendrum inerme (L.) Gaertn. 159 

Action ◮ Root—used for asthma, 

cough, scrofulous affections. Leaf— 

vermifuge. Resin—antirheumatic. 

The plant is also used in fever, 

atrophy, emaciation of cachexia and 

consumption. 

The leaves contain flavonoids—scutellarein 

(0.5%), hispidulin (0.1%) and 

their 7-O-glucuronides; also sterols. 

Flowers contain beta-sitosterol and triterpenoids. 

The bark yields hexitol and 

sorbitol. 

The flavone, pectolinarin and a diterpene, 

oncinotine, exhibit antifeedant 

activity. 

Clerodendrum inerme 

(L.) Gaertn. 


Habitat ◮ Throughout India in tidal 

forests, wild all over coastal areas; 

planted in gardens in Tamil Nadu. 

English ◮ Smooth Volkameria. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Putigandhaa, Kundali, 

Vanajai. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Peenaari, Sangankuppi. 

Folk ◮ Lanjai. 

Action ◮ Leaf—febrifuge, alterative. 

Used as a substitute for Swertia 

chirayita and quinine in remittent 

and intermittent fevers. The leaf 

juice is taken orally to relieve 

muscular pains and stiffness of legs 

(in tetanus). 

The leaves and stem contain a number 

of triterpenes, neolignans, diterpenoids, 

sterols and flavones. 

C

160 Clerodendrum infortunatum auct. non Linn. C.B.Clarke. 

C 

The roots are prescribed in venereal 

diseases. The methanolic extract of 

the roots contains verbascoside which 

exhibits analgesic and antimicrobial 

properties. 

Clerodendrum infortunatum 

auct. non Linn. C.B.Clarke. 



Ayurvedic ◮ Bhaandira, Bhaandi, 

Kaari. Also known as Bhaarangi 

(C. serratum). 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Karukanni, Perugilai. 

Action ◮ Leaves—used as a substitute 

for Chiretta. Leaves and roots— 

employed externally for skin 

diseases and alopecia. Leaves are 

prescribed in headache. Roots are 

given in cramps and rheumatism. 

In homoeopathy, the fresh leaves are 

employed for colic due to worms, diarrhoea 

associated with nausea, chronic 

fever with loss of appetite and in enlargement 

of liver and spleen with indigestion 

and constipation. 

The alcoholic extract of the whole 

plant showed antiprotozoal activity 

against Entamoeba histolytica. It also 

exhibited hypoglycaemic activity in 

albino rats. The leaves exhibit antifungal 

activity. 


(CCRAS.) 

Clerodendrum phlomidis 

Linn.f. 

Synonym ◮ C. multiflorum (Burm. f.) 

O. Kuntze. 


Habitat ◮ Throughout India, in the 

drier parts. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Agnimantha, Tarkaari, 

Vikraantaa, Jayanti, Jai, Jayaa, 

Ganikaarikaa, Vaijayanti, Bigger 

var. is equated with Premna integrifolia 

Linn., Shriparni, Naadeyi. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Tazhuthaazhai. 

Folk ◮ Laghu Arni. 

Action ◮ Plant parts used in 

dyspepsia, stomachache, colic, 

cholera, dysentery, postnatal fever, 

during convalscence from measles. 

Root and bark—bitter tonic, used 

in debility and nervous disorders. 


indicated the use of root in dysuria 

and retention of urine. 

Flavonoids, scutellarein and pectolinarin, 


leaves. Stems gave d-mannitol, betasitosterol, 

its glucosides and ceryl alcohol. 

The roots contain ceryl alcohol, 

clerodin, clerosterol and clerodendrin 

A. 

The ethanolic extract of leaves exhibited 

hepatoprotective activity. The 

aqueous extract of leaves exhibited in 

vitro anthelmintic activity. The plant 

also exhibited antidiabetic activity. 

Dosage ◮ Root—12–24 g for 


Clerodendrum serratum 

(Linn.) Moon. 

Family ◮ Verbenaceae.

Habitat ◮ Ashrubdistributed 

throughout the country, especially 

common in Assam and Bengal. 

English ◮ Blue-flowered Glory tree, 

Beetle Killer. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Bhaargi, Bhaarangi, 

Angaarvalli, Phanji, Braahmanyashtikaa, 

Kharshaak, Padma, 

Bhragubhavaa, Brahmayashtikaa. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kandoorbarangi 

(root), cherutekku. 

Action ◮ Root—Antiasthmatic, 

antihistaminic, antispasmodic, 

antitussive carminative, febrifuge. 

Leaf—febrifuge. 


India indicated the use of the dried 

roots in cough, bronchitis, dyspnoea, 

chest diseases and sinusitis. 

The bark contains triterpenoids— 

serratagenic, oleanolic and queretaric 

acids; leaves contain alpha-spinasterol 

and flavonoids, including luteolin, apigenin, 

baicalein, scutellarein, phenolic 

acids—caffeic and ferulic acids. 


hypotensive and spasmolytic 

activity. Polyhydric property on isolated 

guinea pig ileum. Antiasthmatic 

effect was also observed pharmacologically. 

Dosage ◮ Root—3–6 g powder; 10– 

20 g for decoction. (API Vol. III.) 

Clitoria ternatea Linn. 



tropical areas; also cultivated in 

hedges. 

Clitoria ternatea Linn. 161 

English ◮ Butterfly Pea, Wingedleaved 

Clitoria, Mezereon. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Girikarnikaa, Aparaajitaa, 

Aasphota, Girimallikaa, 

Girikanyaa, Kokilaa,Yonipushpaa, 

Vishnukraantaa. (Evolvulus alsinoides 

Linn. is also known as 

Vishnukraantaa, Vishnukranti). 

Used as Shankhapushpi in the 

South. 

Unani ◮ Mezereon Hindi. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kakkanam. 

Folk ◮ Koyal (Punjab). 

Action ◮ Root—cathartic like 

jalap. Roots cause gripe and 

tenesmus, hence not recommended 

as purgative. Used in ascites. Root 

bark—diuretic (infusion used in 

irritation of bladder and urethra). 

Root juice—given in cold milk 

to liquefy phlegm in chronic 

bronchitis. The root, bark, seeds 

and leaves—used for gastric acidity. 

The root is administered with honey 

as a general tonic to children for 

improving mental faculty. 


India recommends the dried leaf in 

migraine, psychoneurosis and mania. 

An alcoholic extract of the plant 

showed sedative and hypothermic effect 

in rodents. 

Rats, fed with ethanol extract of 

flowers, showed a significantly lowered 

serum sugar level in experimentally induced 

diabetes. 

The seeds contain a nucleoprotein 

with its amino acid sequence similar 

to insulin, but for the absence of histidine, 

threonine, proline and crystine. 

C

162 Coccinia indica W. & A. 

C 

Seeds gave cinnamic acid, flavonol glycoside. 

Leaves contain glycosides of 

kaempferol. 

In South India, the seeds and roots 

constitute the drug Shankhapushpi, 

used as a nervine tonic. In other regions, 

Canscora decussata, Convolvulus 

pluricaulis, Evolvulus alsinoides and 

Lavendula bipinnata are used as Shankhapushpi. 

Dosage ◮ Root—1–3 g powder (API 

Vol. II); dried leaf—2–5 g; seed—1– 

3g.(API Vol. IV.) 

Coccinia indica W. & A. 

Synonym ◮ C. cordifolia Cogn. 

Cephalandra indica Naud. 


Habitat ◮ Cultivated in Assam, West 

Bengal, Bihar, Orissa, Maharashtra, 

Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu; wild 

in many parts of India. 

English ◮ Ivy-Gourd. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Bimbi, Tundi, Tundikaa, 

Tundikeri, Kunduru, Raktaphala, 

Piluparni, Dantchhadaa. 

Unani ◮ Kanduri. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kovvai. 

Action ◮ Carminative, antipyretic, 

galactagogue. Powder of root is 

taken with water to stop vomiting. 

Juice of leaves—antispasmodic and 

expectorant. Applied externally 

in eruptions of the skin. Root— 

antiprotozoal. Fruit, leaf and root— 

antidiabetic. Various plant parts are 

used in slow pulse and convulsions, 

also against infective hepatitis. 


recommends the whole plant for 

oedema, anaemia, disorders due to vitiated 

blood, cough and dyspnoea. 

The fruit yielded beta-amyrin and its 

acetate, lupeol and cucurbitacin B. 


powder; 5–10 ml juice. (API Vol. 

III.) 

Cocculus hirsutus (Linn.) Diels. 

Synonym ◮ C. villosus (Lam.) DC. 


Habitat ◮ Throughout tropical and 

sub-tropical tracts of India. 

English ◮ Broom-Creeper, Ink-Berry. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Chhilihinta, Paataalagaruda, 

Mahaamuulaa, Dirghavalli, 

Jalajamani. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kattukodi. 

Action ◮ Root—laxative, sudorific, 

alterative, antirheumatic. Leaf— 

used externally for eczema, prurigo 

and inpetigo. A decoction of leaves 

is taken in eczema, leucorrhoea and 

gonorrhoea. 

Aqueous extract of stem and root— 

sedative, anticonvulsant, hypotensive, 

bradycardiac, cardiotonic and sapasmolytic. 

Roots are used as a substitute 

for Sarsaparilla in chronic rheumatism 

gout, and syphilitic cachexia. 

The stem contains cyclopeptide alkaloids. 

The plant contains coclaurine, 

magnoflorine, beta-sitosterol, ginnol 

and a monomethyl ether of inositol. 

C. pendulus (Forsk.) Diels, synonym 

C. leaeba (Del.) DC. (Punjab, Gujarat

and South India) is known as Parwati 

(Gujarat, Sindh) and Ullar-billar (Punjab). 

Ethanolic extract of the leaves and 

stem showed anticancer and hypotensive 

activities associated with the alkaloidal 

fraction which contains bisbenzylisoquinoline 

alkaloids (including 

pendulin and cocsulin). Presence 

of quercitol is reported from nonalkaloidal 

fraction. 


(CCRAS.) 

Cochlearia armoracia Linn. 

Synonym ◮ Armoracia rusticana 

Gilib. 

Family ◮ Cruciferae, Brassicaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Eastern Europe; cultivated 

in Britain and the USA. Grown to 

a small extent in North India and 

hill stations of South India. 

English ◮ Horseradish. 

Action ◮ Root—used for catarrhs of 

the respiratory tract. Antimicrobial 

and hyperemic. 

The root contains glucosinolates, 

mainly sinigrin, which releases allylisothiocyanate 

on contact with the enzyme 

myrosin during crushing and 

2-phenylethylglucosinolate. Crushed 

horseradish has an inhibitory effect on 

the growth of micro-organisms. 

Fresh root contains vitamin C on an 

average 302 mg% of ascorbic acid. 

A related species, C. cochlearioides 

(Roth) Sant & Mahesh, synonym C. 

flava Buch.-Ham. ex Roxb. (upper 

Cocos nucifera Linn. 163 

and lower Gangetic valleys), is used 

for fevers. 

Cochlospermum gossypium 

DC. 

Synonym ◮ C. religiosum (Linn.) 

Alston. 

Family ◮ Cochlospermaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka,TamilNadu,MadhyaPradesh 

and Bihar; cultivated at Agartala in 

Tripura. 

English ◮ Golden Silk tree, White 

Silk Cotton tree. 

Unani ◮ Samagh, Kateeraa (substitute 

for gum tragacanth). 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kongilam (flower 

juice), Tanaku. 

Action ◮ Gum—cooling, sedative, 

bechic, useful in coughs, hoarse 

throat,diarrhoea,dysentery, 

scalding urine. Dried leaves and 

flowers—stimulant. 

The leaves contain terpenoids, saponins 

and tannins. Flowers contain 

naringenin and beta-sitosteryl-glucoside 

(0.3%). The gum, after hydrolysis, 

furnished a mixture of acidic oligosaccharides. 

Cocos nucifera Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Cultivated chiefly in 

Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka. 

English ◮ Coconut Palm. 

C

164 Coffea arabica Linn. 

C 

Ayurvedic ◮ Naarikela, Naalikera, 

Laangali, Tunga, Skandhaphala, 

Sadaaphala, Trnaraaja, Kuurchshirshaka. 

Unani ◮ Naarjeel, Naariyal. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Thenkai. Kopparai 

(kernel of ripe coconut). 

Action ◮ Water from tender fruit— 

cooling, used in thirst, fever, urinary 

disorders, gastroenteritis, and as 

asourceofKforcholerapatients. 

Fruit—stomachic, laxative, diuretic, 

styptic, sedative; useful in dyspepsia 

and burning sensation. Oil from 

endosperm—antiseptic; used in 

alopecia. Root—astringent; used in 

urinary and uterine and disorders. 

Tender coconut water is rich in 

potassium and other minerals and vitamins. 

It contains reducing sugars 2.22– 

2.85%, total sugars 3.5–4.25%; brix 5.5– 

6.2%. It is used as a substitute for normal 

saline in cases of dehydration. 

Alcoholic extract of coconut shell 

(2% in petroleum jelly, externally) was 

found very effective in dermatophytosis. 

Lighter fractions of the tar oil are 

used as antiseptics. 

Flowers, mixed with oil, are applied 

to swellings, leaves to treat abscesses, 

shoots and ashes of dry meat to deep 

cuts, grated meat to burns, roots to 

wounds and gonorrhoea. 

Shell and fibre—antimicrobial. 

Dosage ◮ Dried endosperm—10– 

20 g powder. (API Vol. III.) 

Coffea arabica Linn. 


Habitat ◮ GrowninTamilNadu, 


English ◮ Arabian coffee. 

Unani ◮ Kahvaa. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kaapi, Bannu. 

Action ◮ Diuretic, antinarcotic, 

psychotropic agent, direct heart 

stimulant (raises blood pressure). 

Neutralizes therapeutic effects of 

many herbs; potentiates the action 

of aspirin and paracetamol; depletes 

the body of B-vitamins. Charcoal 

of the outer seed parts—astringent, 

absorbent. 

Key application ◮ Powdered coffee 

charcoal—in nonspecific, acute 

diarrhoea; local therapy of mild 

inflammation of oral and pharyngeal 

mucosa (average daily dose 9 g). 


According to WHO, coffee drinking 

is not responsible for breast cancer and 

may protect against cancer of colon and 

rectum. Caffeic and chlorogenic acids 

in coffee act as anticarcinogens. 

Bronchial asthma is less frequent 

among coffee drinkers due to caffeine 

and theophylline. 

The aroma components include several 

furfuryl methyl mercaptan derivatives. 

Coffee extracts yielded organic 

acids. Atractyloside, several sterols and 

acids, as well as alkaloids, have been 

reported. Caffeine is the major alkaloid 

of coffee. One cup of coffee contains 

approx. 60–120 mg caffeine; other 

active constituents include chlorogenic 

acid, caffeol and diterpenes. 

Chlorogenic acid in coffee might 

inhibit glucose-6-phosphatase, which

might lower hepatic glucose production 

caffeine seems to stimulate pancreatic 

beta cells to secrete insulin. (Natural 


2007.) 

Coix lacryma-jobi Linn. 

Synonym ◮ C. lachryma Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Warm and damp areas up 

to about 2,000 m, both wild and 

cultivated as an annual grass. 

English ◮ Job’s Tears. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Gavedhukaa. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kaatu Kunthumani. 

Folk ◮ Garaheduaa, Gargari. 

Action ◮ Fruits—a decoction is 

used for catarrhal affections of 

the air passage and inflammation 

of the urinary tract. Seed— 

diuretic. Root—used in menstrual 

disorders. Leaves—used as a drink 

for inducing fertility in women. 

The seeds contain trans-ferulyl stigmastanol 

and trans-ferulyl campestanol, 

which form part of an ovulationinducing 

drug. Seed extract—immuno-enhancer, 

used for the prevention 

of cancer and infections. Seeds exhibit 

anti-tumour and anticomplimentary 

activities. Seeds contain coixenolides, 

a mixed ester of palmitoleic and 

vaccenic acids, which is an anticancer 

agent. 

The bigger var. of the grass is equated 

with Coix gigantea Koenig ex Roxb., 

also known as Gavedhukaa and Gargari. 

Colchicum luteum Baker. 

Colchicum luteum Baker. 165 


Habitat ◮ The temperate Himalayas 

from Kashmir to Chamba. Major 

supplies of the drug are received 

from Kashmir. 

English ◮ Hermodactyls, Colchicum, 

Meadow Saffron, Golden Collyrium 

(Indian substitute). (C. luteum is 

a good substitute for C. autumnale 

L. which is official in the B.P.) 

Ayurvedic ◮ Hiranyatuttha. 

Unani ◮ Suranjaan Talkh. 

Action ◮ Non-steroidal antiinflammatory, 

anti-gout (relieves 

inflammation and pain of acute gout 

but does not increase expulsion 

of uric acid, is used with an 

alkaline diuretic), emetic, cathartic. 

Anti-chemotactic, antiphlogistic, 

inhibitor of mitosis. Highly toxic. 

Used for external application to 

lessen inflammation and pain. 

Key application ◮ In acute gout 

attack. (German Commission E.) 

The fresh corms and aerial parts of 

a sample from Jammu yielded 0.94% 

and 070% of total alkaloids, the major 

being colchicine 0.40% and 0.20% 

respectively. Colchicine analogs— 

decteyl thiocolchicine (DTC), decetylmethylcolchicine 

(DMC) and trimethylcolchicinic 

acid (TMCA) were 

effective in the treatment of gout; DTC 

may elicit agranulocytosis. 

Colchicine binds to tubulin, the protein 

subunit of microtubules. Its most 

important biological effect is the inhibition 

of processes that depend upon 

microtubule function by blocking 

C

166 Coleus amboinicus Lour. 

C 

polymerization. In preventing microtubule 

formation, colchicine has been 

shown to inhibit catecholamine secretion 

from adrenal medulla, iodine 

secretion from thyroid gland and prolactin 

secretion from pituitary tumour 

cells. It inhibits stimulated insulin 

secretion from isolated perfused pancreasandisletsinvitro. 

The use of Colchicum for long periodsisnotrecommendedowingtoits 

toxicity in larger doses (even 7 mg of 

colchicine has caused death) and its depressant 

action upon central nervous 

system. 

Prolonged use of Colchicum autumnale 

may cause agranulocytosis, aplastic 

anaemia and peripheral nerve inflammation. 


Coleus amboinicus Lour. 

Synonym ◮ C. aromaticus Benth. 

Family ◮ Lamiaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Native to Indonesia. 

English ◮ Indian Borage. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Parna-yavaani. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Karpoorvalli. 

Folk ◮ Pattaa Ajawaayin. 

Pattharachuur (Bengal). 

Action ◮ Leaf—used in urinary 

diseases, vaginal discharge, colic 

and dyspepsia. Stimulates the 

function of liver. Also given in 

epilepsy and other convulsive 

affections, asthma, bronchitis, cold 

and chronic cough. Bruised leaves 

are applied to burns; leaf juice to 

chapped lips. 

The leaf extract has shown regulatory 

influence on calcium oxalate stone 

formation in experimental rats. In folk 

medicine, leaves are used internally for 

expelling kidney stone (the herb is also 

known as Paashaanbhedi). 

Homoeopathic medicine, prepared 

from fresh leaves, is used in the affections 

of urinary organs, especially in 

difficult urination or in burning pains 

during and after urination. 

The aerial parts from Pakistan yield 

an essential oil (0.1%) which contains 

thymol (79.6%); whereas in Fijian 

sample of leaves carvacrol and camphor 

are major constituents. Leaves 

contain a large amount of oxalacetic 

acid, flavonoid, cirsimaritin and betasitosterol. 


(CCRAS.) 

Coleus barbatus Benth. 

Synonym ◮ C. forskohlii Briq. 

Plectranthus barbatus Andr. 


Habitat ◮ The sub-tropical Himalayas 

of Kumaon and Nepal; cultivated in 


Ayurvedic ◮ Gandira (Achyranthes 

aquatica Br. is also equated with 

Gandira). (Doubtful synonym.) 

Folk ◮ Garmar (Gujarat), Gurmal. 

Action ◮ Root and leaf—spasmolytic, 

antithrombotic, anti-inflammatory, 

lipolytic. 

In experimental amoebiasis of rats, 

the root powder and ethanolic extract

showed amoebicidal activity against 

Entamoeba histolytica. 

An alcoholic extract of the roots and 

essential oil from it, were found to inhibit 

passive cutaneous anaphylaxis in 

the mouse and rat. 

The plant produces the labdane 

diterpenoid, forskolin in its tuberous 

roots. 

Forskolin was discovered during 

a screening of medicinal plants by 

Central Drug Research Institute, Lucknow, 

India, in 1974. (Planta Medica, 

1985, 51, 473–477.) The screening 

revealed the presence of a hypotensive 

and spasmolytic principle, named 

coleonol (later the name was changed 

to forskolin). The basic mechanism 

of forskolin is the activation of an 

enzyme, adenylate cyclase, which increases 

the amount of cyclic adenosine 

monophosphate (cAMP) in cells. 

Raised intracellular cAMP level exhibits 

following physiological effects 

: inhibition of platelet activation and 

degranulation; inhibition of mast cell 

degranualation and histamine release; 

relaxation of the arteries and other 

smooth muscles; increased insulin secretion; 

increased thyroid function; 

increased lipolysis. 

Forskolin, in clinical studies, reduced 

intraocular pressure when it 

was applied to the eyes for treating 

glaucoma. It has been shown to be 

a direct cerebral vasodilator. It has 

also been studied as a possible bronchodilator 

(in the treatment of asthma) 

and has been shown to effectively reverse 

methacholine-induced broncho 

constriction in extrinsic asthmatics. 

Standardized Coleus extracts containing 

forskolin (18% in 50 mg) find 

Colocasia esculenta (Linn.) Schott. 167 

application in weight-loss programmes. 

(Michael T. Murray.) 

Studies on forskolin and some 50 

derivatives of the compound indicate 

that the natural product is more active 

than the analogs prepared from it. 

The wild var. is known as Kaffir 

Potato. 

Coleus vettiveroides K. C. Jacob. 


Habitat ◮ Native to Sri Lanka. Now 

under cultivation in Kerala and 

Tamil Nadu. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Hrivera, Hiruberaka, 

Ambu, Ambhas, Udaka, Udichya, 

Jala, Vaari, Toya, Vaalaka, Baalaa, 

Baalaka, Baala. (Also equated with 

Pavonia odorata Willd.) 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kuruver. 

Folk ◮ Iruveli (Kerala). 

Action ◮ Leaves—cooling and 

carminative, used for indigestion, 

dyspepsia, dysentery, also for ulcers, 

bleeding disorders, dermatitis. 

C. zeylanicus (Benth.) Cramer (synonym 

Plectranthus zeylanicus Benth.) 

has been identified as a source of Ayurvedic 

drug Hrivera. The juice of stem 

and leaves, mixed with honey, is prescribed 

for diarrhoea. 

The plant afforded abietane type 

diterpenoides and a stereoisomer. 

Colocasia esculenta 

(Linn.) Schott. 

Synonym ◮ C. antiquorum Schott. 

C

168 Commelina benghalensis Linn. 

C 



India. 

English ◮ Taro, EdibleYam. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Pindaaluka, Aaluki. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Chaembu, Shaeppamkizhangu. 

Folk ◮ Arvi, Ghuiyaa. 

Action ◮ Juice from petiole—styptic, 

rubefacient. Juice of corn—used in 

alopaecia. 

The leaves contain flavones, apigenin 

and luteolin, also anthocyanins. 

Leaves cause severe irritation in mouth. 

Cooked leaves are a source of dietary 

fibre for diabetics helping in lowering 

post-prandial blood glucose level. 

A significant increase in total lipids, 

total cholesterol and triglyceride levels 

was observed in hypercholesterolaemic 

rats when fed with dried leaf powder. 

The pressed juice of the petioles is 

used as an astringent and styptic. All 

parts of the plant show an acridity. The 

acridity is removed by boiling and by 

addition of baking soda. 

From the tubers two dihydroxysterols, 

besides beta-sitosterol and stigmasterol, 

have been isolated. Five novel 

aliphatic compounds have been reported. 

Trypsin inhibitors are isolated 

from the tubers. 

The total amino acids recorded in 

the tubers range from 1380 to 2397 mg/ 

100g.Thelysineconcentrationwasrelatively 

low. Besides starch, the tubers 

contain natural polysaccharides with 

56% neutral sugars and 40% anionic 

components. Steamed corms contain 

30% starch and 3% sugar. 

Commelina benghalensis Linn. 

Family ◮ Commelinaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Throughout India in moist 

places. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Kanchata, Karnamorata, 

Karnasphota. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kanavazhai, Kananagakarai. 

Folk ◮ Kenaa (vegetable) (Maharashtra). 

Action ◮ Emollient, demulcent, 

laxative, diuretic, antileprotic. 

The rhizomes are starchy and mucilaginous. 

The plant contains n-octacosanol, ntriacontanol, 

n-dotriacontanol. stigmasterol, 

beta-sitosterol and campesterol. 

Commelina nudiflora Linn. 



Ayurvedic ◮ Kanchata (var.). 

Folk ◮ Kenaa (vegetable) (Maharashtra). 

Action ◮ Antidermatosis. The plant 

is used as a blood purifier. 

Commelina diffusa Burm f; C. paludosa 

Blume synonym C. obliqua Buch.- 

Ham. and C. salicifolia Roxb. are related 

species of Kanchata and are known 

as Kenaa vegetable. 

Commiphora sp. (Burseraceae). 

Refer to Balsamodendron sp.

Conium maculatum Linn. 


Habitat ◮ North temperate regions. 

English ◮ Spotted Hemlock, Poison 

Hemlock. 

Unani ◮ Khardmaanaa, Shuk. 

Action ◮ Sedative, anodyne, 

antispasmodic. Used for relief in 

whooping cough, asthma; paralysis; 

epilepsy. Antidote to strichnine 

poisoning and other poisons of the 

same class. Highly toxic. Mother 

tincture of Hemlock is used in 

homoeopathy for prevention of 

immature cataract. 

All parts of the plant contain alkaloids—highest 

in aerial parts (1.77%) 

and lowest in stems. Gamma-coniceine 

is the principal alkaloid in the 

leaves, whereas N-methylconiine is the 

major 

alkaloid in mature fruits. Beside 

the alkaloids, a flavone glycoside, diosmin 

and chlorogenic acid have been reported 

in the leaves and inflorescence. 

Ripe seeds yield coumarins, bergapten 

and xanthotoxin. Experimentally, the 

plant exhibited teratogenic properties. 

(Rarely used today.) 

Berries are toxic at 10 g, leaves at 

30 g and coniine at 150 mg. (Francis 

Brinker.) 

Convolvulus arvensis Linn. 



3,000 m in the Himalayas. 

English ◮ Deer’s Foot. 

Convolvulus pluricaulis Choisy. 169 

Ayurvedic ◮ Bhadrabalaa, Hiranpadi. 

Unani ◮ Lablaab. 

Folk ◮ Hirankhuri, Haranpagaa. 

Action ◮ Plant—cooling, anticonvulsant. 

Root—cathartic. 

Plant extract—hypotensive in cats; 

raises coronary rate. Alkaloids—hypotensive, 

without vasodilation. EtOH 

extract—anticonvulsant in rats. Aqueous 

extract—exhibited muscarinic and 

micotinic activity. 

The dried rhizome contains 4.9% 

resin. The cathartic action of the 

resinous substance is about one third 

of that of jalap (Ipomoea purga Hayne) 

resin. 

All parts of the plant contain beta- 

Me-esculetin; aerial parts n-alkanes, 

n-alkanols, alpha-amyrin and sterols; 

roots gave cuscohygrine. 

Convolvulus pluricaulis Choisy. 

Synonym ◮ C. microphyllus Sieb. 

C. prostratus Forsk. 



ascending to 2,000 m in the 

Himalayas. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Shankhapushpi, 

Shankhaahvaa, Kshirapushpi, 

Maangalya Kusuma (whiteflowered). 

Blue-flowered var., 

Vishnukraanti, Vishnukraantaa, 

Vishnugandhi is equated with 

Evolvulus alsinoides Linn. 

Unani ◮ Sankhaahuli (blue-flowered) 

C

170 Convolvulus scammonia Linn. 

C 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Sivakraandi (whiteflowered), 

Vishnukraandi (blueflowered). 

Action ◮ Plant—brain tonic, tranquilizer 

used in nervine disorders, 

mental aberration, anxiety neurosis, 

internal haemorrhages, 

spermatorrhoea. Also astringent, 

antidysenteric, antispasmodic, 

antiphlogistic, febrifuge, alterative. 

Flowers—styptic, used for uterine 

bleeding. Leaf—antiasthmatic, 

used in chronic bronchitis. Root— 

used in gastric and duodenal ulcers, 

uterine affections and for promoting 

fertility. 


India recommends the plant for epilepsy. 

The plant contains sankhpushpine 

alkaloids. 

The alcoholic (50%) extract of the 

plant, when administered to rats 

(through gastric intubation at different 

intervals), has shown enhanced 

neuropeptide synthesis of the brain. 

It induces an increase in brain protein 

content and increases acquisition 

efficiency. 

Evolvulus alsinoides contains pentatriacontane, 

triacontane and betasitosterol. 

Shankhapushpi Syrup (a compound 

containing C. pluricaulis, Centella asiatica, 

Nardostachys jatamansi, Nepeta 

hindostana, Nepeta elliptica and Onosma 

bracteatum), when administered 

with phenytoin, a modern antiepileptic 

drug, reduced not only antiepileptic 

activity of phenytoin but also lowered 

plasma phenytoin levels. 


powder. (API Vol. III.) 

Convolvulus scammonia Linn. 


Habitat ◮ A native to the Mediterranean 

region. 

English ◮ Scammony. 

Unani ◮ Saqmunia. 

Action ◮ Resin from rhizomes—hydragogue, 

Cathartic, administered 

in dropsy and anascara. 

Most of the resin available in India 

is imported from Syria and Asia Minor 

and is grossly adulterated. 

The roots contain on an average 8% 

resin together with dihydroxy cinnamic 

acid, beta-methyl-esculetin, ipuranol, 

surcose, a reducing sugar and 

starch. The resin consists of the glycosides 

and methylpentosides of jalapinolic 

acid and its methyl ester. 

Large doses cause acute gastro-intestinal 

irritation, and, if absorbed, 

produce cystitis and nephritis. 

Coptis teeta Wall. 


Habitat ◮ Mishmi Hills in Arunachal 

Pradesh. Cultivated commercially 

in China. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Mamira, Maamiraa, 

Tiktamuulaa. (Pita-muulikaa 

and Hem-tantu are provisional 

synonyms.) 

Unani ◮ Maamisaa, Maamiraa. 

Folk ◮ Titaa (Bengal and Assam). 

Action ◮ Stomachic, antiperiodic, 

antibacterial, antifungal. Prescribed

in debility, convalescence, intermittent 

fevers, dyspepsia, dysentery 

and intestinal catarrh. Used as 

a local application in thrush. 

The rhizomes contains berberine 

(9%) as the major alkaloid; other alkaloids 

present are: coptin (0.08%), coptisin 

0.02%) and jatrorrhizine (0.01%). 

Samples from China contained 9.26– 

12.23% berberine, 2.39–3.25% coptisin 

and 3.20–4.46% jatrorrhizine. In China, 

the herb is used as an antidiabetic; 

the ethanolic (50%) extract exhibited 

hypoglycaemic and hypotensive activity. 

The drug due to berberine and its 

related alkaloids promoted reticuloendothelium 

to increased phagocytosis of 

leucocytes in dog blood in vitro and in 

vivo. 

Coptis chinensis (Huang Lian) inhibited 

erythrocyte haemolysis, decreased 

lipid peroxidation in brain and kidney, 

decreased generation of superoxide 

peroxidation and decreased hydroxyl 

radicals in rats. (Life Sci, 2000, 

66(8), 725–735.) 


(CCRAS.) 

Corallocarpus epigaeus 

Benth. ex Hook. f. 


Habitat ◮ Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, 

Bihar, West Bengal, Gujarat, 

Madhya Pradesh and Peninsular 

India. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Shukanaasaa, Nahikaa, 

Katunaahi, Paataala-garudaa. 

Corchorus aestuans Linn. 171 

(Cocculus hirsutus is used as 

Paataala-garudi). 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kollankovai, 

Aaakaasagarudam. 

Action ◮ Laxative. Root used during 

later stages of dysentery and chronic 

mucous enteritis; also in syphilitic 

rheumatism. The herb shows no 

apparent effect on acute dysentery. 

The root contains a bitter principle 

allied to bryonin. 

Corchorus aestuans Linn. 

Synonym ◮ C. acutangulus Lam. 

Family ◮ Tiliaceae. 


parts of India, as a weed. 

English ◮ White Jute. (Tossa Jute is 

equated with C. olitorius Linn.). 

Ayurvedic ◮ Chunchu, Chanchu, 

Chinchaa. (bigger var. is equated 

with C. olitorius; smallar var. with 

C. capsularis.) 

Folk ◮ Chench shaaka, Titapat 

(Bengal). 

Action ◮ Seeds and aerial parts— 

stomachic, anti-inflammatory. Used 

in pneumonia. 

The seeds contain cardenolides, 

beta-sitosterol, ceryl alcohol, oligosaccharides. 

The aerial parts contain 

triterpenoidal glycosides—corchorusins. 

Corchorusins have similar structural 

similarity with saikosaponins 

(isolated so far from Bupleurum sp. of 

Japan, China and Korea) and some 

of them exhibit antiviral, anti-inflam- 

C

172 Corchorus capsularis Linn. 

C 

matory and plasma-cholesterol lowering 

activities. 

The alcoholic extract of the entire 

plant was found to have anticancer activity 

against epidermal carcinoma of 

nasopharynx in tissue culture. Alcoholic 

extract and glycosides of seeds 

exhibit cardiotonic activity. Digitoxose 

containing glycosides are reported 

to be present in Corchorus sp. 

C. olitorius Linn. is known as Jew’s 

Mallow (Pattaa Shaaka or Patuaa Shaaka). 

Corchorosid A, reported from the 

plant, improved cardiac competence 


The leaf extracts may be used as 

moisturizers in skin cosmetics. The 

extracts consist of uronic acid containing 

muco-polysaccharide, Ca, K and 

P, among others, which act as effective 

moisturizers. 

Corchorus capsularis Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Throughout warmer parts 

of India; extensively cultivated in 

West Bengal. 

English ◮ White Jute. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Kaala shaaka. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Pirattai-keerai. 

Folk ◮ Naadi shaaka, Narichaa. 

Titapat (Bengal). 

Action ◮ Leaves—stomachic, 

carminative, diuretic, antidysenteric 

(dried leaves). Seeds—purgative. 

Seeds contain cardiac glycosides. 

These include two monosides, helveti- 

coside and corchoroside A and two polar 

glycosides, erysimoside and olitoriside. 

Leaves contain beta-sitosterolglucoside. 

Corchoroside A exhibited 

cardiotonic properties. 

The aqueous/alcoholic extracts, 

containing polysaccharides, may be 

used in preparations of skin cosmetics 

or hair preparations for their moisturizing 

effect. 

Corchorus fascicularis Lam. 


Habitat ◮ 

of India. 

Throughout warmer parts 

Ayurvedic ◮ Chanchuka, Chanchu. 

Folk ◮ Chanchu shaaka, Baaphali. 

Action ◮ Astringent, spasmolytic, 

restorative, mucilaginous. 

The plant contains betulinic acid and 

beta-sitosterol. Seeds yield cardenolides 

including trilocularin. The glycosides 

of the plant were found to be devoid 

of any effect of its own on smooth 

muscle of guinea pig ileum, but produced 

spasmolytic effect against acetylcholine, 

histamine and bradykinin. Direct 

action of the drug was observed 

on rabbit intestines. Slight cardiac depressant 

effect was found on isolated 

amphibian heart preparation. 

Corchorus depressus (L.) Christensen, 

found in drier parts of North India, 

is known as Bhauphali (Delhi). 

The Plant is used as a cooling medicine 

in fevers; its mucilage is prescribed 

in gonorrhoea, also for increasing the 

viscosity of seminal fluid. An extract

of the plant is applied as a paste to 

wounds. 

The plant contains alpha-amyrin 

derivatives, together with apigenin, 

luteolin, sitosterol and its glucoside. 

Presence of quercetin and kaempferol 

has been reported in leaves and flowers. 

The plant exhibits antimicrobial and 

antipyretic activities. 

Cordia myxa Roxb. non Linn. 

Synonym ◮ C. dichotoma Forst. f. 

C. obliqua Willd. 


Habitat ◮ Throughout India, wild 

and often planted. 

English ◮ Sabestan Plum. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Shleshmaataka, Shelu, 

Bahuvaara, Bahuvaaraka, Bhutvrkshak, 

Uddaalaka Shita, Picchila, 

Lisodaa. 

Unani ◮ Sapistaan, Lasodaa. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Naruvili. 

Action ◮ Fruit—astringent, demulcent, 

expectorant, diuretic, 

anthelmintic, mucilaginous. Used 

in the diseases of the chest and 

urinary passage. Bark—used in 

dyspepsia and fevers. Kernels— 

externally applied to ringworm. 

Leaf—decoction used in cough and 

cold. 

ThefruitscontainCa55,P275,Zn2, 

Fe 6, Mn 2, Cr 0.2 and Cu 1.6 mg/100 g 

(Chromium is of therapeutic value in 

diabetes). 

Antinutritional factors are—phytic 

acid 355, phytate phosphorus 100 and 

oxalic acid 250 mg/100 g. 

Cordia wallichii G. Don. 173 

The seeds contain alpha-amyrin and 

taxifolin-3, 5-dirhamnoside, which 

showed significant anti-inflammatory 

activity. EtOH (50%) of leaves and 

stems—antimicrobial; aerial parts— 

diuretic and hypothermic. 

Cordia rothii Roem. & Schult. 


Habitat ◮ Rajasthan, Gujarat, Deccan 

and Karnataka. 

English ◮ Sebestan (smaller var.) 

Ayurvedic ◮ Laghu-shleshmaataka, 

Lisodaa. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Naruvili. 

Folk ◮ Gondi. 

Action ◮ See C. myxa. 

Bark—astringent; decoction is used 

as a gargle. 

Cordia wallichii G. Don. 

Synonym ◮ C. oblique Willd. 

var. wallichii. 


Habitat ◮ 

Deccan. 

Gujarat, North Kanara and 

English ◮ Sebestan (bigger var.). 

Ayurvedic ◮ Shleshmaataka 

(bigger var.), Uddaalaka, Bahuvaaraka. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Perunaruvili. 

Folk ◮ Gondi. 

Action ◮ Fruit—astringent, demulcent, 

expectorant. 

See C. myxa. 

C

174 Coriandrum sativum Linn. 

C 

Coriandrum sativum Linn. 



Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, 

Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil 

Nadu, Karnataka and Bihar. 

English ◮ Coriander. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Dhaanyaka, Kustumburu,Dhaanyeyaka,Dhanika, 

Dhanikaa, Dhaanaa, Dhaanya, 

Dhaniyaa, Kunati, Chhatraa, 

Vitunnaka. 

Unani ◮ Kishneez. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kotthamalli. 

Action ◮ Stimulant, stomachic, 

carminative, antispasmodic, diuretic; 

also hypoglycaemic and 

anti-inflammatory. Oil—bactericidal 

and larvicidal. Used in China 

as a remedy for measles, diabetes, 

aerophagy and gastroenteritis. 


complaints, loss of appetite. 

(German Commission E, British 

Herbal Pharmacopoeia, Indian 


Coriander contains 0.5–1% volatile 

oil, consisting mainly of delta-linalool 

(55–74%), alpha-pinene and terpinine. 

It also contains flavonoids, coumarins, 

phthalides and phenolic acids (including 

caffeic and chlorogenic). 

Aqueous extract of the roasted seeds 

contains large amounts of acetylcholine 

and its precursor choline. (Choline 

is found useful in preventing and curing 

certain liver disorders.) The extract 

shows cholinomimetic effects experimentally. 

Coriandrin, an antiviral agent, has 

been synthesized from the aerial parts. 

The plant forms an ingredient of a Pakistani 

herbal drug (Intellan) which is 

considered to be a neuro-energizer. 

In Unani medicine, an infusion of 

fruits is also used in bleeding piles, 

neuralgia, cephalalgia and spermatorrhoea. 

Dosage ◮ Fruit—1–3 g powder. (API 

Vol. I.) 

Corydalis govaniana Wall. 


Habitat ◮ The West Himalayas, from 

Kashmir to Kumaon. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Bhootakeshi (a doubtful 

substitute for Bhootajataa, 

Nardostachys jatamansi DC.) 

Species of Selinum are also used as 

Bhootakeshi. 

Action ◮ Sedative, spasmolytic, 

hypotensive, nervine, antiseptic. 

Used in cutaneous and scrofulous 

affections, chronic fever and liver 

complaints. 

The roots contain phthalide isoquinoline 

alkaloids. In addition, stems 

and leaves contain tetrahydroprotoberberines. 

A related species, C. solida, indigenous 

to Siberia, northern China and 

Japan, contains alkaloids including 

corydalmine, tetrahydropalmatine, 

protoberberine-type alkaloid lenticin. 

The alkaloids are analgesic and sedative 

and have been shown to work, at least 

in part, by blocking the dopamine receptors 

in the central nervous system.

The powdered rhizome of Corydalis 

possesses one-hundredth of the analgesic 

potency of morphine. 

Corylus avellana Linn. 



Western Asia; common in gardens 

on hill-station in India. 

English ◮ European Hazel, Filbert. 

Unani ◮ Funduq, Bunduq. 

Action ◮ Kernel—nutritive, astringent; 

used as an anabolic tonic 

and in sexual debility in Unani 

medicine. The oil is used to reduce 

cholesterol and as an antioxidant. 

The kernel of the European Hazel 

Nut contains protein 12.7%, carbohydrate 

17.7%, fat 60.9% and phosphorus 

0.35%. The fatty acid components of 

the kernel oil are : oleic 88.1%, linoleic 

2.9%, palmitic 3.1%, stearic 1.6% and 

myristic 2.2%. 

The stembarkcontains abiologically 

active cyanidanol glycoside. 

The Turkish Hazel Nuts are rich in 

mono and polysaturated fatty acids— 

oleic 82% and linoleic 9%; also gave 


The Turkish Hazel Nuts are imported 

into India during the winter season. 

Corylus colurna Linn. 



Himalayas from Kashmir to 

Coscinium fenestratum Colebr. 175 

Kumaon; common in Kashmir 

forests. 

English ◮ Turkish Hazel. 

Folk ◮ Virin (Kashmir). Thangi, 

Urni (Punjab). Kapaasi, Bhotiaa 

Badaam (Kumaon). 

Action ◮ A mixture of flavonoids, 

isolated from the leaves, has shown 

potent antiperoxidative and oxygen 

radical scavenging properties. It 

exhibits very low toxicity and can 

be used as an alternative to the toxic 

synthetic antioxidants used for the 

treatment of free radical-mediated 

injuries. See also C. avellana. 

Himalayan Hazel, occurring in central 

and eastern Himalayas, locally 

known as Curri and Langura, is equated 

with Corylus ferox Wall. 

Coscinium fenestratum Colebr. 


Habitat ◮ South India, particularly 

in Western Ghats. 

English ◮ False Calumba. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Pitachandana, Pitasaara, 

Harichandana, Kaaliyaka, Kalambaka. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Maramanjal, Manjalkodi. 

Folk ◮ Jharihaldi. 

Action ◮ Root—stomachic, diuretic, 

hypotensive, antidysenteric, antibacterial, 

antifungal, bitter tonic 

in dyspepsia and debility. 

ThestemsandrootsofKalambaka 

contain alkaloids including berberine 

C

176 Costus speciosus (Koenig) Sm. 

C 

3.5–5% and jatorrhizine. Stems contain 

ceryl palmitic acid and oleic acid. 

The plant is also used against fractures; 

for dressing wounds and ulcers 

and in cutaneous leishmaniasis. 

The stems are used in South India as 

a substitute for Berberis (Daaruharidraa); 

also as an Indian substitute 

for True Calumba (Jateorhiza palmata 

Miers). 

Dosage ◮ Root—3–5 g powder; 

decoction—50–100 ml. (CCRAS.) 

Costus speciosus (Koenig) Sm. 


Habitat ◮ Assam, North Bengal, 

Khasi and Jaintia Hills, sub 

Himalayan tracts of Uttar Pradesh 

and Himachal Pradesh and Western 

Ghats. 

English ◮ Canereed, Wild Ginger. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Kebuka, Kembuka. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Krrauvam, Malai 

Vasambu, Ven Kottam. 

Folk ◮ Kebu. 

Action ◮ Astringent, purgative, 

depurative, anti-inflammatory 

(used in gout, rheumatism; bronchitis, 

asthma, catarrhal fevers, 

dysuria), anthelmintic, antivermin, 

maggoticide, antifungal. 

The rhizomes contain saponins— 

dioscin, gracillin and beta-sitosterolbeta-D-glucoside. 

The alkaloids show 

papaverine-like smooth-muscle-relaxant 

activity, cardiotonic activity like 

that of digitalis and antispasmodic, 

CNS-depressant, diuretic and hydrocholeretic 

activities. Saponins show 

significant anti-inflammatory and antiarthritic 

activity. 

The seeds also contain saponins and 

exhibit potent and sustained hypotensive 

and bradycardiac activities in dogs 

with low toxicity and without any 

haemolytic activity; also weak spasmolytic 

activity on isolated guinea-pig 

ileum. 

All parts of the plant yield steroidal 

sapogenin, diogenin (quantity varies 

from 0.32 to 4%). 

(Not to be confused with Kushtha of 

Indian medicine, Saussurea lappa.) 

Crataegus crenulata Roxb. 



Sutluj to Bhutan at altitudes of 800– 

2,500 m. 

Folk ◮ Ghingaaru. 

Action ◮ See Cratageus oxyacantha. 

Crataegeus oxyacantha Linn. 


Habitat ◮ British and European 

hedge plant, met with in the 

temperate Himalayas of Kashmir 

and Himachal Pradesh at an altitude 

of 1,800–3,000 m. (The plant does 

not thrive in the plains of India.) 

English ◮ English Hawthorn. 

Folk ◮ Ring, Ringo, Pingyat, Phindak, 

Ban Sanjli (Punjab hills).

Action ◮ Coronary vasodilator 

(strengthens heart muscle without 

increasing the beat in coronary 

arteries), antispasmodic, antihypertensive, 

sedative to nervous system, 

diuretic. 

Key application ◮ In cases of 

cardiac insufficiency Stage II as 

defined by NYHA (New York Heart 

Association). An improvement of 

subjective findings as well as an 

increase in cardiac work tolerance, 

a decrease in pressure/heart rate 

product, an increase in the ejection 

fraction and a rise in the anaerobic 

threshold have been established in 

human pharmacological studies. 

(German Commission E, WHO.) 

The active principles include oligomeric 

procyanidins and flavonoids. 

The drug is official in Homoeopathic 

Pharmacopoeia of India. 

Contraindicated in low blood pressure, 

chest pain, bleeding disorders. 

The herb may interfere with therapeutic 

effect of cardiac drugs. (Sharon M. 

Herr.) Preparations based on hydroalcoholic 

extracts of Crataegus monogyna 

or C. laevigata are used as Hawthorn 

in the Western herbal. 

Crataeva nurvala Buch.-Ham. 

Synonym ◮ C. magna (Lour.) DC. 


Habitat ◮ Wild as well as cultivated 

in gardens all over India. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Varuna, Varana, Barnaa, 

Setu, Ashmarighna, Kumaarak, 

Tiktashaaka. 

Cressa cretica Linn. 177 

Unani ◮ Baranaa. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Maavilingam. 

Action ◮ Bark—diuretic (finds 

application in urinary disorders, 

including urolithiasis, prostatic 

hypertrophy, neurogenic bladder 

and urinary infections; uterine and 

gastro-intestinal problems). Juice 

of the bark is given to women after 

childbirth. Extract of root bark, 

mixed with honey, is applied to 

scrofulous enlargements of glands. 

Whole plant powder—cholinergic 

in smooth muscles including 

urinary bladder. 

Key application ◮ As antiurolithiatic. 


The antiurolithic activity of the 

stem-bark is attributed to the presence 

of lupeol. Lupeol not only prevented 

the formation of vesical calculi, but 

also reduced the size of the preformed 

stones in the kidneys of calculogenic 

rats. It also reversed the biochemical 

parameters in urine, blood and serum 

towards normal. 

The stem bark also exhibit antiinflammatory 

activity, and is reported 

tostimulatebilesecretion,appetiteand 

bowel movement. 



Cressa cretica Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Costal regions of India. 

Ayurvedic ◮ 

Rudravanti. 

Rudanti, Rudantikaa, 

C

178 Crinum asiaticum Linn. 

C 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Uppu Sanaga. 

Folk ◮ Khardi. 

Action ◮ Expectorant, stomachic, 

antibilious, alterative. 

Air-dried, powdered whole plant 

gave n-octacosanol, scopoletin, umbelliferone, 

isopimpinellin, beta-sitosterol 

and its –D(+)-glucoside and quercetin. 

Crinum asiaticum Linn. 

Family ◮ Amaryllidaceae. 


as an ornamental. 

English ◮ St. John’s Lily, Poison Bulb. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Naagadamani, Naagapatra, 

Sudarshana (var.). C. 

defixum Ker.-Gawl, is equated with 

Sukhadarshana. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Vishamoongil. 

Action ◮ Bulb—laxative (a substitute 

for ipecacuanha), expectorant. Used 

in biliousness, and in strangury 

and other urinary affections. Also 

used for the treatment of burns, 

whitlow and carbuncle. Fresh 

root—diaphoretic, emetic. Leaves— 

expectorant; externally, antiinflammatory 

(used in skin diseases 

and for reducing inflammations). 

Seed—emmenagogue, diuretic. 

The bark gave sterols and triterpenoids. 

Seeds contain alkaloids— 

lycorine, crinamine and crinasiatine. 

Crinum latifolium Linn. 




English ◮ Wide-leaved Crinum. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Sudarshana, Sukhadarshana, 

Chakraangi, Somvalli, 

Madhuparnikaa. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Vishamoongil. 

Action ◮ Bulb—rubefacient, antirheumatic. 

Also used for piles and 

tubercular fistula. 

The alkaloids, crinafoline and crinafolidine, 


plant. These along with crinafoline 

methochloride exhibited significant 

tumour-inhibiting activity in vivo. The 

plant extract in also used in allergic 

condition. This activity is attributed 

to the presence of glucan A and phosphatidyllycorine. 

A related species, C. zeylanicum, is 

known as Milk-and-Wine Lily. 

Dosage ◮ Leaf, root—5–10 g paste. 

(CCRAS.) 

Crocus sativus Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Cultivated in Kashmir up 

to 2,000 m and in Chaubattia in 

Uttar Pradesh. 

English ◮ Saffron, Crocus. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Kumkuma, Rudhira, 

Vadrika, Kaashmira, Kaashmiraka, 

Vaalhika, Agnishikhaa, Ghrusrrn, 

Rakta, Kshataja. Keshara (usually 

Keshara indicates Naagakeshara, 

Mesua ferrea Linn.) 

Unani ◮ Zaafraan.

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kumgumappoo 

(dried stigma). 

Action ◮ Stigma and style—nervine 

tonic, sedative, antispasmodic expectorant 

(in dry cough, whooping 

cough, bronchitis), stomachic, 

diaphoretic, emmenagogue. 


indicated the use of the stigma and 

style in migraine, chronic sinusitis, and 

in urinary obstruction, inflammation 

of the urinary tract. 

The saffron is used in Chinese 

medicine for melancholia, depression, 

shock and menstrual disorders. 

Saffron contains a volatile oil composed 

of terpenes, terpene alcohols and 

esters. The herb also contains crocin, 

picrocrocin, crocetin, carotenoids and 

riboflavin and thiamine. 


crocetin may improved atherosclerosis 

by increasing plasma oxygen diffusion 

and decreasing cholesterol and 

triglyceride levels. In addition, crocetin 

binds to albumin, potentially increasing 

oxygen diffusion and improving 

atherosclerosis. (Natural Medicines 


The stigma showed remarkable inhibitory 

effect on blood coagulation 

due to the presence of platelet aggregation 

inhibitor containing adenosine. It 

accelerated in vitro fibrinolytic activity 

of urokinase and plasmin. 

Small amounts of Saffron stimulate 

gastric secretion; larger amounts stimulate 

uterine smooth muscle and exhibit 

emmenagogue and abortifacient 

effects. 

Saffron extract showed cytotoxic 

and antimutagenic activity and antitu- 

Crotalaria juncea Linn. 179 

mour activity against ascites tumours 

in mice. Chemical analysis indicated 

that the naturally occurring crocin 

may be the active principle responsible 

for the observed anticancer activity. 

A xanthone, carotenoid glycosidic 

conjugate, mangi-crocin, isolated from 

saffron, showed significant adaptogenic 

activity. A natural antioxidant, 

isolated from saffron stem callus, 

showed better antioxidant activity than 

vitamin E. Saffron bulbs are toxic, stigmas 

in overdoses narcotic. 

The dose of stigma and styles at 1.5– 

5.0 g is toxic. (Recommended dose : 

0.5–1.5 g per day). 

Dosage ◮ Dried style and stigma— 

20–50 mg (API Vol. IV.) 

Crotalaria juncea Linn. 



India, especially in South India. 

English ◮ Sun Hemp. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Shana, Shanapushpi, 

Malyapushpa. 

Unani ◮ Sunn. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Sanal, Manji, 

Sannappu. 

Folk ◮ Jhanjhaniaa. 

Action ◮ Leaf—demulcent, purgative, 

emetic, emmenagogue, abortifacient, 

ant-implantation. Given in 

diarrhoea, dysentery and bleeding 

disorders. Seeds—used in psoriasis 

and impetigo. 

C

180 Crotalaria verrucosa Linn. 

C 

Seeds—hepatotoxic. Seed oil gave 

fatty acids—linoleic, linolenic and 

oleic. 

Pyrrolizidine alkaloids—junceine, 

tricodesmine, riddelline, seneciphylline 

and senecionine were also obtained. 


Vol. III.) 

Crotalaria verrucosa Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Tropical regions of India 

from Himalayas to Sri Lanka. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Shanapushpi. Shana 

(var.). 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Sanal, Sannappu. 

Folk ◮ Sanai, Jhanjhaniaa. 

Action ◮ Juice of leaves—used 

for biliousness, dyspepsia, blood 

impurities, scabies and impetigo, 

both internally and externally. 

Taraxerol, beta-sitosterol and linoleic, 

palmitic, stearic, lauric, oleic, linolenic, 

arachidic, myristic and ricinoleic 

acids have been isolated from fixed oil 

of the stem. 


(CCRAS.) 

Croton oblongifolius Roxb. 


Habitat ◮ Central, Western and 

Southern India, also eastwards to 

Bengal. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Naagadanti. (Danti 

is equated with Baliospermum 

montanum Muell., Dravanti with 

Jatropha curcas Linn. and Croton 

tiglium Linn.) 

Action ◮ Same as that of C. tiglium. 

Croton tiglium Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Native to South-East Asia. 

Now cultivated in Assam, Bengal 


English ◮ Purging Croton. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Jayapaala, Dravanti, 

Dantibija, Tintidiphala. 

Unani ◮ Habb-us-Salaateen, Jamaalgotaa, 

Hubb-ul-Malook. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Nervaalam. 

Action ◮ Cathartic, rubefacient, 

irritant. Used in ascites, anasarca, 

dropsy and enlargement of 

abdominal viscera. 

The seed oil is purgative. It produces 

severe symptoms of toxicity when taken 

internally or applied externally to 

the skin. 

Croton oil showed tumour-promoting 

activity on mouse skin. The 

skin irritant and tumour promoting 

diterpene esters of the tigliane type 

(phorbol esters) and toxins have been 

isolated from the seeds. (In China, 

where the herb is employed for the 

treatment of gastro-intestinal disturbances, 

the highest incidence of nasopharyngeal 

cancer has been reported.) 

1 ml oil is usually fatal. Phorbols 

(terpenoids) from nonvolatile oil are

toxic. Crotin, a toxic albuminous substance, 

is not extracted in the oil. The 

plant caused haematuria and swelling 

of lymph glands in animals. 

Dosage ◮ Seed—6–12 mg powder. 


Cryptolepis buchanani 

Roem. & Schult. 

Family ◮ Asclepiadaceae; Periplocaceae. 


English ◮ Indian Sarsaparilla (black 

var.). 

Ayurvedic ◮ Krishna Saarivaa, 

Jambupatraa Saarivaa, Karantaa, 

Shyamalataa, Shyaama, Gopi, 

Gopavadhu, Kaalghatika. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Maattan-kodi, 

Paal-Kodi, Kattupala. 

Folk ◮ Karantaa, Anantamuula 

(Varanasi). 

Action ◮ Blood-purifier, alterative. 

Used for rickets in children. 

In combination with Euphorbia 

microphylla, the herb is used as 

a galactagogue. A decoction of the 

stem is used as a supporting drug 

in paralysis; of the root bark in 

rheumatism. 

The major constituent of the root extract 

is germanicol docosanoate. The 

roots contains cryptanoside C. The 

leaves gave cryptanoside A and B and 

a cardenolide, cryptosin. 

Dosage ◮ Root—5–10 g (API 

Vol. IV.); infusion—50–100 ml. 

(CCRAS.) 

Cucumis prophetarum Linn. 181 

Ctenolepis cerasiformis Naud. 


Habitat ◮ Wild on wastelands in 

Gujarat. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Shankhini. 

(Also equated with Corivolvulus 

arvenis L.) 

Folk ◮ Aankha-phuutaa-mani 

(Gujarat). 

Action ◮ Emetic, drastic purgative. 

Used for internal tumours and 

abscesses. (C.R.A.V.) 

Cucumis melo 

Linn. var. utilissimus Duth. & Fuller. 

Synonym ◮ C. utilissimus Roxb. 


Habitat ◮ Cultivated in Punjab and 


English ◮ Snake Cucumber. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Ervaaru, Ervaaruka, 

Urvaaru, Bahukanda, Karkati. 

Unani ◮ Kakari. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kakkarikkay, 

Vellarikkai. 

Action ◮ Seeds—cooling, diuretic; 

used in painful micturition and 

suppression of urine. 


India recommends the seed in dysuria 

and lithiasis. 

Dosage ◮ Seed—3–6 g. (API Vol. II.) 

Cucumis prophetarum Linn. 

Synonym ◮ C. myriocarpus Naud. 

C

182 Cucumis sativus Linn. 

C 


Habitat ◮ Wild on wastelands of 

Sindh, Baluchistan, Rajasthan; in 

dry districts of Bellary in the South. 

English ◮ Wild Cucumber. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Indravarruni (var.). 

Folk ◮ Khar-indraayana. 

Action ◮ Emetic, purgative. Toxic. 

Fruit pulp—a bitter resinous body, 

myriocarpin, produces nausea and is 

slightly purgative. 

The fruit contain cucurbitacin B,C,D 

and Q1, and propheterosterol and its 

acetate. Cucurbitacin Q1 is an antitumour 

agent. Amino acids from the 

fruits are leucine, iso-leucine, phenylalanine, 

valine, tryptophan, tyrosine, 

proline, alanine threonine, glycine, 

arginine, crystine and aspartic acid. 

Cucumis sativus Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Cultivated for its edible 

fruits which are usually used as 

salad vegetable. 

English ◮ Cucumber. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Trapusha, Traapusha, 

Trapushi, Tiktakarkatikaa (bitter 

var.). 

Unani ◮ Khiyaar, Khiraa. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Vellarikkai. 

Folk ◮ Khiraa. 

Action ◮ Seed—used in dysuria, 

irritation of the urinary tract, 

cystitis. Reduces specific gravity of 

urine. Also used for tapeworms. 

Cucumber contains rutin; seeds glucosides 

including cucurbitaside; leaves 

free cucurbitasides B & C, ferredoxin, 

alpha-spinasterol. Free and bound 

sterols are found in seedlings and in 

male and female flowers. 

Presence of proteolytic enzymes, 

ascorbic acid oxidase and succinic and 

malic dehydrogenases has been reported. 

Dosage ◮ Seed—3–6 g powder; fruit 

juice—25–50 ml. (CCRAS.) 

Cucumis trigonus Roxb. 

Synonym ◮ C. pseudo-colocynthis 

Royle. 

C.callosus (Rottl.) Congn. 

Bryonia callosa Rottl. 

Habitat ◮ Wild throughout the drier 

upland tracts of India. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Indravaaruni (var.). 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kattutumatti. 

Folk ◮ Vishlumbha, Bhakuraa. 

Action ◮ Pulp of fruit—drastic 

purgative. Decoction of roots— 

milder in purgative action. Seeds— 

cooling, astringent; useful in bilious 

disorders. The fruit is used as 

a substitute for Colocynth. 

The fruits contain steroid and triterpenoid 

compounds, cucurbitacin 

B and proteolytic enzymes. EtOH 

extract exhibits analgesic and antiinflammatory 

activity; stimulates isolated 

uterus of guinea pigs. 

Cucurbita maxima Duchesne. 

Family ◮ Cucurbitaceae.


India. 

English ◮ Red Gourd, Red Pumpkin. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Peeta Kuushmaanda, 

Kuushmaandaka, Kuusmaandi, 

Karkaaruka, Seetaaphal. 

Unani ◮ Kaddu-e-Sheerin, Aqteen. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Parangikayi. 

Action ◮ Fruit pulp—sedative, 

emollient and refrigerant; used 

as poultice, applied to burns, 

inflammations, boils, and burns. 

Seeds—diuretic, anthelmintic (for 

tapeworm). Because of their zinc 

content and antimitotic effect, seeds 

are used to arrest enlargement of 

prostate gland. Also used in cystitis 

and minor kidney dyfunction. 

Pumpkin (Cucurbita maxima and C. 

pepo) seeds contain B vitamins, Vitamin 

A; minerals—calcium, iron, phosphorus, 

zinc; cucurbitacins; linonelic 

acid. An infusion of seeds (2–3 teaspoons) 

is taken as a diuretic and in 

hypertrophy of prostate. 

Seeds of C. maxima contain sterol 

glycosides and sterol fatty acid esters 

which showed antitumour activity in 

mice. 

The leaves contain calcium 36.38; 

magnesium 38.80; iron 2.04; zinc 0.76; 

and copper 0.42 (mg/100 g). 

The seed oil contains sterols and triterpenoids. 

The oil is used in migraine 

and neuralgia. 

Cucurbita moschata 

Duch. ex Poir. 


Cucurbita pepo Linn. 183 

Habitat ◮ Native to Central America. 

Cultivated in warmer climate than 

that required for C. maxima. 

English ◮ Squash. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Kumshmaanda. 

Action ◮ Fruit—used in headache, 

bronchitis, asthma; as diuretic 

in genitourinary disorders; as 

anthelmintic against tapeworms. 

Dried pulp is administered in 

haemptysis. 

The lipids isolated from the seeds 

included glycerides, sterol esters, phosphatidylcholine 

and phosphatidylinositol. 

The aqueous extract of seeds 

showed potent gastroprotective activity 

against ethanol-induced gastric lesions 

in rats. 

In Chinese medicine, Cucurbita moschata 

flowerisusedinjaundice, dysentery 

and cough; the root in jaundice, 

strangury, galactostasis and dysentery; 

the stem in irregular menstruation and 

scalds. 

Cucurbita pepo Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Native to N. Mexico and 

eastern U.S.A. Now commonly 

cultivated in Northern India. 

English ◮ Pumpkin, Marrow. 

Unani ◮ Safed Kaddu, Kumhraa. 

Siddha ◮ Suraikayi (Tamil). 

Action ◮ See C. maxima. 

Key application ◮ Seeds—in irritated 

bladder condition, micturition 

problems of benign prostatic 

C

184 Cuminum cyminum Linn. 

C 

hyperplasia stages 1 and 2. (German 


Pharmacopoeia.) In childhood 

enuresis noctruna. (Expanded 


The roasted and fresh seeds yield 

32.2 and 38.0% of fatty oil respectively. 

The oil filled capsules were administered 

to patients suffering from hypertrophy 

of the prostate. Results showed 

that the frequent urge to urinate decreased 

and the urine residues were 

minimized. 

The oil consists of the glycerides 

of linoleic 45, oleic 25, palmitic and 

stearic acids 30%. Sterols have been 

isolated. 

Cuminum cyminum Linn. 



region; now cultivated in 

Punjab and Uttar Pradesh. 

English ◮ Cumin. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Shveta-jiraka, Ajaaji, 

Shukla-ajaaji. The three jirakas 

mentioned in the Ayurvedic texts 

are: Jiraka, Krishna Jiraka (Carum 

bulbocastanum W. Koch.) and 

Kaaravi (Carum carvi Linn.). 

Unani ◮ Safed Jeeraa, Kamun. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Cheerakam. 

Action ◮ Carminative, antispasmodic 

(usedindyspepsiaanddiarrhoea), 

stimulant, diuretic, antibacterial, 

emmenagogue, galactagogue. 

Cumin seeds contain up to 14.5% 

lipids. They are reported to contain 14 

flavonoid glycosides; 7 belong to apigenin, 

5 to luteolin and 2 to chrysoeriol 

group. Major constituents of the essential 

oil include cuminaldehyde (20– 

40% of the oil) and p-cymene. 

EtOH (50%) extract of the fruit exhibits 

spasmolytic and hypotensive activity. 

Cumin is considered superior is 

comforting carminative qualities to 

Fennel or Caraway. Due to its disagreeable 

flavour it has been replaced by 

CarawayinEuropeanherbalmedicine. 

Cumin oil and cuminaldehyde have 

been reported to exhibit strong larvicidal 

and antibacterial activity. 

Fine grinding of the seed can cause 

loss of 50% of volatile oil, most within 

one hour. (Natural Medicines Comprehensive 


Dosage ◮ Fruit—1–3 g powder. (API 

Vol. I.) 

Cupressus sempervirens Linn. 

Family ◮ Cupressaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Native to Asia Minor, 

Syria and North Persia. The tree 

is a variety only known in the 

cultivated state in North-West 

India. (Chopra RN.) 

English ◮ Mediterranean Cypress. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Suraahva. 

Unani ◮ Saro. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Suram, Churam. 

Action ◮ Tincture—vasoconstrictor, 

antiseptic, sedative, antispasmodic, 

diuretic. Used for cough, cold, 

bronchitis, varicose veins, piles,

menopausal cramps, leg-cramps. 

Essential oil—used only externally. 

Used in aromatherapy for massage 

(10 drops in 2 teaspoonful of almond 

oil). 

The essential oil from the plant gave 

73 compounds; major compound was 

alpha-pinene (47.00–52.76%); among 

others—D-camphane, D-silvestren, pcymene, 

L-cadinenes, cedrol, terpineol, 

acetyl-and isovalerianyl monoterpene 

ester. 

No longer taken internally as a diluted 

essential oil. Medicinal parts are 

cones, branches and oil. 

Curculigo orchioides Gaertn. 

Family ◮ Amaryllidaceae; Hypoxidaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Sub-tropical Himalayas 

from Kumaon eastwards; Western 

Ghats from Konkan Southwards. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Taalmuuli, Taalpatri, 

Krishna Mushali, Bhuumitaala. 

Unani ◮ Musli Siyaah. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Nilappanan kizhangu. 

Action ◮ Nervine, adaptogenic, sedative, 

anticonvulsive, androgenic, 

anti-inflammatory and diuretic. 

Used in Jaundice, urinary disorders, 

skin diseases and asthma. 

Mucilaginous. 

The rhizome contains saponins (curculigosaponin 

C and F promoted proliferation 

of spleen lymphocytes very 

significantly; F and G increased the 

weight of the thymus in vitro in mice); 

Curcuma amada Roxb. 185 

sapogenins; phenolic glycosides, a triterpene 

alcohol; a pentacyclic triterpene, 

an aliphatic compound, hentriacontanol, 

sitosterol, stigmasterol, 

cycloartenol and sucrose. A peptide, 

Curculin C, containing 114 amino 

acids, has been isolated from the fruit. 

In traditional Chinese medicine, 

dried rhizome, containing curculigoside 

is used as a tonic for its immunological 

and protective property. 

In Indian medicine, powdered rhizomeswithmilkaretakenasarestorative 

tonic, also for sexual debility. 

EtOH (50%) of the plant exhibited 

hypoglycaemic property. 

Dosage ◮ Dried rhizome—3–6 g 


Curcuma amada Roxb. 


Habitat ◮ Cultivated in Gujarat; 

wild in parts of West Bengal, Uttar 

Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamil 

Nadu. 

English ◮ Mango-ginger, Wild 

Turmeric. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Aamra Haridraa, Aamragandhi 

Haridraa, Surabhidaaru, 

Karpuraa. 

Unani ◮ Aambaa Haldi, Daarchob. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Mangaiinji. 


appetizer, expectorant, antipyretic, 

anti-inflammatory. Specific in 

rheumatism and inflammation of 

liver; rheumatism; in contusions 

and sprains. 

C

186 Curcuma angustifolia Roxb. 

C 

Presence of curcumin and a phytosterol 

is reported in the rhizome. The 

essential oil exhibited antimicrobial, 

antifungal and anthelmintic activity 

against tape worms. 

Significant decrease was observed 

in liver total lipids and serum triglycerides 

of adult female rat when fed 

10% Mango-ginger or 10% curcumin 

along with normal diet or a surcosebased 

hypertriglyceridaemic diet. 

Dosage ◮ Rhizome—3–5 g powder; 

10–20 ml juice. (CCRAS.) 

Curcuma angustifolia Roxb. 


Habitat ◮ Central Himalaya, Bihar, 

West Bengal, Maharashtra and 

South India. 

English ◮ East Indian Arrowroot, 

Travancore Starch. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Tvakshira, Tvakshiri. 

Unani ◮ Tikhur, Tabaasheer. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Ararut-gaddalu. 

Action ◮ Starch—Cooling, demulcent, 

nutritious; used for asthma 

and bronchitis, as a substitute for 

Vansalochana (Bamboo-manna). 

Oil—antibacterial, antifungal, 

anthelmintic against tape worms. 

Rhizome—used for fever, diarrhoea, 

gravel, swellings and skin diseases. 

The rhizomes yield 9.4% of an essential 

oil containing alpha-pinene 1.90, 

beta-pinene 17.92, d-ar-curcumene 

27.84, d-camphor 12.20, d-alpha-terpineol 

13.40, borneol 7.0, zingiberol 9.48 

and a sesquiterpene alcohol 8.0%. 


(CCRAS.) 

Curcuma aromatica Salisb. 


Habitat ◮ Cultivated chiefly in West 

Bengal and Kerala. 

English ◮ Wild turmeric, Yellow 

Zedoary. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Karpuraa, Aranya-rajani 

kanda, Van Haridraa. 

Unani ◮ Daarchob. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kastoori Manjal. 

Action ◮ Uses similar to those of C. 

longa. Essential oil from rhizomes— 

antimicrobial, antifungal and 

anthelmintic. The tubers are applied 

externally to bruises and sprains, 

to skin eruptions and infections. 

A decoction is administered in 

biliary gastritis. 

Fresh rhizomes contain a number 

of sesquiterpenes including curdione 

and cerumol. Curcumol and curdione 

showed inhibitory activity on sarcoma 

180 in mice. 

The rhizomes yield 6.1% of an essential 

oil with d-camphene 0.8, dcamphor 

2.5, sesquiterpenes 65.5, sesquiterpene 

alcohols 22.0, acids 0.7%. 

The essential oil shows high amounts 

of ar-curcumene (18.6%), beta-curcumene 

(25.5%) and xanthorrhizol 

(25.7%). 

The oil, on intraperitoneal administration, 

partly reversed toxipathic hepatitis 

in mice induced by CCl4.


(CCRAS.) 

Curcuma caesia Roxb. 


Habitat ◮ Cultivated mainly in West 

Bengal. 

English ◮ Black Zedorary. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Rajani, Nishaa, Nishi, 

Raatri, Kaali Haldi, Nilkanth, 

Narkachura. 

Unani ◮ Zarambaad. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Manupasapu. 

Action ◮ Carminative. Used 

externally for bruises and sprains. 

The essential oil contains camphor 

as main constituent; others are camphane, 

bornylene and sesquiterpene 

hydrocarbons. 

Curcuma longa Linn. 

Synonym ◮ C. domestica Valeton. 


Habitat ◮ Cultivated all over India, 

particularly in West Bengal, Tamil 

Nadu and Maharashtra. 

English ◮ Turmeric. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Haridraa, Priyaka, 

Haridruma, Kshanda, Gauri, 

Kaanchani, Krimighna, Varavarnini, 

Yoshitapriyaa, Hattavilaasini, 

Naktaahvaa, Sharvari. 

Unani ◮ Zard Chob. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Manjal. 

Curcuma longa Linn. 187 


cholagogue, hepatoprotective, 

blood-purifier, antioxidant, detoxifier 

and regenerator of liver tissue, 

antiasthmatic, anti-tumour, anticutaneous, 

antiprotozoal, stomachic, 

carminative. Reduces high plasma 

cholesterol. Antiplatelet activity offers 

protection to heart and vessels. 

Also protects against DNA damage 

in lymphocytes. 


conditions. (German Commission 

E, ESCOP, WHO.) Asantiinflammatory, 

stomachic. (Indian 


The rhizomes gave curcuminoids, 

the mixture known as curcumin, consisting 

of atleast four phenolic diarylheptanoids, 

including curcumin and 

monodesmethoxycurcumin; volatile 

oil (3–5%), containing about 60% of 

turmerones which are sesquiterpene 

ketones, and bitter principles, sugars, 

starch, resin. 

Curcumin related phenolics possess 

antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, 

gastroprotective and hepatoprotective 

activities. The antioxidant activity of 

curcumin is comparable to standard 

antioxidants—vitamin C and E, BHA 

and BHT. 

The volatile oil, also curcumin, exhibited 

anti-inflammatory activity in 

a variety of experimental models (the 

effects were comparable to those of 

cortisone and phenylbutazone). Used 

orally, curcumin prevents the release 

of inflammatory mediators. It depletes 

nerve endings of substance P, the neurotransmitter 

of pain receptors. 

C

188 Curcuma zedoaria Rosc. 

C 

Curcumin’s cholesterol-lowering 

actions include interfering with intestinal 

cholesterol uptake, increasing 

the conversion of cholesterol into bile 

acids and increasing the excretion of 

bile acids via its choleretic effects. 

Curcuminoids prevent the increases 

in liver enzymes, SGOT and SGPT; this 

validates the use of turmeric as a hepatoprotective 

drug in liver disorders. 

Curlone, obtained from the dried rhizome, 

is used against hepatitis. 

Turmeric and curcumin increase 

the mucin content of the stomach and 

exert gastroprotective effects against 

stress, alcohol, drug-induced ulcer 

formation. (Curcumin at doses of 

100 mg/kg weight exhibited ulcerogenic 

activity in rats.) 

The ethanolic extract of the rhizome 

exhibited blood sugar lowering activity 

in alloxan-induced diabetic rats. 

Piperine (a constituent of black and 

long pepper) enhances absorption and 

bioavailability of curcumin. 

Dosage ◮ Cured rhizome—1–3 g 


Curcuma zedoaria Rosc. 



India; wild in Eastern Himalaya. 

English ◮ Zedoary, Zerumbet. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Karchuura, Draavida, 

Palaashi, Kachura, Gandhmuulaka, 

Shati. 

Unani ◮ Zarambaad. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kichhilikkizhangu. 


gastrointestinal stimulant, diuretic, 

expectorant, demulcent, rubefacient. 

Used in flatulence and 

dyspepsia. Fresh root is used for 

checking lecorrhoeal discharge; also 

for blood purification. Zedoary’s 

effect on digestive organs is similar 

to ginger but milder. 



of India indicated the use of the rhizome 

in goiter. 

The rhizomes are a source of Shoti 

Starch, used as a food for babies and 

convalescents, recovering from chronic 

stomatitis. It is cooling and demulcent. 

Zedoary, dried rhizomes, contains 

a number of terpenoids, including 

curcumene, curcumenone, curdione, 

curcumenol. Curzerenone, furanogermenone, 

germacrone, germacrone 

epoxide; a volatile oil (1.0–1.5%) resembling 

ginger oil, and starch (50%). 

Zedoary is thought to stimulate bile 

production (due to sesquiterpene ketones) 

and gall bladder emptying (due 

to cucuminoid constituents). 

The sesquiterpenes, germacrone, 

germacrone epoxide, curzerenone and 

curcumenol showed CNS depressant 

properties. Curzerenone also showed 

a potent protective effect against induced 

lesions in rats. Both curzerenone 

and curcumenol showed 

a moderate analgesic action. 

The terpenoid furanogermenone exhibits 

antiallergic activity. (Powdered 

zedoary, mixed with fructose, is used 

as an antiallergant in Japan.)

Curcumenol and curdione are 

shown to possess tumour-inhibiting 

property. The rhizome is used in China 

for extradural haematomas and certain 

types of tumours. It has been reported 

in China that zedoary reduced cervical 

cancer and increased the effects of 

chemotherapy and radiotherapy. 

The volatile oil of zedoary exhibits 

antimicrobial and antifungal activity. 

The antifungal constituent of the oil has 

been reported as methyl-p-methoxycinnamate. 

Dosage ◮ Dried rhizome—1–3 g 


Cuscuta epithymum Linn. 


Habitat ◮ A parasitic climber, 

occuring in Europe, Asia, South 

Africa. 

English ◮ Lesser Doddar, Hellweed, 

Devil’s Guts. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Aakaashvalli, Amarvalli, 

Amarvela. 

Unani ◮ Aftimoon. 

Folk ◮ Sitammapogunalu (Telugu). 

Action ◮ Hepatic, laxative, carminative. 

The parasitic plant accumulates alkaloids 

from the host plant. It contains 

flavonoids, including kaempferol 

and quercetin, hydroxycinnamic acid 

derivatives. Cuscutalin (1%) and cuscutin 

(0.02%) are main active principles 

of the plant. Seeds contain amarvelin, 

resins, oil (3%) and reducing sugars. 

Cyamopsis tetragonoloba (Linn.) Taub. 189 

Used in urinary, spleen and liver disorders. 

Cuscuta reflexa Roxb. 


Habitat ◮ A parasitic climber 

common throughout India up to 

3,000 m. 

English ◮ Doddar. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Amarvalli. 

Unani ◮ Kasoos. 

Action ◮ See C. epithymum. 

The seeds contain amarbelin and 

kaempferol; stem gave cuscutin, cuscutatin, 

beta-sitosterol, luteolin, bergenin 

and kaempferol. The parasitic plant 

accumulates alkaloids from the host 

plant. The climber growing on Mangiera 

indica has been found to contain 

mangiferin. 

Cyamopsis tetragonoloba 

(Linn.) Taub. 



India, particularly in Haryana, 

Punjab, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh 

and Orissa. 

English ◮ Cluster bean, Guar. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Kshudra Shimbi, 

Gorakshaphalini, Guaar, Gwaalin. 

Unani ◮ Guaar phali. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kothaveray. 

C

190 Cyclea arnotii Miers. 

C 

Action ◮ Laxative, antibilious. 

Gum—hypoglycaemic, hypolipidaemic, 

appetite depressor (weight 

loss not observed), reduces glycosuria 

during gum supplementation. 

The administration of Guar gum 

(15 g/day) with normal diet for 6 weeks 

produced significant reduction in plasma, 

total cholesterol and LDL-cholesterol. 

The gum (10 g daily) is reported 

to decrease blood-glucose level in normal 

and diabetic volunteers. The supplementation 

of the gum in the diet of 

insulin-dependent diabetics failed to 

improve the long-term diabetic control, 

but significantly reduced serum 

cholesterol levels. 

Taking Guar gum orally with meals 

was found to lower post-prandial glucose 

levels in patients with type 1 diabetes. 

(Am J clin Nutr, 56, 1992, 1056– 

1060.) 

Oral administration of an ethanol 

extract of powdered pods has shown 

significant antiulcer, antisecretory and 

cytoprotective effects on various experimentally-induced 

gastric lesions in 

rats. 

Guarmeal contains galactomannan, 

3-epikatonic acid and a saponin. 

Cyclea arnotii Miers. 

Synonym ◮ C. peltata Hook. F & 

Thoms. 


Habitat ◮ Throughout South and 

East India and in the Andaman and 

Nicobar Islands. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Raaj-Paathaa (bigger 

var. of Paathaa, Cissampelos pareira 

Linn.). 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Para. 

Action ◮ Roots—used in smallpox, 

bone fractures, malarial fever, 

jaundice, stomachache. 

The root yielded tetrandrine as the 

major alkaloid. Tetrandrine (0.1 g/day) 

was found effective in the treatment of 

chloroquine resistant malaria. 

Tetrandrine possesses cytotoxic and 

immunomodulatory properties and is 

indicated in the treatment of chronic 

inflammatory diseases. It shows antihypertensive, 

cardiac depressant and 

vasodilator effect. It also exhibits antiallergic 

activity. 

Cydonia oblonga Mill. 

Synonym ◮ C. vulgaris Pers. 



Kashmir and the Nilgiri hills. 

English ◮ Quince Fruit. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Amritaphala, Paatalaa, 

Simbitikaa. 

Unani ◮ Bihi, Bihidaanaa. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Shimaimathala. 

Action ◮ Fruit pulp and seeds— 

soothing and demulcent; used 

in irritable bowel syndrome, 

diarrhoea, dysentery, constipation, 

and in irritable conditions of the 

mucous membrane. Leaf, bud 

and bark—astringent. Fruit— 

expectorant. Mucilage—used

externally for scalds, ulcers and 

burns. 

The seed kernel contains the glycoside 

amygdalin, tannin, mucilage 

(about 22%), ash (1.3%) and fatty oil 

(14–19%). 

In Greece, a tea prepared by boiling 

dry seeds in water is given in cystitis. 

The major water-soluble polysaccharide 

in the mucilage of seeds contains 

a high proportion of glucuronic 

acid residues. 

The fruit contains pectin (yield 

0.53% fresh weight) and is similar to 

that of apple. Ionone glycosides, along 

with octadienoic acid and its diol, have 

been isolated from the fruit. 

Fruit juice contains thiamine, riboflavin, 

nicotinic acid, vitamin B6, 

inositol, pantothenic acid, folic acid 

and biotin. 

The essential oil also gave a number 

of ionone-related compounds. The 

buds contain a cyanogenetic glycoside. 

The bark and shoots yield hydrocyanic 

acid on distillation. 

Cymbopogon citratus 

(DC.) Stapf. 

Synonym ◮ Andropogon citratus DC. 


Habitat ◮ Grown in Punjab, Maharashtra, 

Gujarat and Karnataka. 

English ◮ Lemongrass. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Bhuutika, Bhuutikaa. 

Action ◮ Leaf—stimulant, sudorific, 

antiperiodic, anticatarrhal. Essential 

oil—carminative, anticholerin, 

Cymbopogon jwarancusa (Jones) Schult. 191 

depressant, analgesic, antipyretic, 


The lemongrass contains a volatile 

oil, with citral (about 70%), citronellal, 

geraniol and myrcene as its main constituents. 

Cetral and citronellal exhibit 

marked sedative activity. 

The lemongrass is taken as a tea for 

digestive problems; it relaxes muscles 

of the stomach and gut, relieves spasm 

and flatulence. In catarrhal conditions, 

it is taken as a febrifuge. 

An infusion of fresh leaves on oral 

administration has been found to produce 

dose-dependent analgesia in rats. 

This analgesic acitivity is caused by 

myrcene present in the leaf. 

Geraniol and d-limonene from the 

essential oil induce activity of glutathione 

S-transferase, a detoxifying 

enzyme, which is believed to be a major 

factor for chemical carcinogen detoxification. 

Cymbopogon jwarancusa 

(Jones) Schult. 

Synonym ◮ Andropogon jwarancusa 

Jones. 


Habitat ◮ Himalayas from Kashmir 

to Assam, ascending up to more 

than 300 m and in the north-western 

plains. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Bhuutikaa, Laamajjaka, 

Laamajja. (Subs. Vetiveria 

zizanioides (L.) Nash.) 

Unani ◮ Izkhar. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Vilaamichhan. 

C

192 Cymbopogon martinii (Roxb.) Wats. 

C 

Action ◮ Blood purifier, bechic, 

anticholerin, emmenagogue, 

febrifuge, antirheumatic (also used 

in gout). Flower—styptic. Essential 

oil—antimicrobial. 


is piperitone (64.7%) others include 

borneol, cadinene, camphene, camphor, 

farnesene, geraniol, alpha-and 

beta-pinene. The antibacterial activity 

is attributed to piperitone. 

Cymbopogon martinii 

(Roxb.) Wats. 

Synonym ◮ Andropogon martinii 

Roxb. 


Habitat ◮ In drier parts of India; 

in Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, 

Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh 

and Uttar Pradesh. The most 

important centers of Rosha Grass 

oil production are Betul and Mimar 

in Madhya Pradesh and Nasik in 

Maharashtra. 

English ◮ Rosha Grass, Palmarosa. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Rohisha-trn, Dhyaamaka. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kavathampillu. 

Action ◮ Essential oil is used 

externally for stiff joints and 

lumbago, skin diseases, and in 

the treatment of baldness. Given 

internally in small doses in bilious 

complaints. 

The essential oil obtained from motia 

var. is rich in geraniol (79–95%). 

The oil is known as Palmarosa, also 

Rusa. Sofia var. yields an oil with less- 

er geraniol. It is known as Gingergrass 

Oil. 

Cymbopogon nardus 

(Linn.) Rendle. 

Synonym ◮ Andropogon nardus Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Mainly in South India; 

cultivated to a small extent in 

warmer parts of India. 

English ◮ Ceylon Citronella Grass. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Jambir-trn (var.). 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kamachipillu. 

Action ◮ Leaf—stomachic, carminative, 

spasmolytic, mild astringent. 

Essential oil—stimulant, carminative, 

diaphoretic, rubefacient, 

antiseptic, antibacterial, antifungal, 

larvicidal. 

Lemongrass and lemongrass oil preparations 

are used almost exclusively 

in combinations for disorders and discomforts 

of gastrointestinal tract, muscle 

pain and neuralgia, colds, various 

nervous disturbances and for conditions 

of exhaustion. 


oil are: citronellal 31.6, neral 28.6, citronellol 

10.6, elemicine 7.3, geranyl acetate 

4.6, elemol 3.7, limonene 3.2 and 

isopulegol 2.7%. 

Citronella oil is also used as an insect 

repellent. 

Cymbopogon schoenanthus 

Spreng. 

Synonym ◮ Andropogon schoenanthus 

Linn.


Habitat ◮ Warmer parts of India, 

from Punjab to Bengal and in South 

India. 

English ◮ Camel-Hay. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Rohisha (var.). 

Unani ◮ Rusaa Ghaas, Izkhar. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Karpurapul, Rohishatrna. 

Action ◮ Roots and rhizome— 

carminative, stimulant, diaphoretic, 

emmenagogue; used for fever, cold 

and genitourinary affections. 

Fresh leaves yield an essential oil 

(yield 0.8%). It contains a series of 

methyl ketones, along with limonene 

19.5, camphene 8.0%, and a group of 

oxygenated sesquiterpenes, the major 

being elemol 4.5%. 

The fragrant oil is known as Rusa 

or Geranium Oil and is used as a substitute 

for rose oil. It exhibits stimulant, 

carminative, antispasmodic and 

diaphoretic properties. It is applied externally 

in rheumatism and neuralgia. 

Cynara scolymus Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Monastery gardens of 

Europe. Now cultivated in India. 

English ◮ Globe Artichoke. 

Unani ◮ Harshaf. 

Action ◮ Herb—antitoxic, liver 

restorative, hypocholesterolaemic. 

Water soluble extract is used for 

liver and renal diseases for its 

cholagogic and choleretic action 

Cynodon dactylon Pers. 193 

(flow of bile increases up to 60 per 

cent). Artichokes assist digestion of 

fats, are known as diabetic’s potato 

in Europe. 


problems. (German Commission E.) 


reported hepatic action. 

All parts of the plant contains sesquiterpene 

lactone cynaropecrin and 

inulin. The leaves contain cynarin. 

Hepatic activity of the leaves is due 

topolyphenolssuchascynarin,caffeoylquinic 

acid derivatives and flavonoids. 

Cynarin and caffeic acid exhibited 

hepatoprotective activity in 

CCl4-treated rats. (A minimum of 

1% polyphenols and 0.2% flavonoids 

in the dried leaves is required for the 

activity.) 

The plant is included in indigenous 

compound formulations recommended 

for viral and drug-induced hepatitis. 

All parts of the plant stimulate digestive 

secretions, especially bile, and are 

used for the treatment of gallbladder 

problems. Plant is used as a diuretic 

in dropsy. The plant is also used 

against atherosclerosis and for lowering 

cholesterol levels. 

The extract gave mixed results in 

preventing alcohol-induced hangover. 

(CMAJ, 169, 2003, 1269–73; Natural 


2007.) 

Cynodon dactylon Pers. 



3,000 m. 

C

194 Cyperus articulatus Linn. 

C 

English ◮ Bermuda Grass, Bahama 

Grass, Couch Grass. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Duurvaa, Bhaargavi, 

Shatvalli, Shatparvaa, Tiktaparvaa, 

Shatviryaa, Sahastravirya, Shitaa, 

Anantaa, Golomi. 

Unani ◮ Duub. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Arugampallu. 

Action ◮ Thegrassisareputedas 

a remedy in epitaxis, haematuria, 

inflammed tumours, whitlows 

fleshy excrescences, cuts, wounds, 

bleeding piles, cystitis, nephritis and 

in scabies and other skin diseases. It 

is credited with astringent, diuretic, 

antidiarrhoeal, anticatarrhal, styptic 

and antiseptic properties. 


recommended the dried fibrous 

root in menorrhagia, metrorrhagia 

and burning micturation. 

Phenolic phytotoxins—ferulic, syringic, 

p-coumaric, vanillic, p-hydroxybenzoic 

and O-hydroxyphenyl acetic 

acids, are reported from the plant. 

The leaves contain tricin, flavone Cglycosides 

and a flavonoid sulphate. 


juice (API Vol. IV.); root—5–10 ml 

juice (API Vol. III.) 

Cyperus articulatus Linn. 

Family ◮ Cyperaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Native to Turkey; found 

in warm regions from Bengal to Sri 

Lanka in standing water of ponds 

and canals. 

English ◮ Guinea Rush, Ardue. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Kronchaadana. 

Action ◮ Carminative, antiemetic 

(useful in vomiting of pregnancy), 

sedative (in dyspeptic disorders). 

The root contains a sesquiterpene 

ketone, articulone, which is identical 

to cyperone. Volatile oil contains 

sesquiterpene hydrocarbons and 

sesquiterpene alcohols, including cyperenone. 

Cypress is a totally different herb. 

See Cupressus sempervirens. 

Cyperus esculentus Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Indigenous to West 

Asia and North Africa; occurring 

scattered from Punjab to Nilgiri 

hills as a grass-like sedge. 

English ◮ Earth Almond, Chufa, 

Rush Nut, Tiger Nut. (Tuber is 

called Nut.) 

Ayurvedic ◮ Chichoda. 

Folk ◮ Chichodaa, Kaseru (Punjab). 

Also equated with Naagaramustaka. 

Action ◮ A digestive tonic (used 

for indigestion, flatulence, colic, 

diarrhoea, dysentery); promotes 

diuresis and menstruation. The 

juice is taken for treating ulcers of 

the mouth and gums. 

Tiger Nut is used in debility and as 

a nervine tonic due to its high crude 

lipid and carbohydrate contents and 

fairly good essential amino acid composition.

Cyperus rotundus Linn. 



a weed upto 2,000 m. 

English ◮ Nut Grass. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Musta, Mustaa, Mustaka, 

Abda, Ambuda, Ambhoda, 

Ambodhara, Bhadra, Bhadraa, 

Bhadramusta, Bhadramustaa, 

Bhadramustaka, Ghana, Jalada, 

Jaldhara, Meghaahvaa, Nirada, 

Vaarida, Vaarivaaha, Payoda, 

Balaahaka. Ganda-Duurvaa (var.). 

Unani ◮ Naagarmothaa, Saad-e-Kufi. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Koraikkizhangu. 

Folk ◮ Mothaa. 

Action ◮ Carminative, astringent, 

anti-inflammatory, antirheumatic, 

hepatoprotective, diuretic, 

antipyretic, analgesic, hypotensive, 

emmenagogue and nervine 

tonic. 

Used for intestinal problems, indigestion, 

sprue, diarrhoea, dysentery, 

vomiting and fever; also as a hypocholesterolaemic 

drug and in obesity. 



of India indicated the use of the rhizome 

in rheumatism, inflammations, 

dysuria, puerperal diseases and obesity. 

The tuber is rich in Cu, Fe, Mg 

and Ni. Beta-sitosterol, isolated from 

the tubers, exhibits significant antiinflammatory 

activity against carrageenan- 

and cotton pellet-induced 

oedema in rats; the activity is comparable 

to hydrocortisone and phenyl- 

Cyperus scariosus R.Br. 195 

butazone when administered intraperitoneally. 

The alcoholic and aqueous extracts 

of the tubers possess lipolytic action 

and reduce obesity by releasing enhanced 

concentrations of biogenic 

amines from nerve terminals of the 

brain which suppress the appetite centre. 

Presence of eudalne group of sesquiterpenic 

compounds of sesquiterpene 

alcohol, isocyperol is said to play 

an important role in lipid metabolism. 

An alcoholic extract of the plant exhibits 

liver-protective activity against 

CCL4-induced liver damage in mice. 

Methanolic extract of the plant stimulates 

the production of melanin in 

cultured melanocytes. (Plant extract is 

used in preparations used for pigmentation 

of skin and hair, also in suntan 

gels.) 

Aqueous-alcoholic extract of the 

tuber exhibited hypotensive, diuretic, 

antipyretic and analgesic activities. 

These are attributed to a triterpenoid. 

The essential oil (0.5–0.9%) from the 

tubers contains mainly sesquiterpenes. 

C. platystilis Br. is equated with 

Kaivarta-mustaka. 

Dosage ◮ Rhizome—3–6 g powder; 

20–30 ml decoction. (API Vol. III.) 

Cyperus scariosus R.Br. 


Habitat ◮ Damp situations in Uttar 

Pradesh and eastern and southern 


English ◮ Nut grass. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Bhadramustaa, Musta, 

Amoda, Naagaramustaka. (Naagara 

C

196 Cytisus scoparius (L.) Link. 

C 

is a different drug, equated with 

Zingiber officinale Rosc.) 

Siddha ◮ Korai-kilangu (Tamil). 

Folk ◮ Naagara-mothaa. 

Action ◮ Essential oil—hypotensive, 

anti-inflammatory, CNS stimulant, 

antimicrobial. Rhizome—stomachic, 

cordial, antidiarrhoeal and 

diuretic. 

See C. rotundus. 

Cytisus scoparius (L.) Link. 

Synonym ◮ Sarothamnus scoparius 

(L.) Koch. 

Family ◮ Papilionaceae, Fabaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Mild climatic regions of 

south and central Europe, north 

Africa and West Asia. C. scoparius 

is fairly common in and around 

Oatacmund (Nilgiris) and is found 

wild as a garden escape. It grows also 

in Simla and neighbouring places. 

An allied species, C. monspessulanus 

Linn., White Broom, also occurs in 

the Nilgiri hills. 

English ◮ Broom, Scotch Broom, 

Yellow Broom. 

Folk ◮ Broom. 

Action ◮ Green twigs of the plant, 

collected before flowering, either 

fresh or after drying, are used as 

diuretic and cathartic. Emetic in 

large doses. The seeds are also used 

similarly. The herb is used chiefly in 

the form of sulphate in tachycardia 

and functional palpitation. (The 

action of the whole plant is stated 

to be different from that of isolated 

alkaloids.) The whole herb has been 

used to treat tumours. 

Key application ◮ For functional 

heart and circulatory disorders. 

Aqueous-ethanolic extracts are 

used internally. Simultaneous 

administration of MAO-inhibitors 

contraindicated due to the tyramine 

content. (German Commission E.) 


reported antiarrhythmic and 

diuretic action of the herb. 

The herb contains quinolizidine alkaloids; 

main alkaloids are (−)-sparteine, 

lupanine, ammodendrine and 

various derivatives; biogenic amines, 

including tryramine, epinine, dopamine; 

isoflavone glycosides including 

genistein, scoparin; flavonoids; essential 

oil; caffeic acid and p-coumaric 

acids; tannins. Seeds contain lectins 

(phytohaemagglutinins). 

The herb contains over 2% tyramine. 

Tyramine acts as an indirect sympathomimetic, 

vasoconstrictive and hypotensive. 

The herb is contraindicated in high 

blood pressure, A-V block and pregnancy. 

Scoparin’s action on renal mucous 

membrane is similar to that of Buchu 

and Uva-ursi. (A decoction or infusion 

of broom is used in dropsical complaints 

of cardiac origin.) 

Sparteine produces a transient rise 

in arterial pressure followed by a longer

period of decreased vascular tension 

(contradictory observations have been 

recorded). Some researchers are of the 

opinion that sparteine is a regulator 

in chronic vulvar disease. It showed 

no cumulative action like digitalis. In 

Cytisus scoparius (L.) Link. 197 

large doses, it is highly toxic and impairs 

the activity of respiratory organs. 

C. monopessulanus (a related species) 

contains. 9% alkaloids. 

Sparteine is toxic at more than 

300 mg dose. (Francis Brinker.) 

C

Dactyloctenium aegyptium 

Beauv. 

Synonym ◮ Eleusine aegyptiaca Desf. 

Family ◮ Gramineae, Poaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Common throughout 

the plains of India (a very variable 

grass). 

Ayurvedic ◮ Takraa, Takraahvaa, 

Panchaanguli, Nrityakaundaka. 

(Classical synonyms.) (Takra is the 

classical name of buttermilk.) 

Folk ◮ Makaraa, Makari (Bihar, 

Orissa), Timidaa (Tamil Nadu) 

Action ◮ Astringent, bitter tonic, 

anthelmintic. Used for polyurea; 

externally for wounds and ulcers. 

The grass growing is New South 

Wales is reported to contain cyanogenetic 

glycosides. 

In Indian medicine, the grass is used 

for imparting medicinial properties of 

Takra (buttermilk) in intestinal, biliary 

and urinary diseases. 

Daemonorops draco Blume. 

Synonym ◮ Calamus draco Willd. 

Family ◮ Palmae; Aracaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Indo-Malayan region. The 

resin is imported into India mostly 

from Sumatra and Borneo. 

English ◮ East Indian Dragon’s 

Blood. 

D 

Ayurvedic ◮ Raktaniryaas, Khoonkharaabaa, 

Heeraadokhi. 

Unani ◮ Damm-ul-Akhwain. 

Action ◮ Astringent. Used for 

diarrhoea, dysentery. Also used 

against malignant tumours. 

The resin contains red tannin derivatives—drocoresinotannols, 

dracoresen 

and flavone quinones. 

Dosage ◮ Resin—1–3 g. (CCRAS.) 

Daemonorops jenkinsianus 

Mart. 

Synonym ◮ Calamus jenkinsianus 

Griff. 

Family ◮ Palmae; Aracaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Assam, Khasi Hills and 

Sikkim. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Vetra (related species of 

Calamus tenuis Roxb.) 

Action ◮ Used as a vegetable 

for oedema, also in intrinsic 

haemorrhage. 

Dalbergia lanceolaria Linn.f. 

Synonym ◮ D. frondosa Roxb. 


Habitat ◮ The sub-Himalayan 

tract, ascending up to 750 m, and 


Siddha/Tamil ◮ Erigai, Navelangu.

D 

200 Dalbergia latifolia Roxb. 

Folk ◮ Gorakh, Takoli, Bithuaa. 

Action ◮ A decoction of bark— 

used in dyspepsia. Oil—applied to 

rheumatic affections, and cutaneous 

diseases. Leaf—in leprosy and allied 

obstinate skin diseases. 

Baptigenin from leaves and flowers 

possesses properties to treat arthritic 

affections and inflammations. An 

isoflavone glycoside of biochanin 

(lanceolarin) has been obtained from 

the root bark. Ether, EtOH and aqueous 

extract of leaves exhibited antiarthritic 


The heartwood of Dalbergia sp. contains 

quinones. Bark and pods contain 

tannins. 

Root bark gave isoflavone glycosides 

and lanceolarin. 



Dalbergia latifolia Roxb. 

Synonym ◮ D. emerginata Roxb. 


Habitat ◮ Bengal, Bihar, Madhya 

Pradesh and Western Peninsula. 

English ◮ East Indian Rosewood, 

Bombay Blackwood. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Shimshapaa (related sp.) 

Unani ◮ Sheesham. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ 

doroiral. 

Itti, Eravadi, Karun- 

Folk ◮ Sisu. 

Action ◮ Stimulant, appetiser, 

anthelmintic, spasmogenic. Used 

in dyspepsia, diarrhoea; also in 

obesity, cutaneous affections and 

leprosy. 

The bark contains hentriacontane, 

latifolin, beta-sitosterol and tannins. 

EtOH (50%) extract of the bark exhibits 

spasmogenic, and anthelmintic 

activity against Ascaridia galli. 

Dalbergia sissoides Grah. 



especially in the South. 

English ◮ Malabar Blackwood. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Kushimshapaa. 

(Shimshapaa related species). 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Vel-itti. 

Folk ◮ Sisam. 

Action ◮ Anti-inflammatory. 

The root contains isoflavones. The 

alcoholic extract of the root exhibited 

anti-inflammatory activity in carrageenan-induced 

hind paw oedema of 

male albino rats. 

A quinone, sissoidenone and dalbergion, 

latifolin and dalbergin have 

been isolated from the heartwood; also 

oleanolic acid, liquiritigenin and 

isoliquiritigenin. The sapwood and 

young leaves gave sissotrin. Biochanin 

A, isolated from young leaves, inhibited 

both serum and epidermal growth 

factor (EGF)—stimulated growth of 

human prostate cancer cell lines. 

Dalbergia sissoo Roxb ex DC. 

Family ◮ Papilionaceae; Fabaceae.

Habitat ◮ The sub-Himalayan tract, 

up to 1,200 m from Indus to Assam 

and in plains throughout India. 

English ◮ Sissoo, South Indian 

Redwood, Sissoo. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Shimshapaa, Krishnashimshapaa, 

Picchilaa. 

Unani ◮ Seesham. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Irupoolai. 

Action ◮ Leaves—bitter, and 

stimulant. Leaf mucilage, mixed 

with sweet oil, is applied to 

excoriations. Wood—anthelmintic, 

alterative, emetic, stomachic, 

antileprotic; used in diseases due to 

vitiated blood. Bark—anticholerin. 

Root—astringent. 



of India indicated the use of the heartwood 

in turbity of the urine, calculus 

and lipuria. 

The leaves gave isoflavone sissotrin; 

flowers 7,4 ′ -di-Me-tectorigenin. Seed 

oil (4.1%) contained fatty acids composed 

of palmitic (16.2), stearic (7.0%), 

oleic (14.6), linolenic (9.80) and linoleic 

(52.5) acids and lipids comprising 

neutral lipids (88.5), glycolipids (7.2) 

and phospholipids (4.0%). Pods contain 

2% tannins. 

Dosage ◮ Heartwood—1.5–10 g 

powder; 10–20 g for decoction. 


Dalbergia sympathetica 

Nimmo ex Grah. 

Synonym ◮ D. multiflora Heyne ex 

Prain. 

Daphne oleoides Schreb. 201 


Habitat ◮ Common in Maharashtra 


Folk ◮ Tibali (Goa), Pentagul 


Action ◮ Bark—used as a paste for 

pimples. Leaf—alterative. Aerial 

part—spasmolytic, CNS active, 

hypothermic. 

Dalbergia volubilis Roxb. 


Habitat ◮ Central and Eastern 

Himalayas, Uttar Pradesh and 

Orissa. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Gorakhi. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Punali. 

Folk ◮ Bankharaa, Bhatiaa. 

Action ◮ Leaves—used in aphthae. 

Root—genitourinary tract disinfectant; 

used in scalding of urine, also 

in foetid discharges. 

The stem bark afforded isoflavonoids, 

dalbergio, tectorigenin. The 

leaves gave flavonoid glycosides. The 

wood gave friedelin. 

Daphne oleoides Schreb. 

Family ◮ Thymelaeaceae. 

Habitat ◮ The Western Himalayas 

and Kashmir at 1,000–3,000 m. 

English ◮ Mezereon. 

Folk ◮ Kutilal, Kanthan (Punjab). 

D

D 

202 Datisca cannabina Linn. 

Action ◮ Active principles are 

attracting scientific interest. The 

orthoesters are co-carcinogenic 

and mezerein antileukaemic in 

experimental studies. Bark— 

used as an ointment for inducing 

discharge from indolent ulcers. 

Bark, root and root bark—used 

mainly for obstinate cutaneous 

diseases, especially for eczema 

with severe itching and copious 

exudation (weeping eczema). 

As the plant is poisonous, it is used 

in homoeopathic dilutions internally 

and topically. 

The bark gave diterpenes including 

mezerein, daphnetoxin (0.02%). Mezerein 

is anti-inflammatory and anticarcinogenic. 

Daphnetoxin is poisonous. 

Seeds contain daphnane ester (0.1%) 

and daphnetoxin (0.02%). 

EtOHextractshowedsignificantactivity 

against P-388 lymphocytic leukemia 

and L-1210 leukemia in mice, 

due to mezerein. 

Datisca cannabina Linn. 

Family ◮ Datiscaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Temperate and subtropical 

Himalaya from Kashmir to Nepal at 

300–1,800 m. 

English ◮ False Hemp. 

Folk ◮ Akal-ber. Bhang-jala (Punjab). 

Action ◮ Diuretic, purgative, 

expectorant. Used in fevers, and 

gastric and scrofulous ailments. 

The plant contains flavonoids, datiscin 

and datiscanin. EtOH (50%) extract 

of seeds and flowers exhibited 

marked sedative, highly anti-inflammatory, 

mild analgesic, antipyretic and 

diuretic activity in rats. 

Datura alba Nees. 



plains; wastelands, roadsides and 

gardens. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Dhattuura (white var.). 

(Dhattura consists of dried seeds of 

Datura sp.) 

Unani ◮ Dhaturaa. 

Action ◮ See D. Metel Linn. 

Datura innoxia Mill. 

Synonym ◮ D. metel auct. non Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Western Himalayas and 

hilly regions of the western parts 

of Peninsular India, abundantly in 

Maharashtra. 

English ◮ Thornapple. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Dhattuura. 

Unani ◮ Dhaturaa, Joz Maasil. 

Action ◮ The plant is the source 

of alkaloid scopolamine which is 

used as a pre-anaesthetic in surgery 

and childbirth, in ophthalmology 

and for the prevention of motion 

sickness. 

Hyoscyamine and hyoscine and meteloidine 

were found in the leaves, flowers, 

pericarp and seeds of the plant. The

oot gave tropane, tropine and pseudotropine. 

Datura metel Linn. 

Synonym ◮ D. fastuosa Linn. 



particularly in waste place. 

English ◮ Thornapple, Downy 

Datura. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Dhattuura, Dhuurta, 

Dhastura,Unmatta,Shivapriya, 

Harapriya, Hema, Haatta, Dhustuura, 

Dhustuuraka, Kanaka, Maatula. 

Also equated with Raaj-dhatuura. 

(white var.) 


Siddha/Tamil ◮ Oomatthai, Karuvoomatthai. 

Action ◮ Various plant parts are used 

in headache, hemiplegia, epilepsy, 

delirium, convulsions, cramps, rigid 

thigh muscles, rheumatism. Leaf— 

antitumour, antirheumatic. Leaf 

and corolla—anti-inflammatory. 

Flower—antiasthmatic. Seed, leaf 

and root—anticatarrhal, febrifuge, 

antidiarrhoeal, antidermatosis; also 

used in cerebral complications. 

Seeds—used in asthma. Limited use 

in kinetosis (excessive salivation, 

nausea and vomiting). 



of India indicated the use of the whole 

plant in dysuria and alopecia. 

The plant accumulates more hyoscine 

than hyoscyamine. Hyoscine 

Datura stramonium Linn. 203 

content of dried leaves and flowering 

tops—between 0.02–0.55%. Alkaloid 

content of leaves—0.55%; stem—0.4%; 

seeds—0.19%; pericarps—0.8%; root 

at flowering of the plant—0.77%. 

Hyoscine in large doses causes delirium 

and coma. 

Dosage ◮ Seed—30–60 mg. (API 

Vol. III.) 

Datura stramonium Linn. 

Synonym ◮ D. tatula Linn. 


Habitat ◮ The Himalaya from 

Kashmir to Sikkim up to 2,700 m, 

hilly districts of Central and South 

India. 

English ◮ Thornapple, Jimsonweed, 

Stramonium. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Krishnadhattuura, 

Dhuurta (black seed var.), Unmatta, 

Kitav, Tuuri, Maatul, Madan. 


Action ◮ Spasmolytic, antiasthmatic, 

anticholinergic, cerebral depressant, 

nerve-sedative. Controls spasms of 

bronchioles in asthma. Anticholinergic. 

Effects of overdose are similar 

to those of atropine. Temporary 

relief from Parkinsonian tremor 

recorded. (Contraindicated with 

depressant drugs.) Applied locally, 

stramonium palliates the pain of 

muscular rheumatism, neuralgia, 

also pain due to haemorrhoids, 

fistula, abscesses and similar inflammations. 

Prevents motion 

sickness. 

D

D 

204 Daucus carota Linn. var. sativa DC. 

Key application ◮ In diseases of 

the autonomic nervous system. 

(Included among unapproved 

herbs by German Commission E.) 


reported antispasmodic action of the 

leaf; Indian Herbal Pharmacopoeia 

accepted it as expectorant and 


Whole plant contains 0.26% alkaloids 

(seeds 0.98% and stem 0.08%); 

also flavonoids, withanolides, coumarins 

and tannins; the major alkaloid 

is hyoscyamine (44–67%), hyoscine 

(13.2–25.3%) and atropine (0.01–0.1%). 

The tropane alkaloids are similar to 

those found in Atropa belladonna. 

Hyoscine is five times as active as 

atropine in producing mydriasis, but 

its main use is as antimotion sickness 

drug; and in combination as a sedative. 

Toxic constituents include anticholinergic 

alkaloids. 

Dosage ◮ Leaf—60–185 mg powder; 

seed—60–120 mg powder (CCRAS.) 

Daucus carota Linn. var. 

sativa DC. 


Habitat ◮ Native to Europe and the 

Mediterranean region; extensively 

cultivated in Punjab, Haryana, Uttar 

Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh for 

its fleshy tap roots which are eaten 

raw or cooked. Wild Carrot: Native 

to Europe, Africa and Asia. Grows 

at 3,000–3,600 m in the Himalayas. 

English ◮ Carrot, Cultivated Carrot. 

Wild carrot (D. carota Linn.wild 

var.: the root, small and white), 

Queen Anne’s Lace, Bird’s Nest. 

Bees’ Nest Plant. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Gaajara, Garjara, 

Granjana. 

Unani ◮ Gaajar. 

Action ◮ Roasted roots—prescribed 

in palpitation, burning micturation, 

cough and bronchitis. Carrot 

increases the quantity of urine 

and helps the elimination of uric 

acid; also lowers blood sugar. 

Juice—a rich source of carotene. 

Seeds—diuretic, emmenagogue, 

spasmolytic (prescribed in anuria 

and sexual debility). Wild carrot— 

diuretic and antilithic (used for 

kidney stones, cystitis and in gout). 

Seeds—emmenagogue. Also used 

for hot flushes of the menopause. 

In cooked (orange) carrots betacarotene 

content (1890 mcg) was found 

much higher than in raw carrots- 

(1045 mcg/100 g). Heat processing of 

carrots affected alpha- and beta-carotene 

contents; their value decreased 

(3.7; 5.3) in water blanching, whereas 

increased (5.8; 8.2) in steam blanching 

compared to that in fresh carrots (5.2; 

8.1 mg/100 g) respectively. 

An interferon inducer has been isolated 

from carrot. It stimulates cells 

to produce the protein that increases 

human resistance to virus infections. 

Aqueous extract of carrots showed 

hepatoprotective activity against CCl4induced 

hepatic damage in mice liver. 

The ethanolic extract exhibits direct 

relaxant action on cardiac and smooth 

muscle preparation and this action 

may be responsible for its hypotensive

action. (Gently heated peeled roots, 

mixed with sugar candy, are given as 

a hypotensive drug.) 

The ethanolic extract of seeds exhibited 

diuretic effect in dogs. 


recommends Daucus carota Linn. 

(wild carrot) for its diuretic activity. 

Wild carrot contains flavones including 

apigenin, chypsin, luteolin; 

flavonols including kaempferol, quercetin 

and various glycosides. The furanocoumarins, 

8-methoxypsoralen and 

5-methoxypsoralen are found in the 

plant. The seed oil contains terpinen- 

4-ol, a renal irritant. It is believed to 

cause diuretic activity. 

Decalepis hamiltonii 

Wight & Arn. 


Habitat ◮ Deccan Peninsula; 

common in the forest areas of 

Western Ghats. 

Unani ◮ Desi Ushbaa. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Mahali kizhangu. 

Action ◮ Root—appetizer, blood 

purifier, bacteriostatic. Used as 

a substitute for Shveta Saarivaa 

(Hemidesmus indicus). Sold as 

Saarivaa in Kerala, Tamil Nadu 

and Karnataka. The root powder is 

given to diabetics. 

The root contains quercetin, kaempferol, 

coumarin and rutin. It has 

a sweet sarsaparilla-like taste; contains 

92% fleshy matter and 8% woody core. 

The root can be stored for longer 

periods and remains unaffected by mi- 

Delonix regia Rafin. 205 

croorganisms and insects, apparently 

due to the presence of the volatile 

principle which possesses bacteriostatic 

and toxic properties. 

The root, on steam distillation, gave 

4-O-methyl-resorcylaldehyde in a concentration 

of 0.8%. (The growth of E. 

coli was arrested by the aldehyde in 

0.041% concentration; fish died within 

4 min in 0.02% solution.) The sterols 

consists mainly of stagma and brassica 

sterols. Alpha-amyrin and lupeol, both 

free and as esters are also present in the 

root. 

The plant contains lupeol, betaamyrin 

2-hydroxy, 4-methoxy benzaldehyde, 

and ferulic acid. 

Delima scandens Burkill. 

Synonym ◮ Tetracera scandens 

Merrill. 

Family ◮ Dilleniaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Forests of Bengal, Assam 

and the Andamans. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Paaniya Valli. 

Action ◮ A decoction of the plant 

is given in dysentery and coughs. 

Leaves—used for the treatment of 

boils. Root—astringent, used as 

external application for burns. 

Delonix regia Rafin. 

Synonym ◮ Poinciana regai Bojer ex 

Hook. 


Habitat ◮ Native to Madagascar; 

grown in gardens and avenues for 

ornamental purposes and for shade. 

D

D 

206 Delphinium brunonianum Royle. 

English ◮ Flamboyant Flame tree, 

Gold Mohur. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Gulmohar (var.) White 

Gold Mohur is equated with Delonix 

elata Gamble, synonym Poinciana 

elata Linn. 

Siddha ◮ Vadanarayana, Perungondrai, 

Mayarum. White 

Gulmohar. (Tamil) 

Action ◮ Bark—antiperiodic, 

febrifuge. Plant—antirheumatic, 

spasmogenic. Flowers (aqueous and 

alcoholic extract)—active against 

roundworm. 

White Gulmohar trunk-bark yielded 

asparagine and aspartic acid. Flowers 

gave iso-quercetin. 

Delonix regia bark gave leucocyanidin; 

bark and leaves contain tannin, lupeol 

and beta-sitosterol, and free OHproline 

as major amino acid. Flower 

anthers are a rich source of zeaxanthin. 

Delphinium brunonianum 

Royle. 


Habitat ◮ Native to China; distributed 

in West Himalayas. 

English ◮ Musk Larkspur. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Sprikkaa. (Melilotus 

officinalis, known as Aspurka or 

Naakhunaa, is also equated with 

Sprikkaa.) Used as a substitute for 

Tagara (valerian). 

Action ◮ Himalayan species act as 

cardiac and respiratory depressant. 

All the species of Delphinium are 

poisonous; find use in indigenous 

medicine for destroying maggots 

in wounds, particularly in sheep. 

The flowers are considered acrid, 

bitter and astringent; seeds are 

cathartic, anthelmintic, emetic and 

insecticidal. 

Delphinium cashmirianum 

Royle. 


Habitat ◮ Kashmir (Himalayan 

species). 

English ◮ Kashmir Larkspur. 


Tagara (valerian). 

Action ◮ See D. brunonianum. 

Delphinium consolida Linn. 

Synonym ◮ D. ajacis Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Cultivated in gardens. 

English ◮ Forking Larkspur, Larkspur, 

Lark’s Claw, Knight’s Spur. 

Action ◮ Parasiticide. A tincture is 

used to destroy lice in hair. 

Thetoxicityoftheseedsisdueto 

diterpene alkaloids (delcosine, delsoline, 

consolidine). Delsonine and anthranoyllycoctonine 

are amorphous alkaloids. 

The alkaloids lead to bradycardia, 

lowering of blood pressure, and cardiac 

arrest. Also, they have a central 

paralyzing and curare-like effect on the 

respiratory system. (German Commission 

E.)

Entire plant, including roots and 

seeds, is used topically. Not to be used 

on abraded skin. 

Seeds contain 1.01–1.06% alkaloids 

and 28.7% of a fixed oil. A diglycoside 

pigment, delphonin and kaempferol 

have been isolated from the flowers. 

Delphinium denudatum Wall. 

Synonym ◮ D. pauciflorum Royle. 





English ◮ Larkspur. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Nirvishaa, Nirvishi. 

(Kyllinga triceps Rottb. is used as 

a substitute for Nirvishaa.) 

Unani ◮ Jadwaar Khataai, 

Maatiryaaq. 

Folk ◮ Root—astringent, vulnerary, 

deobstruent, alterative. Used for 

painful piles, muscular atrophy, 

gout and as a nervine tonic. Also 

used as an adulterant for aconite. 

Oral administration of the aqueous 

extractoftheplanttoratswithCCl4induced 

hepatotoxicity revealed hepatoprotective 

property of the plant. 

The roots contain campesterol, stigmasterol, 

sitosterol, cholesterol, deltaavenasterol 

and alkaloids including denudatine, 

denudatidine, condelphine, 

talatizidine and iso-talatizidine. 

Delphinium staphisagria Linn. 


Delphinium vestitium Wall. ex Royle. 207 


region. 

English ◮ Stavesacre. 

Unani ◮ Muvizaj. 

Action ◮ Parasiticide. Used for 

destroying lice. Contains poisonous 

alkaloids. Seeds are violently 

emetic and cathartic; used as an 

external application in obstinate 

skin diseases and eruptions under 

medical supervision. 

Seeds contain diterpene alkaloids; 

delphidine, delphinine, delphirine, delphisine 

and neoline. 

Stavesacre has a similar effect to aconitine. 

Extract from the seeds is used 

in homoeopathic dilutions. 

Delphinium vestitium 

Wall. ex Royle. 

Synonym ◮ Delphinium elatum auct. 

non Linn. 

D. speciosum Janka ex Nym. 


Habitat ◮ The temperate Himalaya 

from Kashmir to Nepal to 2,700– 

4,700 m. 

English ◮ Candle Larkspur, Bee 

Larkspur. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Nirvisha. 

Action ◮ Whole plant—cardiac 

and respiratory depressant, emetic, 

diuretic, anthelmintic. Seed— 

insecticidal. Used in skin eruptions. 

Powdered flowers, mixed with 

mustard oil, are used for destroying 

lica. 

D

D 

208 Delphinium zalil Aitch. & Hemsl. 

The plant contains beta-sitosterol 

and alkaloid delpheline; aerial parts 

contain an alkaloid, elatine. 

Seeds are very poisonous; contain 

several aconitine-like alkaloids. Delphinidine, 

isolated from seeds, causes 

drastic gastro-enteric irritation. 

Delphinium zalil Aitch. & Hemsl. 

Synonym ◮ D. semibarbatum Blenert 

ex Boiss. 


Habitat ◮ Persia and Afghanistan. 

English ◮ Zalil Larkspur. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Sprikkaa. (Melilotus 

officinalis, known as Aspurka or 

Naakhunaa, is also equated with 

Sprikkaa.) 

Unani ◮ Zarir, Zalil, Asbarg, 

Gul-Zalil (flower). 

Action ◮ Diuretic, anodyne, antiinflammatory, 

detergent. Used in 

jaundice, dropsy and diseases of the 

spleen. Ash—used externally on 

wounds and skin diseases. 

The seeds contain norditerpenoid 

alkaloid, zaliline, besides anhweidelphinine, 

browniine, desacetylnudicauline, 

lycoctonine, methyllycaconitine 

and nudicauline. The medicinal 

properties of the plant are attributed to 

desacetylnudicauline, methyllycaconitine 

and nudicauline. 

Dendrobium ovatum 

(Willd.) Kranzl. 

Family ◮ Orchidaceae. 

Habitat ◮ The Western Ghats. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Jivanti (substitute.) 

Folk ◮ Nagli (Maharashtra) 

Action ◮ Juice of fresh plant—stomachic, 

carminative, antispasmodic, 

laxative, liver tonic. (excites the 

bile). A related species, Dendrobium 

crumenatum Sw., occurs in Andaman 

Islands. Pounded leaves are 

used in Malaya for poulticing boils 

and pimples. Traces of alkaloids 

have been reported to be present in 

the pseudobulbs and leaves. 

D. macraei Lindl. and D. normale 

Face. are also known as Jivanti. 

Dendrophthoe falcata 

(Linn. f.) Etting. 

Family ◮ Loranthaceae. 


Ayurvedic ◮ Bandaaka, Vrkshaadani, 

Vrkshruuhaa. 

Siddha ◮ Pulluri, Plavithil (Tamil). 

Folk ◮ Baandaa. 

Action ◮ Bark—astringent and 

narcotic; used in menstrual 

disorders, consumption, asthma, 

also for treating wounds. 

The plant contains several flavonoids. 

Being parasitic, different flavonoids 

have been recorded in plants 

growing on different host plants. Quercitrin 

has been found to be the major 

common constituent. The plant also 

contains gallic, ellagic and chebulinic 

acids.

Aqueous and alcoholic extracts of 

the plant were tested in rats for their 

diuretic and anti-lithiatic activities. Alcoholic 

extract was found to be more 

effective than aqueous extract. 

Dosage ◮ Leaf, flower—10–20 ml 


Derris indica (Lamk.) Bennet. 

Synonym ◮ Pongamia pinnata Pierre. 

Family ◮ Fabaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Native to the Western 

Ghats. Found all over India on the 

banks of rivers and streams. 

English ◮ Indian Beech. Pongamia 

oil tree. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Naktmaal, Guchpushpak, 

Ghritpuur, Udkirya, Karanja. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Pungu. 

Action ◮ Used for skin diseases— 

eczema, scabies, leprosy, and for 

ulcers, tumours, piles, enlargement 

of spleen, vaginal and urinary 

discharges. Juice of root—used 

for closing fistulous sores and 

cleaning foul ulcers. Flowers— 

used in diabetes. Powder of seeds— 

used for whooping and irritating 

coughs of children. Seed oil—used 

in cutaneous affections, herpes and 

scabies. 

The tree is rich in flavonoids and related 

compounds. These include simple 

flavones, furanoflavonoids, chromenoflavones, 

chromenochalcones, 

coumarones, flavone glucosides, sterols, 

triterpenes and a modified phenylalanine 

dipeptide. 

Descurainia sophia (Linn.) Webb ex Prantl. 209 

Essential oil from leaves—antibacterial, 

antifungal. 

Dosage ◮ Bark—50–100 ml decoction; 

leaf—10–20 ml juice. 

(CCRAS.) 

Derris uliginosa Benth. 

Synonym ◮ D. trifoliate Lour. 


Habitat ◮ Costal forests of India and 

the Andamans. 

Folk ◮ Paan-lataa (Bengal), Kitani 


Action ◮ Stimulant, antispasmodic, 

counter-irritant. Bark—alterative in 

rheumatism. An oil prepared from 

the plant is used externally as an 

embrocation. 

The roots contain dehydrorotenone, 

lupeol and a ketone. Bark contains 

9.3% tannic acid. Stems contain tannic 

acid, hexoic, arachidic and stearic 

acids, ceryl alcohol, isomerides of 

cholesterol, potassium nitrate, gums 

and resins. 

Descurainia sophia 

(Linn.) Webb ex Prantl. 

Synonym ◮ Sisymbrium sophia L. 

Family ◮ Brassicaceae. 


Kashmir to Kumaon at 2,200–4,100, 

also in eastern Himalaya. 

English ◮ Flix Weed, Flax Weed. 

Folk ◮ Khaakasi, Khuubkalaan. 

D

D 

210 Desmodium gangeticum DC. 

Action ◮ Leaf and flower—astringent, 

antiscorbutic. Seed—expectorant, 

anti-inflammatory, febrifuge, 

antidysenteric. Aerial parts— 

antiviral, hypoglycaemic. 

The plants has been used externally 

for ulcers, seeds are used as substitute 

or adulterant of the seeds of 

Sisymbrium iro Linn. (Thesourceof 

Khaakasi, Khubb, Tukhm-e-Shahuh, 

Khuubkalaan of Unani medicine, 

known as Hedge Mustard or London 

Rocket.) 

Desmodium gangeticum DC. 

Synonym ◮ Hedysarum gangeticum 

Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Ascending to 1,500 m on 

the Himalaya; common on lower 

hills and plains throughout India. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Shaaliparni, Shaalaparni, 

Sthiraa, Somyaa, Guhaa, Triparni, 

Vidaarigandha, Anshumati. Also 

used as Prshniparni. (Uraria picta 

Desv., Prshniparni, is used as 

a substitute for Shaalaparni.) 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Pulladi, Sirupulladi 

Moovilai (root). 

Folk ◮ Sarivan. 

Action ◮ Root—antipyretic, diuretic, 

astringent (used in irritable 

bowel syndrome, diarrhoea and 

dysentery), anticatarrhal (used 

in post-natal care, chronic fever, 

cough, biliousness, vomiting), 

diuretic, anthelmintic, laxative and 

nervine tonic. Desmodium spp.: 

Roots—carminative, mildly purgative, 

stomachic, emmenagogue, 

diuretic. Leaves—galactagogue; 

a poultice of leaves is used for 

lumbago. Bark—used in diarrhoea 

and haemorrhages. 

Roots afforded pterocarpanoids— 

gangetin, gangetinin, desmodin and 

several alkaloids. The aerial portion 

gave indole-3-alkylamines and their 

derivatives. 

Gangetin showed significant antiinflammatory 

activity in 50 and 

100 mg/kg p.o. in rats. 


20 g for decoction. (API Vol. III.) 

Desmodium triflorum 

(Linn.) DC. 

Synonym ◮ Hedysarum triflorum 

Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Throughout India, in 

the plains ascending to 1,200 m in 

Kumaon and 1,800 m in Kashmir. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Tripaadi, Hamsapaadi 

(Kerala). 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Seruppadi. 

Folk ◮ Jangali Methi, Ran-methi. 

Action ◮ Fresh leaves—used 

internally as galactagogue and for 

diarrhoea; applied externally to 

wounds and abscesses. Root— 

diuretic. Also used for cough, 

asthma. 

The leaf contains alkaloids (0.01– 

0.15%), major being beta-phenylethyl-

amine; also contains tyramine and hypaphorine. 

Hypaphorine is present 

in roots as well. Root contains 0.01– 

0.02% alkaloids. 

Desmostachya bipinnata Stapf. 

Synonym ◮ Eragrostis cynosuroides 

Beauv. 



India in dry and hot areas and in 

sandy deserts. 

English ◮ Sacrificial Grass (smaller 

var.) 

Ayurvedic ◮ Kusha, Suuchyagra, 

Yagyabhuushana, Kshurapatra. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Tharubai. 

Action ◮ Root—cooling, diuretic, 

galactagogue, astringent. Used for 

urinary calculi, and other diseases 

of the bladder. Clums—used in 

menorrhagia, dysentery, diarrhoea 

andinskindiseases. 


India recommended the use of 

the rootstock in dysuria, vaginal 

discharges and erysipelas. 

Dosage ◮ Rootstock—50–100 g for 


Dianthus carophyllus Linn. 

Family ◮ Caryophyllaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Kashmir; commonly 

growningardens,especiallyonthe 

hills. 

Dicentra canadensis Walp. 211 

English ◮ Carnation, Clove Pink. 

Action ◮ Flowers—diaphoretic, 

alexiteric, cardiac tonic. whole 

plant—vermifuge. Juice of plant— 

antiviral. 

Leaves contain glucoproteins. 

A related species, Dicentra anatolicus 

Boiss, found in the Western Himalayas, 

is used as an antiperiodic in 

intermittent fevers. 

Dicentra canadensis Walp. 



Kumaon to Khasia Hills. Cultivated 


English ◮ Squirrel Corn. (A related 

species, Corydalis cucullaria, known 

as Turkey Pea, occurs in Canada 

and the USA.) 

Action ◮ Diuretic, alterative, antiscrofula. 

Used for torpid and 

sluggish conditions, menstrual 

disorders and diseases due to 

vitiated blood. Also employed as 

a sedative for the relief of paralysis 

agitans and other muscular tremors. 

A large number of physiologically 

active isoquinoline alkaloids have 

been isolated from the tubers of many 

species of Dicentra, but the use of 

Corydalis is not linked with the alkaloids 

they contain, only bulbocapnine, 

present in the tubers, exhibits therapeutic 

activity. It produces catalepsy 

in mammals and possesses sympathetic 

as well as parasympathetic central 

effects. 

D

D 

212 Dichroa febrifuga Lour. 

It has been employed for the relief 

of paralysis agitans and other muscular 

tremors, vesticular nystagmus and 

similar conditions. 

The root contains protopine, corydeline, 

bulbocapnine, cancentrine, dehydrocancentrines 

A and B. Bicuculline 

(an isoquinoline alkaloid) isolated 

from the tuber of Dicentra cucullaria, 

is a centrally-acting, spasmogenic antagonist 

of GABA. 

Dichroa febrifuga Lour. 

Family ◮ Saxifragaceae. 


from Nepal to Bhutan and Khasi 

Hills. 

Folk ◮ Basak. 

Action ◮ Febrifuge, antipyretic, 

antiparasitic (used for malarial 

fever). Dried roots, known as 

Chang Shan, dried leafy tops, 

known as Shu Chi, in Chinese 

medicine, are used for malarial 

fever. Dried roots (Chang Shan) 

contain the alkaloid dichroine 

AandB,dichrinAandB. 

The active principle febrifugine 

compared to quinine was estimated 

to be 16 to 64 times more efficacious 

against Plasmodium gallinaceum 

in chicks, about 100 times against Plasmodium 

lophurae in ducks also against 

Plasmodium relictum in canaries. The 

aqueous extract of the plant inhibited 

the infecting rate of the parasite Plasmodium 

berghei up to 10 days and increased 

the mean survival time to twice 

that of untreated control at 2.5 g/kg 

dose. 

Clinical trials with febrifugine indicated 

that the drug given in four oral 

doses totalling 2–5 mg/day reduces the 

parasite count. 

Dichrostachys cinerea W. & A. 

Synonym ◮ Cailliea cinerea Macb. 


Habitat ◮ Northwestern and Central 

India, Maharashtra, from North 

Karnataka southwards. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Virataru, Vellantaru, 

Viravrksha. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Vidathalai. 

Folk ◮ Varatuli, Khairi. 


diuretic; used in renal affections, 

urinary calculi, also in rheumatism. 

Tender shoots—applied externally 

for ophthalmia. 

The plant foliage contain tannin— 

2.40, 5.60 and 4.40 mg/100 g during 

February, June and November respectively. 

Roots afforded n-octacosanol, 

beta-amyrin, friedelan-3-one, friedelan-3-beta-olandbeta-sitosterol.Flowers 

contain cyanidin and quercetin. 

Dosage ◮ Root, bark—50–100 ml 


Dicoma tomentosa Cass. 


Habitat ◮ Native to Africa and 

Asia, found in north-western and 

southern India.

Folk ◮ Navananji (Maharashtra), 

Vajradanti (Punjab). 

Action ◮ Febrifuge (used in febrile 

attacks after childbirth. Applied 

locally to putrescent wounds. 

In Indian medicine, Vajradanti, 

equated with Potentilla arbuscula D. 

Don and its related species (Rosaceae), 

is used topically for strengthening 

gums and teeth. 

Dictamnus albus Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Western Himalayas from 

Kashmir to Kunawar, common in 

Pangi. 

English ◮ Gas Plant, Dittany, Burning 

Bush. 

Action ◮ Root bark—used in nervous 

diseases, hysteria, intermittent 

fevers, urinogenital disorders, and 

amenorrhoea; a decoction for 

scabies and other skin affections. 

Toxic. 

Dittany stimulates the muscles of 

the uterus, while its effect on the 

gastro-intestinal tract is antispasmodic, 

it relaxes the gut. (The plant is 

used in Greek folk medicine as antispasmodic.) 

The herb contains furoquinoline 

alkaloids (including dictamnine), 

furococumarins, limonoids, and 

flavonoids (including rutin). 

Volatile oil contains estragol, anethole, 

and a toxic alkaloid dictamnine. 

Flowers yield 0.05% essential oil containing 

methylchavicol and anethole. 

Leaves yield 0.15% essential oil. 

Digitalis lanata Ehrh. 213 

Didymocarpus pedicellata R.Br. 

Synonym ◮ D. macrophylla auct. 

non-Wall. ex D. Don. 

Family ◮ Gesneriaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Sub-tropical Himalaya 

from Himachal Pradesh to Arunachal 

Pradesh at 500–2,500 m. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Kshudra-Paashaanabheda, 

Shilaa-valkaa, Shilaapushpa. 

Action ◮ Leaf—antilithic. Used for 

stones in kidney and bladder. 

The leaves contain a number of chalcones, 

quinochalcones and flavanones. 

Pediflavone has also been isolated from 

young leaves. 

Digera muricata (Linn.) Mart. 

Synonym ◮ D. arvensis Forsk. 

Desmochaeta muricata (L.) DC. 



India, as a weed in cultivated fields. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Katthinjara, Kunanjara. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Thoyya-keerai. 

Folk ◮ Lat-mahuriaa, Lahsuvaa. 

Action ◮ Astringent, antibilious. 

Laxative in large doses. Flowers and 

seeds—diuretic; given for urinary 

discharges. 

The plant contains alpha-and betaspinasterol. 

Digitalis lanata Ehrh. 


D

D 

214 Digitalis purpurea Linn. 

Habitat ◮ Native to Europe. Now 

cultivated mainly in Kashmir 

(Yarikhah), also occurs wild. 

English ◮ Grecian Foxglove. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Hritpatri, Tilapushpi 

(non-classical). (Yellow var.) 

Action ◮ See D. purpurea. 

Earlier, the herb was used to treat 

ulcers, boils, abscesses, headaches and 

paralysis. William Withering, an 18th 

century English country doctor, explored 

the plant’s hidden properties. 

His work led to the production of 

digoxin, a life-saving medicine. 

Safety of the herb cannot be established 

due to variable amounts of cardiac 

glycosides. The powder is toxic at 

520 mg. 

Digitalis purpurea Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Native to West Europe. 

Cultivated in Tangmarg and 

Kishtawar in Kashmir, Darjeeling 

and the Nilgiris. 

English ◮ Digitalis, Foxglove. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Hritpatri, Tilapushpi 

(non-classical). (Purple var.) 

Action ◮ Main source of digoxin 

for the pharmaceutical industry. 

Digitalisglycosidesincreasethe 

force of contraction of heart without 

increasing the oxygen consumption 

and slow the heart rate when 

auricular fibrillation is present. To 

be used only under strict medical 

supervision. 

Not used as a herbal drug. 

Dillenia indica Linn. 

Synonym ◮ Dillenia speciosa Thunb. 


Habitat ◮ The Himalayas from Nepal 

to Bhutan; north Bengal, Bihar, 

Orissa and Madhya Pradesh. 

English ◮ Elephant Apple. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Bhavya. 

Folk ◮ Uva, Chaaltaa. 

Action ◮ Fruit—laxative, carminative, 

bechic, febrifuge, antispasmodic 

(used for abdominal pains). Bark 

and leaves—astringent. 

The sepals contain (on dry weight 

basis): tannin 0.37, glucose 2.92 and 

malic acid 0.51%. The bark and leaves 

contain about 10% and 9% tannin (on 

dry weight basis) respectively. 

The fruit yielded a polysaccharide, 

arabingalactan. 

The leaves yielded cycloartenone, 

n-hentriacontanol, betulin, betulinic 

acid and beta-sitosterol. The bark gave 

iso-rhamnetin, naringenin, quercetin 

derivatives and kaempferol. 

Dillenia pentagyna Roxb. 


Habitat ◮ The Himalayan terai from 

Punjab to Assam, and South India 


Folk ◮ Dillenia. Agai (Bihar), Agachi 


Action ◮ See D. indica. 

The bark contains 6% tannin.

Dioscorea alata Linn. 

Synonym ◮ D. atropurpurea Roxb. 

D. globosa Roxb. 

D. purpurea Roxb. 

Family ◮ Dioscoreaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Native to East Asia; 

cultivated in Assam, Vadodara, 

Tamil Nadu, Bengal and Madhya 

Pradesh. 

English ◮ Wild Yam, Greater Yam, 

Asiatic Yam. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Kaashthaaluka. Aaluka 

(var.). Aalukas (yams) of Ayurvedic 

texts, belong to Dioscorea spp. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Perumvalli kizhangu. 

Folk ◮ Kathaalu. 

Action ◮ Even the best among the 

cultivated yams causes irritation 

in the throat or a feeling of 

discomfort when eaten raw. Wild 

yams—cholagogue, antispasmodic, 

anti-inflammatory, antirheumatic, 

diuretic. Also used for painful 

periods, cramps and muscle 

tension. 

Key application ◮ Dioscorea villosa 

L., Wild Yam—as spasmolytic, 

anti-inflammatory. (The British 


The edible tubers of Dioscorea alata 

are purple-coloured and contain anthocyanins, 

cyanidin and peonidin- 

3-gentiobioside acylated with sinapic 

acid. The tubers contain surcose, while 

leaves contain large quantities of Dfructose, 

D-glucose and the polyols, 

2-deoxyribitol, 6-deoxysorbitol and 

glycerol. 

Dioscorea bulbifera Linn. 215 

Mouldy yams are reported to contain 

a compound ipomeanol which is 

being tested against human lung cancer. 

(J. Am Med Assoc, 1994, 15, 23.) 

Diosgenin obtained from Dioscorea 

species was used in the first commercial 

production of oral contraceptives, 

topical hormones, systemic corticosteroids, 

androgens, estrogens, progestogens 

and other sex hormones. 

The chemical transformation of diosgenin 

to estrogen, progesterone or 

any other steroidal compound does not 

occur in human body. Topically applied 

Wild Yam does not appear to 

cause changes in serum FSH, estradiol 

or progesterone. (Natural Medicines 


Diosgenin, combined with the drug 

clofibrate, caused a greater decrease in 

LDL than either substance alone in rats. 


Dioscorea anguina Roxb. 

Synonym ◮ D. puber Blume. 


Habitat ◮ Wet regions of the 

Himalayas from Central Nepal, 

eastwards to northern Bengal, 

Assam and Chittagong. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Kaasaalu, Kasaalu. 

Folk ◮ Koshakanda (Bengal). 

Action ◮ See D. alata. 

Dioscorea bulbifera Linn. 

Synonym ◮ D. sativa Thumb auct. 

non L. 

D. versicolor Buch.-Ham ex Wall. 

D

D 

216 Dioscorea daemona Roxb. 


Habitat ◮ Throughout tropical India, 

at 1,500–2,100 m. 

English ◮ Patoto Yam, Bulb-bearing 

Yam, Air Potato, Dog Yam. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Vaaraahi, Vaaraahikanda, 

Grshti, Banaaalu, Suraalu, 

Raktaalu. Substitute for Vriddhi. 

Unani ◮ Baraahikand. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kodi-kilangu, 

Pannu-kilangu. 

Action ◮ Driedandpoundedtubers 

are used as an application for 

swellings, boils and ulcers; roasted 

tubers are used in dysentery, piles, 

venereal sores. Leaf—febrifuge. 

The raw tubers are bitter due to 

thepresenceoffuranoidnorditerpenes 

(they lose their bitterness on roasting 

and are then eaten). The wild tubers 

contain nearly 83% starch and possess 

hunger-suppressing property. They 

contain certain poisonous alkaloids. 

The rhizomes afforded D-sorbitol, 

furanoid norditerpenes—diosbulbins 

A-D, 2,4,6,7-tetrahydroxy-9,10-dihydrophenanthrene 

and 2,4,5,6,-tetrahydroxyphenanthrene, 

diosgenin, lucein,neoxanthine,violaxanthin,zeaxanthin, 

auroxanthin and cyrptoxanthin. 

Dioscorea daemona Roxb. 

Synonym ◮ D. hispada Dennst. 

D. hirsuta Dennst. 


Habitat ◮ Sikkim, the Himalayas, 

Khasi Hills. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Hastyaaluka. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Peiperendai. 

Folk ◮ Karukandu, Kolo (Bihar). 

Action ◮ Tubers—used for ulcer, to 

kill worms in wounds. Plant parts— 

used in whitlow, sores, boils. 

The tubers contain 81.45–81.89% 

carbohydrates, 7.20–9.12% albuminoids. 

The toxic principle is dioscorine 

which is distributed throughout the 

plant. 

Dioscorea deltoidea 

Wall ex Griseb. 

Synonym ◮ D. nepalensis Sweet ex 

Bernardi. 



Kashmir to Arunachal Pradesh and 

in Assam at 450–3,100 m. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Vaaraahikanda (var.), 

Grishti. 

Folk ◮ Gun, Kris (Punjab). 

Action ◮ Tuber—antipthiriac. Leaf— 

febrifuge. The rhizomes are a rich 

source of diogenin and its glycoside. 

Steroidal saponins have also been 

isolated. Diogenin is used in the 

preparation of various steroidal 

drugs. 

Dioscorea esculenta Burkill. 

Synonym ◮ D. aculeata Linn. 

D. faciculata Roxb. 

D. spinosa Roxb ex Wall.


Habitat ◮ Madhya Pradesh, Uttar 

Pradesh, Orissa, Bengal, Assam and 


English ◮ Lesser Yam, Karen Potato. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Madhvaaluka. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Musilam, Valli 

kilangu, Siruvalli Kilangu. 

Folk ◮ Suthani. 

Action ◮ Tubers are starchy and free 

from dioscorine, contain 71.29% 

carbohydrates, 10.82% albuminoids. 

Dioscorea glabra Roxb. 


Habitat ◮ Assam, Bengal, Bihar, 

Orissa and Andaman and Nicobar 

Islands. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Shankhaaluka. 

Action ◮ Tubers contain 77.79– 

78.23% carbohydrates, 9.73–10.13% 

albuninoids. 

Dioscorea hamiltonii Hook. f. 


Habitat ◮ The Western Ghats, 

Sikkim, Assam, Orissa and Bengal. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Vaaraahi (var.). 

Folk ◮ Naagar-kanda (Bihar). 

Action ◮ Tubers contain 85.50% 

carbohydrates, 8.30% albuminoids. 

Dioscorea oppositifolia Linn. 


Dioscorea prazeri Prain & Burkill. 217 

Habitat ◮ South India; throughout 

the hills of Deccan. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Amlikaakanda (controversial 

synonym). 

Siddha ◮ Kavala-kodi, Venilai Valli. 

Folk ◮ Aambaalio Kanda (Gujarat). 

Action ◮ Used externally for reducing 

swellings. 

Dioscorea pentaphylla Linn. 

Synonym ◮ D. triphylla var. doemona 

Prain & Burkill. 



distributed throughout India. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Vaaraahikanda (var., dry 

pieces are sold as Vidaarikanda). 

Folk ◮ Kaantaalu. 

Action ◮ Tubers contain 71.07– 

80.77% carbohydrates, 8.68–15.93% 

albuminoids. Tubers are used to 

disperse swellings. 

Dioscorea prazeri 

Prain & Burkill. 

Synonym ◮ D. Clarkei Prain & Burkill 

D. deltoidea Wall. var. sikkimensis 

Prain 


Habitat ◮ The Himalaya from Nepal 

to Bhutan, up to 1,500 m, also in 

Naga Hills. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Neelaalu. 

Action ◮ Tuber—antiphthiriac. 

D

D 

218 Diospyros ebenum Koenig. 

The rhizomes are used as a hair 

wash for killing lice. They contain 

diogenin (on dry basis) 2.5%. Also obtained 

are steroidal sapogenins, sitosterol 

glucoside, prazerigenin-A glucoside, 

prazerigenin-A bioside and 9,10dihydrophenanthrenes. 

Diospyros ebenum Koenig. 

Synonym ◮ 

Benth. 

D. hebecarpa A. Cunn ex 

Family ◮ Ebenaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Orissa and South India. 

English ◮ Ebony Persimmon, 

Malabar Ebony, Ceylon Ebony. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Tinduka. 

Unani ◮ Aaabnuus. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Acha-Thumbi. 

Action ◮ Plant—astringent, attenuant, 

lithontriptic. 

The heartwood contains 2 betanaphthalhydes, 

2 naphthoic acid derivatives; 

ceryl alcohol, betulin, alphaamyrin, 

ursolic acid, baurenol and 

stigmasterol. The leaves contain ursolic 

acid, alpha-amyrin, betulin and 

lupeol. 

Diospyros embryopteris Pers. 

Synonym ◮ D. peregrina (Gaertn.) 

Gurke 

D. malabarica (Desr.) Kostel. 


Habitat ◮ Throughout India in shady 

wet places and near streams. 

English ◮ Gaub Persimmon, Riber 

Ebony. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Tinduka, Tinduki, Sphuurjaka, 

Kaalaskandha, Asitkaaraka. 

Nilasaara. 

Unani ◮ Tendu. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Tumbika, Kattatti. 

Action ◮ Fruit and stem bark— 

astringent. Infusion of fruits—used 

as gargle in aphthae and sore throat. 

Fruit juice—used as application for 

wounds and ulcers. Oil of seeds— 

givenindiarrhoeaanddysentery. 

Ether extract of fruit—antibacterial. 

Bark—astringent and styptic, 

used in menorrhagia, diarrhoea, 

dysentery and intermittent fevers. 

A paste is applied to boils and tumours. 

The ethyl acetate extract 

showed antistress and anti-ulcerogenic 

activity. It also prevented hepatotoxicity 

and leucocytosis in experimental 

animals. 

The bark contains betulinic acid, 

myricyl alcohol, triterpenoids and saponin. 

The leaves gave beta-sitosterol, 

betulin and oleanolic acid. Fruit pulp 

and seeds contain lupeol, betulin, gallic 

acid, betulinic acid, hexacosane, hexacosanol, 

sitosterol, beta-D-glucoside 

of sitosterol and a triterpene ketone. 

Stem bark—antiprotozoal, antiviral, 

hypoglycaemic, semen-coagulant. 

Stems yielded nonadecan-7-ol-one. 


(CCRAS.) 

Diospyros kaki Linn. f. 

Family ◮ Ebenaceae.


growninHimachalPradesh, 

Kumaon, the Nilgiris and West 

Bengal for edible fruits. 

English ◮ Japanese Persimmon. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Tinduka (var.). 

Action ◮ Hypotensive, hepatoprotective, 

antidote to poisons and 

bacterial toxins. Calyx and peduncle 

of fruit—used in the treatment 

of cough and dyspnoea. Roasted 

seeds—used as a substitute for 

coffee. 

The fruit, in addition to sugars, glucose, 

fructose, ascorbic acid, citric acid, 

contains (% of fresh weight) 0.20–1.41 

tannins, 0.21–10.07 total pectins, 0.67 

pentosans and 0.16–0.25 polyphenols. 

The fruit also contains 2.4 mg/100 g 

carotenoids; carotene expressed as vitamin 

A 2200–2600 IU. The carotenoids 

identified in the pulp include 

cryptoxanthine, zeaxanthin, antheraxanthin, 

lycopene and beta-carotene. 

(Many carotenoids originally present 

in the fruit decompose during ripening. 

The fruit pulp is an antidote to bacterial 

toxins and is used in the preparation 

of a vaccine for pertussis. 

Condensed tannins from the fruits 

effectively inhibited 2-nitrofluorene 

mutagen. 

The immature leaves contain a steroidal 

saponin, lignin and phenolic 

compounds. Eugenol and dihydroactinidiolide 

are reported from fresh 

leaves. 

The leaves are reported to exhibit 

hepatoprotective activity. Leaves also 

contain hypotensive principles. Astra- 

Diospyros montana Roxb. var. cordifolia Hiem. 219 

galin and isoquercitrin have been isolated 

from leaves. 

Diospyros melanoxylon Roxb. 

Synonym ◮ D. dubia Wall. ex A. DC. 


Habitat ◮ Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, 

Orissa, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh 

and West Peninsula. 

English ◮ Coromandel Ebony, 

Persimmon. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Tinduka (var.), Dirghapatrakaa. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Karum Dumbi, 

Thumbi, Beedi-elai. 

Action ◮ Leaves—carminative, 

laxative, diuretic, styptic. Bark— 

astringent. Used in dyspepsia 

and diarrhoea. Unripe fruit— 

carminative and astringent. Ripe 

fruit—antibilious. Dried flowers— 

used in anaemia, inflammation of 

spleen, also in leucorrhoea. Leaf 

and dried flower—used in dyspepsia 

and diarrhoea, topically in scabies. 

Aerial parts—hypotensive. 

Half-ripe fruit contains 23, ripe fruit 

15 and bark 19% tannin. 

The bark and sapwood extracts yield 

beta-sitosterol, lupeol, betulin and betulinic 

acid. Leaves contain hentriacontane, 

hentriacontanol, alpha-amyrin, 

baurenol, ursolic, oleanolic and betulinic 

acids. 

Diospyros montana Roxb. var. 

cordifolia Hiem. 


D

D 

220 Diospyros tomentosa Roxb. 


part of India. 

English ◮ Mountain persimmon. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Visha-tinduka, Kaakatinduka. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Vakkanai, 

Vakkanatan. 

Folk ◮ Timru. 

Action ◮ Various plant parts are 

used in fever, puerperal fever, 

neuralgia, pleurisy, pneumonia, 

menorrhagia, dysurea. Fruits are 

applied externally to boils. 

Bark extract—anti-inflammatory, 

antipyretic and analgesic. Leaves and 

seeds—antibacterial. 

Diospyrin occurs in the bark and 

wood. Leaves contain hentriacontane, 

hentriacontanol, beta-sitosterol, 

alpha-and beta-amyrin, lupeol, taraxerol 

and ursolic acid. 

Alcoholic extract of the plant showed 

CNS depressant and spasmolytic activity 

and also produced bradycardia and 

hypertension. 

Diospyros tomentosa Roxb. 

Synonym ◮ D. exsculpta Buch.-Ham. 


Habitat ◮ Sub-Himalayan tract from 

Ravi to Nepal, also in Rajasthan, 

Madhya Pradesh, Bihar and Orrisa. 

English ◮ Nepal Ebony Persimmon. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Viralaa, Tinduka (var.). 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Tumbi. 

Folk ◮ Ebony. 


styptic. Various 

plant parts are used for dry cough, 

bronchitis,pleurisy,pneumonia, 

dysuria, fistula, tumours, bleeding 

gums, haemorrhagic conditions. 

The leaves and stems gave betasitosterol, 

lupeol, betulin, betulinic and 

oleanolic acids. 

Unsaponifiable matter of seeds 

showed CNS depressant activity. 

Dipterocarpus alatus Roxb. 

Synonym ◮ D. incanus Roxb. 

Family ◮ Dipterocarpaceae. 

Habitat ◮ The Andamans. 

English ◮ Gurjun. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Ashwakarna, Garjan, 

Shveta-Garjan, Jarandruma. 

Action ◮ Decoction of the bark is 

prescribed in rheumatism. Oil— 

applied to ulcerated wounds. 

Balsam—applied externally in 

gonorrhoea. 

Dipterocarpus resin gave sesquiterpenoids. 

The essential oil contains 2 

sesquiterpenoids of eudesmane series. 

Dipterocarpus turbinatus 

Gaertn. f. 

Synonym ◮ D. indicus Bedd. 


Habitat ◮ The Andamans and Assam. 

English ◮ Common Gurjun tree, 

Wood Oil tree.

Ayurvedic ◮ Ajakarna, Chhaagakarna, 

Ashwakarna. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Enney, Saara. 

Folk ◮ Gurjan. 

Action ◮ Oleo-resin (known as 

Gurjan Oil or Gurjan Balsam)— 

stimulant to genitourinary system, 

diuretic, spasmolytic; used 

externally on ulcers, ringworm 

and other cutaneous affections. 

Bark—a decoction is prescribed 

rheumatism. 

Essential oil from oleo-resin contained 

humulene, beta-caryophyllene, 

a bicyclic sesquiterpene hydrocarbon 

and a sesquiterpene alcohol. 

The twig bark contains 9% tannin 

and 7.3% soluble non-tans. 

Dosage ◮ Oil—3–5 ml. (CCRAS.) 

Dodonaea viscosa Linn. Jacq. 


Habitat ◮ North-western Himalaya 

up to 1,350 m, in Punjab, South 

India, ascending to 2,400 m on 

Nilgiris. Also planted as a hedge 

plant in Northern India. 

English ◮ Jamacia Switch Sorrel. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Raasnaa (substitute, 

used in Andhra Pradesh). (Raasnaa 

is equated with Pluchea lanceolata 

C. B. Clarke.) 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Virali, Velari. 

Action ◮ Leaves—anti-inflammatory 

and antibacterial (used in the 

treatment of swellings, burns, 

wounds), febrifuge, embrocation of 

Dolichandrone falcate Seem. 221 

leaves is applied to sprains. Bark— 

astringent and anti-inflammatory. 

Aerial parts—hypoglycaemic. 

The plant contains bioflavonoids (vitamin 

P) which are biologically active 

in improving blood circulation and 

strengthening capillaries. Aqueous 

and alcoholic extracts of the plant exhibited 

cardioinhibitory and coronory 

constricting, also spasmolytic, sedative 

and hypotensive activity. 

The leaves and pods gave iso-rhamnetin-3-O-rutinoside,quercetin-3-Ogalactoside 

and quercetin-3-O-rutinoside. 

Resin gave a diterpene carboxylic 

acid (hautriwaic acid). Flowers gave 

kaempferol. 

Dolichandrone falcate Seem. 


Habitat ◮ Moist forests of central 

and southern India. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Mesha-shringi (also 

equated with Gymnena sylvestre R. 

Br.), Vishaanikaa. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kattu Varsana, 

Kaddalatti, Kaliyacca. 

Action ◮ Fruits—bitter, carminative, 

used in diabetes, urinary disorders, 

bronchitis and skin diseases. 

Leaves—applied externally to 

swollen glands. Abortifacient. 

The leaves yield luteolin, chrysin and 

its 7-rutinoside and glucoside. 

Fruits are also known as Rshabhaka 

in the South. 

D

D 

222 Dolichos biflorus Linn. 

Dolichos biflorus Linn. 

Synonym ◮ Vigna unquiculata (L.) 

Walp. 


Habitat ◮ Apulsecrop,particularly 

in Madras, Mysore, Mumbai and 

Hyderabad. 

English ◮ Horsegram. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Kulattha, Kulittha, 

Khalva, Vardhipatraka. 

Unani ◮ Kulthi. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kollu, Kaanam. 

Action ◮ Plant—used in measles, 

smallpox, adenitis, burns, sores. 

Seeds—astringent, antipyretic, 

diuretic. Decoction or soup is used 

in affections of the liver and spleen, 

intestinal colic, in leucorrhoea 

and menstrual dissorders, urinary 

discharges. A valuable protein 

supplement. 


India recommends the decoction 

of dry seeds in calculus and 

amenorrhoea. 

The seeds contain crude protein 

20.8, pentosan 10.8 and water-soluble 

gum 2.8%. The presence of antinutritional 

components such as haemagglutinin 

and a protease inhibitor has 

been reported. The inhibitor activity 

decreased during germination. 

The mean protein value of the seeds 

is 25.47% which is more or less equivalent 

to soybean, winged bean and gram. 

Nutritionally, the horsegram seeds are 

richer in lysine content when compared 

to Cajanus cajan (Arhar) pulse 

and gram pulse. 

Presence of vitamin A in the green 

pods makes them a valuable diet for 

children; green leaves may be used in 

vitamin C deficiency syndrome, due to 

thepresenceofascorbicacidandcalcium. 

The seeds contain several common 

phytosterols. 

Strepogenin—several times higher 

than in casein. 

A decoction of seeds (soaked or 

boiled in water) is prescribed as diuretic 

and antilithiatic and has been 

clinically established. 

Diuretic activity of a dipeptide (pyroglutamylglutamine) 

has been found 

to be 2–3 times that of acetazolamide 


Globulin fraction of the seeds 

showed hypolipidaemic effects in rats. 

A lectin-like glycoprotein from 

stems and leaves possesses carbohydrate- 

binding activity. 

Dosage ◮ Seed—6 g powder; 

decoction 50–100 ml. (CCRAS.) 

Dolichos falcatus Seem Klein. 

Family ◮ Papilionaceae. 


Kumaon to Khasi Hills and in 

Western Peninsula. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Kulatthikaa. 

Action ◮ Root—prescribed for 

constipation and skin diseases. 

A decoction of seeds is used for 

rheumatism. 

Dolichos lablab Linn. var. 

typicus Prain. 

Synonym ◮ Lablab purpureus Linn.



India. 

English ◮ Indian Butter Bean, Lablab 

Bean, Horsebean. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Nishpaav, Sem. 

Unani ◮ Lab Laab, Semphali. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Avarin. 

Action ◮ Seeds—febrifuge, stomachic, 

antispasmodic, antifungal. 

Key application ◮ As expectorant. 


Lablab pods contain protein 4.5, carbohydrates 

10.0, calcium 0.05%; vitamin 

C (7.33 to 10.26 mg/100g in cooked 

samples; 0.77–1.12 mg/100 g in uncooked 

samples) increases on cooking. 

Enzyme liberation of essential amino 

acids from protein is slower than from 

casein and wheat. 

Callus tissue of Dolichos lablab Linn. 

(Horsebean) showed presence of betasitosterol, 

stigmasterol, lanosterol and 

cholesterol. The isolated flavonoids 

show antifungal activity (the maximum 

amount of flavonoids was found 

in the flowers). The plant contains the 

alkaloid, trigonelline, which exhibits 

hypoglycaemic activity. The maximum 

alkaloid was found in the seeds 

(0.14 mg/g dry weight). In tissue cultures 

raised from seedlings, the maximum 

amount was present in the tissue 

at the age of 6 weeks (0.068 mg/g dry 

weight). 

Dorema ammoniacum D. Don. 


Doronicum hookeri Hook. f. 223 

Habitat ◮ Persia, South-West Asia, 

Southern Siberia. 

English ◮ Ammoniacum, Gum 

ammoniac. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Uushaka, Ushaka. 

Unani ◮ Ushaq, Ushah, Kandal. 

Action ◮ Gum-resin—antispasmodic, 

expectorant, diaphoretic, 

emmenagogue, used in cough, 

asthma, bronchitis and catarrh, 

especially when the secretion is 

tough and viscid. Also used in 

enlargement of liver and spleen. 

Gum-resin from the flowering and 

fruiting stems contain resin (60–70%), 

consisting mainly of amino-resinol; 

gum; volatile oil, about 0.5%, containing 

ferulene as major component; free 

salicylic acid; coumarins (umbelliferone 

is absent). 

Ammoniacum is similar to asafoetida 

in medicinal properties. 

Doronicum hookeri Hook. f. 


Habitat ◮ The Himalayas at Lachen 

and Tungu, and Sikkim. 

English ◮ Leopard’s Bane. (Arnica 

montana Linn. is also known as 

Leopard’s Bane.) 

Unani ◮ Daarunaj Aqrabi. 

Action ◮ Root—used as a constituent 

of cardiac and nervine tonics. Used 

as exhilarant. Acts as a stomachic 

anddissolvestrappedgases. 

D

D 

224 Doronicum pardalianches Linn. 

Doronicum pardalianches Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Native to Europe. 

Unani ◮ Daarunaj Aqrabi. 

Action ◮ Used in nervous depression, 

melancholia and as a constituent of 

cardiac tonic preparations. 

The plant contains photoactive thiophenes, 

in amounts reported to be 

toxic. Roots and aerial parts yield 

sesquiterpene alcohol, paralianchol 

and its aetophenone derivatives. 

Doronicum roylei DC. 



from Kashmir to Garhwal. 

Unani ◮ Daarunaj Aqrabi Hindi. 

Action ◮ The root is reported to 

prevent giddiness caused during 

high attitude ascents. 

Dracaena cinnabari Balf. f. 


Habitat ◮ Native to East Africa and 

Saudi Arabia. 

English ◮ Dragon’s Blood. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Khoonkharaabaa, 

Heeraadokhi. 

Unani ◮ Dammul-Akhwain. 

Action ◮ See Daemonorops draco. 

The root yields a gum-resin, used 

in gargle water as stimulant, astringent 

and in toothpaste. Root—used 

in rheumatism. Leaves—carminative. 

Dracocephalum moldavica Linn. 


Habitat ◮ The temperate Western 

Himalaya in Kashmir from 2,100– 

2,400 m. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Raam Tulasi. 

Unani ◮ Feranjmushk. 

Action ◮ Seeds—Febrifuge, carminative, 

astringent, demulcent, 

vulnerary. Used is cephalalgia, 

neurological disorders, as a cardiac 

tonic, brain tonic and deobstruent 

in Unani medicine. 

Citral and geranyl acetate are major 

constituents of the essential oil. Others 

include alpha-pinene, nerol, citronellol, 

linalool, geraniol, limonene 

and caproic acid. Flavonoids, including 

moldavoside, have been isolated 

from the plant. 

Dracontium polyphyllum Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Maharashtra and Karnataka; 

cultivated in the South. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kattu Karunayikkilangu. 

Folk ◮ Jangali Suuran. 

Action ◮ Root—antidiarrhoeal, 

anti-inflammatory (prescribed for 

haemorrhoids), antispasmodic

(used in asthma), emmenagogue, 


Dregea volubilis 

(Linn. f.) Benth. ex Hook. f. 

Synonym ◮ Wattakaka volubilis 

(Linn. f.) Stapf. 


Habitat ◮ Konkan and Maharashtra, 

also in Bengal and Assam. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Suparnikaa, Madhumaalati. 

Muurvaa (substitute). 

Nak-chhikkini. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kodippalai. 

Action ◮ Root and tender stalks— 

emetic and expectorant, cause 

sneezing, used in colds, sinusitis, 

and biliousness. Leaves—used as an 

application to boils and abscesses. 

The stems and leaves contain a pigment 

taraxerol, a triterpenoid, kaempferol, 

a glucoside of kaempferol and 

saponins. Seeds contain a number of 

pregnane glycosides which do not exhibit 

digitalis-like action. Root contains 

a glucoside which lowered carotid 

blood pressure in mice and dogs when 

administered intravenously. 

Drosera peltata Sm. 

Synonym ◮ D. lunata Buch.-Ham. 

Family ◮ Droseraceae. 


2,438 m. 

English ◮ Sundew. 

Drosera peltata Sm. 225 

Ayurvedic ◮ Brahma-suvarchalaa 


Folk ◮ Mukhjali. (Drosera burmannii 

Vahl is also known as Mukhjali.) 

Action ◮ Resin from plant—used 

in bronchitis and whooping cough. 

Plant—antisyphyilitic. Bruised 

leaves, mixed with salt are applied 

for treating blisters. 

Key application ◮ Drosera rotundifolia—in 

dry cough and coughing fits, 

as bronchoantispasmodic. (German 

Commission E.). 

The leaves contain napthaquinones, 

plumbagin (0.5%), droserone (3-hydroxyplumbagin) 

and hydroxydroserone 

(0.01%), and the flavonoids, 

quercetin, gossypetin, gossypin and 

isogossypitrin. The antispasmodic action 

of the herb has been attributed 

to naphthoquinones. Plumbagin 

is antimicrobial in vitro against some 

Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, 

influenza virus, pathogenic fungi 

and parasitic protozoa, and is active 

against some species of Leishmania. In 

large doses plumbagin is cytotoxic, but 

in small doses exhibits immunostimulating 

activity in vitro. 

A related species, Drosera indica 

Linn., is found in Deccan peninsula, 

particularly in the West coast. Plumbagone, 

isolated from the plant, depresses 

the isolated intestine of the 

guinea-pig and suppresses the effect of 

acetylcholine. In Indo-China, a maceration 

of the plant is applied topically 

to corns. 

In Western herbal, Sundew is obtained 

from the aerial parts of Drosera 

D

D 

226 Drynaria quercifolia (Linn.) J. Smith. 

rotundifolia which grows throughout 

Europe. 

Drynaria quercifolia 

(Linn.) J. Smith. 

Synonym ◮ Polypodium quercifolium 

Linn. 

Family ◮ Polypodiaceae. 


plains and low mountains. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Ashvakatri (nonclassical). 

Folk ◮ Baandar-Baashing (Maharashtra). 

Action ◮ Pectoral, expectorant. 

anthelmintic. Used in the treatment 

of chest diseases, cough, hectic fever, 

dyspepsia, loss of appetite, chronic 

jaundice and cutaneous affections. 

Pounded fonds are used as poultice 

for swellings. Peeled rhizome with 

sugar is prescribed for urinary 

disorders and in spermatorrhoea. 

Aqueous extracts possess antibacterial 

properties. 

Dryobalanops camphora 

Colebr. 

Synonym ◮ D. aromatica Gaertn. f. 


Habitat ◮ 

islands. 

From Borneo to Sumatra 

English ◮ Borneo or Barus Camphor. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Bhimseni Kapoor. 

Folk ◮ Baraas Kapoor. 

Action ◮ See Cinnamomum camphora. 

Dryopteris dentata 

(Forsk.) C. Chr. 

Synonym ◮ Cyclosorus dentatus. 


Habitat ◮ Throughout India in the 

plains, also on the hills. 

Action ◮ Aqueous extracts— 

antibacterial against Staphylococcus 

aureus. 

Dryopteris 

filix-mas(Linn.) Schoutt 

Synonym ◮ Aspidium filix-mas Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Temperate regions of 

America, Europe, Asia, near damp 

and shady terrains. 

English ◮ Male Fern, Aspidium. 

Unani ◮ Sarakhs, Sarakhs Muzakkar. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Iruvi. 

Action ◮ Taenifuge, vermifuge 

(normally used in conjunction with 

a saline purgative, not used with 

castor oil.) Also, deobstruent, abortifacient.Externally 

for rheumatism, 

sciatica and neuralgia. No more 

in use as an anthelmintic as better 

alternatives are available. 

Rhizomes and fonds contain filicin 

(2%), a mixture of dimeric, trimeric 

and tetrameric butanone chloroglucosides, 

that kills tapeworms. Excessive 

dose of filicin may cause intestinal

cramps and blindness, also liver damage. 

Related Himalayan species include: 

D. odontoloma (Kashmir valley), D. 

marginata, D. barbigera (Kashmir to 

Sikkim), D. schimperiana (Mussoorie) 

and D. blanfordii (Chattri, Chamba).The 

ferns gave filicin 2.3, 2.1, 2.1, 

4.4 and 3.5%, respectively. 

Drypetes roxburghii 

(Wall.) Hurusawa. 

Synonym ◮ Putranjiva roxburghii 

Wall. 


Habitat ◮ Wild and cultivated 

throughout tropical India. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Putrajivaka, Sutajva, 

Putrakamanjari. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Karupali, Irukolli. 

Action ◮ Leaves, fruits and stones 

of fruits are given in colds and 

fevers, also in rheumatic affections. 

Rosaries,madeofhardstonesofthe 

fruit, are placed around the necks 

of children to protect them from 

diseases. 

The seed kernel yield 0.5% of asharpsmelling 

essential oil of the mustard oil 

type. The oil contains isopropyl and 

2-butyl isothiocyanates as the main 

constituents and 2-methyl-butyl isothiocyanate 

as minor component. An additional 

glucoside, glucocleomin, has 

been found in the seed kernels. A glucosidic 

pattern similar to that in the 

seeds is reported in the shoots and 

roots. 

Durio zibethinus Linn. 227 

The fruit pulp contains a large proportion 

of mannitol and small quantities 

of a saponin glucoside and alkaloid. 

The alkaloid is also present in a small 

quantity in the stones of the fruit. 

Dosage ◮ Seed, leaf, bark—3–6 g 


Duranta plumieri Jacq. 

Synonym ◮ Duranta repens Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Cultivated as a hedge plant. 

Folk ◮ Durantaa. 

Action ◮ Antifungal (topically). 

The leaves contain a saponin and 

fruits an alkaloid analogous to narcotine. 

Macerated fruits, which even in 

dilutionsof1: 100partsofwater,is 

lethaltomosquitolarvae(theactionis 

less marked on Culicine larvae. 

Durio zibethinus Linn. 



cultivated in South India for its 

edible fruit, in lower elevations of 

the Nilgiris and some parts of the 

West Coast. 

English ◮ Durian, Civet Fruit. 

Folk ◮ Durio 

Action ◮ Fruit—reduces lethality of 

alcohol. Leaves and roots—used in 

a prescriptions for fever. Leaves— 

used in medicinal bath during fever. 

Fruit-walls—used externally for 

D

D 

228 Dysoxylum binectariferum Hook. f. 

skin diseases. Ashes of the skin— 

given after childbirth. 

The edible pulp of the fruit contains 

about 12% total sugars and an equal 

amount of starch; crude protein 2.8, fat 

3.9, total carbohydrates 34.1, mineral 

matter 1.2%; carotene 20, vitamin C 

25 mg/100 g. 

The seeds are edible like chestnuts 

after roasting. 

Dysoxylum binectariferum 

Hook. f. 


Habitat ◮ Assam, Sikkim, Bengal 

and the Western Ghats. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Agunivagil, Cembil. 

Folk ◮ Lassuni (West Bengal). 

Action ◮ Fruit—anti-inflammatory, 

diuretic, CNS depressant. 

The bark from mature trees contain 

15% tannin and that from young trees 

10%. 

EtOH (50%) extract of fruit—antiinflammatory, 

diuretic and CNS depressant. 

The fruit contains a tetranortriterpenoid, 

dysobinin, a potential CNS depressant 

and inflammation inhibitor. 

The stem bark contains an alkaloid, 

rohitukine, which exhibited anti-inflammatory 

and immunomodulatory 

property.

Ecballium elaterium A. Rich. 


Habitat ◮ Mediterranean region and 

Western Asia. 

English ◮ Squirting Cucumber. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Kantaki Indravaaruni 

(non-classical). 

Folk ◮ Kateri Indryaayana, Kitran. 

Action ◮ Hydragogue; employed for 

the evacuation of dropsy, especially 

in nephritic patients. Root—used 

to treat skin diseases and parasitic 

scalp diseases; also for scirrhous 

eruptions. 

Roots, leaves and fruits yield cucurbitacins 

C, D, E, G, H and I. Fruit 

juice gave cucurbitacins B, L and R and 

their derivatives. Cucurbitacins (tetracyclic 

triterpene glycosides) are toxic 

constituents of the fruit. 

Ecbolium linneanum Kurz. 

Synonym ◮ E. viride (Forsk.) Alston. 

Justica ecbolium Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Northeastern Peninsular 

India. 

English ◮ Blue Fox Tail Nail Dye. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Nilambari. 

Action ◮ Plant—used in gout and 

dysuria; decoction of leaves for 

stricture. Roots—given in jaundice, 

menorrhagia and rheumatism. 

E 

The leaves, flowers and roots yield 

orientin, vitexin and their isoflavones. 

Echinochloa colonum 

(Linn.) Link. 

Synonym ◮ Panicum colonum Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Cultivated in Maharashtra, 

Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, 

Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Bihar and 


English ◮ Shama millet. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Varaka. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Karumpul, Varsanampillu. 

Folk ◮ Jangali sawuk, Shamaa, 

Saanvaa. 

Action ◮ Diuretic. 

The protein content of the dehusked 

millet is higher when compared to 

rice. Except for lysine all other essential 

amino acids are present in fair 

quantity. The grains are a rich source 

of zinc and iron. 

Echinochloa crus-galli 

(Linn.) Beauv. 

Synonym ◮ Panicum crus-galli Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Cultivated mainly in 

Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh,

230 Echinochloa frumentacea Link. 

E 

Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Andhra 

Pradesh. 

English ◮ Barnyard Millet. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Ambah Shyaamaaka. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Oathupul. 

Folk ◮ Samak. 

Action ◮ Whole plant—used for 

diseases of the spleen and for 

checking haemorrhage. 

The grains are rich in carbohydrates 

(3.474 wt %) and trace elements (Cu, 

Cd,Cr,Ni,Fe,Mn,Sn). Thetotal 

protein content is 4.2 wt% and the total 

lipids 4.46%. A hormone, oestrogen, is 

reported from the lipid. 

A polysaccharide extracted from the 

endosperm and composed of glucose 

was identified as a phytoglycogen. 

Echinochloa frumentacea Link. 

Synonym ◮ 

Roxb. 

Panicum frumentaceum 



Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Uttar 

Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh. 

English ◮ Japanese Barnyard Millet. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Shyaamaaka. 

Siddha ◮ Kudrraivali pillu (Tamil). 

Folk ◮ Shamaa, Saanvaa. 

Action ◮ Plant—cooling and 

digestible, considered useful in 

biliousness and constipation. 

The millet has a well balanced amino 

acid composition, but is deficient in 

lysine. Glutelin is the major constituent 

of protein. 

Echinops echinatus Roxb. 



English ◮ Globe-Thistle, Camel’s 

Thistle. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Utkantaka, Uttundaka, 

Brahmadandi. 

Folk ◮ Uunta-Kateraa. 

Action ◮ Alterative, diuretic, nerve 

tonic (used in hoarse cough, 

dyspepsia, scrofula, hysteria.) 

Aerial parts of the plant contain 

alkaloids, echinopsine, echinopsidine 

and echinozolinone. Taraxasterol acetate, 

isolated from the plant, is a potent 

anti-inflammatory constituent; 

the ethanolic extract of the whole 

plant is more effective when administered 

parenterally than orally. Apigenin 

and its derivatives, echinacin and 

echinaticin show antifungal activity. 

Eclipta alba (Linn.) Hassk. 

Synonym ◮ E. prostrata Roxb. 



2,000 m on the hills. 

English ◮ Trailing Eclipta Plant. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Bhringaraaja, Bhringa, 

Bhringaja, Bhrngaaraka, Bhrngaara, 

Maarkava, Kesharaaja, Keshranjana. 

Unani ◮ Bhangraa.

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Karisalaankanni. 

Folk ◮ Bhangaraa. 

Action ◮ Deobstruent, antihepatotoxic, 

anticatarrhal, febrifuge. Used 

in hepatitis, spleen enlargements, 

chronic skin diseases. Leaf—promotes 

hair growth. Its extract in oil 

is applied to scalp before bed time 

in insomnia. The herb is also used 

as an ingredient in shampoos. 

Key application ◮ As hepatoprotective. 

(Indian Herbal Pharmacopoeia; 


India.) 

The herb should be dried at room 

temperature under shade. Its active 

principles are lost due to aerial oxidation 

during sun drying or drying under 

reduced pressure below 40°C. The herb 

contains wedelolactone and demethylwedelolactone, 

which showed a dosedependenteffectagainstCCl4,d-galactosamine- 

or phalloidin-induced cytotoxicity 

in primary cultured rat hepatocytes, 

and exhibited potent antihepatotoxic 

property. The whole plant 

shows effect on liver cell regeneration. 

Immunoactive property has been observed 

against surface antigen of hepatitis 

B-virus. The plant is also reported 

to be effective in the treatment of peptic 

ulcer, inflammatory diseases, including 

rheumatoid arthritis, diseases of 

the gallbladder and skin infections. 

Aqueous extract of leaves exhibits 

myocardial depressant and hypotensive 

activity (unrelated to cholinergic 

and histaminergic effects). 

The roots are very rich in thiophene 

acetylenes. Thiophene derivatives 

show activity against nematodes. 

Ehretia laevis Roxb. var. aspera (Willd.) C.B. Clarke. 231 

Dosage ◮ Whole plant—3–6 ml fresh 

juice; 13–36 g for decoction. (API 

Vol. II.) 

Ehretia buxifolia Roxb. 

Synonym ◮ Carmona microphylla 

(Lam.) G. Don. 

Family ◮ Ehrethiaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Commonindryscrub 

forests of the Deccan Peninsula. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kuruvingi, Kattuvettilai. 

Folk ◮ Pala. 

Action ◮ Root—alterative in cachexia 

and syphilis; an antidote to vegetable 

poisoning. Dried leaves—pectic 

and stomachic. 

The plant contains microphyllone. 


showed low anti-inflammatory and 

cardiovascular activities. 

Ehretia laevis Roxb. var. 

aspera (Willd.) C.B. Clarke. 

Synonym ◮ E. aspera Willd. 

E. obtusifolia Hochst. ex DC. 

Family ◮ Ehretiaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Throughout India, also 

grown along roadsides. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Charmi-vrksha. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Addula. 

Folk ◮ Chamror (Punjab). Kuptaa, 

Datarangi (Maharashtra.) 

E

232 Eichhornia crassipes Solms Laub. 

E 

Action ◮ Root—used in venereal 

diseases. A decoction of bark is 

used internally and as gargle in 

throat infections. 

The plant contains tannins, saponins 

and allantoin, and monomethyl 

ethers of cyclitols. Leaves yielded 

a pyrrolizidine alkaloid, creatinine. 

Eichhornia crassipes Solms Laub. 

Synonym ◮ E. speciosa Kunth. 

Family ◮ Pontederiaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Native to tropical South 

America; naturalized all over India. 

English ◮ Water-Hyacinth, Bengal 

Terror,BlueDevil,TheMillion 

Dollar Weed. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Wrongly equated with 

Jalakumbhi (Pistia stratiotes Linn., 

Tropical Duckweed.) 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Akasa thammarai. 

Action ◮ Flower—antifungal. Used 


The plant gave stigmasterol, roots 

gibberellins, flowers delphinidin glucoside. 

The leaves contain a good amount 

of protein (18% on dry wt basis). The 

content of water soluble pectins in leaf, 

petiole and root is: 1.3–5.8, 1.5–7.2 and 

1.0–2.5% respectively. 

Research shows that Water-Hyacinth 

can be used as a source to remove 

minerals, organic substances and even 

heavy metals like Cd, Cr, Cu, Zn and Ni 

present as pollutants from domestic or 

industrial effluents. It can also remove 

arsenic effectively. It can be used in 

purification of silver-containing waste 

water, also for the treatment of lowlevel 

liquid radioactive wastes and 

mercurial waste water. The plant has 

a strong capacity for removing phenol. 

Biomass of non-living dried water Hyacinth 

roots showed high absorption 

of copper from aqueous solutions. 

The plant exhibits antifungal activity 

against Candida albicans. 

Elaeocarpus ganitrus 

Roxb. ex G. Don. 

Synonym ◮ E. sphaericus K. Schum. 

Ganitrus sphaericus Gaertn. 

Family ◮ Elaeocarpaceae. 

Habitat ◮ West Bengal, Madhya 

Pradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa, 

Andhra Pradesh, Western Ghats. 

English ◮ Utrasum Bead tree. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Rudraaksha, Panchmukhi. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Rudraaksham. 

Action ◮ Fruit—used for epileptic 

fits and headache. Powdered 

fruits (0.5 g) mixed with warm 

water are given two/three times 

daily in asthma. Stem bark— 



indicated the use of the seed in hypertension, 

insomnia, psychoneurosis 

and mental diseases. 

The fruits contain palmitic, isopalmitic, 

linoleic and myristic acids. 

Leaves gave alkaloids—rudrakine, (+)elacocarpine 

and (+)-iso-elacocarpine;

phenolics—quercetin, gallic acid and 

ellagic acid. EtOH (50%) extract of 

stem bark—hypoglycaemic. Aqueous 

extract of fruits—sedative, hypotensive, 

spasmolytic, anticonvulsant, 

choleretic, bronchodilatory and 

cardiostimulant. 

The fruit of E. oblongus Mast. non- 

Gaertn., synonym E. glandulosus Wall. 

ex Merrill (Western Ghats) is used in 

mental disorders and tetanus. 

Dosage ◮ Seed—1–2 g. (API Vol. IV.) 

Elaeocarpus serratus Linn. 

Synonym ◮ E. cuneatus Wt. 


Habitat ◮ Eastern Himalayas and 

Western Ghats up to 1,000 m. 

English ◮ Wild Olive tree, Ceylon 

Olive. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Rudraaksha (var.). 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Uttraccham, 

Ulankarei. 

Action ◮ Leaf—antirheumatic. 

Fruit—antidysenteric. Aerial 

parts—CVS and CNS active. 

The leaves gave ellagic acid, myricitrin, 

myricetin and mearnsetin. Fruit 

pulp gave citric acid and D-galactose. 

It contains pectin (2.57% fresh weight 

basis). 

Elaeocarpus tuberculatus Roxb. 



Kanara southwards. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Rudraaksha (var.). 

Eleocharis dulcis Trin. 233 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Ruthracham, 

Pagumbar. 

Folk ◮ Rudirak, Bhutali. 

Action ◮ Bark—stomachic, antibilious. 

Used in haematemesis. Nut— 

antiepileptic, antirheumatic. 

The leaves gave quercetin, kaempferol, 

gallic acid and ethylgallate. 

Elaeodendron glaucum Pers. 

Synonym ◮ 

Ktze. 

Cassine glauca (Rottb.) 


Habitat ◮ Throughout India, also 

planted as an ornamental. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Krishnamokshaka. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Selluppaimaram. 

Folk ◮ Kaalaa-mokhaa, Ratangaruur. 

Jamrasi (gum). 


emetic. 

The bark and the leaves contain 8– 

13.5 and 8–15% tannin respectively. 

Powdered leaves have a sternutatory 

action and are used as snuff to relieve 

headache and as a fumigatory in hysteria 

(in folk medicine it is believed that 

the smoke wards off ghosts.) 

Fresh root bark is rubbed into a paste 

with water and applied to swellings. 

A cold water extract of the crushed 

rootsisusedasanemetic(fatalinoverdoses). 

Eleocharis dulcis Trin. 

Synonym ◮ E. plantaginea R. Br. 

E. tuberosa Schult. 

E

234 Elephantopus scaber Linn. 

E 


Habitat ◮ Widely cultivated in China. 

Sold in Kolkata under the name 

Singapuri Keysur. 

English ◮ Chinese Water Chestnut. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Shringaataka (substitute), 

Kasheruka (substitute). 

Action ◮ Tuber—antidysenteric, 

antileucorrhoeic, antibacterial. 

The juice expressed from the tuber 

shows antibiotic activity against 

Staphylococcus aureus, E. coli and Aerobacter 

aerogenes. The antibiotic principle 

has been designated as puchiin. 

In ethanolic extract, hexacosanoic 

acid, 5 alpha-stigmastane-3, 6-dione, 

betulin and tricin were present. It also 

contained beta-sitosterol and stigmasterol. 

Elephantopus scaber Linn. 



of India. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Mayura-shikhaa, 

Gojihvaa. (Actinopteris dichotoma 

Bedd. and Celosia cristata Linn. are 

also used as Mayura-shikhaa. 

Anchusa strigosa Lebill., and other 

Boraginaecae sp. are used as 

Gojihvaa.) 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Yaanaichhuvadi. 

Folk ◮ Mayurjuti, Maaraajuti. 

Action ◮ Plant—astringent, cardiac 

tonic, diuretic, mucilaginous, 

emmolient (used in dysuria, 

diarrhoea, dysentery. Leaves— 

applied to ulcers and eczema. 

Roots—given to patients with 

heart and liver affections; topically 

in rheumatism. Root and leaf— 

used in dysuria and other urethral 

complaints. An infusion of the 

whole plant is used to stimulate 

diuresis, reduce fever and to 

eliminate bladder stones. The 

decoctionisalsousedinpeptic 

ulcers, swelling or pain in stomach. 

Plant is also used in piles and 

scabies. 

The plant contains germacranolide 

dilactones. Hydroxylated germacanolides, 

molephantin and molephantinin, 

exhibited cytotoxic and antitumour 

properties. 

The plant also gave epifriedelanol, 

lupeol, stigmasterol, triacontan-l-ol 

and dotriacontan-l-ol. 

Elettaria cardamomum Maton. 


Habitat ◮ Cultivated either as pure 

plantation crop, or as subsidiary 

to coffee and arecanut in hilly 

forests regions of Western Ghats 

in Karnataka and Kerala, and in 

parts of Madurai, the Nilgiris and 

Tirunelveli in Tamil Nadu. 

English ◮ Lesser Cardamom. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Elaa, Sukshmailaa, 

Kshudrailaa, Bhrngaparnikaa, 

Tutthaa, Draavidi, Prithvikaa, 

Triputaa, Truti, Upkunchikaa. 

Unani ◮ Heel Khurd. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Yelakkai, Ilam. 

Folk ◮ Ilaayachi.

Action ◮ Carminative antiemetic, 

stomachic, orexigenic, anti-gripe, 

antiasthmatic, bechic, Oil— 

antispasmodic, antiseptic. Used for 

flatulence, loss of appetite, colic, 

bronchitis, asthma. Paste used 

as balm for headache, husk for 

rheumatism. 

Key application ◮ In dyspepsia; 

also as cholagogue. (German 


The seeds yield an essential oil (6– 

11% dry basis). The major constituents 

are, 1,8-cineole and alpha-terpinylacetate, 

with limonene, alpha-terpineol, 

sabinene and linalool. The seeds contain 

palmitic and oleic as dominant fatty 

acids, besides linoleic and linolenic 

acids, along with alpha-tocopherol, 

desmosterol and campesterol. 

The extracts of cardamom cause 

a significant decrease in gastric secretion 

after 3 h of treatment. The effect of 

methanol extract is primarily observed 

as decreased pepsin output. 

Terpineol and acetylterpineol, the 

active principles of cardamom seeds, 

showed greater penetration enhancing 

capacities than Azone which was 

used as a comparative penetration 

enhancer for the diffusion of Prednisolone 

through mouse skin in vitro. 

Volatile components exhibit antimicrobial 

activity. The oil inhibits aflatoxin 

synthesis. 

The cardamom seed can trigger gallstone 

colic (spasmodic pain) and is 

not recommended for self-medication 

in patients with gallstone. (German 

Commission E, PDR, Natural Medicines 


Eleusine coracana Gaertn. 235 

Dosage ◮ Seed of dried fruit—1–2 g 

powder. (API Vol I.) 

Eleusine coracana Gaertn. 


Habitat ◮ A grain crop of Karnataka; 

alsogrownonlargescalein 

Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and 

Maharashtra. 

English ◮ Finger Millet, African 

millet, Ragi. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Madhuuli, Markatahasta-trna. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Ragi, Kezhvaregu. 

Action ◮ Seeds—cooling, astringent. 

Nutritive value of ragi is higher 

than that of rice and equal to that 

of wheat. White ragi is superior to 

the pigmented type. A nourishing 

food for infants, growing children, 

expectant mothers and aged people. 

Ragi is considered an ideal food for 

diabetics because of slow release of 

sugars to the body. A decoction of 

leaves and stems is drunk to ease 

vaginal bleeding. 

The protein content of ragi is 8– 

13%, with P 250, Fe 7.6, thiamine 0.18— 

and riboflavin 0.1 mg/100 g. Ragi has 

high glycemic index value. It reduced 

plasma cholesterol, total serum cholesterol 

and LDL cholesterol by 9% each, 

and triglycerides by 15%, and increased 

HDL cholesterol, thus exhibited a significant 

beneficial effect on plasma profile. 

The lipemic index for ragi is 55, 

taking isocaloric wheat-supplemented 

background diet (control) at 100. 

E

236 Eleusine indica Gaertin. 

E 

Eleusine indica Gaertin. 

Family ◮ Gramineae, Poaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Australia, North America; 

throughout the warmer parts of the 

world. In India, in wet plains and 

low hills and pasture grounds. 

English ◮ Crowfoot Grass, Crab 

Grass. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Nandimukha (var.). 

Folk ◮ Nandiaa (Orissa), Mahaar 

Naachni (Maharashtra), Thippa 

Ragi (Tamil Nadu). 

Action ◮ Used for biliary disorders. 

In Vietnamese traditional medicine, 

a decoction of the whole plant 

is used as stomachic, diuretic, 

febrifuge, and in sprains. 

Aerial parts contain vitexin, 3-Obeta-D-glucopyranosyl-beta-sitosterol 

and its 6 ′ -O-palmitoyl derivatives. 

Elsholtzia cristata Willd. 

Synonym ◮ E. ciliata (Thunb.) 

Hyland. 

Perilla polystachya D. Don. 


Habitat ◮ The Himalayas and Assam 

up to 3,000 m, introduced into the 

Nilgiris (Tamil Nadu). 

Ayurvedic ◮ Ajagandhaa (controversial 

synonym). 

Folk ◮ Ban-Tulasi, Bovai, Phoot- 

Kanda. 


astringent. Leaf—diuretic, antipyretic. 

Neutralizes after effects 

of intoxication. Used for abdominal 

pains, nausea, bleeding nose. 

Fresh plants from Uttaranchal 

gave 0.4% essential oil having 

dehydroelsholtzia ketone 88.7% as 

the main constituent, followed by 

humulene 2.4% and caryophyllene 

0.9% (the oil composition of the 

species which grow in Japan and 

Kashmir is different.) 

Plant contains linarin, apigenin and 

7-O-glucosides of apigenin and luteolin. 

The Japanese species, used for hangovers, 

gave compounds including triterpenoids, 

steroids and flavonoids. 

Elsholtzia blenda Benth., synonym 

Perilla elata D. Don, is also equated 

with Ban-Tulasi. Major constituent 

of the essential oil is geranyl acetate. 

Other constituents are p-cymene, sabinene, 

borneol, geraniol, linalyl acetate, 

fernesol, limonene, linalool, citronellol, 

thymol and nerolidol. 

Elytraria crenata Vahl. 

Synonym ◮ E. acaulis Lindau. 

Tubiflora acaulis Kuntze. 


Habitat ◮ The Deccan Peninsula, 

extending northwards to eastern 

Himalayas. 

Folk ◮ Patharchattaa, Dasmori. (Also 

known as Shat-muuli.) 

Action ◮ Leaves—decoction prescribed 

in fever, also in venereal 

diseases. Root—used in mammary 

tumours and abscesseses, pneumonia 

and infantile diarrhoea. Plant

infusion is used as a cough remedy 

for infants. 

Embelia ribes Burm. f. 

Family ◮ Myrsinaceae. 


English ◮ Embelia. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Vidanga, Krmighna, 

Krmihara, Krmiripu, Chitratandula, 

Jantughna, Jantunaashana, Vella, 

Amogha. 

Unani ◮ Baobarang, Barang Kaabuli. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Vaayuvidangam. 

Action ◮ Ascaricidal, anthelmintic, 

carminative, diuretic, astringent, 

anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, 

febrifuge. Used in diseases of chest 

and skin. Active principles are 

found to be oestrogenic and weakly 

progestogenic. Root—bechic, 

antidiarrhoeal. Seed—spermicidal, 

oxytocic, diuretic. The plant is 

also used for its blood purifying 

properties. It is an ingredient 

in cough syrups, preparations 

for anaemia, genitourinary tract 

infections, diarrhoea and diseases 

of the liver. 

Embelin, isolated from the berries, 

shows significant anti-implantation 

and post-coital antifertility activity. 

(Successful trials have been carried out 

at the National Institute of Immunology, 

New Delhi on human beings.) It 

is found to be a potential male antifertility 

agent. Spermatogenesis has been 

impaired and sperm count reduced to 

Embelia robusta C. B. Clarke, non-Roxb. 237 

the level of infertility. The antispermatogenic 

changes are found to be 

reversible without any toxic effects. 

Aqueous and EtOH extract of the 

fruit—anthelmintic against earthworms. 

Fruit powder (200 mg/kg), 

taken with curd on empty stomach, 

expelled tapeworm within 6–24 h. 

The treatment was also found effective 

in giardiasis. EtOH (50%) of 

the plant was found slightly active 

against E.coli. Di-salts of embelin—anthelmintic. 

Amino salts exhibited less 

side effects than embelin. The effect of 

di-isobutyl amino derivatives lasted up 

to 10 h, also showed anti-inflammatory, 

hypotensive and antipyretic activities. 

Berries gave quinones—embelin, rapanone, 

homoembelin, homorapnone 

and vilangin. 


(API Vol. I.) 

Embelia robusta 

C. B. Clarke, non-Roxb. 

Synonym ◮ E. tsjeriam-cottam A. 

DC. 


Habitat ◮ Throughout greater part of 

India. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Vidanga (allied species) 

Substitute for Embelia ribes. 

Folk ◮ Baayabirang. 

Action ◮ Fruit—antispasmodic, 

carminative, anthelmintic, antibacterial. 

Powdered fruit—used in 

dysentery. Plant—used in weak 

pulse rate. 

E

238 Emblica officinalis Gaertn. 

E 


exhibit slightly hypotensive activity. 

Stem contains embelin. See Embelia 

ribes. 

Emblica officinalis Gaertn. 

Synonym ◮ Phyllanthus emblica 

Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Native to tropical Southeast 

Asia; distributed throughout India; 

also planted in public parks. 

English ◮ Emblic, Indian gooseberry. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Aaamalaki, Aaamalaka, 

Dhaatri, Kaayasthaa, Amoghaa, 

Amritaphala, Amla, Aaamalaa, 

Dhaatriphala, Vayasyaa, Vrshya, 

Shiva, Hattha. 

Unani ◮ Aamalaa, Amlaj. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Nellikkaai, Nelli. 

Action ◮ Fruit—antianaemic, anabolic, 

antiemetic, bechic, astringent, 

antihaemorrhagic, antidiarrhoeal, 

diuretic, antidiabetic, carminative, 

antioxidant. Used in jaundice, 

dyspepsia, bacillary dysentery, eye 

trouble and as a gastrointestinal 

tonic. Juice with turmeric powder 

and honey is prescribed in diabetes 

insipidus. Seed—antibilious, antiasthmatic. 

Used in bronchitis. 

Bark—astringent. Leaf—juice is 

given in vomiting. 

A decoction of powdered pericarp 

is prescribed for paptic ulcer. 

Key application ◮ As an antacid. 

(Indian Herbal Pharmacopoeia.). 

The fruit is an important source of 

vitamin C, minerals and amino acids. 

The edible fruit tissue contains protein 

concentration threefold and vitamin C 

(ascorbic acid) concentration 160-fold 

than those of apple. The fruit also 

contains considerably higher concentration 

of most minerals and amino 

acids than apple. 

The fruit gave cytokinine-like substances 

identified as zeatin, zeatin riboside 

and zeatin nucleotide; suspension 

culture gave phyllembin. Phyllembin 

exhibits CNS depressant and spasmolytic 

activity, potentiates action of 

adrenaline and hypnotic action of 

Nembutal. 

The leaves contain gallic acid (10.8 

mg/g dry basis), besides ascorbic and 

music acid. The methanol extract of 

the leaves is found to be effective in rat 

paw inflammation. 

The bark contains tannin identified 

as mixed type of proanthocyanidin. 

The fruit contains superoxide dismutase 

482.14 units/g fresh weight and 

exhibits antisenescent (anti-aging) activity. 

Fruit, juice, its sediment and 

residue are antioxidant due to gallic 

acid. EtOH (50%) extract—antiviral. 

Aqueous extract of the fruit increases 

cardiac glycogen level and decreases 

serum GOT, GPT and LDH in rats having 

induced myocardial necrosis. 


the fruit and its juice may lower serum 

cholesterol, LDL, triglycerides and 

phospholipids without affecting HDL 

levels and may have positive effect on 

atherosclerosis. (Eur J clin Nutr, 42, 

1988, 939–944; Phytother Res, 14, 2000, 

592–595.)

An aqueous extract of the fruit has 

been reported to provide protection 

against radiation-induced chromosomal 

damage in both pre-and postirradiation 

treatment. The fruit is reported 

to enhance natural killer cell activity 

and antibody dependent cellular 

cytotoxicity in mice bearing Dalton’s 

lymphoma ascites tumour. The extract 

of the fruit and ascorbic acid prevented 

hepatotoxic and nephrotoxic effects 

induced by lead and aluminium. 

The toxicity could be counteracted to 

a great extent by the fruit extract than 

by an amount of ascorbic acid alone 

equivalent to that contained in fruits. 

(The fruit can be used as a dietary 

supplement to counteract prolonged 

exposure to metals in population in 

industrial areas.) 

The fruits are reported to activate 

trypsin (proteolytic enzyme) activity. 

The fruits can be used as coagulant 

in the treatment of water and can purify 

low turbidity water. 

The fruits can be consumed safely 

all round the year. 

Dosage ◮ Fresh fruit—10–20 g; pulp 

juice—5–10 ml. (API Vol. I.) 

Emilia sonchifolia (L.) DC. 



ascending to 1,350 m in the hills. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Shash-shruti (nonclassical). 

Unani ◮ Hirankhuri. 

Folk ◮ Sadamandi. 

Enicostemma littorale auct. non-Bl. 239 

Action ◮ Plant—sudorific, febrifuge, 

antiseptic. Used in infantile 

tympanitis and bowel complaints. 

Root—antidiarrhoeal. Leaf—used 

for otitis media under medical 

supervision. 

The aerial parts contain pyrrolizidine 

alkaloids, senkirkine and doronine. 

Presence of simiaral, beta-sitosterol, 

stigmasterol, palmitic and triacontannic 

acids is also reported. 

Enhydra fluctuans Lour. 


Habitat ◮ Hills of Bihar, West Bengal 

and Assam. 

English ◮ Marsh Herb, Water Cress. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Hil-mochikaa. 

Folk ◮ Harakuch. 

Action ◮ Leaf—antibilious, laxative, 

demulcent, antidermatosis. Used in 

dyspepsia, diseases of the nervous 

system and cutaneous affections. 

The plant is a good source of betacarotene 

(3.7–4.2 mg/100 g fresh basis) 

which is lost during cooking. Used as 

aleafyvegetable. 

Enicostemma littorale 

auct. non-Bl. 

Synonym ◮ E. hyssopifolium (Willd) 

I. C. Verdoorn. 

E. axillare (Lam.) Raynal. 

Exacum hyssopifolium Willd. 

Adenema hyssopifolium G. Don. 


E

240 Entada scandens auct. non-Benth. 

E 


Punjab and Gangetic Plain to 

Kanyakumari up to 500 m. 

English ◮ Indian Gentian. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Naagjhvaa, Maamajjaka, 

Naahi, Tikshnapatra. 

Unani ◮ Naai, Naahi. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Vellargu. 

Folk ◮ Chhotaa Chirayataa. 

Action ◮ Bitter tonic, carminative, 

blood purifier, antirheumatic, 

anti-inflammatory, antipsychotic, 

anthelmintic, cardiostimulant. 

The plant is used as a substitute 

for Swertia chirayita, andisreported 

to be effective against malaria. The 

plant contains ophelic acid which is 

also present in chiretta as a hydrolytic 

product of chiratin. The root extract 

showed antimalarial activity both in 

vitro and in vivo. 

Whole plant gave alkaloids—gentianine, 

erythrocentaurin, enicoflavine 

and gentiocrucine; flavonoids—apigenin, 

genkwanin iso-vitaxin, swertisin, 

saponarin and 5-O-glucoside 

derivatives of sylwertisin and isoswertisin; 

glucosides—swertiamarin, a triterpene 

betulin. Swertisiode exhibited 

hypotensive activity. 

The plant extracts inhibited carrageenan-induced 

oedema and its antiinflammatory 

activity was found comparable 

to that of hydrocortisone. 

Enicostema verticellatum Blume, the 

smallar var. of Kiryaata, is also equated 

with Vellargu (Siddha/Tamil). 


powder; 50–100 ml decoction. 

(CCRAS.) 

Entada scandens 

auct. non-Benth. 

Synonym ◮ E. phaseoloides Merrill. 

E. pursaetha DC. 

Mimosa entada Linn. 

Family ◮ Momosaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Eastern Himalayas, hills of 

Bihar, Orissa and South India. 

English ◮ Garbee Bean, Mackay 

Bean, Elephant Creeper. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Gil. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Chillu, Vattavalli. 

Folk ◮ Gil-gaachh. 

Action ◮ Seed—carminative, 

anodyne, spasmolytic bechic, 

anti-inflammatory, anthelmintic, 

antiperiodic. Used in liver complaints, 

glandular swellings, debility, 

skin diseases. The seed, stems 

and bark are poisonous. A paste 

of the seeds is applied locally for 

inflammatory glandular swellings. 

The juice of wood and bark is used 

as an external application for ulcers. 

The leaves are reported to be free 

from the toxic saponins. After 

soaking in water and roasting toxic 

principles can be removed from the 

white kernels of the seeds. 

The seeds gave saponins of entagenic 

acid; a triterpenoid glucoside entanin; 

beta-sitosterol, alpha-amyrin, quercetin, 

gallic acid, cyamidin chloride, lupeol 

and a saponin mixture which gave 

prosapogenin A. Entanin exhibits antitumour 

activity. It inhibits Walker 256 

tumours in rats without deaths. 

Entadamide A (the sulphur-containing 

amide from the seed) is a 5-lipo-

xygenase inhibitor and is found to be 

effective in the treatment of bronchial 

asthma. The bark is used for hair wash. 

Entagenic acid, a sapogenin of entada 

saponin IV, imparts antifungal activity 

to the bark. 

Ephedra gerardiana 

Wall. ex Stapf. 

Family ◮ Ephedraceae. 

Habitat ◮ The drier regions of the 

temperate and alpine Himalayas 

from Kashmir to Sikkim from 2,350 

to 5,350 m. 

English ◮ Ephedra (Ephedra sinica 

Stapf.) 

Ayurvedic ◮ Soma, Soma-valli 

(substitute). 

Folk ◮ Asmaaniyaa, Budaagur 

(Punjab); Tipat, Traani (Himalayan 

region). 

Action ◮ Circulatory stimulant, bronchodilator, 

vasodilator, antiallergic, 

antiasthmatic (usualy given with 

expectorants), diaphoretic. Not 

prescribed with antidepressants. 

Key application ◮ Ephedra sinica— 

in diseases of the respiratory tract 

andmildbronchospasms.Alsoin 

acute coryza, allergic rhinitis and 

sinusitis. (German Commission E.) 

In the treatment of nasal congestion 

due to hay fever, allergic rhinitis, 

acute coryza, cold, sinusitis and as 

abronchodilator.(WHO.) 

Contraindicated in anxiety, restlessness, 

high blood pressure, glucoma, 

impaired circulation of the cerebrum, 

Equisetum arvense Linn. 241 

adenoma of prostate with residual 

urine accumulation, pheochromocytoma, 

thyrotoxicosis. (German Commission 

E.) 

Ephedra is official in the national 

pharmacopoeias of China, Japan and 

Germany. The herb is listed in Ayurvedic 

Pharmacopoeia. Onlyitsisolated 

derivatives, ephedrine and ephedrine 

hydrochloride are official in Indian 

Pharmacopoeia. 

Ephedrine is toxic at more than 

300 mg in 1 day (Francis Brinker.) 

Aerial parts yielded ephedrine and 

ephedroxane. Pseudoephedrine is the 

most active anti-inflammatory principle 

of Ephedra sp., it exhibited inhibitory 

action on a number of acute inflammations. 

Ephedroxane possesses 

a minor anti-inflammatory principle. 

Among the Indian species, Ephedra 

major, found in Lahul, contains over 

2.56% alkaloids of which nearly three 

fourths is ephidrine. Ephedra gerardiana 

contains 1.22% total alkaloids 

and 0.68% ephedrine. 

On 30 December 2003, the FDA 

banned ephedra products in the US. 

Equisetum arvense Linn. 

Family ◮ Equisetaceae. 

Habitat ◮ The Himalayas at high 

altitudes. 

English ◮ Field Horsetail. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Ashwa-puchha (nonclassical). 

Action ◮ Haemostatic, haemopoietic, 

astringent, diuretic. Used for genitourinary 

affections (urethritis, 

enuresis, cystitis, prostatitis), 

E

242 Erigeron canadensis Linn. 

E 

internally as an antihaemorrhagic 

and externally as a styptic. 

The ashes of the plant are beneficial 

in acidity of the stomach and dyspepsia. 

Key application ◮ Internally in irrigation 

therapy for post-traumatic 

and static inflammation, and for 

bacterial infections and inflammation 

of the lower urinary tract and 

renal gravel. 

The British Herbal Compendium reported 

weak diuretic, haemostyptic, 

vulnerary and mild leukocytosis causing 

actions. 

The haemostatic substance has been 

shown to act orally, it has no effect on 

blood pressure and is not a vasoconstrictor. 

The herb contains 10–20% minerals, 

of which over 66% are silicic 

acids and silicates; alkaloids, including 

nicotine, palustrine and palustrinine; 

flavonoids, such as iso-quercitrin and 

equicertin; sterols, including cholesterol, 

isofucosterol, campesterol; a saponin 

equisitonin, dimethyl-sulphone, 

thiaminase and aconitic acid. Diuretic 

action of the herb is attributed to 

its flavonoid and saponin constituents, 

Silicic acid strengthens connective tissue 

and helps in healing bones. 

Erigeron canadensis Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Punjab, Upper Gangetic 

Plain, Assam, Western Ghats and 

Western Himalayas. 

English ◮ Canadian Fleabane. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Jaraayupriya, 

Makshikaa-visha, Palit (nonclassical). 

Action ◮ Astringent, haemostatic, 

antirheumatic, diuretic. Used 

for diarrhoea, kidney disorders, 

bronchitis and for bleeding piles, 

wounds, bruises. Essential oil— 

used in bronchial catarrh and 

cystitis. 

The extracts of the plant gave sesquiterpenes, 

beta-santalen, beta-himachalene, 

cuparene, alpha-curcumene, 

gamma-cadinene. 

The petroleum ether and ethanolic 

extracts of aerial parts exhibit significant 


Aqueous extract of powdered plant 

produces fall in blood pressure, depresses 

the heart and increases respiration 

in animals. 

The essential oil, obtained from aerialpartsinJapan,isfoundtocontain47 

volatile compounds of which 91.0% are 

terpenoids. The leaves contain cumulene 

derivatives. 

For preparing plant extract as a drug, 

the volatile oil is removed from a hot 

aqueousextractandtheresidueisfiltered 

and concentrated to 24% or 60% 

of dry matter content. The 6% dry 

matter extract contains flavones 0.83, 

tannins 0.52, reducing sugars 6.37 and 

total sugars 12.6%. The extract is antiinflammatory, 

analgesic, bactericidal 

and fungicidal. 

Eriobotrya japonica Lindl. 

Family ◮ Rosaceae.


cultivated mainly in Saharanpur, 

Dehradun, Muzaffarnagar, Meerut, 

Kanpur, Bareilly districts of Uttar 

Pradesh, Amritsar, Gurdaspur and 

Hoshiarpur districts of Punjab. 

English ◮ Loquat, Japanese Medlar. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Lottaaka (non-classical). 

Unani ◮ Lokaat. 

Siddha ◮ Ilakotta, Nokkotta (Tamil). 

Action ◮ Leaves—used in China and 

India for the treatment of diabetes 

mellitus and skin diseases. Fruit— 

sedative, antiemetic. Flower— 

expectorant. 

The plant contains lipopolysaccharides 

(LPS), which exhibit antirheumatic 

activity. LPS is also found useful 

for treating diabetes mellitus and 

lowering high cholesterol level. The 

ethanolic extract of the leaves showed 

anti-inflammatory activity on carrageenan-induced 

oedema in rats and 

significant hypoglycaemic effect in 

normal rabbits like the standard drug 

tolbutamide. The sesquiterpene glycoside 

and polyhydroxylated triterpenoids 

showed a marked inhibition of 

glycosuria in genetically diabetic mice; 

also reduced blood glucose level in normoglycaemic 

rats. The hypoglycaemic 

effect is mediated through the release 

of insulin from pancreatic beta cells. 

The leaves gave ionone-derived glycosides 

and triterpenes. Maslinic and 

ursolic acids have also been isolated. 

Maslinic acid possesses significant 

anti-inflammatory activity. It also exhibits 

inhibitory effect on histamineinduced 

contraction in isolated ileum 

of guinea pig. 

Eruca sativa Mill. 243 

Hot aqueous extract of the leaves 

showed hepatoprotective activity experimentally. 

The leaves yield an essential oil containing 

nerolidol (61–74%). 

The presence of an antifungal compound, 

eriobofuran, is also reported. 

The methanolic extract of the plant 

exhibits antioxidant and radical scavenging 

activity. 

Eruca sativa Mill. 


Habitat ◮ Cultivated in Uttar 

Pradesh, Punjab, Delhi and Madhya 

Pradesh. 

English ◮ Rocket-Salad. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Tuvari, Tuvarikaa, 

Shveta-sursaa, Bhuutaghna, Daradharsha, 

Siddaartha. 

Unani ◮ Jirjeer, Taraamiraa. 

Folk ◮ Safed Sarson. 

Action ◮ Tender leaf—stimulant, 

stomachic, diuretic, antiscorbutic, 

rubefacient. Seed—vesicant, 


Seeds and fresh plant gave glucoerucin 

(4-methylthiobutyl glucosinolate); 

leaves yielded iso-rhamnetin- 

3-glucoside and iso-rhamnetin. The 

volatile oil of the seeds contains isothiocyanate 

derivatives. The oil at 0.004 

and 0.008 ml/kg exhibits diuretic activity. 

The ethanolic extract of the seeds 

is diuretic at 20 and 40 mg/kg Seeds 

are used to induce vomiting in place of 

ipecac. 

Crude juice of the plant inhibited E. 

coli, S. typhi and B. subttis. 

E

244 Ervataemia coronaria staff. 

E 

For eating purposes, the plant 

should be gathered before flowering; 

for medicinal use when in flower. 

Ervataemia coronaria staff. 

Synonym ◮ E. divaricata (L.) Alston. 

Tabernaemontana coronaria R.Br. 


Habitat ◮ Throughout the sub- 

Himalayan tract from Garhwal 

eastwards to Assam and Bengal, 

extending southwards to North 

Circars. 

English ◮ East Indian Rosebay. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Nandivrksha, Tagar. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Nandiyaavattam. 

Action ◮ Topically anodyne; chewed 

for relief of toothache; administered 

as a vermicide. Various parts of the 

plant are used in the indigenous 

system of medicine for skin diseases 

and cancer. 

The plant from Sri Lanka and Pakistan 

contains several indole alkaloids, 

including voacristine. 

Isovoacristic hydrochloride caused 

bradycardia in frogs and rabbits. The 

decoction of leaves exhibits antihypertensive 

and diuretic activity. Tabersonine, 

reported in the flowers, showed hypotensive 

effect on anaesthetized cats. 

The most abundant alkaloids in 

stem cortex are tabernaemontanine, 

dregamine and 20-epi ervatamine. 

Erycibe paniculata Roxb. 



commoninUttarPradesh. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Ashoka-rohini (nonclassical). 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Unamkodi. 

Action ◮ Bark—anticholerin. Ripe 

fruit eaten in constipation. Pounded 

root prescribed internally in fever. 

Bark is used in cholera. 


exhibit diuretic and hypotensive activity. 

Eryngium caeruleum Bieb. 


Habitat ◮ Kashmir and Western 

Himalayas. 

Folk ◮ Pahaari Gaajar, Dudhali 

(Punjab), Saleli-misri. 

Action ◮ Root—nervine, stimulant, 

haematinic, diuretic, diaphoretic, 

expectorant. Ash of the plant— 

antiseptic, anti-inflammatory (used 

in haemorrhoids). 

Leaves and flowers contain d-mannitol. 

Underground parts yield saponins. 

Eryngium foetidum Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Assam up to 1,700 m, 

found as a garden plant in Dehra 

Dun. 

English ◮ Sea Holly.

Folk ◮ Brahma-Dhaniyaa, Jangali 

Gaajar (var.). 

Action ◮ Root—stomachic. Plant— 

galactagogue, diuretic. Fresh 

leaves are used as a vegetable and 

flavouring agent. 

Hot aqueous extract of the plant 

possesses anticonvulsant property. The 

ethanolic extract (50%) of aerial parts 

showed cardiovascular, diuretic and 

antistrychnine activity. The plant is 

CVS an CNS active and hypothermic. 

Sea Holly, found in sandy soils near 

the sea in Britain and Europe, is equated 

with Eryngium maritimum Linn. 

The root possesses diuretic and antiinflammatory 

properties and is used 

for urinary tract infections (urethritis, 

cystitis, polyurea, renal colic, prostatic 

affections). 

The root gave coumarins, saponins, 

flavonoids, plant acids and polyphenolic 

acids. Saponins are haemolytic, 

rosmarinic acid is known for its antiinflammatory 

activity. 

Erythraea roxburghii G. Don. 

Synonym ◮ Centaurium roxburghii 

(G. Don) Druce. 


Habitat ◮ Sub-tropical and temperate 

regions. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Kiraat-tikta (related 

species), Yavatiktaa (related species) 

(A substitute for Swertia chirayita.) 

Folk ◮ Khet-chiraayataa. 

Action ◮ Bitter tonic. 

Erythrina indica Lam. 245 

Key application ◮ Erythraea centaurium—in 

loss of appetite and 

peptic discomfort. (German 


Erythrina indica Lam. 

Synonym ◮ E. variegata Linn. var. 

orientalis (Linn.) Merril. 


Habitat ◮ Grownasanornamental. 

English ◮ Indian Coral tree. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Paaribhadra, Paaribhadraka, 

Paarijaataka, Mandaara, 

Dadap. Kantaki-palaasha, Kantkimshuka, 

Raktapushpa; Nimbataru. 

(Erythrina suberosa Roxb. is 

also equated with Paaribhadra.) 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kaliyanamurukkan. 

Folk ◮ Farhad. 

Action ◮ Leaf—cathartic, diuretic, 

antiseptic, anti-inflammatory. 

Applied externally for dispersing 

venereal buboes. Bark—antibilious, 

anthelmintic, febrifuge, astringent, 

expectorant. (E. variegata is an 

adulterant to the Ayurvedic drug 

Rohitaka.) Different parts of 

the plant are used as nervine 

sedative, antiepileptic, astringent, 

antiasthmatic and antiseptic. Bark 

is used in liver ailments, fever and 

rheumatism. 

A number of tetracyclic alkaloids 

have been isolated from the plant. 

The alkaloids showed a muscle relaxant 

activity and increased the sedative 

effects of hexabarbital. The alkaloids 

extracted from the leaves are re- 

E

246 Erythrina stricta Roxb. 

E 

ported to have anti-inflammatory activity. 

Bark alkaloids are neuromuscular 

blocking, smooth muscle relaxant, 

CNS depressant, hydrocholeretic 

and anticonvulsant. The bark contains 

0.05% alkaloids. 

The root extracts exhibited antimicrobial 

activity in vitro against Staphylococcus 

aureus and Mycobacterium 

smegmatis. 

The seeds of many of the species 

of Erythrina contain alkaloids with 

curare-like activity. Clinical trials on 

biologically standardized beta-erythroidine 

hydrochloride and dihydrobeta-erythroidine 

hydrochloride have 

shown promising results in the treatment 

of conditions involving certain 

types of muscular rigidity. 

Dosage ◮ Stem bark—6–12 g powder; 

12–24 g for decoction. (API Vol. II.) 

Erythrina stricta Roxb. 


Habitat ◮ Assam, Manipur, West 

Bengal and South India. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Muraa (controversial). 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Mullu-murukku. 

Action ◮ Bark—antibilious, antirheumatic, 

febrifuge, antiasthmatic, 

antiepileptic, antileprotic. 

Flowers—antidote to poison. In 

Assam, the juice of the root bark 

isgiventochildreninthreadworm 

infection. 

The plant gave tetracyclic alkaloids— 

(+)-erythraline and (+)-erythrinine. 

Erythroxylum coca Lam. 

Family ◮ Erythroxylaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Indigenus to Peru 

and Bolivia, introduced and 

experimentally cultivated in Assam, 

West Bengal, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, 

Tamil Nadu and Kerala. 

English ◮ Coca, Cocaine Plant. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Sivadari. 

Action ◮ Mydriatic and toxic. (Coca 

leaf extract, after removing cocaine, 

is used as a flavouring agent for 

soft drinks. Maximum use level: 

0.055%.) 

Coca leaves contain a large number 

of alkaloids including cocaine, tropacocaine, 

cinnamoylcocaine, truxillines 

and benzoylecgonine. (alkaloid content 

varies from 0.5 to 1.5%). The bark 

and seeds also contain cocaine. 

Coca is subject to restrictions in 

most countries. 

Not to be confused with Cocoa seed 

(Theobroma cacao.) 

Erythroxylum monogynum 

Roxb. 

Synonym ◮ E. indicum (DC.) Bedd. 

Family ◮ Erythroxylaceae. 

Habitat ◮ South India, up to 1,000 m. 

English ◮ Bastard Sandal, Red Cedar. 

Ayurvedic ◮ 

(Kerala). 

Kattuchandanam 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Devadaram. 

Folk ◮ Gandh-giri (Maharashtra).

Action ◮ Leaf—diaphoretic, stimulant, 

diuretic, stomachic. A decoction 

is used for malarial fever. Bark 

and wood—febrifuge. 

The wood yields diterpenes, including 

monogynol, OH-ogynol, devadarool; 

d-hibaene, its epoxide and an 

olefinic hydrocarbon. 

Biological activity of the plant is hypothermic 

and CNS active. 

Eucalyptus globules Labill. 

Family ◮ Myrtaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Native to Australia; now 

cultivated mainly at the hill-stations 

of India. 

English ◮ Blue-Gum tree, Australian 

Gum tree. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Tilaparna, Tailaparna, 

Sugandhapatra, Haritaparna Neelaniryaasa, 

Tribhandi, Triputaa, Saralaa, 

Suvahaa, Rechani, Nishotraa. 

Unani ◮ Neelgiri oil. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Karpooramaram. 

Action ◮ Essential oil from leaves— 

antiseptic, antibiotic, antiviral, 

antifungal, antispasmodic, decongestant, 

antiasthmatic, expectorant, 

antirheumatic, diaphoretic. Used 

in chronic, bronchitis, migraine, 

congestive headache, neuralgia and 

ague, as an inhalant or internal 

medicine. Root—purgative. 

Key application ◮ Leaf tea for catarrhs 

of the respiratory tract. Oil used 

externally for rheumatic complaints, 

contraindicated internally in 

inflammatory diseases of the 

Eugenia uniflora Linn. 247 

gastrointestinal tract, bile ducts, and 

in severe liver diseases. (German 

Commission E.) Oil—internally 

as adjuvant treatment of chronic 

obstructive respiratory complaints, 

including bronchitis and bronchial 

asthma, also for symptomatic relief 

of colds and catarrh of the upper 

respiratory tract; externally for 

symptomatic treatment of colds and 

rheumatic complaints. (ESCOP.) 

Leaf—antiseptic. (The British 


E. globulus is the main commercial 

source of Eucalyptus leaf oil; yield is 

2.12%; 1,8-cineole exceeds 70% (pharmaceutical 

grade oil requires a minimum 

cineole content of 70%). 

Several potent euglobals, having 

closely related acyl-phloroglucinolmonoterpene 

(or sesquiterpene) structures, 

are isolated from the leaves 

and flower buds. These compounds 

showed strong granulation-inhibiting 

activity and inhibition of TPA induced 

EBV (Epstein-Barr Virus) activation. 

Phloroglucin derivatives, isolated 

from leaves, showed better anti-inflammatory 

activity than indomethacin. 

Natural antioxidants have also been 

isolated from the plant. 

Dosage ◮ Leaf—50–100 ml infusion. 

(CCRAS.) 

Eugenia uniflora Linn. 



cultivated in gardens; now 

naturalized in some parts of In- 

E

248 Eulaliopsis binata (Retz.)C.E.Hubbard. 

E 

dia at medium elevations under 

sub-tropical conditions. 

English ◮ Pitaanga, Surinam Cherry. 

Action ◮ Fruit—used as a source 

of carotenoids (225.9 mcg/g) 

and provitamin A (991 RE/100g). 

Leaves—diuretic, antirheumatic, 

antifebrile. Used for lowering blood 

pressure, blood cholesterol, uric 

acid level, also for reducing body 

weight. Essential oil— digestive, 

carminative. 

The leaves gave flavonoids, quercitrin, 

quercetin, myricitrin and myricetin 

as major constituents. 


Eulaliopsis binata 

(Retz.) C. E. Hubbard. 

Synonym ◮ Pollinidium angustifolium 

Haines. 


Habitat ◮ Many parts of North India. 

English ◮ Baib grass, Sabai grass. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Balvaja. 

Folk ◮ Bhaabar. 

Action ◮ 

lithiasis. 

Diuretic. Used for treating 

EtOH (50%) extract of the plant is 

sasmogenic. 

Eulophia campestris Wall. 



India, mostly in the plains. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Amrita, Sudhaa-muuli, 

Munjaataka (Salep var.) Saalammisri 

(substitute). Munjaataka and 

Saalam-misri have been equated 

with Orchis latifolia Linn. of the 

same family. 

Action ◮ Tubers—used in stamatitis, 

purulent cough and as a cardiac 

and nervine tonic. Also used in 

scrofulous diseases and dyscrasia. 

Used a substitute for Salep. 

Eulophia herbacea Lindl. 


Habitat ◮ Western Himalayas, 

Bengal and Western parts of Deccan 

Peninsula. 

English ◮ Salep (var.). 

Ayurvedic ◮ Munjaataka (substitute), 

Saalam-misri (substitute). 

Action ◮ Tubers—used as a substitute 

for Salep. 

Eulophia nuda Lindl. 


Habitat ◮ Tropical Himalayas from 

Nepal eastward to Assam, and in 

Deccan from Konkan southwards. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Baalakanda, Amarkanda, 

Maalaakanda. 

Folk ◮ Ambarkanda (Maharashtra). 

Action ◮ Tubers—used for bronchitis, 

diseases due to vitiated blood, 

tumours, scrofulous glands. Also 

used as vermifuge.

The tubers yield two phenanthrene 

derivatives, eulophiol and nudol, along 

with n-hexacosyl alcohol and lupeol. 

Eulophia pratensis Lindl. 

Synonym ◮ 

Wt. 

E. ramentaceae Lindl. ex 


Habitat ◮ Pasture lands of Deccan 

from Konkan southwards. 

English ◮ Salep (var.). 

Folk ◮ Sataavari (Maharashtra). 

Action ◮ 

glands. 

Tuber—used for scrofulous 

Euonymus tingens Wall. 



Simla to Bhutan between 2,150 and 

3,200 m, and in Assam. 

English ◮ Spindle Wood, Wahoo. 

(Euonymus atropurpureus, found 

in Eastern and Central USA and 

Canada, is equated with Wahoo and 

Spindle tree. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Bhillotaka. 

Folk ◮ Chopra, Mermahaul, Kunku, 

Barphali. 

Action ◮ Cholagogue, laxative, 

diuretic, circulatory stimulant. 

Used for constipation, torpidity 

of liver, gall bladder disorders, 

jaundice and dyspepsia. 

Bark is used in diseases of the 

eye. 

Eupatorium cannabinum Linn. 249 

Key application ◮ Bark—as laxative. 


The plant yielded triterpenes—epifriedelinol, 

taraxerol, dulcitol, pristimerin 

and tingenins A and B. Pristimerin 

exhibited antitumour activity. 

Only bark and root bark is used 

medicinally. The seeds are poisonous. 

Toxic constituents of E. atropurpureus 

are furan-a-carboxylic acid; dphenyl-glucosone 

(sterol glucoside); 

euatroside; euatromonoside (steroid 

glycosides). (Francis Brinker.) 

Eupatorium cannabinum Linn. 



up to 3,600 m and in Khasi Hills 

between 1,000 and 2,000 m. 

English ◮ Hemp Agrimony, Water 

Hemp, Hemp Eupatorium. 

Folk ◮ Bundaar (Maharashtra), 

Tongollati (Assam). 

Action ◮ Diuretic, cathartic, 

anti-tumoral. Used under strict 

medical supervision for blood 

impurities and tumours. Internal 

administration is not advised 

unless the hepatotoxic alkaloids 

are shown to be absent from the 

sample. 

The herb contains volatile oil (about 

0.5%); sesqiterpene lactones, the major 

one being eupatoriopicrin; flavonoids, 

pyrrolizidine alkaloids; immunoactive 

polysaccharides. 

Eupatoriopicrin has shown to be cytostatic 

as well as cytotoxic; it delayed 

E

250 Eupatorium triplinerve Vahl. 

E 

transplanted tumour growth in mice in 

a dose-dependent manner. 

An aqueous extract of the plant exhibited 

anti-necrotic activity against 

carbon tetrachloride-induced hepatotoxicity 

in rats. The effect is attributed 

tothepresenceofflavonoids,rutoside, 

hyperoside and quercetin; phenolic 

acids, caffeic and chlorogenic; and not 

due to the presence of eupatoriopicrin. 

Acrylic acid and the lactic, malic and 

citric acids, present in the plant, also 

exhibited protective effect against acute 

toxicity induced by ethanol in mice. 

The polysaccharides have immunostimulatory 

activity and enhance phagocytosis 

in a number of immunological 

tests. The leaf oil is reported to 

exhibit fungicidal effect. 

A related species, Eupatorium odorum 

Linn., is known as Gondri in Orissa. 

Eupatorium triplinerve Vahl. 

Synonym ◮ E. ayapana Vent. 


Habitat ◮ Native to Brazil; naturalized 

in many parts of India; grown in 

gardens of Maharashtra. 

English ◮ Ayapana Tea. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Vishalyakarani, Ayaapaana. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Ayapanai. 

Folk ◮ Ayapani (Maharashtra). 

Action ◮ Cardiacstimulant,laxative, 

emetic, expectorant, bechic, 

antiscorbutic, alterative. Used in 

ague, also in dyspepsia. Leaf— 

anticholerin, haemostatic. 

The leaves contain ayapanin and 

ayapin, with pronounced haemostatic 

properties. The leaves also contain 

carotene and free vitamin C (25 mg/ 

100 g); there is 100% increase in vitamin 

C content on frying the leaves in 

oil. 

A aqueous extract of dried leaves 

and shoots exhibits cardiac stimulant 

activity, increasing the force of the 

heartbeat but diminishing its frequency. 

The plant is comparable to chamomile 

(Anthemis sp.). 

Euphorbia antiquorum Linn. 


Habitat ◮ The warmer regions of 

India; often cultivated for hedges. 

English ◮ Triangular Spurge. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Snuhi (Substitute), 

Vajra-kantaka, Vajratundi 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Chathurakkali. 

Folk ◮ Tridhaari, Tidhaaraa Sehunda. 

Action ◮ Latex—purgative. Applied 

on burns. Plant—used in dropsy, 

anasarca, sores, venereal sores, 

syphilis; also in dysentery, bronchitis, 

asthma. Root—anthelmintic. 

Fresh stems—used for skin sores 

and scabies. A decoction of stems is 

given in gout. 

The stems yielded friedelan-3 alphaol 

and 3 beta-ol, taraxerol and taraxerone. 

The roots yielded taraxerol. Latex 

gave beta-amyrin, cycloartenol, euphol 

(70%) and alpha-euphorbol.

Euphorbia dracunculoides 

Lamk. 



plains and low hills. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Saatalaa, Saptalaa, 

Sapralaa, Viduraa, Charmasaahvaa, 

Charmakashaa. 

Unani ◮ Thuhar. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Tillakada, Thusimullai. 

Folk ◮ Titali. 

Action ◮ Fruit—removes warts 

topically. Plant extract—cholinergic. 

The aerial parts are used as 

a vegetable for maintaining smooth 

and regular movement of bowels. 

The alcoholic and aqueous extracts 

of aerial parts showed significant action 

on gastro-intestinal motility in 

rats. The activity is more pronounced 

in alcoholic extract than in aqueous 

extract. 

The extract of air-dried plant exhibits 

cholinergic action and direct 

stimulation of different muscle preparations. 

Plant gave euphorbol, surcose, 

glycosides, sterols and kaempferol. 


(CCRAS.) 

Euphorbia hirta Linn. 

Synonym ◮ 

Linn. 

E. pilulifera auct. non 


Euphorbia hirta Linn. 251 

Habitat ◮ Throughout warmer 


English ◮ Euphorbia, Australian 

Asthma Weed, Pill-bearing Spurge. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Dudhi, Dudhikaa, 

Naagaarjuni, Vikshirini. 

Unani ◮ Dudhi Khurd. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Amman pachharisi. 

Action ◮ Pectoral, antiasthmatic, 

antispasmodic. Used for asthma, 

laryngitis, chronic nasal and 

bronchial catarrh; diarrhoea, 

dysentery, intestinal parasitosis 

Also used in postnatal complaints, 

failure of lactation. Latex— 

vermifuge. Used in diseases of 

urinogenitory tract. 

The herb contains several terpenes, 

anthocyanins, alcohols and steroids. 

Aerial parts also gave shikimic acid, 

choline, L-inositol and free sugars. 

Antiasthmatic activity is attributed 

to choline and shikimic acid. Shikimic 

acid and choline showed relaxant and 

contracting properties on guinea-pig 

ileum. 

The aqueous extract of the herb exhibited 

sedative, anxiolytic, analgesic, 

antipyretic and anti-inflammatory activities; 

exerted an inhibitory effect on 

platelet aggregation. 

Quercitrin is reported to be responsible 

for antidiarrhoeal activity. 

Methanolic extract of the leaves exhibits 

antibacterial and antifungal activities. 

Dimeric hydrolysable tannins, euphorbains, 


plant. 

E

252 Euphorbia hypericifolia auct. non Linn. 

E 

Euphorbia hypericifolia 

auct. non Linn. 

Synonym ◮ E. indica Lam. 



regions of India, up to 1,500 m in 

the Himalaya. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Dugdhikaa. 

Action ◮ Plant—used in colic, 

diarrhoea and dysentery. Leaf— 

astringent, antidysenteric, antileucorrhoeic 

(also used in menorrhagia). 

The plant contains taraxerol, octacosanol, 

campesterol, stigmasterol, 

beta-sitosterol, quercetin, quercitrin, 

ellagic acid, rhamnetin-3-galactoside, 

rhmnetin-3-rhamnoside and kaempferol. 

Euphorbia neriifolia auct. non 

Linn. 

Synonym ◮ E. ligularia Roxb. 


Habitat ◮ Grown as a field and 

boundary fence and as curious on 

rockeries in gardens. 

English ◮ Holy Milk Hedge, Dog’s 

Tongue. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Snuhi, Samant-dugdhaa, 

Sehunda, Singhtunda, Snuk, Gudaa, 

Sudhaa, Vajra, Vajjri, Vajjradram, 

Thuuhar. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Ielaikkali, Perumbukalli. 

Action ◮ Latex—purgative, diuretic, 

antiasthmatic, expectorant, rubefacient. 

Used in ascites, polyuria, 

anasarca, chlorosis, tympanitis; 

externally on warts, cutaneous 

eruptions, scabies, unhealthy ulcers. 

Asuccus compounded of equal parts 

of the juice and simple syrup is said to 

be used for giving relief in asthma. 

The triterpenoids, euphol, 24-methylenecycloartenol, 

euphorbol hexacosonate, 

glut-5 (10)-en-1-one, glut-5en-3 

beta-yet-acetate, taraxerol, friedelan-3alpha-oland–3beta-olhavebeen 

reported from the plant. 

Euphorbia nivulia Buch.-Ham. 


Habitat ◮ Northern and central 

India, often planted in dry areas. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Snuhi (substitute), 

Patra-Snuhi. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kalli, Naga-kalli. 

Action ◮ Latex—used for treating 

jaundice, dropsy, enlargement of 

liver and spleen; colic; syphilis, 

leprosy; applied to haemorrhoids. 

Coagulated latex is used for 

bronchitis. Leaf—juice is used as 

a purgative. Warmed in mustard 

oil, applied in cold and headache. 

The latex gave cycloart-25-en-3 

beta-ol, and cyclolaudenol; stem contained 

cyclolaudenol and sitosterol; 

leaves gave sitosterol. (None of these 

triterpenes have been reported from E. 

neriifolia.) These triterpenes exhibited 

antimicrobial activity against Staphylococcus 

aureus and E. coli.

Euphorbia pilosa Linn. 



Garhwal, westwards to Kashmir. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Saatala, Saptalaa. 

(Substitute). 

Action ◮ Purgative, emetic. Root— 

used in fistulous sores. 

Prostratin, isolated from the roots of 

var. cornigeria Hook. f., was found to 

be pro-inflammatory. 

Euphorbia resinifera Berg. 


Habitat ◮ Native to Morocco. 

English ◮ Euphorbium. 

Unani ◮ Farfiyuun, Afarbiyuun. 

Action ◮ A drastic purgative, 

irritant, vesicant and toxic, proinflammatory. 

Internal use of the 

drug has been abandoned. 

Dried latex gave diterpene esters; 

derivatives of 12-deoxyphorbol, which 

are pro-inflammatory, tumour promoting 

and cause platelet aggregation; 

exhibit co-carcinogenic activity. 

Euphorbia royleana Boiss. 


Habitat ◮ Western Himalaya from 

Kumaon to Nepal. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Snuhi, Snuk, Sehunda, 

Gudaa (Substitutes.) (Adhogudaa 

Euphorbia thomsoniana Boiss. 253 

of Ayurvedic medicine and Banamuuli 

of folk medicine have been 

equated with Euphorbia acaulis 

Rox.) 

Unani ◮ Thuuhar 

Folk ◮ Thor, Surai. 

Action ◮ Latex—cathartic, anthelmintic. 

The latex yield euphol, cycloeucalenol, 

an inseparable mixture of four 

tetra-and four tri-esters of macrocyclic 

diterpene ingenol, octacosanol, tetracosanol, 

beta-sitosterol, stigmasterol, 

alpha-amyrin and campesterol. The 

plant gave ingenol. 

The latex is a valuable source of ingenol 

esters. Ingol is a macrocyclic 

diterpene and is of therapeutic interest 

due to its antileukemic properties. 

Fractionation of the latex gave ingol- 

12-acetate and 8-tigloyl-12-acetate. The 

acylation of ingol-12-acetate yielded 

derivatives which inhibit the growth of 

the basophilic leukaemia cells in rats. 

Euphorbia thomsoniana Boiss. 


Habitat ◮ Kashmir, above 2,350 m. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Hiyaavali, Svarnakshiri 

(also equated with Argemone 

mexicana L., Papaveraceae.), 

Kanchanakshiri, Pitadugdhaa, 

Katuparni. 

Folk ◮ Hiravi (Kashmir). Titari 

(Himachal Pradesh). 

Action ◮ Root—purgative. Latex— 

used in eruptions and other skin 

diseases. 

E

254 Euphorbia thymifolia Linn. 

E 

Dosage ◮ Latex—125–250 mg 

(CCRAS.) 

Euphorbia thymifolia Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Smaller var., equated 

with E. thymifolia, isfoundin 

tropical plains and low hills of 

India, ascending to 1,750 m. Bigger 

var., E. pilulifera/E. hirta Linn. is 

found in warmer parts of India from 

Punjab eastwards, and southwards 

to Kanyakumari. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Dudhi (smaller 

var.), Dugdhikaa, Naagaarjuni, 

Swaaduparni. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Sittrapaladi. 

Action ◮ Plant—antispasmodic, 

bronchodilator, antiasthmatic 

(used in bronchial asthma), 

galactagogue (also used for spermatorrhoea). 

Root—used in 

amenorrhoea. Latex—used in 

ringworm, dandruff. Leaf, seed and 

latex—purgative. A decoction of 

the plant, with honey, is given to 

treat haematuria. 

Aerial parts gave epitaraxerol, nhexacosanol, 

euphorbol, two derivatives 

of deoxyphorbol-OAC, 24-methylene 

cycloartenol and quercetin galactoside. 

Co-carcinogenic activity is due 

to phorbol derivatives. The plant exhibits 

antimicrobial activity due to alkaloids. 


paste. (CCRAS.) 

Euphorbia tirucalli Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Native to Africa; naturalized 

in the warmer parts of 

India. 

English ◮ Milk-Bush, Milk Hedge, Indian 

tree Spurge, Aveloz, Petroleum 

Plant 

Ayurvedic ◮ Saptalaa, Saatalaa. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Tirukalli. 

Folk ◮ Angulia-thuuhar. 

Action ◮ Purgative, emetic, antiasthmatic, 

bechic. Used for whooping 

cough, asthma, dyspepsia, biliousness, 

jaundice, enlargement of 

spleen, leucorrhoea. Latex—applied 

externally on warts. 

Used as a purgative and for rheumatism 

and neuralgia. Stem bark—used 

for gastralgia, colic, asthma. 

The latex contains an ingol ester besides 

triterpenoids, euphorbinol and 

cycloeuphordenol. 

Presence of a number of ingenol and 

phorbol esters (diterpenoids), and triterpenoids 

are reported from the plant. 

The stem gave hentriacontane, hentriacontanol, 

beta-sitosterol, Me-ellagic 

and ellagic acids and kaempferol glucoside. 

The latex is a weak tumour promoter. 

Euphoria longan Steud. 


Habitat ◮ 

Bengal. 

South India, Assam and 

English ◮ Longan

Ayurvedic ◮ Aakshiki (non-classical). 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Puvatti, Shempuvan. 

Folk ◮ Aashaphala (Bengal), Naaglichi 

(Assam). 

Action ◮ The aril of the fruit is 

used in prescriptions of Chinese 

traditional medicine for treating 

insomnia, neurosis, palpitation, 

amnesia and anaemia. 

It has been found to ameliorate the 

impaired learning process in mice. 

An aqueous extract of the fruit pulp 

showed stimulating effect on superoxide 

dimutase activity in red blood cells 

of mice., indicating its possible use in 

delaying the aging process. 

The seeds contain antimutagens, 

amino-hydroxy-hexynoic acid, hypoglycin 

A (which causes hypoglycaemia) 

and amino-hydroxy-heptynoic acid. 

Euphrasia simplex D. Don. 

Synonym ◮ E. officinalis Linn. 


Habitat ◮ The Temperate Himalaya 

from Kashmir to Sikkim, from 1,350 

to 4,000 m. 

English ◮ Eyebright. 

Action ◮ Plant—astringent, antiallergic, 

bechic, anticatarrhal. 

Key application ◮ Externally as 

lotions, eye-baths, poultices, for 

eye complaints associated with 

inflammatory conditions, and as 

a preventive measure against mucus 

of the eyes, “glued” and inflammed 

eyes. (Traditional uses mentioned 

by German Comission E.) 

Euryale ferox Salisb. 255 

Orally, Eyebright is used to treat allergies, 

common cold, bronchial conditions 

and sinusitis. Ophthalmic application 

is not recommended. Eyebright 

has been used in a British herbal 

tobacco product, which was smoked 

for cold and chronic bronchial conditions. 

Aerial parts showed presence of 

phenol, carboxylic acid, flavones and 

methyl flavone derivatives. Plant gave 

quercetin glucoside, diosmetin, kaempferol, 

caffeic and ferulic acids, stigmasterol 

and beta-sitosterol. Iridoid 

glycosides, including aucubin, are also 

present. Tannins include both condensed 

and hydrolysable gallic acid 

type. 

Euryale ferox Salisb. 

Family ◮ Nymphaeaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Kashmir, Bihar, Rajasthan, 

Assam, Manipur, Tripura, Bengal 

and Uttar Pradesh, in lakes and 

ponds. 

English ◮ Gorgan Nut, Fox Nut. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Makhaann, Paaniyaphala, 

Padma-bijaabha, Ankalodya. 

Unani ◮ Makhaanaa. 

Action ◮ Seed—deobstruent, 

astringent, nervine tonic. Used 

in spermatorrhoea and sexual 

affections (restrains seminal gleet) 

and debility. 

Edible parts of the seeds gave the following 

values: moisture 12.8, protein 

9.7, fat 0.1, mineral matter 0.5, carbohydrates 

76.9, calcium 0.02, and phosphorus 

0.09%; iron 1.4 mg/100 g. 

E

256 Evolvulus alsinoides Linn. 

E 

Evolvulus alsinoides Linn. 

Synonym ◮ E. hirtus Lam. 

E. angustifolius Roxb. 

Convolvulus alsinoides L. 



a common weed in open and grassy 

places; ascending to 2,000 m in the 

Himalayas. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Shankapushpi (blueflowered 

var., Convolvus pluricaulis: 

white-flowered var.) 

Unani ◮ Shankhaahuli. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Vishnukrandi 

(blue-flowered), Shivakrandi 

(white-flowered). 

Action ◮ Brain tonic, an aid in 

conception, astringent, antidysenteric. 

Leaf—antiasthmatic. Used in 

nervine affections (epilepsy, insanity,spermatorrhoea),andduodenal 

ulcers, also for uterine affections. 

Flowers—used for uterine bleeding 

and internal haemorrhages. 

A decoction of the herb is given as 


The plant contains alkaloid evolvine, 

beta-sitosterol, stearic, oleic, linoleic 

acids, pentatriacontane and triacontane. 

The alkaloid evolvine exhibited 

powerful stimulant activity on respiration 

and blood pressure (possibly 

analeptic). 

Aqueous extract of the petal showed 

antifungal property. 

Evolvulus nummularius Linn. 


Habitat ◮ A weed of grassy lawns. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Aakhukarni, 

Muusaakarni (substitute for 

Merremia emarginata (Burm. f.) 

Hallier f., synonym Ipomoea 

reniformis Choisy). 

Folk ◮ Muusaakaani, Chhinipatra 

(Bihar). 

Action ◮ Weak sedative, anthelmintic. 

Exacum bicolor Roxb. 

Synonym ◮ E. tetragonum Roxb. 

E. perrottetii Griseb. 


Habitat ◮ Upper Gangetic plains and 

tropical Himalaya, also in South 

India. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Ava-chiraayataa (bigger 

var. of chiraayataa). 

Folk ◮ Titakhana, Uudakiraayita 


Action ◮ Stomachic,febrifuge, 

antifungal, bitter tonic. 

The leaves gave apigenin, luteolin, 

vanillic, p-hydroxybenzoic, protocatechuic 

and p-coumaric acids. 

A related species. Exacum pedunculatum 

L., found throughout India, 

ascending up to 1,000 m, is also used 

as a substitute for Swertia chirayita and 

Gentiana lutea. Pounded plant is applied 

externally in rheumatism and 

gout. It also gave luteolin, diosmetin 

and phenolic acids. 

Excoecaria agallocha Linn. 

Family ◮ Euphorbiaceae.

Habitat ◮ The coastal and tidal 

forests of India. 

English ◮ Blinding tree. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kampetti, Tillai, Agil, 

Ambala-vrksham. 

Folk ◮ Gevaa, Huraa (Maharashtra). 

Gangawaa. 

Action ◮ Latex—antileprotic. The 

latex blisters the skin and is reported 

to cause blindness if it enters the 

eye. The juice, boiled in oil, is 

applied in rheumatism, paralysis 

and leprosy. 

The leaves are toxic and contain gallo 

tannins (0.616 mg/g dry weight). 

Fresh twigs and bark contain a piscicidal 

component. The latex is biocidal. 

Exogonium purga Benth. 

Exogonium purga Benth. 257 

Synonym ◮ Ipomoea purga Hayne. 


Habitat ◮ Native to Amercia. Grows 

in Southern and Eastern India. 

English ◮ Jalap. 

Unani ◮ Jalaapaa. 

Action ◮ Tuber—drastic hydragogue 

cathartic, acts briskly, 

causes watery evacuations. Overdoses 

produce hypercatharsis. 

Contraindicated in inflammatory 

conditions of the bowels. (The 

roots of Operculina turpethum 

synonym Ipomoea turpethum 

are used as a substitute for 

jalap.) 

E

Fagonia cretica Linn. 

Synonym ◮ F. arabica Linn. (Correct 

name for Indian sp. is Fagonia 

schweifurthii Hadidi. F. bruguieri 

DC. is not a synonym of F. cretica, 

according to CDRI.) 

Family ◮ Zygophyllaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Western India, upper 

Gangetic plains and Peninsular 

India. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Dhanvayaasa, Dhanvayavaasa, 

Dhanvayaasaka, Duraalabhaa, 

Samudraantaa. Gaandhaari, 

Kachhuraa, Anantaa, Duhsparshaa. 

(Alhagi pseudalhagi is used as 

a substitute for F. cretica.) 

Unani ◮ Dhamaasaa. 

Action ◮ Astringent, antiseptic, 

blood-purifier and febrifuge. 

Applied to abscesses, scrofulous 

glands and wounds; also given 

as a prophylactic against smallpox. 

Bark—used for dermatosis 

Extract of aerial parts—antiviral, 

antiamphetaminic, spasmogenic. 

Plant ash—given to children 

suffering from anaemia. 

The aerial parts contain several triterpenoid 

saponins which gave sapogenin, 

nahagenin, oleanolic acid. 

Aerial parts also gave diterpenes, fagonone 

and its derivatives, besides 

flavonoids. 

The flavonoids, quercetin and kaempferol, 

isolated from the leaves and 

flowers, showed antimicrobial activity. 

F 

The fruits are rich in ascorbic acid. 



Fagopyrum esculentum 

Moench. 

Family ◮ Polygonaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Native to Central Asia; 

now grown as minor grain-crop in 

hilly regions of North India and the 

Nilgiris. 

English ◮ Buckwheat. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Kotu. 

Folk ◮ Kutu, Phaapar. 

Action ◮ Used for treating fragile 

capillaries, chilbains and for 

strengthening varicose veins. Used 

at a supporting herb for treating high 

blood pressure. Rutin is obtained 

from fresh or dried leaves and 

flowers. (Rutin is used in a variety 

of haemorrhagic conditions.) 

The seed are commonly used in colic, 

choleraic diarrhoea and abdominal 

obstructions. Root decoction is used 

in rheumatic pains, lung diseases and 

typhoid; juice in urinary disorders. In 

China, used in pulmonary sepsis. 

The plant is used as a venous and 

capillary tonic, and for alleviating venous 

stasis and vericose veins. 

It is a potential source of rutin (yield 

3–5%). The leaves and blossoms contain 

most of the rutin (80–90%).

260 Fagopyrum tataricum Gaertn. 

F 

Quercetin caused significant decrease 

in ulcer index in acute gastric 

ulcer with respect to control group in 

rats. Quercetin, rutin or kaempferol 

inhibited, in dose-dependent manner, 

gastric damage produced by acidifiedethanol 

in rats. 

The plant also gave hyperoside and 

anthracene derivatives. 

Buckwheat is a good source of lysine 

and other amino acids. The flour 

is reported to repress exogenous hypercholesterolemia 

and promotes accumulation 

of triglyceride in the liver 

of rats. 

Seed oil exhibits antimicrobial activity 

against Bacillus anthrasis, E.coli and 

Salmonella paratyphi. 

Whole plant, dried or green, can 

cause photosensitization. 

Fagopyrum tataricum Gaertn. 


Habitat ◮ Cultivated in the Himalayas, 

especially in the colder 

parts of Ladakh, Zaskar and 

Western Tibet. 

English ◮ Tatary Duckwheat. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Ukhal. 

Folk ◮ Kutu (var.). 

Action ◮ See F. esculentum.Duckwheat 

is a better source of rutin 

than the common Buckwheat. 

It contains 45–80% more rutin 

than the latter, and maintains its 

high rutin content for a longer 

period. 

Fagus sylvatica Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Cooler regions of northern 

hemisphere. Distributed in Kulu 


English ◮ European Beech, Common 

Beech. 

Action ◮ Seeds and fatty oil— 

used externally in skin diseases, 

rheumatism and gout. Seeds— 

poisonous. Saponins cause severe 

gastrointestinal symptoms. Leaves 

also contain saponins. Wood tar— 

antiseptic, analgesic; mixed with 

talc, used as a dusting powder for 

gangrene and bed sores. 

Farsetia hamiltonii Royle. 


Habitat ◮ Mediterranean region, 

eastwards to India and southwards 

to tropical Africa. 

Folk ◮ Farid-booti (Punjab). 

Action ◮ Antirheumatic. 

Farsetia species contain a volatile oil 

which gave glucosinolates. Allylglucosinolate 

is the major constituent. 

Farsetia jacquemontii 

Hook. f. Thoms. 


Habitat ◮ Rajasthan and Northwestern 


Folk ◮ Farid-booti. 

Action ◮ Antirheumatic.

Feijoa sellowiana Berg. 

Synonym ◮ Acca sellowiana Berg. 


Habitat ◮ Indigenous to western 

Paraguay, southern Brazil, Uruguay 

and parts of Argentina; cultivated 

in South India in Nilgiris and 

Kodaikanal hills. 

English ◮ Feijoa, Pineapple Guava, 

New Zealand Banana. 

Action ◮ The fruit contains iodine 

and vitamin C. Iodine content varies 

according to locality and fluctuates 

from year to year, usual range is 

1.64–3.9 mg/kg Fruit also contains 

vitamin P-active polyphenols. The 

fruit is found beneficial only in mild 

cases of thyrotoxicosis. 

Feronia limonia (Linn.) Swingle. 

Synonym ◮ F. elephantum Corr. 


Habitat ◮ Indigenous to South India; 

cultivated throughout the plains of 

India up to 500 m in the western 

Himalaya. 

English ◮ Wood Apple. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Kapittha, Dadhittha, 

Dadhiphala, Surabhichhada, 

Dantshatha, Kapipriya. 

Unani ◮ Kuvet. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Vilamaram, Vilangai, 

Narivila. 

Folk ◮ Kaith. 


carminative, stimulates the digestive 

Ferula foetida Regel. 261 

system bark. Pulp is included in 

a paste to tone the breast. Leaves— 

astringent; used for indigestion, 

flatulence, diarrhoea, dysentery and 

haemorrhoids. 

Unripe fruit—prescribed in sprue, 

malabsorption syndrome. (The Ayurvedic 


The leaves and stem bark contain the 

coumarins, luvangetin, xanthotoxin 

and limonin and the steroids, sitosterol 

and sitosterol-O-beta-D-glucoside. 

Antifungal compounds, psoralene 

from stem bark; xanthotoxin and osthenol 

from root bark and 2,6-dimethoxybenzo-quinone 

from the fruit shell 

are reported. Roots contain xanthotoxin 

and bergapten, used for the treatment 

of leucoderma, characterized by 

vitiligo. 

Dosage ◮ Dried pulp of mature 

fruit—1–3 g powder. (API Vol. II.) 

Ferula foetida Regel. 

Synonym ◮ F. assafoetida Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Native to Iran, Afghanistan 

and Pakistan. F. narthex occurs in 

Kashmir. 

English ◮ Asafoetida. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Hingu, Hinguka, 

Raamattha, Baahlika, Jatuka, 

Sahasravedhi, Vedhi. 

Unani ◮ Hilteet, Hing. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Perunkaayam. 

Action ◮ Olea-gum-resin—stimulates 

the intestinal and respiratory 

F

262 Ferula galbaniflua Boiss. ex Buhse. 

F 

tracts and the nervous system bark. 

Used for simple digestive problems 

such as bloating, indigestion, 

constipation; for congested mucus, 

bronchitis, whooping cough, also 

for neurological affections, epilepsy, 

cramps and convulsions. 

Key application ◮ In dyspepsia, 

chronic, gastritis, irritable colon; 

as spasmolytic. (The British Herbal 

Pharmocopoeia.) Contraindicated 

in bleeding disorders, pregnancy, 

infectious or inflammatory G1 

diseases. (Sharon M. Herr.) 

Ferula foetida contains: resins about 

40–60%, consisting of asaresionotannols 

and their esters; farnesiferols, 

ferulic acid and other acids; about 

25% gum; about 6–17% volatile oil, 

major constituent being sec-propenylisobutyl 

disulphide; sulphated terpenes, 

pinene, cadinene and vanillin; 

sesquiterpenoid coumarins. Some 

compounds from Ferula sp. ehibit antifertility 

activity. 

Dosage ◮ Detoxified oleogum-resin—125–500 

mg. (API 

Vol. I.) 

Ferula galbaniflua 

Boiss. ex Buhse. 

Synonym ◮ F. gummosa Boiss. 


Habitat ◮ Native to Persia. Occasionally 

grown North-Western 

Himalaya. 

English ◮ Galbanum. 

Unani ◮ Gaosheer, Jawaasheer. 

(Galbanum has been wrongly 

equated with Gandhbirozaa, the 

oleo-resin of Pine.) 

Action ◮ Oleo-gum-resin—digestive 

stimulant, antispasmodic; used 

for flatulence and colic; as an 

expectorant; and as a uterine tonic. 

Ferula gummosa contains resinuous 

substances (60%), major constituents 

being galbaresenic and galbanic acids; 

volatile oil (5–30%) containing monoand 

sesquiterpenes, alcohols and acetates; 

azulenes; thiol esters; undecatriens; 

resinic acids (30–40%); gums; 

umbelliferone. 

Ferula jaeschkeana Vatke. 


Habitat ◮ Jammu and Kashmir and 

Himachal Pradesh from 2,000 to 

4,000 m. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Hingupatri. 

Action ◮ Abortifacient, antiimplantation. 

Being investigated as 

a potential contraceptive. A related 

species, F. silphion,wasusedin 

ancient Rome as a contraceptive. 

The oil extracted from the leaves 

possesses mycotoxic property against 

dermatophytes, Trichophyton sp. 

The ethanolic extract of the aerial 

parts produced dilation and congestion 

and hypertrophy in liver in rats. 

The roots contain sesquiterpenoids. 

A coumarin, ferujol, isolated from the 

rhizome, showed abortifacient and 

anti-implantation activity at a single

dose of 0.6 mg/kg in rats by oral administration 

in a suspension of gum 

acacia. The essential oil shows antimycotic 

activity. 

Ferula narthex Boiss. 


Habitat ◮ Kashmir. 

English ◮ Narthex asafoetida. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Hingu (var.). 

Unani ◮ Hilteet, Hing. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Perungayam. 

Action ◮ The gum-resin is used as 

asafoetida. 

The oil is reported to be bacteriocidal. 

It exhibited antimicrobial activity 


bacteria. 

The essential oil, obtained from 

seeds, shows antioxidant activity comparable 

to BHT. 

The plant gave coumarin derivatives 

including umbelliferone and scopoletin. 

Dosage ◮ Gum-resin—125–500 mg. 

(CCRAS.) 

Ferula persica Willd. 

Family ◮ Umbeliferae; Apiaceae. 

Habitat ◮ 

Persia. 

Native to Arabia and 

English ◮ Sagapenum. 

Unani ◮ Sakbeenaj, Sakbekh. 

Ficus arnottiana Miq. 263 

Action ◮ Resin—less strong than 

asafoetida; used in the same way as 

asafoetida and galbanum. Used in 

Middle East for rheumatic affections 

and backache. 

Ferula sumbul Hook. f. 


Habitat ◮ Native to Central Asia. 

English ◮ Musk Root. 

Folk ◮ Sumbul, Sambala. 

Action ◮ Used as a sedative in hysteria 

and other nervous disorders. 

Also used as a mild gastrointestinal 

stimulant. Formerly 

used for asthma, bronchitis and 

amenorrhoea. 

Ferula sumbul contains 0.2–0.4% 

volatile oil; 5–15% resin; hydroxycoumarins 

including umbelliferone; 

sumbulic and angelic acids. 

Ficus altissima Blume. 


Habitat ◮ Assam, eastwards to 

Malaysia. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Nandi vrksha (var), 

Choraka-patra (var.). 

Folk ◮ Gadgubar (Assam). 

Action ◮ Leaves and bark—used in 

skindiseases. Thetreeisoneof 

the recorded hosts of the Indian lac 

insect. 

Ficus arnottiana Miq. 


F

264 Ficus asperrima Roxb. 

F 

Habitat ◮ Cultivated in Rajsthan, 

Madhya Pradesh, Bihar and Western 

Peninsula. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Nandi Vriksha, Prarohi, 

Gajapaadapa, Paarasa Pipala. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kagoti. 

Action ◮ Leaves—a moderate 

sterilizer, given to women after 

menses. Leaves and bark—used in 



(CCRAS.) 

Ficus asperrima Roxb. 


Habitat ◮ Madhya Pradesh and 

Western Peninsula. 

Ayurvedic ◮ 

classical). 

Kharapatra (non- 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kal-arasu. 

Folk ◮ Kaala-umar. 

Action ◮ Juice of bark—given for 

enlargement of liver and spleen. 

Ficus benghalensis Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Sub-Himalayan tract and 

Peninsular India. Planted along 

roadsides, and in gardens. 

English ◮ Banyan tree. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Vata, Nyagrodha, 

Bahupaada, Dhruv. 

Unani ◮ Bargad, Darakht-e-Reesh. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Aalamaram. 

Action ◮ Infusion of bark—used 

in diabetes, dysentery, and in 

seminal weakness, leucorrhoea, 

menorrhagia, nervous disorders, 

erysipelas, burning sensation. Milky 

juice and seeds—applied topically 

to sores, ulcers, cracked soles of 

the feet, rheumatic inflammations. 

Buds—a decoction in milk is given 

in haemorrhages. Aerial roots— 

antiemetic, topically applied to 

pimples. Leaves—a paste is applied 

externally to abscesses and wounds 

for promoting suppuration. 



of India recommends the aerial root in 

lipid disorders. 

Phytosterolin, isolated from the 

roots, given orally to fasting rabbits 

at a dose of 25 mg/kg, produced maximum 

fall in blood sugar level equivalent 

to 81% of the tolbutamide standard 

after 4 h. The root bark showed antidiabetic 

activity in pituitary diabetes and 

alloxan-induced diabetes. 

The alcoholic extract of the stem 

bark also exhibited antidiabetic activity 

on alloxan-induced diabetes in 

albino rats, and brought down the 

level of serum cholesterol and blood 

urea. This activity is attributed to 

a glucoside, bengalenoside and the 

flavonoid glycosides, leucocyanidin 

and leucopelargonidin. Bengalenoside 

is half as potent as tolbutamide. The 

leucopelargonidin glycoside is practically 

nontoxic and may be useful in 

controlling diabetes with hyperlipidemia. 

The leucocyanidin, when combined 

with a low dose of insulin, not 

only equalled in response the effects

ought about by a double dose of insulin, 

but also excelled in amelioration 

of serum cholesterol and triglycerides. 

(Additional references: Indian J 

Physiol Pharmacol, 1975, 19(4), 218– 

220; JEthnopharmacol, 1989, 26(1), 1– 

55; Indian J Physiol Pharmacol, 1994, 

38(3), 220–222.) 

Ficus benjamina Linn. 


Habitat ◮ The Eastern Himalaya, 

Assam, Bihar, Andhra Pradesh, 

kerala and the Andaman Islands. 

English ◮ Java Fig. 

Siddha ◮ Malai Ichi, Pon Ichi, 

Putrajuvi (Tamil). 

Folk ◮ Pimpri (Maharashtra). 

Action ◮ Diuretic. Leaves— 

decoction, mixed with oil, is applied 

to ulcers. 

The fruits gave bergapten. The latex, 

in addition to bergapten, gave alphaamyrin 

and imperatorin. 

Ficus carica Linn. 



region; now cultivated in 

Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Punjab, 

Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra. 

English ◮ Common Fig. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Phalgu, Manjul, 

Raajodumbara, Bhadrodumbara. 

Unani ◮ Anjeer, Teen. 

Ficus cordifolia Roxb. 265 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Semaiatti. 

Action ◮ Fruit—gentle laxative 

and expectorant. Syrup of figs— 

a remedy for mild constipation. 

Fruit pulp-analgesic and antiinflammatory, 

used for treating 

tumours, swellings and gum 

abscesses. Latex—analgesic and 

toxic. Used for treating warts, insect 

bites and stings. Leaf—used in 

lucoderma. Bark—used for eczema 

and other skin diseases. 

Key application ◮ As a laxative. 

(Included among unapproved herbs 

by German Commission E.) 

The leaves gave bergapten, psoralen, 

taraxasterol, beta-sitosterol, rutin and 

a sapogenin. Calotropenyl acetate, lepeol 

acetate and oleanolic acid have been 

identified in the leaves. 

Three peptides which exhibit action 

against angiotensin I-converting enzyme 

(ACE) have been isolated from 

the fresh latex. Their inhibitory activity 

is similar to that of ACE inhibitors 

derived from casein. (ACE catalyzes 

both the production of vasoconstrictor 

angiotensin II and the inactivation of 

the vasodilator bradykinin.) 

Dosage ◮ Fruit—10–20 ml juice; 5– 

10 g paste. (CCRAS.) 

Ficus cordifolia Roxb. 

Synonym ◮ F. rumphii Bl. 



1,700 m in the hills. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Ashmantaka (var.) 

F

266 Ficus cunia Buch.-Ham. 

F 

Folk ◮ Gajanaa, Ashtaa, Paakar. 

Action ◮ Fruit juice and latex— 

antiasthmatic and vermifuge. 

Ficus cunia Buch.-Ham. 

Synonym ◮ F. semicordata Buch.- 

Ham. ex Sm. 

F. conglomerata Roxb. 



Chenab eastward to Bhutan and in 

Assam, Bengal and Orissa. 

English ◮ Indian Fig. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Malayu, Chorakapatra, 

Laakshaa-vrksha, Laghuudumbara. 

Siddha ◮ Taragadu (Tamil). 

Action ◮ See F. carica. Fruits— 

spasmolytic; used in aphthous 

complaints. Root—used for 

bladder and visceral troubles. 

Bark-decoction—used for washing 

ulcers; juice and powdered bark— 

applied to wounds and bruises. 

Syconium—used for ulcers of 

mucous membrane. Syconium and 

bark—antileprotic. 

The tree is one of the recorded hosts 

of the Indian lac insect. 

Ficus dalhousiae Miq. 


Habitat ◮ Tamil Nadu. 

Ayurvedic ◮ 

synonym). 

Soma-valka (doubtful 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kal Aal, Pei Aal. 

Action ◮ Fruit—cardiotonic. Leaves 

and bark—used in affections of the 

liver and skin diseases. 

Ficus heterophylla Linn. f. 




Ayurvedic ◮ Traayanti, Traayamaanaa. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kodi Athi. 

Folk ◮ Daantiraa (Rajasthan). 

Action ◮ Fruits—used for constipation 

during fevers. Leaf-juice— 

antidysenteric. Root bark—mixed 

with water, given internally in 

coryza, asthma and bronchial 

diseases. Root—antispasmodic. 

Ficus hispida Linn. f. 

Synonym ◮ F. daemona Koen. ex 

Vahl. 

F. oppositifolia Roxb. 


Habitat ◮ Outer Himalaya from 

Chenab eastwards to West Bengal 

Assam, Central and South India 

and the Andaman Islands. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Kaakodumbara, 

Kaashtodumbara, Phalgu, Malayu, 

Malapu. 

Unani ◮ Anjir Dashti. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Peyatti, Chona Atthi. 

Action ◮ Syconium—galactagogue. 

Bark and seed—purgative, emetic.


recommends the fruit in jaundice, 

oedema and anaemia; fruit and root in 

leucoderma, vitiligo. 

The fruits, seeds and bark contain 

beta-sitosterol, beta-amyrin, ntriacontanyl 

acetate, gluacol acetate, 

hispidin, a phenanthraindolizidine alkaloid, 

bergapten and psoralen. A leucocyanin 

has been isolated from the 

root; oleanolic acid from the leaves. 

Dosage ◮ Fruit—10–20 g; root—1– 

3gpowder.(API Vol. III.) 

Ficus lacor Buch.-Ham. 

Synonym ◮ F. infectoria auct. non- 

Willd. 

F. viren Aiton. 


Habitat ◮ Plains and lower hills of 

India. 

English ◮ White Fig. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Plaksha, Karpari, Pitana, 

Parkati. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kurugu, Itthi, 

Kallalnaram. 

Action ◮ Bark—decoction is used 

for washing ulcers, as a gargle in 

salivation; also used for menstrual 

disorders and leucorrhoea. Leaf— 

estrogenic. Plant— used in 

erysipelas, ulcer, epistaxis. 

Fresh ripe fruit or powder of dried 

fruits is used to treat diabetes. 


indicates the use of the fruit and 

stem bark in syncope, delirium and illusive 

and unstable state of mind. 

Ficus palmata Forsk. 267 

The stem bark of the plant yield acetates 

of long-chain alcohols, methylricinolate, 

beta-sitosterol, lanosterol, 

caffeic acid, bergenin and sugars. The 

triterpenoids, lupeol and alpha- and 

beta-amyrin, are also present in the 

leaves. Flavonoids including sorbifolin 

and scutellarein derivatives, have been 

isolated from the leaves. 

Dosage ◮ Stem bark—50 g powder 

for decoction (API Vol. II); dried 

fruit—5–10 g. (API Vol. IV.) Leaf, 

root—10–20 g paste. (CCRAS.) 

Ficus microcarpa Linn. f. 

Synonym ◮ F. retusa auct. non Linn. 


Habitat ◮ WestBengal,Bihar,Central 

and Peninsular India and Andaman 

Islands.Growningardens,andas 

an avenue tree. Quite common in 

New Delhi. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Plaksha (related sp.). 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kal Ichi. 

Folk ◮ Itti. 

Action ◮ Bark—antibilious. Leaf— 

antispasmodic. Root bark and leaf— 

used in preparations of oils and 

ointments for ulcers, skin diseases, 

oedema and inflammations. 

Ficus palmata Forsk. 

Synonym ◮ F. caricoides Roxb. 

F. virgata Wall. ex Roxb. 


F

268 Ficus racemosa Linn. 

F 

Habitat ◮ North-western India and 

Rajasthan, from Kashmir eastward 

to Nepal, ascending to 1,000 m. 

English ◮ Indian Fig. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Phalgu, Anjiri. 

Siddha ◮ Manjimedi (Telugu). 

Action ◮ Fruit—demulcent and 

laxative. Latex is applied on 

pimples. Ripe fruits—hypotensive. 

Leaves gave bergapten and betasitosterol. 

Ficus racemosa Linn. 

Synonym ◮ F. glomerata Roxb. 


Habitat ◮ Throughout India. Grows 

wild in forests and hills. Often 

found around subterranean water 

streams. 

English ◮ Cluster Fig, Country Fig. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Udumbara, Sadaaphala, 

Hema-daudhaka, Jantuphala, 

Yagyaanga. 

Unani ◮ Anjir-e-Aadam, Anjir-e- 

Ahmak, Gular. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Atthi. 

Action ◮ Astringent and antiseptic; 

used in threatened abortions, 

menorrhagia, leucorrhoea, urinary 

disorders, skin diseases, swellings, 

boils, haemorrhages. Unripe 

fruits—astringent, carminative, 

digestive, stomachic; used in diarrhoea, 

dyspepsia, dysentery, 

menorrhagia and haemorrhages. 

Ripe fruits—antiemetic, also 

used in haemoptysis. Root and 

fruit—hypoglycaemic. Bark— 

decoctionisusedinskindiseases, 

inflammations, boils and 

ulcers. 


recommends the use of the bark in 

lipiddisordersandobesity. 

Leaves and fruit contain gluacol. 

The fruit also contains beta-sitosterol, 

lupeol acetate, friedelin, higher hydrocarbons 

and other phytosterols. 

Petroleum ether extract of the stem 

bark significantly reduced blood sugar 

level of rats with streptozotocininduced 

diabetes. It completely inhibited 

glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase 

from rat liver. Extracts of fruit 

and latex did not show any significant 

effect on blood sugar level of diabetic 

rats, they inhibited only glucose-6phosphate 

but not arginase from rat 

liver. 

An alcoholic extract of the bark has 

been found to be very effective in reducing 

blood sugar in alloxan-induced 

diabetic albino rats. It helped in improving 

the damaged beta cells of islets 

of Langerhans, thus exerting permanent 

blood sugar lowering effect. 

The ethanolic extract of seeds also 

showed hypoglycaemic activity. 

Lignin, the main fiber constituent 

of the fruit, prevented the rise in 

serum cholesterol levels of some extent. 

Fresh whole fruits, used as a source of 

dietary fibre, exhibited more hypocholesterolemic 

activity than pure cellulose. 

Dosage ◮ Bark—20–30 g for 

decoction. (API Vol. I.)

Ficus religiosa Linn. 



West Bengal, Central and South 

India; planted throughout India as 

an avenue tree. 

English ◮ Peepal, Bot-tree. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Ashvattha, Bodhidru, 

Bodhivrkisha, Sebya, Chalapatra, 

Gajabhaksha, Kshiradruma, 

Peeppal. 

Unani ◮ Peepal. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Arasu, Ashvatham. 

Action ◮ Bark—astringent, antiseptic, 

alterative, laxative, haemostatic, 

vaginal disinfectant (used in 

diabetes, diarrhoea, leucorrhoea, 

menorrhagia, nervous disorders; 

also in skin diseases.) Applied 

externally on unhealthy ulcers 

and wounds. Leaves and twigs— 

laxative. 

The bark contains beta-sitosteryl-Dglucoside. 

Vitamin K, n-octacosanol, 

methyl oleanolate, lanosterol, stigmasterol, 

lupen-3-one are reported from 

the stem bark. 

A hypoglycaemic response is reported 

for beta-sitosterol-D-glucoside obtained 

from the bark. 

Aerial roots are given to women, also 

used in prescriptions, for inducing 

conception. The dried fruits are used 

as a uterine tonic. 

The fruits contain 4.9% protein having 

the essential amino acids, isoleucine 

and phenylalanine. The chloroform 

extract of fruits exhibited antitumour 

and antibacterial activities in 

bioassays. 

Flacourita indica (Burm. f.) Merr. 269 

Various plant parts are included 

in formulations used for menorrhagia, 

metrorrhagia, blood dysentery, 

bleeding piles, haematuria and haemorrhages. 

Dosage ◮ Bark, fruit—50–100 ml 


Ficus talbotii G. King. 



Ayurvedic ◮ Plaksha (related species). 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Itthi, Kal Itthi. 

Action ◮ Bark—antileprotic (used for 

ulcers and venereal diseases). Aerial 

parts exhibit diuretic, spasmolytic, 

CNS depressant and hypothermic 

activity. 

Fimbristylis ovata Kern. 

Synonym ◮ F. monostachya Hassk. 



regions of India, as a weed. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Ibha-muulaka. (Also 

equated with F. annua.) 

Action ◮ Used in adenitis, scrofula, 

syphilis; also in cough, bronchitis 

and asthma. 

Flacourita indica (Burm. f.) Merr. 

Synonym ◮ F. ramontchi L’Herit. 

Family ◮ Flacourtiaceae. 

F

270 Flacourtia jangomas (Lour.) Raeusch. 

F 

Habitat ◮ Cultivated in Assam, 

Maharashtra and Bengal. 

English ◮ Ramontchi, Madagascar 

Plum, Mauritius Plum, Governor’s 

Plum. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Vikankata, Yajnyavrksha, 

Gopakantaa, Sruva-vrksha. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Sottai-kala, Katukala. 

Folk ◮ Poniol (Assam), Kataaya, 

Kakaiyaa. 

Action ◮ Gum—anticholerin. Used 

as a gargle. Applied to eczema and 

skin diseases. Bark—antidysenteric, 

astringent, diuretic. Seed— 

antirheumatic. Fruit—stomachic. 

Root—applied externally in skin 

diseases. Leaves and young shoots— 

astringent and stomachic. 


recommends the use of the leaf and 

stem bark in jaundice, oedema and diseases 

due to vitiated blood. 

The bark contains a phenolic glucoside 

ester, (−)-flacourtin. The heartwood 

contains the steroid, ramontoside, 

beta-sitosterol and its beta-Dglucopyranoside. 

The fruits contain 3.9–7.2% protein, 

vitamin C and mineral matter 

0.39%; calcium 24.1 and phosphorus 

12.5 mg/100 g. Fruits are given in jaundice 

and enlarged spleen. 

Dosage ◮ Leaf—50–100 g for 

decoction. (API Vol. IV.) (Also 

bark—CCRAS.) 

Flacourtia jangomas 

(Lour.) Raeusch. 

Synonym ◮ F. cataphracta Roxb. 


Habitat ◮ Bengal, Assam, Orissa, 

Andhra Pradesh and Eastern Ghats. 

English ◮ Puneala Plum. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Praachinaamalaka, 

Paaniyaamalaka. (Taalispatri (Hindi), 

Taalispatra (Gujarati), Taalisam 

(Malyalaam), Taalispatramu (Telugu) 

are confusing synonyms of 

Paaniyaamalaka.) 

Unani ◮ Taalisfar, Nabaq Hindi, 

Zarnab. In National Formulary of 

Unani Medicine, Zarnab, synonym 

Telispattar, is equated with F. 

catapracta, alsowithCinnamonum 

tamala Nees. (Zarnab is also equated 

with Salix aegyptiaca Sprengel and 

Taalisfar with Rhododendron 

anthapogon D. Don or R. lipidotum 

by Unani scholars.) 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Saralu, Vayangarai. 

Folk ◮ Paniyaalaa (Bihar). 


antidiarrhoeal, stomachic. Used 

in chronic bronchitis. Fruit—used 

in affections of the liver. Bark and 

fruit—antibilious. Infusion of bark 

is used as a gargle. Fruits contain 

(dry basis) protein 3.9%; vitamin C 

218, Ca 175, K 158, P 147, Fe 118, Mg 

57 mg/100 g. The fruit stem bark and 

bark yielded a coumarin, ostruthin, 

and limonoids, jangomolide and 

limonin. 

(Taalisha, Taalisam, Taalisapatri, 

Taalisapatra—all the synonyms are 

now equated with Abies spectabilis 

(D. Don) Spach., synonym A. webbiana 

Lindl., Pinus webbiana Wall.)

Flacourtia sepiaria Roxb. 


Habitat ◮ Kumaon and n the dry 

forests of Bengal, Bihar, Orissa and 

South India. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Vikankata (related 

species), Kinkini (provisional 

classical synonym). 

Folk ◮ Kondai, Kondari. 

Action ◮ The bark of the plant, 

triturated in sesame oil, is used as 

liniment in gout and rheumatism. 

Foeniculum vulgare Mill. 



region; now cultivated 

mainly in Punjab, Assam, Maharashtra 

and Vadodara (Gujarat). 

English ◮ Fennel. (Poison hemlock 

has been misidentified as fennel.) 

Ayurvedic ◮ Mishreyaa, Mishi, Madhurikaa, 

Madhuraa, Shatapushpaa, 

Shataahvaa. (Shatpushpaa is equated 

with Saunf and Shataahvaa with 

Soyaa. Some authors treat these as 

vice-versa.) 

Unani ◮ Baadiyaan, Saunf. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Sombu. 


antispasmodic, emmenagogue, 

galactagogue, anti-inflammatory, 

diuretic. Relieves bloating, nausea, 

settles stomach and stimulates 

appetite. Also used in amenorrhoea 

and enuresis. 

Foeniculum vulgare Mill. 271 

Key application ◮ In dyspepsias such 

as mild, spastic, gastrointestinal 

afflictions, fullness, flatulence. 

Fennel syrup or honey can be 

used for the catarrh of the upper 

respiratory tract in children. Fennel 

oil preparations not recommended 

during pregnancy. (German 

Commission E, ESCOP, WHO.) 

German Commission E reported that 

fennel seed promotes gastrointestinal 

motility and in higher concentrations 

acts as antispasmodic. In 

experiments anethole and fenchone 

have been shown to have a secretolytic 

action in respiratory tract. The 

British Herbal Pharmacopoeia and Indian 

Herbal Pharmacopoeia report its 

carminative and spasmolytic property. 

Fennel seed contain about 8% volatile 

oil (about 50–60% anethole, among 

others 10–15% fenchone and methylchavicol), 

flavonoids, coumarins (including 

bergapten) and sterols. 

The extract of seeds inhibits the 

growth of micro-organism, especially 

Streptococcus mutans, that are responsible 

for dental caries and periodontal 

diseases. 

The essential oil from the seed is reported 

to be antibacterial, antifungal, 

antioxidant, emmenagogue, oxytocic 

and abortifacient. 

The fatty acid, petroselenic acid, obtained 

from the oil, exhibited antimicrobial 

activity. 

Anethole, amajorconstituent of fennel 

seed/oil has been found to be an 

active estrogenic agent with minimal 

hepatotoxicity and no teratogenic effect. 

F

272 Fraxinus griffithii Clarke. 

F 

The oil also exhibits anticarcinogenic 

activity and can be used as a chemoprotective 

agent. 

It possesses antioxidant activity close 

to BHT. 

Anethole and limonene are used in 

pharmaceutical compositions for decreasing 

the side effects of chemotherapy 

and increasing the immune function. 

Limonene showed the capacity to inhibit 

mammary tumours in rats. 

The boiling water extract of leaves 

shows hypotensive effect in rats. 

The methanolic extract of seed 

showed antispasmodic activity, while 

aqueous extract accelerated the spontaneous 

movement of rabbit stomach. 


(API Vol. I.) 

Fraxinus griffithii Clarke. 

Family ◮ Oleaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Arunachal Pradesh 

(Mishmi Hills). 

Action ◮ Toxic to CNS. 

The extract of the bark and leaves are 

used as an adulterant of illegal opium 

and are sold in the black market in 

certain areas in Indonesia. 

The bark contains an iridoid glucoside, 

ligstroside, and the phenolic 

glucosides, syringin and sinapaldehyde 

glucoside. 

Fraxinus hookery Wenz. 

Synonym ◮ F. excelsior auct. non L. 


Habitat ◮ F. excelsior Linn.—Great 

Britain, Europe and North America. 

F. hookery—Western Himalaya at 

2,700–3,350 m. 

English ◮ European Ash, Weeping 

Ash. 

Folk ◮ Kum, Sum, Hum, Sinnun 

(Punjab, Kashmir). 

Action ◮ F. excelsior—laxative, antiinflammatory, 

febrifuge. The bark 

and leaves are used for arthritis and 

rheumatism. 

The herb gave coumarin derivatives, 

including fraxin, fraxetin and fraxinol; 

flavonoids based on aesculetin, including 

aescin, also rutin and quercetin. 

A coumarin derivative is actively diuretic. 

A saccharine exudate, manna, consisting 

principally of mannitol, is obtained 

by incising the stem barks of 

some Fraxinus sp. found in India. The 

manna of commerce is derived from 

F. ornus. F. hookery (bark)—astringent, 

febrifuge, bitter tonic. Leaves—cathartic. 

Ash Bark is used, in decoction, in 

the treatment of intermittent fever and 

ague, as a substitute for Peruvian bark. 

Also used for treating obstructions of 

the liver and spleen and in rheumatism 

and arthritic affections. 

Preparations of European Ash Bark 

showed an analgesic, anti-exudative 

and antiphlogistic action. (German 


Fraxinus ornus Linn. 

Family ◮ Oleaceae.

Habitat ◮ Indigenous to the coasts 

of the Mediterranean from Spain to 

Smyrna. 

English ◮ Flake Manna. 

Unani ◮ Turanjeen. 

Action ◮ A children’s laxative. 

Usually prescribed with other 

purgatives. (Not to be used in the 

presence of ileus.) 

Key application ◮ In constipation 

where an easier elimination and 

a soft stool are desirable; in 

animents such as anal fissures, 

haemorrhoids and post-rectal and 

surgery. (German Commission E.) 

The exudation contains 40–90% 

mannitol, 10–15% stachyose and mannotriose, 

glucose, fructose. 

Fritillaria cirrhosa D. Don. 


Habitat ◮ Central and Western 

Himalaya between 3,700 and 

5,350 m. 

Folk ◮ Yathu. 

Action ◮ Corm—antiasthmatic, used 

for bronchitis and tuberculosis. 

Fritillaria imperialis L. 


Habitat ◮ Kashmir at 1,700–3,000 m. 

English ◮ Crown Imperial, Imperial 

Fritillary. 

Action ◮ Bulbs—emollient, diuretic, 

resolvent, spasmolytic, hypotensive, 

cardiotonic. 

Fucus vesiculosus Linn. 273 

The bulbs contain steroidal alkaloids—ebeinone, 

eduardine, edpetilidine, 

verticinone, isoverticine and 

isobaimonidine and pimaradienic diterpene, 

oblongifolic acid. 

Ebeinone exhibited anticholinergic 

activity. 

Fritillaria roylei Hook. 



Himalaya from Kashmir to Kumaon 

at 2,700–4,35 m. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Kshira-Kaakoli, Viraa, 

Kaayasthikaa, Vaaysoli. 

Action ◮ Used in the treatment of 

asthma, bronchitis and tuberculosis. 

(Withania somnifera is a substitute 

for Kaakoli and Kshira-Kaakoli.) 

The bulbs gave alkaloids—peimine, 

peimisine, peimiphine, perminine, 

permidine and permitidine. The bulbs 

also gave neutral compounds—propeimin 

and a sterol. The plant gave kashmirine. 

Dosage ◮ Bulb—3–6 g powder. 

(CCRAS.) 

Fucus vesiculosus Linn. 

Family ◮ Fucaceae. (Laminaria sp.) 

Habitat ◮ On the shores of the 

United Kingdom, North Atlantic 

Ocean, North Pacific Coast of 

America; as a weed; found in Indian 

Ocean on the Manora Rocks. Allied 

species—F. distichus Linn., and F. 

F

274 Fumaria officinalis Linn. 

F 

nodosus Linn. (Included in Glossary 

of Indian Medicinal Plants, CSIR, 

also in its second supplement.) F. 

nodosus is found in India along sea 

shores. 

English ◮ Bladderwrack, Black Tang, 

Rockweed, Kelp. 

Action ◮ Weed—one of the richest 

source of minerals, chiefly iodine, 

sodium, manganese, sulphur, silicon, 

zinc and copper. Effective 

against obesity, antirheumatic. 

Stimulates circulation of lymph. 

Endocrine gland stimulant. Allays 

onset of arteriosclerosis by 

maintaining elasticity of walls of 

blood vessels. Mild diuretic, bulk, 

laxative, antibiotic. High sodium 

content may reduce effectiveness of 

diuretics. 

(The herb contains trace metal, particularly 

iodine from 0.03–1.0%. It may 

contain waste metals such as cadmium 

and strontium, when grown in a polluted 

environment. Variable iodine content 

and arsenic contamination make 

the herb unsafe.) 

The herb should be used with caution 

in hyperthyroidism and hypothyroidism. 

Excess thyroid activity may be 

aggravated by the iodine content of the 

herb;itmaydisruptthyroidfunction. 

One gram of Bladderwrack might contain 

as much as 600 mcg iodine (Ingestingmorethan150mcgiodineperday 

may cause hyperthyroidism or exacerbate 

existing hyperthyroidism.) (Natural 


2007.) 

Due to the antithrombin effects of its 

fucan polysaccharides, consumption of 

the herb in cases of G1 bleeding disorders 

is contraindicated. 

(Included among unapproved herbs 

by German Commission E.) 

Fumaria officinalis Linn. 

Family ◮ Fumariaceae. 


North America. Found at high 

altitudes in Nilgiris and Salem 

(Tamil Nadu). 

English ◮ Fumitory. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Parpata (related species). 

Unani ◮ Shaahtaraa. 

Action ◮ Antispasmodic and 

amphicholeretic. Stimulant to liver 

and gall bladder; used for eczema 

and other skin diseases. Also 

diuretic and mild laxative. 

Key application ◮ In spastic discomforts 

in the area of gallbladder 

and bile ducts, as well as the 

gastrointestinal tract. (German 



The herb contains indenobenzazepine 

alkaloids—fumaritrin and fumarofine. 

Other alkaloids include (−)-scoulerine, 

protopine, fumaricine, (+)-fumariline. 

The plant also contain rutin, 

fumaric acid and hydroxycinnamic 

acid derivatives. 

Protopine exhibits antihistaminic, 

hypotensive, bradycardic and sedative 

activity in small doses, but excitation 

and convulsions in large doses. (Natural 


2007.)

The seed oil contains myristic 4.2, 

palmitic 17.6, stearic 2.7, oleic 19.6, 

linoleic 55.7 and linolenic acid 0.2%. 

The upper flowering part of the herb 

is used for biliary disorders, various 

skin diseases and fevers. The herb can 

also treat arteriosclerosis by helping in 

lowering blood cholesterol level and 

improving the elasticity of arterial wall. 

Fumaria parviflora Lam. 

Synonym ◮ 

Pugsley. 

F. indica (Haussk.) 


Habitat ◮ At high altitudes in 

Tamil Nadu; up to 2,700 m on the 

Himalayas. 

English ◮ Fumitory. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Parpata, Parpataka, 

Varatikta, Renu, Kavacha, 

Sukshmapatra. 


Siddha/Tamil ◮ Thura. 

Folk ◮ Pittapaaparaa. 

Action ◮ Detoxifying, laxative, 

diuretic, diaphoretic. 

The plant contains isoquinoline alkaloids—including 

protopine, sanguinarine, 

cryptopine, d-bicuculline, fumaridine, 

fumaramine. The leaves 

contain kaempferol and quercetin glycosides. 

Fumaria vaillantii Loisel. 275 

Dosage ◮ Whole plant—1–3 g (API 

Vol. IV); 3–35 g powder; 50–100 ml 


Fumaria vaillantii Loisel. 


Habitat ◮ 

hills. 

Throughout India on the 

Ayurvedic ◮ Parpata. 


Folk ◮ Pittapaaparaa. 

Action ◮ The plant is used as 

a substitute for Fumaria parviflora. 

A decoction of the herb is used for 

blood purification and in skin diseases, 

especially psoriasis. 

Methanolic extract of the plant exhibits 

antimicrobial activity against 

Sarcina subflava. 

The herb contains several isoquinoline 

alkaloids which are common to 

Fumaria officinalis and Fumaria parviflora. 

Protopine showed smooth muscle 

relaxant activity in guinea-pigs, rabbits 

and albino rats and hydrocholeretic activity 

in anaesthetized dogs. L-tetrahydrocoptisine 

showed antipsychotic 

(neuroleptic) activity in albino rats and 

mice. Narceimine, narlumidine, adlumidine 

and protopine nitrate exhibit 


Alkaloids, narlumidine and protopine, 

exhibit significant antifungal 

activity. 

F

Galium aparine Linn. 


Habitat ◮ The Temperate Himalayas. 

English ◮ Goosegrass, Clivers, 

Cleavers, Catch Weed. 

Action ◮ Choleretic, stomachic, 

diuretic, refrigerant, lymphatic, 

alterative, antiscorbutic, detoxifier; 

non-steroidal anti-inflammatory 

used for enlarged lymph nodes, 

especially cervical neck nodes, 

cystic and nodular changes in the 

glands, modular goitre. Used as 

a cleansing drink for malignant 

conditions and skin disorders, 

including psoriasis. 

Key application ◮ As diuretic. (The 


The plant contains iridoid monoterpenes 

(asperuloside), benzyl isoquinoline 

alkaloids (including protopine), 

beta-carbolin alkaloids (including harmine), 

quinazoline alkaloids and flavonoids 

(such as luteolin). Methanolic 

extractoftheplantcontainschlorogenic 

acid, scopoletin and rutin. The 

plant is reported to contain several 

sterols. The root contains anthraquinones. 

Asperuloside can be chemically converted 

to prostanoid intermediates. 

Galium verum Linn. 


G 

Habitat ◮ Kashmir, Lahul and other 

west Himalayan regions, at altitude 

of 2,000–3,000 m 

English ◮ Lady’s Bedstraw, Cheese 

Rennet. 

Action ◮ Herb—diuretic, used for 

kidney stone, gravel, gout. Used 

topically for poorly healing wounds. 

The plant contains the iridoids including 

asperuloside and galioside; 

flavonoid glycosides; quercetin-3-glucoside, 

quercetin-7-glucoside, quercetin-3-rutinoside,luteolin-7-glucoside; 

anthraquinone derivatives, including 

alizarin, and large amounts of 

salicylic acid. Its high organic acid 

content causes curdling of milk. 

The root contain n-alkanes. 

Garcinia cambogia Desr. 

Synonym ◮ G. gummi-gutta (Linn.) 

Robs. 


Habitat ◮ Western Ghats and Nilgiris. 

English ◮ Gamboge tree. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Vrkshaamla (allied 

species), Kokam (var.). 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kodakkapuli. 

Action ◮ Fruit rind—used in rickets 

and enlargement of spleen, in 

skeletal fractures. 

The plant contains iso-prenylated 

polyphenols—cambogin and cambo-

G 

278 Garcinia cowa Roxb. 

ginol. The fruit contains about 30% 

acid (dry weight basis), which is essentially 

(−)-hydroxycitric acid (HCA). 

HCA is a potent inhibitor of ATP citrate 

lyase, the enzyme that produces 

acetyl CoA for both fatty acid and 

cholesterol synthesis. 

Taking Garcinia fruit rind extract 

orally does not seem to help decrease 

weight, satiety, fat oxidation or energy 

expenditure in obese people. Some researchers 

are of the view that garcinia 

inhibits the supply of fatty acids without 

affecting adipose conversion. (Natural 


2007.) 

Latex gave benzophenone derivatives, 

camboginol and cambogin. 

Garcinia cowa Roxb. 

Synonym ◮ G. kydia Roxb. 


Habitat ◮ Tropical forests of Assam, 

Bengal, Orissa and the Andamans. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Paaraavata, Kowaa. 

Folk ◮ Kaphal (Nepal), Kujithekera 

(Assam). 

Action ◮ Sun-dried slices of the fruit 

are used in dysentery. The latex 

is used as febrifuge. Gum-resin— 

drastic cathartic (may produce 

nausea and vomiting). 

The fruits from Assam contain: total 

soluble solids 9.8, titrable acidity 

4.7, total sugars 3.8% and vitamin C 

8.64 mg/g 

The latex gave xanthones, cowanin, 

cowanol, cowaxanthone and norcowanin. 

The bark contains cowanin, cowanol, 

cowaxanthone and rubraxanthone. 

Cawanol and cowaxanthone are reported 

to exhibit moderate antimicrobial 

activity against Staphylococcus aureus. 

Garcinia hanburyi Hook. f. 


Habitat ◮ Evergreen forests of Assam 

and Khasi Hills. 

English ◮ Siam Gamboge. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Kankushtha; 

Kaalakushtha, Tamaala. 

Unani ◮ Usaar-e-revand. 

Action ◮ Gum-resin—drastic 

hydragogue, cathartic; used for 

dropsical conditions. Toxic. The 

gum-resin contains 70–75% resins 

consisting mainly of alpha- and 

beta-garcinolic acids with gambogic 

acids; about 20–25% gum. 

Gambogic acid, morellic acid and 

isomorellic acid are toxic constituents 

of the gum-resin. 

Garcinia indica Choisy. 

Synonym ◮ G. purpurea Roxb. 


Habitat ◮ Evergreen forests of 

Western Ghats from Konkan 

southwards and in Goa. Also 

cultivated in southern districts of 

Maharashtra and on lower slopes of 

Nilgiris.

English ◮ Kokam Butter tree, 

Mangosteen Oil tree. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Vrkshaamla, Tintidika, 

Chukra, Amlavrkshak, Kokam, 

Amsula. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Murgal. 

Folk ◮ Kokam. 


cholagogue, cooling, antibilious, 

emollient and demulcent. A syrup 

from the fruit juice is given in bilious 

affections. Bark—astringent, Oil or 

Kokam Butter—used for dysentery 

and diarrhoea with mucus. Applied 

externally to ulcerations, fissures of 

lips, chapped skin and skin diseases. 

The fruit rind contain a polyisoprenylated 

phenolic pigment, garcinol 

and its isomer isogarcinol, along 

with (−)-hydroxycitric acid, cyanidin- 

3-glucoside and cyanidin-3-sambubioside. 

L-leucine and DNP-L-leucine hydrochloride 

have been reported from 

the leaves. 


exhibited semen coagulant and CNS 

depressant activity. 

Kokum butter contains fatty acids— 

palmtic 2.0, stearic 57.5, oleic 39.0, 

linoleic 1.3 and others 0.2%. 

Dosage ◮ Fruit—10–20 ml 

juice; root bark—40–80 ml 


Garcinia mangostana Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Native to Malaysia. Now 

cultivated mainly on lower slopes of 

the Nilgiris. 

Garcinia mangostana Linn. 279 

English ◮ Mangosteen, Dodol. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Sulambuli, Mangusta. 

Folk ◮ Mangustaan. 

Action ◮ Fruit—antileucorrhoeic, 

astringent, antifungal, antibacterial; 

used in cystitis, diseases of the 

genitourinary tract, diarrhoea, 

tropical dysentery and fevers. 

Pericarp—used externally for 

eczema and other skin diseases. 

Leaves—anti-inflammatory, antiimmunosuppressive, 

antiprotozoal, 

antimicrobial. 

The plant contains anthocyanin glycosides, 

a benzophenone, maclurin 

and several prenylated and related xanthones. 

The leaves contain terpenoids, 

xanthones and long chain hydrocarbons. 

The pericarp (fruit hull) contains the 

xanthone derivatives, mangostin, normangostin, 

beta-mangostin, gammamangostin, 

isomangostin as major 

constituents. 

Mangostin, isolated from the rind 

of fruit, inhibited primary and secondary 

responses to adjuvant-induced 

arthritis in rats. Mangostin, isomangostin 

and mangostin triacetate exhibited 

pronounced anti-inflammatory 

activity in rats both by i.p. and oral 

routes. 

Mangostin also produced antiulcer 


Mangostin and some of its derivatives 

produced CNS depression, characterized 

by ptosis, sedation and decreased 

motor activity. 

Gamma-mangostin showed more 

potent radical scavenging and antioxidant 

activity than BHA. 

G

G 

280 Garcinia morella (Gaertn) Desv. 

Garcinia morella (Gaertn) Desv. 

Synonym ◮ G. pictoria Roxb. 


Habitat ◮ Throughout southern 

India, also in Assam and West 

Bengal, up to 1,000 m 

English ◮ Indian Gamboge. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Kankushtha, Tamaal, 

Taapichha, Ushaare-revand. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Iravakhinni. 

Action ◮ Gum-resin—hydragogue, 

cathartic, anthelmintic. Used in 

dropy and amenorrhoea. Causes 

nausea, vomiting and griping in 

large doses. 

The gum contains morellin, neomorellin, 

beta-guttiferin and alphaguttiferin 

and their derivatives. The 

heartwood gave morelloflavone. Seed 

coat gave morellin, isomorellin and 

their neo derivatives which exhibited 

antibacterial and antiprotozoal activity. 

Dosage ◮ Gum-resin—50–125 mg. 

(CCRAS.) 

Garcinia pedunculata Roxb. 


Habitat ◮ Forests of northeast 

Bengal, sporadic in NEFA, Manipur 

and upper Assam 

Ayurvedic ◮ Amlavetasa. Vetasaamla. 

Folk ◮ Thaikala (Bengal). 

Action ◮ Antiscorbutic, astringent, 

cooling, cardiotonic, emollient. 

Used in anorexia, dyspepsia, colic, 

liver and spleen diseases difficult 

micturition. Cough and other 

respiratory disorders, ulcers and 


Dry fruits (pericarp) contain the 

benzophenones, pedunculol, garcinol 

and cambogin. 

The heartwood gave benzophenone 

and xanthone. 

Dosage ◮ Fruit—5–10 ml juice. 

(CCRAS.) 

Garcinia xanthochymus 

Hook. f. ex T. And. 

Synonym ◮ G. tinctoria (DC.) W. F. 

Wt. 


Habitat ◮ The lower hill forests 

of Eastern Himalayas, Peninsular 

India, Orissa, Maharashtra and the 


English ◮ Egg tree. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Tamaal (var.), Vrkshaamla 

(var.). 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kulavi, Malaippachai, 

Mukki, Tamalam 

Folk ◮ Amsul (Maharashtra). 

Action ◮ Fruit—anthelmintic, improves 

appetite. Also used as a cardiotonic. 

Fruit gave xanthochymol 

and isoxanthymol (polyprenylated 

benzophenone derivatives), 

flavones and xanthones.

Gardenia gummifera Linn. f. 

Synonym ◮ G. arborea Roxb. 

G. inermis Dietr. 


Habitat ◮ Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, 


Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu. 

English ◮ Gummy Cape Jasmine. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Venupatrikaa, Naadihingu, 

Hingushivaatikaa. Hingupatrikaa, 

Hingupatri (also equated 

with Ferula Jaeschkeana Vatke). 

Unani ◮ Dikaamaali. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Dikkamalli, Kambil, 

Sinna Kambil. 

Action ◮ Gum—carminative, antispasmodic, 

stimulant, diaphoretic, 

anthelmintic, antiseptic, expectorant. 

Given to children in nervous 

disorders and diarrhoea due to 

dentition. 

The gum yielded flavones, including 

gardenin, de-Me-tangeretin and 

nevadensin; wogonins, isoscutellarein, 

apigenin and de-MeO-sudachitin. 

Dosage ◮ Gum—250–500 mg. 

(CCRAS.) 

Gardenia jasminoides Ellis. 

Synonym ◮ G. florida Linn. 

G. augusta Merrill. 


Habitat ◮ Native to China and Japan; 


English ◮ Cape Jasmine. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Gandharaaja. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Karinga. 

Gardenia latifolia Ait. 281 

Action ◮ Plant—cathartic, antispasmodic, 

anthelmintic, antiperiodic. 

Root—antidysenteric. Also used in 

dyspepsia and nervous disorders. 

Fruits—used in gastric hyperacidity, 

constipation, cholestasis, internally 

and externally for inflammation 

and as a tranquilizer. 

The plant contains iridoid glycosides—geniposide 

56.03, genipin 1.72, 

gardenoside 2.16 and geniposidic acid 

1.79 mg/g The stem and root contain 

oleanolic acid, D-mannitol and stigmasterol. 

The leaves contain an antifungal 

compound, cerbinal. 

Geniposide is an important active 

principle of the fruit. The fruit also 

contain the carotenoids, crocin and 

crocetin. Aqueous and methonalic extracts 

of the fruit exhibited antioxidant 

activity due to the presence of geniposide 

and crocin; crocin was more 

potent than geniposide. 

The extract as well as geniposide 

caused a remarkable decrease in GOT, 

GPT and ALP activities. They also produced 

a significant decrease in the level 

of total cholesterol in the serum of 

CCl4-induced and D-galactosamineintoxicated 

rats. The crude extract as 

well as geniposide exhibited protective 

effect against induced hyperbilirubinemia 

by effectively lowering serum 

bilirubin. 

Gardenia latifolia Ait. 


G

G 

282 Gardenia resinifera Roth. 


part of India, mostly in dry forests. 

English ◮ Boxwood Gardenia. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Parpataki. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kumbay, Perungambil. 

Folk ◮ Paaparaa, Ban-pindaalu. 

Action ◮ Bark—used in skin diseases. 

The stem bark contains hederagenin, 

D-mannitol, sitosterol and siaresinolic, 

episiaresinolic, oleanolic and 

spinosic acid. 

Gardenia resinifera Roth. 

Synonym ◮ G. lucida Roxb. 


Habitat ◮ Central India and Deccan 

Peninsula. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Naadihingu (related 

species), Jantuka. 

Unani ◮ Dikaamaali. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kambil, Kumbai, 

Dikkamalli. 

Action ◮ Gum—antimicrobial, 

anthelmintic; used in skin diseases. 

Gum gave flavonoids—gardenins, 

wagonin derivatives, de-Metangeretin, 

nevadensin, hexacosylp-coumarate. 

See G. gummifera. 

Gardenia turgida Roxb. 

Synonym ◮ Ceriscoides turgida Roxb. 



part of India, up to 1,360 m 

Ayurvedic ◮ Mahaapindi, Karahaata, 

Kharahaara. (Bark is sold as 

Bhaargi.) Thanella. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Nanjundam, Malangarai. 

Action ◮ Root—used as a remedy 

for indigestion in children. Fruits— 

used in affections of the mammary 

glands. Pounded pulp is applied to 

forehead in fever. 

The bark and wood gave beta-sitosterol, 

hederagenin, Me-esters of oleanolic 

and gypsogenic acids. Root gave 

gardnins. 

Saponins from bark decreased formation 

of histamine and may find use 

in asthma. (Market drug is expectorant 

and weak spasmolytic, but was not 

found effective in asthma.) 

Garuga pinnata Roxb. 



1,000 m on the hills. 

English ◮ Grey Downy Balsam. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Paaranki, Kharpata. 

(Kinkiraata, Karnikaara, Mrigalindika 

are doubtful synonyms.) 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Karre Vembu, 

Arunelli. 

Folk ◮ Ghogar, Toon. 

Action ◮ Fruit—stomachic. Leaf— 

astringent, antiasthmatic. Bark— 

antidiabetic.

The leaves and stem bark contain 

sterols, sitosterol, stigmasterol and 

campesterol; fatty acids; aliphatic compounds; 

a mixture of long chain esters; 

along with tannins and waxes. 

The leaves also contain garugarin 

and amentoflavone. Gum-resin 

contains alpha-amyrin, butyrospermol 

and dammarandiol. 

Aqueous and ethanolic extract of the 

leaves exhibit anti-inflammatory and 

antiallergic activities. 

Gaultheria fragrantissima Wall. 



Himalayas, Khasi Hills, Western 

Ghats, the Nilgiris and Travancore. 

English ◮ Fragrant Wintergreen, 

Indian Wintergreen. (Wintergreen 

oil is obtained from G. procumbens 

Linn., a native of America.) 

Ayurvedic ◮ Gandhapuura, Gandhapuurna. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kolakkaai. 

Action ◮ Leaves—stimulant, carminative, 

diuretic, antiseptic. Oil (in 

the form of liniment or ointment)— 

applied externally in rheumatism, 

sciatica and neuralgia. The plant is 

strongly irritant. 

The leaves gave hyperoside (quercetin-3-galactoside), 

ursolic acid, betasitosterol 

and essential oil containing 

methyl salicylate as a major constituent. 

The yield of oil from Assam 

plants contains 99.14% methyl salicylate. 

Heptyl aldehyde, present in the 

low boiling fraction of the oil, brought 

Gentiana kurroo Royle. 283 

about the regression of tumours in 

mice and dogs. 

Gelidium amansii Kutz. 

Family ◮ Gelidaceae, Rhodophyceae. 

Habitat ◮ Indigenous to Japan. 

English ◮ Agar Agar, Japanese 

Isinglass. (Dried mucilaginous 

extract.) 

Folk ◮ Agar-Agar. 

Action ◮ Bulk-laxative. Agar-Agar 

does not increase peristaltic action. 

Its action is similar to that of 

cellulose of vegetable foods which 

aids the regularity of the bowel 

movement. (Often made into an 

emulsion with liquid paraffin for 

use in constipation.) 

Most agars consist of two major 

polygalactoses, the neutral agarose 

and the sulphonated polysaccharide 

agaropectin, with traces of amino acids 

and free sugars. 

Agar contains a large amount of 

pectin which may precipitate when exposed 

to alcohol. (Sharon M Herr.) 

Gentiana kurroo Royle. 


Habitat ◮ Kashmir and North-West 

Himalayas. 

English ◮ Himalayan Gentian, Indian 

Gentian Root. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Traayamaana, Traayanti, 

Traayanta, Traayantikaa, Neelkanthi, 

Anujaa, Girijaa, Girishaanujaa, 

G

G 

284 Geophila repens (Linn.)I.M.Johnson. 

Balbhra, Paalani. (Paakhaanabheda 

is a wrong synonym) 

Unani ◮ Ghaafis. 

Action ◮ Sialagogue, digestant, 

appetite-stimulant, antispasmodic, 

anti-inflammatory, emmenagogue. 

Used for alkalosis, feeble digestion 

in the elderly from gastric acid 

deficiency (increases gastric juices 

without altering PH); also used for 

jaundice, nausea, vomiting, travel 

sickness, diarrhoea, malaria and 

nervous exhaustion. (In Chinese 

medicine, Gentiana sp., known as 

Longdan, are used for jaundice, 

hepatitis, urinary tract infections, 

pruritis and eczema.) 

Key application ◮ Gentiana lutea— 

internally, for digestive disorders, 

such as lack of appetite, fullness and 

flatulence (German Commission 

E, WHO), for anorexia following 

illness and dyspepsia (ESCOP). 

The British Herbal Compendium 

approves gentian for lack of 

appetite, anorexia, atonic dyspepsia, 

gastrointestinal atony, and as 

antiemetic. The British Herbal 

Pharmacopoia recognizes it as 

a bitter tonic. 

The rhizome and roots of G. Kurroo 

contain iridoid glycoside; major 

component was identified as 6 ′ - 

cinnamoylcatalpol. 

The rhizomes and roots of Picrorhiza 

kurrooa Royle ex Benth., found in 

the Himalayas, have similar properties 

and uses and are mixed or substituted 

for those of G. kurroo. 

Gentiana lutea (Yellow Gentian) is 

a native of Europe and Asia Minor and 

is imported into India. The most important 

constituents of the drug are 

secoiridoid bitter compounds, amarogentin 

and gentiopicroside, together 

with traces of swertiamarin and 

sweroside. The roots also contain alkaloids, 

gentianine and gentioflavine, 

xanthones, and bitter oligosaccharides, 

gentiobiose and gentianose. 

Amarogentin, gentiopicrin, swertiamarin, 

sioeroside (iridoid monoterpenes) 

are toxic constituents. 

Gentiana tenella Rottb., synonym 

Gentianella tenella H. Smith and G. 

decumbens Linn.f. occur at high altitudes 

in the Himalayas, and are used 

as substitutes for gentian. G. tenella is 

known as Kadu in Kashmir and Titaa 

in Punjab. The rhizome is used as 

Traayamaana in Ayurvedic medicine. 

The flowering tops of G. olivieri 

Griseb., synonym G. dahurica Fisch., 

used in Unani medicine as Gul-e- 

Ghaafis, are imported into India from 

Persia. 


(CCRAS.) 

Geophila repens 

(Linn.) I. M. Johnson. 

Synonym ◮ G. reniformis D. Don. 


Habitat ◮ Assam, Western Ghats and 


Folk ◮ Karintakaali (Kerala). 

Action ◮ Properties are similar 

(though inferior) to those of Ipeac 

(Cephaelis ipecacuanha A. Rich.).

Geranium nepalense Sweet. 

Synonym ◮ G. affine W. & A. 

Family ◮ Geraniaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Temperate Himalayas, 

Kashmir, Khasi Hills and the 

Nilgiris. 

English ◮ Nepal Geranium, Nepalese 

Crane’s Bill. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Bhanda, Bhandaa. 

Folk ◮ Ratanjot (var.), Roel (Kashmir). 

Action ◮ Astringent, styptic, 

used in renal diseases, diarrhoea, 

internal and external bleeding. 

Also used topically for ulcers and 

haemorrhoids. 

The plant gave geraniin, kaempferol- 

7-rhamnoside and kaempferitrin. The 

leaves gave tannins. 



A gastrointestinal-contracting choline-like 

substance has been isolated 

from var. thumbergii and is found useful 

for the treatment of gastrointestinal 

disorders such as gastroptosis. 

Geranium robertianum Linn. 



Kashmir to Garhwal at 2,000– 

2,700 m. 

English ◮ Herb-Robert Geranium. 

Action ◮ Haemostatic, astringent, 

antidiarrhoeic, styptic, antidiabetic. 

Geum urbanum auct. non Linn. 285 

The herb has a disagreeable odour 

and a bitter, saline and astringent taste. 

Applied externally as a resolvent to tumours. 

In Western herbal, the herb is used 

for diarrhoea, to improve functioning 

of liver and gallbladder and to prevent 

the formation of calculi. 

The herb contains several flavonoids 

including rutin. A ethanolic extract 

can inhibit the growth of E. coli, P. 

aeruginosa and S. aureus. 

Geranium wallichianum 

D. Don ex Sweet. 



Kashmir to Kumaon at 2,350– 

3,700 m. 

English ◮ Wallich Crane’s Bill. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Ratanjot (substitute). 

Folk ◮ Laal Jadi, Laal Jahri. 

Kaoashund (Kashmir). 

Action ◮ Astringent. 

The root stocks sometimes substituted 

for those of Coptis teeta Wall.; 

contain 25–32% tannins and 18% nontannins. 

Geum urbanum auct. non Linn. 



from Kashmir to Kumaon at 3,000– 

3,700 m Grows wild in Europe and 

Great Britain. 

English ◮ Avens Root, Herb Bennet, 

Wood Avens. 

G

G 

286 Ginkgo biloba Linn. 


stomachic, febrifuge. 

The herb and root was used in Europe 

in chronic dysentery, diarrhoea 

and intermittent fevers. In India, an 

infusion of the rootstock is used as 

sudorific in fevers, ague, chills and 

catarrh. 

Eugenol is present in the root stock 

in combination with vacianose as phenolic 

glycoside gein. The rootstock 

contains tannins (30–40%). 

A related species, G. elatum Wall., is 

found in the Himalayas from Kashmir 

to Sikkim It is used for dysentery and 

diarrhoea. 

Ginkgo biloba Linn. 

Family ◮ Ginkgoaceae. 


cultivated in Indian gardens as an 

ornamental. 

English ◮ Maidenhair tree called 

Living Fossils (in India), Kew tree. 

Action ◮ Antagonizes bronchospasm, 

used as a circulatory stimulant, 

peripheral vasodilator. 

Key application ◮ Standardized 

dry extract—for symptomatic 

treatment of disturbed performance 

in organic brain syndrome within 

the regimen of a therapeutic concept 

in cases of dementia syndromes— 

memory deficits, disturbance in 

concentration, depressive emotional 

conditions, dizziness, tinnitus and 

headache. (German Commission 

E, ESCOP, WHO.) As vasoactive 

and platelet aggregation inhibitor. 


(For pharmocological studies in 

humans and clinical studies, see 

ESCOP.) 

The majority of pharmacological 

studies and clinical trials have been 

conduced using a standardized extract 

which contains 24% flavonoid glycosides 

(Ginko flavone glycosides) and 

6% terpenoids (ginkgolides and bilobalide). 

The extract increases tolerance to 

hypoxia and exhibits anti-ischaemic 

effect. It simultaneously improves the 

fluidity of blood, decreases platelet adhesion, 

decreases platelet and erythrocyte 

aggregation and reduces plasma 

and blood viscosity. The extract protects 

erythrocytes from haemolysis. 

The extract also decreases the permeability 

of capillaries and protects the 

cell membrane by trapping deleterious 

free radicals. 

The extract also increased cerebral 

blood flow in about 70% patients evaluated 

(patients between 30–50 year age 

had 20% increase from the base line, 

compared with 70% in those 50- to 70year-olds). 

A reversal of sexual dysfunction 

with concurrent use of ginkgo with 

antidepressant drugs has been reported. 

(Am J Psychiatry, 2000 157(5), 836– 

837.) 

The National Centre for Complementary 

and Alternative Medicine, 

USA, is conducting a 5-year study 

of 3000 people aged 75 and older to 

determine if ginkgo, 240 mg daily, 

prevents dementia or Alzheimer’s 

disease.(www.clinicaltrials.gov/ct/gui/ 

c/r). 2000.

Girardinia heterophylla Decne. 

Synonym ◮ G. diversifolia (Link) 

Eriss. 

Family ◮ Urticaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Temperate and sub-tropical 

Himalayas from Kashmir to Sikkim, 

and in Assam and Khasi hills. 

English ◮ Himalayan Nettle. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Vrishchikaa. 

Folk ◮ Bichhuu-booti, Awaa, Chikri. 

Action ◮ Leaves—decoction is given 

in fevers; applied externally to 

swollen joints, also as a paste for 

headache. (Due to stringing hair, 

the plant causes dermatitis and is 

known as Bichhuu.) 

The leaves contain 5-OH-tryptamine 

and histamine, also AC-choline. 

The plant gave beta-sitosterol. 

Gironniera reticulata Thw. 

Synonym ◮ G. cuspidata Kurz. 

Family ◮ Ulmaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Northeastern parts of 

India and in Deccan Peninsula. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kodaittani. 

Folk ◮ Narakyaa-ood (Maharashtra, 

Indian bazar). 

Action ◮ Blood-purifier in itch and 

cutaneous eruptions; mixed with 

lemon juice, applied externally. 

The wood contains a skatole and silica 

(0.86–1.2%). 

Gloriosa superba Linn. 287 

Gisekia pharnaceoides Linn. 

Family ◮ Aizoaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Drier parts of Northern 

and Western India and Deccan 

Peninsula. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Elavaaluka (var.). 

(Prunus cerasus Linn., Rosaceae, is 

the accepted source of Elavaaluka.) 

Folk ◮ Baalu-ka-saag, Morang, 

Sareli. 

Action ◮ Anthelmintic. Fresh herb is 

used for taenia. 

The plant contains triacontane, dotriacontane, 

myristone, sugars, and 

flavonoids. 

Glinus lotoides Linn. 

Synonym ◮ Mollugo lotoides (L.) 

O. Kuntze. 

MhirtaThumb. 

Family ◮ Molluginaceae; Aizoaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Throughout the plains and 

lower ghats of India in river beds. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Siru seruppadai. 

Folk ◮ Gandhi-buuti. 

Action ◮ Plant—antidiarrhoeal, 

antibilious, diuretic. Decoction is 

given in piles. 

The plant gave pentacyclic triterpenoid 

sapogenins; a mixture of beta-and 

gamma-sitosterol, oleanolic acid, mollugogenol 

and its constituents. Aerial 

parts gave vitexin and vicenin. 

Gloriosa superba Linn. 

Family ◮ Liliaceaes. 

G

G 

288 Glossocardia bosvallia DC. 


up to 2,350 m on the hills. 

English ◮ Glory Lily, Super Lily, 

Tiger’s Claws. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Laangali, Laangaliki, 

Laangalaki, Laanglaahva, Indrapushpi, 

Agnishikhaa, Anantaa, 

Vishaalyaa, Halini, Sirikramaa, 

Shukrapushpikaa, Vahnimukhi, 

Garbhanut, Garbhapaatani. Kalihaari 

(Costus specious Koen., is also 

used as Kalihaari), Kalikaari. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kalappankizhangu. 

Action ◮ Tuberous root—antiinflammatory, 

alterative, anthelmintic, 

antileprotic. Used for 

piles, swollen joints, parasitical 

affections of skin. Fresh juice of 

plant—uterine stimulant. 

The root contain colchicine 0.23– 

0.3%. Colchicine and its derivatives are 

present in tubers, seeds and flowers. 

The seeds are used as raw material 

for preparing drugs for gout. They are 

considered a rich source of colchicine 

and gloriosine. 

The herb is a gastrointestinal irritant. 

Dosage ◮ Detoxified tuberous root— 

125–250 mg. (API Vol. III.) 

Glossocardia bosvallia DC. 

Synonym ◮ G. linearifolia Cass. 


Habitat ◮ Plains of Northern 

and Western India and Deccan 

Peninsula. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Parpata (substitute). 

(Fumaria parvifolora Linn., Hedyotis 

corymbosa (L.) Lam synonym 

Oldenlandia corymbosa Linn., 

Mollugo cerviana (L.) Ser., Justicia 

procumbens Linn., Polycarpea 

corymbosa Lam are also used as 

Parpata for fevers.) 

Siddha ◮ Parapalanamu. 

Action ◮ Used as emmenagogue. 

The essential oil from the plant is 

antimicrobial, that from flowers anthelmintic. 

Glycine max Merrill. 

Synonym ◮ G. soja Sieb. & Zucc. 

G. hispida Maxim. 


Habitat ◮ Native to South East Asia; 

now cultivated as pulse crop mainly 

in Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, 

Himachal Pradesh, Maharashtra, 

Gujarat, Naga Hills, Mainpur and 

Kashmir. 

English ◮ Soybean, Soya. 

Folk ◮ Soyabean, Raam Kurthi, Bhat. 

Action ◮ Used as a protein supplement. 

(Products include fortified 

wheat flour, soymilk, snack foods, 

cooking oil.) 

Key application ◮ Soy lecithin (phospholipids 

extracted from the seeds 

of G. max)—used for moderate 

disturbances of fat metabolism, 

especially hypercholesterolaemic (if 

dietary measures are not sufficient). 

(German Commission E.)

Soybean is rich in protein, oil and 

minerals, but low in carbohydrates. It 

also contains water-and fat-soluble vitamins. 

The major portion of soy protein 

is composed of glycinin and betaconglycinin. 

Wheat flour can be fortified with 

full-fat or defatted soyflour for balancing 

it in essential amino acids, lysine 

and methionine. 

Soy saponins are divided into three 

groups according to their respective 

type of aglycon, soyasapogenol A, B 

and E. Saponin A and AB group fraction 

protects the liver against antioxidation 

and improved lipid metabolism 

in the injured liver. 

Administration of a small peptide 

derived from soybean showed antifatigue, 

antiobesity and hypoglycaemic 

activity in mice. 

Feeding soy protein to hamsters, 

consistently, resulted in significantly 

reduced incidence of gallstones. 

In studies of experimental carcinogenesis 

in animals, soybean isoflavones 

exhibited protective effect in 65% animals. 

Glycosmis pentaphylla 

(Retz.) DC. 

Synonym ◮ G. arborea (Roxb.) 

A. DC. 

G. cochinchinensis Gamble. 

Limonia pentaphylla Retz. 


Habitat ◮ Peninsular India and 

Andaman Islands. Cultivated in 

gardens. 

Glycyrrhiza glabra Linn. 289 

Ayurvedic ◮ Vana-nimbuukaa, 

Ashwa-shaakhota. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Konji, Amam, 

Kula-pannai. 

Folk ◮ Bana-Nimbu, Paanal (Kerala). 

Action ◮ Plant—bechic, antianaemic, 

antirheumatic. Root— 

anti-inflammatory. Leaf—used in 

Jaundice and liver disorders, eczema 

and other skin affections. Leaf and 

root—vermifuge, febrifuge. A paste 

of the wood is applied externally to 

pimples. 

Leaf extract from a Sri Lankan plant 

yielded the alkaloids arborine, skimmianine 

and arborinine. The steam 

distillate of leaves showed significant 


Glycyrrhiza glabra Linn. 



regions. Now grown in 

Punjab, Jammu and Kashmir and 

South India. 

English ◮ Licorice, Liquorice. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Yashtimadhu, Madhuyashtyaahvaa, 

Madhuli, Madhuyashtikaa, 

Atirasaa, Madhurasaa, 

Madhuka, Yastikaahva, Yashtyaahva, 

Yashti, Yashtika, Yashtimadhuka. 

Klitaka (also equated with Indigofera 

tinctoria). (Klitaka and Klitanakam 

were considered as aquatic varieties 

of Yashtimadhu.) 

Unani ◮ Asl-us-soos, Mulethi. 

Rubb-us-soos (extract). 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Athimathuram. 

G

G 

290 Gmelina arborea Roxb. 

Action ◮ Demulcent, expectorant, 

antiallergic, anti-inflammatory, 

spasmolytic, mild laxative, antistress, 

antidepressive, antiulcer, 

liver protective, estrogenic, emmenagogue, 

antidiabetic. Used in 

bronchitis, dry cough, respiratory 

infections, catarrh, tuberculosis; 

genitourinary diseases, urinary tract 

infections; abdominal pain, gastric 

and duodenal ulcers, inflamed 

stomach, mouth ulcer. Also used 

for adrenocorticoid insufficiency. 

Key application ◮ In catarrh of 

the upper respiratory tract and 

gastric, duodenal ulcers. (German 

Commission E, ESCOP, WHO.) 

The British Herbal Compendium indicates 

the use of liquorice for bronchitis, 

chronic gastritis, peptic ulcer, 

rheumatism and arthritis, adrenocorticoid 

insufficiency, and to prevent 

liver toxicity. Indian Herbal Pharmacopoeia 

recognizes its use as an antiinflammatory 

and antiulcer agent. 

The main chemical constituent of 

liquorice is glycyrrhizin (about 2– 

9%), a triterpene saponin with low 

haemolytic index. Glycyrrhetinic (glycyrrhetic) 

acid (0.5–0.9%), the aglycone 

of glycyrrhizin is also present in 

the root. Other active constituents of 

liquorice include isoflavonoids, chalcones, 

coumarins, triterpenoids and 

sterols, lignans, amino acids, amines, 

gums and volatile oils. 

Hypokalemia is the greatest threat 

when liquorice preparations high in 

glycyrrhizin are prescribed for prolonged 

periods. Liquorice causes fluid 

retention. Patients should be placed 

on a high potassium and low sodi- 

um diet. Special precautions should be 

taken with elderly patients and patients 

with hypertension or cardiac, renal or 

hepatic disease. 

A special liquorice extract known as 

DGL (deglycyrrhizinated liquorice) is 

used in the treatment of peptic ulcer. 

Oral liquorice preparations, containing 

glycyrrhetinic 

acid, are used for the treatment of 

viral infections—viral hepatitis, common 

cold. Topical preparations, containing 

glycyrrhetinic acid, are used 

for herpes, eczema, psoriasis. 

In Japan, a preparation of glycyrrhizin, 

cysteine and glycine is used by injection 

for the treatment of acute and 

chronic hepatitis. 


Vol. I.) 

Gmelina arborea Roxb. 

Synonym ◮ Premna arborea Roth. 



1,700 m on the hills and in Andaman 

Island; also grown in gardens. 

English ◮ Candahar tree, White Teak. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Gambhaari, Kaashmari, 

Kaashmarya, Sarvatobhadraa, 

Bhadra, Mahaabhadraa, Sadaabhadraa, 

Madhuparnikaa, Sriparni, 

Pitarohini, Hiraa, Bhadraparni, 

Trishati. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kattanam, Kumizham 

Action ◮ Leaf—demulcent, bechic. 

Used for removing foetid dis-

charges from ulcers. Root— 

stomachic, laxative, antibilious, 

demulcent, galactagogue. Bark— 

anticephalalgic. Root and bark— 

febrifuge. 


recommends the use of the bark 

and stem in inflammatory diseases and 

oedema; the fruit in dysuria and haemorrhagic 

diseases. 

The heartwood contains lignans, arborone, 

7-oxodihydrogmelinol, paulownin 

acetate and epieudesmin; metrans-p-methoxycinnamate 

and transp-hydroxycinnamic 

acid. 

Alcoholic extract of stem bark 

showed anti-inflammatory activity 

comparable to phenylbutazone. 

Dosage ◮ Root, root bark—20–30 g 

for decoction. (API Vol. I.) 

Gmelina asiatica Linn. 

Synonym ◮ G. parvifolia Roxb. 


Habitat ◮ South India; planted in 

gardens in Maharashtra and West 

Bengal. 

English ◮ Small Cashmere tree. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Gambhaari (related 

species), Gopabhadra, Vikarini. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kumizham 

Action ◮ Root and leaf—demulcent, 

alterative, blood purifier (used in 

venereal diseases), anticatarrhal, 

astringent, antirheumatic. 

The plant contains lignans of the 

furofuran series. 

Gnetum montanum Markgraf. 291 

The leaves show antibiotic activity 

against E. coli and Staphylococcus aureus. 

Gnaphalium luteo-album Linn. 



ascending up to 3,350 m in the 

Himalayas. 

English ◮ Jersey Cudweed, Cotton 

Weed,Cat’sFoot,Everlasting 

Flower. 

Folk ◮ Bal-raksha. 


haemostatic, vulnerary. The 

tomentum is applied as counterirritant 

in gout, also used as 

tinder. 

Gnetum montanum Markgraf. 

Synonym ◮ G. scandens Roxb. in 

part. 

Family ◮ Gnetaceae. 


Nepal to Bhutan, Assam and 

Meghalaya. 

English ◮ Joint Fir. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Anapendu, Peiodal 

(G. ula.) 

Action ◮ Seed oil—antirheumatic. 

Plant— antiperiodic. Leaves— 

piscic. 

The stem-wood yielded bergenin, 

acetophenone and stilbene derivatives. 

G

G 

292 Gnida glauca (Fresen.) Gilg. 

G. ula Brongn. non-Karst is found in 

evergreen forests of Western and Eastern 

Ghats up to 1,800 m. 

Gnida glauca (Fresen.) Gilg. 

Synonym ◮ G. eriocephalus Meis. 

Lasiosiphon glaucus Fresen. 

L. eriocephalus (Meisner) Decne. 

Habitat ◮ Western Ghats. 

Action ◮ Leaf—anti-inflammatory; 

used for contusions and swellings. 

Plant—vesicant. 

The plant contains bicoumarins, 

lysocephalin and lasiocrin; a coumarin 

glucoside, crioside, and a bicoumarin 

glycoside, eriocephaloside. The plant 

also gave ingiresinol, syringin, genkwanin 

and its glycoside, beta-sitosterol 

and its glucoside. 

Gordonia obtusa Wall. 


Habitat ◮ Konkan and Western 

Ghats. 

Folk ◮ Miyili, Atangi, Ola, Nagette, 

Thorilla (Tamil Nadu). 

Action ◮ Leaves—stomachic, 

appetizer. 

Leaves contain 0.04% alkaloid and 

tannic acid. The bark contains ellagic 

acid and coumarin. 

Gossypium arboreum Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Cultivated all over India as 

afibreplant. 

English ◮ Tree Cotton, Desi Cotton. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Kaarpaasi. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Sempartthi (Red 

Cotton), Sivappuparutthi. 

Folk ◮ Kapaasa. 

Action ◮ Seed—anticatarrhal (used 

in consumption), antigonorrhoeic 

(used in gleet and chronic cystitis). 

Root—febrifuge. Plant (especially 

leaf)—uterine stimulant. 

The glands contain 35–50% gossypol, 

a polyphenolic toxic compound. 

Seeds contain 18.5–25.4% protein, 

0.57–2.38% free gossypol. Gossypol 

is a male contraceptive. At an initial 

dose of 20 mg/day orally for 3 

months, followed by 50–60 mg weekly 

maintenance dose, sperm motility is 

reduced initially as it inhibits important 

enzymes of metabolic pathways 

thus affecting availability of enzyme 

to spermatozoa. Subsequently sperm 

production is blocked. 

Gossypol is reported to cause a transient 

weakness early in therapy, hypokalaemia 

and changes in ECG 

among other side effects. 

Gossypol also assists menstrual flow 

and effectively inhibits eggs implantation. 

Gossypol and its derivatives have 

been shown to have significant antimicrobial 

activity as well as wound healing 

effect. It is reported to kill herpes 

virus. 

Gossypium barbadense Linn. 

Family ◮ Malvaceae.

Habitat ◮ Native to South America, 

particularly its north-western parts. 

Also cultivated in India. 

English ◮ Egyptian Cotton, Sea- 

Island Cotton. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Kaarpaasa. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Semparutthi. 

Folk ◮ Kapaasa. 

Action ◮ Root—emmenagogue, 

oxytocic, abortifacient, parturient, 

lactagogue. Seed and leaf— 

antidysenteric. Seed—galactogogue, 

pectoral, febrifuge. Seed 

oil—used externally for clearing 

spots and freckles from the 

skin. Leaf—hypotensive, antirheumatic. 

Flower—used in 

hypochondriasis and bronchial 

inflammations. 

The seed contains 26.2–27.9% protein; 

1.22–2.42 free gossypol. 

Gossypium herbaceum Linn. 



Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Andhra 

Pradesh and Karnataka. 

English ◮ Asiatic Cotton, Levant 

Cotton, Uppam Cotton. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Kaarpaasa, Kaarpaasi, 

Kaarpaasaka, Rakta-Kaarpaasa, 

Shona-Kaarpaasa, Samudraantaa, 

Tuula, Pichu, Bhaaradwaaji, 

Tundikeri. 

Unani ◮ Pambahdaanaa. (Seed.) 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Paruttikkootam 

Gracilaria lichenoides (Linn.) Harv. 293 

Action ◮ Root bark—diuretic, 

oxytocic. Bark—emmenagogue, 

haemostatic. Seed—demulcent, 

laxative, expectorant, abortifacient, 

galactagogue, nervine, anticephalalgic. 


recommends the seed oil for toning 

up the breast. 

The seed contains 21.3–25.2% protein, 

free gossypol 0.82–1.96%. 

Dosage ◮ Seeds, devoid of lint—3– 

6gpowder.(API Vol. I.) 

Gouania leptostachya DC. 

Synonym ◮ G. tiliaefolia Lam. 

Family ◮ Rhamnaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Sub-Himalayan region 

from Kangra eastwards and in parts 

of Assam, Bengal, Bihar, Orissa and 


Folk ◮ Batvaasi (Nepal), Batvaasi 

(Bengal), Bitkil-chaand (Bihar). 

Action ◮ Leaves—used in poultices 

for sores. Bark—used for washing 

hair for destroying vermin. 

The bark and root contain saponin. 

The leaves of a related species, Gouania 

microcarpa DC., found in Peninsular 

India from Konkan southwards, 

gave a triterpenic acid, along with 

tetratriacontanoic acid. 

Gracilaria lichenoides 

(Linn.) Harv. 

Family ◮ Rhodophyceae. 

G

G 

294 Grangea maderaspatana Poir. 

Habitat ◮ The coasts of Indian Ocean 

and Chilka Lake. 

English ◮ Moss. 

Folk ◮ Chinai-ghaas. Known as 

Ceylon Agar-Agar or Agal-Agal. 

Action ◮ Emollient, diuretic, 

alterative. Aqueous extract— 

antihypotensive and spasmolytic. 

Aqueous extract contains prostaglandins. 

Grangea maderaspatana Poir. 

Synonym ◮ Artemisia maderaspatana 

Linn. 




Ayurvedic ◮ Aakaarakarabha 

substitute (doubtful). 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Maasipathri. 

Folk ◮ Mastaru, Mukhatari, 

Maachipatri (Maharashtra). 

Action ◮ Leaf—stomachic, antispasmodic, 

sedative, emmenagogue, 

deobstruent, antiseptic. Used in 

amenorrhoea. 

Aerial parts of the plant afforded 

clerodane derivatives. Presence of 

phytol, lupeol, p-hydroxybenzoic acid, 

a phenylalanine derivative, hardwickiic 

acid, strictic acid and butenolides, is 

reported. Aura amide was also isolated 

from the aerial parts. 

A mixture of flavonoids extracted 

from the aerial parts exhibited oestrogenicity 

and anti-implantation activity 

in mice. A crude extract of the plant 

exhibited strong cytotoxic activity. 

Graptophyllum picum (L.) Griff. 

Synonym ◮ G. hortense Nees. 

Justica picta L. 


Habitat ◮ A native to Polynesia; 

introduced into Indian gardens. 

English ◮ Caricature Plant. 

Folk ◮ Kaalaa-aduusaa (Maharashtra). 

Ysjudemaram (Tamil 

Nadu). 

Action ◮ Leaves—emollient and 

resolvent; applied to swellings and 

ulcers. (Used as a substitute for 

Adhatoda vasica). 

Grewia asiatica auct. non L. 

Synonym ◮ G. subinaequalis DC. 


Habitat ◮ 

India. 

Extensively cultivated in 

Ayurvedic ◮ Parushaka, Parusha. 

Unani ◮ Phaalsaa. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Palisa, Thadachi. 

Action ◮ Fruit—stomachic, astringent, 

cooling. Bark—demulcent. 

Root bark—antirheumatic. Leaf— 

used in pastular eruptions. 

The bark contains taraxasterol, betasitosterol, 

erythrodiol; lupeol, betulin, 

lupenone, friedelin; alpha-amyrin. The

heartwood gave beta-sitosterol. Quercetin, 

kaempferol and their glycosides 

were also obtained from the leaves. 

Ripe fruits are rich in vitamin A and 

C; threonine, phosphoserine, serine 

and taurine are the dominant amino 

acids in the juice. The fruits also contain 

sodium 22, potassium 1250, and 

calcium 260 ppm 

Fruits also gave pelargonidin-3, 5diglucoside, 

quercetin, quercetin-3-0beta-D-glucoside, 

naringenin and 7-0beta-D-glucoside. 

The stem bark exhibited antifertility 

activity. 

Dosage ◮ Ripe fruit—20–50 ml juice. 

(CCRAS.) 

Grewia hirsuta Vahl. 

Synonym ◮ G. polygama Mast. 



the Indus to Nepal up to 1,500 m, 

also in hills of Bihar, Orissa and 

Tamil Nadu. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Naagabalaa, Gudsharkaraa. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Tavadu. 

Folk ◮ Gulshakari. 

Action ◮ Fruit and root—diuretic, 

antidiarrhoeal. Roots and 

leaves, crushed with sugar candy, 

are prescribed for spermatorrhoea. 


(CCRAS.) 

Grewia populifolia Vahl. 

Grewia tiliaefolia Vahl. 295 

Synonym ◮ G. tenax (Forsk.) Aschers 

&Schwf. 


Habitat ◮ Cultivated in Punjab, Sind, 

Rajasthan and Western India, down 

to the Nilgiri Hills. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Gaangeru(ki). Substitute 

for Gulshakari (Naagabalaa). 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Achhu. 

Folk ◮ Gangeran. 

Action ◮ See G. hirsuta. 

The stem bark contains triterpenoids. 

Dosage ◮ Root—10–20 ml juice; 50– 

100 ml decotion. (CCRAS.) 

Grewia sclerophylla 

Roxb. ex G. Don. 

Synonym ◮ G. scabrophylla Roxb. 

G. obliqua auct. non-Juss. 



outer hills from Kumaon to Bhutan 

up to 1,200 m and in Assam 

Ayurvedic ◮ Parushaka (related 

species), Dhanvana (related species) 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kattu Kadali. 

Folk ◮ Jangali Phaalsaa. 

Action ◮ Root—emollient, bechic. 

Used in irritable conditions of the 

intestines and bladder. 

Grewia tiliaefolia Vahl. 


G

G 

296 Grewia villosa Willd. 

Habitat ◮ Upper Gengetic plain, Bihar, 

Bengal, Central and Peninsular 

India. 

English ◮ Dhaman. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Dhanvana, Dhanurvriksha. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Tarra, Unnu, Sadachi. 

Folk ◮ Dhaamin, Dhaaman. 

Action ◮ Bark—antidysenteric. Stem 

bark—semen coagulant. Plant— 

used in fractures. 

The roots and bark gave triterpenoids. 

A related species, Grewia optiva, 

found in sub-Himalayan tract at 500– 

2,000 m, is also known as Dhaaman. 

Grewia villosa Willd. 


Habitat ◮ Punjab, Rajasthan, Gujarat, 

Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. 

English ◮ Tamthar. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kullai. 

Folk ◮ Dhohan (Rajasthan), Jalidar 

(Punjab), Kharamati (Maharashtra). 

Action ◮ Root—antidiarrhoeal. Root 

and bark—used in genitourinary 

infections, syphilis and smallpox. 

The methanol extract of the roots 

contain beta-carboline alkaloids, harman, 

harmine, harmol, harmalol and 

harmaline. 

The roots are also used to treat 

cough. 

Guaiacum officinale Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Introduced from the West 

Indies; grown as an ornamental. 

English ◮ Lignum Vitae, Tree-of-life, 

Pockwood tree. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Jivadaaru, Loha- 

Kaashtha. 

Unani ◮ Chob-hayaat. 

Folk ◮ Loha-lakkar. 

Action ◮ Antirheumatic, antiinflammatory, 

mild laxative, 

diuretic, diaphoretic, fungistatic 

(During the sixteenth century it was 

used as a cure for syphilis.) 

Key application ◮ As a supportive 

therapy for rheumatic complaints. 


British Herbal Pharmacopoeia 

reported anti-inflammatory activity 

in the resin. 

Several triterpene saponins, sapogenins 

and prosapogenins have been 

isolated from different parts of the 

plant. 

A triterpenoidal saponin, isolated 

from the flowers, showed activity 

against Gram-negative bacteria. (The 

herb is used as a additive to mouth 

washes.) 

Guazuma ulmifolia Lam. 

Synonym ◮ G. tomentosa H. B. & K. 



Cultivated as a roadside shade tree 

in warmer parts of the country. 

English ◮ Bastard Cedar.

Ayurvedic ◮ Pundraaksha, Rudraakshi 

(fake Rudraaksha). 

Siddha ◮ Rudraksham and allied 

names are misnomers for this 

plant. (Rukraaksha is equated with 

Elaeocarpus ganitrus Roxb.) 

Action ◮ Fruit—anticatarrhal (used 

in bronchitis). Bark—demulcent, 

sudorific. Usedinskindiseases. 

Seed—astringent, carminative, 

antidiarrhoeal. 

The plant gave kaempferol glycosides. 

Leaves contain octacosanol 

and taraxerol-OAC, friedelin-3-alpha- 

OAC, 3 beta-ol and beta-sitosterol. 

Bark contains friedelin, betulin and 


Guettarda speciosa Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Native to tropical America; 

occurs in tidal forests of South 

India and in Andaman Islands. 

(An extract of flowers, resembling 

rose-water,insoldinTravancore 

markets.) 

Action ◮ Bark—used in chronic 

dysentery; also applied to wounds 

and abscesses. 

Guizotia abyssinica Cass. 


Habitat ◮ Native to tropical Africa. 

Cultivated in Madhya Pradesh, 

Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and 

Orissa. 

English ◮ Nigerseed. 

Gymnema montanum Hook. f. 297 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Pey Ellu, Uch Ellu. 

Folk ◮ Raam-til, Kaalaa Til, Sargujaa. 

Action ◮ Oil from seed—antirheumatic. 

The seeds yield an oil (33%), a mixture 

of triglycerides, lauric, palmitic, 

palmitoleic, stearic, oleic, linoleic and 

arachidic acids. The unsaponifiable 

matter is a mixture of stigmasterol, ntriacontane 

and lupeol. Seeds contain 

lysine. 

Gymnema hirsutum 

Wight & Arn. 


Habitat ◮ Southern parts of Uttar 

Pradesh adjoining Madhya Pradesh, 

also in Bihar and Western Ghats. 

Folk ◮ Gurmaar (related species). 

Action ◮ Leaf—when chewed, 

temporarily paralyses the sense of 

taste for sweet and bitter substances. 

Plant—used as stomachic, bechic, 

expectorant, and in male impotency, 

poor lactation. 

The leaves contain gymnemic acid. 

Gymnema montanum Hook. f. 

Family ◮ Asclepidaceae. 


Konkan southwards. 

Folk ◮ Gurmaar (related species). 

Action ◮ See G. sylvertre. 

The leaves contain gymnemic acid. 

G

G 

298 Gymnema sylvestre B. Br. 

Gymnema sylvestre B. Br. 


Habitat ◮ Central and Peninsular 

India. 

English ◮ Australian Cow Plant, 

Ipecacuanha (Indian). 

Ayurvedic ◮ Meshashringi, Meshavishaanikaa, 

Meshavalli, Chhaagalshrngi. 

Ajashringi (also equated 

with Dolichandrone falcata and 

Pergularia extensa). 

Unani ◮ Gurmaar Buuti. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kannu Minnayamkodi, 

Passaam, Shirukurinja. 

Action ◮ Leaf—antidiabetic. Stimulates 

the heart and circulatory 

system, activates the uterus. Used 

in parageusia and furunculosis. 

Plant—diuretic, antibilious. Root— 

emetic, expectorant, astringent, 

stomachic. 

Gymnemagenin, the main sapogenin 

in the leaves, yielded 3.9–4.6% of 

total gymnemic acids. 

Gymnemic acids are antisweet principles 

and exhibit inhibitory effect on 

levels of plasma glucose. 

The extract of dried leaves, given to 

diabetic rats at a dose of 20 mg/day 

per rat for 8 weeks, was found to bring 

about blood glucose homoeostasis by 

increasing serum insulin levels. Increased 

glycoprotein level and the resultant 

nephropathy, retinopathy and 

micro-and macro-angiopathy were also 

controlled. 

The leaf extract (25–100 mg/kg), 

when orally administered to experimentally 

induced hyperlipidaemic rats 

for2weeks, reduced the elevated serum 

triglyceride and total cholesterol in 

a dose-dependent manner. The efficacy 

and antiatherosclerotic potential of 

the extract (100 mg/kg) were comparable 

to that of a lipid lowering agent, 

clofibrate. 

In homoeopathy, a drug obtained 

from the leaves and roots is prescribed 

for both diabetes mellitus and insipidus 

Gymnemic acid is reported to inhibit 

melanin formation in vitro. It also 

inhibits dental plaque formation. 

Dosage ◮ Root, leaf—3–5 g powder; 


Gymnosporia spinosa 

(Forsk.) Fiori. 

Synonym ◮ G. Montana (Roth) 

Benth. 

Maytenus senegulensis Exell. 

M. emarginata Ding Hou. 



of India. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Vikankata (substitute) 

Sruva-Vrksha (substitute), 

Vyaaghrapaadi. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kattangi, Nandunarai, 

Valuluvai. 

Folk ◮ Baikal. 

Action ◮ Plant—antispasmodic. 

Root—used in gastroenteritis and 

dysentery. 

The bark is ground to a paste and applied 

with mustard oil to kill lice in the 

hair. A decoction of leafy twigs is used 

as a mouth wash to relieve toothache.

The leaves contain celacinnine, alpha-and 

beta-amyrin, beta-amyrone, 

beta-sitosterol and its 3 ′ -O-glucoside 

and kaempferol. The extracts of the 

plant show cytotoxic effect on some 

cancers. An ointment, prepared by 

mixing leaf ash and purified butter, is 

used for sores. 

Gynandropsis gynandra 

(Linn.) Briq. 

Synonym ◮ G. pentaphylla DC. 

Cleome gynandra Linn. 



of India. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Tilaparni (white 

var.), (Pita or yellow-flowered 

var. is equated with Cleome viscosa 

Linn.), Ajagandhaa, Pashugandhaa, 

Ugragandhaa, Puutigandhaa, 

Barbaraka. Suuryaavartta has been 

equated with G. pentaphylla DC. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Thaivelai, Nalvelai. 

Action ◮ Leaves and seeds—used 

in the same way as mustard. 

Bruised leaves—rubefacient and 

vesicant, used as counter-irritant 

in headache, neuralgia, rheumatic 

affections. Roots—decoction, 

febrifuge. Seeds—anthelmintic; 

externally counter-irritant. Applied 

as poultice to sores with maggots. 

An infusion is given for coughs. 


recommended the use of the seed 

in chlorsis, chronic obstructive jaundice 

and enlarged prostate. 

Gynocardia odorata R.Br. 299 

The seeds are reported to contain 

cleomin, hexacosanol, free beta-sitosterol 

and kaempferol; also glucosinolates. 


exhibited anti-inflammatory activity in 

carrageenan-induced inflammation in 

rats. 

The medicinal properties of the 

seeds are attributed to the presence 

of cleomin. Seeds also contain 1% tannins. 


Vol. I.) Leaf—50–100 ml decoction. 

(CCRAS.) 

Gynocardia odorata R.Br. 

Synonym ◮ Hydnocarpus odorata 

Landl. 


Habitat ◮ Eastern Himalayas, Khasi 

Hills and Sikkim. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Chaalmograa (substitute). 

Tuvaraka (var.) (Controversial 

synonyms.) 

Unani ◮ Tukhm-e-Biranj Mograa. 

Folk ◮ Chaaval-mungari. 

Action ◮ Oil from seed used in 

psoriasis, eczema, scrofula, gout, 

rheumatic affections. 

A triterpenoid ketolactone, odolactone, 

has been isolated from the plant. 

The fruit pulp is used as piscic. 

The seeds of G. odorata were formerly, 

erroneously, thought to be the 

source Chaalmograa oil of commerce 

obtained from the seeds of Hydnocar- 

G

G 

300 Gynura pseudo-china (L.) DC. 

pus kurzii, used in leprosy. Gynocardia 

oil does not contain chaulmoogric or 

hydnocarpic acid. 

Gynura pseudo-china (L.) DC. 

Synonym ◮ G. nudicaulis Arn. 


Habitat ◮ Eastern Himalaya, Sikkim, 

Assam, and Western Ghats in Tamil 

Nadu and Kerala. 

Action ◮ Plant—emollient, resolvent. 

Used as a poultice in erysipelas 

and for tumours in the breast. 

Root—used both externally and 

internally for enhancing blood 

circulation especially when blue 

spots and blotches result from 

blows. The powdered root, 

mixed with tea, is given to 

parturient women. Leaves—used 

for poulticing pimples. The juice is 

used asa gargle for inflammations 

of the throat.

Habenaria edgeworthii 

Hook. f. ex Collett. 


Habitat ◮ Outer range of Western 

Himalayas from Punjab to Kumaon. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Riddhi. (Tubers of 

Eulophia nuda Lindl. and Dioscorea 

bulbifera are also used as Riddhi.) 

Action ◮ Nervine and cardiac tonic. 

Habenaria intermedia D. Don. 


Habitat ◮ The Himalayan region. 

Found in Ranikhet. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Riddhi, Vriddhi. 

(Substitute: Dioscorea bulbifera.) 

Action ◮ Nervine and cardiac tonic. 

Habenaria acuminata Thw., H. 

goodyeroides D. Don., H. griffithii HK. 

are also equated with Riddhi, Vriddhi. 


(CCRAS.) 

Haematoxylon campechianum 

Linn. 

Family ◮ Caesalpiniaceae, Mimosaceae 

Habitat ◮ Native to tropical America 

and the West Indies. Grown in 


H 

English ◮ Logwood, Peachwood, 

Compeachy tree. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Pattanga, Patraanga, 

Bakam (substitute). (Caesalpinia 

sappan is also equated with 

Pattanga.) 

Unani ◮ Buqqam, Bakam-Hindi. 

Action ◮ Astringent. Used for atonic 

dyspepsia, diarrhoea, summer 

diarrhoea, dysentery, internal 

haemorrhages, menorrhagia, 

leucorrhoea. (It imparts red colour 

to urine and stool. Incompatible 

with chalk or lime-water.) 

The wood contains about 10% haematoxylon, 

a red-brown phenolic dye, 

tannins, resin and volatile oil. 

Haematoxylin exhibited significant 

anti-inflammatoryactivityinthecarrageenan-induced 

oedema test. 

The seed contains crude protein 29.1, 

pentosan 6.6, and water-soluble gum 

3.2%. 

Haplanthus verticillatus 

(Roxb.) Nees. 


Habitat ◮ Hills of Deccan Peninsula 

and parts of western and central 

India. 

Folk ◮ Kaalaa-Kirayaat (Maharashtra). 

Action ◮ Febrifuge, bitter tonic.

H 

302 Hardwickia binata Roxb. 

A closely related species, Haplanthus 

tentaculatus Nees, is also known 

as Kaalaa-Kiryaat. The herb is given in 

fever. 

Hardwickia binata Roxb. 


Habitat ◮ Dry forests of Deccan 

Peninsula, Central India and parts 

of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Anjana. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Katudugu, Kodapalai. 

Action ◮ Balsam—used for sexually 

transmitted diseases. The balsam 

is similar to Copaiba balsam 

(Copaifera langsdorffii Desf., 

Leguminosae) ofBrasilandisused 

in leucorrhoea, chronic cystitis, 

gonorrhoea, combined with cubebs 

and sandal. The resin (not the 

oleo-resin) is used as diuretic. 

The essential oil of H. binata is not 

a substitute for Copaiba oil. 

The methanolic extract of the heartwood 

yields beta-sitosterol, (+)-taxifolin, 

eriodictyol, (+)-catechin, (+)-epicatechin 

and (+)-mopanol. The phenolic 

compounds are said to impart 

antibacterial and antifungal property 

to the herb. 

The bark has a good absorption capacity 

for mercury from water. 

Hedera helix Linn. 

Synonym ◮ H. rhombea Sieb. & Zucc. 


Habitat ◮ Hills of Tamil Nadu. 

Growningardensasanornamental. 

English ◮ Common Ivy, Bentwood. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Maravalai. 

Action ◮ Leaf—expectorant, antispasmodic, 

antineuralgic, vasoconstrictive. 

Fruit—used in jaundice, haemptysis. 

Flower—antidysenteric. Leaf 

and resin—emmenagogue. Tender 

twigs—boiled in butter, used for 

sunburn. Extracts are used in some 

cosmetic preparations. 


the upper respiratory passages, 

symptomatic treatment of chronic 

inflammatory bronchial conditions. 


The stem and bark gave triterpene 

glycosides, named kizuta saponins. 

Oleanolic acid glycoside was also obtained 

from the plant but the presence 

of emetine could not be confirmed 

in subsequent work. The fruits gave 

hederagenin glycosides. 

Emetin has been isolated from European 

and British plant. The fruit and 

hederagenin glycosides exhibit molluscacidal 

activity. Emetine-containing 

plant is amoebicidal. 

Hedera nepalensis Koch. 

Synonym ◮ H. helix auct. non Linn. 

H. himalaica Tobler. 


Habitat ◮ The Himalayas; from 

Kashmir to Bhutan at 1,500– 

2,000 m and Assam at 1,350– 

2,000 m.

English ◮ Nepal Ivy. 

Folk ◮ Baandaa, Bandaa, Lablab. 

Action ◮ Leaves and berries— 

cathartic, diaphoretic, febrifuge, 

antispasmodic, expectorant. Used 

in whooping cough. Leaves— 

used in glandular enlargements. 

A decoction of the leaves is used 

topically to destroy lice in the 

hair. An infusion of berries is 

given in rheumatism. Gum— 

emmenagogue. 

The inflorescences contain betaamyrin, 

beta-sitosterol and its D-glucoside, 

oleanolic acid, triterpene glycosides, 

nepalins. Nepalins 1,2 and 

3 at 0.5, 0.25 and 0.125% respectively 

completely immobilize human sperm. 

Plant extract exhibited antitumour 

activity in vivo and in vitro against 

Ehrich ascites. 

Hedychium coronarium Koenig. 


Habitat ◮ Throughout the moist 

parts of India, up to 2,000 m. Also 

grown in gardens of Assam and 

South India. 

English ◮ Ginger Lily. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Shati (related species). 

Action ◮ Anti-inflammatory, antirheumatic, 

febrifuge, tranquilizer. 

The rhizomes gave furanoditerpene, 

hedychenone, an anti-inflammatory 

principle, also cytotoxic principles as 

labdane-type diterpenes. 

Hedychium spicatum Ham. ex Smith. 303 

The essential oil from rhizome 

shows anthelmintic and mild tranquilizing 

property. The essential oil contains 

alpha- and beta-pinene, limonene, 

carene, and its oxide, linalool 

and elemole in varying concentrations. 

The essential oil also gave borneol, 

methyl salicylate, eugenol and methylanthranilate. 

Hedychium spicatum 

Ham. ex Smith. 

Synonym ◮ H. album Buch-Ham. Ex 

Wall. 


Habitat ◮ Central Himalaya at 1,100– 

2,500 m, East India and hills of 

South India. 

English ◮ Spiked Ginger Lily. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Shathi, Shati, Gandhashathi, 

Gandhapalaashi, Kapuurkachari, 

Suvrataa, Gandhaarikaa, 

Gandhavadhuu, Gandhamuulikaa. 

Unani ◮ Kapuurkachari. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Poolankizangu, 

Kichilikizangu. 

Folk ◮ Ban-haldi (Kumaon). 

Action ◮ Rhizome—carminative, 

spasmolytic, hepatoprotective, 

anti-inflammatory, antiemetic, 

antidiarrhoeal, analgesic, expectorant, 

antiasthmatic, emmenagogue, 

hypoglycaemic, hypotensive, 

antimicrobial, anthelmintic, insectrepellent. 

The rhizome shows hypotensive effect 

in dogs at low doses, lowers blood 

pressure in high doses. 

H

H 

304 Hedyotis corymbosa (Linn.) Lam. 

EtOH (50%) extract—anti-inflammatory 

and hypoglycaemic; gave encouraging 

results in tropical pulmonary 

eosinophilia in clinical studies. 

Alcoholic extract of the plant—vasodilator, 

mild hypotensive and antiseptic 

in animals. Essential oil from 

rhizome—mild tranquilizer in male 

albino rats; antimicrobial. 

Rhizomegavesitosterolanditsglucoside, 

a furanoid diterpene—hedychenone 

and 7-hydroxyhedychenone. 

The essential oil contains cineole, 

gamma-terpinene, limonene, betaphellandrene, 

p-cymene, linalool and 

beta-terpineol as major constituents. 

The oil inhibits the growth of several 

fungi. The ethanol (95%) extract 

showed antibacterial activity. The 50% 

extract showed antimalarial activity 

in vitro against Plasmodium berghei 

strain. 


(API Vol. I.) 

Hedyotis corymbosa 

(Linn.) Lam. 

Synonym ◮ Oldenlandia corymbosa 

Linn. 


Habitat ◮ A weed in wet, low lands 

and in cultivated fields. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Kshetraparpata (used in 

Kerala as Parpataka). 

Action ◮ Purifies blood, improves 

digestion, stimulates action of liver. 

The presence of caffeine and fumaric 

acid has been reported in H. corymbosa. 

Iridoidoglucosides have been isolated 

from H. diffusa Willd. The plant is 

reported to have immunopotentiation 

activity and has been used in China 

to treat some tumours. An aqueous 

extract of the plant yielded a polysaccharide 

composed of rhamnose, arabinose, 

xylose, mannose, galactose and 

glucose. 

Hedyotis herbacea Linn., synonym 

Oldenlandia herbacea Roxb. is also 

used in Kerala as Parpata, Parpataka. 

See Fumaria indica. 

Helianthus annuus Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Native to America. 

Cultivated in India. 

English ◮ Sunflower. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Suurajmukhi, Suuryaavarta. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Suryakanti. 

Action ◮ Seeds—build up physical 

endurance and resistance against 

diseases; a decoction is used 

in coughs and colds, bronchial, 

laryngeal and pulmonary affections, 

whooping cough, also as a febrifuge 

and diuretic. 

The seeds contain a fatty oil (37– 

48%), rich in polyunsaturated acids 

(linoleic 70%, oleic 20%). The oil also 

contains tocopherols (alpha-type 92% 

of the total) and phytosterol (betasitosterol 

154 mcg/100 g). In Europe 

and USA, several hybrids produce oils 

rich in oleic acid. Sunflower oil is reported 

to decrease the risk of coronary 

and arterial diseases.

Extracted oil from dehulled seeds 

(chlorogenic acid, present in hulls, 

interferes with lipid metabolism) reduced 

serum and hepatic cholesterol 

in healthy women. 

The tubers of Helianthus tuberosus 

Linn., a related species, consists mainly 

of inulin. The dried tubers can be 

utilized in diabetic products. The tuber 

concentrate as food diminishes the 

risk of developing arteriosclerosis. It 

is advantageous in the diet of patients 

with gout, chronic renal diseases, and 

for obesity control. 

Helicteres isora Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Dry forests throughout the 

country. 

English ◮ East Indian Screw tree. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Aavartani, Aavartphalaa, 

Aavartaki. 

Unani ◮ Marorphali. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Valampiri. 

Action ◮ Pods and bark—antidiarrhoeal, 

astringent, antibilious. Bark 

and root—antigalactic, demulcent, 

expectorant (used in cough and 

asthma). Leaf—paste used against 

skin diseases. Pods—anthelmintic. 

Used in fever due to cold. Seeds— 

aqueous extract administered in 

colic and dysentery. 

The plant contains a 4-quinolone alkaloid, 

malatyamine, an antidiarrhoeal 

principle. 

The seeds gave diosgenin. Root gave 

cytotoxic principles—cucurbitacin B 

Heliotropium indicum Linn. 305 

and iso-cucurbitacin B. Leaves yielded 

as ester tetratriacontanyl—tetratriacontanoate 

along with tetratriacontanoic 

acid, tetratriacontanol and sitosterol. 

Dosage ◮ Fruit, bark—3–6 g powder; 


Heliotropium indicum Linn. 



English ◮ Scorpion Tail. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Hastishundi Shrihastini, 

Vrischikaali. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Thaelkodukku. 

Action ◮ Plant—diuretic, astringent, 

emollient, vulnerary. Used as a local 

application for ulcers, wounds, 

sores, gum boils and skin affections. 

Decoctionofleavesisusedin 

urticaria and fevers; that of root in 

coughs. Flowers—emmenagogue 

in small doses, abortifacient in 

large doses. Masticated seeds— 

stomachic. 


alkaloids—indicine (principal base), 

echinatine, supinine, heleurine, heliotrine, 

lasiocarpine and lasiocarpine- 

N-oxide. Aerial parts and root gave 

an anticancer principle—indicine-Noxide. 

The aqueous and alcohol extracts of 

the plant possess oxytocic activity. The 

roots contain significant amounts of 

estradiol, a sex hormone. 

The inflorescences are used by tribals 

for scorpion bite. 

H

H 

306 Helleborus niger Linn. 

Helleborus niger Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Native to sub-alpine woods 

in Southern and Eastern Europe. 

GrowninIndiangardens. 

English ◮ Black Hellebore, Christmas 

Rose. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Khuraasaani Kutaki. 

Unani ◮ Kharbaq Siyah, Kutaki. 

Action ◮ Digitalis-like action 

in cardiac disorders, drastic 

purgative, abortifacient, diuretic, 

local anaesthetic, narcotic. 

The rhizome contains cardiac glycosides; 

helleborin, helleborein, hellebrin 

and others based on helleborigenin. 

Helleborin has a burning, acrid 

taste and is narcotic. Helleborein has 

a sweetish taste and is a highly active 

cardiac poison. Helleborin and 

veratrin (steroidal saponins), hellebrin 

or helleborein (steroid glycoside) 

are main constituents of the root and 

leaves. The plant irritates mucous 

membranes. 

A related species, Helleborus virdis 

Linn. (Bear’s Foot, Green Hellebore) is 

known as Kaali Kutaki and Krishnabhedi. 

The plant contains magnoflorine 

and corytuberine. The roots 

and rhizomes gave hellebrin, desglucohellebrin, 

hellebrigenin, bufatetraenolide, 

beta-ecdysterone and 5beta-hydroxyecdysterone. 

Hemerocallis fulva Linn. 


Habitat ◮ The Himalaya, Khasi Hills; 


English ◮ Common Yellow Day-lily, 

Tawny Day-lily, Orange Day-lily. 

Action ◮ Flower—analgesic, especially 

in child birth; blood purifier. 

(Flowers are sold in Chinese food 

shops as Gum-Tsoy or Gum-Jum.) 

Hemerocallin, a neurotoxic principle, 

has been found in Hemerocallis 

sp. The plant gave amino acid—oxypinnatanine. 

Hemidesmus indicus (L.) R. Br. 

Synonym ◮ Periploca indica Linn. 

Family ◮ Asclepiadaceae, Periplocaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Throughout India; 

commoninBengal,Maharashtra 

and extending to Travancore. 

English ◮ Indian Sarsaparilla (white 

var.). Sarsaparilla root is equated 

with Smilax sp. in Western herbal. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Shveta Saarivaa, Anantmuula, 

Gopi, Gopaa, Gopakanyaa, 

Gopavalli, Gopasutaa, Krishodari, 

Sphotaa, Utpalsaarivaa, Kapuuri, 

Dugdhgarbhaa. 

Unani ◮ Ushbaa Hindi. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Nannaari, Suganthipala. 

Action ◮ Blood purifier, antisyphilitic, 

antileucorrhoeic, galactogenic, 

antidiarrhoeal, antirheumatic, 

febrifuge, alterative. Roots used 

against gonorrhoea, leucoderma, 

bleeding piles, jaundice and 

dysentery.

Key application ◮ Smilax sp.—in skin 

diseases and urinary infections. 

(German Commission E included 

Smilax sp. among unapproved 

herbs.) 

Hemidesmus indicus does not contain 

the same saponins or other principal 

constituents which are found in 

sarsaparilla. (Tyler’s Honest Herbal.) 

The root contains coumarino-lignoids, 

hemidesmine, hemidesmin-1, 

2. The stem contains pregnane glycosides, 

hemidine, hemidescine, emidine 

and indicine, a triterpene lactone, a lupanone, 

besides lupeol acetate, sitosterol 

and hexadecanoic acid and several 

hydroxy- methoxybenzaldehydes. 

Aqueous extract of the root is bacteriostatic 

against Mycobacterium leprae. 



Hemidictyum ceterach L. 

Synonym ◮ Ceterach officinarum 

Willd. 

Asplenium ceterach L. 

Family ◮ Athyriaceae, Polypodiaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Western Himalaya, from 

KashmirtoGarhwal,upto3,000m. 

Action ◮ Fern—diuretic, astringent; 

used for diseases of the urinary 

tract, infirmities of spleen, also for 

treating jaundice. 

The plant contains caffeic acid, neohesperidin, 

kaempferol-3, 7-diglucoside, 

chlorogenic acid and quercetol- 

3-glucoside. The leaves gave methyl 

esters of the acids—myristic, palmitic, 

Heracleum candicans Wall. ex DC. 307 

palmitoleic, stearic, oleic, linoleic and 

arachidic. Pyrocatechol, tannins, flavonoids 

and amino acids were also 

present. 

Hemionites arifolia 

(Burm. f) Moore. 


Habitat ◮ Plains and mountains of 

South India up to 1,200., and in 

West Bengal, Bihar and Orissa. 

English ◮ Mule Fern. 

Folk ◮ Raamabaanam (Andhra 

Pradesh), Chakuliya (Bengal). 

Action ◮ Fonds—antibacterial, used 

in burns and as febrifuge. 

Heracleum candicans 

Wall. ex DC. 

Synonym ◮ H. nepalense D. Don. 

H. lanatum Michx. 


Habitat ◮ Chamba, Kulu, Jammu 

& Kashmir, Bushahr, Garhwal and 

Kumaon Hills. 

English ◮ Cowparsnip. 

Folk ◮ Kaindal (Kashmir), 

Gandhraayana (Garhwal). 

Action ◮ Fruit—stimulant, nervine 

tonic, spasmolytic. Heraclenin 

(active principle)—hypoprothrombinaemic. 

Essential oil from the fruits is moderately 

antimicrobial. 

H

H 

308 Herniaria glabra Linn. 

Furanocoumarins present in the 

whole fruit and leaves are psoralen, 

xanthotoxin and bergapten. Roots also 

contain furanocoumarins. 

The fruits of H. concanense Dalz. 

contain a coumarin which is effective 

against dermatophytosis. The fruits 

of H. regins Wall. ex DC. are used 

for cough and bronchitis, also for urinary 

concretions in Siddha medicine. 

H. thomsoni C. B. Clarke (Kashmir 

and Himachal Pradesh) also contains 

a coumarin; the fruit showed nonspecific 

spasmolytic activity equipotent to 

papaverine. 

Herniaria glabra Linn. 

Family ◮ Illecebraceae. 

Habitat ◮ Throughout Europe. 

Introduced into Indian gardens. 

English ◮ Rupture-Wort. 

Action ◮ Plant—astringent, diuretic, 

antimicrobial, anticatarrhal. An 

infusion is used principally for 

bladder complaints for ruptures. 

The plant gave a flavonic glycoside, 

rutoside; coumarins, herniarin and 

umbelliferone, and saponins. 

A related species, H. hirsuta L. (Himalaya, 

from Kashmir to Kumaon up 

to 3,000 m) gave umbelliferone, scopoletin 

and herniarin. 

Heterophragma roxburghii DC. 

Synonym ◮ H. quadriloculare (Roxb.) 

D. Schum. 


Habitat ◮ Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, 

Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, 

Karnataka, Tamil Nadu. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Waarasa. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Barokalagoru. 

Folk ◮ Pullunga, Paatang (Maharashtra). 

Action ◮ Tar extracted from wood— 

used in skin diseases. Leaf juice— 

applied externally on toe sores and 

in chilblain. 

The flowers gave hentriacontane and 

allantoin; the leaves contain ursolic 

acid and sitosterol. The seeds contain 

a saponin (rhamnoside), lupeol, betasitosterol, 

stigmasterol and cubulin. 

The essential oil from flowers exhibits 

antimicrobial activity. 

Hibiscus abelmoschus Linn. 

Synonym ◮ Abelmoschus moschatus 

Medic. 



parts and hilly regions of India; also 

cultivated. 

English ◮ Musk Seed, Muskmallow, 

Ambette Seed. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Lataakasturi, Lataakasturikaa, 

Kattaphala, Katuka. 

Unani ◮ Mushkdaanaa. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kasturi-vendai. 

Action ◮ Seeds—diuretic, antispasmodic, 

stomachic, nervine (nervous 

debility, hysteria and other nervous 

disorders). Used externally for skin 

diseases and itch. Mucilage made

from the root and leaves is prescribed 

in venereal diseases, urinary 

discharges and painful micturition. 

Seeds, steeped in water, are used for 

asthma, cold, flu. 

Fatty oil of seeds contains phospholipids—alpha 

cephalin, phosphatidylserine 

and its plasmalogen and phosphatidylcholine 

plasmalogen. Absolute 

contains farnesol and ambrettolic 

acid lactones. 

The seeds contain chiefly 2-trans, 

6-trans-farnesyl acetate, 2-cis, 6-trans 

farnesyl acetate and ambrettolide. The 

leaves contain beta-sitosterol and its 

beta-D-glucoside. 


Vol. IV.) 

Hibiscus cannabinus Linn. 



and Africa; cultivated in West 

Bengal, Andhra Pradesh, Assam, 

Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, 

Tamil Nadu, Bihar and Punjab. 

English ◮ Bimlipatam Jute, Kenaf, 

Mesta, Deccan Hemp. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Pulichhai, Pulimanji, 

Kasini. 

Folk ◮ Patsan, Pitwaa. Ambaadi 


Action ◮ Seed—nervine tonic, 

analgesic. Leaf—purgative. The 

juice of flowers, mixed with sugar 

and black pepper, is given for 

biliousness. 

Hibiscus rosa-sinensis Linn. 309 

The leaves contain flavonoids, including 

rutin and isoquercitrin; kaempferol; 

polyphenols. The flowers gave 

myricetin glucoside; the root contains 

polyphenols, also proanthocyanidins. 

The seeds gave phosphonolipids. 

Hibiscus mutabilis Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Native to China; planted 

in the hedges of gardens. 

English ◮ Cotton-Rose, Chinese- 

Rose, Confederate Rose. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Sthala-Padam, Sthal- 

Kamal. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Irratai-vellaichembarattam, 

Sembarattai. 

Action ◮ Flower—used in pectoral 

and pulmonary affections. Leaf 

and flower—expectorant, bechic, 

anodyne. Used in menorrhagia, 

dysuria, swellings, fistulae, wounds 

and burns. 

The flowers contain quercetin, 

kaempferol, betulinic acid, hexyl stearate, 

tetratriacontanol, nonacosane, 

stigmasta-3, 7-dione, stigmasta-4-eneone 

and beta-sitosterol. Flowers collected 

in the morning gave no anthocyanin; 

maximum anthocyanin is 

found in the afternoon. 

Hibiscus rosa-sinensis Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Native of China; grown in 

gardens throughout India. 

H

H 

310 Hibiscus sabdariffa Linn. 

English ◮ Rose-of-China, Shoeflower, 

Chinese Hibiscus. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Japaa, Javaa, Odrapushpa, 

Rudrapushpa, Arunaa. 

Unani ◮ Gul-e-Gurhal. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Semparuthi. 

Action ◮ Flower—used in impotency, 

bronchial catarrh. Flower 

and bark—emmenagogue. Leaf— 

stimulates expulsion of placenta 

after childbirth; laxative, anodyne. 

Flower and root—used in 

menorrhagia. 

The plant contains the cyclopropanoids, 

methyl sterculate, methyl- 

2-hydroxysterculate, 2-hydroxysterculate, 

malvalate and beta-sitosterol. 

The major anthocyanin in the flower 

is cyanidin 3-sophoroside. The flower 

nectar is rich in amino acids, mainly 

aspartic acid and asparagin. During 

pollination, the amino acid concentration 

increases substantially. 

Flower powder exhibited anti-inflammatory 

activity in male albino 

rats with carrageenan-induced rat paw 

oedema. The aqueous extract of the 

plant showed antitumour activity 

against sarcoma 180 ascites. 

An aqueous extract of flowers reduced 

the duration of oestrus cycle in 

experimental albino rabbits. The alcoholic 

extract of flowers showed antiimplantation 

activity. The benzene extract 

of flowers, on oral administration, 

terminated pregnancy in experimental 

animals. 

Flower buds are used in the treatment 

of vaginal and uterine discharges. 

Oral administration of flower extract 

to rats affected spermatogenesis 

and endocrine function of testis. 

In diabetic patients, a flower bud is 

given daily up to 10 days or until the 

level of blood sugar is reduced to tolerable 

limits. 

The white-flowered var. of Japan 

(cultivated all over India in garden) is 

equated with Hibiscus syriacus Linn. 

(Rose of Sharon, Shrubby Althaea). 

The white flower is an oriental drug 

used as demulcent and antidiarrhoeal. 

The bud yields mucilage which consists 

mainly of partially acetylated acidic 

polysaccharides. The aqueous extract 

of the petals causes vasorelaxation of 

the isolated rat arota via both endothelium-dependent 

and -independent 

mechanisms. The petals contain anthocyanin 

pigments. 

The cortex and bark exhibit antifungal 

acitivity. 

The bark gave canthin-6-one and 

a fatty acid fraction consisting of lauric, 

myristic and palmitic acids. 

Dosage ◮ Flower—10–20 g paste. 

(CCRAS.) 

Hibiscus sabdariffa Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Native to the West Indies; 

now cultivated in Uttar Pradesh, 

Andhra Pradesh, West Bengal, 

Bihar, Punjab, Assam and Tamil 

Nadu. 

English ◮ Roselle, Jamaican Sorrel, 

Natal Sorrel, Red Sorrel. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Ambashtthaki.

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Sivappu Kashmakki, 

Pulichai-keerai, Gogu, Seemai 

Kaseru. 

Folk ◮ Laal-ambaadi, Patavaa, 

Patsan. 

Action ◮ Digestive, choleretic, 

antibilious, laxative, diuretic, 

hypotensive, antiscorbutic. Used 

as a cardiac and nervine tonic for 

disorders of circulation, also for 

calcified arteries. 

Key application ◮ Flowers—used 

for loss of appetite, for colds, 

catarrhs of the upper respiratory 

tract and stomach, for disorders 

of circulation. (Included among 



The seeds contain sterols, including 

3.2% ergosterol; leaves contain 

sitosterol-beta-D-galactoside. Flowers 

contain myricetin, kaempferol and 

quercetin, but did not contain free mutagenic 

flavonol aglycons. 

The aqueous extract of flower buds 

has been reported to decrease blood 

pressure, cause relaxation of rat uterus. 

Succulent sepals and leaves—hypotensive, 

antimicrobial and anthelmintic. 

Oil and unsapanofiable matter—antibacterial, 

antifungal. 

Dosage ◮ Root—5–10 g. (API Vol. 

III.) 

Hibiscus surattensis Linn. 




Hippophae rhamnoides Linn. 311 

Ayurvedic ◮ Ran Bhindi. 

Folk ◮ Kishli-Keerai (Tamil Nadu). 

Action ◮ Flower—emollient, 

pectoral. Stem and leaf—used in 

urethritis and venereal diseases. 

Petals (yellow part) gave gossypitrin 

and gossypetin; the purple part gave 

cyanidin, delphinidin and pelargonidin. 

Hippophae rhamnoides Linn. 

Family ◮ Elaeagnaceae. 

Habitat ◮ North-west Himalayas at 

2,350–5,000 m. 

English ◮ Seabuckthorn, Sand Thorn. 

Folk ◮ Dhurchuk, Chumaa, Tarwaa 

(Uttar Pradesh), Sirmaa (Punjab, 

Ladakh). 

Action ◮ Fruit—astringent, antidiarrhoeal, 

stomachic, antitussive, 

antihaemorrhagic. 

Sea Buckthorn preparations are used 

internally for stomach ulcer, duodenal 

ulcer and other illnesses of the alimentary 

organs; externally in cases of 

burns, bedsores and other skin complications 

induced by the treatment with 

X-rays and other radiations. 

The berries contain polyphenols, 

3,4-dihydroxy benzoic acid and pcoumaric 

acid. They are an important 

source of vitamins for people living in 

cold, long winter regions; contain high 

concentration of vitamin A (carotene 

30–40 mg), B1, B2, B6, C (50–600 mg) 

and E (160 mg/100 g). 

H

H 

312 Hiptage benghalensis Kurz. 

The plant is an effective antioxidant 

and shows protective effect on 

smooth muscles of rabbits in vitro. The 

methanolic extract of the berry showed 

scavenging activity on chemically generated 

superoxide radicals. 

The leaves contain flavonoids, isorhamnetin 

and astragalin; the bark 

gave serotonin. 

Hiptage benghalensis Kurz. 

Synonym ◮ H. madablota Gaertn. 



parts of Maharashtra, Konkan, 

Karnataka and other parts of 

India. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Atimukta, Atimuktaka, 

Maadhavi, Vaasanti, Pundrika, 

Mandaka, Vimukta, Kaamuka. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Madhavi, Vasandagala-malligai. 

Action ◮ Kernel of seeds is prescribed 

for reducing abdominal girth 

(obesity). Leaves—used in chronic 

rheumatism, asthma and skin 

diseases. Bark—used in bronchial 

asthma. 

The stem and its bark contain friedelin, 

epi-friedelinol, octacosanol, alphaamyrin, 

beta-sitosterol and its beta-Dglucoside. 

The root bark gave a nitrogenous 

glucoside, hiptagin, identical 

with endecaphyllin and a glucosyl 

xanthone, mangiferin. 

Dosage ◮ Fruit, seed, root—powder 

3–5 g; paste 5–10 g. (CCRAS.) 

Holarrhena antidysenterica 

(Linn.) Wall. 

Synonym ◮ H. pubescens (Buch.- 

Ham.) Wall. ex G. Don. 


Habitat ◮ The tropical Himalayas, 

going up to an altitude of 1,100 m. 

Also found throughout many forests 

of India, in Travancore, Assam and 


English ◮ Easter tree, Ivory tree, 

Tellicherry Bark. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Kutaja, Girimallikaa, 

Kaalinga, Kalingaka, Indravriksha, 

Shakra, Vatsa, Vatsaka, 

Shakraahvya. Indrayava, Indrabija, 

Vatsabija (seed). Kurchi (bark). 

Unani ◮ Inderjo talkh, Teewaaj-e- 

Khataai. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kudasappaalai-pattai, 

-vidai (bark, seed). 

Action ◮ Root and bark—used in 

amoebic dysentery. Bark—astringent, 

anthelmintic, amoebicidal, 

diuretic. Used in colic, dyspepsia, 

piles, diseases of the skin and 

spleen. Seed—antibilious. Used 

for promoting conception, also 

for toning up vaginal tissues after 

delivery. 

The bark contains the alkaloids, 

regholarrhenine-A, -B, -C, -D, -E and 

-F; pubescine, norholadiene, pubescimine, 

kurchinin, kurchinine, kurchinidine, 

holarrifine, holadiene, 

kurchilidine, kurchamide, kurcholessine, 

kurchessine, conessine, cones-

simine and isoconessimine, and the 

steroidal compounds kurchinicin and 

holadyson. 

The alkaloid conessine is used as 

a therapeutic drug for the treatment 

of dysentery and helminthic disorders. 

Conessine and conimine inhibited the 

growth of Shigella sonnei, S. flexneri 

and Salmonella enteritidis strains in 

vitro. In chronic amoebiasis, Bi-iodide 

compound of total alkaloids, given 

orally, compare favourably with emetine 

Bi-iodide. 

The plant possesses potent immunostimulant 

property. 

The Kurchi seeds are sold as a substitute 

for Strophanthus sp. seeds in Indian 

market. (Seeds of Strophanthus 

sp. contain a toxic glucoside, strophanthin, 

and are poisonous.) 


decoction. (API Vol. I); seed—3– 

6gpowder;20–30gfordecoction. 


Holoptelea integrifolia Planch. 


Habitat ◮ Throughout greater parts 

of India, also grown in gardens. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Chirbilva, Putika, 

Prakirya. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Avil thol, Ayil pattai 

(bark) 

Action ◮ Bark—internally and 

externally used in rheumatism. 

Stem bark paste—in scabies. 

Seeds—used topically on ringworm. 

Holostemma annularis (Roxb.) K. Schum. 313 


recommends dried fruits in polyuria 

and other urinary disorders. 

The stem bark contains the triterpenoidal 

fatty acid esters, holoptelin-A 

(epi-friedelinol palmitate) and holoptelin-B 

(epi-friedelinol stearate), friedelin 

and epi-friedelinol. 

The powdered bark exhibited lipolytic 

action and mobilized fat from adipose 

tissues in rats and consequently 

helped in the reduction of obesity. 

Dosage ◮ Dried fruit—1–3 g. (API 

Vol. III.) 

Holostemma annularis 

(Roxb.) K. Schum. 

Synonym ◮ H. ada-kodien Schult. 

H. rheedii Wall. 

Asclepias annularis Roxb. 


Habitat ◮ Tropical Himalayas and 

Western Peninsula. Cultivated in 

Dharmapuri district of Tamil Nadu. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Ark-pushpi. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Palay-keerai. 

Action ◮ Roots—used in orchitis, 

spermatorrhoea, also as laxative. 

Roots are used as Jivanti in Kerala 

(See also Leptadenia reticulata.) 

The tubers contain protein (5.5– 

10%). It gave alpha-amyrin, lupeol and 

beta-sitosterol. Aspartic acid, glycine, 

serine, threonine and valine were detected 

chromatographically. 

The bark gave alpha-amyrin, lupeol 


H

H 

314 Homonoia riparia Lour. 

Homonoia riparia Lour. 

Synonym ◮ Adelia neriifolia Heyne 

ex Roth. 


Habitat ◮ Eastern, Central and 

Peninsular India, up to 700 m. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Paashaana-bheda 

(substitute), Kshudra Paashaanabheda. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kattu Alari. 

Action ◮ Root—diuretic, spasmolytic, 

antilithic. Used for urinary 

discharges. Leaf and stem— 

depurative. Leaf and fruit—used in 


The roots gave alpha-spinasteryl acetate. 

The fatty acid from the fat of 

roots gave myristic, palmitic, stearic 

and oleic acids. 

Hordeum vulgare Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Cultivated as food crop 

in Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, 

Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, 

Haryana, Punjab, Himachal Pradesh 

and Jammu and Kashmir. 

English ◮ Barley 

Ayurvedic ◮ Yava, Hayeshtha, 

Hayapriya, Shuka-dhaanya, Tikshnashuka. 

Unani ◮ Barley, Jao Shaeer. 

Siddha ◮ Yavam. Saambaluppu (ash). 

Action ◮ Barley—nutritive and 

demulcent during convalescence 

and in cases of bowel inflammation 

and diarrhoea. Protects immune 

system. 


recommends barley in urinary disorders, 

muscular rigidity, chronic sinusitis, 

cough, asthma, lipid disorder 

and obesity. 

Juice of young barley leaves—7 times 

richer in vitamin C than oranges, 5 

timesricherinironthanspinach,25 

times richer in potassium than wheat; 

high in SOD (superoxide dismutase), 

an enzyme that slows ageing of cells. 

The nutritional quality of the barley 

depends on beta-glucan fraction of 

the grain. Beta-glucan-enriched fraction 

produced cholesterol-lowering effect 

in hamsters. 

Naked barley extracts have been 

found to selectively inhibit cyclohexanase 

activity and may be useful as 

a therapeutic drug for treating thrombosis 

and atherosclerosis. 

Ethanol extract of young green 

leaves exhibits antioxidant activity attributed 

to a flavonoid, 2 ′′ -O-glucosylisovitexin. 

It also exhibits anti-inflammatory 

and antiallergic activities. The 

leaves contain an indole alkaloid, gramine, 

which exhibits antibacterial 

properties. 

Dosage ◮ Dried fruit—100–200 g. 

(API Vol. II); dried plant—10–20 g. 


Hovenia dulcis Thunb. 

Synonym ◮ H. acerba Lindl. 

Family ◮ Rhamnaceae.

Habitat ◮ Native to China. Now 

cultivated in Kumaon, Sikkim and 

West Bengal. 

English ◮ Japanese Raisin tree, Coral 

tree. 

Folk ◮ Sikkaa. 

Action ◮ Fruit—diuretic; relieves 

intoxication due to wine. 

The leaves and root bark gave triterpene 

saponins. Root bark also gave 

peptide alkaloids. 

The fruit extract contains potassium 

nitrate and potassium malate and is 

strongly diuretic. The seeds contain 

beta-carboline alkaloid, perlolyrine. 

A toothpaste, containing extracts of the 

fruitsandseedsasoneoftheingredients, 

has been patented for controlling 

dental caries (in Japan). 

Hugonia mystax Linn. 

Family ◮ Linaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Konkan and North Kanara, 

throughout dry forests of Tamil 

Nadu. 

Folk ◮ Kaakibeeraa, Kansamaara. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Agori. Motirakkanni. 

Action ◮ Root—anti-inflammatory, 

febrifuge; disperses swellings. 

Humulus lupulus Linn. 

Family ◮ Cannabinaceae. 


Asia. Conditions for its successful 

cultivation are reported to exist in 

Humulus lupulus Linn. 315 

Kashmir and parts of Himachal 

Pradesh. 

English ◮ Hops. 

Unani ◮ Hashish-ut-Dinaar. 

Action ◮ Flowers—sedative, hypnotic, 

nervine tonic, diuretic, 

spasmolytic on smooth muscle, 

analgesic, astringent. Used for 

nervous diseases, intestinal cramps, 

menopause, insomnia, neuralgia 

and nervous diarrhoea. Also as 

a tonic in stomach and liver affections. 

As a blood cleanser, the root 

is used like sarsaparilla. 

Key application ◮ In mood disturbances, 

such as restlessness 

and anxiety, sleep disturbances. 

(German Commission E. ESCOP.) 

The British Herbal Compendium and 

The British Herbal Pharmacopoeia reported 

herb’s action as sedative, soporific, 

spasmolytic and aromatic bitter, 

and indicated its use for excitability, 

restlessness, disorders of sleep and lack 

of appetite. 

Hop cones consist of the whole 

dried female inflorescences of Humulus 

lupulus. 

Hop contains bitter principles— 

lupulin containing humulon, lupulon 

and valerianic acid; volatile oil (0.3– 

1.0%) including humulene; flavonoids 

including xanthohumole; polyphenolic 

tannins, asparagin, oestrogenic substances. 

Bitter principles stimulate the digestive 

system. Valerianic acid is sedative. 

The resin components, lupulon and 

humulon are antiseptic against Grampositive 

bacteria. Asparagin is diuretic. 

Research suggested that the anti- 

H

H 

316 Hura crepitans Linn. 

spasmodic effect is stronger than the 

sedative, and hops also possess antihistaminic 

and anti-oxytocic properties. 

(Cases of amenorrhoea and dysmenorrhoea 

are treated with hops.) 

Hop extracts exert different effects 

on CNS in mice. They show hypothermic, 

hypnotic, sedative, muscle relaxing 

and spontaneous locomotor activities, 

besides potentiating pentobarbital 

anaesthesia in mice. 

Humulone inhibited induced inflammation 

in mice. 

The dried strobila containing humuloneandlupuloneshowedantidiabetic 

activity in experimental rats. 

Hop mash or extract is used in the 

preparation of toothpaste for inhibiting 

Gram-positive bacteria and in hair 

preparations for preventing dandruff 

formation. It is also used in skinlightening 

creams. 

Hura crepitans Linn. 



introduced into India. 

English ◮ Sandbox tree, Monkey 

Dinner-bell. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Mullarasanam. 

Action ◮ Seed, bark and fresh latex— 

emetocathartic, antileprotic. Seed— 

insecticidal, piscidal. 

In South America, a poultice made 

from the latex is used for treating cutaneous 

leishmaniasis. Highly irritant 

and tumour-promoting deterpene esters 

(DTC) have been detected in the 

latex. Latex gave the triterpenes, 24methylene 

cycloartanol, cycloartanol 

and butyrospermol. Sap of the plant 

gave a diterpene hexaol ester, huratoxin, 

and a glycolipoprotein, crepitin. 

Hydnocarpus kurzii (King) Warb. 

Synonym ◮ H. heterophylla auct. 

non-Bl. 

Taractogenos Kurzii King. 


Habitat ◮ Assam and Tripura. 

English ◮ Chalmogra. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Tuvaraka (related 

species, substitute for H. laurifolia.) 

Unani ◮ Chaalmograa, Tukhm-e- 

Biranj Mograa. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Niradi-muttu. 

Action ◮ Antileprotic, dermatic, 

febrifuge, sedative. Used parenterally 

for leprosy; also for psoriasis, 

eczema and dermatitis. 

The plant is a source of chaulmoogra 

oil (Oleum Chaulmoograe which contains 

hydnocarpic, chaulmoogric, gorlic, 

oleic, palmitic acids and lower homologues 

of hydnocarpic acid. The oil 

mixed with neem oil or oil of Psoralea 

corylifolia is used in leprosy. 

In mice, intraperitoneal and subcutaneous 

administration of chaulmoogra 

fatty acids demonstrated antimicrobial 

activity against Mycobacterium 

leprae. (PDR.) 

Hydnocarpus laurifolia 

(Dennst.) Sleumer. 

Synonym ◮ H. wightiana Blume.



English ◮ Soorty Oil tree. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Tuvaraka, Katu- 

Kapittha, Kushtavairi, Garudaphala, 

Chaalmograa. 

Unani ◮ Chaalmograa, Tukhm-e- 

Biranj Mograa. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Maravattai, Niradimuttu. 

Action ◮ Seed oil—antileprotic, 

anti-inflammatory, antirheumatic. 

The seed oil gave chemical constituents 

similar to Hydnocarpus kuzii, 

and contain the flavonolignan, hydnowightin, 

hydnocarpin and neohydnocarpin. 

Hydnocarpin showed good antiinflammatory 

and anti-neoplastic activity 

in mice, in vivo. Cytotoxicity 

against the growth of murine and human 

tissue cultured cells was also observed. 

The stem bark and leaves contain 

triterpenes, acelylbetulinic, betulinic, 

ursolic and acetylursolic acids. 

Dosage ◮ Seed—3–5 g powder; oil— 

5–10 drops. (CCRAS.) 

Hydrocotyle javanica Thunb. 


Habitat ◮ The Himalayas, Khasi Hills 

and Western Ghats. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Manduukaparni (related 

species). 

Folk ◮ Brahma-manduuki (Sikkim). 

Hygrophila auriculata (K. Schum.) Heine. 317 

Action ◮ Used as a substitute 

for Centella asiatica, as a blood 

purifier (in cutaneous diseases); 

for indigestion, dysentery and 

nervousness. 

The plant is used for treating leucoderma. 

Hydrocotyle rotundifolia Roxb. 

(throughout India, up to 2,350 m) is 

also equated with Manduukaparni. 

Hydrolea zeylanica Vahl. 

Family ◮ Hydrophyllaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Throughout India, in moist 

and swampy places. 


Laangali. (Laangali is equated with 

Gloriosa superba Linn.) Known as 

Ish-languulia (West Bengal). 

Action ◮ Leaves and paste— 

used for callous ulcers. Plant— 

antiprotozoal. 

Hygrophila auriculata 

(K. Schum.) Heine. 

Synonym ◮ H. schulli (Ham.) MR & 

SM Almeida. 

H. spinosa T. anders. 

Asteracantha longifolia (L.) Nees. 


Habitat ◮ Throughout India along 

the banks of fresh or stagnant water 

ditches and swampy grounds, mixed 

with marshy grasses and sedges. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Kokilaaksha, Kokilaakshi, 

Ikshuraka, Ikshura, Kshuraka, 

Bikshu, Kaakekshu. 

H

H 

318 Hymenodictyon excelsum Wall. 

Unani ◮ Taalmakhaanaa. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Neermulli. 

Action ◮ Leaves, roots and seeds— 

diuretic; used for diseases of the 

urinogenital tract, spermatorrhoea. 

Seeds promote sexual vigour, arrest 

abortion and cure diseases due 

to vitiated blood. Also used for 

arthritis and oedema. 

The seeds contain large amounts 

of tenacious mucilage and potassium 

salts, which may be responsible for the 

diuretic property of seeds. The seeds 

also contain linoleic acid (71%), besides 

diastase, lipase and protease. 

EtOH (50%) extract of the plant is 

spasmolytic and hypotensive. 

The chloroform soluble fraction of 

ethanolic extract of aerial parts exhibited 

promising hepatoprotective activity 


The plant contains lupeol, stigmasterol 

and hydrocarbons. 


ash—1–3 g. (CCRAS.) 

Hymenodictyon excelsum Wall. 

Synonym ◮ H. orixense (Roxb) 

Mobb. 


Habitat ◮ Central India and Western 

Peninsula. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Bhramar-chhalikaa, 

Ugragandhaa (a confusing synonym). 

Bhringa-vrksha (provisional 

synonym). 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Sagappu, Vellei 

Kadambu, Peranjoli. 

Folk ◮ Bhaulan, Bhramarchhali, 

Bhuurkunda. 


antiperiodic (especially for tertian 

ague). 

The stem bark contains scopoletin 

and its apioglucoside, hymexelsin 

(yield0.12%). Thepresenceofglucose, 

fructose, galactose and several 

amino acids, alanine, arginine, cystine, 

glycine, leucine; besides fatty acids, 

beta-sitosterol and stigmasterol is also 

reported from the bark. 

Roots contain several quinones. 

Hyoscyamus muticus Linn. 


Habitat ◮ North-western Himalayas. 

Cultivated on limited scale in North 

Indian plains. 

English ◮ Egyptian Henbane. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Paarsika-yavaani 

(related species), Turushkaa. 

Unani ◮ Ajwaayin Khuraasaani, 

Shuukraan, Tukhm-bang. 

Folk ◮ Vajra-bhang. 

Action ◮ Sedative. 

The leaves and flowering tops contain 

higher concentration of tropane 

alkaloids than other species of Hyoscyamus, 

used as a source of hyoscine. 

Hyoscyamus niger Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Native to Europe and Asia. 

Occurs in the temperate Himalayas 

from Kashmir to Garhwal. 

English ◮ Indian Henbane, Black 

Henbane. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Paarsika-yavaani, 

Yavaani, Madkaarini, Turushkaa, 

Khuraashaanikaa, Khuraasaani 

Ajwaayin. 

Unani ◮ Barz-ul-Banj, Khuraasaani 

Ajwaayin. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Paarseekayavani, 

Khurasani Omam. 

Action ◮ Sedative. Narcotic drug. 

Used for convulsions. Action 

similar to Belladonna. 

Key application ◮ In spasms of 

gastrointestinal tract. (German 



The leaves and flowering tops contain 

tropane alkaloids, 0.045–00.14%, 

the principal ones being hyoscyamine 

and hyoscine. The alkaloids are parasympatholytic, 

with similar actions to 

Belladonna, although with less cerebral 

excitement. 

The seeds show inhibitory activity 

against digestive enzyme, lipase in vitro. 

Contraindicated in tachycardias, 

prostatic hyperplasia, narrow-angle 

glaucoma, acute pulmonary oedema, 

stenosis of gastrointestinal tract, maga 

colon. 


(CCRAS.) 

Hypericum perforatum Linn. 319 

Hypecoum leptocarpum 

Hook. f. & Thoms. 



temperate Asia. (Allied species: H. 

pendulum Linn. and H. procumbens 

Linn., found in Peshavar, Multan, 

Waziristan and Baluchistan). 

Occurs in Sikkim. 

Folk ◮ Zirgulaki, Waziri. 

Action ◮ Used in stomachache. Juice 

of the plant has the same effect as 

opium. Leaves diaphoretic. Plant— 

narcotic. 

The whole plant contains protopine 

(0.19) as the major alkaloid. 

Hypericum perforatum Linn. 

Family ◮ Hypericaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Temperate Western 

Himalayas from Kashmir to Shimla 

at 2,000–3,000 m. 

English ◮ Common St. John’s wort. 

Unani ◮ Heufaariqoon, Bassant, 

Balsaan. 

Action ◮ Antidepressant, sedative, relaxing 

nervine, anti-inflammatory. 

Used in anxiety, stress, depression, 

menopausal nervousness, 

menstrual cramps, neuralgia and 

rheumatism. 

Key application ◮ Psychovegetative 

disturbances, depressive moods, 

anxiety and or nervous unrest. 

Externally, oil preparation for 

treatment and post-therapy of acute 

and contused injuries, myalgia 

H

H 

320 Hyptis suaveolens (Linn.) Poit. 

and first degree burns. (German 

Commission E, ESCOP, British 

Herbal Pharmocopoeia.) 

The herb contains hypericin and 

pseudohypericin (0.0095 to 0.466% in 

the leaves and as much as 0.24% in 

the flowers), rutin, quercetin, hyperoside, 

methylhesperidin, caffeic, chlorogenic, 

p-coumaric, ferulic, p-hydroxybenzoic 

and vanillic acids. 

Plant’s standardized extract (0.3% 

hypericin) shows antidepressant activity 

by inhibiting MAO. 

A biflavonoid, amentoflavone, isolated 

from the plant, exhibited antiinflammatory 

and antiulcerogenic activity. 

Alcoholic extract of the plant shows 

in vivo hepatoprotective activity in rodents. 

The oily extract of the flowers have 

been found effective in wound-healing 

due to the antibiotically active acylphlorogucinol, 

hyperforin. 

The aerial parts show significant 

antibacterial activity against several 

Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. 

A lyophilized infusion from the 

aerial parts exhibited antiviral activity 

and inhibited reproduction of different 

strains of influenza virus types A and 

Bbothin vivo and in vitro. 

The whole herb is effective against 

many viral infections. 

Hyptis suaveolens (Linn.) Poit. 



Distributed throughout India. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Tumbaaka (provisional 

synonym). 

Folk ◮ Gangaa Tulasi, Vilaayati 

Tulasi, Bhunsari. 

Action ◮ Carminative, antispasmodic, 

antisoporific, antirheumatic, 

anticephalalgic, lactagogue. Used 

in catarrhal and uterine affections, 

parasitical cutaneous diseases, 

epistaxis. 

The plant gave lupeol, lupeol acetate 

and friedelin, leaves and flowers gave 

campesterol and fucosterol; roots contained 

beta-sitosterol, oleanolic and 

alpha-peltoboykinolic acids. 

The plant gave an essential oil containing 

l-sabinene. l-limonene and 

azulenic sesquiterpenes as major constituents. 

The oil inhibits the growth 

of Gram-positive and Gram-negative 

bacteria, particularly, Staphylococcus 

aureus; also exhibits fungitoxicity. 

Alcoholic extract (50%) of the whole 

plant exhibited hypoglycaemic and 


Hyssopus officinalis Linn. 



temperate Asia. Occurs in West 

Himalyas from Kashmir to Kumaon. 

English ◮ Hyssop. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Dayaa-kunji. (Nepeta 

longibractea is also equated with 

Zuufaa, Dayaa-kunji.) 

Unani ◮ Zuufaa, Zuufaa Yaabis. 

Folk ◮ Diyaanku (Laddakh).

Action ◮ Stimulant, carminative, 

sedative, antispasmodic, diuretic, 

pectoral. Used for bronchitis, 

coughs and colds. Induces heavy 

sweating in fevers, increases blood 

pressure. Emmenagogue. Used 

externally for bruises, discoloured 

contusions and cuts. 

Key application ◮ As expectorant. 


Hyssop contains terpenoids, including 

marrubiin; a volatile oil consisting 

mainly of camphor, pinocamphone 

and beta-pinene; flavonoids, glucosides, 

tannins and resin. Marrubiin 

is a strong expectorant. The plant 

also contains ursolic acid, an anti- 

Hyssopus officinalis Linn. 321 

inflammatory principle. The alcoholic 

extract of the aerial parts at flowering 

yields an active antioxidant compound, 

rosmanol-9-ethyl ether. Its 

activity is much greater than butylated 

hydroxytoluene. The extract of the 

plant showed weak hepatoprotective 

activity against CCl4-induced toxicity 

in albino mice. 

Pinocamphone and isopinocamphone 

are toxic constituents of the 

essential oil. Wild plants from Kumaon 

(Uttaranchal) shows presence 

of very small amounts of pinocamphone 

(0.61%) in essential oil, as compared 

to Himalayan hyssop (38.44%) 

and cultivated North American hyssop 

(42.66%). The essential oil can induce 

epileptic seizures. 

H

Iberis amara Linn. 



in gardens. Reported to occur in 

Chamba. 

English ◮ Rocket Candytuft, Clown’s 

Mustard. 

Action ◮ Used for gout, rheumatism, 

also for bronchitis and asthma; as 

a tonic in enlargement of heart to 

allay excited action of the heart. 

The seeds contain a mustard oil and 

a glycoside, glucoiberin. The plant 

contains sulphur-containing glucosinolates; 

also contains bitter and toxic 

tetracycloterpenoids, cucurbitacin E 

and I. 

The seed extract exhibited cytotoxicity 

against renal and brain tumours 

and melanoma cell lines. The activity 

may be attributed to the presence of 

cucurbitacins E and I. 

Ichnocarpus frutescens R. Br. 


Habitat ◮ Uttar Pradesh, Madhya 

Pradesh, Bihar, Assam and the 

Sunderbans. 

English ◮ Black Creeper. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Gopavalli, Krishna 

Saarivaa (var.), Krishna-muuli, 

Shyaamalataa. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Karunannari, 

Makalikilanzhu. 

I 

Folk ◮ Kaalisar, Karantaa. 

Action ◮ Root—demulcent, diuretic, 

alterative, diaphoretic; used in 

fevers, dyspepsia and cutaneous 

affections. The roots of the plant 

are used as a substitute for Indian 

sarsaparilla and are often mixed 

with the roots of Hemidesmus 

indicus (their therapeutic properties 

for use as sarsaparilla have bot been 

established). 

The root gave 2-hydroxy-4-methoxybenzaldehyde. 

Alkaloids and flavonoids were present 

in the roots but not in the leaves and 

fruits. Saponins were absent in these 

parts. The whole plant gave n-butyl 

sorboside, kaempferol and its glucoside. 

Ilex aquifolium Linn. 

Family ◮ Aquifolilaceae. 


occasionally in gardens at hill 

stations. 

English ◮ English Holly, Common 

Holly. 

Action ◮ Leaves—diaphoretic, 

febrifuge. Used in catarrh, pleurisy, 

intermittent fever, smallpox and 

rheumatism. Also in jaundice. 

Berries—violently emetic and 

purgative; employed in dropsy. 

Powdered berries are used as 

astringent to check bleeding.

324 Ilex paraguariensis St.-Hil. 

I 

(Berries possess totally different 

qualities as compared to leaves.) 

The plant contains ilicin (a bitter 

principle), ilexanthin, theobromine 

(only in the leaf) and caffeic acid. Alkaloid 

theobromine is used for asthma. 

In Greece, boiled leaves are used for 

treating enlarged prostate. 

An extract of the plant caused a fatal 

drop in blood pressure in rats. 

The ethanolic extract of the fruits 

yields cyanogenic glucosides. 

Ilex paraguariensis St.-Hil. 

Family ◮ Aquifoliaceae. 


cultivated in some Indian gardens. 

In northern India, grows in 

Lucknow. 

English ◮ Mate Tea, Yerba Mate. 

Paraguay Tea. 

Action ◮ Stimulant to brain and 

nervous system, mild antispasmodic, 

eliminates uric acid. Used for 

physical exhaustion, rheumatism, 

gout and nervous headache. (A 

national drink of Paraguay and 

Brazil.) Causes purging and even 

vomiting in large doses. 

Key application ◮ In physical 

and mental fatigue. (German 

Commission E, WHO.) Infatigue, 

nervous depression, psychogenic 

headache especially from fatigue, 

rheumatic pains. (The British 

Herbal Pharmacopoeia.) German 

Commission E reported analeptic, 

positively inotropic, positively 

chronotropic, glycogenolytic, 

lipolytic and diuretic properties. 

The leaves contain xanthine derivatives, 

including caffeine (0.2–2%), 

theobromine (0.3–00.5%), theophylline 

(absent in some samples), polyphenolics, 

tannins and chlorogenic acid, 

vanillin, vitamin C, volatile oil. Used in 

the same way as tea, due to its caffeine 

and theobromine content. 

Mate is a world famous tea and is 

commonly consumed in several South 

American countries. 

The flavour constituents exhibited 

moderate to weak broad-spectrum 

antimicrobial activity against several 

Gram-positive bacteria. Some components 

are bactericidal, particularly 

against the most carcinogenic bacteria, 

Streptococcus mutans. 

Illicium anisatum Linn. 

Family ◮ Magnoliaceae; Illiciaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Indigenous to China. 

English ◮ Star Anise. 

Unani ◮ Baadiyaan (related species). 

Action ◮ Carminative and pectoral. 

Used in hard, dry cough where 

expectoration is difficult. (Oil of 

Anise is distilled in Europe from 

the fruits of Pimpinella anisum.) 

The seeds, though used as a substitute 

for Star Anise, contain toxic 

constituents, anisatin, neoanisatin, 6deoxymajucin, 

besides pseudoanisatin 

and sesquiterpene lactones.

Illicium verum Hook. f. 

Family ◮ Magnoliaceae, Illiciaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Native to China. Fruits 

imported from China and Indo- 

China. 

English ◮ Star Anise, Chinese Anise, 

Aniseed Stars. 

Unani ◮ Baadyaan Khataai. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Takkola, Anasippo. 

Folk ◮ Anasphal. 

Action ◮ Carminative (used for 

colic), stimulant, diuretic. Also 

used in rheumatism. 

Key application ◮ In catarrhs of the 

respiratory tract and peptic discomforts. 


The fruit contains a volatile oil containing 

trans-anethole 80–90%, and 

feniculin (14.56%), with estragole, 

beta-bisabolene, beta-farnesene, caryophyllene, 

nerolidol. 

The intake of trans-anethole (1.0%) 

does not show any chronic toxicity in 

rats. Veranisatins, isolated from the 

extract, showed convulsive effect in 

mice. Methanolic extract exhibited 

a hypothermic effect in mice. 

Illicium griffithii Hook. f. & Thoms. 

is found in Bhutan and Khasi hills at 

altitudes of 1,400–1,100 m. The fruit, 

known as Baadiyaan, is bitter and astringent, 

reported to be poisonous. It is 

used as stimulant and carminative. Essential 

oil resembles that from aniseed 

(Pimpinella anisum Linn.) and fennel 

(Foeniculum vulgare Mill.) 

Impatiens balsamina Linn. 325 

Impatiens balsamina Linn. 

Family ◮ Balsaminaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Cultivated in plains 


English ◮ Garden Balsam. (Balsam 

Apple is not related to Impatiens. Itis 

the fruit of Momordica balsamina.) 

Ayurvedic ◮ Tarini (provisional 

synonym). 

Unani ◮ Gul-menhdi. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kasittumbai. 

Action ◮ Cathartic, diuretic, 

antirheumatic. Flowers—used in 

burns and scalds. 


cyanochroic constituents, antibacterial 

substances and an alkaloid. The seeds 

contain the triterpenoid hosenkol A, 

the first baccharance triterpenoid from 

natural source. The seeds also contain 

a protein-associated amyloid, galactoxyloglucan 


In China, the aerial parts are used 

for the treatment of articular rheumatism. 

In Korea, the plant is used for 

treating tuberculosis. In Brunei, a decoction 

of the root is given in irregular 

menstruation. In Japan, the juice, obtained 

from the white petals, is applied 

topically to treat several types of dermatitis, 

including urticaria. 

The flowers contain flavonols, flavonoid 

pigments, phenolic compounds 

and quinones. 

An ethanolic extract (35%) of flowers 

shows significant anti-anaphylactic 


The methanolic extract of the whole 

plant exhibited strong antibacterial 

I

326 Imperata cylindrica Rausch. 

I 

activity against Bacillus subtilis and 

Salmonella typhimurium; antibacterial 

and antifungal activity has been attributed 

to a naphthoquinone derivative. 

Imperata cylindrica Rausch. 

Synonym ◮ I. arundinacea Cyr. 


Habitat ◮ The hotter parts of India, 

both in plains and hills, ascending 

up to 2,300 m in the Himalayas. 

English ◮ Thatch Grass. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Darbha, Suuchyagra, 

Yagnika, Yagyabhuushana, Bahir. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Dharba. 

Folk ◮ Daabh. 

Action ◮ Diuretic, anti-inflammatory. 

The rhizomes contain flavonoids, together 

with lignans, graminone A and 

B. A sesquiterpenoid, cylindrene, and 

biphenylether compounds, cylindol A 

and B, are also reported. 

Cylindrene and graminone B show 

inhibitory activity on the contractions 

of vascular smooth muscles and aorta 

of rabbit respectively; while cylindol 

A exhibits 5-lipoxygenase inhibitory 

activity. 

The hot aqueous extract of the rhizomes 

show moderate GTP activity on 

primary cultured rat hepatocytes intoxicated 

with carbon tetrachloride cytotoxicity. 

The leaves and stem contain cyanochroic 

constituents. The roots contain 

antibacterial substances. The root is 

used in fevers but does not possess antipyretic 

activity. 


(CCRAS.) 

Indigofera arrecta Hochst. 


Habitat ◮ Cultivated in Assam, Bihar 

and in parts of Uttar Pradesh. 

English ◮ Natal Indigo, Java Indigo, 

Bengal Indigo. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Nili (related species). 

Action ◮ See I. tinctoria. 

Aqueous extract of the plant exhibits 

antihyperglycaemic activity in rats due 

to insulinotropic property. 

The indigotin content of the plant 

(0.8–1.0%) is higher than that of other 

species of Indigofera. The leaves contain 

up to 4% of a flavonol glycoside 

whichonhydrolysisyieldsrhamnose 

and kaempferol. 

Indigofera articulata 

auct. non-Gouan. 

Synonym ◮ I. caerulea Roxb. 


Habitat ◮ Bihar and Western and 


English ◮ Egyptian Indigo, Arabian 

Indigo, Wild Indigo, Surat Indigo. 


Siddha/Tamil ◮ Aaramuri, Iruppumuri, 

Kattavuri. 

Folk ◮ Surmai Nila. 

Action ◮ Root, leaf—bitter tonic. 

Seed—anthelmintic.

Indigofera aspalathoides 

Vahl ex DC. 


Habitat ◮ Plains of Karnataka, 

Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. 

English ◮ Wiry Indigo. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Nili (related species), 

Shivanimba. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Sivanaarvembu, 

Iraivanvembu. 

Folk ◮ Shivanimba (Maharashtra). 

Action ◮ Antileprotic, antitumour, 

anti-inflammatory. Used in 

psoriasis and erysipelas. Ash 

of the burnt plant is used for 

dandruff. Root is used in aphthae. 

Indigofera enneaphylla Linn. 

Synonym ◮ I. linnaei Ali. 


Habitat ◮ The Himalayas up to 

1,200 m and in plains of India. 

English ◮ Trailing indigo. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Vaasukaa. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Cheppunerinjil. 

Folk ◮ Hanumaan-buuti, Bhui-nila. 

Action ◮ Juice of the plant— 

antiscorbutic, diuretic, alterative. 

The plant, boiled with oil, is applied 

to burns. A decoction is given in 

epilepsy and insanity. 

The plant contains two unsaturated 

hydrocarbons—indigoferin and enneaphyllin. 

The seeds contain 37.8% 

protein, also yield lipids (4.4%) con- 

Indigofera pulchella Roxb. in part. 327 

taining palmitic and oleic acid. The 

toxicity of the plant is attributed to 

a non-protein amino acid, indospicine 

(6-amidino-2-aminohexanoic acid). 

(Consumption of the plant produces 

a neurological syndrome, known as 

Birdsville disease, in horses. The toxicity 

is greatly reduced when the material 

is chopped and dried.) 

The aerial parts gave 3-nitropropanoyl 

esters of D-glucose. 

Indigofera oblongifolia Forsk. 

Synonym ◮ I. paucifolia Delile. 



of India. 

English ◮ Wild Indigo, Mysore 

Panicled Indigo. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Bana-Nila, Dill, Jhill. 

Unani ◮ Vasmaa. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kattukkarchamathi. 

Folk ◮ Jhil (Gujarat). 

Action ◮ Plant—antisyphilitic. All 

parts of the plant are found useful 

in enlargement of liver and spleen. 

The leaves gave apigenin 7-rhamnoglucoside, 

apigenin 7, 4 ′ -diglucoside, 

kaempferol-3-neohesperidoside and 

rhoifolin, along with protocatechuic, 

p-coumaric, p-hydroxybenzoic, salicylic 

and vanillic acid. 

Indigofera pulchella 

Roxb. in part. 

Synonym ◮ I. cassioides Rottl. ex DC. 

I

328 Indigofera tinctoria Linn. 

I 


Habitat ◮ The hills in India. 


Siddha/Tamil ◮ Nirinji. 

Action ◮ Root—used for cough. 

Powder of the root applied externally 

formuscularpaininchest. 

Leaves and roots—used for swelling 

of the stomach. 

The seeds contain crude protein 27.6, 

pentosans 8.9 and water soluble gum 

12.8%. 

Indigofera tinctoria Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Cultivated in many parts 

of India. 

English ◮ Indigo. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Nilikaa, Nilaa, Nila, 

Nili, Nilini, Nilapushpa, Ranjani, 

Shaaradi, Tutthaa. 

Unani ◮ Habb-ul-Neel. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Nili, Averi, Asidai, 

Attipurashadam. 

Action ◮ Plant—antiseptic, hepatoprotective, 

hypoglycaemic, nervine 

tonic. Used in enlargement of liver 

and spleen, skin diseases, leucoderma, 

burns, ulcers, piles, nervous 

disorders, epilepsy, asthma, lumbago, 

gout. Leaf—anti-inflammatory. 

Used in blennorrhagia. Root— 

diuretic. Used in hepatitis. Root 

and stem—laxative, expectorant, 

febrifuge, anticephalalgic, antitumour, 

anthelmintic, promote 

growth of hair. 


recommends the use of dried whole 

plant in phobia, delusion and disturbed 

mental state. 

Indicine (5–15 mg/g, dry basis) and 

the flavonoids, apigenin, kaempferol, 

luteolin and quercetin are present in 

various plant parts, maximum in the 

leaves and minimum in the roots (however 

quercetin was minimum in leaves). 

The presence of coumarins, cardiac 

glycosides, saponins and tannins is also 

reported. 

Alcoholic extract of the aerial parts 

showed hepatoprotective activity in 

experimental animals against CCl4induced 

hepatic injury. The extract 

increased bile flow and liver weight in 

rats. The alcoholic extract also exhibited 

hypoglycaemic activity in rats. 

The plant is used in the treatment 

of endogenous depression. It contains 

appreciable amounts of conjugated indoxyl 

(indican). The use of indigo and 

its constituents, indirubin and indigotin, 

prevents allergic contact dermatitis. 

The 8 weeks old tissues in culture 

contain maximum histamine content 

(5.0 mg/g dry weight). 

Dosage ◮ Dried leaf—50–100 g for 

decoction; root—48 g for decoction 

(API Vol. II); whole plant—10–20 g 

for decoction. (API Vol. III.) 

Indigofera trifoliata Linn. 

Synonym ◮ I. prostrata Willd. 



of India.

Folk ◮ Vana-methi. 

Action ◮ Astringent, antileucorrhoeic, 

antirheumatic, alterative, 

restorative. 

The seeds contain crude protein 31.5 

pentosan 7.3, water soluble gum 3.0%. 

Inula racemosa Hook. f. 

Synonym ◮ I. royleana auct. non-DC. 


Habitat ◮ Temperate and Alpine 

Himalayas from Chitral to Nepal at 

1,500–4,200 m. 

English ◮ Elecampane. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Pushkaramuula, 

Pushkara, Paushkara, Padmapatra, 

Kaashmira, Kushtha-bheda. 

Action ◮ Antispasmodic, stomachic, 

antihistaminic, expectorant, 

anticatarrhal. Used for asthma, 

chronic bronchitis and pulmonary 

disorders. 

Key application ◮ Inula helenium— 

as expectorant. (The British Herbal 


Roots are used in Kashmir as adulterant 

of Saussurea lappa. 

The root contains a volatile oil, about 

1–4%; major constituents being inulin 

(10.0) and sesquiterpene lactones, 

mainly alantolactone, isoalantolactone 

and their dihydro derivatives. Alantolactone 

and others in the mixture 

known as helenalin (sesquiterpene lactones) 

are toxic constituents of the root. 

Alantolactone is anti-inflammatory 

in animals and has been shown to stim- 

Ionidium suffruticosum Ging. 329 

ulate the immune system. It is also hypotensive 

and anthelmintic in animals; 

antibacterial and antifungal in vitro It 

irritates mucous membranes. It is used 

as an anthelmintic in Europe and UK. 

Plant extract showed potent antispasmodic 

effect against bronchial 

spasm induced by histamine and various 

plant pollens. 

The root, when combined with 

Commiphora mukul gum-resin, acts as 

ahypolipidaemicagent,exhibitsbetablocking 

activity and beneficial effect 

in myocardial ischaemia. 

The roots also exhibit sedative and 

blood pressure lowering activity. 

The European species is equated 

with Inula helenium Linn. 


Vol. IV.) 

Ionidium suffruticosum Ging. 

Synonym ◮ Hybanthus enneaspermus 

(Linn.) F. Muell. 

Family ◮ Violaceae. 

Habitat ◮ The warmer parts of 

India from Delhi to Bengal and 

throughout Deccan Peninsula. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Amburuha. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Orilaithamarai. 

Folk ◮ Ratna-purush. 

Action ◮ Diuretic, antigonorrhoetic 

and demulcent. Root—given 

in urinary infections, for bowel 

complaints of children. 

The plant gave a dipeptide alkaloid, 

aurantiamide acetate and a triterpene, 

iso-arborinol, and beta-sitosterol. 

I

330 Ipomoea aquatica Forsk. 

I 

Ipomoea aquatica Forsk. 

Synonym ◮ I. reptans Poir. 




English ◮ Swamp Cabbage. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Kalambi, Naalikaa. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Vellaikeerai, Koilangu. 

Action ◮ Emetic and purgative. 

Used as an antidote to arsenical 

or opium poisoning. Plant juice is 

used for liver complaints; buds for 

ringworm. 

The leaves are a good source of 

minerals (2.1%), vitamins (especially, 

carotene and tocopherol). Plant is 

given for nervous and general debility. 

Whole plant gave beta-carotene, xanthophyll, 

traces of taraxanthin, hentriacontane, 

beta-sitosterol and its glucoside. 

The buds of pigmented variety are 

recommended as a food for diabetics. 

An insulin-like substance is reported 

from the buds. 

The stems contain N-trans- andNcis-feruloyltyramines, 

which have been 

found to be the inhibitors of in vitro 

prostaglandin synthesis. 

The plant shows abundant growth in 

waste water and absorbs some organic 

and inorganic components, including 

heavy metals from waste water. The 

plant may be useful in the treatment of 

waste water by biogeofiltration. 

Ipomoea batatas (Linn.) Lam. 



cultivated throughout India for 

edible tubers. 

English ◮ Sweet potato. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Mukhaaluka, Rataalu, 

Raktaalu, Raktapindaka, Raktakanda. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Sakkareivelleikulangu. 

Unani ◮ Shakarkand, Rataalu. 

Action ◮ Root—used in strangury, 

urinary discharges, burning sensation, 

thirst. Whole plant—used in 

low fever and skin diseases. 

Cooked tubers contain reducing 

sugars 6.45, sucrose 2.23, maltose 8– 

64, dextrins 0.51 and polysaccharides 

14–13%. Cooking increases the sweetness 

as a result of the hydrolysis of 

starch to maltose and dextrins through 

the action of beta-amylase. 

Sweet potatoes are rich in starch 

content. During the storage a part of 

starch content is converted into reducing 

sugars and subsequently into sucrose. 

In a sample stored for 5 months, 

the starch content was reduced from 

19.1% to 14.1% while the percentage of 

reducing sugars (as dextrose) and sucrose 

increased from 0.9 to 1.7 and 1.9 

to 6.1% respectively. 

Indian types with white flesh contain 

little or no carotene, while American 

typeswithpinkfleshcontainashighas 

5.4–7.2 mg/100 g of carotene. Vitamins 

present in the tubers are : thiamine 

0.09–0.14, riboflavin 0.05–0.10 and vitamin 

C 16–22 mg/100 g. 

The hot aqueous extract of leaves exhibits 

significant inhibitory activity of 

rat lens aldose reductase (AR). Ellagic

and 3,5-dicaffoylquinic acids have been 

isolated as potent inhibitors. 

The leaves also contain polysaccharides 

which increase the platelet count 

in experimental animals due to enhanced 

production of thrombopoietin. 

From the stem and root, hexadecyl, 

octadecyl and eicosyl p-coumarates 

have been isolated. 

The tubers show significant lectin 

activity and exhibit haemagglutinating 

activity in trypsinized rabbit erythrocytes. 

Ipomoea bona-nox Linn. 

Synonym ◮ I. alba Linn. 

Calonyction bona-nox Bojer. 

C. aculeatum (Linn.) House. 



English ◮ Moon Flower. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Chandrakaanti, Gulchaandani, 

Dudhiaa Kalami. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Naganamukkori. 

Folk ◮ Chaandani, Dudhiaa Kalami. 

Action ◮ Root bark—purgative. 

Leaves—used in filariasis. 

The plant contains pentasaccharide 

glucoside of ethyl-11-hydroxy hexadecanoate. 

The seeds contain alkaloids, 

ipomine, isoipomine, methoxyipomine, 

dimethoxyipomine, ipalkidinium, 

ipalbidine and ipalbine. 

Ipomoea digitata Linn. 

Synonym ◮ I. paniculata R. Br. Burm. 

I. mauritiana Jacq. 

Ipomoea eriocarpa R. Br. 331 


Habitat ◮ Tropical India in moist 

regions. 

English ◮ Milky Yam. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Kshira-vidaari, Kshirvalli, 

Payasvini, Swaadukandaa, 

Ikshukandaa, Gajavaajipriyaa, Kandapalaasha, 

Bhuumikuushmaanda. 

Siddha ◮ Paalmudukkan kizhangu. 

Folk ◮ Bilaaikanda. Bhuin Kakhaaru 

(Orissa). 

Action ◮ Cholagogue, galactagogue, 

alterative, demulcent, purgative. 

Resin from root—uses similar to 

Jalap. Flour of raw rhizome is given 

in enlargement of liver and spleen, 

also for menorrhagia, debility and 

fat accumulation. 

Rhizomes gave taraxerol acetate and 

beta-sitosterol. Fresh leaves contain 

6.3 mg/100 g of carotene. 

Vidaari is equated with Pueraria 

tuberosa DC. (Fabaceae). Dry pieces 

of Dioscorea pentaphylla Linn. are sold 

as Vidaari Kanda. 


(CCRAS.) 

Ipomoea eriocarpa R. Br. 

Synonym ◮ I. hispida Roem. & 

Schult. 

I. sessiliflora Roth. 



Ayurvedic ◮ Aakhukarni (related 

species), Sheetavalli (provisional 

synonym). 

I

332 Ipomoea hederacea (L.) Jacq. 

I 

Folk ◮ Nikhari, Bhanwar (Punjab). 

Action ◮ Antirheumatic, anticephalalgic, 

antiepileptic and antileprotic. 

The plant is boiled in oil and used as 

an application for rheumatism, headache, 

epilepsy, fevers, ulcers, leprosy. 

The seeds are reported to contain a resin 

similar to that present in the seeds of 

Ipomoea nil. 

Ipomoea hederacea (L.) Jacq. 

Synonym ◮ Convolvulus hederacus 

Linn. 


Habitat ◮ North American species. 

Not found wild in India. Grown in 


Folk ◮ Krishna-bija, Kaalaadaanaa. 

Kakkattan (Tamil Nadu). Jirki 

(Andhra Pradesh). 

Action ◮ Seed—purgative. Used as 

a substitute for Jalap (Exogonium 

purga). 

The seed gave alkaloids—lysergol, 

chanoclavine, penniclavine, iso-penniclavine 

and elymoclavine. 

Ipomoea marginata 

(Desr.) Verdc. 



plains, especially on the bank of 

stream and rivers. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Lakshmanaa (Also 

equated with Ipomoea obscura 

(Linn.) Ker-Gawler.), Putradaa, 

Putrajanani. 

Folk ◮ Tirutaalli (Kerala). 

Action ◮ Used as a single drug for 

curing sterility in women, and for 

promoting fertility and virility. 

The seeds of Ipomoea obscura contain 

non-ergolin type indole alkaloids, 

ipobscurine A and B and serotonin also 

alkaloid ipobscurine C. 

Ipomoea muricata 

(Linn.) Jacq., non-Cav. 

Synonym ◮ I. turbinata Lag. 

Convolvulus muricatus Linn. 


Habitat ◮ The Himalayas, West 

Bengal,Bihar,Orissa,Maharashtra 


English ◮ Traveller’s Midnight Lilies. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Krishnabija (related 

species). (Sold as Kaalaadaanaa, 

seeds of Ipomoea nil.) 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kattu Talai. 

Folk ◮ Michaai. 

Action ◮ Purgative, febrifuge. 

Seeds—cardiac depressant, spasmolytic, 

hypotensive, antibacterial, 

antifungal. Plant juice destroys 

bedbugs. 

The seeds contain resin glycosides 

which are laxative. Lysergol is also 

present in the seeds. It exhibits hypotensive, 

psychotropic, analgesic, and 

uterus and intestine-stimulating properties. 

The presence of indole alkaloids 

is reported in the seed.

Ipomoea nil (Linn.) Roth 

Synonym ◮ I. hederacea auct., non- 

Jacq. 

Convolvulus bilobatus Roxb. 

Convolvulus nil Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Throughout India; also 

occurs as a weed. 

English ◮ Pharbitis seeds. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Antah-kotarpushpi, 

Kaalaanjani (provisional synonym), 

Krishnabija, Kaalaadaanaa, 

Shyaamabija, Shankhani, Jhaaramaaricha. 

Unani ◮ Kaalaadaanaa. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kaakkattan. 

Action ◮ Purgative and bloodpurifier. 

A substitute for Jalap. 

Seeds—antifungal. 

The seeds from Pakistan contain alkaloids—lysergol, 

chanoclavine, penniclavine, 

isopenniclavine and elymoclavine. 

Alsocontain14.2%resinand 

glucosides. 

Commercial samples of the drug 

contain 14–15% of crude resinous matter. 

Research has shown that glycosidal 

part of the resin is inert; the nonglycosidal 

resin (2% of the drug) causes 

copious purgation in doses of 250 mg. 

Besides the resinous matter, the seeds 

contain a fixed oil (12.4%) and small 

amounts of saponin, mucilage and tannin. 

The flowers of the plant contains anthocyanin 

pigments. 

The plant extract exhibited hypoglycaemic 


Ipomoea pes-caprae (Linn.) Sweet. 333 


(CCRAS.) 

Ipomoea pes-caprae 

(Linn.) Sweet. 

Synonym ◮ I. biloba Forsk. 


Habitat ◮ Near sea, especially on the 

West Coast. 

English ◮ Goat’s Foot Creeper. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Chhagalaantri, Maryaada-valli. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Adambu, Attukkal, 

Musattalai. 

Action ◮ Astringent, stomachic, 

laxative, antidiarrhoeal, antiemetic, 

analgesic. Leaf—diuretic, antiinflammatory. 

Used in colic, 

prolapsus ani; externally in rheumatism. 

Essential oil of leaves— 

antagonistic to histamine. Leaf 

extract is used for different types 

of inflammations including injuries 

caused by poisonous jelly-fish. 

Clinical trials have proved that an 

extract (IPA) inhibited the action of 

jelly-fish toxins. Its topical application 

inhibited carrageenan-induced paw 

and ear oedema induced by arachidonic 

acid or ethyl phenylpropionate 

in rats. The crude extract of leaves also 

show inhibitory effect on prostaglandin 

synthesis in vitro. 

Crude extract (IPA) of the leaves has 

also been shown to antagonize smooth 

muscle contraction induced by several 

agonists via non-specific mechanism. 

Antispasmodic isoprenoids, 

I

334 Ipomoea petaloidea Choisy. 

I 

beta-damascenone and E-phytol have 

been isolated from the extract. The antispasmodic 

activity was found to be in 

the same range as that of papaverine. 

The alcoholic extract of leaves 

showed insulinogenic and hypoglycaemic 

activities in rats, comparable 

to the hypoglycaemic drug chlorpropamide. 

The leaves and seeds contain indole 

alkaloid. Plant also contains a steroid, 

an amide, pentatriacontane, triacontane, 

volatile oil and behenic, melissic, 

butyric and myristic acids. 

Ipomoea petaloidea Choisy. 

Synonym ◮ Operculina petaloidea 

Choisy. 



ascending to 300 m. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Shyaamaa, Chhaagalaantri, 

Vriddhadaaraka, Vriddhadaaru. 

Argyreia nervosa 

(Burm. f.) Boj., synonym A. 

spiciosa Sweet, Convolvulaceae, is 

equated with Vriddhadaaru and 

Vriddhadaaruka, while Ipomoea 

petaloidea and I. pes-caprae are 

also known by identical synonyms. 

Operculina turpethum, synonym I. 

turpethum is used as a substitute for 

I. petaloidea. 

Unani ◮ Shaaraf. 

Siddha ◮ Nilapoosani. 

Folk ◮ Bidhaaraa, Nishoth (black 

var.) 

Action ◮ Purgative. Used as 

a supporting herb for diseases of 

the nervous system. 

Dosage ◮ Leaf, root—3–6 g powder; 

leaf juice—5–10 ml. (CCRAS.) 

Ipomoea purga Hayne. 

Synonym ◮ 

Deppe. 

I. jalapa Scheide and 

Exogonium purga (Hayne) Benth. 


Habitat ◮ Cultivated in the Nilgiris 

and Poona. 

English ◮ Jalap. 

Folk ◮ Jalaapaa. 

Action ◮ Strong cathartic and 

purgative. Usually used with 

carminatives. 

Resin from dried root (commercial 

jalap) contains beta-D-quinovoside of 

11-OH-tetradecanoic acid. The glycosidal 

resin is known as “convolvulin”. 

Ipomoea purpurea (Linn.) Roth. 


Habitat ◮ Native of tropical America; 

found throughout greater part of 

India,growningardens. 

English ◮ Tall Morning-Glory. 

Folk ◮ Karakatiyaa (seeds). 

Action ◮ Purgative. Seed extract— 


The stemcontains asoft resin (4.8%), 

essential oil (0.08%) and tannin. The

esin is the active principle, it contains 

ipuranol, which is identical with 

sitosterol glucoside, ipurolic acid, dmethyl 

acetic acid, hydroxylauric acid 

and glucose. 

Ipomoea quamoclit Linn. 

Synonym ◮ Quamoclit pinnata Bojer. 




English ◮ Cypress Vine, Indian Pink. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Kaamalataa. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kembumalligai, 

Mayirmanikkam. 

Folk ◮ Sitaakesh. 

Action ◮ Powdered root is given as 

asternutatory.Poundedleavesare 

applied to bleeding piles. 

The leaves and stems are reported 

to contain small amounts of alkaloids. 

Traces of hydrocyanic acid are present 

also in roots, stems and flowers. 

Ipomoea reniformis Choisy. 

Synonym ◮ Merremia emarginata 

(Burm. f.) Hallier f. 

M. gangetica (L.) Cufod. 


Habitat ◮ In damp places in upper 

Gangetic plains; Bihar, Bengal, 


Ayurvedic ◮ Aakhuparni, Aakhuparnika, 

Muusaakarni, Aakhukarni. 

Undurukarnikaa. (Also equated 

with Dravanti.) 

Ipomoea vitifolia Blume. 335 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Yelikkaadhukeerai, 

Perettaikkirai. 

Action ◮ Deobstruent, diuretic, 

alterative. Used for rheumatic 

affections, neuralgia, headache, skin 

diseases and urinary affections. 

Evolvulus nummularis Linn. (Convolvulaceae) 

is also known as Muusaakarni 

(Muusaakaani) and is used for 

cutaneous affections. 

Ipomoea sepiaria Koen. ex Roxb. 

Synonym ◮ I. maxima (Linn. f.) G. 

Don. 



India. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Banakalami, Hanumaan- 

Vel, Manjika. (Also equated with 

Lakshmanaa.) 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Thaalikeerai (Lakshmanaa 

of the South). 

Action ◮ Juice of the plant—deobstruent, 

diuretic, hypotensive, 

uterine tonic, antidote to arsenic 

poisoning. Seeds—cardiac depressant, 

hypotensive, spasmolytic. 

Ipomoea vitifolia Blume. 

Synonym ◮ Merremia vitifolia 

(Burm. f.) Hallier. 

Convululus vitifolius Burm. f. 



of India, except the north-western 

arid region. 

I

336 Iris ensata Thunb. 

I 

Folk ◮ Nauli, Nawal (Maharashtra). 

Action ◮ Diuretic. Used in strangury, 

urethral discharges. 

Iris ensata Thunb. 


Habitat ◮ Temperate Northwestern 

Himalaya at 1,500–2,700 m. and 

from Kashmir to Himachal Pradesh. 

Oftengrowningardens. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Paarseeka Vachaa, 

Haimavati, Shveta Vachaa, Baalbach. 

Unani ◮ Irsaa, Sosan, Iris. 

Folk ◮ Marjal, Unarjal (Kashmir). 

Action ◮ Used in diseases of the liver. 

Aerial parts contain xanthone glycosides; 

C-glycoside of apigenin and 

phenolic acids. Roots contain ceryl alcohol. 

Natural irones, the main constituent 

of Orris oil, are obtained from different 

species of Iris. The laccases, obtained 

from Iris species and other plants are 

used in hair cosmetic preparations, as 

an oxidizing agent in oxidative hair 

dyes and permanent hair wave-setting 

compositions. The root extracts of Iris 

species are used in cosmetic preparations 

for the prevention of skin roughness 

and ageing. 

Iris germanica Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Native of Italy and 

Morocco; cultivated in Kashmir, 

also found run wild on graves. 

English ◮ Orris, Iridis Rhizome, 

German Iris. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Paarseeka Vachaa, 

Haimavati, Shveta Vachaa (also 

considered as Pushkarmuula), 

Baal-bach. 

Action ◮ Demulcent, antidiarrhoeal, 

expectorant. Extract of the leaf is 

used for the treatment of frozen 

feet. 

Key application ◮ In irritable bowel, 

summer diarrhoea in children, in 

stubborn cases of respiratory congestion. 

(Folk medicine.) (Claims 

negatively evaluated by German 

Commission E: “blood-purifying,” 

“stomach-strengthening” and 

“gland-stimulating.”) 

The rhizomes gave triterpenes, betasitosterol, 

alpha-and beta-amyrin and 

isoflavonoids; an essential oil, about 

0.1–2%, known as “Orris butter,” consisting 

of about 85% myristic acid, 

with irone, ionone, methyl myristate. 

Isoflavonoids include irisolidone, 

irigenin and iridin. In volatile oil, 

chief constituents are cis-alpha and 

cis-gamma-irones. Triterpenes include 

iridal and irigermanal. Rhizomes also 

gave xanthones C. glucosylxanthones 

(Orris root is the root of Iris germanica. 

In homoeopathy, Iris versicolor is 

used.) 

Related species ◮ I. florentina Linn.; 

I. pallida Lam. 

Iris kemaonensis Wall. 

Family ◮ Iridaceae.


Garhwal to Arunachal Pradesh at 

2,400–3,600 m. 

Folk ◮ Karkar, Tezma (Punjab). 

Action ◮ Diuretic, spasmolytic, 

febrifuge; antidote for opium 

addiction. 

The rhizomes contain isoflavones— 

iridin, iriskumaonin and its methyl 

ether, irisflorentin, junipegenin A and 

irigenin. 

Iris nepalensis D. Don. 


Habitat ◮ Temperate Himalaya and 

in Khasi Hills. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Paarseeka Vachaa. 

Folk ◮ Sosan, Shoti, Chalnundar, 

Chiluchi. 

Action ◮ Deobstruent (in bilious 

obstructions), diuretic, cathartic. 

Used in diseases of the liver. 

The plant contains an isoflavone, 

irisolidone. Rhizomes contain irisolone 

and irigenin. 

Iris pseudacorus Linn. 


Habitat ◮ On river banks, by the 

side of lakes, ponds. Native to Great 

Britain. 

English ◮ Yellow Flag. 

Folk ◮ Paashaanabheda (Gujarat). 

Isatis tinctoria Linn. 337 

Action ◮ Cathartic and acrid. Used 

in dysmenorrhoea and leucorrhoea. 

Juice of the root—used for obstinate 

coughs and convulsions. 

Rhizomes contain a glycoside, irisin, 

iridin or irisine, reportedly present, 

with myristic acid. 

Iris versicolour Linn. 


Habitat ◮ In swamps. Native to 

America and Canada. 

English ◮ Blue Flag Root, Liver Lily. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Haimavati Vachaa. 

Action ◮ Anti-inflammatory, astringent, 

cholagogue, laxative, diuretic, 

antiemetic, blood and lymph purifier, 

alterative for sluggish conditions 

of liver, gallbladder and glandular 

system. 

Key application ◮ As laxative. (The 


The rhizomes contain a volatile oil; 

a glycoside, iridin; acids including salicylic 

and isophthalic; a monocyclic C31 

triterpenoid; sterols, gum, resin. Irisin 

is the toxic constituent of the resin. It 

irritates the mucous membrane, liver 

and pancreas. 

The drug is contraindicated in pregnancy. 

The root powder is toxic at 2 g 

andfluidextractat3.7ml. 

Isatis tinctoria Linn. 

Family ◮ Crucifere; Brassicaceae. 

I

338 Ixora coccinea Linn. 

I 

Habitat ◮ Native to Afghanistan and 

Western Tibet. Now cultivated as 

an ornamental. 

English ◮ Dyer’s Woad. 

Action ◮ Plant—used in the form of 

an ointment for ulcers, oedematous 

and malignant tumours. Leaves— 

antimicrobial, antifungal. 

The aerial parts yield tryptanthrin, 

indole-3-acetonitrile and p-coumaric 

acid methylester. 

The roots contain anti-blood platelet 

aggregation constituents, uridine, hypoxanthine, 

uracil and salicylic acid together 

with indigo, palmitic acid and 


In China, tablets made from the 

leaves and roots of Isatis tinctoria and 

Artemisia scoparia have been found 

to be effective in treating hepatitis B 

patients. 

Ixora coccinea Linn. 


Habitat ◮ South-western Peninsular 

India. Cultivated throughout India. 

English ◮ Jungleflame Ixora. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Bandhuka, Paaranti. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Vetchi, Thechii. 

Folk ◮ Rukmini, Rangan. 

Action ◮ Herb—astringent, antiseptic, 

blood-purifier, sedative, 

antileucorrhoeic, antidiarrhoeal, 

anti-catarrhal. Used in dysmenorrhoea, 

haemoptysis, bronchitis. 

Root—astringent, antiseptic (used 

against scabies and other skin 

diseases). Flowers—prescribed in 

dysentery and dysmenorrhoea. 

The saponifiable fraction of the petroleum 

ether extract of roots exhibited 


paw oedema in albino 

rats. 

The leaves contain a triterpenoid, lupeol, 

which shows anti-inflammatory 

activity. The crude alcoholic extract 

and the ethyl acetate fraction exhibited 

antigenic activity. 

The flowers contain an essential oil 

(0.5%) which possesses antimicrobial 

activity. Flower contain leucocyanidin 

glycoside. 

The plant substrate removes heavy 

metals, such as lead, cadmium and 

mercury from polluted water. 

Ixora pavetta Andr. 

Synonym ◮ I. Parviflora Vahl. 


Habitat ◮ West Bengal, Bihar, 

Western Central and South India. 

English ◮ Torchwood Tree. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Nevaari, Nevaali, 

Ishwara, Rangan. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Shulundu-kora, 

Korivi. 

Action ◮ Flowers—pounded 

with milk, for whooping cough. 

Bark—a decoction for anaemia 

and general debility. Fruit and 

root—given to females when 

urine is highly coloured. The 

leaves contain ixoral and betasitosterol. 

Leaves and flowers gave

flavonoids—rutin and kaempferol- 

3-rutinoside; stems gave a flavone 

glycoside, chrysin 5-O-beta-Dxylopyranoside. 

The aerial parts 

contain 6,7-dimethoxycoumarin. 

The seed oil gave capric, lauric, 

myristic, palmitic, stearic, arachidic, 

behenic, oleic and linoleic acids. 

Ixora javanica (Blume) DC. 


Ixora javanica (Blume) DC. 339 

Habitat ◮ Gardens of Kerala and 

West Bengal. 

Action ◮ Leaves, flowers—cytotoxic, 

antitumour. 

The ethanolic, extract of leaves 

showed cytotoxic activity against Dalton’s 

lymphoma, Ehrlich ascites carcinoma 

and Sarcoma 180 tumour cells 

in vitro. The flowers have been found 

to contain antitumour principles, active 

against experimentally induced 

tumour models. 

I

Jacaranda acutifolia 

auct. non-Humb. & Bonpl. 

Synonym ◮ J. mimosifolia D. Don 

J. ovalifolia R. Br. 


Habitat ◮ Cultivated in Indian 

gardens. 

Folk ◮ Nili-gulmohar. 

Action ◮ Leaves’ volatile oil—applied 

to buboes. Leaves and bark of 

the plant—used for syphilis and 

blennorrhagia. An infusion of the 

bark is employed as a lotion for 

ulcers. 

The leaves contain jacaranone, verbascoside 

and phenylacetic-beta-glucoside 

along with a glucose ester, jacaranose. 

Flavonoid scutellarein and 

its 7-glucuronide, and hydroquinones 

were also isolated. Fruits contain betasitosterol, 

ursolic acid and hentriacontane; 

stem bark gave lupenone and 


The flowers contain an anthocyanin. 

In Pakistan, the flowers are sold as a 

substitute for the Unani herb Gul-e- 

Gaozabaan. 

The lyophylized aqueous extract of 

the stem showed a high and broad 

antimicrobial activity against human 

urinary tract bacteria, especially Pseudomonas 

sp. 

The fatty acid, jacarandic acid, isolated 

from the seed oil, was found to 

be a strong inhibitor of prostaglandin 

biosynthesis in sheep. 

J 

J. rhombifolia G. F. W. May., syn. 

J. filicifolia D. Don is grown in Indian 

gardens. Extracts of the plant show 

insecticidal properties. 

Several species of Jacaranda are used 

for syphilis in Brazil and other parts 

of South America under the names 

carobin, carabinha etc. A crystalline 

substance, carobin, besides resins, 

acids and caroba balsam, has been 

isolated from them. 

Jasminum angustifolium Vahl. 


Habitat ◮ South India. 

English ◮ Wild Jasmine. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Bana-mallikaa, Vanamalli, 

Kaanan-mallikaa, Aasphotaa. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kaatumalli. 

Action ◮ Root—used in ringworm. 

Leaves—juice is given as an emetic 

in cases of poisoning. 

Fresh flowers gave indole. 

Jasminum arborescens Roxb. 

Synonym ◮ J. roxburghianum Wall. 

Habitat ◮ Sub-Himalayan tract, 

Bengal, Central and South India. 

English ◮ Tree Jasmine. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Nava-mallikaa. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Nagamalli.

342 Jasminum auriculatum Vahl. 

J 

Folk ◮ Chameli (var.), Maalati (var.). 

Action ◮ Leaves—astringent and 

stomachic. Juice of the leaves, with 

pepper, garlic and other stimulants, 

is used as an emetic in obstruction 

of the bronchial tubes due to viscid 

phlegm. 

Jasminum auriculatum Vahl. 



India, especially in Uttar Pradesh 

and Tamil Nadu. In Uttar Pradesh, 

cultivated on commercial scale in 

Ghazipur, Jaunpur, Farrukhabad 

and Kannauj for its fragrant flowers 

which yield an essential oil. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Yuuthikaa, Yuuthi, 

Mugdhee. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Usimalligai. 

Folk ◮ Juuhi. 

Action ◮ See Jasminum humile. 

The leaves gave lupeol, its epimer, 

hentriacontane and n-tricantanol, 

a triterpenoid, jasminol; d-mannitol; 

volatile constituent, jasmone. The pin 

type pointed flower buds (long styled) 

on solvent extraction yielded higher 

concrete content rich in indole and 

methyl anthranilate, whereas thrum 

type (short styled) buds yield higher 

absolute with benzyl acetate as the 

prominent constituent. 

Jasminum flexile Vahl. 

Synonym ◮ J. azoricum Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Assam, Mizoram, 

Meghalaya and Western Ghats. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Maalati (var.). 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Ramabanam mullai. 

Folk ◮ Chameli (var.). 

Action ◮ See Jasminum officinale. 

Jasminum heterophyllum 

Roxb. non-Moench. 


Habitat ◮ Nepal, North Bengal, 

Assam hills, Khasi hills and 

Manipur. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Svarna-yuuthikaa (var.). 

Folk ◮ Juuhi (yellow var.). 

Action ◮ See Jasminum humile. 

Jasminum humile Linn. 

Synonym ◮ J. humile auct. non L. 

J. bignoniaceum Wall ex G. Don. 


Habitat ◮ Sub-tropical Himalayas 

from Kashmir to Nepal and in the 

Nilgiris, Palni Hills, Western Ghats 

and Kerala. 

English ◮ Yellow Jasmine, Nepal 

Jasmine, Italian Jasmine. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Svarna-yuuthikaa, 

Svarnajaati, Hemapushpikaa, 

Vaasanti. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Semmalligai. 

Folk ◮ Juuhi (yellow var.).

Action ◮ Flower—astringent, cardiac 

tonic. Root—used in ringworm. 

The milky juice, exuded from 

incisions in the bark, is used for 

treating chronic fistulas. The plant 

is also used for treating hard lumps. 

The leaves gave alpha-amyrin, betulin, 

friedelin, lupeol, betulinic, oleanolic 

and ursolic acids; beta-sitosterol, 

10-cinnamoyloxyoleoside-7-methylester 

(jasminoside) and a secoiridoid 

glycoside. 

Jasminum malabaricum Wight. 


Habitat ◮ Deccan, West Coast, 

Western Ghats and in the Nilgiris. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Mudgara. 

Folk ◮ Mogaraa (var.), Ran-mogaraa. 

Action ◮ See Jasminum sambac. 

Jasminum multiflorum 

(Burm. f.) Andr. 

Synonym ◮ J. pubescens Willd. 

J. hirsutum Willd. 

J. bracteatum Roxb. 



in moist forests of Western Ghats. 

English ◮ Downy Jasmine. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Kunda, Kasturi Mogaraa. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Magarandam, Malli. 

Folk ◮ Kasturi Mogaraa. 

Action ◮ Diuretic, emetic. Boiled 

bark—applied on burns. 

Jasminum officinale Linn. var. grandiflorum (L.) Kobuski. 343 

Ethanolic extract of fresh leaves 

and flowers contain the secoiridoid 

lactones, jasmolactone A, B, C and 

D; and secoiridoid glycosides. Jasmolactone 

B and D and the secoiridoid 

glycosides (multifloroside and 

10-hydroxyoleuropein) exhibited vasodilatory 

and cardiotropic activities. 

Jasminum officinale Linn. var. 

grandiflorum (L.) Kobuski. 

Synonym ◮ J. grandiflorum Linn. 


Habitat ◮ North-Western Himalayas 

and Persia; cultivated in Kumaon, 

Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Madhya 

Pradesh; in gardens throughout 

India. 

English ◮ Spanish Jasmine. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Jaati, Jaatikaa, Jaatimalli, 

Pravaaljaati, Saumanasyaayani, 

Sumanaa, Chetikaa, Hriddgandhaa, 

Maalati, Chameli. 

Unani ◮ Yaasmin. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Manmadabanam, 

Mullai, Padar-malligai, Pichi, Malli 

Folk ◮ Chameli. 

Action ◮ Flowers—calming and 

sedative, CNS depressant, astringent 

and mild anaesthetic. A syrup 

prepared from the flowers is 

used for coughs, hoarsenesses 

and other disorders of the chest. 

Plant—diuretic, anthelmintic, 

emmenagogue; used for healing 

chronic ulcers and skin diseases. 

Oil—externally relaxing. 

J

344 Jasminum rottlerianum Wall. ex DC. 

J 

Indian oil sample gave benzyl acetate 

26.3, benzyl benzoate 19.2, phytol 

10.6, jasmone 8.5, methyl jasmonate 

6.3, linalool 5.4, geranyl linalool 3.5, 

eugenol 2.9, isophytyl acetate 2.7, and 

isophytol 2.4%. 

The leaves gave ascorbic acid, anthranilic 

acid and its glucoside, indole 

oxygenase, alkaloid jasminine and salicylic 

acid. 

The flowers contain pyridine and 

nicotinate derivatives; tested positive 

for indole. 

The flowers and leaf juice is used for 

treating tumours. 

Dosage ◮ Dried leaves—10–20 g 

powder for decoction (API, Vol. 

III.); Juice—10–20 ml. (CCRAS.). 

Jasminum rottlerianum 

Wall. ex DC. 


Habitat ◮ Western Peninsula, from 

Konkan southwards to Kerala. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Vana-mallikaa. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Erumaimullai, 

Kattumalligei, Uyyakondan. 

Action ◮ Leaf—used in eczema. 

Jasminum sambac (Linn.) Ait. 



India, especially in Uttar Pradesh, 

on a large scale in Jaunpur, Kannauj, 

Ghazipur and Farrukhabad for its 

fragrant flowers. 

English ◮ Arabian Jasmine, Tuscan 

Jasmine, Double Jasmine. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Mallikaa, Madayanti, 

Madyantikaa, Nava-Mallikaa, 

Shita-bhiru, Vaarshiki. 

Unani ◮ Mograa. 

Siddha ◮ Malligai. 

Folk ◮ Belaa, Motiaabelaa; Mogaraa 


Action ◮ Root—emmenagogue, 

blood purifier. Flowers—lactifuge. 

Alcoholic extract—hypotensive. 

Leaves—antibacterial; used against 

indolent and breast tumours. 

The leaves contain the secoiridoid 

glycosides, jasminin, quercitrin, isoquercitrin, 

rutin, quercitrin-3-dirhamnoglycoside,kaempferol-3-rhamnoglycoside, 

mannitol, alpha-amyrin, 

beta-sitosterol and an iridoid glycoside, 

sambacin. The absolute contains 

several pyridine and nicotinate derivatives. 

Dosage ◮ Decoction—50–100 ml. 

(CCRAS.) 

Jateorhiza palmata Miers. 

Synonym ◮ J. calumba Miers. 


Habitat ◮ Indigenous to south-east 

tropical Africa. Imported into 

India. 

English ◮ Calumba, Colombo. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Kalambaka. (Coscinium 

fenestratum Colebr., known as False 

calumba, is used as a substitute for 

J. palmata.)

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kolumbu. 

Action ◮ Root—bitter tonic without 

astringency, carminative, gastric 

tonic, antiflatulent, hyptotensive, 

orexigenic, uterine stimulant, 

sedative. Used in anorexia, 

poor digestion, hypochlorhydria, 

amoebic dysentery and menstrual 

disorders. Antifungal. 

Key application ◮ As appetite 

stimulant. (The British Herbal 


The root gave isoquinoline alkaloids 

2–3%; palmatine, jaterorrhizine and its 

dimer bis-jateorrhizine, columbamine; 

bitters (including chasmanthin and 

palmanin). Volatile oil contains thymol. 

The alkaloid jateorrhizine is sedative, 

hypotensive. Palmatine is a uterine 

stimulant. 

As calumba contains very little volatile 

oil and no tannins, it is free from astringency 

which is common with other 

bitter herbs. 

The root alkaloids exhibit narcotic 

properties and side effects similar 

to morphine. It is no longer used 

(in Western herbal) as a digestive aid, 

and is rarely used as an antidiarrhoeal 

agent. (Natural Medicines Comprehensive 


Jatropha curcas Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Native to tropical 

America. Now cultivated along 

with Cromandel Coast and in 

Travancore. 

Jatropha glandulifera Roxb. 345 

English ◮ Physic Nut, Purging Nut. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Vyaaghrairanda (var.), 

Sthula-eranda, Kaanan-eranda. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kattu Amanaku. 

Folk ◮ Bagharenda (var.). 

Action ◮ Seed—highly toxic. Nut— 

purgative. Plant—used for scabies, 

ringworm, eczema, whitlow, warts, 

syphilis. Stem bark—applied to 

wounds of animal bites; root bark 

to sores. 

The protein of the seed contains the 

toxic albumin curcin (protein 18.0%, 

curcin 0.005%). 

Seed and seed oil—more drastic 

purgative than castor seed oil and 

milder than Croton tiglium oil. 

An aqueous (10%) infusion of leaves 

increased cardiac contraction is small 

doses. EtOH (50%) extract of aerial 

parts—diuretic and CNS depressant. 

The seed contain phorbol derivatives. 

The plant also contains curcosones 

and lathyrane diterpenes. 

Jatropha glandulifera Roxb. 


Habitat ◮ South India and Bengal. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Vyaaghrairanda. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Adalai, Eliyamanakku. 

Folk ◮ Bagharenda, Jangali-erandi. 

Action ◮ Root and oil from seed— 

purgative. Oil—antirheumatic, 

antiparalytic. Used externally on 

ringworm and chronic ulcers. 

Root—used for glandular swellings. 

J

346 Jatropha gossypifolia Linn. 

J 

Latex—applied to warts and 

tumours. 

The plant contain alkannins (isohexenylnaphthazarins). 

The presence 

of alkannins in this plant (a member of 

Euphorbiaceae) shouldbeconsidered 

as an exception. 

The root gave jatropholone A, fraxetin 

and a coumarinolignan. 

Dosage ◮ Seed—50–100 mg powder. 

(CCRAS.) 

Jatropha gossypifolia Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Native to Brazil; cultivated 


English ◮ Tua-Tua. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Rakta-Vyaaghrairanda. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Stalai. 

Folk ◮ Laal Bagharenda. 

Action ◮ Leaf and seed—purgative. 

Leaf—antidermatosis. Bark— 

emmenagogue. Seed—emetic. 

Seed fatty oil—used in paralytic 

affections, also in skin diseases. 

The leaves contain triterpenes, a trihydroxy 

ketone and corresponding 

diosphenol. The root contains the 

diterpenes, jatropholone A and jatrophatrione. 

A tumour-inhibitor macrocyclic 

diterpene, jatrophone, has 

been isolated from roots. 

The seeds contain phorbol derivatives, 

jatropholones A and B, hydroxyjatrophone 

and hydroxyisojatrophone. 

Hotwaterextractoftheplantexhibits 

antimalarial activity against Plasmodium 

falciparum. 

Jatropha multifida Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Native to South America. 

Naturalized in various parts of 

India. 

English ◮ Coral plant, Physic Nut. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Brihat-Danti (bigger 

var. of Danti, also equated with 

Baliospermum montanum). 

Folk ◮ Danti (var.). 

Action ◮ Seeds—purgative, emetic. 

Fruits—poisonous. Leaves—used 

for scabies. Latex—applied to 

wounds and ulcers. 

The latex from the plant showed antibacterial 

activity against Staphylococcus 

aureus. It contains immunologically 

active acylphloroglucinols, multifidol, 

phloroglucinol and multifidol 

beta-D-glucopyranoside. The latex also 

contains an immunologically active, 

cyclic decapeptide, labaditin. 

J. panduraefolia Andr. (native to 

America), widely grown in Indian gardens, 

is known as Fiddle-leaved Jatropha. 

The latex from the plant shows 

fungitoxic activity against ringworm 

fungus, Microsporum gypseum. 

Juglans regia Linn. 

Family ◮ Juglandaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Native to Iran; now 

cultivated in Kashmir, Himachal 

Pradesh., Khasi Hills and the hills 

of Uttar Pradesh. 

English ◮ Walnut tree.

Ayurvedic ◮ Akshoda, Akshodaka, 

Akshota, Shailbhava, Pilu, 

Karparaal, Vrantphala. 

Unani ◮ Akhrot. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Akrottu. 

Action ◮ Leaves and bark— 

alterative, laxative, antiseptic, mild 

hypoglycaemic, anti-inflammatory, 

antiscrofula, detergent. An infusion 

of leaves and bark is used for 

herpes, eczema and other cutaneous 

affections; externally to skin 

eruptions and ulcers. Volatile oil— 

antifungal, antimicrobial. 

Key application (leaf) ◮ In mild, 

superficial inflammation of the skin 

and excessive perspiration of hands 

and feet. (German Commission E.). 

When English Walnuts (Juglans 

regia) are added to low fat diet, total 

cholesterol may be decreased by 4– 

12% and LDL by 8–16%. (Natural 


2007.) 

Walnut hull preparations are used 

for skin diseases and abscesses. 

Walnut is eaten as a dry fruit. Because 

of its resemblance to the brain, 

it was thought, according to the “doctrine 

of signatures”, to be a good brain 

tonic. Walnuts are also eaten to lower 

the cholesterol levels. 

From the volatile oil of the leaves 

terpenoid substances (monoterpenes, 

sesquiterpenes, diterpene and triterpene 

derivatives) and eugenol have 

been isolated. Fatty acids, including 

geranic acid; alpha-and beta-pinene, 

1,8,cincole, limonene, beta-eudesmol 

and juglone are also important constituents 

of the volatile oil. 

Juncus effusus Linn. 347 

The leaves contain napthoquinones, 

mainly juglone. The root bark gave 

3, 3 ′ ,-bis-juglone and oligomeric juglones. 

Unripe fruit husk also gave 

napthoquinones. 

The kernels of Indian walnuts contain 

15.6% protein, 11% carbohydrates, 

1.8% mineral matter (sodium, potassium, 

calcium, magnesium, iron, copper, 

phosphorus, sulphur and chorine). 

Iodine (2.8 mcg/100 g), arsenic, zinc, 

cobalt and manganese are also reported. 

Kernels are also rich in vitamins of 

the B group, vitamin A (30 IU/100 g), 

andascorbicacid(3mg/100g). 

The juice of unripe fruits showed 

significant thyroid hormone enhancing 

activity (prolonged use of such extract 

may cause serious side effect). 

White Walnut, Lemon Walnut, Butternut, 

Oilnut of the USA is equated 

with Juglans cineraria L. The inner 

bark gave napthoquinones, including 

juglone, juglandin, juglandic acid, tannins 

and an essential oil. 

Butternut is used as a dermatological 

and antihaemorrhoidal agent. Juglone 

exhibits antimicrobial, antiparasitic 

and antineoplastic activities. 

Dosage ◮ Dried cotyledons—10–25 g 

(API, Vol. II.) 

Juncus effusus Linn. 

Synonym ◮ J. communis E. Mey. 

Family ◮ Juncaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Eastern Himalayas and 

Khasi Hills. 

English ◮ Rush, Matting Rush. 

J

348 Juniperus communis Linn. var. saxatillis Palias. 

J 

Action ◮ Pith—antilithic, discutient, 

diuretic, depurative, pectoral. 

Root—diuretic, especially in 

strangury. 

The leaves gave flavonoids, lutcoline- 

7-glucoside, diosmin and hesperidin; 

aerial parts gave phenolic constituents, 

effusol and juncusol. Juncusol is antimicrobial. 

A dihydrodibenzoxepin, 

isolated from the plant, showed cytotoxic 

activity. 

Juniperus communis Linn. var. 

saxatillis Palias. 

Synonym ◮ J. communis auct. non L. 

Family ◮ Pinaceae; Cupressaceae. 


North America. Distributed in 

Western Himalayas from Kumaon 

westwards at 1,700–4,200 m. 

English ◮ Common Juniper. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Hapushaa, Havushaa, 

Haauber, Matsyagandha. 

Unani ◮ Abahal, Haauber, Hubb-ularar, 

Aarar. 

Action ◮ Berries—diuretic, urinary 

antiseptic, carminative, digestive, 

sudorific, anti-inflammatory, 

emmenagogue. Used for acute and 

chronic cystitis, renal suppression 

(scanty micturition), catarrh 

of the bladder, albuminuria, 

amenorrhoea, leucorrhoea. Aerial 

parts—abortifacient. 

Key application ◮ In dyspepsia. 

(German Commission E.) Juniper 

berry may increase glucose levels in 

diabetics. (ESCOP.) Asadiuretic. 



India recommends the dried fruit 

in malabsorption syndrome. 

Animal studies have shown an increase 

in urine excretion as well as a direct 

effect on sooth muscle contraction. 

(German Commission E, ESCOP.)Contraindicated 

in kidney disease. (Sharon 

M. Herr.) 

(In Kerala, Hapushaa and Mundi are 

considered to be synonyms; Syphaeranthus 

indicus,Asteraceae, is used as 

Hapushaa.) 

The major constituents of the volatile 

oil are alpha-pinene, sabinene and 

alpha-terpinene. Methanolic extract 

of the plant gave several labdane diterpenoids 

and diterpenes. The leaves 

contain the biflavones, cupressuflavone, 

amentoflavone, hinokiflavone, 

isocryptomerin and sciadopitysin. The 

berries also contain condensed tannins. 

Seeds gave haemagglutinin. 

Juniperus recurva Buch-Ham ex D. 

Don, syn. J. excelsa auct. non-Bieb. 

(temperate Himalaya from Kashmir to 

Bhutan) is known as Weeping Blue Juniper. 

J. macropoda Boiss. (the Himalaya 

from Nepal onwards) is known 

as Himalayan Indian Juniper. Both 

the species are used like J. communis 

var. saxatillis. 

The berries gave a diterpene ketone, 

sugrol, beta-sitosterol glucoside and 

10-nonacosanol. 

Plant extract can be used in toothpastes 

and mouth-rinses to reduce dental 

plaque and bleeding. 


(API, Vol. III.)

Juniperus virginiana Linn. 

Family ◮ Pinaceae; Cupressaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Native to North America; 

introduced into India. 

English ◮ Pencil Cedar, Red Cedar. 

Action ◮ The berries in decoction are 

diaphoretic and emmenagogue like 

those of common juniper; leaves 

are diuretic. Red cedar oil is used 

in the preparation of insecticides. 

Small excrescences, called cedar 

apples, are sometimes found on 

the branches. These are used as 

an anthelmintic. (Yellow Cedar is 

equated with Thuja occidentalles.) 

Juniperus procera Hochst. (East 

African Cedar), J. bermudiana Linn. 

(BermudaCedar) and J. Chinensis Linn. 

(Chinese Juniper) have also been introduced 

into India. 

Jurinea macrocephala Benth. 

Synonym ◮ J. dolomiacea Boiss. 




Ayurvedic ◮ Jaatukanda, Gugguluka. 

Folk ◮ Guugal, Dhuup. 

Action ◮ Roots—used as incense. 

Stimulant, given in colic, also in 

fever after child birth. Bruised roots 

are applied to eruptions. 

The alcoholic extract of the root 

inhibits about 50% growth of NK65 

strain of Plasmodium berghei at a dose 

of 2 g/kg per day in 4 days. 

Jussiaea suffruticosa Linn. 

Justicia betonica Linn. 349 

Synonym ◮ Ludwigia octovalvis 

(Jacq.) Raven. 

Oenothera octovalis Jacq. 

Family ◮ Onagraceae. 

Habitat ◮ A native of the New World; 

foundinmarshyfieldsinIndia. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Jala-lavanga, Bhuulavanga, 

Bana-laung. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Nirkkrambu. 

Action ◮ Cooling, diuretic, astringent, 

mild laxative. Used in 

catarrhal affections of children; 

applied externally for burns and 

scalds. Pulp of the plant, steeped 

in buttermilk, is used for dysentery. 

Root—febrifuge. 

Jussiaea tenella Burm. f. 

Synonym ◮ J. linifolia Vahl. 

J. fissendocarpa Haines. 


Habitat ◮ Watery and swampy places 

in Bihar and Orissa and in some 

parts of South India. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Jala-lavanga (var.). 

Action ◮ See J. suffruticosa. 

An infusion of the root is given in 

syphilis. The plant is employed in poultice 

for pimples. 

Justicia betonica Linn. 


J

350 Justicia gendarussa Burm. f. 

J 


of India, in waste lands, hedges and 

rocky ravines. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Velimungil. 

Folk ◮ Had-paata (Bihar), Pramehaharati, 

Mokandar. (Madhya 

Pradesh). 

Action ◮ Plant—used in diarrhoea; 

externally for swellings and boils. 

Justicia gendarussa Burm. f. 

Synonym ◮ Gendarussa vulgaris 

Nees. 



part of India and Andaman 

Islands. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Krishna Vaasaa (blue 

var.), Nila-nirgundi, Krishnanirgundi, 

Nila-manjari. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Karunochhi, 

Vadaikkuthi. 

Action ◮ Febrifuge, diaphoretic, 

emetic, emmenagogue. Infusion of 

leaves—given internally in cephalalgia, 

hemiplegia and facial paralysis. 

Fresh leaves—used topically in 

oedema and rheumatism. Bark— 

emetic. 


an alkaloid, lupeol, friedelin and aromatic 

amines. 

Justicia procumbens Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Western Ghats, West Coast 

from Konkan to Kerala; abundant 

in the rainy season. 


Action ◮ The plant contains 

naphthofuranones, justicidin A, 

B, C, D, G and H, and diphyllin, 

which are used for the treatment of 

osteoporosis. The flowers contain 

peonidine glucoside. Essential oil— 

antifungal. 

Justica tranquebariensis Linn. f. 


Habitat ◮ Deccan, Mysore southwards. 

Folk ◮ Sivanarvembu (Tamil Nadu). 

Action ◮ Leaves—cooling, aperient; 

given for smallpox to children, 

bruisedleavesappliedtocontusions. 

The alcoholic extract of the aerial 

parts yielded several lignans, phytosterols, 

brassicasterol, campesterol, 

7,22-ergostadienol, stigmasterol, sitosterol, 

spinasterol, 28-isofucostil and 

a sterol glucoside, beta-sitosterol-3-Oglucoside. 

Justica vasculosa Wall. (Eastern Himalayas, 

Assam Khasi Hills) is also 

used for inflammations.

Kadsura heteroclita 

(Roxb.) Craib. 

Synonym ◮ K. roxburghiana Arn. K. 

wightiana Arn. 

Family ◮ Magnoliaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Eastern Himalaya, Assam, 

Western Ghats in Malabar. 

Folk ◮ Pattiamlo, Salado-rik 

(Himalayas). Kang-mari, Mi-jangew, 

Theiarbawm (Assam). 

Action ◮ The stems have been 

used in Chinese folk medicine 

to promote blood circulation 

and for the treatment of gastric 

and duodenal ulcer, acute and 

chronicgastroenteritis,postpartum 

abdominal pain and trauma. 

The stem contains dibenzocyclooctadiene 

type lignans. The plant lignans 

showed PAF (platelet activating 

factor) receptor antagonistic activity. 

The lignans have also been reported 

to be potent inhibitors of lipid peroxidation 

in rat liver. The fruit contains 

gomisin D, which is an active ingredient 

of an antiulcer agent. 

Kaempferia galanga Linn. 



India, cultivated in gardens. 

English ◮ Galanga, Maraba. 

K 

Ayurvedic ◮ Sugandha-vachaa, 

Chandramuula, Chandramuulikaa. 

(In Kerala, used as Karchura 

and Shathi.) (Kapurakachari is 

a different drug, equated with 

Hedychium spicatum.) 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kachoram. 

Action ◮ Tuber—stimulant, carminative, 

expectorant, diuretic used 

for respiratory ailments like cough, 

bronchitis and asthma. 

The essential oil from rhizomes contain 

n-pentadecane, ethyl-p-methoxy 

cinnamate, ethyl cinnamate, carene, 

camphene, borneol, p-methoxystyrene, 

p-methoxy cinnamate, p-methoxy-trans-cinnamic 

acid and cin 

namaldehyde. Insecticidal activity of 

the oil is attributed to ethyl cinnamates. 

Ethyl-p-methoxy-cinnamate 

shows monoamine oxidase inhibitor 

activity and a cytotoxic principle (the 

rhizomes exhibit cytotoxic activity). 

Leaves and flowers exhibit antiphlogistic 

and vitamin P activity. Ethyl-pmethoxy-trans 

cinnamate is the main 

compound in the root. 

Kaempferia rotunda Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Throughout India in wet 

orhumidshadedareas. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Bhuumi-champaka, 

Bhuu-champaka, Hallakam. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Karunkuvalai.

K 

352 Kalanchoe integra (Medic.) Kuntze. 

Folk ◮ Bhui-champaa. 

Action ◮ Tuber—antitumour. Used 

for swellings (removes blood clot), 

mumps and wounds. 

Tubers gave crotepoxide and betasitosterol. 

The oil contained chavicol, 

cineole. 

Kalanchoe integra 

(Medic.) Kuntze. 

Synonym ◮ K. brasiliensis Cambress. 

K. spathulata Roxb. 



Kashmir to Bhutan, on Lushai hills 

and in the Deccan. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Parnabija (var.). 


Folk ◮ Rungru, Tatara. Bakalpattaa, 

Patkuari (Kumaon). Hathokane 

(Nepal). 

Action ◮ Plant—hypotensive, 

antiarrhythmic. 

Aqueous extract of the leaves depressed 

CNS and potentiated barbiturate-induced 

hypnosis in mice. 

The flowers yielded triterpenoids— 

friedelin, taraxerol and glutinol and 

a mixture of long chain hydrocarbons, 

n-alkanols and sterols. Kaempferol 

and its 3-O-rhamnoside, patuletin and 

patuletin-3, 7-di-O-rhamnoside, quercetin 

and quercetin-3-O-glucoside- 

7-O-rhamnoside are reported from 

leaves and flowers. 

The leaves exhibit wound healing 

properties. 

Kalanchoe laciniata (Linn.) DC. 

Synonym ◮ K. schweinfurthii Penzig. 

Cotyledon laciniata Roxb. 


Habitat ◮ Maharashtra, Deccan and 

Bengal. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Parnabija (var.), 

Vatapatri. 


Siddha/Tamil ◮ Malakalli. 

Folk ◮ Hemasaagar. 

Action ◮ Plant—used in fever, 

dyspepsia, skin allergy, asthma, 

bronchitis. Leaves—astringent, 

antiseptic, astringent. Applied to 

insect bites. Lotions are used for 

smallpox. Leaf juice is given in 

diarrhoea, dysentery, lithiasis. 

Kalanchoe pinnata (Lam.) Pers. 

Synonym ◮ Bryophyllum pinnatum 

(Lam.) Oken. 

B. calycinum Salisb. 


Habitat ◮ Throughout the warm 

and moist parts of India, especially 

abundant in West Bengal. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Parnabija, Pattharchuur, 

Pattharchat, Hemsaagar. (Paashaanabheda 

is a misleading synonym.) 


Siddha/Tamil ◮ Runakalli. 

Action ◮ Leaf—anti-inflammatory, 

antifungal, antibacterial. Applied to 

wounds, burns, boils, swellings.

The methanolic extract of leaves exhibited 

potent anti-inflammatory activity 

against both exudative and proliferative 

phases of inflammation. The 

leaf extract also showed analgesic activity. 

The leaves gave flavonoids—quercetin, 

kaempferol, quercetin-3-diarabinoside 

and kaempferol-3-glucoside; also 

n-hentriacontane, n-tritriacontane, 

alpha- and beta-amyrin and sitosterol; 

p-coumaric, ferulic, syringic, caffeic 

and p-hydroxybenzoic acids. 

Kandelia rheedii Wight & Arn. 

Synonym ◮ K. candel (L.) Druce. 


Habitat ◮ Costal forests of eastern and 

western Peninsulas, the Sunderbans 

(West Bengal). 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Thuvar kandan. 

Folk ◮ Rasunia (Orissa), Guria 

(Bengal). 

Action ◮ Bark—used with ginger 

or long pepper and rose water 

for diabetes (aqueous or alcoholic 

extracts of the bark did not exhibit 

any effect on the blood sugar of 

normal or alloxan-diabetic rabbits). 

The Bark contains 17.3% tannin and 

13.5% non-tans. Novel proanthocyanidin 

dimers and trimers—all containing 

a phenylpropionoid substituent in 

the upper flavan unit, along with propelargonidin 

dimers and procyanidin 

trimers of common types, have been 

isolated from the bark. 

Kedrostis foetidissima 

(Jacq.) Cogn. 

Khaya senegalensis A. Juss. 353 

Synonym ◮ K. rostrata (Rottl.) Cogn. 

Bryonia rostrata Rottl. 

Rhynghocarpa foetida Clarke 

Family ◮ Cucurbitacease. 

Habitat ◮ Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, 

Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh and 

Tamil Nadu. 

Folk ◮ Appakovay (Tamil Nadu). 

Kukumadona, Nagadonda (Andhra 

Pradesh) Nurakvel (Maharashtra). 

Action ◮ Root and fruit—demulcent; 

used in asthma and piles. 

Khaya senegalensis A. Juss. 

Synonym ◮ Melia dubia Cav. 


Habitat ◮ Native to South Africa. 

Planted in forest nurseries and 

plantation at Pune and Vada 


English ◮ African Mahogany. 


cardiogenic. 

Methanolic extract of the stem bark 

showed cardiovascular (cardiogenic) 

effect in rodents by increasing blood 

pressure and vasoconstriction of the 

arota partly due to the stimulation 

of beta-receptors and alpha-adrenoceptors. 

Alcoholic extract of the stem bark 

showed anti-inflammatory activity. 

K

K 

354 Kigelia pinnata (Jacq.) DC. 

Kigelia pinnata (Jacq.) DC. 

Synonym ◮ K. africana (Lam.) Benth. 


Habitat ◮ Native to West Africa, 

cultivated as a roadside tree. 

English ◮ Common Sausage tree. 

Folk ◮ Jhaar Phaanuus. 

Action ◮ Bark—antidysenteric, 

antirheumatic, diuretic. Used 

in venereal diseases. Fruits— 

purgative. 

The root bark contains monoterpenoids, 

pinnatal, isopinnatal and isokigelinol 

napthoquinones. 

The fruit gave a cytostatic compound. 

In Africa, the root bark is used in the 

treatment of venereal diseases, haemorrhoids 

and rheumatism; also as a vermifuge. 

Kingiodendron pinnatum 

(Roxb. ex DC.) Harms. 

Synonym ◮ Hardwickia pinnata 

Roxb. ex DC. 


Habitat ◮ Hills of Tamil Nadu, 


English ◮ Piney. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Samparni. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kodapalai, Madayansambrani. 

Action ◮ Oleo-gum-resin—used 

in catarrhal conditions of the 

genitourinary and respiratory 

tracts; also for treating sores. 

The oleo-gum-resin contains monoterpenes 

and diterpenes—hardwickiic, 

kolavic, kolavenic acids and kolavenol. 

Kirganelia reticulata (Poir) Baill. 

Synonym ◮ 

Poir. 

Phyllanthus reticulatus 


Habitat ◮ All over India; also grown 

as a hedge plant. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Kaamboji. 

Folk ◮ Panjuli. 

Action ◮ Plant—spasmolytic, 

hypotensive, antiviral. Fruit— 

astringent, used in inflammations. 

Leaves—astringent, antidiarrhoeal, 

diuretic. Root bark—astringent, 

attenuant, diuretic. 


friedelin and its derivatives, glochidonol 

and betulinic acid. Betulin, 

glochidonol, friedelin, octacosanol, 

taraxeryl acetate, taraxerone and betasitosterol 

are obtained from the root. 

Kleinhovia hospita Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Grown in Indian gardens 

and as an avenue tree. 

Folk ◮ Panuitteku (Tamil Nadu). Bol 

(Bengal). 

Action ◮ Bark and leaves—used 

in the treatment of cough and 

tuberculosis.

The roots contain kaempferol, quercetin 

and rutin. 

Knema angustifolia 

(Roxb.) Warb. 

Synonym ◮ Myristica gibbosa 

Hook. f. 

Family ◮ Myristicaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Sikkim Himalayas, Assam. 

Folk ◮ Motaa-pasuti (Assam), 

Ramguwaa (Nepal). 

Action ◮ Kino—astringent; used 

for dysentery; topically applied to 

mouth sores. 

Kino contains 33.6% tannin and resembles 

kino from Pterocarpus marsupium 

is appearance. 

Kochia indica Wt. 


Habitat ◮ North-western and 


Folk ◮ Bui-chholi (Punjab). Kauraro. 

Action ◮ Cardiac stimulant. 

Resinous alkaloid, isolated from alcoholic 

extract of the plant, showed 

nicotinic action on autonomic ganglion 

and neuromuscular junction of 

voluntary muscles. 

Fruits and leaves of a related sp., K. 

scoparia Schrad are used as a cardiac 

tonic and diuretic. 

Petroleum ether extract of aerial 

parts contain n-alkanes, free alcohols 

and a mixture of sterols (mainly sitosterol, 

70.9%). 

Kydia calycina Roxb. 355 

The plant exhibits antibacterial activity 

which is attributed to hydrocarbons 

and sterols present in it. The plant 

is also used as an ingredient of a medicinal 

powder used for dermatitis. 

Krameria triandra Ruiz & Pav. 

Family ◮ Krameriaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Peru, Bolivia. Reported to 

be imported into India. 

English ◮ Peruvian Rhatany, 

Krameria. 


antidiarrhoeal, vulnerary. Used for 

menorrhagia; topically for wounds, 

haemorrhoids and chilblains; as 

a lozenge, gargle or mouthwash for 

gingivitis and pharyngitis. 

Key application ◮ For topical 

treatment of mild inflammations 

of oral and pharyngeal mucosa. 


The astringency of the drug is due to 

condensed tannins composed of procyanidins 

and propelargondins. 

In India, the roots of Hemidesmus 

indicus are sometimes used as a substitute 

for Rhatany. 

Kydia calycina Roxb. 


Habitat ◮ Common in sub- 

Himalayan tract. 

Folk ◮ Pola, Pulu, Pula, Polao. Vendi 

(Tamil Nadu). Potri, Konda Potari, 

Pandiki, Pachabotuka (Andhra 

K

K 

356 Kyllinga triceps Rottb. 

Pradesh). Velukku, Venta, Nedunar 

(Kerala). 

Action ◮ Plant—mucilaginous, antiinflammatory, 

febrifuge. Leaf and 

root—antirheumatic. The leaves 

stimulate saliva. A paste of leaves 

is applied in body pains, used in 

poultices for skin diseases. 

Kyllinga triceps Rottb. 

Synonym ◮ K. tenuifolia Stend. 

Cyperus triceps (Rottb.) Endl. 


Habitat ◮ Northwestern India, 

Gujarat, Rajasthan and South India. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Nirvishaa (var.) Mustaka 

(var.), Apivisha. 

Folk ◮ Mustu (Maharashtra). 

Action ◮ Root—febrifuge and 

antidermatosis. Also used for 

diabetes. 

Kyllinga monocephala Rottb., synonym 

Cyperus kyllinga Endl., common 

throughout India, is also known 

as Nirvishaa, Nirbishi and Mustaa 

(var.). Therootisusedasdiuretic(in 

polyuria), demulcent, refrigerant and 

antipyretic. It is prescribed for fistula, 

pustules, tumours, measles, diarrhoea 

and other intestinal affections. 

Traces of hydrocyanic acid are reported 

to be present in the root, stems 

and nutlets.

Lactuca runcinata DC. 

Synonym ◮ L. heyneana DC. 


Habitat ◮ Many parts of India, as 

a common weed. 

Folk ◮ Undir-chaa-kaan (Maharashtra). 

Action ◮ Diuretic, slightly aperient. 

Used as a diuretic in calculous affections, 

also for chronic obstruction 

of liver and bowels. 

A smaller var., found in western Uttar 

Pradesh, Rajasthan, Saurashtra and 

the Deccan Penninsula, is equated with 

L. remotiflora DC. 

Lactuca sativa Linn. 

Synonym ◮ L. scariola Linn. var. 

sativa C.B. Clarke. 


Habitat ◮ Native to Southern and 

West Asia. Cultivated throughout 

India as a cold weather crop. 

English ◮ Garden Lettuce. 

Unani ◮ Kaahuu Bustaani, Salaad 

Pattaa, Salaad Baaghi. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Salattu. 

Action ◮ Plant—used in painful 

ulcers and burns. 

The leaves contain calcium, phosphorus, 

iron, thiamine, riboflavin, nia- 

L 

cin, carotine, iodine, fluorine. A. dietary 

allowance of 10 g of lettuce is adequate 

to meet the vitamin K requirement 

of the body. 

Aqueous extract of roots gave a guaiene-type 

sesquiterpene glycoside, lactoside 

C, along with known glycosides, 

lactoside A and macro-cliniside A. 

Lactuca serriola Linn. 

Synonym ◮ L. scariola Linn. 


Habitat ◮ The Western Himalayas, 

between1,800and3,300m.Found 

wild. 

English ◮ 

Lettuce. 

Wild Lettuce, Prickly 

Ayurvedic ◮ Salaad, Vanya-Kaahuu. 

Unani ◮ 

Barri. 

Kaahuu Saharai, Kaahuu 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Salattu. 

Action ◮ Plant—mild sedative, 

diuretic, diaphoretic, expectorant, 

antiseptic. Seed—demulcent. The 

seeds are used in the form of powder 

for coughs and as a decoction for 

insomnia. 

Seeds contain protein, amino acids; 

Mg Al and K as major elements besides 

Na, Ca, Si, Ti, Mn, Fe and Cu. 

Arachidic, caproic, linoleic, oleic, 

palmitic, stearic acids and sitosterol 

(from the root); ascorbic acid, 

beta-carotene, 8-deoxylactucin, lacticin, 

jacquilenin, lactupicrin, ubiqui-

358 Lactuca virosa Linn. 

L 

none (from the plant) have been isolated. 

Lactuca virosa Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Native to Europe. Imported 

into India. 

English ◮ Bitter Lettuce, Wild 

Lettuce. 

Unani ◮ Kaahuu Sahrai (var.), 

Kaahuu Barri (var.). 

Action ◮ Mild sedative, hypnotic, 

(once used as a substitute for 

opium), anodyne, expectorant. 

Key application ◮ As sedative. (The 


Used in insomnia, nervous excitability, 

anxiety, restlessness, hyperactivity 

in children, nymphomania, smoker’s 

cough, irritable cough and bronchitis. 

Aerial parts contain sesquiterpene 

glycosides. 

The leaves and dried juice contain 

lacticin, lactucopicrin (sesquiterpene 

lactones); flavonoids (mainly based on 

quercetin); coumarins (cichoriin and 

aesculin); N-methyl-beta-phenethylamine; 

triterpenes include taraxasterol 

and beta-amyrin. The sesquiterpene 

lactones have a sedative effect. 

The Wild Lettuce also contains hyoscyamine, 

while the dried sap is devoid 

of it. Morphine content has been 

found in low concentrations, too low 

to have pharmacological effect. (Natural 


2007.) 

The oil of seeds is used for arteriosclerosis. 

Lagenaria siceraria 

(Mol.) Standl. 

Synonym ◮ L. vulgaris Ser. 

L. leucanth Rusby. 

Cucurbita siceraria Mol. 



English ◮ Bitter Bottle-Gourd. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Katu-tumbi, Tumbini, 

Ikshavaaku. Tiktaalaavu, Pindaphalaa. 

Unani ◮ Kaddu-e-talkh (bitter var.). 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Suraikai. 

Action ◮ Pulp—purgative, emetic. 

Leaf—used in jaundice. 

Cucurbita lagenaria Linn. is equated 

with Lauki or Sweet Bottle-Guard, used 

all over India as a vegetable. 

Cucurbita siceraria Mol. is equated 

with Titalauki or the Bitter Bottle- 

Gourd. Bitter fruits yield 0.013% of 

a solid foam containing cucurbitacin 

B,D,G and H, mainly cucurbitacin B. 

These bitter principles are present in 

the fruit as aglycones. Leaves contain 

cucurbitacin B, androotscucurbitacins 

B, D and traces of E. The fruit juice contains 

beta-glycosidase (elaterase). 

Plants which yield non-bitter fruits 

contain no bitter principles or elaterase; 

their roots are not bitter. 

Lagerstroemia flos-reginae 

Retz. 

Synonym ◮ L. speciosa (L.) Pers. 

L. reginae Roxb.


Habitat ◮ Tropical Himalaya, and 

Assam, Western and Eastern Ghats, 

up to 1,000 m. 

English ◮ Pride of India, Queen’s 

Flowers, Queen Crape Myrtle. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kadalai, Pumaruttu. 

Folk ◮ Jaarul. Kramuk and Arjun are 

confusing synonyms. 

Action ◮ Seed—narcotic. Root— 

astringent, stimulant, febrifuge. 

Fruit—used for aphthae of the 

mouth. Leaves—purgative, diuretic, 

deobstruent. Bark—an infusion is 

given in diarrhoea and abdominal 

pain. 

A decoction of the leaves, also of 

dried fruits, is used like tea for diabetes 

mellitus in Philippines. Mature leaves 

and fruits, in fresh condition, exhibit 

hypoglycaemic activity experimentally. 

The potency decreases on storing the 

material. 

The leaf extract, when administered 

as powder and as tannin-free 

extract, showed hypoglycaemic activity 

in mice. Amino acids constitute the 

insulin-like principle. The plant contains 

triterpenoids, colocolic acid and 

maslinic acid. Colocolic acid is known 

to possess hypoglycaemic activity. 

Leaves contain lageracetal and sitosterol. 

Ellagitannins have been isolated 

from fruits and leaves. 

Lagerstroemia indica Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Native to China; grown as 

an ornamental. 

Laggera alata Sch.- Bip. ex Oliver. 359 

English ◮ Common Crape Myrtle. 


Sinappu. 

Pavalak-kurinji, 

Folk ◮ Saavani, Faraash. 

Action ◮ Seed—narcotic. Bark— 

stimulant, febrifuge. Leaves 

and flowers—purgative. Root— 

astringent. Used as a gargle. 

Lagerstroemia parviflora Roxb. 


Habitat ◮ Almost throughout India, 

up to an altitude of 900 m, in the 

Himalayas. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Siddhaka, Siddha, 

Syandana (provisional synonym). 

Folk ◮ Dhauraa, Bakli. Chungi 

(Hyderabad). Lendia (trade). 

Action ◮ Astringent, fungitoxic. 

The bark and leaves contain tannin 

7–10 and 16% respectively. The plant 

contains a pentacyclic triterpene, lagflorin. 

Aqueous extract of fresh and 

ethanolic extract of dried and powdered 

leaves exhibit fungitoxic activity 

against several fungal pathogens of 

rice. 

Laggera alata Sch.- Bip. ex Oliver. 



ascending up to 2,100 m in the 

hills. (Native to tropical Africa and 

Madagascar.) 

English ◮ False Tobacco. 

L

360 Lallemantia royleana Roxb. 

L 

Folk ◮ Amadok (Garhwal). 

Action ◮ Disinfectant. 

The plant is one of the major ingredients 

of an ointment used in the 

treatment of skin tumours in Chinese 

medicine. In Ivory Coast, Burkina Faso, 

Gabon and Tanganyika, different 

parts of the plant are used for the treatment 

of intercostal pain, rheumatic 

pain and fever. The leaf and root decoctions 

are used to treat pneumonia. 

The plant from Nigeria was found 

rich in phenolic ethers (45%), followed 

by monoterpenes (22%) and 

sesquiterpenes (12%). The major component 

of the oil was dimethyl thymoquinone 

(44%). It showed activity 

against Gram-positive microorganisms. 

Dried powder of the plant contained 

artemisetin (artemetin). 

Lallemantia royleana Roxb. 

Family ◮ Labiatae. 

Habitat ◮ Plain and hills of Kumaon 

and Punjab, extending westwards to 

Afghanistan. Imported into India 

from Persia. 

Unani ◮ Baalango, Tukhm-e- 

Baalango. 

Folk ◮ Tuut-malangaa. 

Action ◮ Seed—cooling, diuretic, 

sedative; given internally as 

a soothing agent during urinary 

troubles, also for cough. A poultice 

of seeds is applied to abscesses, 

boils and inflammations. (Seeds are 

not to be used as a substitute for 

Plantago sp.) 

Seeds contain linoleic, oleic, palmitic 

and stearic acids; beta-sitosterol. 

Gum contains L-arabinose, D-galactose, 

L-rhamnose, pentosans, protein, 

uronic anhydride. Amino acids are also 

found in the plant. 

Lamium album Linn. 


Habitat ◮ West Himalayas from 


English ◮ White Dead Nettle, 

Archangel. 

Action ◮ Haemostatic (particularly 

on the uterus), astringent, diuretic, 

anti-inflammatory, antispasmodic, 

expectorant. Used for menorrhagia, 

leucorrhoea, cystitis, prostatitis, 

bleeding piles, diarrhoea, irritable 

bowel and respiratory catarrh. 

Key application ◮ Internally, for 

catarrh of the upper respiratory 

passages; externally, for mild, 

superficial inflammation of the skin. 

(German Commission E.) Flowers 

have been recommended for teas 

and other galenical preparations 

for internal applications, rinses, 

baths and moist compresses. As 

astringent. (The British Herbal 


The herb contains iridoid monoterpenes; 

triterpene saponins; caffeic acid 

derivatives; flavonoids based on kaempferol; 

tannins (mainly catechins). The 

plant also gave a carbocyclic iridoid, 

caryoptoside; besides lambalbide, albosides 

A and B (iridoid monoterpenes).

Laminum amplexicaule Linn. 



from Kashmir to Kumaon, Sikkim 

and Assam. 

Folk ◮ Titpaati (Garhwal), Jipachi 

(Tibbet). 

Action ◮ Plant—stimulant, laxative, 

diaphoretic, cephalic, antirheumatic. 

Lamprachaenium 

microcephalum Benth. 


Habitat ◮ Deccan, Konkan and 

Karnataka. 

Unani ◮ Brahmdandi. (Tricholepis 

angustifolia DC. of the same 

family has also been equated with 

Brahmdandi in National Formulary 

of Unani Medicine.) 

Folk ◮ Brahmdandi (Maharashtra), 

Ajadandi. 

Action ◮ Antiseptic, bitter tonic. 

Lannea coromandelica 

(Houtt.) Merrill. 

Synonym ◮ L. grandis (Dennst.) 

Engl.; 

Odina wodier Roxb. 




Himalayas. 

Lansium domesticum Correa. 361 

Ayurvedic ◮ Jingini, Jhingan, 

Gudamanjari. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kalasan, Anaikkarai, 

Odiyan. 

Action ◮ Bark—stimulant and 

astringent; used in gout; decoction 

for aphthae of the mouth and for 

toothache. Leaves— boiled and 

applied to sprains, bruises, local 

swellings, elephantiasis. Gum— 

given in asthma; as a cordial to 

women during lactation. 

The roots contain cluytyl ferulate; 

heartwood gave lanosterol; bark, dlepi-catechin 

and (+)-leucocyanidin; 

flowers and leaves, ellagic acid, quercetin 

and quercetin-3-arabinoside. Flowers 

also contain iso-quercetin and 

morin. Leaves in addition contain 

beta-sitosterol, leucocyanidin and leucodelphinidin. 

Lansium domesticum Correa. 


Habitat ◮ Cultivated in Nilgiris and 

a few other places in South India. 

En ◮ glishLangsat Fruit, Dockoa. 

Folk ◮ Duku. 

Action ◮ Bark—astringent, antidysenteric. 

Resin—antidiarrhoeal, 

prescribed in intestinal spasm. 

Seed—febrifuge, vermifuge. 

The peel of the fruit contains a triterpenoidacid(lansicacid).Seedsare 

bitter; contain traces of an alkaloid and 

resin. 

The crude extract of fruit peel, containing 

lansic acid, lansioside A, B and 

L

362 Lantana camara Linn. var. aculeata Moldenke. 

L 

C or their derivatives, is used as an ingredient 

of shampoos and hair tonics. 

Lantana camara Linn. var. 

aculeata Moldenke. 

Synonym ◮ L. aculeata L. 



naturalized and occurs throughout 

India. Also grown as hedge plant. 

English ◮ Lantana, Wild Sage, 

Surinam Tea Plant. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Chaturaangi, Vanachchhedi. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Unnichedi. 

Folk ◮ Ghaaneri (Maharashtra). 

Action ◮ Plant—antirheumatic, 

antimalarial; used in tetanus 

and ataxy of abdominal viscera. 

Pounded leaves are applied to cuts, 

ulcers and swellings; a decoction of 

leaves and fruits is used as a lotion 

for wounds. 

The plant is considered poisonous. 

The leaves contain toxic principles, 

lantadenes A and B, which cause acute 

photosensitization, jaundice, kidney 

and liver lesions. A steroid, lancamarone, 

is cardioactive and fish poison. 

The bark of stems and roots contain 

a quinine-like alkaloid, lantanine. The 

extract of the shoot showed antibacterial 

activity against E. coli and Micrococcus 

pyogenes var. aureus. Flowers 

contain anthocyanin. 

Laportea crenulata Gaudich. 



Nepal eastwards, Bihar, Chota 

Nagpur, Bengal, Assam, Anaimalai 

Hills and Western Ghats in Kerala. 

English ◮ Devil Nettle, Fever Nettle. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Perunkanchori. 

Folk ◮ Utigun, Chorpaat (Bengal). 

(Uttangan is equated with Blepharis 

edulis Pers.) 

Action ◮ Root—juice used in chronic 

fevers. Roots and leaves are applied 

to swellings and abscesses. 

Larix griffithiana Carr. 

Synonym ◮ L. griffithii Hook. f. & 

Thoms. 



eastern Nepal to Bhutan at altitudes 

of 2,400–3,600 m. 

English ◮ Himalayan Larch, Sikkim 

Larch. 

Folk ◮ Boargasella, Binyi (Nepal). 

Action ◮ Balsam—antiseptic, 

hypermic. 

Key application ◮ Larix decidua 

Miller—in rheumatic and neuralgic 

discomforts, catarrhal diseases 

of the respiratory tract, furuncle 

(in the form of ointments, gels, 

emulsions and oils). (German 


American Larch is equated with Larix 

laricina Koch., synonym L. americana 

Michx. It is known as Tamarac.

European Larch is equated with Larix 

decidua Miller., synonym L. europea 

DC., Pinus larix L., Abies larix. It is 

known as Pine Larch. 

The bark of American Larch contains 

2–15% tannins. The bark of 

Larix dedidua is also astringent, balsamic 

and diuretic. It contains lignans; 

lariciresinol, liovil and secoisolariciresinol; 

60–80% resins; essential 

oil, containing alpha- and beta-pinene, 

limonene, phellandrene, borneol as 

major constituents. 

Lasia spinosa (L.) Thw. 

Synonym ◮ Lasia aculeata Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Tropical Sikkim Himalayas, 

Assam, Bengal and Southwards to 

Sri Lanka. 

Siddha ◮ Kantakachoramu, Mulasari 

(Telugu.) 

Folk ◮ Kantakachu (Bengal), 

Kaantaasaru. Lakshmanaa and 

Indiver-kand are doubtful synonyms. 

Action ◮ Plant—used for colic and 

intestinal diseases. Leaves—used 

for stomachache. Rootstock and 

fruits—for affections of the throat. 

Lasiosiphon eriocephalus 

Decne. 

Family ◮ Thymelaceaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Deccan and Western 

Ghats, from Konkan southwards to 

Kerala at altitudes of 1,200–2,500 m. 

Lathyrus sativus Linn. 363 

Siddha ◮ Nachinaar (Tamil). 

Folk ◮ Raamethaa (Maharashtra). 

Action ◮ Bark and leaves—poisonous. 

Plant—vesicant. Leaves are applied 

to swellings and contusions. 

The stem bark and seeds contain 

a xanthone glycoside, lasioside and 

a biscoumarin, lasiocephatin. 

Lathyrus sativus Linn. 



Madhya Pradesh, Eastern Uttar 

Pradesh, West Bengal, Andhra 

Pradesh and Gujarat. 

English ◮ Chickling Vetch, Grass 

Pea. 

Folk ◮ Khesaari, Latari, Kalaaya. 

Action ◮ Seeds—toxic. Prolonged 

consumption results in paralysis of 

legs, both in animals and human 

beings, known as lathyrism. The 

toxic substance responsible for 

lathyrism had been identified as 

selenium. Peritoneal injection 

of beta-N-oxalylaminoalanine 

(isolated from the seeds) produced 

acute neurolathyrism at LD50 

doses (748.8 mg/kg) in mice and 

(694.9 mg/kg) in chicken; liver and 

kidney cells showed denaturation, 

vacuolar and fatty degeneration. 

(It is a neuropoison, which mainly 

affects central nervous system.) 

Related species include, Lathyrus 

aphaca Linn., L. sphaericus Retz. and 

L. tingitanus Linn., known as Kalaaya 

or Khesaari. 

L

364 Launaea mucronata (Forsk.) Muschler. 

L 

Launaea mucronata 

(Forsk.) Muschler. 

Synonym ◮ L. chondrilloides Hook. f. 


Habitat ◮ 

Sind. 

Western India, Punjab and 

Folk ◮ Dudh-phad (Rajasthan). 

Action ◮ Plant—galactagogue. 

A decoction is administered in 

constipation. 

Launaea pinnatifida Cass. 

Synonym ◮ L. sarmentosa (Willd.) 

Alston. 


Habitat ◮ Sandy coasts of India. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Gojihvaa, Golomikaa. 

(Gaozabaan, used in Unani 

medicine, is equated with Boraginaceae 

sp.) 

Folk ◮ Vana-gobhi; Paathri (Maharashtra). 

Action ◮ Plant—galactagogue, 

soporific, diuretic, aperient. 

Laurus nobilis Linn. 



region; cultivated throughout 

India. 

English ◮ Laurel, Sweet Bay. 

Unani ◮ Habb-ul-Ghaar, Daphni. 

Action ◮ Leaves—mild sedative, gastric 

tonic, cholagogue, diaphoretic, 

antiseptic, antifungal. Used as a gargle 

against sore throat. Oil—used 

externally for rheumatism and in 

hair dressings for dandruff. Berry— 

emmenagogue, antileucorrhoeic, 

antidiarrhoeal. 

Fresh leaves from Lahore (Pakistan) 

gave an essential oil (0.3–0.36%) with, 

1,8-cineole 42.2, eugenol 16.4, sabinene 

6.5, alpha terpineol 1.6, alpha-pinene 

3.4, methyl eugenol 2.4 and terpinolene 

1.9%. Major components of Greek and 

Russian oils were 1,8-cineole followed 

by alpha-terpinyl acetate. 

The fruit from Kumaon region gave 

an essential oil (5%), including among 

others, 1,8-cineol (28.4), methyl cinnamate 

(20.1), alpha phellandrene (10.1) 

and alpha-pinene (9.3%). 

The leaves contain sesquiterpene 

lactones and isoquinoline alkaloids. 

Ethanolic extract of leaves produces 

a significant decrease in blood glucose 

level of diabetic rabbits. It contains 

amylase inhibitors which can supress 

sugar metabolism and can be used as 

an antiobesity agent for pet animals. 

The leaf extract has been used as an 

antidandruff solution. 

Lavandula angustifolia Mill. 

Synonym ◮ L. officinalis Chaix. L. 

spica Linn. 



region; cultivated in Jammu and 

Kashmir.

English ◮ Lavender. 

Action ◮ Herb—mildly sedative, 

antiflatulent and cholagogue. Essential 

oil—antiseptic, antibacterial, 



mood disturbances, such as restlessness 

or insomnia; functional 

abdominal complaints (nervous 

stomach irritation and discomfort); 

for the treatment of functional 

circulatory disorders in balneotherapy. 



indicates the use of Lavandula 

sp. for depressive states associated 

with digestive dysfunction. 


oil are linalool and linalyl acetate. Others 

include borneol, camphor, lavandulyl, 

caryophyllene, limonene, betaocimene, 

terpene-4-ol-and alpha-terpineol. 

Aerial parts of the plant contains 

ursolic acid lactone, betulin, betulinic 

acid and 3 beta-formyl ursolic acid. 

The essential oil from flowering shoots 

showed neuro-depressive or anxiolytic 

activity in albino rats. 

Lavandula bipinnata Kuntze. 

Synonym ◮ L. burmanni Benth. 


Habitat ◮ Bihar, Chota Nagpur, 

Orissa,MadhyaPradesh,Rajasthan, 

Maharashtra, Decan and Konkan 

southwards to Kerala. 

English ◮ Wild Lavender. 

Lavandula stoechas Linn. 365 

Ayurvedic ◮ Shankhapushpi (Gujarat). 

Action ◮ Used as a substitute for 

Convolvulus pluricaulas Choisy. 

Lavandula stoechas Linn. 



Asia Minor. Dried plant and flowers 

are imported into Mumbai from 

Persian Gulf. 

English ◮ Arabian or French 

Lavender. 

Unani ◮ Ustukhuddus, Alfaajan. 

Folk ◮ Dhaaru. 

Action ◮ Flowers—antidepressive, 

sedative, anticonvulsant, carminative, 

antispasmodic, antibacterial, 

antiseptic. Used in depression, nervous 

headache, sluggish circulation, 

physical and mental exhaustion, 

insomnia, epilepsy, neuralgia and 

rheumatic affections. 

Oil—rubefacient, antimicrobial. 

Used for nervous palpitations, giddiness, 

spasm and colic. Relieves sprains, 

neuralgia and rheumatism; rubbed for 

stimulating paralysed limbs. Applied 

to sores, burns, scalds and varicose 

veins. 

Plant—used for the treatment of 

epilepsy and chronic sinusitis in Unani 

medicine. 


oleanolic, ursolic and vergatic acid, 

beta-sitosterol, alpha-amyrin and its 

acetate, lupeol, erythrodiol, luteolin, 

acacetin and vitexin. 

L

366 Lawsonia inermis Linn. 

L 

The leaves contain polyphenols, apigenin-7-O-beta-D-glucoside, 

luteolin 

and its 7-O-beta-D-glucoside, and 7-Obeta-D-glucuronide, 

rosmarinic acid, 

and 6-O-caffeoyl glucose. 

For depression, tincture of lavender 

flower (1 : 5 in 50% alcohol), 60 drops 

per day, has been used for 4 weeks 

in Western herbal. (Natural Medicines 


Lawsonia inermis Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Native to Arabia and 

Persia; now cultivated mainly in 

HaryanaandGujarat;toasmall 

extent in Madhya Pradesh and 

Rajasthan. 

English ◮ Henna. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Madayanti, Madayantikaa, 

Mendika, Ranjaka. 

Unani ◮ Hinaa, Mehndi. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Marithondi, 

Marudum. 


antihaemorrhagic, antispasmodic, 

oxytocic, antifertility, antifungal, 

antibacterial. Used externally to 

treat skin infections (tinea); also as 

a hair conditioner. 


indicated the use of the leaves in 

dysuria, jaundice, bleeding disorders, 

ulcers, prurigoand other obstinate skin 

diseases. The leaf is also recommended 

in giddiness and vertigo. 

The leaves contain naphthoquinones, 

in particular lawsone; couma- 

rins (laxanthone, I, II and III); flavonoids, 

luteolin and its 7-O-glucoside, 

acacetin-7-O-glucoside; beta-sitosterol-3-O-glucoside; 

all parts contain 

tannins. 

Chloroform and ethanol extracts of 

leaves exhibit promising antibacterial 

activity against Shigella and Vibrio 

cholerae. Leaf extract shows antifungal 

activity against several pathogenic 

bacteria and fungi. 

Hennapaintisusedasamedicament 

for treatment of hands and feet 

for mycosis. The antimycotic activity 

is due to lawsone, a naphthoquinone. 

The ethanol-water (1 : 1) extract of 

the stem bark shows hepatoprotective 

activity CCl4-induced liver toxicity. 

Stem bark and root, probably due to the 

presence of isoplumbagin and lawsaritol, 

exhibit anti-inflammatory activity 


Evidence shows Henna leaf might be 

able to decrease the formation of sickled 

cells in individuals with sickle cell 

anaemia. (Natural Medicines Comprehensive 


Dosage ◮ Leaves—5–10 ml juice. 

(API, Vol. IV.) 

Leea aequata Linn. 

Synonym ◮ 

Hornem. 

L. hirta Roxb. ex 


Habitat ◮ Northern Eastern India, 

West Peninsula and the Andamans. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Kaakajanghaa, 

Nadikaantaa, Sulomaasha, Paaraavatapaadi.

Folk ◮ Surapadi (Telugu). 

Action ◮ Stem and root—astringent, 

anthelmintic. Used for indigestion, 

jaundice, chronic fever and malaria. 

Essential oil—inhibits the growth 

of Mycobacterium tuberculosis 

(Schroeter) Lehmann & Neumann; 

also inhibits the growth of Micrococcus 

pyogenes var. aureus and 

Pasteurella pestis. Root, tuber and 

stem—mucilaginous, astringent. 

Leaves and twigs—antiseptic; used 

for poulticing wounds. 

Leea crispa Linn. 


Habitat ◮ North-Eastern India and in 

Western parts of Deccan Peninsula. 

Folk ◮ Banachelt (Maharashtra), 

Banachalit (Bengal), Nalugu, Nellu 

(Kerala). 

Action ◮ Leaves—applied to wounds. 

Root tubers—used for guineaworm. 

Plant—a host of the Indian lac 

insect. 

Leea indica Merrill. 


Habitat ◮ Forests of tropical and 

subtropical India, from Himalayas 

as far west as Kumaon, and 

southwards to the Peninsula. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Chhatri, Karkatajihvaa, 

Kukurjihvaa. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Nalava, Nyekki, 

Ottanali. 

Folk ◮ Karkani (Maharashtra). 

Lens culinaris Medic. 367 

Action ◮ Root—antidiarrhoeal, 

antidysenteric, antispasmodic, 

cooling, sudorific. A decoction 

allays thirst. Leaves—juice of 

young leaves, digestive. Ointment 

prepared from roasted leaves 

relieves vertigo. 

The leaves contain amorphous froth 

forming acid. 

Leea macrophylla Roxb. 


Habitat ◮ Throughout hotter parts 

of India. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Hastikanda, Hasti-karna 

Palaasha; Kekidandaa. 

Folk ◮ Hatkan, Dholsamudra, Haath, 

Kaan. 

Action ◮ Astringent, anodyne, 

styptic, antiseptic. Root tubers— 

astringent, mucilaginous; applied 

to wounds and sores; used for 

ringworm and guineaworm. 

Lens culinaris Medic. 

Synonym ◮ L. esculenta Moench. 


Habitat ◮ Native to South West Asia; 

cultivated as a pulse crop mainly in 

North India, Madhya Pradesh and 

some parts of Maharashtra. 

English ◮ Lentil. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Masura, Masurikaa, 

Mangalyaa, Mangalyak, Adaasa. 

Unani ◮ Masoor. 

L

368 Leonotis nepetaefolia (L.) R. Br. 

L 

Siddha ◮ Misurpurpu. 

Action ◮ Seeds—mostly used as 

a pulse. Contain as much as 30% 

proteins (similar to those of peas 

and beans). Soup is used in gastric 

troubles and constipation. Paste 

or poultice is applied to foul and 

indolent ulcers. 

Dosage ◮ Dried seed—10–20 g. 

(API, Vol. III.) 

Leonotis nepetaefolia (L.) R. Br. 




Ayurvedic ◮ Granthiparni, Kaakapuchha. 

Folk ◮ Gathivan, Deepamaal 


Action ◮ Leaves—spasmolytic. Ash 

of flower head—applied to burns 

and scalds, in ringworm and other 



recommends the root in cough, 

bronchitis and dyspnoea. 

The root contains n-octacosanol, 

n-octacosanoic acid, quercetin, 4,6,7trimethoxy-5-methylchromene-2-one, 

campesterol and beta-sitosterol-beta- 

D-glucopyranoside. 

The plant contains 4,6,7-trimethoxy- 

5-methyl-chromene-2-one. 

The leaves contain neptaefolin, neptaefuran, 

neptaefuranol, neptaefolinol, 

leonitin, neptaefolinin and (−)-55, 6octadecadienoic 

acid. 

The seed oil contains oleic, linoleic, 

palmitic and stearic acids. The fatty 

oil, extracted from the seeds, is similar 

to olive oil. The seeds possess feeble 

antimalarial activity. The seed extract 

showed 100% toxicity against Alternaria 

alternata and marked toxicity 

against Aspergillus niger. 



Leonurus cardiaca Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Native to Europe; also 

distributed in Himalayas from 


English ◮ Common Motherwort, 

Lion’s Tail. 

Unani ◮ Baranjaasif. (Also equated 

with Artemesia vulgaris Linn; and 

Achillea millifolium Linn.) 

Action ◮ Stomachic, laxative, 

antispasmodic, diaphoretic, emmenagogue 

(used in absent or 

painful menstruation, premenstrual 

tension, menopausal flushes). Hypnotic, 

sedative. Used as a cardiac 

tonic. (Studies in China have shown 

that Motherwort extracts show 

antiplatelet aggregation actions and 

decrease the levels of blood lipids.) 

Key application ◮ In nervous cardiac 

disorders and as adjuvant for 

thyroid hyperfunction. (German 

Commission E.) As antispasmodic. 


The British Herbal Compendium 

indicated its use for patients who 

have neuropathic cardiac disorders 

and cardiac complaints of nervous 

origin.

The plant contains diterpene bitter 

principles, iridoid monoterpenes, 

flavonoids including rutin and quercitrin, 

leonurin, betaine, caffeic acid 

derivatives, tannins and traces of a 

volatile oil. 

The herb is a slow acting adjuvant 

in functional and neurogenic heart 

diseases. Its sedative and spasmolytic 

properties combine well with Valeriana 

officinalis or other cardioactive 

substances. 

The herb contains several components 

with sedative effects—alphapinene, 

benzaldehyde, caryophyllene, 

limonene and oleanolic acid. (Sharon 

M. Herr.) 

Lepidagathis trinervis Nees. 


Habitat ◮ North-west Himalayas and 

Sikkim and from Bihar to central, 

western and southern India. 

Folk ◮ Safed Raasnaa (Bihar). 

Hiran-chaaro, Paniru (Gujarat). 

Action ◮ Plant—bitter tonic. Used 

for rheumatic affections. (Raasnaa 

is equated with Pluchea lanceolata.) 

Related species of Lepidagathis: L. 

cristata Willd., and L. hamiltoniana 

Wall. ex Nees. These are used as a bitter 

tonic in fevers and are applied to 

itchy affections of the skin. The leaves 

of L. incurva D. Don, synonymL. hyalina 

Nees are chewed to relieve cough. 

Lepidium iberis Linn. var. alba. 

Family ◮ Curciferace; Brassicaceae. 

Lepidium ruderale Linn. 369 

Habitat ◮ Western Europe. Seeds are 

imported into India from Persia. 

English ◮ Pepper-Grass. 

Unani ◮ Bazr-ul-khumkhum, Todari 

(white var.). 

Action ◮ Seeds—blood purifier; 

prescribed in bronchitis. 

The fatty acid of the oil are: oleic 

12.9, linoleic 47.87, linolenic 5.43, erucic 

31.97, stearic 0.54 and palmitic 1.22%. 

The seed mucilage on hydrolysis 

gave galactose, arabinose, rhamnose 

and galacturonic acid. 

Flowering tops and seeds contain 

a bitter principle, lepidin. 

The plant yield a sulphur-containing 

volatile oil. 

Lepidium latifolium Linn. 


Habitat ◮ North-West Himalayas. 

Folk ◮ Gonyuch (Ladakh). 

Action ◮ Plant—depurative, antilithic, 

diuretic, stomachic, antiscorbutic. 

An infusion is given for liver 

and kidney diseases. Also used as 

a resolvent in skin affections. 

The leaves show dose-dependent increase 

of diuretic activity; also increase 

in potassium excretion in urine. 

The leaves contain cholesterol, stigmasterol 


Lepidium ruderale Linn. 


L

370 Lepidium sativum Linn. 

L 

Habitat ◮ Bhutan, Kumaon and 

Kashmir, at altitudes of 2,100– 

3,900 m. 

Action ◮ Plant—used in impetigo. 

The herb, seeds and volatile oil exhibit 

properties similar to those of other 

Lepidium sp. 

Aqueous extracts of the herb cause 

a brief drop in blood pressure and depress 

respiration in mice and rabbits. 

Lepidium sativum Linn. 

Family ◮ Curciferace, Brassicaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Native to West Asia; 

cultivated throughout India as 

a salad plant. 

English ◮ Garden Cress, Water Cress. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Chandrashuura, Chandrikaa, 

Vaas-pushpaa, Pashumehankaarikaa, 

Nandini, Suvaasaraa, 

Aashaalim. 

Unani ◮ Habb-ul-rashaad, Tukh-e- 

Taratezak, Haalim, Sipandaan. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Alivirai. 

Action ◮ Used in asthma, bronchial 

affections and bleeding piles. 

Seeds—lactagogue, diuretic, and 

emmenagogue. Used for treating 

skin disorders, fever, amoebic 

dysentery and asthma. Leaf— 

stimulant, antiscorbutic, diuretic. 

Roots—used in secondary syphilis 

and in tenesmus. 


recommends the use of dried seeds, 

in powder form, in gout. 

The seeds are a good source of iron, 

but its bioavailability is poor (5.4% of 

total iron). They are used for rapid 

healingofbonefractures.Theethanolic 

extract of seeds significantly increased 

collagen synthesis and its deposition 

at bone fracture portion in the 

treated rats. The tensile strength of the 

broken tibiae also increased. 

The seeds contain an alkaloid 

(0.19%), glucotropaeolin, sinapin (choline 

ester of sinapic acid), sinapic acid, 

mucilaginous matter (5%) and uric 

acid (0.108 g/kg). The seed oil exhibits 

pronounced oestrogenic activity. 

The seed mucilage allays the irritation 

of the mucous membrane of 

intestines in dysentery and diarrhoea. 

It consists of a mixture of cellulose 

(18.3%) and uronic acid-containing 

polysaccharides; acid hydrolysis yield 

L-arabinose, D-galactose, L-rhamnose, 

D-glacturonic acid and D-glucose. 

The plant contains pantothenic acid, 

pyridoxin and rutin. Ethanolic extract 

of the plant showed antiviral activity 

against rinderpest virus. 

Dosage ◮ Seed—3–6 g powder. (API, 

Vol. I.) 

Leptadenia reticulata W. & A. 


Habitat ◮ Sub-Himalayan tracts 

of Punjab and Uttar Pradesh and 

Deccan Peninsula up to an altitude 

of 900 m. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Jivanti; Jivaniya, Jivapushpa, 

Hemavati, Jivana. Shaakashreshtha, 

Payaswini, Maangalya, 

Madhusravaa. (Guduuchi, Medaa, 

Kaakoli and Vrkshaadani are also 

known as Jivanti.) (Haimavati

is equated with Orris Root and 

Hemapushpa with Sarca asoca 

flower.) 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Keerippaalai. 

Folk ◮ Dodishaak (Gujarat). 

Action ◮ Plant—stimulant and 

restorative. Improves eyesight. 

Found useful in the treatment of 

habitual abortion. Leaves and roots 

used in skin diseases. 

The herb contains n-triacontane, 

cetyl alcohol, beta-sitosterol, betaamyrin 

acetate, lupanol 3-O-diglucoside 

and lepitidin glycoside. 

Stigmasterol and lipoid fraction of 

the plant exhibited estrogen mimetic 

effects. 

Alcoholic extract of roots and leaves 

show antibacterial activity against 

Gram-positive and Gram-negative 

bacteria. 

Intravenous administration of aqueous 

extract of stems has a pronounced 

and hypotensive action in anaesthetized 

dogs. 


(CCRAS.) 

Leptadenia spartium Wight. 

Synonym ◮ L. pyrotechnica (Forsk.) 

Decne. 

Family ◮ Asclepiadaeae. 

Habitat ◮ Punjab, Western Uttar 

Pradesh, Rajasthan and northern 

parts of Mumbai along the sea coast. 

Folk ◮ Kheemp (Rajasthan), Kheep 

(Gujarat). Prasaarani is a doubtful 

synonym. 

Leucaena glauca Benth. 371 

Action ◮ Antiseptic. Plant used for 

the treatment of burns and wounds. 

The plant contains a triterpenoid, 

leptadenol; also 2.32 g/100 g tannin. 

Lettsomia elliptica Wight. 

Synonym ◮ Argyreia elliptica (Wight) 

Choisy. 


Habitat ◮ Chota Nagpur, Orissa, 

Deccan, Karnataka, Anaimalai Hills 

and Western Ghats from Konkan 

southwards to Kerala. 

English ◮ Silverweed. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Unnayangodi. 

Folk ◮ Khedari, Bond vel (Maharashtra). 

Action ◮ Leaves—a paste is applied 

externally in cough and quinsy. 

Leucaena glauca Benth. 

Synonym ◮ L. leucocephala (Lam.) 

de Wit. 


Habitat ◮ The plains of India. 

English ◮ White Popinac, Lead tree. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Tagarai. 

Folk ◮ Vilaayati Baval Lasobaval 

(Gujarat). 

Action ◮ The bark and leaves contain 

16.3 and 3% tannin respectively. 

Leaves also contain quercitrin 

(0.08%). The toxicity of the plant 

is due to an alkaloid leucenine or 

L

372 Leucas aspera Spreng. 

L 

leucenol. Beta-and alpha-aminopropionic 

acid is reported to be 

identical with mimosine (from 

Mimosa pudica). 

Seeds, in addition to a fatty oil 

(8.8%), also contain mucilage composed 

of mannans, glactans and xylans. 

Stachyose is also reported to be 

present in the seeds. (Heat treatment 

of leaves and seeds after moistening 

lowers the alkaloid content.) 

Leucas aspera Spreng. 

Family ◮ Labiatae; Laminceae. 


cultivated fields, wastelands, 

roadsides. 

English ◮ White Dead Nettle. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Dronpushpi, Phalepushpaa, 

Kutambaka. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Thumbai. 

Folk ◮ Guumaa, Halkusa (smaller 

var.), Tumbaa. 

Action ◮ Carminative, antihistaminic, 

antipyretic, febrifuge, antiseptic. 

Used in jaundice, anorexia, 

dyspepsia, fever, helminthic manifestation, 

respiratory and skin 

diseases. 

Flowers—given with honey for 

coughs and colds to children. Leaves— 

juice is used as an external application 

for psoriasis, chronic skin eruptions 

and painful swellings. 

An alcoholic extract of leaves shows 


The plant gave oleanolic acid, ursolic 

acid and beta-sitosterol. The root 

contains a triterpenoid, leucolactone, 

and the sterols, sitosterol, stigmasterol 

and campesterol. 

Leucas cephalotes 

(Roth.) Spreng. 



part of India, as a weed, ascending 

up to 1,800 m in the Himalayas. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Dronpushpi, Katumbaa. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Tumbai. 

Folk ◮ Guumaa, Dhurpi saaga, 

Halkusa (bigger var.), Tumbaa. 

Action ◮ Plant—stimulant, diaphoretic, 

antiseptic (fresh juice is used 

in scabies), insecticidal. Flowers— 

a syrup is used as a domestic 

remedy for coughs and colds. Dry 

leaves along with tobacco (1 : 3) are 

smoked to treat bleeding as well as 

itching piles. 


indicated the use of the dried 

whole plant in jaundice, inflammations, 

cough, bronchial asthma and 

intermittent fever. 

The plant contains beta-sitosterol 

glycoside and traces of an alkaloid. 


juice; 1–3 g powder. (API, Vol. II.) 

Leucas lavandulaefolia Rees. 

Synonym ◮ L. linifolia Spreng. 


Ayurvedic ◮ 

species). 

Dronpushpi (related

Folk ◮ Tumbaa, Guumaa. 

Action ◮ Leaves—a decoction is 

used as a sedative in nervous 

disorders; also as a stomachic and 

vermifuge. Crushed leaves are 

applied externally for dermatosis, 

a poultice to sores and wounds. 

Roots, stems and leaves are cyanogenetic. 

Leucas martinicensis R. Br. 


Habitat ◮ Bihar and South India. 

Folk ◮ Guumaa (var.). Sugandhak is 

a doubtful synonym. 

Action ◮ Plant—an infusion is 

given for colds and gastrointestinal 

troubles. 

Ligularia tussilaginea 

(Burm. f) Makino. 

Synonym ◮ L. kaempferi Sieb & Zucc. 

Senecio kaempferi DC. 


Habitat ◮ Native to Japan; grows in 


Action ◮ Used for obstinate skin 

diseases. 

The rhizomes contain inulin and 

beta-dimethylacrylic acid. 

Lilium candidum Linn. 


Lilium giganteum Wall. 373 

Habitat ◮ Native to Southern Europe 

and South-West Asia; grown in 


English ◮ Madona Lily, Annunciation 

Lily, White Lily. 

Action ◮ Bulb—astringent, demulcent. 

Used for gynaecological 

disorders. A decoction of the bulbs 

inwaterormilkisgivenfordropsy; 

a poultice is applied to tumours, 

ulcers and skin inflammations. 

Fresh flowering plant is used in 

homoeopathy as an antispasmodic; 

the pollen is used against epilepsy. 

A total extract stimulates phagocytosis 

in mice. The bulbs contain 

alkaloids (pyrroline derivatives), jatropham, 

ethyljatropham and citraconic 

acid imides. 

Mucous, tannin, sterine and glucoside 

impart anti-inflammatory, analgesic, 

diuretic and expectorant properties 

to the bulb. 

Bulbs of Lilium species contain soluble 

polysaccharides (glucomannans), 

starch, gamma-methylene glutamic 

acid and tuliposide. 

Lilium giganteum Wall. 


Habitat ◮ Temperate Himalayas from 

Kumaon and Garhwal to Sikkim, 

Khasi and Aka hills and Manipur at 


Folk ◮ Gaayotraa (Jaunsar). 

Action ◮ Leaves—used as an external 

cooling applications to alleviate 

pains of wounds and bruises. 

L

374 Lilium polyphyllum D. Don. 

L 

Lilium polyphyllum D. Don. 


Habitat ◮ Uttaranchal, Himachal 

Pradesh. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Kaakoli, Madhuraa, 

Kshira, Vayhasthaa, Karnikaa, 

Vaayasoli. 

Action ◮ Tuberous root—used as 

a tonic in emaciation and as a source 

of energy, after dry roasting. 

Dosage ◮ Tuberous root—3–6 g. 


Lilium tigrinumKer-Gawl. 




English ◮ Tiger Lily, Crumple Lily. 

Action ◮ Bulbs—used as a cardiac 

tonic. Flowers—used for ovarian 

neuralgia, also recommended in 

myoptic astigmia. 

The bulbs of Lilium martagon Linn., 

Turk’s Cap Lily, also possesses cardiotonic 

properties and are used in the 

treatment of dysmenorrhoea; externally 

for ulcers. 

Lilium wallichianum Schutt. f. 


Habitat ◮ Western Himalayas, Nepal, 

Lushai hills, Manipur and hills of 

South India at altitudes of 300– 

2,400 m. 

Folk ◮ Findora. Badai (Lushai). 

Action ◮ Dried bulb scales— 

demulcent; used like salep in 

pectoral complaints. 

Limnanthemum cristatum 

(Roxb.) Griseb. 

Synonym ◮ Menyanthes hydrophyllum 

Lour. 

Nymphoides hydrophyllum Kuntze. 

Family ◮ Menyanthaceae. 


fresh water ponds and tanks. 

(Considered by some authors 

a synonym of Nymphoides Hill.) 

Folk ◮ Ghainchu, Tagarmuula; 

Panchuli, Chandmalla (Bengal); 

Kumudini (Maharashtra). 

Action ◮ Plant—used in fevers and 

jaundice. Seeds—anthelmintic. 

Stalks and leaves—applied to ulcers 

and insect bites. A decoction is 

used as a wash for parasitic skin 

affections. The plant is used as 

a substitute for Swertia Chirata. 

The rhizomes and roots of Nymphoides 

macrospermum Vasudevan (Family: 

Menyanthaceae) aresoldinthe 

market as Granthik Tagar. These are 

used as a substitute for Valeriana hardwickii 

Wall. in neurological disorders 

and colic. 

Limnanthemum indicum 

(L.) Griseb. 

Synonym ◮ Menyanthes indica Linn. 

Nymphoides indicum (L.) O. Kuntze.


Habitat ◮ Throughout India, in tanks 

and back waters. 

Folk ◮ Barachuli, Chinnambal 

(Kerala). 

Action ◮ Plant—bitter, febrifuge, 

antiscorbutic. Used as a substitute 

for Swertia Chirata in fever and 

jaundice. 

Limnanthemum nymphaeoides 

Hoffm. & Link. 

Synonym ◮ Nymphoides peltata 

(Gmel.) O. Kuntze. 



English ◮ Fringed Water-Lily. 

Folk ◮ Kuru, Khairposh (Punjab). 

Action ◮ Leaf—used in periodic 

headache. 

Limnophila aromatica 

(Lam.) Druce. 

Synonym ◮ L. gratissima Blume. 


Habitat ◮ South Bihar, Orissa, 

Assam, Western parts of South 

India, up to 600 m, also in back 

waters. 

Folk ◮ Aamragandha Karpuur 

(non-classical); Karpuur (Bengal); 

Ambuli (Maharashtra); Manganari 

(Kerala). Kuttra. 

Action ◮ Plant—galactagogue, 

aperient, antiseptic. Juice given in 

Limnophila indica (Lam.) Bruce. 375 

fever and to nursing mothers when 

milk is sour. Oil—antiseptic. 

The plant gave an essential oil (0.1%), 

containing d-limolene and d-perillaldehyde 

as principal constituents. The 

essential oil showed significant antimicrobial 

activity against Bacillus subtilis, 

Candida albicans, Aspergillus niger and 

Rhizopus oryzae. 

The plant, made into a liniment with 

coconut oil, is used in elephantiasis. 

L. conferia Benth., known as Munganari 

in Kerala, contains flavonoids 

showing anti-inflammatory activity, 

quercetin showed significant activity 

only at a dose of 150 mg/kg, while 

wogonin, nevadensin and quercetinpentamethyl 

ether at 75 mg/kg. The 

essential oil from the plant exhibited 

antifungal activity against ringworm 

fungi. 

Limnophila indica (Lam.) Bruce. 

Synonym ◮ L. gratioloides R. Br. 

L. racemosa Benth. 


Habitat ◮ Throughout India in damp 

places, swamps and rice fields. 

Folk ◮ Kuttra; Karpuur (Bengal), 

Ambuli (Maharashtra); Manganari 

(Kerala). 

Action ◮ Plant—carminative, 

antiseptic. Leaves—an infusion is 

given in dyspepsia and dysentery. 

A liniment prepared from the plant 

is used in elephantiasis. 

Related species: L. rugosa (Roth) 

Merrill, synonym L. roxburghii G. Don, 

L

376 Limonia crenulata Roxb. 

L 

known as Kaalaa Karpuur (throughout 

India),isusedasdiuretic,stomachic, 

digestive tonic. Also used as a hair 

perfume. 

Limonia crenulata Roxb. 

Synonym ◮ Hesperethusa crenulata 

(Roxb.) M. Roem. 



Punjab and Kumaon eastwards; 

in Assam, Bihar, Orissa, Madhya 

Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka 


Ayurvedic ◮ Bilvaparni. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Nayvila. 

Folk ◮ Ran-limbu, Naringi (Mumbai), 

Tondsha (Maharashtra), Beli, 

Bainthaa. 

Action ◮ Dried fruit—stomachic; 

used in pestilent fevers, also as 

an antidote to poisons. Root— 

purgative, sudorific. 

The plant showed anti-inflammatory 

activity which was attributed to 8hydroxy-6-methoxy-2-methyl-anthraquinone-3-O-beta-D-glucopyranoside 

in animal studies. 

The leaves contain an essential oil; 

major constituents are geraniol, alphaand 

beta-pinene, 1,8-cineole, elemol 

acetate, linool, alpha-terpinolene, 

camphor, eudesmol, p-cymene, camphane, 

azulene, borneol acetate, alphaterpenol,alpha-curcumene,alphathujone, 

limolene, myrcene and betaocimene. 

Leaves also contain anthraquinones 

and dalbargin galactopyranoside. 

Lindenbergia indica 

(Linn.) Kuntze. 

Synonym ◮ L. urticaefolia Lehm. 




Himalayas. 

Folk ◮ Haldi Basanto (Bengal), 

Dhol (Maharashtra), Patthar-chatti 

(Gujarat), Bheet-chatti. 

Action ◮ Plant—juice is given in 

chronic bronchitis; also applied to 

skin eruptions. 

Lindera nessiana Benth. 



Nepal eastwards at 1,800–2,400 m, 

and in Assam. 

Folk ◮ Gandha-daaru (Bengal), 

Siltimur (Nepal). 

Action ◮ Carminative. 

The plant is reported to yield sassafras, 

which is substituted for the true 

sassafras from Cinnamomum glanduliferum 

Meissn. 

The seeds yield a fatty oil (60.7%). 

It gave methyl esters : methyl laurate 

75.2, methyl caprate 13.3, methyl oleate 

5.4, methyl myristate 2.4, and methylpalmitate 

0.5%. 

Linum usitatissimum Linn. 

Family ◮ Linaceae.


Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, 

Maharashtra, Bihar and Rajasthan. 

English ◮ Linseed, Flax. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Atasi, Umaa, Masrnaa, 

Nilapushpi, Kshumaa. 

Unani ◮ Kattan. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Ali, Virai, Sirrali 

(Seed). 

Action ◮ Seed—demulcent, emollient, 

laxative, antilipidemic, 

antitussive, pectoral (used in bronchitis 

and cough). Flowers—used 

as nervine and cardiac tonic. Oil— 

used in burns, skin injuries and 

sores. 


chronic constipation, for colons 

damaged by abuse of laxatives, irritable 

bowel syndrome, diverticular 

disease, symptomatic short-term 

treatment of gastritis and enteritis. 

Externally, for painful skin 

inflammations. (German Commission 

E, ESCOP, The British Herbal 


The plant contains chlorogenic acid 

and its isomer. Also present are palmitic, 

stearic, oleic, linoleic acids, along 

with amino acids, and sugars. Linseed 

also contains mucilage (3–10%) in epidermis; 

fatty oil (30–40%); cyanogenic 

glycosides (0.05–00.1%) mainly linustatin, 

neolinustatin and linamarin; lignans; 

phenylpropane derivatives including 

linusitamarin. (Cyanogenic 

glycosides are not found toxic in therapeutic 

doses as these are broken down 

only to a limited extent in the body.) 

Lipasis rostrata Rehd. 377 

The seeds are an excellent source of 

dietary alpha-linolenic acid for modifying 

plasma and tissue lipids. Flaxseed 

preparations reduced atherogenic risk 

in hyperlipemic patients. (Cited in Expanded 

Commission E Monographs.) 

Human studies have indicated Flaxseed’s 

use in atherosclerosis, hypercholesterolemia, 

lupus nephritis, chronic 

renal diseases and in cancer prevention 

(active principle: lignan precursor 

secoisolariciresinol diglycoside). 

(Sharon M. Herr. Also Am J Clin Nutr, 

1999, 69, 395–402.) 

The PP glucose response to a 50 g 

carbohydrate load given as Flaxseed 

breadwasfoundtobe27%lowerwhen 

compared with regular white bread. 

Taking Flaxseed oil daily for 3 

months did not improve symptoms 

of pain and stiffness in rheumatoid 

arthritis and no effect was observed 

on RA, such as C-reactive protein and 

ESR. (Natural Medicines Comprehensive 


The water-binding capacity and rheological 

properties of linseed mucilage 

resembled those of guar gum. 

Dosage ◮ Ripe seed—3–6 g powder. 

(API, Vol. I.) Flower-bud—3–6 g; 

oil—5–10 ml. (CCRAS.) 

Lipasis rostrata Rehd. 


Ayurvedic ◮ Jivaka-Rshabhaka (bulbs 

of Microstylis wallichi Lindl. and M. 

musifera, also of other orchids, are 

sold as Jivaka-Rshabhaka). 

Action ◮ Used in age-sustaining and 

invigorating tonics. 

L

378 Lippia geminata H. B. & K. 

L 

Lippia geminata H. B. & K. 

Synonym ◮ L. alba (Mill.) N.E.Br. 

L. javanica (Burm.f.) Spreng. 


Habitat ◮ Bihar and Orissa to 

Assam; Madhya Pradesh, Nilgiris 

and Anaimalais up to 900 m in wet 

places and river banks. 

Folk ◮ Basula (Madhya Pradesh), 

Naagaa-aiari (Orissa). 

Action ◮ Leaves—stomachic and 

nervine. Essential oil—fungitoxic. 

The essential oil from leaves contains 

citral, neral and geranial. Diterpenes, 

d- andl-limonene, l-piperitone, geranial. 

Diterpenes, d-and l-limonene, lpiperitone, 

lippone, a saturated ketone, 

d-alpha-pinene, dl-dihydrocarvone, 

citral and camphor have been identified 

in different samples. 

Lippia nodiflora Rich. 

Synonym ◮ Phyla nodiflora (Linn.) 

Greene. 


Habitat ◮ Throughout India, in wet 

places and river banks. 

English ◮ Wild sage. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Jalapippali, Shaaradi, 

Shakulaadani, Jalakarnaa, Matsyagandhaa. 

Laangali (now equated 

with Gloriosa superba). 

Unani ◮ Bukkum Booti. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Paduthalai. 

Action ◮ Plant—cooling, febrifuge, 

diuretic. Poultice used as maturant 

for boils. Leaves—an infusion is 

given to women after delivery. 

An alcoholic extract of the leaves 

shows antibacterial activity against E. 

coli. The leaf juice enters into hair oils 

for alopecia areata. 

Aerial parts are reported to contain 

flavonoids, flavone aglycones and 

flavone sulphates. 



Liquidambar formosana Hance. 

Family ◮ 

daceae. 

Altingiaceae; Hamameli- 


reported to have been introduced 

into Lalbagh gardens, Bangalore. 

English ◮ Fragrant Maple. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Silhak (var.). 

Unani ◮ Silaaras (var.). 

Action ◮ See Liquidambar orientalis. 

Balsam (Chinese Storax) contains 

cinnamic acid (16%). Cinnamyl alcohol, 

borneol, a resin alcohol and 

volatile constituents (1.8–8%). The 

leaves on steam-distillation yield 005% 

of a volatile oil consisting principally 

of terpenes (88%). 

Liquidambar orientalis Mill. 

Family ◮ 

daceae. 

Altingiaceae; Hamameli- 

Habitat ◮ Native to Asia Minor.

English ◮ Storax, Oriental Sweet 

Gum. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Turushka, Silhaka, 

Kapitaila. 

Unani ◮ Ambar Saayil, Silaaras. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Neri-arishippal. 

Action ◮ Balsam—anti-inflammatory, 

stimulating expectorant, antiparasitic, 

antiseptic, antimicrobial. Used 

externally in scabies, ringworm and 

other skin diseases. Used for coughs 

and bronchitis as an inhalation. 

Storax contained cinnamic acid up 

to 30%—cinnamin acid esters, cinnamyl 

cinnamate (styracin), phenylpropyl 

cinnamate; triterpene acids; 

vanillin; styrene; aromatic alcohols. 

Pentacyclic triterpene aldehydes—liquidambronal 

and ambronal—have 

been isolated from nonvolatile part 

of resin along with bornyl trans-cinnamate. 

Dosage ◮ Gum—1–3 g. (CCRAS.) 

Liriodendron tulipifera Linn. 



introduced into hill stations in 

India. 

English ◮ Tulip tree. 

Action ◮ Bark—antipyretic, diaphoretic; 

used in rheumatism, 

dyspepsia and as antimalarial. 

The root contains an alkaloid tulipiferin, 

traces of a glycoside, essential oil 

and tannin. 

Lithospermum officinanle Linn. 379 

Litchi chinensis (Gaertn.) Sonn. 

Synonym ◮ Nephelium litchi 

Cambess. 



cultivated mainly in Northern 

Bihar, particularly in Muzaffarpur 

and Darbhanga districts, and 

Saharanpur, Dehra Dun, Muzaffarnagar, 

Gorakhpur, Deoria, Gonda, 

Basti, Faizabad, Rampur, Bareilly, 

Bahraich, Kheri and Pilibhit 

districts of Uttar Pradesh. 

English ◮ Litchi, Lychee. 

Action ◮ Fruit—refrigerant during 

summer. Leaf—used in bites of 

animals. 

Litchi aril contains: total sugars (as 

invert sugar) 12.1–14.8; reducing sugar 

9–13.7; non-reducing sugar 1.0–3.4; 

acidity (as citric acid) 0.22–0.36%; and 

ascorbic acid 34.5–45.4 mg/100 g. 

The plant contains levulinic, malic, 

citric, lactic, malonic, fumaric, succinic, 

phosphoric and glutaric acids. 

The Bark contains friedelin and stigmasterol. 

Litchi seeds are prescribed in Malaya 

for neurological disorders and orchitis. 

In seed lipids, fatty acids cyclopropanoic 

42.0; oleic 27.0, palmitic 12.0 

and linoleic 11.0%, have been determined. 

Lithospermum officinanle Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Kashmir and Kumaon, at 


English ◮ Corn Gromwell. 

L

380 Litsea glutinosa (Lour.) C. B. Robinson. 

L 

Folk ◮ Lubis firmun. 

Action ◮ Leaves—sedative. Seeds— 

diuretic, lithotriptic. A decoction of 

rootsandtwigsisgivenintheform 

of syrup in eruptive diseases, such 

as smallpox and measles. 

The aerial parts contain pyrrolizidine 

alkaloids. 

Saline extracts of the aerial parts 

and roots, administered to experimental 

animals by injection, inhibit oestrus 

and the functioning of ovaries and 

testes; the activity of the thyroid gland 

is also reduced. The active principle is 

formed from phenolic precursors like 

caffeic,chlorogenic,rosmarinicacidas 

well as luteolin-7 beta-glucuronide by 

an oxidation step. Other constituents 

are lithospermic acid and shikonin. 

Shikonin and acetyl-shikonin, the 

pigments of the root, exhibit antiinflammatory 

activity comparable to 

phenylbutazone. 

An infusion of leaves is used in Spain 

as sedative. 

Litsea glutinosa 

(Lour.) C. B. Robinson. 

Synonym ◮ L. sebifera Pers. 

L. chinensis Lam. 


Habitat ◮ Punjab, Khasi Hills, 

Bengal, Assam and South India. 

English ◮ Common Tallow Lowrel. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Medaasaka. 

Unani ◮ 

Hindi. 

Maidaa-lakdi, Maghaase- 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Mushaippeyetti, 

Elumpurukki, Uralli. 

Action ◮ Leaf—antispasmodic and 

emollient. Bark—demulcent, emollient, 

astringent, antidiarrhoeal, 

anodyne. Root—decoction is 

used as an emmenagogue. Oil 

from berries—used in rheumatism. 

Essential oil—antibacterial, 

antifungal. 

The bark is mucilaginous. 

The plant contains a polysaccharide. 

Leaves and stem contain aporphine alkaloids—boldine, 

laurotetanine, actinodaphnine 

and their derivatives. The 

trunk bark gave sebiferine and litseferine. 

Boldine produced dose-dependent 

inhibition of induced microsomal peroxidation 

in experimental studies. 

Dosage ◮ Bark—3–5 g powder. 

(CCRAS.) 

Litsea monopetala (Roxb.) Pers. 

Synonym ◮ L. polyantha Juss. 


Habitat ◮ Assam and Eastern 

Himalayas, also Tamil Nadu. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Maidaa-lakdi (var.). 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Maidalagadil, Picinpattai. 

Action ◮ Bark—stimulant, astringent, 

spasmolytic, stomachic, 

antidiarrhoeal. Root—applied 

externally for pains, bruises and 

contusions. 

The bark contains beta-sitosterol 

and an aporphine alkaloid, actinodaphnine.

Litsea stocksii Hook. f. 


Habitat ◮ The hills of western Deccan 

Peninsula. 

Folk ◮ Pisi, Posha (Maharashtra). 

Action ◮ Leaves—an infusion is 

given in irritation of bladder and 

urethra. 

The seeds yield a fat consisting mostly 

of lauric acid with a small amount of 

oleic acid. 

The leaves are mucilaginous. 

Lobelia chinensis Lour. 

Synonym ◮ L. radicans Thunb. 

Family ◮ Campanulaceae, Lobeliaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Nepal, Chota Nagpur 

and Khasi hills at altitudes of 900– 

1,500 m. 

Action ◮ Plant—used in China for 

fevers and asthma. Root—considered 

depurative and antirheumatic 

in Indo-China. The plant is one 

of the constituent of a tincture 

formulation used for the treatment 

of scars. 

The rhizomes of the plant are reported 

to contain the polyfructosan, 

lobelinin. 

Lobelia inflata Linn. 

Family ◮ Campanulaceae; Lobeliaceae. 

Lobelia inflata Linn. 381 

Habitat ◮ Native to eastern United 

States; imported into India. 

English ◮ Indian Tabacco, Pukeweed. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Devanala (var.). 

Action ◮ Antiasthmatic, antispasmodic, 

broncho-dilator, expectorant, 

mild sedative and relaxant. 

Used as a tabacco deterrent (as a major 

ingredient in many antismoking 

mixtures). 

Key application ◮ In the treatment 

of asthma, bronchitis. (German 

Commission E.) Asrespiratory 

stimulant. (The British Herbal 


Lobelia contains piperidine alkaloids, 

mainly lobeline, with lobelanine, 

lobelanidine, norlobelanine, isolobinine. 

Lobeline stimulates respiration 

in animals by stimulating respiratory 

centre and at high doses stimulates the 

vomiting centre. 

Lobeline has similar but less potent 

pharmacological properties to nicotine 

but 1/20–1/5 as potent. 

Lobeline (0.5%) has also been used 

as an active ingredient in skin-lightening 

preparations. 

Clinical research could not demonstrate 

lobeline efficacy greater than 

placebo in smoking cessation. It was 

disallowed as an ingredient in antismoking 

products in the US in 1993. 



The leaves contain beta-amyrin palmitate 

which possesses sedative and 

antidepressant properties comparable 

to the antidepressant drug mianserin. 

Methanolic extract of leaves exhibited 

antidepressant activity. 

L

382 Lobelia leschenaultina (Persl) Skottsb. 

L 

The leaf powder is toxic at 0.6–1.0 g. 


Lobelia leschenaultina 

(Persl) Skottsb. 

Synonym ◮ L. excelsa Lesch. 


Habitat ◮ Hills of South India at 

altitudes above 1,800 m. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Nala (var.). 

Folk ◮ Devanala (var.) (Maharashtra.) 

Action ◮ Leaves—filtered solution 

is used in the control of aphids, 

tingids and mites on vegetable and 

other crops. Plant—poisonous to 

man and livestock. The leaves are 

cured and smoked as tabacco. 

Lobelia nicotianaefolia Heyne. 


Habitat ◮ Deccan, Konkan and 

Western Ghats, at altitudes of 900– 

2,100 m. 

English ◮ Wild Tobacco. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Devanala, Nala (var.). 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kattuppugaiyilai, 

Upperichedi. 


Lobelia inflata. 

An analysis of Lobelia nicotianaefolia, 

grown in Maharashtra, shows 

that the plant contains appreciable 

quantities of nor-lobelanine and small 

amounts of lobinine and minor bases. 

Lobelia cardinalis Linn., Cardinal 

Flower,iscultivatedinIndiangardens. 

It contains lobinaline as main alkaloid. 

Lobinaline depresses blood pressure 

but has no influence on respiration. L. 

erinus Linn. and L. succulenta Blume, 

synonym L. affinis Wall. also contain 

alkaloids with lobinaline 0.445%. 

Lobelia cordigera Cav., synonym L. 

fulgens Willd., an ornamental Lobelia 

sp., grown in Indian gardens, contains 

inulin. 

Lobelia pyramidalis Wall. (Himalayas 

from Kumaon eastwards to Sikkim 

and Assam at altitudes of 900–2,700 m) 

contains 0.29–0.38% alkaloids as lobeline, 

and may be used as a substitute 

for Lobelia inflata. 

Lodoicea maldivica (Poir.) Pers. 

Family ◮ Arecaceae; Palmae. 

Habitat ◮ A dioecious palm, cultivated 

in gardens as an ornamental. 

English ◮ Double Coconut Palm, Sea 

Coconut Palm. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Samudra-naarikela, 

Dariyaayee Naariyal. 

Unani ◮ Naarjeel-e-Daryaayee, 

Naarjeel-e-Bahari. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kadalthengai, 

Aklaari. 

Action ◮ The water of the green fruit 

and its soft kernel—antacid and 

antibilious. 

A decoction of the fibrous husk is 

reported to bring down urinary sugar

level in diabetic patients (the effect is 

temporary). 


recommends dried endosperm in 

gastroenteritis. 

Dosage ◮ Dried endosperm—5–10 g 

powder. (API, Vol.IV.) 

Lolium temulentum Linn. 


Habitat ◮ The Western Himalayas, 

Punjab and Upper Gangetic Plain. 

English ◮ Darnel, Taumelloolch. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Mochani. 

Folk ◮ Mostaki, Visha-ghaasa 

(Bihar). 

Action ◮ Sedative. 

The overground parts of the grass 

gave alkaloids—loline and perloline. 

The caryopses of the plant contain 

volatile alkaloids—N-acetylloline, Nformylloline 

and N-acetylnorloline. 

Loline dihydrochloride did not show 

CNS toxicity. 

Lonicera japonica Thunb. 

Family ◮ Caprifoliaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Assam (Lushai hills); 

cultivated in gardens. 

English ◮ Japanese Honeysuckle. 

Action ◮ The plant is used in China 

as an antipyretic, stomachic and 

in dysentery, also as an antidote 

to consumption of poisonous 

mushroom. Dried flowers are 

considered diuretic. 

Loranthus falcatus Linn. f. 383 

The plant contains tannin and a saponin; 

lutolin and i-inositol have been 

isolated from the flowers. The berries 

are rich in carotenoids of which cryptoxanthin 

is the major component. 

Lonicera angustifolia Wall. ex DC. (the 

Himalayas from Kashmir to Sikkim 

at altitudes of 1,800–3,600 m), known 

as Geaang, Chulu and Mithik in Punjab; 

and L. glaucea Hook.f.Thoms. 

(the Himalayas from Kashmir to Kumaon 

at altitudes of 3,600–4,800 m), 

known as Sheaa and Shevaa in Punjab 

and Kumaon, possess antispasmodic 

properties. 

Lonicera periclymenum Linn., 

Woodbine Honeysuckle, cultivated in 

hill stations of India, possesses antispasmodic, 

diuretic and sudorific 

properties. Flowers are used in the 

form of syrup in diseases of the respiratory 

tract. The leaves contain an amorphous 

glycoside and salicylic acid. Secoiridoid 

and secoxyloganin have been 


Lonicera quinquelocularis Hardw. is 

equated with Himalayan Honeysuckle, 

found in the Himalayas from Kashmir 

to Bhutan, up to an altitude of 4,000 m. 

Honeysuckle, also known as Duch 

Honeysuckle, Goat’s Leaf, is equated 

with Lonicera caprifolium Linn. 

Loranthus falcatus Linn. f. 

Synonym ◮ Dendrophthoe falcate 

(Linn. f.) Etting. 



aparasite. 

L

384 Loranthus pentandrus Linn. 

L 

Ayurvedic ◮ Bandaaka, Sanharshaa, 

Vrikshaadani, Vrikshaaruha, 

Vriksha-bhakshaa. (A large bushy 

parasite, which causes much damage 

to the host tree.) 


Action ◮ Tender shoots—contain 

10% tannins. Bark—astringent and 

narcotic. 

Loranthus pentandrus Linn. 

Synonym ◮ Dendrophthoe pentandra 

(Linn.) Miq. 


Habitat ◮ Sylhet. (A parasite found 

on trees.) 

Ayurvedic ◮ Bandaaka (var.). 


Action ◮ Leaves—used as poultice 

for sores and ulcers. The twigs 

contain quercitrin and a wax, which 

gives melissyl alcohol. The twig 

ash (8.95%) contains manganese 

(0.26%). 

Luffa acutangula (Linn.) Roxb. 

var. amara (Roxb.) C. B. Clarke. 



English ◮ Ribbed or Ridged Gourd 

(bitter var.). 

Ayurvedic ◮ Katukoshataki, Tiktakoshtaki. 

Action ◮ Plant—purgative, diuretic. 

Used for oedema, splenic enlargement, 

cough and asthma. Seeds— 

emetic, expectorant. 

The plant contains the oleanane type 

triterpene saponins. It is reported to 

exhibit antitumour activity. 

The fruit juice is used as a homoeopathic 

drug in hepatic congestion, irritation 

and inflammation of gastric mucosa. 

Dosage ◮ Leaf, fruit, root—10–20 ml 


Luffa cylindrica 

(Linn.) M. J. Roem. 

Synonym ◮ L. aegyptiaca Mill. 

L. pentandra Roxb. 



greater parts of India. 

English ◮ Smooth Luffa, Spongegourd, 

sponge Cucumber. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Dhaamaargava, Mahaakoshtaki, 

Mahaajaalini, Raajakoshataki. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Mozhukupeerankai, 

Pikku. 

Action ◮ Plant—used against 

pharyngitis, rhinitis, mastitis, oedema, 

swellings and burns. Leaves— 

used for chronic bronchitis. Leaf 

juice is given for amenorrhoea. 

Flowers—used for treating migraine. 

Seeds—alcoholic extract 

exhibited 9.80% fungitoxic activity. 

German Commission E included 

Luffa aegyptiaca among unapproved 

herbs. Preparations of Luffa sponge, 

used as a preventive for infections 

or cold, as a remedy for colds, nasal

catarrh as well as sinusitis and suppuration 

of the sinus, have been negatively 

evaluated. 

The saponins isolated from aerial 

parts are effective in controlling obesity, 

also the side-effects of steroids. 

The oleanane saponins, lucyoside A- 

H (at least one component) is effective 

in preventing loss of hair. 

Spongegourd extracts or saponins 

(ginsenosides and lucyosides) find application 

in topical medication for skin 

disorders and haemorrhoids. Lucyosides 

are also used as antitussive. 

The roots of the mature plants contain 

an acidic pentacyclic triterpene, 

bryonolic acid. Bryonolic acid showed 

antiallergic and anti-inflammatory activity 

in experimental animals. An 

aqueous extract of seeds showed strong 

fibrinolytic activity. It also showed 

anticancer activity in transplanted tumours. 

Dosage ◮ Leaf, flower, fruit—10– 

20 ml juice. (CCRAS.) 

Luffa echinata Roxb. 



Bengal and Gujarat. 

English ◮ Bristly Luffa. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Devadaali, Devataadaka, 

Jimuuta, Garaagari, Kothaphala. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Panibira. 

Folk ◮ Bandaal (Varanasi). 

Action ◮ Fruit—purgative (intensely 

bitter and fibrous). An infusion 

is given in biliary and intestinal 

Lupinus albus Linn. 385 

colic; also in nephritis and chronic 

bronchitis. 

The fruit contains chrysoeriol and 

its glycosides as principal flavonoids. 

Seeds contain cucurbitacin B, triterpene 

alcohols, and a saponin with oleanolic 

acid as sapogenin. 

The alcoholic and ether extracts of 

the plant showed protection against 

CCl4-induced hepatic injury in rats. 

The aqueous extract of fruits is beneficial 

in jaundice as it significantly 

lowered serum bilirubin level in 

chlorpromazine-induced jaundice in 

rats and human patients. The ethanolic 

extract (50%) of the plant exhibited 

hypoglycaemic activity. 

The yellow-flowered var. of Devadaali 

(Eastern Himalayas, Sikkim, 

Bihar, Bengal) is equated with Luffa 

graveolens Roxb. 


(CCRAS.) 

Lupinus albus Linn. 

Family ◮ Leguminosae; Fabaceae. 


English ◮ While Lupine, Wolfsbohne. 

Unani ◮ Turmus. 

Action ◮ Seeds—deobstruent, carminative, 

alterative, anthelmintic. 

Used as an external application to 

ulcers. 

The seed contains alkaloids d-and 

dl-lupanine and hydroxylupanine. 

The principal alkaloid of Blue Lupine 

(Lupinus angustifolius L.) seeds 

is d-lupanine, also hydroxylupanine. 

L

386 Luvunga eleutherandra Dalz in part. 

L 

Yellow Lupine (Lupinus luteus L.) seeds 

contain lupinine (0.43–0.73%) and 

sparteine (0.20–0.37%). Seeds are 

feebly cyanogenetic. Other species 

of Indian gardens, Lupinus hirsutus 

Linn. and Lupinus mutabilis Sweet, 

contain sparteine. 

Luvunga eleutherandra 

Dalz in part. 


Habitat ◮ The western part of 

Peninsular India, from Konkan 

southwards to Anaimalai and 

Travancore hills, up to an altitude 

of 1,000 m. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Lavanga-lataa (var.). 

Folk ◮ Kokilaa (Bengal). 

Action ◮ See Luvunga scandens. 

Luvunga scandens 

(Roxb.) Buch.-Ham. ex Wight. 


Habitat ◮ 

Hills. 

Bengal, Assam and Khasi 

Ayurvedic ◮ Lavanga-lataa. 

Folk ◮ Sugandh-kokilaa (Bengal). 

Action ◮ Essential oil—antifungal. 

Mature berries contain coumarins. 

The essential oil from berries contains 

cinnamyl cinnamate, cineole, dcamphor 

and methyl cinnamate as major 

components. 

Dried fruits are used in medicinal 

hair oils, prescribed for treating baldness. 

The bark contains myricadiol, taraxerol 

and myricolal. 

Lycium barbarum Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Punjab, Rajasthan, Gujarat 

and Maharashtra. 

Unani ◮ Chirchataa, Chirchitaa, 

Chirchitta. 

Folk ◮ Kheechar Chirchataa. 

Action ◮ Immunostimulatory, 

antiproliferatory, antiageing; 

antioxidant. 

The leaves and flowers contain free 

quercetin (1.28 and 1.58 mg/g dry 

weight, respectively), and bound kaempferol. 

Total alkaloid percentage is 

nearly the same in shoots (1.26%) 

and fruits (1.24%) but lower in calli 

(0.83%) and roots (0.67%). Fruits 

had highest atropine content (0.95%) 

and shoots the highest hyoscyamine 

content (0.33%). 

Flavonoids are active against E. coli, 

Staphylococcus aureus and Candida albicans 

(quercetin does not show activity 

against Candida albicans). 

The polysaccharide extract from 

fruits showed antiageing, immunostimulatory 

and antiproliferatory activities. 

The polysaccharide acts as an antioxidant 

and prevented CCl4-induced 

increases in lipid peroxidases in liver. 

It can also protect against genetic 

damage from mutagenic and genotoxic 

compounds. This activity leads to its 

potential use in preventing the adverse 

effects of chemotherapeutic agents.

The fruit contain beta-carotene (8 

mg/100 g dry weight), also free amino 

acids (1.0–2.6%); major amino acid is 

proline. 

The dried fruit and root bark reduce 

cholesterol level by preventing 

itsabsorptioningastrointestinaltract. 

A constituent of the root bark, kukoamine 

exhibits cholesterol lowering, 

antihypertensive and hypoglycaemic 

effects. Hepatoprotective activity is attributed 

to a cerebroside constituent 

found in the fruit. (Natural Medicines 


The fruit and root bark is contraindicated 

in bleeding disorders and hypoglycaemia. 


Lycopersicon esculentum Mill. 

Synonym ◮ Solanum lycopersicum 

Linn. 



of India. 

English ◮ Tomato, Love Apple. 

Unani ◮ Tamaatar. 

Action ◮ Mild aperient, blood 

purifier, cholagogue, digestive. 

Used in homoeopathy for treating 

rheumatic conditions, colds, chills, 

digestive disorders, diabetes, 

obesity, leucorrhoea, metrorrhagia. 

Tomato is a powerful deobstruent. 

It promotes flow of bile; mildly laxative, 

especially when taken raw. Tomato 

stimulates torpid liver and kidneys 

and helps to wash away toxins. Tomato 

is recommended for diabetics. It is 

Lycopodium clavatum Linn. 387 

a major dietary source of carotenoid 

lycopene. 

Tomato juice inhibits carcinogenic 

N-nitrosocompound formation chiefly 

in the stomach. Most of the inhibition 

of formation of N-nitrosomorpholine 

by phenolic fraction of tomato juice 

was due to chlorogenic acids. The 

ascorbate fraction of the juice also 

contains compounds that inhibit nitrosation. 

Consumption of tomato juice can 

significantly increase serum lycopene 

levels. (Decreased serum lycopene 

concentrations are associated with an 

increaseriskof prostatecancer.) (Natural 


2007.) 

The alcoholic extract of tomato possesses 

CNS depressant and analgesic 

properties. 

Lycopodium clavatum Linn. 

Family ◮ Lycopodiaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Indigenous to North 

America, Europe, Asia; found in 

Kumaon, eastwards in West Bengal, 

Sikkim, Asam, Khasi Hills, Manipur 

and in Western Ghats. 

English ◮ Common Club Moss. 

Folk ◮ Naaga-beli (Nepal), Bendarali 


Action ◮ Sedative, antispasmodic, 

diuretic. At one time used for 

urinary disorders (spasmodic 

retention of urine, catarrhal cystitis 

and chronic kidney disorders), and 

as a gastric sedative in gastritis. 

L

388 Lycopus europaeus Linn. 

L 

The plant contains alkaloids (about 

0.1–00.2%), including lycopodine, lycodoline, 

faucettimine and lycoflexine; 

triterpenoids including clavatol and 

oxoserrat derivatives; flavonoids including 

apigenin; polyphenolic acids 

including dihydrocaffeic. 

Lycopodine produces uterine contractions 

and stimulates peristalsis in 

the small intestines of rodents. 

The plant contains (dry basis): lipid 

4.06 and desmethylsterols 0.05%. 

Used in homoeopathy for distended 

abdomen, cough, cystitis, renal colic 

and disorders of menstruation. 

Chinese Club Moss, equated with 

Huperzia serrata, is a different herb. Its 

constituent, huperzine A is thought to 

be beneficial in dementia due to its effect 

on acetylcholine levels. 

L. annotinum Linn., L. complanatum 

Linn. (American Club Moss) and L. 

selago Linn. are among other species 

of Lycopodium occurring in India. 

Lycopus europaeus Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Western Himalayas in 

Jammu and Kashmir, and Himachal 

Pradesh. 

English ◮ Gipsywort, Bugleweed. 

Folk ◮ Gandam-gundu, Jalneem. 

Action ◮ Cardioactive, diuretic, 

peripheral vasoconstrictor, sedative, 

narcotic, antihaemorrhagic, 

antitussive, thyrostatic. 

Key application ◮ In mild thyroid 

hyperfunction (contraindicated in 

thyroid hypofunction, enlargement 

of thyroid) with disturbances of 

vegetative nervous system; mastodynia 

(tension and pain in breast). 

No simultaneous administration 

of thyroid preparations. Administration 

of Bugleweed preparations 

interferes with the administration 

of diagnostic procedures using 

radioactive isotopes. (German 


The leaves contain lithospermic acid. 

Plant contains luteolin-7-glucoside; ursolic 

acid, caffeic acid, chlorogenic 

acid, sinapic acid, ellagic acid and other 

derivatives of phenolic acid. The 

antioxidant activity of the plant is partially 

attributed to rosmarinic acid. 

Antigonadotropic activity of the leaf 

extract is attributed to phenolic precursors. 

Ethanol extract of the plant showed 

diverse effects on the pituitary, thyroid 

and gonadal glands of rats. 

A closely related species, Lycopus 

virginicus of Europe, exhibits antithyrotropic 

activity. It induces TSH 

repletion in hypothyroid rats and reduction 

of TSH levels in euthyroid 

rats. Antigonadotropic activity has 

been demonstrated in rats. 

Lygodium flexuosum (L.) Sw. 

Synonym ◮ L. pinnatifidum Sw. 

Family ◮ Schizaeaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Throughout India; up 

to an elevation of 1,500 m in the 

Himalayas. 

Folk ◮ Vallipana (Malyalam); 

Bhuuta-bhairavi (Bengal), Bhuutaraaj; 

Kalzhaa (Bihar). Rudrajataa is 

a doubtful synonym.

Action ◮ Plant—expectorant. Root— 

used in external applications for 

rheumatism, sprains, cut wounds, 

eczema, scabies, carbuncles. 

Adecoctionindrunkingastric 

attacks. 

The acetone extract of fresh leaves 

exhibits antifungal activity. The fern 

contains a methyl ester of gibberellin. 

The plant contains lygodinolide, 

dryocrassol, tectoquinone, kaempferol, 

beta-sitosterol and stigmasterol. 

The root contains quercetin. 

Alcoholic extract of the plant exhibited 

potent antifertility activity. 

L. japonicum Sw., found in North 

India from Kashmir to Sikkim and 

Bhutan, and in Western mountains of 

SouthIndia,isusedasanexpectorant 

in China. 

Lyonia ovalifolia (Wall.) Drude. 389 

Lyonia ovalifolia (Wall.) Drude. 

Synonym ◮ Pieris ovalifolia D. Don. 


Habitat ◮ Outer Himalayas from 

Kashmir to Sikkim, at 1,000 to 

2,500 m, and in Khasi hills between 

1,200 to 2,000 m. 

Folk ◮ Angyaar (Garhwal), Arwan 

(Punjab), Angeri (Nepal). 

Action ◮ Young leaves and buds— 

used externally for cutaneous 

affections. Leaves—insecticidal. 

Honey from flowers— 

poisonous. 

Leaves contain a toxic, insecticidal 

substance andromedotoxin. 

The wood yields 0.51% ash, rich in 

soluble potassium salts. 

L

Maba nigrescens Dalz. & Gibs. 


Habitat ◮ Gujarat. 

Folk ◮ Ragat-Rohido (Gujarat), 

Rakta-Rohido. 

Action ◮ Used for diseases of liver 

and spleen. In folk medicine, as 

a substitute for Rakta-Rohitaka. 

(Rohitaka is equated with Tecomellia 

undulata Seem., synonym 

Tecoma undulata G. Don, Bignoniaceae.) 

In Gujarat, Polygonum glabrum 

Willd. (Polygonaceae) and Myristica 

attenuta Wall., synonym Knema attenuata 

(Wall.) Warb. (Myristicaceae) are 

also known as Rakta Rohido, and are 

used for diseases of liver and spleen. 

In Mumbai, Rhamnus wightii Wight 

&Arn. (Rhamnaceae) isknownas 

Rakta-Rohidaa. The bark is used as 

astringent and deobstruent. 

Madhuca butyracea Macr. 

Synonym ◮ Aisandra butyracea 

(Roxb.) Baehni. 


Habitat ◮ Found in sub-Himalayan 

tract from Kumaon to Bhutan. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Madhuuka (related 

species). 

M 

Folk ◮ Phulwaaraa, Maakhaniaa 

Mahuaa. 

Action ◮ Fatusedasointmentin 

rheumatism, for chapped hands and 

feet during winter. 

The flowers contain beta-amyrin acetate, 

friedelin, erythrodiol monopalmitate, 

beta—sitosterol and apha-spinasterol. 

The seeds contain triterpenoid 

saponins, butyroside C and butyroside 

D. A triterpenoidal sapogenin, 

butyraceol, has been isolated from the 

seed. The leaves contain butyracic 

acid. Defatted seed flour contains 

10.4% saponins. 

Administration of acute dose of 

saponins to albino rats caused severe 

diarrhoea and histopathological 

changes in liver and kidney and altered, 

particularly in female rats, levels 

of serum alkaline phosphatase, cholesterol 

and proteins. 

Madhuca indica J. F. Gmel. 

Synonym ◮ M. longifolia (Koen.) 

Macb. var. latifolia (Roxb.) Cheval. 

Bassia latifolia Roxb. 


Habitat ◮ A large tree, cultivated 

mainly in Uttar Pradesh, Bihar. 

English ◮ Mahua tree, Moha. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Madhuuka, Madhupushpa, 

Madhusrav, Gudapushpa.

M 

392 Madhuca longifolia (Koen.) Macb. 

Unani ◮ Mahuaa. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Ieluppai. 

Action ◮ Flowers—stimulant, 

demulcent, laxative, anthelmintic, 

bechic. Seed oil—galactogenic, 

anticephalgic, emetic. Used in 

pneumonia, skin diseases, piles. 

Bark—astringent, emollient. Used 

for tonsilitis, gum troubles, diabetes, 

ulcers. Bark, seed oil and gum— 

antirheumatic. 


recommends the flower without 

stalk or calyx in asthma and pthisis. 

The fruit pulp yielded a number 

of triterpenoids (including alpha- and 

beta-amyrin acetate); also n-hexacosanol, 

beta-D-glucoside of beta-sitosterol 

and free sitosterol. 

Nut shell gave beta-sitosterol glucoside, 

quercetin and dihydroquercetin. 

The carollas are rich source of sugars, 

vitamins, phosphorus, calcium and 

iron; magnesium and copper are also 

present. The sugars identified are sucrose, 

maltose, glucose, fructose, arabinose 

and rhamnose. 

The seeds yielded saponins—2,3di-O-glucopyranoside 

of bassic acid 

(saponin A and saponin B). Mixture of 

saponins from seeds exhibits spermicidal 

activity. 

Trunkbarkcontainedlupeolacetate, 

beta-amyrin acetate, alpha-spinasterol, 

erythrodiol monocaprylate, betulinic 

acid and oleanolic acid caprylates. 

Dosage ◮ Flower—10–15 g (API, Vol. 

II.); flower-juice—10–20 ml; bark— 


Madhuca longifolia 

(Koen.) Macb. 

Synonym ◮ Bassia longifolia Koenig. 



Pradesh, Bihar, Andhara Pradesh, 

Karnataka, Bengal and Maharastra. 

English ◮ South Indian Mahua. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Illupei, Elupa, Naatu 

Iluppai, Iruppai. 

Folk ◮ Madhuulaka, Jala-Madhuuka, 

Jala-Mahuaa. 

Action ◮ Same as that of Madhuca 

indica. 

Seed kernel gave protobassic acid 

(a sapogenol) and two major saponins 

named Mi-saponins A and B and 

a minor one Mi-saponin C—all bisdesmosides 

of protobassic acid. Misaponins 

exhibit anti-inflammatory 

and antiulcerogenic activities. 

Mahua oil causes total but reversible 

sterility in male rats as it shows testicular 

atrophy with degeneration of seminiferous 

tubules. 

A related species, Madhuca neriifolia 

(Moon) H. J. Lam., synonym 

Bassia neriifolia Moon, Bassia malabarica 

Bedd. (known as Atta Illuppei 

in Tamil), is found in Western Ghats 

and coastal region of South India. 

The flowers are used in renal diseases; 

fruits in rheumatism, cough, 

asthma and consumption; seed oil is 

used in rheumatism.

Maerua arenaria 


Synonym ◮ M. oblongifolia (Forsk.) 

A. Rich. 


Habitat ◮ Punjab, Sind, Gujarat, 

Central and Southern India. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Morata, Piluparni, 

Madhusravaa. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Bhumichakkarai. 

Folk ◮ Murhari. 

Action ◮ Root—used for bleeding 

piles, as alterative in fevers; as 

a tonic in muscular debility. 

(The root resembles liquorice root 

in appearance and taste.) 

Magnolia grandiflora Linn. 



found in the Himalayas and the 

Nilgiri hills up to 2,100 m. 

English ◮ Bull Bay, Great Laurel 

Magnolia, Southern Magnolia. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Him-Champaa. 


stimulant, diaphoretic. Wood— 

toxic. Plant is used against cold, 

headache and stomach-ache. Leaf 

extract—fungitoxic. 

The leaves gave germacanolide lactones, 

a guaianolide (magnograndiolide, 

melampomagnolide A and B); 

the wood, quaternary aporphine alkaloids; 

bark, cyclocolorenone; root 

Mallotus philippensis Muell.-Arg. 393 

bark, eudesmanolides; seeds, phenolic 

constituents. 

The sesquiterpene ketone, cyclocolorenone, 

also found in leaves, shows 


Magnolia pterocarpa Roxb., synonym 

M. sphenocarpa Roxb. (Vana- 

Champaa), Dhulichampaa) bark contains 

sesamin, eudesmin, fargesin, imperatorin, 

dimethyl-terephthalate and 

beta-sitosterol. Powdered bark is used 

for fevers and cough. 

Mahonia napalensis DC. 

Synonym ◮ Berberis nepalensis 

Spreng (in part). 



from Garhwal to Bhutan at 1,350– 

2,700 m. and in Khasi Hills. 

English ◮ Holly Leaved Berberry. 

Folk ◮ Chhatri (Nepal), Haldia 

(Garhwal). 

Action ◮ Used as Berberis. Antiprolific, 

antipsoriatic, alterative, 

demulcent, diuretic, antidysenteric. 

The plant gave tertiary aporphines, 

berberine and jatrorrhizine. 

Mallotus philippensis 

Muell.-Arg. 


Habitat ◮ Throughout tropical 


English ◮ Kamala tree, Monkey Face 

tree. 

M

M 

394 Malpighia glabra Linn. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Kampillaka, Kampilla, 

Karkash, Raktaanga, Rechan, 

Chandra. 

Unani ◮ Kamilla, Kambilaa. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kapli, Kalupatti. 

Action ◮ Gland and hair of fruit— 

purgative, anthelmintic, styptic. 

Used for the treatment of tapeworm 

infestation; in scabies, ringworm, 

herpes. Fruit—hypoglycaemic, 

spasmolytic, antibacterial. 

Capsule hair and glands gave phloroglucinol 

derivatives; rottlerin, isorottlerin, 

iso-allorottlerin (the “red compound”) 

and methylene-bis-methylphloroacetophenone 

(the “yellow compound”). 

The red powder, obtained 

from capsules, containing largely resinous 

matter, had lithotropic effect in 

rats, comparable to drugs used commonly 

against urinary calculi. Two 

more compounds designated as kamalins 

1 and 2 have been isolated. 

The stem bark contains kamaladiol- 

3-acetate and friedelin. 

Dosage ◮ Glands and hairs of the 

fruit—0.5–1.0 g powder. (API, 

Vol.I.) 

Malpighia glabra Linn. 



cultivated in gardens as hedge. 

English ◮ Barbados Cherry, Acerola. 

Action ◮ Fruits—used in dysentery, 

diarrhoea and liver disorders. 

Fruits are rich in ascorbic acid 

(1,000–4,000 mg/100 g of edible 

pulp). The bark contains about 26% 

tannin. Fruits of Brazilian plant 

gave alpha-carotene, beta-carotene 

and beta-cryptoxanthine. 

Malpighia punicifolia Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Cultivated in Tamil Nadu 


English ◮ West Indian Cherry. 

Folk ◮ Vallari (Telugu), Simeyaranelli 

(Kannada). 

Action ◮ See Malpighia glabra. 

Fruits contain ascorbic acid in high 

concentration (green fruits contain 

up to 3,000 mg/100 g). 3-methyl-3buten-1-ol 

has been identified as major 

volatile constituent of the fruit. 

Malus pumila Mill. 

Synonym ◮ M. domestica Borkh. 

M. sylvestris Hort. non-Mill. 

Pyrus malus Linn. in part. 


Habitat ◮ Native to Europe and West 

Asia; now cultivated in Himachal 

Pradesh., Kashmir, Kulu, Kumaon, 

Assam and in the Nilgiris. 

English ◮ Cultivated Apple. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Sinchitikaa. 

Folk ◮ Seb, Sev. 

Action ◮ Bark—anthelmintic, 

refrigerant, hypnotic, given in 

intermittent, remittent and bilious 

fevers. Leaves—inhibit the growth

of a number of Gram-positive and 


The fruit contains malic (90–95% 

of the total acids), citric, lactic and 

succinic acids; (unripe fruit contains 

quinic acid, citric acid, succinic acid, 

lactic acid); caffeic acid derivatives, 

pectins, minerals and vitamins. 

Edible portion of fresh apple contains 

thiamine 0.12, riboflavin 0.03, 

niacin 0.2 and ascorbic acid 2 mg/100 g. 

The ascorbic acid content varies widely 

and values up to 40 mg/100 g. Sugars 

constitute about 80% of the total carbohydrates 

of ripe fruits—fructose (60), 

glucose (25) and sucrose (15%). The 

pectin content of the edible portion 

varies from 0.14 to 0.96% (as calcium 

pectate). The uronic acid content of 

apple pectin varies from 0.5 to 15%. 

The astringent principles of apple include 

tannins, tannin derivatives and 

colouring materials (flavones). The 

browning of apple slices on exposure 

to air is due to enzymic oxidation of 

tannin compounds. 

Fresh juice contains 0.20–0.80 malic 

acid, 11.6 total sugars and 0.021– 

00.080% tannin. 

The seeds contain cyanogenic glycoside, 

amygdalin (0.62–1.38%, HCN 

equivalent, 0.037–00.087%). 

Malva rotundifolia Linn. 

Synonym ◮ M. neglecta Wall. 


Habitat ◮ Simla, Kumaon and plains 

of North India. 

English ◮ Round-leaved Mallow, 

Drawf Mallow, Cheese Cake Flower. 

Malva sylvestris Linn. 395 

Ayurvedic ◮ Suvarchalaa. 

Unani ◮ Khubhaazi, Gul-Khair. 

Action ◮ Leaves—demulcent, emollient; 

used in glycosuria, stomach 

disorders and as emmenagogue; 

used as poultice for maturing 

abscesses. Seeds—demulcent; 

prescribed in bronchitis, cough, 

inflammation of the bladder and 

haemorrhoids. 

Marshmallow (Althaea officinalis)is 

a different herb. 

Malva sylvestris Linn. 



Punjab to Kumaon, up to 2,400 m; 

Maharashtra, Karnataka and Tamil 

Nadu. 

English ◮ Common Mallow, Blue 

Mallow, High Mallow. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Suvarchalaa (var.). 

Unani ◮ Khubbaazi, Bhubhaazi 

Bustaani, Gul-Khair. 

Action ◮ Mucilaginous, emollient, 

laxative, antitussive, pectoral, 

antibacterial. Infusion is used for 

coughs and colds, irritation of the 

bronchi. Phagocyte stimulant. 

Key application ◮ In irritation of the 

mucosa and throat and dry, irritative 

cough. (German Commission E.) 

The herb contains sulphated flavonol 

glycosides, mucilage and tannins. 

Flowers contain malvin (an anthocyanin), 

malvidin diglucoside, tannins, 

carotene and ascorbic acid. 

M

M 

396 Mandragora autumnalis Spreng. 

Malva coromandeliana Linn. (also 

malvastrum) is anti-inflammatory, 

pectoral, antidysenteric and diaphoretic. 

Mandragora autumnalis Spreng. 

Synonym ◮ M. microcarpa Bertol. 

M. officinarum Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Mediterranean region. 

English ◮ Mandrake. 


Lakshmanaa, a fertility promoting 

herb. (In Indian medicine, Panax 

quinquefolium Linn. and Panax 

schinseng Nees have been equated 

with Lakshmanaa.) 

Action ◮ Anaesthetic, narcotic, 

poisonous. Alkaloid pattern similar 

to Atropa belladona. Asample 

of roots from Morocco contained 

atropine (0.2% at flowering stage). 

In India, Panax sp. are perceived as 

fertility and vitality promoting herbs, 

which have been attributed to Lakshmanaa. 

Mandrake exhibits anticholinergic 

effects. 

English Mandrake and American 

Mandrake are equated with Bryonia 

alba and Podophyllum hexandrum respectively. 

Mangifera indica Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Uttar Pradesh., Punjab, 

Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, 

West Bengal and Tamil Nadu. 

English ◮ Mango. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Aamra, Amb, Rasaal, Sahakaar, 

Pikavallabha, Madhudoot, 

Atisaurabha, Maakanda. 

Unani ◮ Aam, Ambaj. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Manga, Mau, 

Mamaram (bark), Mangottai 

Paruppu (seed). 

Action ◮ Unripe fruit—astringent, 

antiscorbutic. Ripe fruit—invigorating 

and refrigerant in heat apoplexy. 

Leaves—anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, 

chloretic, diuretic. Used 

in diabetes, externally in burns 

and scalds. Kernel—astringent, 


antifungal, anthelmintic, antispasmodic, 

antiscorbutic; given in 

diarrhoea, diabetes and menstrual 

disorders. Stem bark—astringent; 

used for haemorrhages, diarrhoea, 

rheumatism. 


recommends the dried seed in diarrhoea 

and dysentery; and the dried 

stem bark in genitourinary disorders. 

Ripe mango contains sugars (9.5– 

18.6%), citric acid (0.12–0.34%), ascorbic 

acid (10.8–225.0 mg/100 g), carotenoids 

as beta-carotene (2,000– 

17,000 mcg/100 g). The fruit gave phenolic 

compounds (m-digallic acid, gallotannin, 

phloroglucinol, protocatechuic 

acid); flavonoids (1,2,3,4-tetrahydroxy 

benzene, kaempferol and myricetin). 

The seed kernel contains alpha-and 

beta-amyrins, gallotannin, glucogallin 

and several sterols. 

The leaves contain a pentacyclic triterpene 

alcohol, indicol, besides tarax-

one, taraxerol, friedelin, lupeol and 

beta-sitosterol. Leaves contain several 

sugars, free malic and citric acids 

and amino acids. Some esters of benzophenone 

C-glucosides and kinic and 

shikmic acids have also been reported. 

Mangiferin is present predominantly 

in the leaves and twigs. 

The bark contains phenolic compounds 

(gallocatechin, protocatechuic 

acid), xanthones (homomangiferin), 

several triterpenoids and sterols. 

All parts gave phenolic acids (ellagic 

acid, gallic acid, ethyl gallate); 

flavonoids (catechin), and xanthones 

(mangiferin). 

Dosage ◮ Dried seed—1–2 g powder 

(API, Vol. I); stem bark—3–6 g 

powder, 25–50 g for decoction. 


Manihot esculenta Crantz. 


Habitat ◮ Native to Brazil. Major 

crop in Kerala, Tamil Nadu and 


English ◮ Manioc, Tapioca, Cassava. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Maravalli kizhangu, 

Ezhalai kizhangu. 

Folk ◮ Tapioca. 

Action ◮ Staple food for poorer 

section of the population in many 

tropical countries. The starch is 

used for the manufacture of dextose, 

liquid glucose. The bitter variety 

is used for treating scabies and 

weeping skin. 

The tuber is a good source of provitamin 

A carotenoids. It contains 

Manilkara kauki (L.) Dubard. 397 

0.1–3.0 mg/kg (fresh weight) of betacarotene 

and 0.05–00.6 mg/kg (fresh 

weight) of lutein. The bitterness of 

the tuber is related to the cyanoglucoside 

content which ranges from 320 

to 1,100 mcg cyanide/g in very bitter 

tubers and from 27.5 to 77.5 mcg is 

non-bitter tubers. Boiling, crushing 

and sun-drying reduce bitterness and 

also cyanoglucoside content. The tannin 

equivalent content in the clones 

varies from 0.31 to 0.34% and saponin 

equivalent varies from 0.18 to 0.29%. 

Feeding tapioca significantly reduced 

the plasma cholesterol profile 

experimentally in cats and rats. 

Manilkara kauki (L.) Dubard. 

Synonym ◮ Minusops Kauki L. 


Habitat ◮ A native of Malaya; 

occasionally grown in gardens, 

especially in North India, Andhra 

Pradesh and Kerala. 

English ◮ Kauki. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Khirni. 

Siddha ◮ Palai. 

Action ◮ Root and bark—astringent. 

Given in infantile diarrhoea. Seed— 

febrifuge, anthelmintic, antileprotic. 

Leaf—used as poultice for tumours. 

Seeds contain about 16% of fatty oil 

and 1% saponin. 

Manilkara hexandra (Roxb.) Dubard, 

synonym Mimusops hexandra 

Roxb., found in central India and Deccan 

Peninsula, and cultivated throughoutthegreaterpartofIndia,isalso 

equated with Khirni. 

M

M 

398 Maranta arundinacea Linn. 

All parts gave taraxerol, a triterpene 

ketone, alpha-and beta-amyrin, cinnamates, 

alpha-sipnasterol, beta-sitosterol, 

its beta-D-glucoside, quercitol, 

quercetin and its dihydroderivatives, 

ursolic acid. 

The bark contains 10% tannin. 

Maranta arundinacea Linn. 

Family ◮ Marantaceae. 


cultivated throughout the country 

for its edible starch. 

English ◮ Arrowroot. 

Siddha ◮ Koovaikizhangu, 

Kookaineer. 

Action ◮ Nutritive, demulcent 

(especially for infants and convalescence). 

Used as a dietary aid in acute 

diarrhoea and gastroenteritis. Used 

as a substitute for Bamboo-manna. 

The rhizome contains about 25–27% 

neutral starch. 

Marrubium vulgare Linn. 

Family ◮ Labiatae; Lamiacea. 


Central Asia; also found in Kashmir. 

English ◮ Horehound. 

Unani ◮ Faraasiyun (wrongly equated 

with Valerian in National Formulary 

of Unani Medicine). 

Action ◮ Expectorant, cholagogue; 

bitter tonic for stomach and liver, 

antispasmodic. Used for bronchitis, 

asthma, whooping cough, hard 

cough with little phlegm; also for 

cardiac extrasystols. 


dyspepsia; bloating and 

flatulence. (German Commission 

E.) The British Herbal Pharmacopoeia 

and The British Herbal 

Compendium (additionally) indicate 

its use for acute bronchitis, 

non-productive cough and catarrh 

and the respiratory tracts. 

The herb yields a diterpenoid, premarrubiin, 

which generates marrubiin 

as an artefact; caffeic acid derivatives; 

and flavonoids—apigenin, apigenin-7glucoside, 

luteolin, luteolin-7-glucoside, 

quercetin-3-glucoside and -3rhamnoglucoside. 

The extracts of the 

herb exhibit anti-inflammatory and 

antiserotonin activity experimentally. 

Marrubiin is considered to be responsible 

for expectorant activity. It has 

also shown to normalize extrasystolic 

arrhythmias. High doses may cause 

cardiac irregularities. 

The oil exhibits antimicrobial properties 

and is reported to be vasodilatory 

and hypotensive. 

Marsdenia roylei Wight. 


Habitat ◮ Western and Eastern 

Himalayas, Simla and Kumaon, 

hills of Assam. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Muurvaa (var.). 

Folk ◮ Maruaa-bel. Khaarchu 

(Garhwal). 

Action ◮ Root—purgative.

M. hamiltonii Wight (sub-Himalayan 

tract and adjacent plains of Uttar 

Pradesh and Bihar) has also been 

equated with a Muurvaa var. It is 

known as Moran-adaa in folk medicine. 

Marsdenia tenacissima 

Wight & Arn. 


Habitat ◮ Himalayas from Kumaon 

to Assam, up to 1,500 m, Madhya 

Pradesh, Bihar, Deccan Peninsula. 

English ◮ White Turpeth. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Muurvaa, Atirasaa, 

Madhurasaa, Gokarni, Morataa, 

Madhulikaa, Suvaa, Devi, Tejani, 

Tiktavalli. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Perunkurinjan. 

Folk ◮ Maruaa-bel. 

Action ◮ Root—purgative, antispasmodic, 

mild CNS depressant; used 

in colic. 


recommends the bark in lipid disorders, 

also in polyuria and haemorrhagic 

diseases. 

Roots and seeds are rich in pregnane 

glycosides of 2-deoxysugars, which 

on hydrolysis gave genins and sugars. 

Stem yielded tenacissosides A to E. 

In folk medicine, the root is known 

as White Turpeth (Safed Nishoth). Operculina 

turpethum (Linn.) Silva Manso 

synonym Ipomoea turpethum R. Br. 

is the source of Turpeth (Nishoth) in 

Indian medicine. 

Martynia annua Linn. 399 

Dosage ◮ Root—2–6 g powder, 10– 

20 g for decoction. (API, Vol.II.) 

Marsilea minuta Linn. 

Family ◮ Marsileaceae. 


a weed in marshy places. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Sunishannaka, Parnaka, 

Vastika-parnika, Swastika, Chatushpatri, 

Susunishaak, Chaupaitra. 

Action ◮ Sedative. Used in insomnia 

and in the treatment of epilepsy and 

behavioral disorders. 

The most active anti-epileptic principle 

is marsilin (1-triacontanol cerotate). 



Martynia annua Linn. 

Synonym ◮ M. diandra Glox. 

Family ◮ Martyniaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Native of Mexico; found 


English ◮ Devil’s Claw, Tiger Claw. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Kaakanaasikaa, 

Kaakaangi, Shirobal. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kakatundi, Thelkodukkukai. 

Folk ◮ Hathajori, Bichhuu. 

Action ◮ Leaf—used in epilepsy, also 

applied to tuberculous glands of 

the neck. Fruit—anti-inflammatory. 

Ash of the fruit, mixed with coconut 

M

M 

400 Matricaria chamomilla Linn. 

oil, is applied on burns. Seed oil— 

applied on abscesses and for treating 

itching and skin affections. 


recommends the seed for arresting 

greying of hair. 

Flowers gave (several flavonoids including 

apigenin, luteolin, apigenin-7- 

O-beta-D-glucuronide, luteolin-7-Obeta-D-glucuronide, 

pellargonidin-3, 

5-diglucoside, cyanidin-3-galactoside. 

The essential oil from the plant moderately 

inhibited passive cutaneous 

anaphylaxis in animals. 

Pentatropis microphylla W. & A. and 

P. spiralis Decne have also been equated 

with Kaakanaasaa, Kaakanaasikaa. 

Dosage ◮ Dried seed—2–5 g. (API, 

Vol. III.) 

Matricaria chamomilla Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Native of Europe; grown 

in Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal 

Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh. 

English ◮ German Chamomile, 

Chamomile. German chamomile 

flower is equated with Matricaria 

recutita L. (synonym Chamomilla 

recutita L.) and Roman Chamomile 

flower with Anthemis nobilis L. 

(synonym Chamamaelum nobilis L.) 

Unani ◮ Baabunaa. 

Action ◮ Sedative, anticonvulsant, 

carminative, antispasmodic, analgesic, 

anti-inflammatory, antiseptic. 

See also Anthemis nobilis. 

Key application (German Chamomile) 

◮ In inflammatory diseases of the 

gastrointestinal tract and gastrointestinal 

spasm. Externally, in skin, 

mucous membrane and ano-genital 

inflammation and bacterial skin 

diseases. (German Commission E, 

The British Herbal Compendium.) 

As anti-inflammatory and antispasmodic. 

(The British Herbal 


The flowers of German chamomile 

gave volatile oil up to about 2%, containing 

alpha-bisabolol up to 50%, azulenes 

including chamazulene, guiazuline 

and matricine; flavonoids including 

apigenin and luteolin and their 

glycosides, patuletin and quercetin; 

spiroethers; coumarins; polysaccharides. 

The flowers are used as herbal tea 

for cough and cold and for promoting 

the flow of gastric secretion and bile. 

In chamomlile extracts, chamazulene 

has been found responsible for antiinflammatory 

activity. Matricine and 

(−)-alpha-bisabolol also show antiinflammatory 

and analgesic activity. 

Bisabolol exhibits ulceroprotective effect. 

Natural (−)-alpha-bisabolol has 

been shown to be significantly effective 

in healing burns; (−)-alpha-bisabolol, 

spiroethers and apigenin exhibit spasmolytic 

effect comparable with that of 

papaverine. 

The polysaccharides are immunostimulating 

and activate macrophages 

and B lymphocytes; play an important 

role in wound healing. 

Crude aqueous extract of the plant 

has been reported to significantly delay 

the onset of convulsions and reduce

mortality rate produced by picrotoxin 


Matthiola incana R. Br. 


Habitat ◮ Native of Europe; grown 

as ornamental. 

English ◮ Stock, Gilli-flower. 

Unani ◮ Tudri Safed. 

Action ◮ Expectorant, diuretic, 

stomachic. 

The seeds contain mucilage, a fatty 

oil, two crystalline colouring matters 

and a volatile oil which yields methyl, 

isopropyl and 4-methylthiobutyl isothiocyanates. 

Beta-sitosterol is present 

in fatty oil. Fatty acids include palmitic, 

stearic, oleic, linoleic, linolenic and rucic. 

Meconopsis aculeata Royle. 



Kashmir to Kumaon, between 

3,300–4,500 m. 

English ◮ Blue Poppy. 

Folk ◮ Gul-e-Nilam (Kashmir), 

Gudi, Kunda, Kanderi (Punjab), 

Kalihaari (Himachal). 

Action ◮ Plant—diuretic. Root— 

narcotic. 

In Garhwal Himalayas, the whole 

plant is used as a blood purifier and 

to reduce blood pressure. The natives 

apply the plant paste externally in 

rheumatic pains as anodyne. 

Medicago sativa Linn. 401 

Meconopsis horridula Hook, known 

asTasargauninTibet,isusedforcardiac 

and respiratory disorder. 

Meconopsis napaulensis DC., synonym 

M. wallichii HK. (temperate and 

alpine Himalaya from Nepal to Bhutan 

at 2,700–5,200m)alsoexhibitsnarcotic 

properties. The roots gave alkaloids— 

protopine, magnoflorine, cryptopine, 

coptisine, allocryptopine, rhoeadine, 

papaverrubines E and D, corysamine 

and 2-methyl-6-methoxy-1,2,3,4-tetrahydro-beta-carboline. 

Medicago sativa Linn. 



Gujarat, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, 

West Bengal, as a farm crop. 

English ◮ Alfalfa, Lucerne. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Alfalfa, Vilaayatigawuth, 

Lasunghaas, Lusan. 

Unani ◮ Barsem. 

Action ◮ Anticholesterolemic, rich 

in essential enzymes, minerals and 

vitamins; a preventive of high blood 

pressure, diabetes, peptic ulcer. 

Alfalfa tea is used to strengthen the 

digestive system. Sprouts (of seeds) are 

used by diabetics. 

The herb contains carotinoids (including 

lutein), triterpene saponins, 

isoflavonoids coumarins, triterpenes 

(including sitgmasterol, spinasterol); 

also cyanogenic glycosides (corresponding 

to less than 80 mg HCN/ 

100 g); pro-vitamins A, B6, B12, D, K, 

E and P; calcium, phosphorus, iron, 

M

M 

402 Melaleuca leucadendron Linn. 

potassium, magnesium, choline, sodium, 

silicon and essential enzymes. 

The seeds contain 33.2% protein and 

4.4% mineral matter; saponins with 

the aglycones, soyasapogenol B and E 

and polymines, diaminopropane and 

norspermine. Two storage globulins, 

alfin and medicagin are found in the 

seeds. 

The flowers contain flavonoids, 

kaempferol, quercetin, myricetin and 

laricytrin. The fruits contain betaamyrin, 

alpha- and beta-spinasterol, 

beta-sitosterol, stigmasterol, myrsellinol, 

scopoletin and esculetin. 

The saponin, medicagenic acid, is 

foundinleavesandroots(leaves1.49%, 

roots 2.43% of dry matter). 

Alfalfa seed extracts prevented hypercholesterolemia, 

triglyceridaemia 

and atherogenesis in cholesterol-fed 

rabbits and cynomologus monkeys. 

The saponins in the extract reduce intestinal 

absorption of cholesterol in 

rabbits. 

Human trials have indicated the use 

of the herb in menopause. (Sharon M. 

Herr.) 

Melaleuca leucadendron Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Indegenous to Burma, 

Cambodia, Thailand, Malay 

Peninsula to Australia; grown in 

Indian gardens and parks. 

English ◮ Cajeput tree, Swamp Tea 

tree, White Tea tree. 

Folk ◮ Kaayaaputi. (The oil of Cajeput 

is imported into India, chiefly from 

France and Netherlands.) 

Action ◮ Oil—used as an expectorant 

in chronic laryngitis and bronchitis, 

and as a carminative. Acts 

as anthelmintic, especially against 

round worms. Enters into ointments 

for rheumatism and stiff joints, 

sprains and neuralgia, migraine, 

colds, influenza, and as a mosquito 

repellent. 

Key application ◮ The oil is antimicrobial 

and hypermic in vitro. 

(German Commission .) 

The oil contains terpenoids, 1,8cineole 

(40–65%) as major component, 

with alpha-pinene, alpha-terpineol, 

nerolidol, limonene, benzaldehyde, 

valeraldehyde, dipentene and various 

sesquiterpenes; 3,5-dimethyl-4,6,di- 

O-methylphloroacetophenone. 

The essential oil of Melaleuca alternifolia 

(Tea Tree Oil) is indicated 

for acne, tinea pedis and toe and nail 

onychomycosis on the basis of human 

trials. (Sharon M. Herr.) 

Tea Tree Oil is distilled from the 

leaves of several species of Australian 

trees belonging the genus Melaleuca, 

principaly from M. alternifolia. Tea 

Tree Oil should contain a maximum of 

15% 1,8-cineole and a minimum of 30% 

(+)-terpinen-4-ol, the principal germicidal 

ingredient. Other constituents, 

alpha-terpineol and linalool, also exhibit 

antimicrobial activity. (Cited in 

Rational Phytotherapy.) 

The essential oil of Melaleuca virdiflora 

Solander ex Gaertner leaves, 

known as Niauli Oil, is used for catarrh 

of the upper respiratory tract. The oil is 

antibacterial and stimulatory to circulation 

in vitro. (German Commission

E.) Like cajeput oil, the principal constituent 

is cineole (eucalyptol). 

A related species, M. genistifolia, 

indigenous to Australia, is grown in 

botanical gardens at Saharanpur and 

Lucknow (Uttar Pradesh). The leaves 

and terminal twigs yield 0.53% of 

a volatile oil which consists mainly 

of d-pinene, and about 2% cineole and 

traces of aldehyde. 

Melastoma malabathricum 

Linn. 

Synonym ◮ M. normale D. Don. 

Family ◮ Melastomataceae. 

Habitat ◮ Moist parts of India, up to 

1,800 m. 

English ◮ Indian Rhododendron. 

Folk ◮ Laakheri, Paalorey (Maharashtra). 

Tulasi (Nepal). Nakkukappan 

(Tamil Nadu), Phutuka (Assam). 

Action ◮ Leaf—antidiarrhoeal, 

antiseptic. Locally applied in 

smallpox to prevent pox-marks. 

Leaf and flowering top—astringent, 

antileucorrhoeic. Bark—applied 

to wounds. Also employed in 

preparation of gargles. 

The leaves gave amino acids—glycine, 

valine, leucine, aspartic acid, 

glutamic acid, methionine, tyrosine, 

isoleucine and hydroxyproline. The 

roots gave beta-sitosterol and a triterpene, 

melastomic acid. 

Melia azedarach Linn. 


Melia azedarach Linn. 403 

Habitat ◮ Cultivated and naturalized 

throuhout India. Wild in the 

Sub-Himalayan tract up to 1,800 m. 

English ◮ Persian Lilac, Pride of 

India. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Mahaanimba, Ramyaka, 

Dreka. (Neem is equated with 

Azadirachta indica.) 

Unani ◮ Bakaayan. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Malaivembu. 

Action ◮ Leaf—diuretic, anthelmintic, 

antilithic. Leaf and 

flower—febrifuge, sedative, emmenagogue. 

Leaf, fruit and stem 

bark—antileprotic. Leaf, flower, 

fruit, root bark—deobstruent, 

resolvent. Seed oil—antirheumatic, 

insecticidal. Leaves, bark and 

fruit—insect repellent. Gum— 

used in spleen enlargement. Heartwood—an 

aqueous extract, used in 

asthma. 


indicated the use of the dried stem 

bark in increased frequency and turbidity 

of urine, skin diseases, nausea, 

emesis, asthma, gastroenteritis, giddiness 

and vertigo. 

The bitter constituents are present 

exclusively in the pericarp, not in the 

kernel as in the case of Neem fruit. 

Bakayanin has been isolated from the 

pericarp (bitter in dilutions of 1 in 

10,000). 

The heartwood also yielded bakayanin 

and a lactone, bakalactone. Leaves 

gave quercitrin and rutin and tetranortriterpenoids, 

salanin and vilasinin. 

An infusion of the bark is effective 

against ascariasis. The activity resides 

in the inner bark which is bitter but not 

M

M 

404 Melia composita Willd. 

astringent (outer bark contains tannins 

and is astringent). 

The ethanolic extract of the leaves 

is fungicidal and antibacterial. The activity 

is attributed to azadrine and meliotannic 

acid. 

The fruits are considered poisonous 

to man and animals; contain melianoninol, 

melianol, melianone, meliandiol, 

vanillin and vanillic acid. Vanillic 

acid analogues show micro- and 

macro-filaricidal activity. 

Gedunin, present in the plant, inhibits 

Plasmodium falciparum, while 

the seed extract does not show antimalarial 

activity against P. berghei. 

The plant exhibited sedative and 

psychostimulant properties. Antitumour 

and antiviral activities have also 

been reported. Intraperitoneal administration 

of partially purified extracts of 

fresh green leaves reduced the spread of 

Tacaribe virus (that causes typical encephalitis) 

to kidneys, liver and brain 

in inoculated neonatal mice. 

Dosage ◮ Stem bark—5–10 g (API, 

Vol. IV.); leaf, seed, root—50– 

100 ml decoction; 3–5 g powder. 

(CCRAS.) 

Melia composita Willd. 

Synonym ◮ M. dubia Hiern. non-Cav. 



Western Ghats, Ganjam and Deccan 

up to 1,800 m. 

English ◮ Hill Neem, Malabar Neem, 

Common Bead tree. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Arangaka. 

Folk ◮ Malaivembu (Tamil). 

Action ◮ Fruit—anthelmintic; used 


The leaves and seeds gave tetranortriterpenoids, 

compositin and compositolide. 

The fruit gave salannin. 

The heartwood yielded a triterpenoid. 

Tamil and Malyalam synonyms 

(Malaivembu and Malavembu) are 

common to Melia azedarach and Melia 

composita. 

Melilotus alba Desr. 


Habitat ◮ Native to Europe and Asia; 

growninNorthIndia. 

English ◮ White Sweet Clover. 

Unani ◮ Ilkil-ul-Malik, Naakhunaa 

(white-flowered var.). 

Action ◮ See Melilotus indica. 

Melilotus indica (Linn.) All. 

Synonym ◮ M. parviflora Desf. 

Family ◮ Paplionaceae; Fabaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Native to Eurasia; found 

as winter weed and cultivated for 

fodder in parts of Punjab, Haryana 

and Uttar Pradesh. 

English ◮ Sweet Clover, Annual 

Yellow Sweet Clover, Small-flowered 

Melilot. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Vana-methikaa. 

Unani ◮ Ilkil-ul-Malik (yellowflowered 

var.). 

Folk ◮ Ban-Methi, Senji.

Action ◮ Plant—astringent, discutient, 

emollient. Used as poultice 

or plaster for swellings. The 

plant gave coumarins—fraxidin, 

herniarin, umbelliferone and 

scopoletin. 

When fed alone as a green fodder, 

it exhibits narcotic properties; causes 

lethargy, tympanitis and is reported 

to taint the milk of dairy cattle. It 

may cause even paralysis. The plant 

contains 3-methoxyflavone, meliternatin 

which experimentally inhibited 

cell growth, induced granularity, retraction 

and then lysis of cells. 

Melilotus officinalis Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Ladakh, at 3,000–4,000 m, 

also cultivated. 

English ◮ Yellow Sweet Clover, 

Melilot. 

Unani ◮ Iklil-ul-Malik, Asaab-ul- 

Malik, Naakhunaa. 

Action ◮ Plant—astringent, wound 

healer, styptic, anti-inflammatory, 

sedative, mild analgesic, anticoagulant, 

spasmolytic. Flower and 

leaf—diuretic, analgesic, antiinflammatory, 

smooth muscle 

relaxant, vasodilator. Seed—used in 

cold. 

Key application ◮ In chronic venous 

insufficiency. For supportive 

treatment of thrombophlebitis, 

haemorrhoids and lymphatic 

congestion. (German Commission 

E.) As venotonic, vulnerary. (The 


Melissa axillaris (Benth.) Bakh f. 405 

The herb contains coumarin derivatives; 

flavonoid glycosides, including 

kaempferol and quercetin. Dicoumarol 

(melitoxin) is produced 

when fermentation takes place in melilot. 

Seeds gave canavanin and trigonelline. 

Reported poisonous to horses. 

The flowers contain the flavonoids, 

quercetin and myricetin besides kaempferol. 

The herb has shown increase in 

venous reflux and improvement in 

lymphatic kinetics. Animal experiments 

show an increase in healing 

wounds. Flower and leaf extracts 

have shown analgesic activity, prolongation 

in pento-barbital-induced 

hypnosis time and smooth muscle relaxant 

activity in mice; also exhibited 

hypotensive and vasodilatory activity 

in rabbit. Dicoumarol is a potent 

anticoagulant. 

In Europe and China, the plant extract 

is used for inflammations, arthritis, 

rheumatism, phlebitis, venous insufficiency, 

haemorrhoids, brachialgia 

and bronchitis. 

The Red Clove is equated with Trifolium 

pratense. 

Melissa axillaris (Benth.) Bakh f. 

Synonym ◮ M. parviflora Benth. 


Habitat ◮ Temperate and alpine 

Himalaya, from Garhwal to Bhutan 

and in Darjeeling and Aka, Mishmi 

and Khasi hills at 1,000–3,600 m. 

Unani ◮ Billilotan. 

Action ◮ Carminative, diaphoretic, 

febrifuge in cases of catarrh and 

M

M 

406 Melissa officinalis Linn. 

influenza. The fruit is considered 

a brain tonic and useful in 

hypochondriac conditions. 

The aerial parts of the plant yield 2% 

essential oil which is a good source of 

monoterpenic alcohols and aldehydes. 

It contains d-camphene 2.5, dl-alphapinene 

2.3, 1-beta-pinene 2.13, deltacarene 

2.05, d-limonene 12.95, azulene 

1.26, linalool 13.36, 1,8-cineole 9.33, citronellal 

4.0, citronellol 8.2, citral 13.0, 

geraniol 21.01, neptalactone 1.91, thymol 

4.0 and citronellic acid 2.0%. 

The herb is used as a substitute for 

Melissa officinalis Linn. 

Melissa officinalis Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Indigenous to the east 

Mediterranean region; introduced 

in India. 

English ◮ Mountain Balm, Sweet or 

Lemon Balm. 

Unani ◮ Baadranjboyaa, Billilotan. 

(Nepeta cataria Linn. and Nepeta 

hindostana Haines are also known 

as Billilotan.) 

Action ◮ Antidepressant, antispasmodic, 

antihistaminic, antiviral. 

Used in anxiety neurosis and nervous 

excitability, palpitation and 

headache. Also in hyperthyroidism. 

Key application ◮ In nervous sleeping 

disorders and functional gastrointestinal 

complaints. (German 

Commission E, ESCOP.) Externally 

for Herpes labialis (cold sores). 

(ESCOP.) As sedative and topi- 

cal antiviral. (The British Herbal 


Only fresh (herb within 6 months 

after collection) is usable as a sedative, 

because of low volatile oil content and 

its high volatility. 

The volatile oil of the herb (0.1– 

00.2%) consists mainly of geranial 

and neral, with caryophyllene oxide 

and smaller quantities of terpenes; 

glycosides of the alcoholic or phenolic 

components of the volatile oil 

(including eugenol glucoside); caffeic 

acid derivatives (rosmaric acid); 

flavonoids (including cymaroside, cosmosiin, 

rhamnocitrin, isoquercitrin); 

triterpene acids (including ursolic 

acid). 

Hot water extracts exhibit antiviral 

properties, mainly due to rosmaric acid 

and other polyphenols. (A cream containing 

the extracts of Balm is used 

for the treatment of cutaneous lesions 

of Herpes simplex virus.) Aqueous extracts 

inhibit tumour cell dividing. 

Freeze-dried aqueous extracts inhibit 

many of the effects of exogenous 

and endogenous thyroid stimulating 

hormones (TSH) on bovine thyroid 

gland by interfering with the binding 

of TSH to plasma membranes and by 

inhibiting the enzyme iodothyronine 

deiodinase in vitro. 

The anti-hormonal, mainly antithyroid 

effects of Balm are well documented. 

(Potter’s New Cyclopedia, 

Sharon.M. Herr.) 

For mild to moderate Alzheimer disease, 

60 drops per day of standardized 

Lemon Balm extract (1 : 11 45% 

alcohol) was prescribed daily. Results 

were encouraging. (J Neurol Neurosurg

Psychiatry, 74, 2003; Natural Medicines 

Comprehensive Database, 2007.) (For 

cholinergic activity, BMJ, 325, 2002, 

1312–1233.) 

Melochia corchorifolia Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Kumaon to Sikkim, Gujarat 

and Peninsular India. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Pinnakkuppundu. 

Folk ◮ Chunch, Bilpat. 

Action ◮ Leaf and root—antidysenteric. 

Leaf—applied as poultice for 

swellings of abdomen and sores. 

The leaves gave flavonol glycosides, 

cyclopeptide alkaloids. The triterpenoids 

and steroids, isolated from 

the aerial parts, are friedelin, betasitosterol 

and its beta-D-glucoside and 

stearate. 

Melothria maderaspatana 

(L.) Cogn. 

Synonym ◮ Cucumis maderaspatana 

Linn. 

Bryonia scabrella Linn. f. 

Mukia scabrella (Linn. f.) Arn. 



ascending up to 1,800 m in the hills. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Ahilekhana, Trikoshaki. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Musumsukkai. 

Folk ◮ Agmaki. 

Action ◮ Tender shoots—gentle 

aperient, diuretic, stomachic; 

Memecylon edule Roxb. 407 

decoction used in biliousness and 

flatulence. 

The root contains columbin; seed oil 

gave linoleic, oleic and palmitic acids. 

Fresh aerial parts exhibit potent antihepatotoxic 

activity. 

In carbon tetrachloride-induced liver 

dysfunction in albino rats, the recovery 

of liver, treated with the extract 

from aerial parts, was significant 

and there was marked decrease in 

serum levels of the enzymes, alanine, 

aminotransferase, aspartate aminotransferase 

and alkaline phosphatase. 

Kuruvikizhangu of Siddha medicine, 

used for acute diarrhoea and 

fever, is equated with Malothria perpusilla 

(Blume) Cogn. Zehneria hookeriana 

Arn., found in upper Gangetic 

plain from Nepal to Assam and in 


Memecylon edule Roxb. 

Synonym ◮ M. umbellatum Burm. f. 


Habitat ◮ Orissa, Assam and Western 

Peninsula. 

English ◮ Iron Wood. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Anjani. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kasai, Anjani. 

Folk ◮ Yaalki, Lokhandi (Maharashtra). 

Action ◮ Fruit and leaf—astringent. 

Leaf—antileucorrhoeic, spasmolytic, 

hypoglycaemic. A lotion 

prepared from the leaves is used 

in ophthalmia. Root—used in 

excessive menstrual discharge. 

M

M 

408 Mentha aquatica Linn. 

Aerial parts gave umbelactone, betaamyrin, 

ursolic acid, oleanolic acid, 

sitosterol and its glucoside. 

Mentha aquatica Linn. 


Habitat ◮ 

gardens. 

Cultivated in Indian 

English ◮ Water Mint, Wild Mint. 

Unani ◮ Pudinaa Nahari. 

Action ◮ Leaf—stimulant, astringent. 

Used for diarrhoea and 

dysmenorrhoea. 

The essential oil is composed of 

40–50% menthofuran, with menthol, 

methyl acetate, pulegone among other 

constituents. 

Mentha arvensis 

Linn. var. piperascens Holmes. 


Habitat ◮ Cultivated in Jammu and 

Kashmir. 

English ◮ Japanese Mint. 

Unani ◮ Naanaa. 

Action ◮ Carminative, cholagogue, 

expectorant, antibacterial, 

antifungal. 

Key application ◮ Mint oil— 

internally for flatulence, functional 

gastrointestinal and gallbladder 

disorders; catarrhs of the upper 

respiratory tract. Externally, for 

myalgia and neuralgia. (German 


Major components of the essential 

oil are menthol (up to 95%) and menthone. 

Others are alpha-and betapinene, 

alpha-thujene, l-limonene, 

beta-phellandrene, furfural, methylcyclohexanone 

and camphene. The 

essential oil possesses both antibacterial 

and antifungal properties. 

The leaves show anti-implantation 

effect. Seeds showed abortifacient activity 

(29%) in albino rats with marked 

malformations in neonates where pregnancy 

was not terminated. 

Mentha longifolia (Linn.) Huds. 

Synonym ◮ M. sylvestris Linn. 



cultivated in Kashmir, Maharashtra, 

Uttar Pradesh and Punjab. 

English ◮ English Horsemint. 

Unani ◮ Pudinaa-Barri, Jangali 

Pudinaa. 

Action ◮ Leaf and flowering top— 

carminative, stimulant, antiseptic, 

febrifuge. Used for digestive 

disorders and headaches. Essential 

oil—antibacterial. 

Chiefcomponentsofthevolatileoil 

are 1,8-cineole 28.8, piperitone 13.9, cispiperitone 

oxide 15.4 and piperitenone 

13.8%. The aerial parts contain flavonoids—3 

′ -hydroxy-4 ′ ,5,6,7-tetramethoxyflavone,hesperetin-7-rutinoside, 

luteolin, ursolic acid and betasitosterol. 

The essential oil acts as 

a CNS depressant and has somnifacient 

properties. Phenolic extract showed

stimulative effect on CNS of mice. Administration 

of the oil leads to a drop 

in body temperature. 

American Horsemint is equated 

with Monarda punctata L. The major 

component of the volatile oil is thymol. 

The leaves and tops are used as stimulant, 

carminative and emmenagogue. 

Mentha piperata 

Linn. emend. Huds. 



cultivated in Maharashtra, Kashmir 

and Punjab. 

English ◮ Peppermint, Brandy Mint. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Vilaayati Pudinaa. 

Action ◮ Oil—digestive, carminative, 

chloretic, antispasmodic, diuretic, 

antiemetic, mild sedative, diaphoretic, 

antiseptic, antiviral, used in 

many mixtures of indigestion and 

colic and cough and cold remedies. 

Key application ◮ Leaf—internally 

for spastic complaints of the gastrointestinal 

tract, gallbladder and 

bile ducts. (German Commission E, 

ESCOP.) The British Herbal Compendium 

indicates peppermint leaf 

for dyspepsia, flatulence, intestinal 

colic, and biliary disorders. 

Key application ◮ Oil—as a carminative. 


Inspasticdiscomfort 

fo the upper gastrointestinal tract 

and bile ducts, irritable colon, the 

respiratory tract and inflammation 

of the oral mucosa. Externally, for 

Mentha spicata Linn. emend. Nathh. 409 

myalgia and neuralgia. (German 

Commission E.) ESCOP indicates its 

use for irritable bowel syndrome, 

coughs and colds. Externally, 

for coughs and colds, rheumatic 

complaints, pruritus, urticaria, and 

pain in irritable skin conditions. 

(ESCOP.) 

The essential oil has both antibacterial 

and antifungal properties. 

The major constituents of the essential 

oil are: menthol, menthone, pulegone, 

menthofuran, 1,8-cineole, menthyl 

acetate, isomenthone. The leaves 

contain flavonoid glycosides, eriocitrin, 

luteolin 7-O-rutinoside, hesperidin, 

isorhoifolin, diosmin, eriodictyol 

7-O-glucoside and narirutin, besides 

rosmarinic acid, azulenes, cholene, 

carotenes. 

Peppermint oil relaxed carvacholcontracted 

guinea-pig tenia coli, and 

inhibited spontaneous activity in 

guinea-pig colon and rabbit jejunum. 

It relaxes gastrointestinal smooth muscle 

by reducing calcium influx. Peppermint 

oil reduced gastric emptying 

time in dyspeptics. 

The aqueous and ethanolic extracts 

exhibited antiviral activity against RPV 

(rinder pest virus), a highly contagious 

viral disease of cattle. 

Mentha spicata 

Linn. emend. Nathh. 

Synonym ◮ M. viridis Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Cultivated in Punjab, Uttar 

Pradesh and Maharashtra. 

M

M 

410 Menyanthes trifoliata Linn. 

English ◮ Spearmint, Garden Mint. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Pudinaa, Podinaka, 

Puutihaa, Rochini. 

Unani ◮ Nanaa. Pudinaa Kohi. 

Action ◮ Carminative, stimulant, 

antispasmodic, antiemetic, diaphoretic, 

antiseptic. A tea of dry 

flowersandleavesisprescribedfor 

tracheobronchitis and hypertension. 

The chief constituents of the essential 

oil are carvone (55–75%) and 

limonene (up to 21.4%). The herb gave 

flavonoids, diosmin and diosmetin. 

Caffeic acid derivatives include rosmarinic 

acid in the volatile oil. 

Dosage ◮ Leaf—5–10 ml juice; 3– 

5mlextract.(CCRAS.) 

Menyanthes trifoliata Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Native to Britain and 

Europe; found in Kashmir. 

English ◮ Bogbean, Buckbean, Goat’s 

bean, Marsh Trefoil. 

Folk ◮ Buckbean. 

Action ◮ Bitter tonic, deobstruent. 

Laxative in large doses. Used for 

diseases of liver and gallbladder, 

and rheumatism. (Contraindicated 

in diarrhoea, dysentery and colitis.) 

Key application ◮ Leaf—in loss 

of appetite, peptic discomforts. 

(German Commission E.) As a bitter 

tonic. (The British Herbal Pharmacopoeia.) 

Thedrugstimulatessaliva 

and gastric juice secretion. (German 


The herb contains iridoid glycosides, 

foliamenthin, dihydrofoliamenthin, 

menthiafolin and loganin; pyridine 

alkaloids including gentianine; 

coumarins (scopoletin); phenolic acids 

(caffeic, with protocatechuic, ferulic, 

sinapic, vanillic including others; flavonoids 

including rutin, hyperoside. 

Choleretic action of the herb is attributed 

to the synergistic action of caffeic 

and ferulic acids and iridoid glycosides. 

Scoparone and scopoletin (coumarins 

isolated from the aerial parts) 

exhibit antihepatotoxic, choleretic and 

cholagogue properties. 

The rhizomes contain dihydrofoliamenthin, 

loganin, menthiafolin and 

a triterpenoid saponin menyanthoside. 

Aqueous extract of the rhizome 

showed greater preserved renal function 

and higher glomerular filtration 

rate, possibly due to Platelet Activating 

Factor (PAF)-antagonistic effect of the 

extract. 

Merremia quinquefolia 

(Linn.) Hallier f. 


Habitat ◮ Maharashtra, Gujarat, 

Uttar Pradesh, Orissa, Rajasthan. 

Action ◮ Seeds—sedative. 

The seeds contain ergoline alkaloids. 

The alkaloids are reported to produce 

vasoconstrictor, uterotonic, neurohormonic, 

sympathicolytic and sedative 

effects. 

Plants of Merremia sp. are twiners 

and are used as diuretic, deobstruent, 

antirheumatic and alterative; the root

is used as a mouthwash; leaves are used 

for burns, scalds and sores. M. vitifolia 

(Burm. F.) Hallier f. exhibits potent 

diuretic and antiseptic activity in strangury 

and urethral discharges. 

(Most of the twiners are known as 

Prasaarini in Indian medicine and are 

specific for rheumatic affections.) 

Merremia tridentata 

(Linn.) Hallier. f. 

Synonym ◮ Convolvulus tridentatus 

Linn. 

Ipomoea tridentata (L.) Roth. 


Habitat ◮ Upper Gangetic Plain, 

Bihar, Orissa, West Bengal, South 

India and Gujarat. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Prasaarini (Kerala and 

Karnataka), Tala-nili. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Mudiyaakunthal. 

Action ◮ Laxative, astringent, 

anti-inflammatory. Used in piles, 

swellings, rheumatic affections, 

stiffness of the joints, hemiplegia 

and urinary affections. 

The aerial parts contain the flavonoids, 

diometin, luteolin and their 7- 

O-beta-D-glucosides. 

Mesua ferrea Linn. 

Synonym ◮ M. nagassarium 

(Burm. f.) Kosterm. 



West Bengal, Western Ghats, 

Mesua ferrea Linn. 411 

Travancore and the Andaman 

Islands. 

English ◮ Iron-wood, Mesu. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Naagakeshara, Naagapushpa, 

Chaampeya, Naaga, 

Naagakinjalika, Ahipushpa. (In 

Ayurvedic Formulary of India Part 

I, revised edn 2003, Keshara and 

Kesara are equated with Mesua 

ferrea, while Kumkuma is equated 

with Crocus sativus.) 

Unani ◮ Naarmushk. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Sirunagappo, 

Nagakesaram. Sirunagappo also 

consists of the tender fruits 

of Cinamonum wighti Meissn. 

Malabar Naagakeshar consists of 

the fruits of Dillenia pentagyna 

Roxb. 

Action ◮ Flower bud—antidysenteric. 

Flowers—astringent, haemostatic, 

anti-inflammatory, stomachic. 

Used in cough, bleeding piles, 

metrorrhagia. Essential oil from 

stamens—antibacterial, antifungal. 


recommends the use of dry stamens 

in gout, haemorrhagic disorders and 

diseases of the urinary bladder. 

The heartwood gave xanthones— 

euxanthone, mesuaxanthones A and B, 

which exhibit anti-inflammatory, CNS 

depressant and antimicrobial activities. 

Theseedoilgave4-phenylcoumarin 

analogues—mesuol, mammeigin, mesuagin, 

mammeisin and mesuone. 

Phenol-containing fraction of seed oil 

is antiasthmatic and antianaphylaxis. 

Stamens gave alpha- and beta-amyrin, 

beta-sitosterol, biflavonoids, mesuaferrones 

A and B, and mesuanic 

M

M 

412 Meyna laxiflora Robyns. 

acid. Stamens constitute the drug Naagakeshar 

of Indian medicine, used as 

an astringent, haemostatic, particularly 

in uterine bleeding and renal diseases. 

Ethanolic extract of the plant 

showed diuretic and hypotensive activity. 

Dosage ◮ Dried stamens—1–3 g 

powder. (API, Vol. II.) 

Meyna laxiflora Robyns. 

Synonym ◮ Vangueria spinosa 

Hook. f. 


Habitat ◮ West Bengal, Bihar, Orissa, 

in hedges and waste places. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Pinditaka. Madana 

or Mainphala is a misleading 

synonym. It is equated with Randia 

dumetorum Poir. 

Folk ◮ Muyana, Moyana, Muduna. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Manakkarai. 

(Madana or Mainphala is known as 

Marukkallankay.) 

Action ◮ Fruit—cholagogue, a decoction 

used in biliary complaints 

and hepatic congestion. Dried 

fruits—narcotic; used for boils. 

Michelia champaca Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Eastern Himalayas, lower 

hills of Assam, hills of South India 

up to 1,000 m., cultivated in various 


English ◮ Champak, Golden 

Champa. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Champaka, Svarna 

Champaka, Hemapushpa, Chaampeya. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Sampagi. 

Action ◮ Flowers—bitter, carminative, 

antispasmodic, demulcent, 

antiemetic, diuretic (used for dysuria), 

antipyretic. Fruits—used 

for dyspepsia and renal diseases. 

Bark—stimulant, diuretic and 

febrifuge. Dried root and root 

bark—purgative and emmenagogue. 

Externally—flower oil is 

used as an application in cephalalgia, 

gout and rheumatism; fruits 

andseedsforhealingcracksin 

feet. 

The ethanolic extract of the stem 

bark showed hypoglycaemic activity 

in rats. The benzene extract of the 

anthers showed 67% post-coital antiimplantation 

activity in rats (1000 mg/ 

kg per day). 

Stem bark and roots yielded an alkaloid 

liriodenine. Root bark yielded 

sesquiterpene lactones (including 

parthenolide and micheliolide). Leaves 

gave a polyisoprenoid, beta-sitosterol 

and liriodenine. Mono-and sesquiterpenes 

occur in essential oils isolated 

from the flowers, leaf and fruit ring. 

The bark and root cortex of the 

Chinese plant gave magnosprengerine 

(0.41%) and salicifoline (0.39%). These 

active principles showed lasting muscle 

relaxant and hypotensive activity. 

The bark of Michelia montana Blume 

(Eastern Himalayas and hills of Assam)

is used as a bitter tonic in fevers. It 

bears white and fragrant flowers. The 

leaf and stem yield an essential oil, 0.95 

and 0.36% on fresh basis, respectively. 

The flowers contains 75% safrole and 

the latter 76% sarisan. 

Michelia nilgarica Zenk. (Western 

Ghats, above 1,700 m) is known 

as Kattu-sambagam in Tamil Nadu, 

the yellow-flowered var. of Champaa. 

The bark and leaves are considered 

febrifuge. The bark contains a volatile 

oil, acrid resins, tannin and a bitter 

principle. The flowers yield a volatile 

oil similar to the bark oil. Aerial parts 

exhibit diuretic and spasmolytic activity. 

Dosage ◮ Dried buds and flowers— 

1–3 g powder. (API, Vol. IV.) Bark— 

50–100 m decoction. (CCRAS.) 

Microcos paniculata Linn. 

Synonym ◮ Grewia microcos Linn. 

G. ulmifolia Roxb. 


Habitat ◮ North-eastern parts of 

India, West Bengal, Western Ghats 

and Andaman Islands. 

Folk ◮ Asar (Bengal); Thengprenkeorong 

(Assam); Kadambu, Visalam, 

Kottei (Tamil Nadu); Abhrangu 

(Karnataka). 

Action ◮ Plant—stomachic, antidysenteric, 

antisyphilitic, antibacterial 

(also used for smallpox and 

eczema). 

Micromelum integerrimum (Buch-Ham.) Roem. 413 

Microglossa pyrifolia 

(Lamk.) Kuntze. 

Synonym ◮ M. volubilis DC. 


Habitat ◮ North-eastern Indian hills. 

Action ◮ Leaf—used for ringworm 

of the scalp. 

A acetylenic glucoside, isolated from 

the leaf, showed antibacterial activity 

against Pseudomonas aeruginosa and 

Staphylococcus aureus. 

Micromelum integerrimum 

(Buch-Ham.) Roem. 


Habitat ◮ Bihar, Orissa, Bengal, 

Sikkim, Nepal, Assam, Khasi, Aka 

and Lushai hills. 

Action ◮ Bark of the root, stem and 

branches—used in the treatment of 

tubercular cases. 

The root contains coumarins, micromelin, 

phebalosin and yuehchakene. 

Micromelum pubescens Blume, synonym 

M. minutum (Forst. f.) Seem. is 

found in the Andamans. The plant is 

used in Malaya and Indonesia for phthisis 

and chest diseases. The root is 

chewed with betel for coughs. 

The leaves contain coumarins, micropubescin 

and phebalosin. 

The bark contains phebalosin. The 

roots contain micromelumin, phebalosin, 

imperatorin, angelical, limettin, 

scopoletin, minumicrolin and 

murrangatin. 

M

M 

414 Micromeria capitellata Benth. 

Micromeria capitellata Benth. 

Family ◮ Lamiaceae; Labiatae. 

Habitat ◮ Kumaon, Upper Gangetic 

plain, Bihar, Orissa, Western Ghats, 

Nilgiris. 

Folk ◮ Pudinaa (var.). 

Action ◮ Plant—carminative. Used 

as a substitute for Mentha piperata 

Linn. 

The plant yields an essential oil 

(1.6%) which contains mainly pulegone 

(80%). 

Micromeria biflora Benth., equated 

with Indian Wild Thyme, is found in 

tropical and temperate Himalayas, and 

in Western Ghats and hills of South 

India. 

The principal constituent of volatile 

oil of Camphorata sp. is camphor; of 

Citrata sp. is citral; of menthata and 

Pulegata sp. is d-menthone; and pulegone. 

Microstylis musifera Ridley. 

Synonym ◮ Malaxis muscifera 

(Lindley) Kuntz. 


Habitat ◮ Northern Himalayas at 

altitudes of 1,500 to 2,800 m. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Jivaka, Madhura, 

Shranga, Hriswaanga, Kurcha, 

Shirraka. (Substitute: Pueraria 

tuberosa.) 

Action ◮ Rejuvenating tonic. 

Dosage ◮ Tuber—3–6 g power 

(CCRAS.) 

Microstylis wallichii Linn. 

Synonym ◮ Malaxis acuminata D. 

Don 


Habitat ◮ Northern Himalayas at 


Ayurvedic ◮ Rshabhaka, Rshabha, 

Rshabham, Vrishabh, Dhira, 

Vishani. (Substitute: Pueraria 

tuberosa.) 

Action ◮ Rejuvenating tonic. 


(CCRAS.) 

Mikania cordata 

(Burm.) B. L. Robinson. 

Synonym ◮ M. micrantha Kunth. 

M. scandans Hook. f. non-Willd. 

Family ◮ Asteraceae; Compositae. 

Habitat ◮ West Bengal, eastern 

Assam, as a weed in tea gardens; sal 

and other forests and waste lands. 

Distributed in tropical America, 

Africa and Asia. 

Folk ◮ Mikaaniaa. 

Action ◮ Root—anti-inflammatory, 

hepatoprotective, adaptogenic. 

Stigmasterol, beta-sitosterol and 

sesquiterpene dilactones, mikanolide, 

dihydromikanolide, deoxymikanolide 

and scandenolide have been isolated 

from the weed. 

The root extract exhibited anti-inflammatory 

activity; reduced carrageenan-induced 

paw oedema in experimental 

rats.

The methanolic extract of the root 

showed CNS deperssant action. It 

showed reduction in spontaneous 

motility, hypothermia, potentiation of 

pentobarbitone sleeping time, analgesia, 

suppression of aggressive behaviour 

and antagonism to amphetamine 

toxicity on experimental animals. 

The methanolic extract of the root 

exhibited adaptogenic activity against 

a variety of stress-induced effects in 

albino rats. 

The chemoprotective, anticarcinogenic 

and hepatoprotective effect of the 

methanolic extract of the root were also 

evaluated in animal studies. Chemical 

carcinogens were reduced in the liver 

of rats treated with the plant extract. 

The root extract induced recovery from 

carbon tetrachloride-induced damage 

to liver tissues in mice. 

Miliusa velutina 




outer Himalayas, in North-east 

and Central India, eastern coast of 

Deccan Peninsula. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Rshiyaproktaa. 

Folk ◮ Gandha-Palaasa (Orissa), 

Kaari (gum). 

Action ◮ Bark—used in the treatment 

of gout. 

Millettia auriculata 

Baker ex Brandis. 

Synonym ◮ M. extensa Benth. ex 

Baker. 

Millingtonia hortensis Linn. f. 415 



outer Himalaya up to 1,200 m from 

Kashmir to Bhutan and in Assam 

and Central and Southern India. 

Folk ◮ Godaar (Bihar). 

Action ◮ Root—vermifuge, pesticidal, 

kills lice and ticks. 

The roots, leaves and stems gave isoflavones 

(including iso-auriculatin, auricularin) 

and a rotenoid, sumatrol. 

Millettia racemosa Benth. 


Habitat ◮ Deccan Peninsula. 

Folk ◮ Godaar (Bihar). 

Action ◮ Insecticidal. 

The debarked stem contains isoflavans, 

isomillinol, besides behenic acid, 

beta-amyrin and beta-sitosterol. The 

isoflavans showed bactericidal and insecticidal 

activity. The antibacterial activity 

was observed against Staphylococcus 

aureus and E. coli. 

Millingtonia hortensis Linn. f. 


Habitat ◮ 

India. 

Cultivated throughout 

English ◮ Indian Cork tree. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Maramalli. 

Folk ◮ Aakaasha Neem, Neem- 

Chameli. 

Action ◮ Bark—antipyretic. Flowers—used 

for asthma and sinusitis. 

M

M 

416 Mimosa pudica Linn. 

The butanol soluble fraction from 

aqueous extract of flowers showed 

bronchial smooth muscle relaxant 

property. Hispidulin, isolated from the 

flowers, is reported to exhibit bronchodilatory 

and antiphlogistic activities. 

Hispidulin is found to be more 

potent than aminophyllin and less toxic 

than the crude extract. 

Mimosa pudica Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Native to tropical 

America; naturalized in tropical 

and subtropical regions of India. 

English ◮ Sensitive-plant, Humble- 

Plant. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Lajjaalu, Laajavanti, 

Namaskaari, Samangaa, Sankochini, 

Shamipatraa, Khadirkaa, 

Raktapaadi. 

Unani ◮ Chhuimui, Sharmili, 

Laajwanti. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Thottalsurungi. 

Action ◮ Leaf—astringent, alterative, 

antiseptic, styptic, blood purifier. 

Used for diarrhoea, dysentery, 

haemophilic conditions, leucorrhoea, 

morbid conditions of 

vagina, piles, fistula, hydrocele and 

glandular swellings. Root—used 

in gravel and urinary complaints. 

A decoction is taken to relieve 

asthma. 

The plant contains mimosine and 

turgorin. The periodic leaf movements 

exhibited by the plant are due 

to presence of derivatives of 4-O- 

(beta-D-glucopyranosyl-6 ′ -sulphate) 

gallic acid. The aerial parts of the 

plant contain C-glycosylflavones, 2 ′′ - 

O-rhamnosylorientin and 2 ′′ -Orhamnosylisoorientin. 

Dosage ◮ Whole plant, root—10– 


(CCRAS.)Wholeplant—10–20gfor 

decoction. (API, Vol. II.) 

Mimusops elengi Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Cultivated in North India, 

Western Peninsula and South India. 

English ◮ Spanish-Cherry, West 

Indian Medlar, Bullet Wood. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Bakula, Keshara, 

Simhakeshara, Sthiraa, Sthirapushpa, 

Vishaarada, Dhanvi, 

Madhupushpa, Madhugandha, 

Chirpushpa, Maulsiri. 

Unani ◮ Molsari. 

Siddha ◮ Magilam. 

Action ◮ Pulp of ripe fruit—astringent; 

used in chronic dysentery. 

Flowers, fruit and bark—astringent. 

Bark—given for promoting fertility 

in women. Seeds—purgative. The 

leaves contain sterols, reducing sugars 

and tannins; roots, a steroidal 

saponin; stem bark, spinasterol 

and taraxerol; flowers, D-mannitol, 

beta-sitosterol and beta-sitosterol- 

D-glycoside; seeds, pentacyclic 

triterpene acids, mimusopic and 

mimusopsic acids. 

Essential oil obtained from the plant 

is reported to be mycotoxic. Antimicrobial 

activity of the root extract has

een reported. Saponins isolated from 

the seeds have been found to effect 

the cardiovascular activity in dogs and 

haemolytic activity in human beings. 

Spasmolytic activity in isolated ileum 

of guinea-pigs has also been recorded. 

Saponins from seeds also showed 

spermicidal activity. 

Dosage ◮ Seed, bark—10–20 g paste; 


Mirabilis jalapa Linn. 


Habitat ◮ North-West Himalayas, 

Bengal and Manipur. 

English ◮ Four-O’Clock Plant, 

Marvel of Peru. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Trisandhi. 

Unani ◮ Gul-abbaas. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Andhimalligai. 

Action ◮ Leaf—used for treating 

uterine discharge; as poultice for 

abscesses and boils; fresh juice is 

applied to body in urticaria, also for 

inflammations and bruises. Tuber— 

used as a poultice on carbuncles. 

Root—mild purgative, spasmolytic. 

The tuberous roots were erroneously 

thought to be the source of jalap. 

Theplantisusedforitsantitumour 

and virus-inhibitory activity. 

The plant contains triterpenes, alpha-amyrin 

and its acetate. Mirabilis 

Antiviral Protein (MAP) was isolated 

from the tuberous roots. MAP also 

showed antiproliferative effect on 

tumour cells. (MAP is abortifacient.) 

Mollugo cerviana Ser. 417 

TwoMirabilis jalapa antimicrobial proteins, 

Mj-AMP-1 and Mj-AMP-2, isolated 

from seeds, showed broad spectrum 

antifungal actvity involving 

a number of pathogenic fungi. 

Miraxanthins I, II, III and IV, indicaxanthin 

and vulgaxanthin have been 

isolated from flowers. 

Mitragyna parvifolia 

(Roxb.) Korth. 


Habitat ◮ All over India, and up to 

1,200 m in the outer Himalaya. 

English ◮ Kaim. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Giri-kadamba, Kadamba 

(var.). 

Siddha ◮ Chinna-Kadambu. 

Action ◮ Bark—used for muscular 

pain. Bark and root—febrifuge, 


Both indole and oxindole alkaloids 


(The composition of alkaloids varies 

with season and from place to place.) 

The main indole alkaloid reported 

is akuammigine and oxindole alkaloids 

have been identified as mitraphylline, 

isomitraphylline, pteropodine, 

isopteropodine, speciophylline 

and uncarine F. 

Anthocephalus cadamba Miq. is the 

accepted source of Kadamba. 

Mollugo cerviana Ser. 

Family ◮ Aizoaceae; Molluginaceae. 

M

M 

418 Mollugo spergula Linn. 

Habitat ◮ Upper Gangetic Plains, 

Punjab, Delhi, Rajasthan, Gujarat, 

Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, 

Orissa, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka. 


Grishma-Sundara. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Parpaatakam. 

Folk ◮ Jeem Shaak. 

Action ◮ Plant—stomachic, aperient, 

febrifuge, antiseptic, blood purifier 

(used for venereal diseases), 

emmenagogue. Root—used in 

rheumatism and gout. 

Flowers and shoots—diaphoretic, 

given in fevers. An infusion of the 

plant is given to promote lochial discharge. 

The plant contains orientin (leteolin-8-C-glucoside), 

vitexin (apigenin- 

8-C-glucoside) and their 2 ′′ -O-glucosides. 

The plant is cardiostimulant, also 


Mollugo spergula Linn. 

Synonym ◮ M. oppositifolia Linn. 

Glinus oppositifolius (Linn.) A. DC. 

Family ◮ Aizoaceae, Molluginaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Greater part of India, 

especially in Assam, Bengal and 

Deccan Peninsula. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Grishma-sundara, 

Parpata (Kerala). 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Thurapoondu. 

Folk ◮ Jala-papr (Bihar), Jeem Shaak. 

Action ◮ Plant—stomachic, aperient 

and antiseptic. Used as a bitter tonic 

forliverdisorders. 

Aerial parts gave vitexin, vitexin-7glucoside 

and 2 ′′ -p-coumaroylvitexin- 

7-glucoside. 

Mollugo stricta Linn., synonym M. 

pentaphylla Linn. (throughout the 

plains and Ghats of India), is also 

known as Parpatakam in the South, 

Jala-papr in Bihar and Kharas in Maharashtra. 

The plant is stomachic, aperient, 

emmenagogue and antiseptic. Its 

biological activity is spermiostatic. 

Momordica balsamina Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Punjab, Gujarat, Dehra 

Dun and Andhra Pradesh. 

English ◮ Balsam Apple. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Jangali Karelaa. 

Folk ◮ Mokhaa. Chhochhidan 

(Gujarat). 

Action ◮ Fruit—applied to burns, 

haemorrhoids and chapped hands. 

Internally, cathartic, hypoglycaemic. 

The plant contains a ribosome inactivating 

protein, momordin II. Methanolic 

extract of the aerial parts contains 

phenylpropanoid esters, verbascoside, 

calceolarioside and rosmarinic 

acid. The esters exhibited antihypertensive, 

analgesic and antibacterial activities. 

Momordica charantia Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Cultivated all over India 

for its fruits.

English ◮ Bitter Gourd, Blsam Pear, 

Carilla. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Kaaravellaka, Kaaravella, 

Kaathilla, Sushaavi. 

Unani ◮ Karelaa. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Paakal, Paharkai. 

Action ◮ Seed/fruit—improves 

diabetic condition. Fruit—stomachic, 

laxative, antibilious, emetic, 

anthelmintic. Used in cough, respiratory 

diseases, intestinal worms, 

skin diseases, also for gout and 

rheumatism. Powdered fruit—applied 

to wounds and ulcers. Leaf— 

emetic, antibilious, purgative. Fruit, 

leaf and root—abortifacient. Leaf 

and seed—anthelmintic. Root— 

astringent; appled to haemorrhoids. 

Immature fruits gave several nonbitter 

and bitter momordicosides. 

Fruits, seeds and tissue culture gave 

a polypeptide containing amino acids. 

Fruits also gave 5-hydroxytryptamine, 

charantin (a steroidal glucoside), diosgenin, 

cholesterol, lanosterol and betasitosterol. 

Bitter principles are cucurbitacin 

glycosides. 

Hypoglycaemic effects of the fruit 

have been demonstrated by blood tests 

in both humans and animal studies. 

Researchers have warned that the 

fruit extract leads to a false negative 

test for sugar in the urine (due to its 

ability to maintain the indicator dye in 

the glucose oxidase strips and the alkaline 

copper salts in a reduced state). 

Chronic administration of the fruit 

extract (1.75 g/day for 60 days) to dogs 

led to testicular lesions with mass atrophy 

of the spermatogenic elements. 

The extract reduced the testicular con- 

Momordica charantia Linn. 419 

tent of RNA, protein and sialic acid 

as also the acid-phosphatase activity. 

(Medicinal Plants of India, Vol. 2, 1987, 

Indian Council of Medical Research, 

New Delhi.) 

The fruits and seeds yielded a polypeptide, 

p-insulin, which was considered 

similar to bovine insulin. (Fitoterapia, 

60, 1989; Chem Abstr 112, 1990.) 

The seed and fruit contain an inhibitor 

of HIV, MAP-30 (Momordica 

anti-HIV-protein) which exhibited 

antiviral and antitumour activity in 

vitro. (Chem Abstr, 113, 1990; ibid, 

117, 1992.) Another protein, MRK-29, 

found in the seed and fruit of a smaller 

var. of Bitter Gourd found in Thailand, 

was found to inhibit HIV reverse 

transcriptase and to increase tumour 

necrosis factor (TNF). (Planta Med, 

67, 2001; Natural Medicines Comprehensive 


The seeds yield alpha-and betamomorcharins 

(glycoproteins). When 

these glycoproteins were co-cultured 

with isolated hepatocytes, morphological 

changes in hepatocytes were observed, 

indicating hepatotoxicity. Another 

principle with antilipolytic and 

lipogenic activities, found along with 

the alpha-and beta-momorcharin in 

the seed extract, did not show toxic 

effect. 

Vicine is the hypoglycaemic constituent 

in the seed. Pure vicine has 

been found to possess 32.6% hypoglycaemic 

activity as against 22.2% shown 

by fresh juice, when tested on albino 

rats. The vicine is non-haemolytic. 

Dosage ◮ Fresh fruit—10–15 ml 

juice (API, Vol. II); 10–20 ml juice 

(CCRAS.) 

M

M 

420 Momordica cochinchinensis Spreng. 

Momordica cochinchinensis 

Spreng. 



country, especially found in Assam, 

Bengal, South India and Andaman 

Islands. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Karkataka, Kaaravellajalaja. 

Folk ◮ Kakrol (Maharashtra), 

Bhat-karelaa, Gulkakraa. 

Action ◮ Leaf and fruit—used 

externally for lumbago, ulceration, 

fracture of bone. Seed—bechic, 

aperient, emmenagogue, antiinflammatory, 

deobstruent. (Used 

for obstructions of liver and spleen). 

The tuberous root contains saponins 

belonging to the pentacyclic triterpene 

glycoside series. Seeds contain 

momordica saponins I and II (ester 

glycosides of gypsogenin and quillaic 

acid respectively), the diterpenoid 

columbin, oleanolic acid, its derivative 

momordic acid and bessisterol. 

The seeds contain the glycoprotein, 

momorcochin S, which exhibits RNA 

N-glycosidase activity. 

Momordica dioica Roxb. ex Willd. 



1,500 m in the Himalaya. 

English ◮ Small Bitter Gourd, Bur 

Cucumber. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Karkotikaa, Karkotikaavandhyaa, 

Karkotaka, Karkota. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Tholoo-pavai, 

Paluppakai, Kaattupaagala. 

Folk ◮ Jangali Karelaa, Ban-Karelaa, 

Bhat-Karelaa, Dhar-Karelaa. 

Action ◮ Tuberous root—astringent, 

febrifuge, antiseptic, anthelmintic, 

spermicidal. Used in bleeding piles, 

urinary affections; smeared over 

body in high fever with delirium (as 

a sedative). A paste, prepared with 

the root of male plant, is applied 

externally for pain in the breast. 

The root extract exhibited significant 

anti-allergic activity comparable 

with standard drugs used against allergy 

and bronchial asthma (in experimental 

animals). 

Momordica tuberosa 

(Roxb.) Cogn. 

Synonym ◮ M. cymbalaria Fenzl ex 

Naud. 


Habitat ◮ Maharashtra and Tamil 

Nadu, in bushes along the banks of 

water courses. (It is not cultivated.) 

Ayurvedic ◮ Kaarali-Kanda, Kuduhunchi. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Athalaikai 

Folk ◮ Kakrol (Maharashtra). 

Action ◮ Tuberous root—emmenagogue, 

abortifacient; acrid; contains 

a bitter glycoside. 

Monochoria vaginalis Presl. 

Family ◮ Pontederiaceae.


ponds, tanks, ditches, as a weed 

common in rice fields. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Indivara (Kerala). 

Kakapola (Malyalam), Nirkancha 

(Telugu). 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Senkzhuneerkizhangu. 

Folk ◮ Nukha, Nanda (Bengal). 

Action ◮ Leaves—juice is given 

for coughs. Roots—prescribed for 

stomach and liver complaints. 

Bark—prescribed with sugar for 

asthma. 

Monotropa uniflora Linn. 

Family ◮ Monotropaceae. 


from Himachal Pradesh to Bhutan 

and in Khasi Hills at 1,800–2,400 m. 

English ◮ Indian Pipe. 

Action ◮ Root—sedative, nervine, 


The plant gave sitosterol, campesterol 

and traces of cholesterol. The oil 

contained linolenic, palmitic, linoleic 

and hexadecenoic acids. 

Morinda citrifolia Linn. 

Synonym ◮ M. bracteata Roxb. 



Darjeeling, Konkan and the 


English ◮ Indian Mulberry. 

Morinda citrifolia Linn. 421 

Ayurvedic ◮ Ashyuka, Akshi, Atchy. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Nunaa, Togaru. 

Action ◮ Fruit—emmenagogue, 

antileucorrhoeic, antidysenteric, 

anticatarrhal (used in throat 

infections and asthma). Root 

and leaf—cathartic, febrifuge, 

anti-inflammatory (used in gout). 

Root—anticongestive, hypotensive. 

A decoction is given to regulate 

menstruation. 

The heartwood yielded anthraquinones—alizarin 

and its glycosides, nordamnacanthol. 

Leaves contain ursolic 

acid and beta-sitosterol. Fruits gave 

asperuloside and caproic acid. 

The lyophilized aqueous extract of 

roots was evaluated for analgesic and 

behavioural effects in mice; positive results 

were observed confirming a sedative 

property without exhibiting any 

toxic effects. 

Ethanolic extract of the plant showed 

significant antimicrobial activity. 

Morinda coreia Buch.-Ham., M. tinctoria 

Roxb. (dry forests throughoutthe greater part of India) is considered as 

the wild form or a varient of Morinda 

citrifolia and is known by the same 

vernacular nemes. The root bark gave 

the insecticidal glycoside, morindin-6primeveroside, 

which was found lethal 

on cockroaches and houseflies topically. 

Morinda umbellata L. (Bihar, Khasi 

Hills and Peninsular India) is also 

known as Nunaa in Tamil Nadu. 

A decoction of root and leaves is 

used for diarrhoea and dysentery. The 

root bark contains a considerable 

amount of rubichloric acid and small 

quantities of anthraquinones. 

M

M 

422 Moringa concanensis Nimmo ex Gibs. 

Moringa concanensis 

Nimmo ex Gibs. 

Family ◮ Moringaceae. 

Habitat ◮ 

India. 

Rajasthan and Peninsular 

Ayurvedic ◮ Shigru (Red var.). 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kaatumurungai. 

Action ◮ See M. pterygosperma. 

Moringa pterygosperma Gaertn. 

Synonym ◮ M. oleifera Lam. 

Family ◮ Moringaceae. 

English ◮ Drumstick, Horse-Radish. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Shigru (white var.), 

Madhu Shigru, Sigra, Shobhaanjana, 

Haritashaaka. Raktaka, 

Murangi, Mochaka, Akshiva, 

Tikshnagandhaa. 

Unani ◮ Sahajan. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Murungai. 

Action ◮ All parts of the tree 

are reported to be used as cardiac 

and circulatory stimulant. 

Pods—antipyretic, anthelmintic; 

fried pods are used by diabetics. 

Flowers—cholagogue, stimulant, 

diuretic. Root juice—cardiac 

tonic, antiepileptic. Used for 

nervous debility, asthma, enlarged 

liver and spleen, deep-seated inflammation 

and as diuretic in 

calculus affection. Decoction 

is used as a gargle in hoarseness 

and sore throat. Root and 

fruit—antiparalytic. Leaf—juice 

is used in hiccough (emetic in 

high doses); cooked leaves are 

given in influenza and catarrhal 

affections. Root-bark—antiviral, 

anti-inflammatory, analgesic. 

Bark—antifungal, antibacterial. 

Stem-bark and flower—hypoglycaemic. 

Seeds—an infusion, 

anti-inflammatory, antispasmodic 

and diuretic; given in venereal 

diseases. 



of India indicated the use of the dried 

root bark in goitre, glycosuria and lipid 

disorders (also dried seeds), and leaf, 

seed, root bark and stem bark in internal 

abscess, piles and fistula-in-ano. 

The plant contains antibacterial 

principles, spirochin and pterygospermin 

which are effective against both 

Gram-Positive and Gram-Negative 

bacteria. 

The leaves contain nitrile glycosides, 

niazirin and niazirinin and mustard oil 

glycosides. The mustard oil glycosides 

showed hypotensive, bradycardiac effects 

and spasmolytic activity, justifying 

the use of leaves for gastrointestinal 

motility disorders. 

The roots possess antibacterial, anticholeric 

and antiviral properties due to 

the presence of pterygospermin, Spiro 

chin and benzylisothiocyanate. The 

root extract exhibited significant antiinflammatory 

activity in carrageenaninduced 

paw-oedema in rats. 

The leaves exhibited hypoglycaemic 

activity, although the plasma insulin 

level did not alter much. 

The root and bark showed antifertility 

activity through biphasic action 

on the duration of the estrous cycle of 

female rats.

Dosage ◮ Leaf—10–20 ml. juice. 

(API, Vol. III); root bark—2–5 g 

powder; stem bark—2–5 g powder; 

seed—5–10 g powder (API, Vol. IV). 

Leaf, flower, fruit, seed, bark, root— 

1–3 g powder; 50–100 ml decoction. 

(CCRAS.) 

Morus alba Linn. 



in Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Kashmir 

and North-Western Himalayas. 

English ◮ Chinese White-Mulberry. 

Unani ◮ Shahtuut, Tuut. 

Action ◮ Fruit—cooling, mild 

laxative. Used for sore throat, 

dyspepsia and melancholia. Leaves 

and root bark—expectorant, 

diuretic, hypotensive. Bark 

extract—hypoglycaemic. Leaf— 

anti-inflammatory, emollient, 

diaphoretic. Used as a gargle in 

inflammations of the throat. 

The plant is rich in phenolics. 

The leaves gave flavonoids (including 

rutin, moracetin); anthocyanins 

(cyanidin and delphinidin glucosides); 

artocarpin, cycloartocarpin and analogues. 

The root bark contained flavonoids 

including the kuwanons, sangennons, 

mulberrosides and mulberrofurans. 

Hot water extract of the dried mulberry 

leaves fed to rabbits on 1% cholesterol 

diet exhibited significant hypolipidaemic 

or hypocholesterolaemic effect. 

In addition, suppression of hepatic 

enlargement and fat deposition in 

the hepatic cells was also observed. 

Morus nigra Linn. 423 

An aqueous methanol extract of the 

root bark significantly reduced plasma 

sugar levels in mice. 

The extract also showed anti-inflammatory 

and antipyretic activity in 

exudative, proliferative and chronic 

phases of inflammation. 

Aqueous and alkali extracts of leaves 

and stems are active against Gram- 

Positive bacteria and yeast. 

Morus nigra Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Native to West Asia; 

cultivated in Kashmir, also grown 

in Darjeeling. 

English ◮ Black Mulberry. 

Unani ◮ Tuut Siyaah. 

Action ◮ Berries and root bark— 

mild laxative and used in the 

treatment of respiratory catarrh. 

Berries—refrigerant, given during 

convalescence. 

The fruit contains invert sugar, pectin, 

fruit acids (including malic and 

citric acid), ascorbic acid, and flavonoids 

(including rutin). Leaves contain 

flavonoids, including rutin (2– 

6%). Root bark contains calcium 

malate; the bark of branches contains 

tannins, phlobaphenes, a sugar, a phytosterol, 

ceryl alcohol, fatty acids and 

phosphoric acid. 

An infusion of leaves causes a drop 

in blood sugar, sometimes diuresis and 

a reduction in arterial pressure. It 

shows no effect on glucosuria. 

Morus acidosa Griff., M. australis 

Poir and Morus indica L. have also been 

M

M 

424 Mucuna monosperma DC. 

equated with Tuut Siyaah of Unani 

medicine. 

Mucuna monosperma DC. 


Habitat ◮ Nepal, Khasi Hills, Deccan 

Peninsula and the Andamans. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Kaakaandolaa. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Periyattalargai. 

Folk ◮ Kaagadolia (Gujarat). 

Action ◮ Seeds—sedative, restorative, 

expectorant; used in coughs, 

asthma. 

Mucuna prurita Hook. 

Synonym ◮ M. pruriens Baker non 

DC. 


Habitat ◮ Throughotu India, 

including Andaman and Nicobar 

Islands. 

English ◮ Cowhage, Horse-eye Bean. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Aatmaguptaa, Kapikacchuu, 

Rshabhi, Adhigandhaa, 

Ajadaaa, Kacchuraa, Laanguli, 

Rshyaproktaa, Svaguptaa, 

Shyaamguptaa, Markati, Kanduraa, 

Kevaanch, Shuukashimbi. 

Unani ◮ Konchh. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Poonaikkaali. 

Action ◮ Seed—astringent, nervine 

tonic, local stimulant, used in impotence, 

spermatorrhoea, urinary 

troubles, leucorrhoea, traditionally 

used for male virility. Also used in 

depressive neurosis. Hair on fruit— 

vermifuge, mild vesicant; used for 

diseases of liver and gallbladder. 

Leaf—applied to ulcers. Pod— 

anthelmintic. Root and fruit—spasmolytic, 

hypoglycaemic. Root— 

CNS active. 


recommends the seed in impotence 

and paralysis agitans; the root in vaginal 

laxity. 

The seeds contain the alkaloids, mucunine, 

mucunadine, mucunadinine, 

prurieninine, pruriendine and nicotine, 

besides beta-sitosterol, gluthione, 

lecithin, vernolic and gallic acids. They 

contain a number of bioactive substances 

including tryptamine, alkylamines, 

steroids, flavonoids, coumarins 

and cardenolides. L-DOPA 

is present in the seed as well as in the 

stem, leaves and roots. 

Major constituents of the hairs on 

thepodareaminessuchas5-hydroxytryptamine 

(serotonin), and a proteolytic 

enzyme mucuanain. (Serotonin 

was present only in pods.) 

Prurieninine slowed down heart 

rate, lowered blood pressure and stimulated 

intestinal peristalsis in experiments 

carried out on frogs. The spasmolysis 

of smooth muscles was caused 

by indole bases. 

Seed diet produced hypoglycaemic 

effect in normal rats, however, such 

diet had insignificant effect on alloxantreated 

rats. 

There is some evidence that Cowhage 

might be useful for chlorpromazine-induced 

hyperprolactinemia in 

men. (Natural Medicines Comprehensive 

Database, 2007.) (Males with hy-

perprolactinemia frequently face impotency.) 

(Cured seeds are used in 

Indian medicine for male sexual dysfunction.) 

Mucuna cochinchinensis Cheval.; 

synonym M. nivea (Roxb.) DC.; Stizolobium 

niveum Kuntze (cultivated 

in Bengal and Bihar for edible pods 

and seeds) is known as Lyon Bean 

(Khamach in Bengal). The pod yielded 

L-DOPA (0.06%). 

Dosage ◮ Cured seed—3–6 g (API, 

Vol. III); root—3–6 g powder for 

decoction (API, Vol. IV.) 

Murdannia nudiflora 

(L.) Brenan. 

Synonym ◮ Aneilema nudiflorum 

(L.) Wall. 



moist and marshy places; common 

in West Bengal. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Koshapushpi. 

Folk ◮ Kanshura. 

Action ◮ Plant—used in burns, boils 

and sores. 

Murdannia scapiflora 

(Roxb.) Royle. 

Synonym ◮ Anilema scapiflorum Wt. 

A. tuberosum Buch.-Ham. 


Habitat ◮ Temperate and tropical 

Himalaya, upper Gangetic plains 

and Peninsular India. 

Murraya koenigii (Linn.) Spreng. 425 

Folk ◮ Siyaah Musli; Sismulia 

(Gujarat); Kureli. 

Action ◮ Root—astringent, febrifuge; 

used in headache, giddiness, 

jaundice. Root bark—diuretic, 

antispasmodic, (used in asthma, 

colic, infantile convulsions.) 

Murraya exotica Linn. 

Synonym ◮ M. paniculata (Linn.) 

Jack. 


Habitat ◮ Throughout India and 

Andaman Islands up to an altitude 

of 1,500 m. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Konji. 

Folk ◮ Kaamini; Aanthil (Bihar). 

Action ◮ Leaves—astringent; 

used in diarrhoea and dysentery 

(sap, squeezed from leaves, is 

administered). Root—antipyretic. 

The plant is rich in coumarins, carbazole 

alkaloids and flavonoids. The 

leaves contain a number of coumarins, 

the major ones being murrangatin 

and phebalosin. Murrangatin, derived 

from the precursor phebalosin, is reported 

to possess antithyroid property. 

The root contains a bis-indole alkaloid,yuehchukene,withpotentantiimplantation 

activity. 

Mexolide (dimeric coumarin), isolated 

from the stem bark is antibacterial. 

The steam distillate of leaves exhibit 

antifungal and antibacterial activity. 

Murraya koenigii (Linn.) Spreng. 


M

M 

426 Musa paradisiaca Linn. 

Habitat ◮ Cultivated in Tamil Nadu; 

Maharashtra and North India. 

English ◮ Curry-Leaf tree. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Surabhini-nimba. 

Unani ◮ Karipattaa. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Karuveppilei, 

Karivempu, Kattuveppilei. 

Folk ◮ Mithaa Neem, Kathneem, 

Gandhela, Barsanga. 

Action ◮ Leaf—stomachic, antiprotozoal, 

spasmolytic; promotes 

appetite and digestion, destroys 

pathogenic organism, antidysenteric. 

Externally, used against skin 

eruptions. 

All parts of the plant, especially the 

leaves, are rich in carbazole alkaloids 

(several carbazole bases have been isolated). 

The leaves also gave a coumarin 

glucoside, scopolin. 

The beta-carotene content of curry 

leaves was found decreased on cooking; 

deep frying resulted in maximum loss. 

Inclusion of curry leaves in the diet 

of diabetic patients reduced the blood 

glucose level appreciably (it did not 

produce any insulin response). 

The steam distillate of the leaves is 

reported to exhibit antifungal and insecticidal 

activities. 

The ethanolic extract of the stem 

bark showed anti-inflammatory effect 

in carrageenan-induced inflammation 

in rats. 

Musa paradisiaca Linn. 

Synonym ◮ M. Sapientum Linn. 

Family ◮ Musaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Assam, Madhya Pradesh, 

Bihar, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, 

Karnataka, Jalgaon district (Maharashtra), 

West Bengal, Tamil Nadu 

and Kerala. 

English ◮ Banana, Plantain. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Kadali, Rambhaa, 

Sakrtphala, Vaaranaa, Mochaa, 

Ambusaara, Anshumatiphal. 

Unani ◮ Kelaa, Mouz. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Vaazhai. 

Action ◮ Fruit—mild laxative, 

combats diarrhoea and dysentery, 

promotes healing of intestinal 

lesions in ulcerative colitis. Unripe 

fruit considered useful in diabetes. 

Fruit powder—used as a food 

supplement in sprue and other 

intestinal disorders. Root— 

anthelmintic. 


recommends the fresh rhizome 

in dysuria, polyuria (in females) and 

menstrual disorders; the flower in asthma, 

bleeding disorders, vaginal discharges 

and leucorrhoea. 

Thepulpofripefruit(50g/ratper 

day) given daily with standard food 

pellets prevented increase in blood 

pressure in deoxycorticosterone-induced 

hypertension in rats. This was 

found partially related to increased 

serotonin levels triggered by the high 

carbohydrate and tryptophan content 

of the fruit. 

Dietary fibre prepared from unripe 

banana exerted an antiatherogenic effect, 

keeping the levels of cholesterol in 

serum and aorta low, as also the level of 

LDL cholesterol in rats fed on cholesterol 

diet.

An anti-ulcerogenic acylsterylglycoside, 

sitoindoside IV, has been isolated 

from unripe banana. 

A pectin containing hexoses (32.4%) 

and uronic acid (52.5%) has been isolated 

from the pith of the stem. The 

pectin was found to exhibit significant 

hypolipidaemic and hypoglycaemic activity 

in rats. 

The flower extract exhibited hypoglycaemic 

activity in rabbits. 

The pseudostem is reported to possess 

lithotriptic and antilithic properties. 

The extract reduced the precursor 

of oxalate formation, the liver glycolic 

acid content in hyperoxaluric rats. 

The benzene extract of the root exhibited 

significant antibacterial and antifungal 

activity. 

Dosage ◮ Dried flower—10–20 g. 


Mussaenda frondosa Linn. 

Synonym ◮ M. frondosa var. glabrata 

Hook. f. 

M. glabrata (Hook. f.) Hutch. 


Habitat ◮ Tropical Himalayas, Khasi 

Hills, Deccan Peninsula and the 


English ◮ White Lady, White Rag 

Plant. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Shrivati. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Vellai-yilai, Vellimadandai. 

Folk ◮ Shrivara, Bedina, Bebina, 

Bhutakesha (Maharashtra), 

Naagaballi (Bengal) 

Mycrotomia benthami C. B. Cl. 427 

Action ◮ Flower—diuretic, antiasthmatic, 

antiperiodic. Leaves 

and flowers—used in external 

applications for ulcers. Root—used 

in the treatment of white leprosy. 

White petiolate bract—prescribed 

in jaundice. 

The flowers contain anthocyanins, 

hyperin, quercetin, rutin, ferulic and 

sinapic acids; beta-sitosterol glucoside. 

Mussaenda glabra Vahl (tropical Himalayas 

from Nepal eastwards, Bihar, 

Bengal and Assam) is known as Sonaaruupaa 

in Assam. An infusion of 

the leaves is used for cough, asthma, 

recurrent fevers; also as a diuretic in 

dropsy. 

Mycrotomia benthami C. B. Cl. 


Habitat ◮ Garhwal, Tibet. 

Folk ◮ Dimok (Tibet), Ratanjot 

(Garhwal). 

Action ◮ Topically antiseptic. 

National Formulary of Unani Medicine 

has equated Onosma echioides 

Linn. (Boraginaceae) with Ratanjot. 

Geranium wallichianum D. Don. 

(Geraniaceae); Clausena pentaphylla 

DC.(Rutaceae); and Anemone obtusiloba 

D. Don. (Ranunculaceae) arealso 

known as Ratanjot. 

Ratanjot should be equated with 

the root of Alkanna tinctoria (Boraginaceae), 

known as Dyer’s or Spanish 

Bugloss. 

M

M 

428 Myrica nagi Hook. f. non-Thunb. 

Myrica nagi Hook. f. non-Thunb. 

Synonym ◮ M. esculenta Buch.-Ham 

ex Don. 

Family ◮ Myricaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Subtropical Himalayas 

from the Ravi eastwards at 900– 

2,100 m. 

English ◮ Box Myrtle. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Katphala, Kushbhikaa, 

Shriparnikaa, Mahaavalkal, 

Bhadraa, Bhadravati. 

Unani ◮ Kaayaphal. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Marudam. 

Action ◮ Bark—carminative, 

antiseptic. Used in fever, cough 

and asthma; also as a snuff in 

catarrhwithheadache.Fruitwax— 

used externally for ulcers. Fruit— 

pectoral, sedative. 


recommends the stem bark and 

fruit in anaemia and polyuria. 

The stem bark gave myricanol, a proanthocyanidin. 

The root bark yielded 

beta-sitosterol, taraxerolandmyricadiol. 

The stem bark exhibited analgesic, 

spasmolytic, hypotensive and antiarrhythmic 

activity. 

Dosage ◮ Fruit—3–5 g, stem bark— 

3–5 g. (API, Vol. III.) 

Myristica fragrans Houtt. 


Habitat ◮ Native to the Moluccas 

Islands;grownintheNilgiris, 

Kerala, Karnataka and West Bengal. 

English ◮ Nutmeg, Mace. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Jaatiphala, Jaatishasya, 

Maalatiphala (seed kernel). 

Jaatipatri, Jaatipatra, Jaatipatraka, 

Jaatikosha (mace). 

Unani ◮ Jauzbuwaa (seed), Bisbaasaa 

(mace). 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Jaathikkai, Saadikai 

(nutmeg); Saadippatthiri, Jaadippatiri 

(mace). 

Action ◮ Nutmeg—carminative, 

spasmolytic, antiemetic, orexigenic; 

topically anti-inflammatory. 

Mace—stimulant carminative. 

Narcotic in high doses. 

Nutmeg is used in flatulency, diarrhoea, 

nausea and vomiting. Mace 

is used in rheumatism, chronic bowel 

complaints and asthma. When roasted, 

both nutmeg and mace are used 

for diarrhoea, colic, flatulence and dyspepsia. 

Key application ◮ Dried seed and 

aril—included among unapproved 


Following actions have been considered: 

antispasmodic, MAO inhibition, 

inhibition of prostaglandin 

synthesis. 


recommends the kernel of the fruit 

in spermatorrhoea. 

An aqueous extract of nutmeg is reported 

to show anti-secretory activity 

against E. coli heat-labile enterotoxin; 

the hexane soluble fraction of the alcoholic 

extract inhibited the heat-labile 

and heat-stable-enterotoxin-induced 

secretory response in animal studies.

The hexane extract contains myristicin, 

an anti-inflammatory principle, 

and licarin-B and dehydro diisoeugenol 

which exhibited CNS depressant 

properties. The extracts of 

nutmeg decreased kidney prostaglandin 

levels in rats. They also inhibited 

platelet aggregation (due to eugenol 

and isoeugenol). The anti-inflammatory 

activity observed in carrageenan-induced 

oedema in rats and enhanced 

vascular permeability in mice, 

are attributed to myristicin present in 

mace. 

Mace also activates hepatic detoxification 

process. Monomeric and dimeric 

phenyl propanoids (myristicin, dehydro 

diisoeugenol) from mace, on p.o. 

administration in mice, produced suppression 

of lipid peroxidation in liver. 

Seeds contain about 0.24% myristicin, 

whereas volatile oil about 3.12%. 

The resorcinols, malabaricones B 

and C, isolated from the seed coat 

(mace) exhibited strong antibacterial 

and antifungal activities. Neoplasm 

inhibitors, phenylpropyl derivatives, 

have been isolated from pulverized 

mace. 

Dosage ◮ Endosperm of dried seed 

(kernel of fruit)—0.5–1.0 g powder. 

(API, Vol. I.) 

Myristica malabarica Lam. 


Habitat ◮ Western Ghats, Kanara 

and Malabar. 

English ◮ Malabar Nutmeg, False 

Nutmeg, Bombay Nutmeg, Bombay 

Mace. 

Myroxylon balsamum Harms. 429 

Ayurvedic ◮ Paashikaa, Raamapatri, 

Ku-Jaavitri. Pashupaashi (Kerala). 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Pathiri, Kattu Jhadi. 

Action ◮ Topically stimulant; applied 

to indolent ulcers. 

The fruit rind yielded diarylnonanoids 

and a lignin, malabaricanol. 

Leaves gave beta-sitosterol, myristic 

acid and its triglyceride, trimyristin. 

Fat and resin are the major constituents 

of the Bombay mace. The 

crude fat (Pundi oil) is used as an embrocation 

in rheumatism. 

The bark yields a kino. 

Ripe fruits form the source of Bombay 

Nutmeg and Bombay Mace, used 

as adulterant of Myristica fragrans. 

Dosage ◮ Seed kernel—1.5 g powder; 

oil—1–3 drops. (CCRAS.) 

Myroxylon balsamum Harms. 

Synonym ◮ M. toluiferum H. B. & K. 

Family ◮ Leguminosae. 

Habitat ◮ Indigenous to Venezuela, 

Columbia and Peru;. grown in Lal 

Bagh Botanic Garden (Bangalore) 

and Kallar (Nilgiris). 

English ◮ Tolu Balsam tree. 

Action ◮ Balsam—antiseptic, 

stimulant and expectorant. Used as 

an ingredient in cough mixtures, 

also used as an inhalant in cases of 

obstinate catarrh. 

Key application ◮ Externally for 

poorly healing wounds, for burns, 

decubitus ulcers, frost bite, ulcus 

cruris, bruises caused by prostheses, 

M

M 

430 Myrsine africana Linn. 

haemorrhoids; as antibacterial, antiseptic 

and antiparasitic (especially 

for scabies). (German Commission 

E.) 

Balsam contains cinnamic acid, 

benzoic acid and their esters. 

Myroxylon pereirae Kolotzsch (Lal 

Bagh Botanic Garden, Bangalore), is 

the source of Peru Balsam. Used externally 

in the form of an ointment or 

tincture, as a parasiticide in scabies, 

ringworm and pediculosis and for bed 

soresandchilblains.Itentersintosuppositories 

used in hemorrhoids. 

Myrsine africana Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Outer Himalayas from 

Kashmir to Nepal and in Khasi Hills 

at 300–2,700 m. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Vaayavidanga (substitute). 

(Embelia ribes is the authentic 

source of Vidanga.) 

Folk ◮ Bebrang (Punjab), Kakhum, 

Shamshaad (according to Unani 

reference books, Shamshaad is 

obtained from a Pinaceae tree). 

Action ◮ Fruit—anthelmintic (used 

for the expulsion of tape worms; 

also as a substitute for Emblia 

ribes); antispasmodic, purgative; 

used externally against ringworm 

and other skin affections. Aerial 

parts—antifertility, abortifacient. 

(According to Unani medicine, 

the fruits of Shamshaad show 

antifertility activity in females.) 

Berries and seeds contain embelic 

acid and quercitol (1%). Embelin (3%) 

is present in the dried fruit. Seeds also 

contain embelin. 

Seeds of M. semiserrata Wall. contain 

embelin (0.4%) and quercitol 

(0.8%). 

Seeds of M. capitellata Wall. contain 

1.6% embelin. 

These related species are found in 

Nepal, Bhutan, Assam and North Bengal. 

Myrtus communis Linn. 



of Northwestern India and Tamil 

Nadu. 

English ◮ Myrtle, Clove Myrtle, 

Spanish Myrtle. 

Unani ◮ Habb-ul-Aas, Muurad, 

Muurad-daan. 

Folk ◮ Vilaayati Mehndi. Sutrasowa 

(Bengal). Kulinaval (Tamil Nadu). 

Action ◮ Leaves—antiseptic, 

antimicrobial, antiparasitic. Used 

for acute and chronic respiratory 

tract infections, bladder conditions, 

urinary infections, and worm 

infestation. 

Key application ◮ As a cough remedy. 


The leaves contain tannins (pyrogallol 

derivative), flavonoids (including 

myricetin, about 90%, with kaempferol 

and quercetin glycosides; volatile 

oil containing alpha-pinene, cineole, 

myrtenol, nerol, geraniol and dipentene.

Myrtol, a fraction of myrtenol, is 

absorbed in the intestines, stimulates 

the mucous membrance of the stomach 

and deodorizes the breath. 

Berry exhibits anti-inflammatory 

activity. The aqueous and ethanolic 

extracts of the leaves and branches exhibit 

hypoglycaemic activity in rats. 

The essential oil and myrtucommulone 

B, isolated from the plant, are antibacterial 

and antitubercular. (Clove 

myrtle is used in Homoeopathy for 

treating lung complication of pleurodynia 

and dry hollow cough.) 

Myxopyrum serratulum A. W. Hill. 431 

Myxopyrum serratulum 

A. W. Hill. 



Folk ◮ Chathuravalli, Chathuramulla 

(Kerala). Hem-maalati. 

Action ◮ Leaves—used with clarified 

butter in cough, asthma, chest 

diseases; also in nervous complaints 

and rheumatism. Oil extract of the 

leaves is used for massage in fever, 

headache and backaches. 

M

Naravelia zeylanica (Linn.) DC. 


Habitat ◮ The tropical forests of 

eastern Himalayas, Assam, Bengal, 

Bihar, Deccan Peninsula. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Dhanavalli (Kerala), 

Chhagul-bati (Bengal). 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Vathomkolli, Neendavalli. 


vulnerary, anthelmintic. 

Used for colic, headache, 

inflammations, rheumatic pain, 

wounds and ulcers, intestinal 

worms, leprosy and skin diseases. 

Saps of stem—effective in onychia. 

Narcissus tazetta Linn. 


Habitat ◮ All over Europe. Grown in 


English ◮ Narcissus, Daffodil, Lent 

Lily. 

Unani ◮ Nargis. 

Action ◮ Bulbs—powerfully emetic, 

diuretic, purgative. Poisonous. Oil 

is applied for curing baldness. 

The bulbs are imported into India. 

Dried and sliced bulbs are sold as a substitute 

for bitter hermodactyls. 

Alkaloids, lycorine, pseudolycorine, 

galanthamine, haemanthamine and 

N 

narcisine, have been isolated from the 

bulbs of the species. The alkaloid narcisine 

is toxic. 

The mucilage, narcissus T-glucomannan, 

isolated from the bulbs, was 

found to exhibit significant hypoglycaemic 


Nardostachys jatamansi DC. 

Synonym ◮ N. grandiflora DC. 

Family ◮ Valerianaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Alpine Himalayas, 

Kumaon, Sikkim and Bhutan. 

English ◮ Spikenard, Musk-root. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Maansi, Jataamaansi, 

Bhuutajataa, Tapaswini, Sulomashaa, 

Jatilaa, Naladaa. 

Unani ◮ Sumbul-e-Hindi, Sambul-ut- 

Teeb, Naardeen-e-Hindi, Baalchhar. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Sadamanchil. 


Valerian. Tranquilizer, sedative, 

hypotensive. Used for the treatment 

of epilepsy, hysteria, convulsive 

affections, palpitation of heart and 

in intestinal colic. A decoction 

of powdered roots is prescribed 

as a home remedy for high 

blood pressure. It is used in 

dysmenorrhoea for pain relief and 

smooth menstrual flow. It is used in 

hair oil for arresting hair loss and 

greying of hair.

N 

434 Naregamia alata Wight & Arn. 


recommends dry rhizomes in obstinate 

skin diseases, erysipelas, disturbed 

mental state and insomnia. 

The rhizome is rich in sesquiterpenoids. 

The crude drug gave an oil 

(yield 2.5% v/w), which contains dnardostachone, 

valeranone and jatamansone 

as the major ketonic sesquiterpenes. 

The oil potentiated phenobarbital 

narcosis in rats, reduced brain 

serotonin content and decreased the 

conditioned avoidance performance 

in cats. 

Jatamansone was shown to exert 

tranquilizing effect in mice and monkeys. 

In rabbits, jatamansone was 

found to impair biosynthesis of serotonininthebrainleadingtoareduction 

in brain level of 5-hydroxytryptamine. 

The degradation of serotonin 

was unaffected. The mode of action 

of jatamansone was thus in variance 

with that of reserpine which has direct 

action on the cell to liberate serotonin. 

On the other hand, the alcoholic 

extractoftherootsofIndianNard 

caused an overall increase in the levels 

of central monamines, 5-hydroxy 

indole acetic acid and the inhibitory 

amino acids, gamma-aminobutyric 

acid, norepinephrine, dopamine and 

serotonininratbrain. 

In a clinical trial on hyperkinetic 

children, jatamansone showed significant 

reduction in hyperactivity and 

improvement in restlessness and aggressiveness, 

almost at par with Damphetamine. 

The volatile oil was found to be less 

active than quinidine in several tests. 

It did not counteract digitalis induced 

ventricular arrhythmias. 

Jatamansone semicarbazone, a sesquiterpene 

ketone, was found to possess 

antiestrogenic activity. 

N. jatamansi is also used in place of 

Muraa (Selinum tenuifolium Wall. ex 

DC.) 

Dosage ◮ Root—2–3 g powder; 

5–10 g for infusion; 50–100 ml 

infusion. (API, Vol. I; CCRAS.) 

Naregamia alata Wight & Arn. 


Habitat ◮ Western Ghats of Tamil 

Nadu and Karnataka, up to 1,000 m. 

English ◮ Goanese Ipecacuanha. 

Folk ◮ Nilanaaringa, Bhumi- 

Naagaranga. Pitta-vela, Tinpaani 


Action ◮ Root—emetic, cholagogue, 

expectorant, antidysenteric; plant— 

antirheumatic; leaf and stem— 

antibilious. 

Creeping roots possess properties 

similar to ipecacuanha (Cephaelis ipecacuanha). 

The plant is used in prescriptions for 

malarial and chronic fevers, anaemia 

and enlarged spleen. 

The root and stem gave heneicosane, 

beta-sitosterol, stearic and palmitic 

acids. 

Nasturtium officinale R. Br. 

Synonym ◮ Rorippa nasturtiumaquaticum 

(Linn.) Hayek.


Habitat ◮ Cultivated in Bengal, 

Orissa and Punjab. 

English ◮ Watercress. 

Folk ◮ Piriyaa-Haalim (Punjab), 

Latputiyaa (Maharashtra). 

Action ◮ Leaves—antiscorbutic, 

expectorant (used in catarrh of the 

respiratory organs), diuretic (used 

in kidney and bladder disorders), 

detoxifying. A lotion of leaves 

is applied to blotches, spots and 

blemishes. Fresh herb is used as 


Key application ◮ For catarrh 

of respiratory tract. (German 


Watercress contains vitamin A 4720 

IU,ascorbicacid77mg/100g,alsothiamine, 

riboflavin, niacin and biotin; 

mineral matter 2.2%—calcium 290, 

phosphorus 140, iron 4.6 mg/100 g, also 

sulphur, iodine, manganese, zinc, arsenic 

and copper; proteins 2.9%, amino 

acid composition includes leucine, 

phenylalanine, valine, lysine, tyrosine, 

alanine, threonine, glutamic acid, serine, 

aspartic acid, cystine, methionine 

sulphoxide and proline. 

The glucosinolate phenethyl isothiocyanate, 

which is released upon chewing 

the leaf, is a chemopreventive agent 

against lung cancer. (cited in Expanded 


Watercress is contraindicated in gastric 

and duodenal ulcers and inflammatory 

kidney diseases. (Francis 

Brinker.) 

Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn. 435 

Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn. 

Synonym ◮ Nelumbium speciosum 

Willd. 



of India, up to 1,800 m. 

English ◮ East Indian Lotus, Sacred 

Lotus. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Kamala, Padma, 

Nalina, Aravinda, Jalaja, Raajeeva, 

Pushkara, Ambuja, Abja, Pankaja. 

Pundarika (whitish), kokanada 

(red), Indivara (Bluish). 

Unani ◮ Used as a substitute for 

Nilofar. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Thaamarai, Ambel. 

Action ◮ Filament—astringent 

andhaemostatic. Prescribedfor 

bleeding piles and menorrhagia. 

Flowers—a decoction is given in 

cholera, fever, strangury, palpitation 

of heart. Rhizomes—given in 

piles, chronic dyspepsia and 

dysentery; applied externally to 

cutaneous eruptions, scabies and 

ringworm. Rhizome-arrowroot— 

giventochildrenindiarrhoea 

and dysentery. Root—astringent, 

diuretic, antiemetic, cooling. Used 

fordysentery,dyspepsia,piles,skin 

affections and for its anticoagulant 

properties. 


recommends dried rhizomes, with 

roots attached at nodes, in syncope and 

vertigo. 

Flowers yielded quercetin, luteolin 

and their glycosides and kaempferol 

N

N 

436 Nepeta cataria Linn. 

glycosides. Leaves gave quercetin, isoquercitrin 

and leucoanthocyanidin. 

Isoquinoline alkaloid, nuciferin, is 

neuroleptic. Active agents in the leaves 

are the alkaloids, nelumbin and roemerin. 

Dosage ◮ Dried flower—12–24 g for 

decoction (API, Vol. II); rhizomes— 

5–10 m powder; 10–20 ml juice 

(API, Vol. III). Seed—3–6 g powder; 

flower—10–20 ml juice. (CCRAS.) 

Nepeta cataria Linn. 

Family ◮ Labiatae, Lamiaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Cultivated in Britain and 

the USA. Occurs in Himalayas from 

Kashmir to Nepal at 2,000–3,300 m. 

English ◮ Catnip, Catnep, Catmint. 

Action ◮ Leaves and flowers— 

gentle nerve relaxant and sedative, 

carminative, antispasmodic, antidiarrhoeal, 

diaphoretic, febrifuge. 

Used in restlessness, convulsions, 

nervous headache, colic, early stages 

of fever, colds and influenza. The 

herb is to be infused (not boiled). 

Catnip contains iridoids, tannins 

and volatile oil, major components being 

alpha- and beta-nepetalactone (up 

to 42%), citronellol and geraniol. 

The catnip response in the domestic 

cat is being attributed to iridoid lactones, 

nepetalactone, dihydronepetalactone, 

iso-dihydronepetalactone and 

neonepetalactone. Its reputation as 

a hallucinogen has been disputed, but 

a few studies have shown behavioural 

effects, although weak, in young chicks, 

rodents and cats. (Potter’s New Cyclopaedia.) 

Neptalactone is structurally related 

to valepotriates found in valerian. 



Nepeta hindostana 

(Roth) Haines. 

Synonym ◮ N. ruderalis Buch-Ham. 

ex Benth. 



Bihar, West Bengal, Madhya 

Pradesh and South India up to 

2,400 m. (Blue-flowered var.) 

Unani ◮ Baadranjboyaa, Billilotan. 

Also equated with Melissa officinalis. 

Action ◮ See Nepeta cataria. 

The alcoholic extract of the plant 

yielded a triterpenoid aldehyde, nepehinal. 

Nepetidone, nepedinol, and 

a triterpenic acid have also been reported. 

The plant contains flavonoids 

including nepitrin, dinatin, nepetin. 

Flowers and stem gave napetol, hentriacontane 

and beta-sitosterol. An 

aqueous extract of flowers contained 

Na,K,Ca,Mg,Zn,Cd,Cu,Ni,Mn 

and Fe. 

Alcoholic extract of the plant produced 

marked hypocholesterolaemic 

effect in experimental animals. It also 

produced beneficial effects in the 

histopathology of myocardial infarction. 

Aqueous extract of the plant, 

given intravenously, lowered the blood 

pressure in dogs by 26.87%. It also 

showed CNS depressant and sedative

activities. (In Indian medicine, the 

plant is used in various cardiac conditions 

including cardiac asthma.) 

Neptunia oleracea Lour. 

Synonym ◮ N. prostrata Baill. 


Habitat ◮ 

tanks. 

Throughout India, in 

Ayurvedic ◮ Lajjaalu (var.), Alambushaa. 

(Provisional synonyms.) 

Siddha ◮ Sadai, Sundaikkirai. 

Folk ◮ Paani-lajak (Punjab). 

Action ◮ Astringent, refrigerant. 

Mimosa pudica Linn. is the accepted 

source of the classical herb Lajjaalu. It 

is used as astringent and styptic. 

Nerium indicum Mill. 

Synonym ◮ N. odorum Soland. 


Habitat ◮ Native of Mediterranean 

region; grown in Indian gardens. 

English ◮ Indian oleander, White 

oleander. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Karavira, Viraka, Ashvamaaraka, 

Hayamaaraka, Gauripushpa, 

Divyapushpa, Shatakumbha, 

Siddhapushpa (white-flowered 

var.). Raktapushpa, Raktaprasava, 

Ravipriya (red-flowered var.) 

Unani ◮ Kaner Safed, Diflaa, 

Samm-ul-maar, Khar-zaharah. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Arali, Alari, Aatrulari, 

Karaviram. 

Nerium oleander Linn. 437 

Action ◮ Root—resolvent and 

attenuant. A paste of the root is 

externally applied to haemorrhoids 

and ulcerations in leprosy. Paste of 

the root bark and leaves is used in 

ringworm and other skin diseases. 

An oil extracted from the root 

bark is used in skin diseases of 

scaly nature. Leaves—cardioactive 

(digitalis-like effect) and diuretic, 

anti-inflammatory, antifungal, 

insecticidal. Toxic. 

The leaves contain several glycosides 

including glycosides of 8 betahydroxy-digitoxigenin. 

Cardenolide 

glycosides and pregnanolone glycosides 

have been isolated from roots. 

The ethanolic extract of the flowers 

inhibits the growth of dermatophytes. 

The plant shows antifungal activity 

against ringworm fungus, Microsporum 

nanum. 

Dosage ◮ Detoxified leaves—30— 

125 mg powder (API, Vol. I); root— 

30 mg—125 mg powder (API, Vol. 

III). 

Nerium oleander Linn. 



region; grown in Indian gardens. 

English ◮ Red Oleander, Rose Bay. 

Unani ◮ Surkh Kaner. 

Action ◮ See N. indicum. 

(The white- and red-flowered varieties 

are equated with Nerium oleander; 

both possess similar properties. The 

yellow-flowered variety is equated with 

Thevetia peruviana.) 

N

N 

438 Nervilia aragoana Gaudich. 

Key application ◮ Leaf—included 

among unapproved herbs 

by German Commission E. Positively 

inotropic and negatively 

chronotropic actions have been 

mentioned; the use of leaf for 

diseases and functional disorders of 

the heart, as well as for skin diseases 

has been indicated. 

The leaves and roots gave a number 

of active principles including glycosides, 

terpenoids, sterols and other 

compounds. Cardiac steroids, isolated 

from the leaf, include oleandrin, gentiobiosyl 

oleandrin, odoroside. The 

stem contained alanine arginine, aspartic 

acid, cysteine, glutamic acid, 

glycine, histidine, leucine, isoleucine, 

lysine, phenylalanine, proline, serine, 

threonine, tryptophan, tyrosine and 

valine. A polysaccharide (2.3%), containing 

galacturonic acid, rhamnose, 

arabinose and galactose has been isolated 

from leaves. 

Neutral fraction from leaves at low 

doses caused marked suppression of locomotor 

activity. 

Aqueous extract of leaves showed 

significant antibacterial activity against 

Pseudomonas aeruginosa. The leaves 

also showed insecticidal activity. 

Nervilia aragoana Gaudich. 

Synonym ◮ Pogonia flabelliformis 

Lindl. 



Garhwal eastwards at altitudes of 

1,200–1,500 m and in Bihar, Konkan, 

North Kanara and Travancore. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Padmachaarini, 

Shankhaaluka. (Sthala Kamala 

is a doubtful synonym.) 

Action ◮ Astringent, diuretic (used 

in dysuria). 

A decoction of leaves is given after 

parturition. 

Neuracanthus sphaerostachyus 

Dalz. 


Habitat ◮ Western Ghats, Deccan 

and Gujarat. 

Folk ◮ Ganther (Gujarat and Maharashtra), 

Ghosa-vel (Maharashtra). 

Action ◮ Root-paste applied to 

ringworm. 

Nicotiana tabacum Linn. 



cultivated mainly in Andhra 

Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka, 

Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal. 

English ◮ Tobacco. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Taamraparna, Dhuumrapatraa. 

Unani ◮ Tambaakhu. 

Action ◮ Leaves—decoction is locally 

applied for muscle relaxation in 

dislocation, strangulated hernia 

and orchitis. Also for arthralgia, 

lumbago, rheumatism and gout (an 

ointment is made by simmering the 

leaves in lard). Not used internally 

as a medicine.

The plant contains nicotine as the 

major alkaloid. 

Toxic influence of cigarette and bidi 

smoking on carboxyhaemoglobin levels 

of the blood of regular smokers was 

compared and no significant difference 

was observed in both of them. A pyrolysed 

tobacco product, used in India 

as a dentifrice, when administered 

to rats, showed activity comparable to 

benzo(a)pyrene, a potent carcinogen. 

Habitual consumption of betel quid 

containing tobacco shows a strong cytotoxic 

potential. 

Nicotiana rustica Linn. is known as 

Kalakatiyaa or Vfilaayati tobacco. Its 

nicotine content is high and is not suitable 

for cigarettes, cigars or bidis. Different 

variants of this tobacco are used 

for hookah, chewing and snuff. 

Nigella damascena Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Native to Southern Europe; 


English ◮ Love-in-a-mist. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Upakunchikaa (var.). 

Siddha ◮ Karumcheerakam. 

Action ◮ Seeds—carminative, 

emmenagogue, anthelmintic. 

A tincture prepared from the 

ripe seeds is used against catarrhal 

inflammations of liver and intestines 

in homoeopathy. 

Nigella sativa Linn. 


Nigella sativa Linn. 439 


Bengal, Assam and Bihar. 

English ◮ Black Cumin, Small Fennel. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Kaalaajaaji, Kalikaa, 

Prthvikaa, Sthulajiraka, Sushavi, 

Upkunchikaa (the plant bears seeds 

of bigger size). 

Unani ◮ Kalonji, Kamaazaruus. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Karum seeragm. 

Action ◮ Seeds—stimulant, carminative, 

diuretic, lactiferous, emmenagogue 

(stimulate uterine 

contractions). Used in puerperal 

fever. Powdered seeds externally 

applied to boils. Essential oil— 

used in common cold, cough and 

bronchospasm. 

The essential oil from seeds contains 

nigellone and 2-methyl-4-isopropyl-pquinone. 

The oil contains carvone (45– 

60%), d-limonene and cymene. Seeds 

contain fatty acids including palmitic, 

myristic, stearic, oleic, linoleic and 

linolenic. Beta-sitosterol is also present 

in the seeds. 

Low concentration of nigellone has 

been shown to inhibit the release of 

histamine from mast cells in animals. 



The ethanolic extract of the seeds 

and the volatile oil from seeds showed 

antispasmodic activity in experimental 

animals, possibly due to a calcium 

antagonistic effect. 

The oil exhibited CNS depressant 

and potent analgesic effects on experimental 

animals, possibly due to the 

presence of an opioid principle in the 

oil. 

N

N 

440 Nilgirianthus ciliatus (Nees) Bremek. 

Dosage ◮ Seed—1–3 g powder (API, 

Vol. I); 3–5 g powder (CCRAS). 

Nilgirianthus ciliatus 

(Nees) Bremek. 

Synonym ◮ Strobilanthes ciliatus 

Nees. 


Habitat ◮ Western Ghats from South 

Kanara to Travancore, in evergreen 

forests. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Sahachara (pale-roseflowered 

var. used in Kerala). 

(Sahachara is equated with Barleria 

prionitis in other regions.) 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kurinji, Sinnangurinji. 

Action ◮ Used against neurological 

disorders, sciatica, glandular 

swellings and oedema. 

Nothosaerva brachiata Wight. 


Habitat ◮ Distributed in tropical 

Africa and Asia; found throughout 

the plains of India. 

Folk ◮ Dhaulaa-findauri (Rajasthan). 


Paashaanabheda (Aerva lanata Juss. 

ex Schult., Amaranthaceae) forits 

diuretic and lithotriptic properties. 

Notonia grandiflora DC. 


Habitat ◮ Konkan,Western Ghats, 

Deccan and hills of South India. 

English ◮ Common Fleshy Rag-weed. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Mosakathu-thalai. 

Folk ◮ Waandar-Roti, Gaidar 


Action ◮ Plant—feebly aperient. 

Used externally for pimples. 

Nyctanthes arbor-tristis Linn. 

Family ◮ Oleaceae; Nyctanthaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Outer Himalaya, Assam, 

West Bengal; cultivated in many 


English ◮ Tree of Sorrow, Night 

Jasmine, Coral Jasmine. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Paarijaata, Shephaali, 

Shephaalikaa, Mandaara. 

Unani ◮ Harasingaar. 

Siddha ◮ Pavazha mattigai. 

Action ◮ Leaves—bitter tonic, cholagogue, 

febrifuge, anti-inflammatory, 

antispasmodic, hypotensive, respiratory 

stimulant. Used for fevers, 

rheumatism, obstinate sciatica. 

The leaves and seeds contain iridoid 

glycosides; other constituents reported 

from the leaves are mannitol, 

beta-amyrin, beta-sitosterol, hentriacontane, 

benzoic acid, astragalin, nicotiflorin, 

oleanolic acid, nyctanthic acid, 

friedelin and lupeol. The seeds contain 

a polysaccharide glucomannan. 

All parts of the plant are used for 

allergic disorders. Alcoholic extract of 

the plant was found to inhibit passive

cutaneous anaphylaxis (PCA) in experimental 

animals. The inhibition was 

comparable to standard drugs used for 

allergy and bronchial asthma. 

Ethanolic extract of the leaves, flowers 

and seeds demonstrated strong 

stimulation of antigen specific and 

non-specific immunity in mice. 

The 50% ethanolic extracts of the 

leaves, flowers, seeds and roots were 

found effective in treating caecal amoebiasis 

caused by Entamoeba histolytica 

in rats. But the extracts did not exhibit 

direct amoebicidal activity in vitro 

against trophozoites of the parasite. 

The iridoid glucosides showed antileishmanial 

activity both in vivo and 

in vitro. 


(CCRAS.) 

Nymphaea alba Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Kashmir (in lakes). 

English ◮ European White Water-lily. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Kumuda, Utpala (whiteflowered 

var.) (Mahotpla is the 

synonym of Nelumbo nucifera.) 

Unani ◮ Nilofar. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Alli (water lilies). 

Action ◮ Flowers and rhizomes—astringent, 

demulcent, mild sedative, 

spasmolytic, antiseptic, antimicrobial. 

Used in the form of an infusion 

internally for chronic diarrhoea, 

as a douche for leucorrhoea and 

vaginitis, as a gargle for sore throat. 

Also given internally in prostatis. 

Nymphaea rubra Roxb. ex Salisb. 441 

Seeds—used in diabetes, also in 

cutaneous diseases. Filaments— 

astringent and cooling; prescribed 

for bleeding piles and menorrhagia. 

Plant—toxic on the nervous system. 

The flowers contain flavonoids including 

quercetin, kaempferol, apigenin. 

Cardiac glucoside, nymphalin, 

showed sedative action in small doses. 

The petroleum ether extract of the 

plant of Nymphaea species, given at 

adoseof300mg/kgi.p. prevented 

necrosis of the liver tissue and promoted, 

to some extent, liver regeneration 

in CCl4-induced toxicity. 

Dosage ◮ Dried flowers—3–6 g (API, 

Vol. III); seed—3–6 g. powder 

(CCRAS.). 

Nymphaea rubra Roxb. ex Salisb. 

Synonym ◮ N. nouchali Burm. f. 

N. lotus Hook. f. Thoms non L. 




English ◮ Indian Red Water-lily. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Kumuda, utpala 

(red-flowered var.). 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Alli-tamarai, Vellambal. 

Action ◮ Flower—astringent, cardiac 

tonic; used in palpitation of heart. 

Rhizomes—used for dysentery and 

dyspepsia. 

See N. alba. 

N

N 

442 Nymphaea stellata Willd. 

Nymphaea stellata Willd. 


Habitat ◮ A native to Southeast 

Asia; found in ponds and ditches 


English ◮ Indian Blue Water-lily. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Nilotpala (blue or 

voilet-flowered var.). 

Unani ◮ Nilofar. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Neelothpalam. 

Action ◮ See N. alba. 

Nymphoides macrospermum 

Vasudevan. 



Folk ◮ Granthik Tagar. 

Action ◮ Sedative, antispasmodic. 

Used in neurological disorders and 

colic. 

Stalks and leaves—pounded with 

oil and applied to ulcers. 

See Limnanthemum cristatum Griseb.

Ochna jabotapita Linn. 

Synonym ◮ O. squarrosa Linn. 

Family ◮ Ochnaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Assam, Bihar, Orissa and 

Deccan Peninsula. Often cultivated 

in parks and gardens. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Chilanti, Sherundi. 

Folk ◮ Kanaka Champaa. (Bhuinchampaa, 

Bhuumi-champaka 

(Ochna pumila). 

Action ◮ Bark—digestive tonic. 

Root—a decoction is used in 

asthma, tuberculosis and in 

menstrual disorders. Leaves— 

boiled and used as emollient 

cataplasm; used as a poultice in 

lumbago. 

Isoflavones, along with beta-sitosterol 

and oleanolic acid, have been isolated 

from the heartwood. 

A related species, Ochna pumila 

Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don., found in 

outer Himalayas and sub-Himalayan 

tract from Kumaon to Assam, is reported 

to exhibit antitubercular activity. 

Tetrahydroamentoflavone has been 

isolated from the leaves. The plant is 

also used for epilepsy in folk medicine. 

Ochrocarpus longifolius 

Bentb. & Hook. f. 

Synonym ◮ Mammea longifolia 

Planch. & Triana. 

O 


Habitat ◮ Evergreen forests of 

Western India from Khandala 

southwards to Malabar and Coimbatore. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Surapunnaaga (Naagakeshara 

is equated with Mesua 

ferrea.) 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Nagappu, Nagesarpu. 

Folk ◮ Laal-Naagakeshar. Surangi 


Action ◮ Flowerbuds—cooling, 

stomachic, analgesic, antibacterial; 

used for gastritis, haemorrhoids, 

blood diseases, leprosy, leucoderma. 

Flower buds are popularly known as 

Naagakeshar. 

Flowers exhibited potent hypotensive, 

anti-inflammatory and antispasmodic 

activity attributed to vitexin. 

Leaves gave amentoflavone, quercetin 

and vitexin as major constituents. 

Ocimum basilicum Linn. 

Synonym ◮ O. caryophyllatum Roxb. 

O. minimum Linn. 

O. pilosum Willd. 


Habitat ◮ Lower hills of Punjab; 


English ◮ Sweet Basil, Basil Herb.

O 

444 Ocimum canum Sims. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Barbari, Tuvari, Tungi, 

Kharpushpa, Ajgandhikaa, Baabui 

Tulasi. 

Unani ◮ Faranjmishk. (also equated 

with Dracocephalum moldavica 

Linn. by National Formulary of 

Unani Medicine.), Raihan (also 

equated with O. sanctum). (used as 

a substitute for Phanijjaka.) 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Tiruneetruppachhilai. 

Folk ◮ Bana-Tulasi. Sabzaa (Maharashtra). 

Action ◮ Flower—stimulant, carminative, 

antispasmodic, diuretic, 

demulcent. Seed—antidysenteric. 

Juice of the plant—antibacterial. 


antifungal, insecticidal. 

(Because of high estragole content 

of the essential oil, the herb should not 

be taken during pregnancy, nursing or 

over extended periods of time.) (German 

Commission E.) Includedamong 

unapproved herbs by German Commission 

E. 

The herb contains an essential oil; 

major constituents are linalool (up to 

55%) methyl ether (estragole) up to 

70% and eugenol; caffeic acid derivatives; 

flavonoids. Thymol and xanthomicrol 

were isolated fromthe leaves. 

Aesculetin, p-coumaric acid, eriodictyol, 

its 7-glucoside and vicenin-2 from 

leaves have been isolated. 

The essential oil at concentration 

of 0.15% completely inhibited mycelial 

growth of twenty two species of fungi, 

including mycotoxin-producing 

strains of Aspergillus flavus and A. parasiticus. 

Leaves act as an insect repel- 

lent externally; bring relief to insect 

bites and stings. 

In homoeopathy, the fresh mature 

leaves are used to treat haematuria, inflammation 

and congestion of kidney. 


decoction; seed—1–3 g powder. 

(CCRAS.) 

Ocimum canum Sims. 

Synonym ◮ O. americanum Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Plains and lower hills of 

India. 

English ◮ Hoary Basil. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Kaali Tulasi, Vana-Tulasi. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Ganjamkorai, 

Nai-Tulasi. 

Action ◮ Plant—stimulant, carminative, 

diaphoretic. Leaf—bechic, 

febrifuge; used in cold, bronchitis, 

catarrh, externally in skin diseases. 

Essential oil—antifungal. Seeds— 

hypoglycaemic; also used in the 

treatment of leucorrhoea and other 

diseases of urinogenital system. 

The essential oil at the flowering 

stagecontainscitralasamajorcomponent 

along with methylheptenone, 

methylnonylketone and camphor. 

Leaves yielded beta-sitosterol, betulinic 

acid and ursolic acid and flavonoids, 

pectolinarigenin-7-methylether 

and nevadensin. 

Seeds exhibited antidiabetic activity, 

improved glucose tolerance was observed 

in diabetic patients who were

given 30 g seed/day for 1 month, lowering 

of fasting plasma glucose level up 

to 30% was also observed. 

Ocimum gratissimum Linn. 



English ◮ Shrubby Basil. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Vriddha Tulasi, Raam- 

Tulasi, Raan-Tulasi. 

Siddha ◮ Elumicha-Tulasi, Peria- 

Tulasi. 

Action ◮ Plant—used in neurological 

and rheumatic affections, in 

seminal weakness and in aphthae of 

children. Seed—used in cephalalgia 

and neuralgia. Essential oil— 


In homoeopathy, fresh mature leaves 

are used in constipation, cough, fever, 

nasal catarrh; also in gonorrhoea with 

difficult urination. 

A heterotic hybrid ‘Clocimum’ (polycross 

of gratissimum) has been developed 

in India which yields 4.5– 

5.7% essential oil having a eugenol 

content up to 95%. Direct production 

of methyl eugenol and eugenol acetate 

from ‘Clocimum’ oil is reported. 

Major constituents reported from 

‘Clocimum’ oil are myrcene 8.87, eugenol 

68.14, isoeugenol 13.88, methyleugenol 

1.74%; other constituents are 

alpha- pinene, limonene, phellandrene, 

terpene 4-ol, alpha-terpineol, carveol, 

carvene, geranyl acetate, caryophyllone 

and caryophyllone oxide. 

(At Regional Research Laboratory, 

CSIR, Jammu, a study was conducted 

Ocimum sanctum Linn. 445 

to assess the inheritance pattern of major 

chemical constituents of essential 

oils in hybrids produced by interspecific 

as well as intraspecific crosses of 

Ocimum sp.). 

Ocimum kilimandscharicum 

Guerke. 

Synonym ◮ O. camphora Guerke. 


Habitat ◮ Native of Kenya. Cultivated 

on a small scale in West Bengal, 

Assam, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, 

Kerala and Dehr Dun. 

English ◮ Camphor Basil. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Karpura Tulasi. 

Action ◮ Plant—spasmolytic, 

antibacterial. Decamphorized oil— 

insecticidal, mosquito repellent. 

Essential oil contains camphor, pinene, 

limonene, terpinolene, myrcene, 

beta-phellandrene, linalool, camphene, 

p-cymene, borneol and alpha-selinene. 

The Camphor content varies in different 

samples from 61 to 80.5%. 

Ocimum sanctum Linn. 

Synonym ◮ O. tenuiflorum Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Throughout India; grown 

in houses, gardens and temples. 

English ◮ Holy Basil, Sacred Basil. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Tulasi, Surasaa, Surasa, 

Bhuutaghni, Suravalli, Sulabhaa, 

Manjarikaa, Bahumanjari, Deva- 

O

O 

446 Ocimum viride Willd. 

dundubhi, Apet-raakshasi, Shuulaghni, 

Graamya, Sulabhaa. 

Unani ◮ Tulasi. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Tulasi, Nalla-Tulasi. 

Action ◮ Leaf—carminative, stomachic, 

antispasmodic, antiasthmatic, 

antirheumatic, expectorant, stimulant, 

hepatoprotective, antiperiodic, 

antipyretic and diaphoretic. Seed— 

used in genitourinary diseases. 

Root—antimalarial. Plant—adaptogenic, 

antistress. Essential oil— 



recommends the use of the leaf and 

seed in rhinitis and influenza; the seed 

in psychological disorders, including 

fear-psychosis and obsessions. 

Major components of the essential 

oil are eugenol, carvacrol, nerol and 

eugenolmethylether. Leaves have been 

reported to contain ursolic acid, apigenin, 

luteolin, apigenin-7-O-glucuronide, 

luteolin-7-O-glucuronide, orientin 

and molludistin. 

Ursolic acid, isolated from leaves, 

exhibited significant protection of mast 

cell membrane by preventing granulation 

and decreased histamine release. 

The ethanolic extract (50%) of fresh 

leaves, volatile oil from fresh leaves and 

fixed oil from seeds showed antiasthmatic 

activity and significantly protected 

guinea-pigs against histamine 

anddyspnoea.Theyalsoshowedantiinflammatory 

activity against carrageenan-, 

serotonin-, histamine- and 

PGE-2-inducedinflammationandinhibited 

hind paw oedema in rats. 

The ethanol extract (90%) of the 

leaves showed hepatoprotective ef- 

fect against paracetamol-induced liver 

damage. 

The plant extract exhibited antiulcerogenic 

property against experimental 

ulcers. 

Oral administration of alcoholic extract 

of leaves lowers blood sugar level 

in normal, glucose-fed hyperglycaemic 

and streptozotocin-induced diabetic 

rats. The activity of the extract was 

91.55 and 70.43% of that of tolbutamide 

in normal and diabetic rats respectively. 

Administration of the juice of the 

plant affected a significant reduction 

in the size of urinary brushite crystals. 

A study of methanol extract and 

aqueous suspension of the leaves 

showed immunostimulation of humoral 

immunologic response in albino 

rats indicating the adaptogenic action 

of the plant. 

Dosage ◮ Seed—1–2 g powder (API, 

Vol. IV); plant—50–10 ml infusion 

(CCRAS.). 

Ocimum viride Willd. 


Habitat ◮ Native to Africa; introduced 

into India. 

English ◮ Fever plant of Sierra Leone. 

Folk ◮ Taap-maari Tulasi (Maharashtra). 

Action ◮ Leaves—febrifugal. Used 

as a remedy for coughs and fevers. 

Oil—antiseptic. 

Ocimum viride species, cultivated in 

Jammu-Tawi, gives maximum oil yield

(0.4%) at full bloom stage and highest 

percentage of thymol (55.12%) in the 

oil, which can be used as a substitute 

for thyme-ajowan oil. 

Oenanthe javanica (Blume) DC. 

Synonym ◮ O. stolinifera Wall. ex 

DC. 

Family ◮ Apiaceae; Umbelliferae. 

Habitat ◮ Marshy places and river 

banks in North India from Kashmir 

to Assam. 

Folk ◮ Jateraa (Meghalaya); Panturasi 

(Bengal). 

Action ◮ The plant extract showed 

strong antimutagenic and antitumour 

activity. 

Fromtheherb, beta-sitosterylglucoside, 

stigmasteryl glucoside, isorhamnetin 

and hyperin were isolated. The 

fruit yield 1.5% of an essential oil, containing 

phellandrene and myristicin. 

Oenothera odorata Jacq. 


Habitat ◮ Native to Chile; cultivated 

as a garden plant in South Australia. 

Introduced into Indian gardens. 

English ◮ Evening Primrose (var.); 

Sundrop (var.). 

Action ◮ Oil from seeds—prescribed 

for eczema (in children); premenstrual 

syndrome and cyclical breast 

pain. 

Olax scandens Roxb. 447 

Linalool (70.0%) was determined in 

the flower oil. 

Evening Primrose is equated with 

Oenothera biennis L. (native to North 

America). The oil from seeds, known 

as Evening Primrose oil, contains about 

70% cis-linolenic acid and about 9% 

cis-gamma-linolenic acid (GLA). Evening 

Primrose oil is one of the most 

widely prescribed plant-derived medicines 

in the world. Sold under the 

tradenameEpogam,itisrecognized 

by the governments of Great Britain, 

Germany, Denmark, Ireland, Spain, 

Greece, South Africa, Australia and 

New Zealand as atreatment foreczema. 

A combination, known as Efamol Marine, 

used for eczema, contains 80% 

Evening Primrose Oil and 20% fish oil. 

Evening Primrose Oil has become 

a frontline treatment in Great Britain 

for initial treatment of cyclical breast 

pain and fibrocystic breast disease. 

Olax scandens Roxb. 

Family ◮ Olacaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Sub-Himalayas tract of 

Kumaon and Bihar, Orissa, Madhya 

Pradesh, Deccan and Western 

Ghats. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Dheniaani, Karbudaar 


Siddha/Tamil ◮ Malliveppam, 

Kadalranchi. 

Folk ◮ Rimil-beeri (Bihar). 

Action ◮ Bark—used in anaemia and 

as a supporting drug in diabetes; 

also in the treatment of fever. 

O

O 

448 Oldenlandia umbellata Linn. 

Oldenlandia umbellata Linn. 

Synonym ◮ Hedyotis umbellata 

(Linn.) Lam. 


Habitat ◮ Bihar, Orissa, Travancore. 

Cultivated on the Coromandel 

coast. 

English ◮ Indian Madder, Chay-Root. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Inbooral. 

Folk ◮ Chiraval (Maharashtra). 

Action ◮ Leaves and roots—used in 

bronchitis, asthma, consumption. 

The plant gave anthraquinone derivatives. 

The root gave alizarin, rubichloric 

acid and ruberythric acid, also 

anthraquinones. Purpurin, pupuroxanthin 

carboxylic acid, present in 

Madder (Rubia tinctorum), are almost 

entirely absent. 

Olea europaea Linn. 

Family ◮ Olaeaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Native of Mediterranean 

region; cultivated in Jammu and 

Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh. 

English ◮ Olive. 

Unani ◮ Zaitoon. 


febrifugal, astringent, diuretic, 

antihypertensive. 

Oil—preparations are used for cholangiitis, 

cholecystitis, cholelithiasis, 

icterus, flatulence, meteorism, lack of 

bacteria in the intestines. Demulcent 

and mild laxative. Externally used 

for wound dressing and for minor 

burns, psoriasis and pruritus. (Included 

among unapproved herbs by 

German Commission E.) 

Chemical investigations of two varieties—Ascotrinia 

and Ascolina— 

grown in Jammu region have shown 

that the characteristics of fruits and 

their oils are similar to those of European 

varieties. 

Leaves of Olea europaea gave iridoid 

monoterpenes including oleuropein 

and oleuroside; triterpenes including 

oleanolic and maslinic acids; 

flavonoids including luteolin and apigenine 

derivatives. The oil contains 

glycerides of oleic acid about 70–80%, 

with smaller amounts of linoleic, palmitic 

and stearic acid glycerides. 

The leaves exhibited hypotensive, 

antiarrhythmic and spasmolytic activitiesinanimalstudies.Theoilexhibited 

contraction of gallbladder due to 

raising of the cholecystokinin level in 

the plasma. 

India’s requirements of olive oil are 

met by imports. 

Onosma bracteatum Wall. 


Habitat ◮ Kashmir and Kumaon. 

English ◮ Borage. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Gojihvaa, Kharpatraa, 

Darvipatraa, Vrishjihvaa. 

Unani ◮ Gaozabaan (related species). 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Ununjil. 

Action ◮ Cooling, astringent, diuretic, 

cardiac tonic. Used for cold,

cough, bronchial affections; insomnia, 

depression, mental exhaustion; 

constipation, misperistalsis, jaundice; 

dysuria, urethral discharges; 

fevers. 

The name Gaozaban is applied to 

six different plants, belonging to five 

genera. According to The Wealth of India, 

Gaozaban is derived not from this 

plant but from Anchusa strigosa Labill, 

which occurs in Iran. Kashmiri Gaozaban 

is derived from Macrotomia benthamii. 

Coccinia glauca is also used as 

Gojihvaa. 

Borage has been equated with Borago 

officinalis Linn. (Boraginacea.). 

Dosage ◮ Dried leaves and stems, 

flowers—3–6 g powder. 

Onosma echioides 

C. B. Clarke non Linn. 

Synonym ◮ Onosma hispidum 

Wall. ex D. Don. 


Habitat ◮ Kashmir and Kumaon up 

to 1,000–1,500 m. 

Unani ◮ Ratanjot (equated with 

Onosma echioides Linn., according 

to National Formularly of Unani 

Medicine). 

Action ◮ Astringent and styptic. 

Root—bruised and used as application 

to eruptions. An ingredient 

of ointments for ulcers, scrofula, 

burns. Flowers—stimulant, cardiac 

tonic. 

Ursolic acid and naphthoquinones, 

onosone A and B have been isolat- 

Operculina turpethum (Linn.) Silva Manso. 449 

ed from the root. Shikonin acetate 

is obtained from callus cultures of the 

plant. 

The species, distributed in western 

Himalayas, is Onosma echioides C. B. 

Clarke non Linn.; Onosma echioides 

Linn. is an European species. A variety 

of this species, var. kashmiricum 

Johnson, is found in Kashmir. Onosma 

hookeri C. B. Clarke occurs in Sikkim 

and Bhutan. 

Maharanga emodi (Wall.) DC., synonym 

Onosma emodi (Wall.) DC. (the 

Himalayas from Garhwal to Bhutan 

at altitudes of 3,500–4,000 m) is also 

known as Ratanjot and Shankhuli. 

(Ratanjot is used in a generic sense 

to cover a range of red dye-yielding 

roots, rather than the root of a single 

species. As many as 15 plant species 

belonging to four different families are 

known as Ratanjot; five of them do not 

yield red dye. General properties and 

colour reactions attributed to Ratanjot 

resemble Alkanet from Alkanna tinctoria 

Tausch.) 

Operculina turpethum 

(Linn.) Silva Manso. 

Synonym ◮ Ipomoea turpethum R. 

Br. 



1,000 m; occasionally grown in 

gardens. 

English ◮ Indian Jalap, Turpeth. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Trivrta, Trivrtaa, Tribhandi, 

Triputaa, Saralaa, Suvahaa, 

O

O 

450 Ophioglossum vulgatum Linn. 

Rechani, Nishotra, Kumbha, Kaalaa, 

Shyaama, Shyaamaa. 

Unani ◮ Turbud, Nishoth. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Karunchivadai. 

Action ◮ Root—purgative, antiinflammatory 

(particularly used in 

rheumatic and paralytic affections; 

also in fevers, oedema, hepatic and 

haemophilic diseases). 

White Turpeth is preferred to Black 

Turpeth as cathartic; the latter produces 

drastic purgation and causes 

vomiting, fainting and giddiness. 

White Turpeth is derived from Marsdenia 

tenacissima in folk medicine. 

The active principle of O. turpethum 

is a glycosidic resin present in the drug 

up to 10%. It is similar to jalap resin and 

is concentrated mostly in the root bark. 

It contains an ether insoluble glycoside, 

turpethin, which constitutes about half 

of the resin and two ether soluble glycosides, 

alpha-and beta-turpethein (8 

and 6% respectively). 

Dosage ◮ Root—1–3 g powder. (API, 

Vol. III.) 

Ophioglossum vulgatum Linn. 

Family ◮ Ophioglossaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Moist meadows in Great 

Britain. Found in the Himalayas, 

Bihar, Assam, Pune (Maharashtra), 

Annamalai and Shevaroy hills 

(South India); up to an altitude of 

2,700 m. 

English ◮ English Adder’s Tongue. 

Serpant’s Tongue. 

Action ◮ Fern—antiseptic, styptic, 

vulnerary, detergent, emetic. 

The mucilaginous and astringent 

decoction of the fern is used in 

angina in Reunion. An ointment, 

prepared by boiling the herb in oil 

or fat, is used for wounds. 

Ophioglossum pendulum L. (Assam) 

is used in the form of a scalp ointment 

for improving the hair growth. 

American Adder’s Tongue is equated 

with Erythronium americanum Ker- 

Gawl (Liliaceae). The fresh leaves gave 

alpha-methylenebutyrolactone. 

Ophiorrhiza mungos Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Khasi Hills up to 600– 

700 m, in Western Ghats and the 


English ◮ Mongoose Plant. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Sarpaakshi. (Gandhanaakuli 

is a wrong synonym. It is 

equated with Aristolochia indica.) 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Keerippundu. 

Folk ◮ Sarahati. Mungus-vel 


Action ◮ Root—bitter tonic. Leaves— 

used for dressing ulcers. 

The roots contain starch, a resin 

and small amounts of a bitter amorphous 

alkaloid. Beta-sitosterol, 5alpha-ergost-7-en-3-beta-ol 

and 5alpha-ergost-8 

(14)-en-3 beta-ol (as 

an ester) have been identified in the 

root. Leavesandstemscontaintraces 

of hydrocyanic acid.

Opuntia cochinellifera Mill. 

Synonym ◮ Nopalea cochenillifera 

Salm-Dyck. 


Habitat ◮ Indian gardens. Introduced 

into India towards the end of the 

18th century. 

English ◮ Cochineal Cactus. (A host 

for cochineal insect, Dactylopius 

cacti Linn.) 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Puchikalli. 

Action ◮ Fruits—emollient, bechic. 

Mucilaginous joints—used as 

poultices in cases of articular 

rheumatism, inflammations, scalds, 

burns and skin diseases. 

Opuntia dillenii (Ker-Gawl.) Haw. 

Synonym ◮ O. stricta Haw. var. 

dillenii (Ker-Gawl.) Benson. 


Habitat ◮ Native of Mexico; wellacclimatized 


English ◮ Prickly Pear, Slipper Thorn. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Naagaphani, Kanthaari. 

Unani ◮ Naagphani. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Sappathikalli, 

Nagathali. 

Action ◮ Leaves—applied as 

poultice to allay inflammation and 

heat. Fruit—baked and given in 

whooping cough. 

Dried or fresh flowers of cactus (opuntia 

series)—astringent and haemostatic. 

An infusion is given in irritable 

Opuntia vulgaris Mill. 451 

bowel, mucous colitis, and prostatitis. 

Ash of the aerial portion, mixed with 

sugar candy, is given for 21 days for 

birth control in tribal areas of Andhra 

Pradesh. 

The Plant is recommended for growing 

in high pollution zones for abating 

sulphur dioxide pollution. 

Pods contain a polysaccharide, arbinogalactan. 

Betanin has been isolated 

from ripe fruits. Flowers contain the 

glycosides of isorhamnetin and quercetin, 

with smal amounts of the free 

flavonols. 

Opuntia ficus-indica (Linn.) Mill., 

known as Prickly Pear or Indian Fig, 

is a spineless cactus, mostly cultivated 

in Indian gardens. Ripe fruits are nutritious. 

Flowers are astringent and reduce 

bleeding; used for diarrhoea and 

irritable bowel syndrome; also for enlarged 

prostate. The flower decoction 

exhibits a strong diuretic effect. 

The cladodes are used as a topical 

anti-inflammatory remedy for oedemata 

and arthrosis, as regulators of 

smooth muscles in the treatment of 

whooping cough and as anti-infective 

agent. 

The stem or their crude preparations 

showed hypoglycaemic effect in 

non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus 

patients (irrespective of its being 

heated or blended during preparation). 

Neobetanin (14,15-dehydro betanin) 

is the major constituent in the fruit. 

Opuntia vulgaris Mill. 




O

O 

452 Orchis latifolia Linn. 

English ◮ Prickly Pear. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Naagaphani (var.). 

Action ◮ In homoeopathy, a tincture 

made from the flowers and 

wood, is given for diarrhoea and 

splenomegaly. 

The fresh stalks yielded calcium 

magnesium pectate which exhibited 

antihaemorrhagic action. A flavonoside 

has been obtained from dried 

flowers. It resembles rutoside in its 

action of inhibiting capillary fragility. 

The flavonoside on hydrolysis produces 

trihydroxy-methoxy-flavonol and glucose. 


an alkaloid. It also yields a mucilage 

which gives arabinose and galactose. 

Orchis latifolia Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Kashmir to Nepal at 

altitudes of 2,500–5,000 m in damp 

places. 

English ◮ Orchis, Salep. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Munjaataka, Saalammisri, 

Saalam-panjaa. (Eulophia 

campestris Wall. is also equated with 

Munjaataka.) 

Unani ◮ Saaleb, Khusyaat-us-Saalab, 

Saalab Misri. 

Siddha ◮ Silamishri. 

Action ◮ Considered aphrodisiac 

and nervine tonic by Unani 

physicians. Tuber—nutritive, 

demulcent, restorative. Given 

to convalescents suffering from 

chronic diarrhoea and bilious 

fevers. Allays irritation of gastrointestinal 

tracts. 

Orchis species (Salep) contain mucilage 

(up to 50%)–glucans, glucomannans 

(partially acetylized), starch 

(25%), proteins (5–15%). 

The leaves of Orchis latifolia contain 

a glucoside, loroglossin. Most of 

the Salep used in Unani medicine is 

imported from Iran and Afghanistan. 

Allium macleanii Baker (Afghanistan) 

is known as Baadashaahi (royal) 

Saalab, and is used as a substitute 

for Munjaataka. 


(CCRAS.) 

Origanum majorana Linn. 

Synonym ◮ Majorana hortensis 

Moench. 


Habitat ◮ Native to Europe and Great 

Britain. 

English ◮ Sweet Marjoram. (Origanum 

vulgare Linn., Wild Marjoram, 

occurs in Simla hills and in 

Kashmir valley.) 

Ayurvedic ◮ Sukhaatmaka, Marubaka, 

Phanijjaka. (Ocimum basilicum 

is used as a substitute for Phanijjaka.) 

Unani ◮ Marzanjosh. 

Folk ◮ Maruae. Santhraa. Jangali 

Maruaa (Origanum vulgare Linn.).

Action ◮ Emmenagogue, antispasmodic, 

carminative, expectorant. 

Leaves and seed— 

astringent, antispasmodic. 

Warm infusion of herb—promotes 

suppressed menstrual 

flow. 

The herb contains about 3% volatile 

oil comprising sabinene hydrate, sabinene, 

linalool, carvacrol, estrogole, 

eugenol and terpenes; flavonoids including 

luteolin-7-glucoside, diosmetin-7-glucoside,apigenin-7-glucoside; 

rosmarinic acid, caffeic acid; and 

triterpenoids such as ursolic acid, oleanolic 

acid, sterols. 

Marjoram herb and oil exhibit antibacterial 

action. (German Commission 

E.) The herb contains arbutin 

and hydroxyquinone (a carcinogenic 

agent) in low concentrations. The herb 

is not suited for extended use. Topical 

application of hydroxyquinone leads 

to depigmentation of the skin. There is 

no reports of similar side effects with 

marjoram ointment. (German Commission 

E.) 

Origanum vulgare Linn. (Wild Marjoram) 

contains volatile oil with a widely 

varying composition; major components 

include thymol, beta-bisabolene, 

caryophyllene, linalool and borneol; 

other constituents are similar to those 

of O. majorana. 

The leaves of Wild Marjoram contain 

phenolic acids. The phenyl propionic 

acid and the phenyl glucoside 

showed antioxidant activity comparable 

to that of BHA, a synthetic antioxidant. 

Wild Marjoram preparations are 

used for bronchial catarrh and dis- 

Oroxylum indicum Vent. 453 

turbances of the gastrointestinal tract 


Sweet Marjoram shows stronger effect 

on the nervous system than Wild 

Marjoram and gives better results in 

anxiety, headaches and insomnia. 

Both the species have been included 


Commission E. 

Oroxylum indicum Vent. 




English ◮ Indian Trumpet Flower. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Shyonaaka, Shoshana, 

Tuntuka, Kutannata, Madhukparna, 

Patrorna, Bhalluka, Prthushimba, 

Nata. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Peruvaagai. 

Folk ◮ Sonaa-paathaa. 

Action ◮ Tender fruit—carminative, 

stomachic, spasmolytic. Seed— 

purgative. Root bark—astringent, 

antidiarrhoeal. Used for amoebic 

dysentery. Bark—antirheumatic, 

diuretic. 

The leaves contained flavones and 

their glycosides including baicalein 

and scutellarein; also anthraquinone, 

aloe-emodin. Bark of the root gave 

chrysin, baicalein and oroxylin A. Bark 

also gave dihydrobaicalein. Heartwood 

yielded beta-sitosterol and an 

iso-flavone, prunetin. 


50 g for decoction. (API, Vol. III.) 

O

O 

454 Orthosiphon grandiflorus Boldingh. 

Orthosiphon grandiflorus 

Boldingh. 

Synonym ◮ O. aristatus (Blume) Miq. 

O. spiralis (Linn.) Merrill 

O. stamineus Benth. 


Habitat ◮ Manipur, Naga and Lushai 

hills, Chota Nagpur, Western Ghats. 

English ◮ Kidney Tea Plant, Java Tea. 

Folk ◮ Mutri-Tulasi (Maharashtra). 

Action ◮ Leaves—diuretic, used 

in nephrosis and severe cases of 

oedema. Aninfusionofleavesis 

givenasaspecificinthetreatmentof 

various kidney and bladder diseases 

including nephrocirrhosis and 

phosphaturia, also in rheumatism 

and gout. 


therapy for bacterial and inflammatory 

diseases of the lower urinary 

tract and renal gravel. (German 


Flower tops and leaves (samples 

from Indonesia) contained methyl ripariochromene 

A. In another sample, 

leaves also yielded several phenolic 

compounds including lipophilic 

flavones, flavonol glycosides and caffeic 

acid derivatives. Rosmarinic acid 

and 2,3-dicaffeoyl-tartaric acid (67% 

of total phenolics, 94.5% in hot water 

extract) were major compounds of 

caffeic acid derivatives. 

The leaves also contain a high percentage 

(0.7–00.8) of potassium salts. 

Presence of orthosiphonin and potassium 

salts help in keeping uric acid and 

urate salts in solution, thus prevents 

calculi and other deposits. The leaf extract 

lowers blood sugar in diabetics, 

but not consistently. 

Orthosiphon pallidus Royle, equated 

with the Ayurvedic herb Arjaka and 

Shveta-Kutherak and known as Ajagur 

and Naganda-baavari in folk medicine, 

is used for dysuria and colic. 

Orthosiphon tomentosus Benth. 

var. glabratus Hook. f. 

Synonym ◮ O. glabratus Benth. 


Habitat ◮ Orissa, Gujarat, South 

India, ascending up to 1,000 m in 

the hills. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Prataanikaa (nonclassical). 

Folk ◮ Tulasi (var.), Kattu-thrithava 

(Kerala). 

Action ◮ Plant—a decoction is 

given in diarrhoea. Leaves—applied 

externally to cuts and wounds. 

Oryza sativa Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Cultivated all over India as 

a food crop. 

English ◮ Rice. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Shaali, Vrihidhaanya, 

Tandula, Nivara. 

Unani ◮ Biranj Saathi. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Nell.

Action ◮ Rice-water (a water 

decoction of rice)—demulcent 

and refrigerant in febrile and 

inflammatory diseases and in 

dysuria. Also used as a vehicle 

for compound preparations used 

for gynaecological disorders. It is 

regarded as cooling in haematemesis 

and epistaxis, and as diuretic. 

The green clum or stalks—recommended 

in biliousness. Ash of the 

straw—used in the treatment of 

wounds and discharges. Lixiviated ash 

ofstrawisusedasanthelminticandin 

nausea. 


recommends the dried root in dysuria 

and lactic disorders. 

The pigments occurring in coloured 

types of rice are a mixture of monoglycosides 

of cyanidin and delphinidin. 

The dark Puttu Rice of India contains 

a diglycosidic anthocyanin. 

Dosage ◮ Root—50 g for decoction. 


Osbeckia chinensis Linn. 



Garhwal to Bhutan, North Bengal, 

Bihar and Khasi, Aka and Lushai 

hills. 

Folk ◮ Bhui-lukham (Lushai). 

Action ◮ Plant—anodyne, antipyretic, 

anti-inflammatory. 

The plant contains the flavonoids, 

quercetin, kaempferol and hydrolysable 

tannins, besides gallic acid, methyl 

gallate and ellagic acid. 

Osmanthus fragrans Lour. 455 

The flavonoids and tannins showed 

antioxidant activity. Ellagic acid suppressed 

increase in lipid peroxidation 

induced by CCl4 and Cobalt-60 irradiation 

and this effect was more 

than that of alpha-tocopherol. Gallic 

acid showed anti-inflammatory activity 

against zymosan-induced acute 

footpad swelling in mice. 

Osmanthus fragrans Lour. 

Family ◮ Obleaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Native to China and Japan. 

Found in Kumaon, Garhwal and 

Sikkim. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Vasuka (Also equated 

with Brihat Bakula.) 

Folk ◮ Silang, Silingi, Bagahul, Buuk. 

Action ◮ Diuretic, genitourinary 

tract disinfectant. 

Flowers—antiseptic, insecticidal. 

Used for protecting clothes from insects. 

The flowers yield an oil containing 

oleanolic and urosolic acids, betasitosterol, 

glycosides and a wax (0.04%) 

composed mainly of triacontane. The 

leaves are reported to contain a phillyrin-like 

glycoside. 

Osmanthus suavis King, known as 

Silingi in Nepal and Chashing in Bhutan, 

is found in eastern Himalayas at 

altitudes of 2,700–3,000 m and in Aka 

hills in Assam. It is used as a var. of 

Vasuka. 

Dosage ◮ Flower—500 mg to 1 g 


O

O 

456 Osmunda regalis Linn. 

Osmunda regalis Linn. 

Family ◮ Osmundaceae. 

Habitat ◮ The Himalayas, Khasi hills 

and the Western Ghats at altitudes 

of 1,500–3,000 m. 

English ◮ Royal Fern. 

Action ◮ Fern—antispasmodic, 

astringent, an aqueous extract is 

administered for intestinal gripe; 

used externally in rheumatism; also 

prescribed in muscular debility. 

Fonds enter into diuretic drinks 

used for treating body swellings. 

Root—mucilaginous, styptic, 

stimulant. 

The rhizomes contain phenolic, gallic, 

caffeic, p-coumaric, vanillic, salicylic, 

p-hydroxybenzoic and ferulic 

acids and catechol tannins (2.8%) 

which are responsible for fern’s astringent 

activity. Biological activity of 

these tannins corresponds to that of 

10% tannic acid. 

Osyris wightiana Wall. ex Wight. 

Synonym ◮ O. arborea Wall. ex DC. 

O. quadriparita Salzm. ex Decne. 

Family ◮ Santalaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Sub-tropical Himalaya, 

Madhya Pradesh, Tamil Nadu. 

Folk ◮ Popli (Maharashtra); Paral 

(Karnataka, Tamil Nadu); Jhuri 

(Nepal); Dalmi, Dalmia (Garhwal, 

Kumaon). 

Action ◮ Leaf—emetic. 

The leaf contains 20% tannin. It gave 

cis-4-hydroxy-L-proline, and exhibited 

antiviral activity. 

The heartwood is faintly fragrant 

andreportedtobeusedforadulterating 

sandalwood. 

Ougeinia dalbergioides Benth. 

Synonym ◮ Ougeinia oojeinensis 

(Roxb.) Hochr. 


Habitat ◮ Outer Himalayas and 

sub-Himalayan tract from Jammu 

to Bhutan up to an altitude of 

1,500 m, and extending through the 

whole of northern and central India 

into the greater part of Deccan 

Peninsula. 

English ◮ Chariot tree, Punjab Kino. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Tinishaa, Tinisha, 

Syandana, Nemi, Sarvasaara, 

Ashmagarbhaka, Vajjala, Chitrakrt. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Narivengai. 

Folk ◮ Saanan. 

Action ◮ Bark—febrifuge, antidiarrhoeal, 

spasmolytic. 

The leaves and heartwood contained 

iso-flavonoids—dalbergion, hemoferritin 

and urgenin. Leaves, in addition, 

contained flavonoids—quercetin, 

kaempferol and leucopelargonidin. 

Stem bark gave triterpenes, lupeol and 

betulin. 

Oxalis acetosella Linn. 

Family ◮ Oxalidaceae.


from Kashmir to Sikkim from 2,500 

to 4,000 m and Nilgiris in Tamil 

Nadu. 

English ◮ Common Wood-Sorrel. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Chaangeri (related 

species). 

Folk ◮ Tinpatiyaa, Amrul. 

Action ◮ Diuretic and refrigerant. 

Used for urinary affections and 

fevers. (Sorrel is equated with 

Rumex acetosa Linn.) 

Aerial parts gave 2 ′′ -O-(beta-D-glucopyranosyl) 

isovitexin. The whole 

flowering plant contains 0.3–1.25% 

oxalic acid (high in fresh leaves and 

roots). 

Oxalis corniculata Linn. 

Family ◮ Oxalidaceae. 



English ◮ Indian Sorrel. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Chaangeri, Amlapatrikaa, 

Amlikaa, Chukraa, 

Chukrikaa, Chhatraamlikaa. 

Unani ◮ Ambutaa bhaaji, Amutaa 

saag. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Puliyarai. 

Folk ◮ Tinpatiyaa, Ambilonaa. 

Action ◮ Plant—boiled with butter 

milk is a home remedy for indigestion 

and diarrhoea in children. 

Used for tympanitis, dyspepsia, 

biliousness and dysentery; also for 

its anti-inflammatory, analgesic, 

antipyretic and antiscorbutic ac- 

Oxyria digyna (L.) Hill. 457 

tivities. Leaf paste is applied over 

forehead to cure headache. 

The leaves contain the flavonoids, 

vitexin, isovitexin and vitexin-2 ′′ -Obeta-D-glucopyranoside. 

The leaves 

contain 1.47% of lipid (dry weight), 

arichsourceofessentialfattyacids 

and alpha-and beta-tocopherol (1.58 

and 6.18 mg/g dry basis, respectively.) 

They are a good source of vitamin C 

(125 mg/100 g), carotene (3.6 mg/100 g) 

and calcium (5.6% of dry material) but 

contain a high content of oxalates (12% 

of dry material). 

The leaves and stem contain tartaric 

and citric acid; stems contain also 

malic acid. 

An aqueous extract of the plant 

shows activity against Micrococcus pyogenes 

var. aureus. Expressed juice of 

the entire plant shows activity against 

Gram-positive bacteria. 

Oxalis martiana Zucc. (native to 

America, naturalized in moist and 

shady placaes in temperate parts of 

India) is equated with Wood-Sorrel. It 

isknownasKhatmitthiinDelhiand 

Peria-puliyarai in Tamil Nadu. 


juice. (API, Vol. III.) 

Oxyria digyna (L.) Hill. 



Kashmir to Sikkim, in the alpine 

region at altitudes of 3,000–6,000 m. 

Folk ◮ Chohahak, Amlu (Punjab). 

Kailaashi (Kashmir). 

Action ◮ Refrigerant, antiscorbutic. 

O

O 

458 Oxystelma secamone (Linn.) Karst. 

Oxystelma secamone 

(Linn.) Karst. 

Synonym ◮ O. esculentum R. Br. 

Sarcostemma secamone (Linn.) 

Bennet. 


Habitat ◮ Throughout the 

plains and lower hills of India, 

including paddy fields 

and hedges rear semi-marshy 

places. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Dugdhikaa, Duudhilataa, 

Duudhialataa . 

Folk ◮ Usipallai (Tamil Nadu); 

Dugdhani (Maharashtra); Jaladudhi 

(Gujarat). 

Action ◮ Herb—antiseptic, depurative, 

galactogogue; decoction used 

as a gargle in stomatitis and sore 

throat. Latex—vulnerary. Fresh 

root—prescribed in jaundice. 

A pregnane ester oligoglycoside 

(oxysine), a pregnane triglycoside (esculentin), 

a cardenolide (oxyline), two 

more cardenolides, oxystelmoside and 

oxystelmine, have been isolated from 

the roots.

Paederia foetida Linn. 



Himlayas extending to Assam, West 

Bengal,Bihar,Orissa. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Talanili, Gandhaprasaarini. 

(Prasaarini is also 

equated with Raaja-balaa, Sida 

veronicaefolia.). 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Talanili, Mudiyar 

Kundal. 

Folk ◮ Gandhabhaaduli (Bengali). 

Action ◮ Leaf—carminative, antiinflammatory, 

astringent, spasmolytic, 

antidiarrhoeal, diuretic, antilithic. 

Root— anti-inflammatory. 

Used for rheumatic affections, piles, 

inflammations of the liver, spleen 

and chest. 

Aerial parts contain epi-friedelanol, 

embelin and beta-sitosterol. Leaves 

and stems gave iridoid glycosides, sitosterol, 

stigmasterol, campesterol, ursolicacid,hentriacontane,hentriacontanol, 

ceryl alcohol, palmitic acid and 

methyl mercaptan. The foetid smell is 

due to methyl mercaptan. 

All parts of the plant have been employed 

for rheumatic affections. 

A related species, Paederia scandens 

(Lour.) Merill, synonym P. tomentosa 

Blume, is known as Gandha Prasaarini. 

The iridoid glucosides, paederoside, 

paederosidic acid and scandosides 


P 

Dosage ◮ Plant—10–20 ml juice; 50– 

100 ml decoction. (CCRAS.) 

Paeonia emodi Wall. ex Royle. 

Family ◮ Paeoniaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Northwestern Himalaya 


3,000 m. 

English ◮ Himalayan Paeony. 

Unani ◮ Ood Saleeb, Ood Gharqi, 

Phaavaaniaa. 

Folk ◮ Root—used in nervous affections, 

uterine diseases, as a blood 

purifier. Flower—antidiarrhoeal. 

Seed—emetic, cathartic. Plant— 

CNS depressant, hypothermic, 

diuretic, anti-inflammatory. 

The root contains an essential oil, 

with salicylaldehyde as the chief component, 

a fixed oil, benzoic acid and 

sucrose. The plant gave Gallo tannin 

and glucogallin. 

Paeonia officinalis Linn. 

Family ◮ Paeoniaceae. 

Habitat ◮ 

Britain. 

Indigenous to Great 

English ◮ Paeony. 

Unani ◮ Ood Saleeb, Ood Gharqi. 

Action ◮ Root—antispasmodic, 

sedative, smooth muscle relaxant, 

vasodilatory, hypotensive,

460 Panax pseudoginseng Wall. 

P 

anti-inflammatory, analgesic, emmenagogue, 


Flower—used for diseases of mucous 

membranes, fissures, anal 

fissures associated with haemorrhoids, 

also for ailments of the 

respiratory tract, nervous conditions 

and skin diseases. Root— 

used for arthritis, neuralgia, neurasthenia, 

migraine, epilepsy, allergic 

disorders, whooping cough and 

painful spasms. 

The herb gave monoterpene ester 

glucosides of the pinen-type (including 

paeoniflorin); anthocyanin including 

paeonin; tannins (pentagalloyl glucose); 

flavonoids including kaempferol 

glycosides. 

Paeoniflorin shows a smooth muscle 

relaxant, vasodilatory, anti-inflammatory, 

immunostimulating and some 

CNS depressant activity in animal 

studies. Pentagalloyl glucose exhibited 

antiviral activity in animal studies 

in vitro against herpes simplex. 

German Commission E included 

Paeony (flower and root) among unapproved 

herbs. The Pharmacopoeia of 

People’s Republic of China indicates the 

use of the root in dementia, headache 

and vertigo. (WHO.) 

Panax pseudoginseng Wall. 



Pithoragarh district of Uttaranchal. 

English ◮ Indian Ginseng, Indian 

Pseudoginseng. 

Ayurvedic ◮ In Indian medicine, 

Panax quinquefolium Linn. and 

Panax schinseng Knees have been 

equated with Lakshmanaa. 

Action ◮ Adaptogen, digestive 

relaxant, old-age revitalizer. Sustains 

nerves and immune system in 

physical exhaustion and during convalescence. 

Antiarrhythmic (used 

for angina). Activities comparable 

with Korean ginseng. 

Indian pseudoginseng, including 

subspecies himalaicus and its varieties, 

variety angustifolius and variety 

bipinnatifidus, has been found to be 

a rich source of oleanolic acid saponins, 

while dammarane saponins (panaxadiol 

and panaxatriol) are present in 

minor quantities. Panax burkillianus 

Bennet & Viswan and P. sikkimensis 

Banerjee are also related to the commercial 

ginseng. 

Panax quinquefolium (American 

Ginseng) has been introduced into India 

in the Kashmir valley during 1983. 

It is rich in dammarane saponins. The 

air-dried roots of the plant, introduced 

in India, contain total saponin content 

of 11.5%. The saponins isolated include 

ginsenosides Rb1, Rb2, Rb3, Rc, 

Rd, Re, Rg1, pseudoginsenoside F11 

and chikusetsu saponin V; the major 

saponin being ginsenoside Rb1. The 

saponin fraction of the root yielded 

panaxadiol, panaxatriol and oleanolic 

acid. 

Ginsenosides Rb and Rc are ‘diols’, 

while Rg is a ‘triol’. (‘triol’ group is 

arousing, ‘diol’ is sedative.) In American 

ginseng ‘diols’ predominate. 

Panax pseudoginseng, equated with 

Himalayan ginseng (Natural Medicines 

Comprehensive Database, 2007), is believed 

to dilate the coronary vessels, re-

duce vascular resistance and improve 

the coronary collateral circulation. It 

increased blood flow while reducing 

blood pressure. 

Panax schiseng, synonym P. ginseng 

Mey. (Asiatic or Chinese Ginseng) is 

cultivated in northern China, Korea 

and Japan. 

Pandanus facicularis Lam. 

Synonym ◮ P. tectorius auct. non 

Soland ex Parkinson. 

P. odoratissimus Linn. f. 

Family ◮ Pandanaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Sea coast of the Indian 

Peninsula on both sides, and the 


English ◮ Screw Pine. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Ketaka, Ketaki, 

Suuchikaa pushpaa, Jambuka, 

Trinshunya, Ketakark, Krakchhada. 

Unani ◮ Keoraa. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Thazhai, Thalay. 

Action ◮ Flower—carminative, stomachic, 

cooling, antiseptic. Used for 

headache, ulcers, dysuria, scabies 

and other skin diseases. Root— 

used for osteoarthritis, leucorrhoea 

and amenorrhoea; contraindicated 

during pregnancy. Leaves— 

used for skin diseases, small pox, 

scabies, leprosy. The Ayurvedic 

Pharmacopoeia of India recommends 

the decoction of the root in 

abdominal inflammation. Oil and 

otto—stimulant, antispasmodic, 


Panicum miliaceum Linn. 461 

The chief constituent of the oil is 

methyl ether of beta-phenylethyl alcohol. 

The oil also contains diterpene, 

d-linalool, phenylethyl acetate, citral, 

phenylethyl alcohol, ester of phthalic 

acid, fatty acids and stearoptene. 

The leaves contain the piperidine alkaloids. 


decoction (API, Vol. I); flower 

linctus—25–30 ml. (CCRAS.). 

Pandanus utilis Bory. 

Family ◮ Pandanaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Native of Malagasy; grown 


Ayurvedic ◮ Ketaki (related species). 

Action ◮ Root—a decoction is 

used for the treatment of venereal 

diseases. 

Panicum miliaceum Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Cultivated mainly in Uttar 

Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra 

Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamil 

Nadu. 

English ◮ Common Millet, Proso 

Millet, Hog Millet. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Chinaaka, Cheenaa. 

Unani ◮ Chinaa Ghaas, Faaluudaa. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Panivaragu. 

Folk ◮ Chenaa, Chi-Tibet. 

Action ◮ Seeds (grains)—demulcent; 

used in diarrhoea. Plant— 

antigonorrhoeal. 

P

462 Papaver rhoeas L. 

P 

The seedlings contain an alkaloid 

hordenine (beta-p-hydroxyphenethyl 

dimethylamine). Saponins afforded 

diosgenin and yamogenin isolated 

from the leaves. 

The grains contain 10–18% of proteins 

which include prolamin, glutelin 

and smaller amounts of albumin and 

globulin. The protein has a biological 

value of 56% and a digestibility coefficient 

of 91% at 10% level of protein 

intake. 

In Indian medicine, Chinaaka and 

Kangu (Setaria italica L. Beauv.) are 

synonyms. 

Papaver rhoeas L. 


Habitat ◮ Kashmir and throughout 

the plains of North India; cultivated 

in gardens. 

English ◮ Corn Poppy, Red Poppy. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Rakta Posta. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Sivappu, Kasakasa. 

Folk ◮ Laal Posta, Laal Kaskas. 

Action ◮ Latex from capsules— 

narcotic. Petal—expectorant, 

antitussive, sudorific. Used for 

diseases of the respiratory tract, for 

disturbed sleep and as a sedative for 

the relief of pain. (Included among 



The petals contain cyanidine derivatives. 

An alkaloid rhoeadine is present 

in leaves and flowers (0.031%), unripe 

capsules (0.035%) and in roots 

(0.015%). The capsules contain morphine, 

thebine and narcotine and meconic 

acid. 

Other species, commonly grown 

in Indian gardens, are P. nudicaule 

Linn. (Iceland Poppy) and P. orientale 

(Oriental Poppy). P. nudicaule 

plants with yellow flowers are more 

cyanogenetic than those with red or 

white flowers. P. orientale contains 

0.16% alkaloids, which include thebaine, 

isothebaine, protopine, glaucidine 

and oripavine. Isothebaine stimulates 

and later depresses the central 

nervous system. 

Papaver somniferum Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Native to Asia; now grown 

in Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Rajasthan 

and Madhya Pradesh. 

English ◮ Opium Poppy. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Ahiphena, Aaphuuka. 

Post-daanaa (seed). 

Unani ◮ Afyum. Tukhm-ekhashkhaash 

(seed). 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kasakasa (seeds). 

Action ◮ Opium is obsolete 

as a drug. Narcotic, sedative, 

hypnotic, analgesic, sudorific, 

anodyne, antispasmodic. Crushed 

poppyheads were in use as a topical 

poultice for crippling pain in 

terminal diseases. 

Poppy seed—nutritive, demulcent, 

emollient, spasmolytic, devoid of 

narcotic properties. Specific against 

obstinate constipation, also used 

in catarrh of the bladder. Poppy

seed oil is also free from narcotic 

properties. Used against diarrhoea, 

dysentery and scalds. 

Opium contains isoquinoline alkaloids; 

the major one is morphine 

with narcotine, codeine, papaverine 

and thebaine. Poppy seeds, used in 

Indian medicine, do not contain alkaloids. 

The seeds contain thiamine 420, 

riboflavin 49, folic acid 30, pantothenic 

acid 2667 and niacin 1877 mcg/100 g. 

The seed oil (from Turkey) contains 

gamma-tocopherol 220, alpha-tocopherol 

40 and beta-tocopherol 20 mcg/ 

100 g. Some low-molecular proteins 

(15% of total protein) have been isolated, 

along with cysteine, glutamic acid 

and arginine. The seeds yield a fatty 

oil (45%) containing palmitic, stearic, 

oleic, linoleic and linolenic acids. 

The extract of seeds showed highly 

significant antisecretory (antidiarrhoeal 

activity) against E. coli enterotoxin-induced 

secretory responses in 


The triglycerides isolated from seeds 

showed anti-tumour activity against 

Ehrlich’s ascites in mice. 

The aqueous extract of seeds showed 

marked hypoglycaemic activity when 

administered to glucose-loaded and alloxan 

diabetic rats. 

The seeds were found to increase 

the activity of carcinogen detoxifying 

enzyme, glutathione-S-transferase by 

more than 78% in the stomach, liver 

and oesophagus in mice. 

Following Papaver sp. are found in 

India: 

P. argemone Linn. (indigenous to 

the Mediterranean region; commonlygrowningardensinIndia)contains 

Paris polyphylla Sm. 463 

0.15% of alkaloids including rhoeadine, 

protopine, and anthocyanins. Petals 

are sudorific. 

P. dubium Linn. (North-western Himalaya 

form Kashmir to Garhwal; as 

a winter weed in North Indian plains) 

contains rhoeagenine as the principal 

alkaloid, besides rhoeadine, protopine. 

Petals contain cyanidin B and 

pelargonidin C. Petals are sudorific. 

P. hybridum Linn. (gardens of Punjab 

and Uttar Pradesh) is diaphoretic 

(petals). Plant latex contains alkaloids 

including berberine, coptisine, 

pahybrine, papaverrubines A, B, D and 

E and sanguinarine. Plant also gave 

glaucine and glucamine. 

P. nudicaule Linn. (Gulmarg, Kashmir, 

at altitudes of 3,300–3,600 m), 

known as Iceland Poppy, gave alkaloids 

including papaverrubines B and D; 

leave gave cyanogenic glycosides including 

dhurrin and triglochinin. The 

flower and fruit are mild diaphoretic. 

P. orientale Linn. (indigenous to 

Mediterraneanregion;growninIndian 

gardens), known as Oriental Poppy, 

contains 0.16% of alkaloids including 

thebaine, isothebane, protopine, 

glaucidine and oripavine. Latex from 

poppy capsule is narcotic. 

Paris polyphylla Sm. 



from Simla to Bhutan and in Lushai 

and Aka Hills. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Haimavati, Shvetavachaa. 

Folk ◮ Baal-bach. 

P

464 Parmelia perlata (Huds.) Ach. 

P 

Action ◮ Plant—sedative, analgesic, 

haemostatic, anthelmintic. 

The rhizome contains a glucoside, 

alpha-paristyphnin, which exhibited 

a depressant action on carotid pressure, 

myocardium, and respiratory 

movements experimentally. It producedvasoconstrictioninkidney,but 

vasodilation in the spleen and limbs, 

and stimulated isolated intestines. 

Parmelia perlata (Huds.) Ach. 

Family ◮ Parmeliaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Cultivated in Kashmir hills 

and the Himalayas. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Shaileya, Shaileyaka, 

Shilaapushpa, Shilaadaaru, 

Shailaka, Shilodbhava, Shaila, 

Shailpushpa. Kaalaanu-saarthaka, 

Bhuri-charilla, Sthavira, Vrddha, 

Shitashiva. 

Unani ◮ Charelaa. 

Action ◮ Astringent, resolvent, 

diuretic. Used externally for pain 

in renal and lumbar regions. Also 

used as an ingredient in cosmetic 

preparations. 

The lichen contains lecanoric acid 

and atranorin. 

Several lichen species contain abundant 

quantities of usnic acid which exhibits 

antimicrobial and antifungal activity 

and is immunologically active in 

contact dermatitis. 


recommendsthethallusindysuria. 

Dosage ◮ Whole thallus—1–3 g 

powder. (API, Vol. III.) 

Parthenium hysterophorus 

Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Tropical and subtropical 

countries of the world. 

English ◮ Congress Grass. 

Folk ◮ Pichhi, Machhipatri. 

Action ◮ Anti-amoebic, antidysenteric, 

febrifuge, analgesic, emmenagogue. 

The grass was introduced into India 

during 1950 s (it first appeared in 

Pune). 

The grass exhibits in vitro antiamoebic 

activity against axenic and 

polygenic cultures of Entamoeba histolytica, 

comparable to the standard 

drug for amoebiasis, Metronidazole. 

Parthenin and some of its derivatives 

exhibited significant antimalarial 

activity against a multi drug-resistant 

strain of Plasmodium falciparum. 

The main toxic constituent of the 

grass responsible for causing dermatitis 

and other forms of allergy are 

parthenin and coronopilin. Parthenin 

in present up to 8% in the capitulum 

and 5% in the leaves. 

Parthenocissus himalayana 

(Royle) Planch. 

Synonym ◮ Vitis himalayana Brandis. 


Habitat ◮ Throughout the Himalayas. 

Folk ◮ Kandur (Jaunsar), Philunaa 

(Garhwal) Laderi (Kumaon).

Action ◮ Bark and twigs—astringent 

and expectorant. 

Paspalum scrobiculatum Linn. 



India. 

English ◮ Kodo millet. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Kodrava, Korduusha. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Varagu. 

Folk ◮ Kodo. 

Action ◮ Plant—used as a CNS 

drug for treating schizophrenia and 

psychoses. 

The plant contains hentriacontanol, 

hentriacontanone and sitosterol. The 

grains have often been reported to 

cause poisoning in men and animals 

when used as a food; non-poisonous 

types have been reported from Tamil 

Nadu. 

Passiflora edulis Sims. 

Family ◮ Passifloraceae. 

Habitat ◮ Native of Brazil; cultivated 

in Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Andhra 

Pradesh, in North India in Punjab 

and Himachal Pradesh. 

English ◮ Purple Granadilla, Passion 

Fruit. 

Action ◮ Juicefrompurplefruit— 

a good source of ascorbic acid 

(contains up to 75 mg/100 g), 

carotene and sugars. 

Passiflora foetida Linn. 465 

The juice from the yellow variety 

(equated with Passiflora edulis f. flavicarpa) 

contains lesser amounts of ascorbic 

acid and sugars. 

The purple Passion fruit contains 

the C-glucoside, beta-ionyl-beta-Dglucopyranoside. 

A protease inhibitor 

(PEPI) has been isolated from the 

juice. PEPI inhibited trypsin and chymotrypsin 

activities, but did not inhibit 

papain activity. The esters and 

terpenoids form the major part of fruit 

components. The terpenoids include 

a number of monoterpenes (including 

hydroxylated linalool derivatives), 

and monoterpene glycosides. Norterpenoid 

aglycones have also been found. 

The yellow Passion fruit contains 

sulfur-containing volatiles, acetates, 

butanoates and hexanoates of 3-mercaptohexanol. 

The leaves contain Cglycosylflavonoids. 

Passiflora foetida Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Native to America; found 

willd in Uttar Pradesh, Karnataka 


English ◮ Stinking Passion Flower. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Siru Ponaikalli. 

Action ◮ Leaves and roots—emmenagogue, 

antihysteric. Fruits— 

emetic. A decoction is used for biliousness 

and asthma (for expelling 

bile and cough). 

The plant contains C-glycosides of 

apigenin and luteolin. Apigenin-8- 

C-glucoside has been detected in the 

plant. 

P

466 Passiflora incarnata Linn. 

P 

Passiflora incarnata Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Native of South-east 

America;growninIndiangardens. 

English ◮ Wild Passion Flower, 

Maypop. 

Action ◮ Flowering and fruiting 

dried herb—mild sedative, 

hypnotic, tranquilizer, hypotensive, 

vasodilator, antispasmodic, 

anodyne, anti-inflammatory, 

Key application ◮ In nervous restlessness, 

irritability and difficulty 

in falling asleep. (German Commission 

E, ESCOP, The British Herbal 

Compendium, The British Herbal 

Pharmacopoeia, WHO.) The British 

Herbal Compendium also indicated 

it in neuralgia, dysmenorrhoea, and 

nervous tachycardia. 

The herb contains flavonoids (up to 

2.5%), in particularC-glycosylflavones; 

cyanogenic glycoside, gynocardine. 

The alkaloid harman has been isolated, 

but the presence of harmine, harmaline, 

harmol and harmalol has been 

disputed. The alkaloid and flavonoids 

arereportedtohavesedativeactivity 

in animals. Apigenin exhibits antispasmodic 

and anti-inflammatory activity. 

Passion Flower was formerly approved 

as an OTC sedative in the USA, 

butitwastakenoffthemarketin1978 

because safety and effectiveness had 

not been proven. An animal study in 

1977 suggested that apigenin binds to 

central benzodi-zepine receptors (possibly 

causing anxiolytic effects). (Natural 


2007.) 

The drug is used in homoeopathic 

medicine for epilepsy. 

The herb exhibits a motility-inhibiting 

effect in animal experiments. 

Passion Flower, used as an adjunct 

to clonidine, was superior to clonidine 

for mental symptoms of opiate withdrawal. 


Passiflora laurifolia Linn. 



growninIndiangardens. 

English ◮ Water-lemon, Jamaica 

Honey Suckle. 

Action ◮ Leaves—anthelmintic. 

Seeds—hypnodil. Fruit—edible. 

Plant—poisonous (the foliage 

produces hydrocyanic acid). 

The fruit pulp contains pantothenic 

acid (1.55 mg/100 g); leaves contain 

387 mg/100 g vitamin C. 

Passiflora quadrangularis Linn. 




English ◮ Giant Granadilla. 

Action ◮ Fruit—edible; contains 

64 mg/100 g ascorbic acid; narcotic 

when eaten in excess. Leaves, 

the peel and seeds of green fruit, 

and roots—cyanogenetic. Roots— 

poisonous.

The root contains an alkaloid passiflora 

which is identical with harman 

from Passiflora incarnata. 

Pastinaca sativa Linn. 

Synonym ◮ Peucedanum sativum 

Benth. & Hook. f. 


Habitat ◮ Native to Europe; grows 

in cool climate in India. (Hollow 

Crown, Student and Large Guernsey 

are Indian horticultural varieties.) 

English ◮ Parsnip. 

Action ◮ Above ground parts— 

diuretic, carminative (eaten as 

a vegetable and salad), used for 

kidney disorders. Root—used for 

kidney disorders, fever and as 

adiureticandanalgesic. 

The parsnip is a rich source of 

coumarins (1.7% dry weight). The 

coumarin fraction of the fruit extract 

inhibits growth of cancer cells (HeLa- 

S3)cultured in the dark. The fruit contains 

small amounts of photoactive 

furocoumarins which are phototoxic. 

(Severe dermatitis results after contact 

with the furocoumarin in the presence 

of light.) The fruit contains xanthotoxin 

(0.1%), imperatorin (0.17%) and 

bergapten (0.38%). Coumarin, pastinacin, 

isolated from the fruit, showed 

spasmolytic action. 

Pastinaca secacul Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Native to Europe. 

Paullinia asiatica Linn. 467 

English ◮ Wild Parsnip. 

Unani ◮ Shaqaaq-ul-Misri. 

Action ◮ Root—galactagogue, 

aphrodisiac, spermatogenetic. An 

important ingredient of Unani 

compounds for oligospermia, low 

sexual drive and debility. 

Shaqaaq-ul-Misri has also been 

equated with Trachydium lehmanni 

Benth. In Kashmir, Eryngium caeruleum 

Bieb (Umbelliferae)andinChakrata, 

Polygonatum verticillatum All. 

(Liliaceae) are known as shaqaaqul 

(also Dudhaali). 

Polygonatum verticillatum rhizomes 

are used in Tibetan medicine 

for emaciation and senility. The dried 

rhizomes contain diosgenin. 

Paullinia asiatica Linn. 

Synonym ◮ Limonia oligandra 

Dalz. Toddalia aculeata Pers. 


Habitat ◮ Found in Konkan and 

Maharashtra. 

English ◮ Lopez Root tree, Wild 

Orange tree, Forest Pepper. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Kaanchana, Dahana. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kattu Milagu, 

Milagaranai. 

Folk ◮ Jangali Kaalimirchi, Limri 


Action ◮ Root bark—bitter, febrifuge, 

diaphoretic, antiperiodic. Infusion 

used in constitutional debility and 

convalescence after febrile and other 

exhausting diseases. 

P

468 Pavetta indica Linn. 

P 

The root gave coumarins, including 

toddanol, todhanone, toddasin, 

pimpinellin, toddalolactone; alkaloids, 

including toddaline, toddalnine. 

Pavetta indica Linn. 

Synonym ◮ P. tomentosa Roxb. ex 

Sm. 


Habitat ◮ Throughout greater part 

of India, ascending to an altitude 

of about 1,500 m in the Himalayas, 

also recorded from the Andamans. 

English ◮ White-Pavetta. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Papata, Kathachampaa. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Pavattai. 

Folk ◮ Paapadi (Maharashtra). 

Action ◮ Root—bitter and aperient. 

Prescribed in visceral obstructions, 

renal dropsy and ascites. Leaves— 

used for fomenting piles and for 

haemorrhoidal pains. The root bark 

contains d-mannitol. 

Pavonia odorata Willd. 


Habitat ◮ North-West India, Bengal 

and Konkan. 

English ◮ Fragrant Sticky Mallow. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Vaalaka, Baalaka, Baala, 

Barhishtha, Hrivera, Ambu, Jala, 

Nira,Paya,Toya,Udichya,Vaari, 

Muurdhaja. Sugandhbaalaa (also 

equated with Valeriana Jatamansi). 

In the South, Celus vettiveroides is 

equated with Baalaka. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Peraamutti, Kastoori 

vendai. 

Action ◮ Plant—anti-inflammatory 

and spasmolytic. Used in rheumatic 

affections. Root—stomachic, 

astringent, demulcent. Used in 

dysentery, haemorrhages from 

intestines; ulcers and bleeding 

disorders. 

The roots gave an essential oil containing 

isovaleric acid, isovaleraldehyde, 

armomadendrene, pavonene, 

alpha-terpinene, azulene and pavonenol. 

The plant exhibits antiparasitic activity 

against Entamoeba histolytica. 

Pavonia zeylanica Cav. 



India. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Sithamutti, Mammatti, 

Peraamutti. 

Action ◮ Plant—purgative, anthelmintic, 

febrifuge. 

The stem gave a saponin, pavophylline, 

and a keto-ester, methyl 19ketotetracosanoate. 

Pedalium murex Linn. 

Family ◮ Pedaliaceae. 

Habitat ◮ 

India. 

Throughout the plains of 

English ◮ Caltrops (bigger var.).

Ayurvedic ◮ Brihatgokshura, 

Kshouraka, Trikantaka, Gokantaka, 

Swaadukantaka, Bhakshantaka. 

Unani ◮ Khaar-e-khasak Kalaan, 

Gokharu Kalaan. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Peru-neranji, Annaineringi. 

Action ◮ Fruit—used for spermatorrhoea, 

nocturnal emissions, 

menstrual irregularities, puerperal 

diseases, genitourinary disorders, 

difficult micturition, chronic 

cystitis, renal calculus. Root— 

antibilious. 

The stem and fruits contain flavonoids 

pedalitin and its glucoside (pedaliin), 

diometin, dinatin and its derivatives. 

The fruits contain nonacosane, 

tritriacontane, triacontanoic acid, 

sitosterol-beta-D-glucoside, rubusic 

acid, luteolin as major constituents. 

Leaves and fruits yield phenolic acids 

which include caffeic, protocatechuic, 

p-coumaric and ferulic acids. Flowers 

gave dinatin, quercetin and quercetin- 

7-glucoside. 

Aqueous extract of the fruit is reported 

to produce in vitro inhibitory 

effect on crystallization in urinary lithiasis. 

The solubility of uric acid in aqueous 

extract is reported to be 45% more 

than in water alone. 

The plant extracts exhibit diuretic 

activity. 

Dosage ◮ Fruit, root—3–5 g powder; 

50–100ml.decoction.(CCRAS.) 

Pedicularis pectinata Wall. 


Pedilanthus tithymaloides Poir. 469 


Kashmir eastwards at altitudes 

of 2,000–4,300 m, extending to 

Sikkim. 

English ◮ Lousewort. 

Folk ◮ Mishran, Michren (Punjab), 

Lugro-maarpro (Kashmir). 


haemostatic, diuretic. 

The herb is closely related to Eyebright 

(Euphrasia officinalis Linn.) of 

the same family, found in the Temperate 

Himalayas from Kashmir to Kumaon. 

Eyebright is astringent and bacteriostatic. 

Pedilanthus tithymaloides Poir. 


Habitat ◮ Native to West Indies; 

cultivated as an ornamental. 

English ◮ Slipper Plant, Bird-Cactus. 

Folk ◮ Vilaayati-sher (Maharashtra), 

Naagaphani, Naagadaman (Madhya 

Pradesh). 

Action ◮ Latex—used for warts, 

leucoderma, venereal diseases. 

Root—emetic (used in West Indies 

as Ipecacuanha). 

An extract of the air-dried and 

powdered whole plant contains octacosanol, 

cycloartenone, oxime and 


The latex from the stem contains the 

proteolytic enzyme, pedilanthain. It 

exhibited anti-inflammatory activity in 

carrageenan-induced rat paw oedema 

and was more effective than the control 

P

470 Peganum harmala Linn. 

P 

drug phenylbutazone. The enzyme also 

showed anthelmintic property. 

The leaves contain n-hentriacontanol 

and dehydrodammaronol-A. The 

root gave azafrin. 

Peganum harmala Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Throughout Northern and 

Northwestern India, and in drier 

regions of Deccan. 

English ◮ Wild Rue; Foreign Henna, 

Syrian Rue. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Haramal, Isband. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Simaiyaravandi, 

Simaiyalavinai. 

Action ◮ Plant—emmenagogue, 

abortifacient. Seeds—narcotic, 

hypnotic, antispasmodic, anodyne 

and emetic; used in asthma, hiccough, 

colic, neuralgia, hysteria, 

dysmenorrhoea; used as abortifacient 

(properties similar to ergot, 

savine and rue). (Dried seeds constitute 

the drug Harmal of Indian 

medicine.) 

The plant gave flavonoids—kaempferol, 

quercetin and acacetin. Aerial 

parts and seeds contain alkaloids— 

harmine, harmaline and harmalol 

(called harman alkaloids). Harman 

alkaloids from the seeds have been 

suggested for use in nervous diseases, 

and as coronary dilators and embolic. 

Harmol exhibits hypertensive activity. 

Harmine, vasicinone, deoxyvasicinone 

and 8-hydroxy glucosylharmine 

exhibit antitumour activity. 

The alkaloids, harmine, harmaline 

and harmol exhibit antibacterial and 


The aqueous extract of seeds exhibited 

significant antiviral activity in vitro 

against herpes virus hominis type 1, 

slight activity was also observed against 

influenza viruses A and B. The plant extract 

exhibits significant analgesic activity. 

Pelargonium graveolens L’Hert. 


Habitat ◮ Introduced into India in 

the Shevroy hills of Tamil Nadu; 

cultivated largely in the Nilgiri and 

Palni hills of Tamil Nadu. 

English ◮ Geranium. 

Action ◮ Oil—antifungal. 

Geranium oil produced from the 

plant grown in the temperate region at 

high altitudes is rich in menthone, citronellol, 

nerol and geraniol; while the 

oil produced from the plants grown at 

lower altitudes is rich in isomenthone, 

linalool and citronellyl formate. 

Geranium oil and its constituents 

are reported to exhibit marginal antitumour 

activity. 

The oil also exhibits in vitro antifungal 

activity. 

Peltophorum pterocarpum 

Backer ex K. Heyne. 


Habitat ◮ Coastal forests of the 

Andaman Islands.

English ◮ Copper Pod, Rusty 

Shield-Bearer. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Ivalvagai, Perungondrai. 

Action ◮ Bark—used for dysentery; 

also used as a constituent of gargles, 

tooth-powders and lotions for sores 

and muscular pains. 

The bark contains 20.8% of a catechol 

type of tannin and 9.5% non-tans. 

The wood and leaves also contain tannin. 

The pods contain bergenin which 

exhibits anti-inflammatory activity in 

carrageenan-induced rat paw oedema 

and is found to be equipotent to 


Aqueous extract of leaves and ethanolic 

extract of flower exhibit antifungal 

activity. 

Pentapetes phoenicea Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Ashrubcultivatedasan 

ornamental throughout the hotter 


Ayurvedic ◮ Bandhujiva, Bandhuuka, 

Arkavallabha. 

Folk ◮ Gul-dupahariaa. 

Action ◮ Capsule—mucilaginous, 

used for the diseases of the bowels; 

a decoction is used as emollient. 

Root—astringent, antibilious, 

antiphlegmonous, febrifuge. 

Pentatropis microphylla W. & A. 

Synonym ◮ P. capensis (Linn. f.) 

Bullock. 

Pentatropis spiralis Decne. 471 


Habitat ◮ West Bengal, Gujarat and 


Ayurvedic ◮ Kaakanaasaa, 

Kaakanaasikaa, Kaakaangi, Kaaktundphalaa, 

Shringiritti. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Uppilankodi. 

Folk ◮ Singarauti (Gujarat). Amarvel. 

Action ◮ Plant—antifungal, antiseptic, 

keratolytic; used in various skin 

conditions. 

The plant gave n-octacosanol, alphaamyrin, 

friedelin, beta-sitosterol. An 

appreciable amount of salicyclic acid 

has been isolated from the plant. The 

plant also yields a cardiac glycoside. 

Dosage ◮ Plant—50–100 ml. 


Pentatropis spiralis Decne. 

Synonym ◮ P. cynanchoides R. Br. 


Habitat ◮ A climber found in 

Punjab, Delhi, Upper Gangetic 

Plain, Rajasthan and Gujarat. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Kaakanaasaa (related 

species). 

Folk ◮ Ambarvel, Vanaveri (Punjab). 

Action ◮ Root—astringent, antigonorrhoeic, 

alterative. Plant—emetic, 

purgative. 

An acyclic diterpene ester, cis-phytyl-l-palmitate, 

together with the triterpenes, 

squalene, n-taraxasterol and 

taraxasterol, has been isolated from 

the plant. 

P

472 Pergularia extensa N. E. Br. 

P 

Pergularia extensa N. E. Br. 

Synonym ◮ P. daemia (Forsk.) Chiov. 


Habitat ◮ Throughout India and 

hotter parts. 

English ◮ Hairknot Plant, Whitlow 

Plant. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Uttamaarani, 

Vrischikaali, Vishaanikaa. Phalakantaka. 

Ajashringi is a doubtful 

synonym. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Utthaamani, Veliparuthi. 

Folk ◮ Utaran. 

Action ◮ Plant—Uterine stimulant, 

tones up urinary bladder, stimulates 

gastric secretion, expectorant, emetic. 

Leaf—used for amenorrhoea, 

dysmenorrhoea; externally applied 

to carbuncles. 

The plant gave betaine, a polypeptide, 

hentriacontane, lupeol, alpha-and 

beta-amyrin, beta-sitosterol as major 

constituents. Seeds and stems gave cardenolides—calactin, 

calotropin, calotropagenin, 

uzarigenin and coroglaucigenin. 

The plant extract exhibits stimulating 

action on uterine and other involuntary 

muscles. The extracts cause rise 

in arterial blood pressure, increase in 

movement and tone of urinary bladder, 

and stimulation of gastric secretions. 

An aqueous extract of the leaves shows 

antibacterial activity against E. coli and 

Micrococcus pyogenes var. aureus. 

Pericampylus glaucus 

(Lam.) Merill. 


Habitat ◮ Hill forests of Sikkim, 

Northern Bengal and Assam. 

Folk ◮ Baarak-kaant (Maharashtra), 

Goriaa-loti (Assam). 

Action ◮ Leaves—an infusion is used 

for asthma and high fever. Pounded 

leaves are applied in headache. 

The mucilage in water is used for 

arresting falling of hair. 

The bark contains a non-toxic principle. 

The root is reported to contain 

anarcoticalkaloid. 

Perilepta auriculata 

(Nees) Bremek. 

Synonym ◮ Strobilanthes auriculatus 

Nees. 


Habitat ◮ Upper Gangetic Plain, 


Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kurinji. 

Folk ◮ Pandadi (Gujarat). 

Action ◮ Pounded leaves—rubbed 

on body during the cold stage of 

intermittent fever. 

Perilla frutescens (Linn.) Britton. 

Family ◮ Labiatae; Lamiacae. 

Habitat ◮ Throughout the Himalayas 

up to an altitude of about 3,500 m, 

and in the hills of Assam. 

English ◮ Perilla, Wild Coleus.

Folk ◮ Bhanjeer, Ban-tulasi, Banjiraa, 

Bhasindi. 

Action ◮ Herb—sedative, antispasmodic, 

antiasthmatic, resolvent. 

P. frutescens var. crispa is used in 

mixtures prescribed for cough and lung 

affections. 

Several chemotypes of Perilla have 

been detected. The Indian type is rich 

in rosefuran. Other components are 

perillene, perilla ketone, beta-caryophyllene, 

phellandrene and a few sesquiterpenoids. 

Aerial parts gave ethyl 

linolenate, linolenic acid and betasitosterol. 

The leaves also gave an anthocyanin, 

perillanin. The leaves and 

flowering tops yield essential oils containing 

perilla ketone as major component—94% 

in leaf oils and 47% in 

inflorescence oils at fruiting stage. 

Perillaldehyde, a major component 

of the plant extract, inhibits (moderately) 

a broad range of both bacteria 

and fungi. The MeOH extract of 

var. acuta Kudo is reported to prolong 

hexobarbital-induced sleep in mice. 

Dillapiol has been isolated as the active 

principle from the methanolic extract. 

Periploca aphylla Decne. 


Habitat ◮ Punjab and Rajasthan. 

Folk ◮ Barri (Punjab). 

Action ◮ Plant—stomachic; used 

in cerebral fever. Bark—purgative. 

Latex—used against tumours and 

swellings. 

Peristrophe bicalyculata Nees. 473 

The leaves and stems contain 2.2% 

of resin alcohol, a bitter substance, tannin 

and small quantities of a glucosidal 

principle which produces first a decrease 

and then an increase in blood 

pressure. The bark contain 8% tannin. 

Periploca calophylla Falc. 


Habitat ◮ The Himalayas, from 

Kashmir to Nepal and Meghalaya, 


Ayurvedic ◮ Krishna Saarivaa 

(substitute). (Cryptolepis buchanani 

is equated with Krishna Saarivaa.) 

Action ◮ Used in place of Cryptolepis 

buchanani and Hemidesmus indicus 

for rheumatism, urinary and skin 

diseases. 

The glycosides locin, plocin, plocinin, 

calocin, calocinin, as well as triterpenoids, 

have been reported from the 

twigs. 

Peristrophe bicalyculata Nees. 


Habitat ◮ Distributed throughout 

India. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Nadikaantaa, 

Praachibalaa, Sulomshaa, Kaakatikta, 

Kaakajanghaa. (Aatarilaal is 

awrongsynonym. Itisequated 

with Anthriscus cerefolium Hoffm., 

used in Unani medicine.) 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Chebisa. 

Folk ◮ Masi. 

P

474 Persea americana Mill. 

P 

Action ◮ Plant—febrifuge. The 

essential oil shows tuberculostatic 

activity in vitro. It inhibits the 

growth of various strains of 

Mycobaterium tuberculosis. 


recommends the dried root in insomnia 

and for fear-psychosis in children. 


Vol III.) 

Persea americana Mill. 

Synonym ◮ P. gratissima Gaertn. f. 


Habitat ◮ Native to Central America; 

introduced into India and grown for 

its fruit in Bangalore, Nandi Hills, 

Courtallam, Nagarcoil, Shevaroys, 

lower Palnis and the foothills of the 

Nilgiris; also in Pune. 

English ◮ Avocado, Alligator Pear, 

Butter Fruit. 

Action ◮ Fruit—hypocholesterolaemic. 

Leaf—bacteriostatic; 

potentially toxic to goats and sheep. 

The fruit is highly nutritious. The 

fruit from Nilgiris contains 22.8% fat, 

1.7% protein; also manganese, phosphorus, 

iron, potassium, vitamin E, vitamin 

C, beta-carotene, thiamine, riboflavin, 

nicotinic acid and foliate. It 

is relatively low in sodium and simple 

sugars. 

American Avocado is rich in oil (15– 

30 g/100 g fresh fruit) that is mainly 

monounsaturated and a good source 

of linoleic acid. Its high fiber content 

might be responsible for its cholesterol 

lowering effects. 


unsaponifiable fractions of Avocado 

and soybean oils (combination) can 

inhibit cartilage degradation and promote 

cartilage repair in osteoarthritic 

chondrocytes. (Properties of Avocado 

cited in Natural Medicines Comprehensive 


Avocado oil is used in cosmetic 

preparations, soaps and pharmaceuticals. 

The peel of immature fruit contains 

antifungal compounds. The fruit 

pulp is used topically to promote hair 

growth. 

Persea macrantha 

(Nees) Kosterm. 

Synonym ◮ 

Nees. 

Machilus macrantha 


Habitat ◮ Bihar and Peninsular 

India, up to 2,100 m. 

English ◮ Machilus. 

Action ◮ Bark—antiasthmatic, 

antirheumatic, purgative. 

The root gave phytosterols, glycosides 

and alkaloids, the major one being 

machiline, shown to be identical 

with dl-coclaurine. Machiline exhibits 


The leaves are used in external applications 

for ulcers. 

Petiveria alliacea Linn. 

Family ◮ Phytolaccaceae.


introduced into India, grown in 

gardens. 

Action ◮ Root—diuretic, antispasmodic, 

emmenagogue, abortifacient. 

Used for whooping cough, 

also for rheumatism and nervous 

diseases. (Long term use in high 

doses causes brain damage.) 

Ethanolic extract of the leaves contains 

leridal, leridol, 5-O-methylleridol 

and 3-O-rhamnosides of dihydrokaempferol, 

dihydroquercetin and myricetin. 

The presence of high nitrate 

content in the plant has been reported 

and is considered a risk factor in 

humans. 

Petroselinum crispum 

(Mill.) Airy-Shaw. 

Synonym ◮ Apium crispum Mill. 


Habitat ◮ Native to Europe, now 


English ◮ Parsley. 

Unani ◮ Fitraasaaliyum, Karafs-e- 

Kohi. 

Action ◮ Diuretic (used for bladder 

disorders, painful urination, 

retention of excess fluid in the 

tissues), antispasmodic, uterine 

tonic, emmenagogue, sedative 

(used for PMS and menopausal 

hot flushes, also in prostatitis), 

carminative, expectorant, aperient, 

antiseptic, anti-inflammatory. 

Key application ◮ For flushing 

out the efferent urinary tract in 

Petroselinum crispum (Mill.) Airy-Shaw. 475 

disorders of the same and in 

prevention and treatment of kidney 

gravel. (German Commission 

E.) Contraindicated in kidney 


The British Herbal Compendium approves 

the internal use of the herb 

for flatulent dyspepsia, dysuria and 

rheumatic conditions. 

The leaves and roots contain furocoumarins—psoralen, 

5-and 8-methoxy 

psoralen, imperatorin, oxypeucedanin, 

iso-pimpinelin. Myristicin has 

been isolated from the leaf oil. The 

plant gave flavonoids—apiin, luteolin, 

apigenin-7-glucoside, luteolin-7-glucoside 

among others. 

Myristicin showed high activity as 

an inducer of the detoxifying enzyme 

system, Glutathione S-transferase 

(GST) in the liver and small intestines 

of female mice (may be considered as 

a cancer chemoprotective agent). 

The flavonoids, particularly apigenin, 

have been shown to be antiinflammatory, 

to inhibit histamine release 

and to act as a free radical scavenger. 

Apiole, a constituent of the 

volatile oil, is reportedly antipyretic 

and phthalides of the root, seed and 

leaf are sedative in mice. 

Both apiole and myristicin exhibit 

aquaretic and uterine stimulant activity, 

while sodium retention has been 

observed. (Natural Medicines Comprehensive 


In homoeopathy, the herb is used for 

the treatment urinary disorders—sudden 

urge to urinate with severe pain, 

dribbling of urine after urination, gleet 

discharge and for amenorrhoea and 

neuralgic dysmenorrhoea. 

P

476 Peucedanum grande C. B. Clarke. 

P 

Peucedanum grande 

C. B. Clarke. 


Habitat ◮ Western Ghats and hills of 


Folk ◮ Baaphali (Gujarat), Duku. 

Action ◮ Fruits—carminative, 

diuretic, stimulant. An infusion 

is used for gastric and intestinal 

troubles. 

The seeds and roots gave imperatorin, 

byakangelicin and osthol. Seeds, 

in addition, gave phelopterin, columbianadin 

and byakangelicol. 

Phaseolus aconitifolius Jacq. 

Synonym ◮ 

Marechal. 

Vigna aconitifolia (Jacq.) 



Cultivated. 

English ◮ Aconite-Bean, Moth. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Makushtha, Moth. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Tulukkapayir. 

Action ◮ Seeds—used as a diet 

in fever; contains 24.4% protein. 

Root—narcotic. 

Phaseolus adenanthus 

G. F. W. Mey. 


Habitat ◮ 

plains. 

Throughout India, in the 

Ayurvedic ◮ Aranya-mudga. Mudgaparni 

(Kerala). 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kattupayaru. 

Action ◮ A decoction is used in 

bowel complaints and stricture. The 

roots are used to stop excessive 

salivation. 

Phaseolus lunatus Linn. 

Synonym ◮ P. inamoenus Linn. 




English ◮ Double Bean, Lima Bean, 

Burma Bean. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Shimbi. 

Unani ◮ Lobiyaa, Sem. 

Action ◮ Seeds—astringent. Used 

as a diet in fever. The shoots and 

pods from Manipur are reported 

to contain alkaloids, saponins and 

flavonoids. 

Phaseolus mungo 

Linn. non-Roxb. & auct. 

Synonym ◮ Vigna mungo (Linn.) 

Hepper. 


English ◮ Kidney Bean, Black Gram. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Maasha. (P. sublobatus 

Roxb. and Teramnus labialis Spreng. 

are equated with Maashaparni; dried 

aerial parts are used.) Phaseolus 

dalzellii Cooke and P. sublobatus 

Roxb. are known as Maashaparni in 

Kerala.

Unani ◮ Urd-Siyaah. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Ulunthu. 

Action ◮ Used as a pulse. In the form 

of a confection, used for leucorrhoea 

and seminal debility. Oil extracts 

of the pulse is used externally in 

rheumatism, contracted knee, stiff 

shoulder. Root—used as a poultice 

for inflammations and abscesses. 

Narcotic. 

Teramnus labialis Spreng. (grows 

wild): The whole plant is used in 

rheumatism, paralysis, nervous diseases, 

haemoptysis and catarrh of respiratory 

tract. 

Phaseolus radiatus 

Linn. non-Roxb. & auct. 

Synonym ◮ Vigna radiata (Linn.) 

Wilczek. 


Habitat ◮ Extensively cultivated all 

over India. 

English ◮ Greengram, Golden Gram. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Mudga, Mungalya. 

Unani ◮ Moong. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Pattishai-payaru. 

Action ◮ Used as a pulse. Soup 

is given as a diet to patients of 

enlarged liver and spleen, and 

after recovery from acute illness. 

A poultice of it is used for checking 

secretion of milk and reducing 

distention of the mammary 

glands. 

Phaseolus trilobus 

sensu Ait. & auct. 

Phaseolus vulgaris Linn. 477 

Synonym ◮ Vigna trilobata (Linn.) 

Verdcourt. 


Habitat ◮ Throughout India, up 

to an elevation of 2,100 m in the 

northeast. 

English ◮ Wild Gram. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Mudgaparni, Kaakaparni, 

Suuryaparni, Alpikaa, Sahaa, 

Kaakamudraa, Maarjaargandhikaa. 

(P. adenanthus G. F. W., and Vigna 

pilosa Baker are used as Mudgaparni 

in the South. Dried aerial parts, 

root and seed are used.) 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kaatupayaru. 

Folk ◮ Jangali Moong, Mugavan. 

Action ◮ Whole plant—febrifuge. 

Leaves—sedative, cooling, antibilious. 

A decoction is used 

in intermittent fever. The plant 

contains friedelin, epifriedelin, 

stigmasterol and tannins. The bean 

contains methionine, tryptophan 

and tyrosine; also strepogenin, 

uridine, diphosphate-galacturonic 

acid. The seed protein contained 

lysine, valine, leucine and phenylalanine. 

Dosage ◮ Seed—50–100 ml. 

decoction (CCRAS.); whole plant— 

3–5 g. (API, Vol. IV.) 

Phaseolus vulgaris Linn. 

Synonym ◮ P. nanus Linn. 


P

478 Phlogacanthus thyrsiflorus Nees. 

P 

English ◮ Kidney Bean, French Bean, 

Haricot Bean. 

Unani ◮ Raajmah (seed), Lobia, 

Frashbean. 

Action ◮ Bean—diuretic, hypotensive, 

resolvent, regulates blood 

sugar. Used for water retention; albuminuria, 

especially of pregnancy; 

premenstrual tension. 

Key application ◮ Seed-free pods—in 

supportive treatment for inability to 

urinate. (German Commission E.) 

The seeds of French Bean contain 

triterpenoid glucosides and soyasaponin 

V. 

Raajmah consumption by diabetic 

patients is reported to produce highly 

significant reduction in their blood 

glucose level and glycaemic index, as 

compared to wheat and rice consumption. 

Raw bean contains lectins which are 

destroyed when cooked. Its hypoglycaemic 

activity is most likely due to its 

chromium, trigonelline and fiber content. 


Phlogacanthus thyrsiflorus 

Nees. 


Habitat ◮ The sub-tropical Himalayas, 

Upper Gangetic Plain, 

Bihar, North Bengal and Assam. 

Folk ◮ Dieng-soh kajut (Meghalaya), 

Chuhai (Bihar), Titaaphul (Assam). 

Action ◮ Whole plant—used like 

Adhatoda vasica in whooping 

cough and menorrhagia. Fruits 

and leaves—burnt and prescribed 

for fevers. The leaves are reported 

to contain diterpene lactone, 

phlogantholide A and its glucoside. 

A related species, P. jenkinsii C. B. 

Clarke, found in Assam, is also known 

as Titaaphul. A decoction of leaves is 

given for diseases of spleen and liver 

and for fevers. 

Phoenix dactylifera Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Cultivated in Punjab and 

Rajasthan. 

English ◮ Date Palm. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Kharjuura, Kharjuuraka, 

Kharjuurikaa. Pindakharjuurikaa. 

Chhuhaaraa (dry date). Pindakharjuura 

is the fruit of Phoenix acaulis 

Roxb. 

Unani ◮ Khurmaa, Khajuur, 

Chhuharaa. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Perichchankay, Ita. 

Action ◮ Fruit pulp—antitussive, 

expectorant, demulcent, laxative, 

diuretic, restorative. Sap—cooling, 

laxative. Gum—used in diarrhoea 

and genitourinary diseases. 

The fruit contains ascorbic acid (vitamin 

C), carotene (as vitamin A), 

nicotinic acid, riboflavin, thiamine, 

sugars (60–80%). Besides sucrose and 

invertsugars,rhamnose,xylose,arabinose, 

ribose, galactose and galacturonic 

acid have been identified in 

the fruit. Invert sugar predominates 

in the soft dates; sucrose in dry varieties. 

The dried date, used in Ayurvedic

and Unani compositions, contains protein 

2.5–3, fat 0.5, carbohydrates 75.8– 

82.9% and calcium 35.9, phosphorus 

129.3 and iron 3.4 mg/100 g. 

Presence of sterols of ergosterol 

group, and esterone has been reported 

from dried date seeds. 

Charged C-glycosylflavones and caffeylshikimic 

acid, leucocyanidin are 

characteristically present in the plant. 

Flavonol glycosides are also common. 

Several uncharged C-glycosylflavones 

were also detected. 

Dosage ◮ Fresh fruit—10–50 g, dried 

fruit—10–15 g. (API, Vol. IV.) 

Phoenix paludosa Roxb. 

Family ◮ Palmae. 

Habitat ◮ Coastal swamps of West 

Bengal (particularly Sundarbans), 

Orissa and the Andamans. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Hintala. 

Folk ◮ Hital (Orissa), Hintalamu 

(Telugu). 

Action ◮ Fruits—antiphlogistic, 

cooling; used in flatulence. 

Triacontanol, beta-sitosterol have 

been isolated from the plant. 

Phoenix pusilla Gaertn. 


Habitat ◮ Coromandel Coast. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Parushaka (Kerala). 

(Grewia asiatica Linn., Tiliaceae, is 

also equated with Parushaka.) 

Pholidota articulata Lindl. 479 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kalangu, Ithi, Sagi. 

Action ◮ Fruit—cooling, laxative. 

Used in respiratory disorders. 

Gum—used in diarrhoea and 

genitourinary diseases. Fresh sap— 

laxative. 

Phoenix sylvestris Roxb. 


Habitat ◮ Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka 

and Madhya Pradesh. 

English ◮ Wild Date Palm. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Kharjuuri. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Periyaitcham, Icham. 

Folk ◮ Sulemaani Khajuur, Desi 

Khajuur. 

Action ◮ Fruits—restorative. Juice— 

cooling, gastric stimulant. Seeds— 

used in ague. Root—used for 

nervous debility. 

Fresh, unfermented sap (Niraa) is 

a good source of ascorbic acid, nicotinic 

and isonicotinic acids, riboflavin, 

thiamine, sugars; crystine, leucine, 

isoleucine, lysine, phenylalanine, threonine, 

tyrosine. 

The concentration of amino acids is 

much higher in palm jaggery than in 

sugar cane jaggery. 

Fresh fruits contain protein 1.2, fat 

0.4, calcium 0.022 and phosphorus 

0.38%. 

Dosage ◮ Fruit—10–20 g paste. 

(CCRAS.) 

Pholidota articulata Lindl. 


P

480 Phragmites communis Trin. 

P 

Ayurvedic ◮ Jivanti (substitute). 

(Dendrobium macraei Lindl. is also 

used as a substitute for Jivanti. 

Jivanti is equated with Leptadenia 

reticulata W. & A.) 

Action ◮ Age-sustaining tonic, 

restorative. 

Phragmites communis Trin. 



KashmirtoKumaonuptoan 


English ◮ Common Reed. 

Folk ◮ Dila, Dambu (Punjab). 

Action ◮ Rhizomes and roots—diuretic, 

emmenagogue, diaphoretic, 

hypoglycaemic, antiemetic. 

The rhizomes are rich in carbohydrates; 

contain nitrogenous substances 

5.2, fat 0.9, N-free extr. 50.8, crude 

fibre 32.0, sucrose 5.1, reducing sugars 

1.1, and ash (rich in silica) 5.8%; asparagine 

0.1% is also present. Leaves 

possess a high ascorbic acid content 

(200 mg/100 g).Nodes and sheaths 

yield 6.6% and the underground parts 

over 13% of furfural. 

The root of common Reed is prescribed 

in Chinese traditional medicine 

as an antipyretic against influenza 

and fevers. Presence of polyols, 

betaines and free poline has been reported 

in the methanolic extract. The 

extract is reported to show bactericidal 

activity. The root gave a polysaccharide 

which contains sugars, arabinose, 

xylose and glucose in a molar ratio 

of 10:19:94; some of the fractions showed 

immunological activity. 

Phragmites karka Trin. ex Steud. 

Synonym ◮ P. roxburghii (Kunth) 

Steud. 

P. maxima Blatter & McCann in 

part. 



marshy places. 

English ◮ Common Reed-grass. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Nala. (Arundo donax 

Linn. is also equated with Nala.) 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Perunanal. 

Folk ◮ Narakul. 

Action ◮ Stem and rhizome— 

diuretic, diaphoretic. Used topically 

to relieve insect bite. 

P. karka is not discriminated from P. 

communis for medicinal uses in Indian 

medicine. 

Phyla nodiflora (L.) E. Greene. 

Synonym ◮ Lippia nodiflora A. Rich. 


Habitat ◮ Throughout India, near 

fresh water bodies. 

English ◮ Jalapippali, Shaaradi, 

Shakulaadani, Matsyagandhaa, 

Matsyaadani, Laangali, Vashiraa. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Poduthalai. 

Action ◮ Spasmolytic, diuretic, 

febrifuge.

The plant contains flavone glycosides—nodiflorins 

A and B, lipiflorins 

A and B, as well as free flavones including 

6-hydroxyluteolin, nepetin and 

nodifloretin along with beta-sitosterol 

and stigmasterol glucosides. 

Dosage ◮ Plant—10–20 ml. juice. 

(CCRAS.) 

Phyllanthus amarus 

Schum. & Thonn. 

Phyllanthus fraternus Webster. 



parts of India, particularly on 

cultivated land, up to 1,000 m. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Bhuumyaamalaki, Bahupatri, 

Bhuudhaatri, Bahuphalaa, 

Taamalaki. 

Unani ◮ Bhui Aaamalaa. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Keelkaay Nelli. 

Action ◮ Plant—diuretic, deobstruent, 

astringent, anti-inflammatory, 

styptic. Used as a single drug in 

the treatment of jaundice. Used 

in prescriptions for dyspepsia, 

indigestion, chronic dysentery, 

urinary tract diseases, diabetes, skin 

eruptions. 

The leaves yielded lignans—phyllanthin 

(bitter), hypophyllanthin (nonbitter); 

niranthin, nirtetralin and phyltetralin. 

The whole plant gave a number 

of flavonoids, including quercetin, 

quercitrin, astragalin, rutin, kaempferol. 

Isolation of a hydrolysable tannins, 

amarulone, is reported from the plant. 

Phyllanthus distichus Muell.-Arg. 481 

The plant is reported to show antiviral 

activity against hepatitis B virus and 

related hepadna virus. It was also found 

to effectively repair CCl4-induced liver 

damage in rats. 

The herb exhibited hypotensive and 

hypoglycaemic activity. (Indian J Exp 

Biol 1995, 33 (11) 861–864.) 

Phyllanthus fraternus Webster: The 

ethanolic extract of the plant exhibited 

hepatotoxic-protective activity in 

albino rats pretreated with CCl-4, The 

petroleum extract is reported to possess 

analgesic and anti-inflammatory 

properties. The flavonoids, isolated 

from the ethanolic extract of the 

plant, exhibit hypoglycaemic activity 

in alloxan-treated albino rats. The 

ethanolic and aqueous extracts of the 

plant exhibit antibacterial and antifungal 

activity. 

Dosage ◮ Root, stem, leaf—3–6. 

powder. (API, Vol. I and III.) 

Phyllanthus distichus Muell.-Arg. 

Synonym ◮ P. acidus Skeels. 

Cicca acida (Linn.) Merrill. 



English ◮ Country Gooseberry. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Lavali-phala, Lowani 

Hariphala. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Aranelli. 

Action ◮ Fruit—astringent, tonic to 

liver; improves appetite, useful in 

biliousness, constipation, vomiting, 

bronchitis. Roots and seed— 

cathartic. The juice of the root 

P

482 Phyllanthus maderaspatensis Linn. 

P 

bark produces headache and severe 

abdominal pain. 

The root bark contains 18% tannin, 

saponin, gallic acid and a crystalline 

substance (probably lupeol). The bark 

contains beta-amyrin and phyllanthol. 

The fruit is sour; contains acidity (as 

acetic acid) 1.70%. 

Phyllanthus maderaspatensis 

Linn. 


Habitat ◮ 

India. 

Throughout drier parts of 

Unani ◮ Kanochaa, Isfahaan Marv. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Mela-nelli. 

Action ◮ Leaves—an infusion is used 

in headache. Seeds—carminative, 

diuretic. 

Whole plant revealed antispasmodic 

action in isolated guinea-pig ileum, 

CNS depressant and hypothermic effects 

in mice. 

Phyllanthus niruri Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Native to America. 

English ◮ Chanca Piedra. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Bhuumyaamalaki, 

assigned to P. niruri, has now been 

equated with P. fraternus. 

Action ◮ Antispasmodic, antipyretic, 

diuretic, antiviral, bactericidal. 

Taking Chanca Piedra orally does 

not seem to be effective for treating 

hepatitis B. The herb contains niuride, 

which inhibits specific HIV-protein 

binding activity, but does not protect 

cells from acute HIV infection. (Natural 


2007.) 

Phyllanthus simplex Retz. 

Synonym ◮ 

et G. Forst. 

P. virgatus J. R. 



Ayurvedic ◮ Bhumyaamalaki (var.). 

Folk ◮ Mothi-bhuiaamvali (Maharashtra). 

Plant—antiseptic. Fresh leaves, 

bruised in butter milk, are used as 

a wash for itch. Fresh leaves, flowers 

and fruits with cumin seeds and sugar, 

are used in gonorrhoea. Root—applied 

to mammary abscesses. 

Fruits contain oxalic acid. 

Phyllanthus urinaria Linn. 



India from Punjab to Assam and 

SouthwardtoKeralaupto1,000m. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Bhuumyaamataki (var.), 

Taamravalli. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Senkeezhnelli. 

Folk ◮ Laal-bhui-aamlaa, Hazaarmani. 

Action ◮ See P. amarus.

The leaf and stem gave flavonoids— 

quercetin, astragalin, quercitrin, isoquercitrin 

and rutin; Me-brevifolincarboxylate 

and tri-dehydrochebulic 

acid. 

Physalis alkekengi Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Native to South-east 

Europe and Japan; naturalized in 

many parts of the world; grown in 


English ◮ Strawberry Tomato, Winter 

Cherry. (Withania somnifera is also 

known as Winter Cherry.) 

Ayurvedic ◮ Raajaputrikaa. 

Unani ◮ Kaaknaj. 

Action ◮ Berries—diuretic, antitussive, 

oxytocic, analgesic, febrifuge; 

used for urinary disorders, suppression 

of urine, gout and intermittent 

fevers. 

Berries contain flavonoids, including 

luteolin-7-glucoside and withasteroids. 

Physalis angulata Linn. 



cultivated in Indian gardens in 

Uttar Pradesh and Tamil Nadu; also 

grows in moist places as a weed. 

Action ◮ Plant—diuretic. 

Aerial parts yielded seco-withanolides—cleaved 

steroidal constituents 

containing physalins. In Taiwan, phy- 

Physalis peruviana Linn. 483 

salin B and F have been isolated from 

the ethanolic extract of the whole plant. 

Both physalin B and F are reported to 

inhibit the growth of several human 

leukaemia cell systems. 

Physalis minima Linn. 



ascending up to 2,300 m. 

English ◮ Sun-berry. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Tankaari, Parpotikaa, 

Chirapotikaa. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Sodakku thakkali. 

Action ◮ Berries—diuretic, aperient, 

alterative. Used for gout and urinary 

diseases. 

Quercetin 3-O-galactoside, isolated 

from the crude extract of the leaves, is 

reported to exhibit anti-inflammatory 

activity comparable to phenylbutazone 

in carageenan-induced rat paw oedema. 

Physalis minima Linn. var indica C. 

B. Clarke is common weed in irrigated 

fields and bunds. 

The plant contains withasteroids, 

physalindicanols, withaminimin and 

withaphysalin, 3-O-glucosides of 

kaempferol and quercetin, in addition 

to beta-sitosterol and its glucoside. 

The diuretic action of Physalis minima 

leaves is attributed to the high content 

of potassium nitrate (8–10%). 

Physalis peruviana Linn. 


P

484 Physochlaina praealta Miers. 

P 


grown in the hills and plains 


English ◮ Cape Gooseberry. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Parpoti (var.). 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Perungunni, Pottipallam. 

Folk ◮ Rasbhari, Mako. 

Action ◮ Plant—diuretic. Leaf— 

anthelmintic, an infusion is used 

in abdominal disorders. Fruits— 

a good source of carotene and 

ascorbic acid; eaten as a table fruit. 

The fruit contain carotene (as vitamin 

A) 2,380 IU, thiamine 0.05, riboflavin 

0.02, nicotinic acid 0.3 and 

ascorbic acid 49 mg/100 g; mineral 

matter 0.8%; phytin phosphorus 18, 

iron 2.0, ionizable iron 0.9, sodium 0.9, 

potassium 320, copper 0.19, and sulphur 

43 mg/100 g. The juice from the 

ripe fruits contain considerable quantity 

of pectin. The chief acid is citric 

acid, but malic and tartaric acids are 

also present. 

The plant is a source of highly oxygenated 

ergostane-type of steroids— 

withanolides and related compounds. 

Physochlaina praealta Miers. 


Habitat ◮ Lahul valley (Punjab), 

Ladakh, North Kashmir. Western 

Tibbet at altitudes of 3,300–4,600 m. 

Folk ◮ Daturaa (Ladakh), Laangtaan; 

Sholar, Bajarbang (Punjab). 

Action ◮ Leaves—poisonous and 

narcotic. 

The roots of the plant contain 0.64% 

alkaloids (calculated as hyoscyamine). 

The plant constitutes an excellent 

source of atropine. 

Picea smithiana Boiss. 

Synonym ◮ P. morinda Link. 

Abies smithiana Lindl. 



Kashmir to Kumaon at altitudes of 

1,500–3,500 m. 

English ◮ West Himalayan Spruce. 

Folk ◮ Roi, Rhai, Raghaa, Kathela, 

Kandre, Morindaa. Spruce (trade). 

Action ◮ Essential oil—antiseptic. 

Used in bath salts, room sprays and 

deodorants. 

Key applications ◮ Fir Needle 

Oil, obtained from Picea abies, 

synonym P. excelsa)—externally 

and internally, for catarrhal illness 

of the upper and lower respiratory 

tract; externally, for rheumatic 

and neuralgic pains. (German 


The oil contains alpha-pinene, lalpha-phellandrene, 

dipentene, bornylacetate, 

cadinene, S-guaiazulene and 

a bicyclic sesquiterpene. The oil distilled 

from the leaves collected in Gulmarg 

had a ester content of 23.2% (as 

bornyl acetate). The bark contained 

4.22% tannin. 

Picea abies has been introduced at 

Manali (at 1,890 m). It yields an oleoresin 

which is used in plasters and 

ointments. The essential oil is used in

perfumes and cosmetics. The needles 

yielded dilignol glycosides. 

Picrasma quassioides Bennett. 


Habitat ◮ Garhwal, Himachal 

Pradesh and Kulu. 

English ◮ Quassia (substitute for P. 

excelsa Lindtl). 

Ayurvedic ◮ Bhurangi, Nimbi. 

(Clerodendrum serratum and its 

related species represent Bhaargi or 

Bhaarangi.) 

Folk ◮ Nimatotaa. 

Action ◮ Wood—a non-astringent 

bitter tonic and stomachic, amoebicidal, 

anthelmintic (used as 

enema), insect repellent. Used 

as a supporting medicine for 

temporary relief in cirrhosis of 

liver. 

Many indole alkaloids of beta-carboline, 

canthin-6-one and beta-carboline 

dimer type, have been isolated 

from the wood. These are reported 

to increase the blood flow rate in the 

intestine and stomach of rabbit; also 

exhibited antiviral activity on Herpes 

simplex virus. 

Nigaki lactone and methylnigakinone, 

isolated from the wood, showed 

antigastric ulcer activity in rats. The 

extract of the wood is reported to prevent 

the secretion of gastric juice in 

a dose-dependent manner in rats. The 

extract also showed the same effects 

on rats having aspirin-induced gastric 

ulcer. 

Picrorhiza kurroa Royle ex Benth. 485 

Picrorhiza kurroa Royle ex Benth. 




English ◮ Picrorhiza. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Katukaa, Katurohini, 

Kattarohini, Katuki, Katukikaa, 

Krishnabhedaa, Kaandaruhaa, 

Matsyashakalaa, Chakraangi, Shatparvaa, 

Arishta, Ashokarohinya, 

Shakuldaani. 

Unani ◮ Kutki, Kharbaq-e-Hindi. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kaduguragini. 

Action ◮ Root—stomachic, antidiarrhoeal, 

cholagogue, hepatoprotective. 

Used in hepatitis, chronic 

dysentery, amoebiasis. 

Key application ◮ In jaundice, 

intermittent fever, dyspnoea and 

skin diseases. (The Ayurvedic 


The roots yield a glycosidal bitter 

principle, kutkin, found to be a mixture 

of two iridoid glycosides, picroside 

I and kutkoside. Also obtained 

were D-mannitol, kutkiol, kutkisterol 

and a ketone (identical with apocynin). 

Kutkin exhibited hepatoprotective 

activity in CCl4-induced toxic rats. 

Picroliv, a standardized fraction 

from the alcoholic extract of the root 

and rhizome, containing 55–60% of 

a mixture of picroside I and kutkoside 

(1:15) showed dose-dependent protective 

activity on isolated hepatocytes 

in vitro against thiocetamide-induced 

hepatic damage in rat and was found 

to be more potent than Silymarin, 

P

486 Picrorhiza scrophulariaeflora Pennell. 

P 

a known hepatoprotective agent. Picroliv 

is reported to show protective 

effect against rifampicin-induced hepatotoxicity 

in rats. It also exerts hypolipidaemic 

effect in normal, tritontreated 

and cholesterol-fed rats. 

Kutkin, picroside I and kutkoside 

exhibit anti-inflammatory property. 

The phenolic glycoside, androsin, 

isolated from the plant, prevents allergen 

and platelet activating factorinduced 

bronchial obstruction in 

guinea-pigs in vitro. 

Cucurbitacin glycosides, isolated 

from the root, exhibit liver protective, 

tumour inhibitory and anti-inflammatory 

activity. 

Dosage ◮ Root—1–3 g; 3–6 g as 

purgative. (CCRAS.) 

Picrorhiza scrophulariaeflora 

Pennell. 


Habitat ◮ Eastern Himalayan in 

Nepal and Sikkim. 

Action ◮ Properties similar to those 

of Picrorhiza kurroa. 

The root contains the iridoid glycosides, 

amphicoside, catalpol, aucubin 

and androsin; also cucurbitacin glycosides. 

Pilocarpus microphyllus Stapf. 




English ◮ Jaborandi. 

Action ◮ Stimulant (excites most 

glands), expectorant, powerful 

diaphoretic. Used in hair tonics 

to stimulate hair growth. (Irritates 

stomach and causes vomiting in 

overdose.) 

The leaf contains a parasympathetic 

stimulant pilocarpine (0.5%). It is an 

obsolete medicinal herb, but is used in 

the production of pilocarpine. (Natural 


2007.) 

Pimenta dioica (Linn.) Merrill. 

Synonym ◮ P. officinalis Lindl. 



tropical America; grown in Indian 

gardens; in Bengal, Bihar, Orissa 

and Bangalore. 

English ◮ Allspice tree, Jamaica 

Pepper tree, Pimento tree. 

Action ◮ Berry oil and leaf oil— 

carminative and stimulant. The oil 

contains chiefly eugenol (65–80%), 

responsible for the herb’s effect on 

the digestive system and its pain 

relief properties; also for anaesthetic 

effect when crushed berries are 

applied topically. 

Pimpinella anisum Linn. 



region; cultivated in Uttar 

Pradesh., Punjab, Assam and Orissa.

English ◮ Anise, Aniseed. 

Unani ◮ Anisoon, Baadiyaan-roomi. 

Action ◮ Carminative, diuretic, 

anticholerin, antispasmodic, expectorant. 

Used for flatulence, 

dry coughs, whooping cough, 

bronchitis. 

Key application ◮ Internally in 

dyspeptic complaints; internally 

and externally in catarrhs of 

the respiratory tract. (German 

Commission E, ESCOP, WHO, The 


The fruit gave volatile oil consisting 

mainly of trans-anethole (70–90%), 

with estragole, anise ketone, anisic 

acid, beta-caryophyllene, anisaldehyde, 

linalool. The fruit contained 

traces of furocoumarins; seeds gave 

benzoic acid, caffeic acid, containing 

protein and myristicin. Roots afforded 

sterols, coumarins and flavone glycosides. 

Aniseed has been demonstrated 

to increase the mucociliary transport 

in vitro and to significantly increase 

liver-regeneration in rats. 

Aniseed is also used as a galactagogue. 

This property is thought due to 

thepresenceofpolymersofanethole, 

dianethole and photoanethole. 

Aqueous extract of roasted aniseed 

is reported to show cholinomimetic effect 

on rat blood pressure, rat jejunum 

and frog rectus abdominis preparations. 

Alcoholic extract of aniseeds possesses 

antimicrobial and fungicidal activity. 

Anethole has a structure similar to 

catecholamines including adrenaline, 

noradrenaline and dopamine and to 

Pinus excelsa Wall. ex D. Don. 487 

the hallucinogenic compound myristicin 

as well. (Natural Medicines Comprehensive 


Pimpinella saxifraga Linn. var. 

dissectifolia C. B. Clarke, 

non-Boiss. 


Habitat ◮ Kashmir at 3,900 m. 

English ◮ Burnet Saxifrage, Pimpinella 

Root. 

Action ◮ Root—carminative, 

stimulant, expectorant, cholagogue, 

diuretic, emmenagogue. Used for 

diarrhoea. 

Key application ◮ Rhizome—in 

catarrhs of the upper respiratory 

tract. (German Commission E. 

Above ground parts have been 

included among unapproved 

herbs.) 

The main components of the fruits 

and roots are isoeugenol epoxy tiglic 

ester, isoeugenol epoxy-2-methylbutanoic 

ester and 4-phenyl tiglic ester. 

Roots also contain pimpinellin and 

isopimpinellin. 

Pinus excelsa Wall. ex D. Don. 

Synonym ◮ P. wallichiana 

A. B. Jackson. 



to Bhutan at 1,800–3,700 m, also 

Assam. 

English ◮ Indian Blue Pine, Bhutan 

Pine, Five-leaved Pine. 

P

488 Pinus gerardiana Wall. 

P 

Ayurvedic ◮ Sarala (var.). 

Folk ◮ Chillaa. 

Action ◮ Uses similar to Pinus 

roxburghii. 

The essential oil contains alpha-and 

beta-pinene as major constituents. 

Pinus gerardiana Wall. 


Habitat ◮ Northwest Himalayas from 

Garhwal eastwards at altitudes of 

1,800–3,000 m. 

English ◮ Neosia Pine, Edible Pine, 

Chilgoza Pine. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Nikochaka. 

Unani ◮ Chilgozaa. 

Action ◮ Kernels—stimulant, 

carminative, expectorant. Oil from 

seeds—externally used for wounds 

and ulcers. 

The kernels gave protein 15.9, fat 

49.9, carbohydrates 21.6 and mineral 

matter 2.9%. The mineral constituents 

include calcium 90.8, phosphorus 92.4 

and iron 2.4 mg/100 g. Pectin is present 

to the extent of 1.73% (calculated as calcium 

pectate). Seed protein on hydrolysis 

gave amino acids—leucine, isoleucine, 

valine, lysine, phenylalanine, 

tryptophan and methionine. The oil 

gave glycerides. The essential oil from 

oleoresin contains alpha-and beta-pinene 

as major constituents; other constituents 

are sesquiterpenes. 

Pinus khasya Royle. 

Synonym ◮ P. insularis Endl. 


Habitat ◮ Assam; introduced into 

hills of North Bengal. 

English ◮ Khasi Pine. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Sarala var. 

Folk ◮ Digsaa (Khasia). 

Action ◮ Spasmolytic, antimicrobial. 

Oleo-resin—considered superior to 

that of P. roxburghii for turpentine. 

The bark contains 7–10% of tannin. 

The essential oil from oleoresin contains 

chiefly alpha-pinene. Other constituents 

are beta-pinene, longifoline 

and sesquiterpenes. Abetic acid from 

rosin possesses weak cardiac and spasmolytic 

activities. 

Pinus roxburghii Sarg. 

Synonym ◮ P. longifolia Roxb. 


Habitat ◮ The Western and Eastern 

Himalayas. 

English ◮ Long-leaved Pine, Threeleaved 

Pine, Chir Pine. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Sarala, Pita-vriksha, 

Surabhidaaruka, Dhuupavriksha, 

Namasu. Oleo-resin—Shriveshtaka, 

Ghandh-Birojaa. 

Unani ◮ Sanobar-ul-Hindi. Oleoresin—Gandh-Bihrojaa, 

Qinn, 

Berzad. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Simaidevadaru. 

Action ◮ Needle, needle oil— 

decongestant, expectorant, antiseptic. 

Oil—used in cough and cold 

remedies, particularly inhalations

and in rubefacients for rheumatism 

and muscle stiffness. Resin— 

expectorant, antiseptic, antipruritic. 

The essential oil from oleoresin contains 

chiefly alpha-and beta-pinene; 

carene and longifoline. 

Pinus pinaster Ait (Cluster Pine, 

Maritime Pine) has been successfullygrowninKulu,ManaliandRahini. 

German Commission E recognized the 

efficacy of the needle-oil in catarrhal 

diseases of the upper and lower respiratory 

tract (internally, as well as 

externally). 

Dosage ◮ Heartwood, root—1–3 g 


Pinus succinifera 

(Goppert) Cornw. 


Habitat ◮ Native of northern 

scandinavia. 

English ◮ Baltic Amber, Succinite. 

Unani ◮ Ambar, Kahruubaa, 

Action ◮ Cardiac tonic, styptic. 

Vateria indica is used in Unani 

medicine as a substitute for P. 

succinifera gum-resin (Fossil-resin). 

Piper attenuatum 

Buch.-Ham. ex Miq. 

Synonym ◮ P. bantamense Blume. 

Family ◮ Piperaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Eastern tropical Himalayas, 

Assam, Khasi Hills and the Nilgiris. 

Piper betle Linn. 489 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kattumilaaku. 

Action ◮ Root—diuretic. Plant— 

rubefacient; used for muscular 

pains and headache. 

Several aristolactams have been reported 

from the aerial parts of the 

plant. Crotepoxide exhibited significant 

antitumour activity. 

Roots contain alkamides including 

piperine, piperlonguminine and 

guineensine. 

Piper betle Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Cultivated in warmer 

and damper parts of India; Assam, 

West Bengal, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, 

Karnataka, Kerala. 

English ◮ Betel pepper. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Taambula, Naagvallari, 

Naagini, Taambulvalli, Saptashiraa, 

Bhujangalataa. 

Unani ◮ Paan, Tambool. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Vetrilai Nagavalli, 

Kammaaruvetritai. 

Action ◮ Leaf—stimulant, carminative, 

astringent, antiseptic. Essential 

oil from leaves—antispasmodic, 

antiseptic. Used in respiratory 

catarrhs. Fruit—bechic. 

The leaves afforded beta- and gamma-sitosterol, 

hentriacontane, pentatriacontane, 

n-triacontanol, stearic 

acid and chavicol. The essential oil 

from leaves contained carvacrol, eugenol, 

chavicol, allyl catechol, cineole, 

estragol, caryophyllene, cardinene, pcymene 

and eugenol methyl ether. 

P

490 Piper chaba Hunter non-Blume. 

P 

Administration of the leaf extract resulted 

in decreased tumour burden and 

tumour incidence and a delay in the 

onset of mammary tumour in Wistar 

rats. 

The alcoholic extract of the leaf stalk 

is reported to show antispermatogenic 

and antiandrogenic effect in male albino 

rats. 

The essential oil exhibited hypotensive, 

cardiac as well as respiratory depressant 

and cardiotonic properties. 

The leaf showed antifungal and antibacterial 

activity. The antiseptic activity 

is attributed to chavicol. 

Dosage ◮ Leaf—10–15 ml juice. (API, 

Vol. III.) 

Piper chaba Hunter non-Blume. 

Synonym ◮ P. retrofractum Vahl. 

P. officinarum DC. 


Habitat ◮ Native to Moluccas, 

cultivated in Indonesia, also in 

India. 

English ◮ Java Long Pepper. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Gajapippali (spikes of 

Scindapsis officinalis, Araceae, are 

also known as Gajapippali), Chavya, 

Chavika. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Chevuyam. 

Action ◮ Similar to P. longum 

and P. nigrum. Fruits—stimulant, 

carminative; used in haemorrhoidal 

affections; as a tonic, afterchildbirth. 

Roots—chewed or 

brewed in decoction for colic, 

dyspepsia and gastralgia. 

Key application ◮ In diseases of the 

spleen, chlorosis, diseases of the 

abdomen. colic, worm infestation. 

(The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of 

India.) 

Java long pepper is similar in composition 

to black pepper; it contains 

less piperine and volatile oil (piperine 

4.5 and volatile oil 1.5%). 

The stem is used as a substitute for 

Piper longum root. It contains the alkaloids 

piperine and piplartine. Betasitosterol, 

glycosides, glucose and fructose 

and mucilage have also been reported. 

Active principles show muscle 

relaxant property. 

Piper cubeba Linn. f. 


Habitat ◮ Native to Indonesia; 

cultivated in Assam and Karnataka. 

English ◮ Cubeb, Tailed Pepper. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Kankola, Kakkola, 

Kankolaka, Takkola, Koraka, 

Kolaka, Kashphala, Sheetalchini, 

Chinoshana. 

Unani ◮ Kabaabchini, Habb-uluruus. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Valmilagu. 

Action ◮ Fruit—Carminative, 

diuretic, expectorant. Used for 

coughs, bronchitis, asthma, urinary 

tract infections, amoebic dysentery. 

Stimulates genitourinary mucous 

surfaces. Oil—antibacterial, used in 

genitourinary diseases and cystitis. 

Key application ◮ In dysuria. (The 

Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India.)

The ground fruits have been found 

to be effective in treating amoebic dystentery. 

The oil exhibits antiviral activity in 

rats and antibacterial in vitro. 

Unripe fruit contains volatile oil (10– 

20%) consisting of sesquiterpene hydrocarbons; 

lignans, mainly cubebine 

(about 2%), with (−)-cubebinin and kinokinin; 

cubebic acid. The oxygenated 

cyclohexanes, piperenol A and B, together 

with (+)-crotepoxide and (+)zeylenol, 


fruit. Polyhydroxy cyclohexanes possess 

antitumour, antileukaemic and antibiotic 

activities. 

Dosage ◮ Fruit—1–2 g powder. (API, 

Vol. I.) 

Piper hamiltonii C. DC. 


Habitat ◮ Sikkim, Terai, West Bengal 

and Khasi hills, up to 900 m. 

English ◮ Wild Pepper. 

Folk ◮ Jangali Paan. 

Action ◮ Carminative and diuretic. 

Kadsurin A and isodihydrofutoquinol 

B have been isolated from aerial 

parts. 

Piper longum Linn. 



from Central Himalayas to Assam, 

lower hills of West Bengal; Uttar 

Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Western 

Piper longum Linn. 491 

Ghats from Konkan southwards to 

Trivandrum. Often cultivated. 

English ◮ Indian Long Pepper, 

Joborandi. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Pippali, Maagadhi, 

Maagadha, Maagadhaa, Maagadhikaa, 

Magadhodbhavaa, Vaidehi, 

Upkulyaa, Pippalikam, Chapalaa, 

Kanaa, Krishnaa. Uushnaa, Shaundi, 

Kolaa, Tikshna-tandulaa. 

Unani ◮ Filfil Daraaz, Daarfilfil. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Thippili, Arisi thippili. 

Thippiliver (root). 

Action ◮ Fruits—used for diseases 

of the respiratory tract (cough, 

bronchitis, asthma); as sedative (in 

insomnia and epilepsy); as cholagogue 

(in obstruction of bile duct 

and bladder), as emmenagogue, as 

digestive, appetizer and carminative 

(in indigestion); as general tonic and 

haematinic (in anaemia, chronic 

fevers and for improving intellect). 

Applied locally on muscular pains 

and inflammations. 

Several aristolactams and dioxoaporphines 

have been isolated from Indian 

long pepper. It also contains the 

long chain isobutyl amide, longamide, 

besides guineensine and the lignans, 

pluviatilol, methyl pluviatilol (fargesin), 

sesamin and asarinine. 

Piperine is the major alkaloid of peppers. 

Piperine is antipyretic, hypotensive, 

analeptic, CNS stimulant. It has been 

reported to exert significant protection 

against CCl4-induced hepatotoxicity 

in mice. It improves drug availability 

in experimental animals, and is 

P

492 Piper nigrum Linn. 

P 

used for enhancing the efficacy of coadministered 

medicaments. 

Piperine enhanced bioavailability of 

hexobarbital, phenytoin, propranolol 

and theophylline. (Sharon M. Herr.) 

(Piperine is also a component of Piper 

nigrum.) 

N-isobutyl-deca-trans-2-trans-4dienamide, 

isolated from the fruit, exhibited 

antitubercular property. 

Milk extract of the fruit effectively 

reduced passive cutaneous anaphylaxis 

in rats. It protected guinea-pigs against 

antigen-induced bronchospasm. 

In China, Piper longum oil constituents 

were reported to inhibit the 

increase in serum total cholesterol inducedbytritoninmice. 

The root powder exhibited antifertility 

activity. 

A related species, P. peepuloides 

Roxb., is known as Saamvali Peepal. 

It is used specifically against obstinate 

skin diseases and as a sialagogue. 

Dosage ◮ Fruit—1–3 mg (API, Vol. 

IV); root—1–3 g powder. (CCRAS.) 

Piper nigrum Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Native of the Indo- 

Malaysian region; cultivated 

in Western Ghats, Karnataka, 

Maharashtra, Assam and Kerala. 

English ◮ Black Pepper. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Maricha, Vellaja, 

Uushna, Suvrrita, Krishnaa. 

Unani ◮ Filfil Siyaah, Safed. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Milagu. Milaguver 

(root). 

Action ◮ Stimulant, carminative, 

diuretic, anticholerin, sialagogue, 

bechic, antiasthmatic. Used in 

fevers,dyspepsia,flatulence,indigestion, 

and as mucous membrane 

and gastro-intestinal stimulant. Externally—rubefacient 

and stimulant 

to the skin. Used as a gargle for sore 

throat. Used with ginger and Piper 

longum for viral hepatitis. 

The fruit yielded piperine, piperatine 

and piperidine; amides, piperyline, 

piperoleins A and B, and N-isobutyl-cicosa-trans-2-trans-4-dienamide. 

The aqueous extract of roasted black 

pepper is reported to show cholinomimetic 

effect on rat abdominis muscles. 

Dosage ◮ Fruit—500 mg to 1 g. 

(CCRAS.) 

Piper schmidtii Hook. f. 


Habitat ◮ Assam, Western Ghats, 

the Nilgiris and Palni hills above 

1,500 m. 

English ◮ Nilgiri Pepper. 

Action ◮ Carminative. 

The neolignan schmiditin, together 

with lignin galgravin as well as 

friedelin, beta-sitosterol and its beta- 

O-glucoside have been isolated from 

the extract of aerial parts. The extract 

exhibited antiamoebic activity. 

Piper sylvaticum Roxb. 

Family ◮ Piperaceae.

Habitat ◮ Assam and Bengal. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Vana-Pippali. 

Folk ◮ Pahaari Peepal. 

Action ◮ Fruit—carminative. Aerial 

parts—diuretic. 

The root yielded a lignin, sesamin; 

amides (including piperine, piperlongumine) 


Piper thomsoni Hook. f. 


Habitat ◮ Sikkim, Bengal, Manipur, 

Khasi and Jaintia hills. 

Folk ◮ Jangali Paan. 

Action ◮ Root—(macerated in water) 

diuretic. 

Piper wallichii Hand.-Mazz. 

Synonym ◮ P. aurantiacum Wall ex 

DC. 


Habitat ◮ Nepal, Lakhimpur and 

Khasi Hills in Assam. 


Sambhaaluka. (Sambhaalu has 

been identified as Vitex negundo.) 

Renukaa is also a wrong synonym 

(it is equated with the seed of Vitex 

agnus-castus). 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kaattu-milagu. 

Action ◮ Fruits—used as uterine 

stimulant. 

The fruit contain piperine, piperettine 

and sylvatine, besides beta-sitos- 

Pisonia aculeata Linn. 493 

terol. The seeds gave aurantiamide, its 

acetate and auranamide. 

The fraction, containing alkaloids, 

showed oxytocic activity. The lignin 

constituents inhibited platelet aggregation 

caused by platelet-activating factor. 

Piscidia piscipula (Linn.) Sarg. 

Synonym ◮ P. erythrina Linn. 



introduced in India. 

English ◮ Jamaica Dogwood. 

Action ◮ Sedative, spasmolytic, 

analgesic, anti-inflammatory. 

The bark gave several, isoflavonoids. 

Piscidone and piscerythrone exhibit 

spasmolytic activity. Piscidin glycoside 

and rotenone are toxic constituents. 

The bark is used for neuralgia, migraine 

and insomnia in South America 

and West Indies. 

In some in vitro tests, the root bark’s 

extract exhibited antispasmodic effectsasstrongaspapaverine’s(Natural 


2007.) 

Pisonia aculeata Linn. 


Habitat ◮ The sea coast in Peninsular 

India, also in the Andaman Islands. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Karindu. 

Folk ◮ Baghachuur (Bengal). 

P

494 Pisonia grandis R. Br. 

P 

Action ◮ Bark and leaves—counterirritant 

for swellings and rheumatic 

pains. Fresh leaves—used as a wash 

for scabies. 

Pisonia grandis R. Br. 

Synonym ◮ P. morindaefolia R. Br. ex 

Wt. 


Habitat ◮ Cultivated in gardens in 

Chennai and other places near the 

sea on both east and west coasts. 

English ◮ Lettuce tree. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Chandi keerai, 

Leechai kottai keerai, Nachu Kottai 

keerai. 

Action ◮ Fresh leaf—diuretic, used 

in inflammations (of elephantoid 

nature in legs and other parts). 

Root—purgative. 

The plant gave octacosanol, betasitosterol, 

alpha-spinasterol, beta-sitosterol-beta-D-glucopyranoside,dulcitol 


Pistacia integerrima 

Stewart ex Brandis. 

Synonym ◮ P. chinensis Bunge 

subspecies Integerrima (Stewart) 

Rech. f. 


Habitat ◮ The Himalayas from Indus 

to Kumaon. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Karkatashringi, 

Shringi, Karkatashringikaa, 

Karkata, Karkataakhya, Kulirashringaaya, 

Kuliravishaanikaa, 

Vakraa, Vishaani. Ajashringi (also 

equated with Gymnema sylvestre). 

Unani ◮ Kaakraasingi, Kakar. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Karkatagasingi. 

Action ◮ Gall—astringent, expectorant, 

antiasthmatic, antidysenteric, 

styptic. 

Key application ◮ In cough, bronchitis 

and dyspnoea. (The Ayurvedic 


The tetracyclic triterpenes, pistacigerrimones 

A, B and C have been isolated 

from the galls produced on the 

leaves. 

Alpha-pinene 21.8, beta-pinene 16.2, 

alpha-phellandrene 15.5 and delta-carene 

11% are major constituents of 

the essential oil extracted from galls. 

The oil is reported to exhibit CNSdepressant, 

antispasmodic, carminative 

and antibacterial, antiprotozoal, 

antiamoebic, anthelmintic activities. 

Dosage ◮ Gall—3–6 g powder. (API, 

Vol. I.) 

Pistacia lentiscus Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Mediterranean countries. 

The resin is imported into India. 

English ◮ Mastic tree. 

Unani ◮ Mastagi, Roomi Mastagi, 

Mastaki. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Ponnuikan kungiliyam.

Action ◮ Resin—carminative, 

diuretic, stimulant, astringent. 

The mastic gum contains 2% essential 

oil. The oil sample from Spain is 

reported to contain 90% monoterpene 

hydrocarbons, the major constituents 

of which are alpha-pinene 79% and mycrene 

3%. 

Chiefcomponentsoftheresintriterpenes 

are mastic acid, isomastic acid, 

oleanolic acid and tirucallol. 

The lyophilized aqueous extract of 

the aerial parts gave steroid-triterpenes, 

catechin tannins, flavonoids, saponins, 

resins and sugars. In some regions 

of Spain, the aerial parts are used 

against hypertension. 

There is some preliminary evidence 

that Mastic might have hypotensive 

and antioxidant effects. (The Review of 

Natural Products by Facts and Comparisons, 

1999.) 

For prevention of gastric and duodenal 

ulcers, some researchers think Mastic 

might have antisecretory and possibly 

cytoprotective effects. (J Ethnopharmacol, 

15(3), 1986; Natural Medicines 


Pistacia khinjuk Stocks is known as 

khinjak, Butum and Roomi Mastagi 

in Mumbai and Maharashtra. P. terebinthus 

Linn. is known as Kabuli Mustaki. 

Pistacia vera Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Native to eastern Mediterranean 

region, Iran, Afghanistan 

Pistia stratiotes Linn. var. cuneata Engl. 495 

and Central Asian countries; 

cultivated in North India. 

English ◮ Pistachio, Green Almond. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Mukuulaka. 

Unani ◮ Pistaa (Kernel), Ilk-ul- 

Ambaat (resin). 

Action ◮ The kernel is used as 

a cardiac and brain tonic; flowers 

are included in prescriptions for 

leucorrhoea; husk is used against 

dysentery and as astringent in 

stomatitis and tonsillitis. 

Pistia stratiotes Linn. var. 

cuneata Engl. 



Asia, Africa and America. 

English ◮ Water Lettuce, Tropical 

Duckweed. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Jalakumbhi, Vaariparni, 

Vaarimuuli. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Agasatamarai. 

Action ◮ Whole plant and root— 

diuretic, used for dysuria. Leaf—antitussive,demulcent,antidysenteric, 

externally applied to haemorrhoids, 

ulcers, skin diseases. Ash—applied 

to ringworm of the scalp. 

The plant gave 2-di-C-glycosylflavones 

of vicenin and lucenin type, 

anthocyanin-cyanidin-3-glucoside, luteolin-7-glycoside 

and mono-C-glycosylflavones— 

vitexin and orientin. 

Dosage ◮ Plant—10–20 ml juice. 

(CCRAS.) 

P

496 Pithecellobium dulce Benth. 

P 

Pithecellobium dulce Benth. 



plains of India. 

English ◮ Minila Tamarind, Madras 

Thorn, Quamachil. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Karapilly, Kodukkaa 

Puli. 

Folk ◮ Vilaayati Imli, Dakhini 

Babool. 


antidysenteric. Stem-bark—spasmolytic. 

Seeds—anti-inflammatory. 

The leaves contain alpha-spinasterol; 

its beta-D-glucoside, octacosanol, 

kaempferol, its 3-rhamnoside, behenic 

and lignoceric acids. An insulin-like 

principle has also been reported in the 

leaves. 

Seeds gave kaempferol, quercetin 

and a saponin consisting of a mixture 

of oleanolic and echinocystic acid glycosides. 

Lecithin is also reported from 

seeds. 

The seed exhibited haemolytic agglutinating 

reaction with human blood. 

Saponins from seeds show spermicidal 

activity. 

The bark contains tannins (up to 

37%) of a catechol type; non-tans 10– 

15%; 1.5% of pectin. 

Pithecellobium monadelphum 

Kosterm. 

Synonym ◮ P. bigeminatum auct. 

non-(L.) Mart. ex Benth.; 

P. gracile Bedd. 


Habitat ◮ Eastern Himalayas, Khasi, 

Jaintia and Lushai Hills. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kalpakku. 

Folk ◮ Kachloraa. 

Action ◮ Leaf—used externally 

as a mostrum for leprosy; also 

applied for promoting growth of 

hair. Seed—hypoglycaemic. Aerial 

parts—diuretic, spasmolytic. 

The seeds contain 18.3% protein; 

major amino acids are aspartic acid 

13.2, glutamic acid 10.9, alanine 9.7, 

leucine 8.3, glycine 8.2, serine 7.4%. 

Seeds contain a poisonous principle 

pithecolobine. They are used after repeated 

boiling and discarding of water. 

Pittosporum dasycaulon Miq. 

Family ◮ Pittosporaceae. 

Habitat ◮ The rain forests of South 

India. 

Folk ◮ Gapasundi (Maharashtra), 

Boogri (Karnataka). 

Action ◮ Stem-bark—antibacterial, 

antifungal. 

Pittosporum floribundum 

Wight & Arn. 

Family ◮ Pittosporaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Subtropical Himalayas, 

Ganjam, Konkan, Western Ghats 


Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kattu Sampangi. 

Folk ◮ Tumari. Vikhaari, Vekhali 

(Maharashtra).


antispasmodic, narcotic; used in 

chronic bronchitis; also administered 

in leprous affections; a paste 

is applied to inflammatory and 

rheumatic swellings. 

The Himalayan plants yielded an essential 

oil (0.26%) with alpha-pinene, 

dipentene, linalool, cineol, methyl salicylate, 

decyl aldehyde, anisaldehyde, 

bergapten, eugenol, indole and salicylic 

and benzoic acids as major constituents. 

The oil is applied topically in 

sprains, bruises, sciatica, rheumatism, 

chest affections and in certain skin diseases. 

The narcotic action of the bark is 

attributed to the presence of a yellow 

oleoresin. The bark also contain 

a saponin, pittosporin. 

Plantago amplexicaulis Cav. var. 

bauphula (Edgew.) Pilger. 

Family ◮ Plantaginaceae. 

Habitat ◮ 

Delhi. 

Punjab, Rajasthan and 

English ◮ Brown Ispaghula. 

Unani ◮ Aspaghol. 

Action ◮ Seed—astringent. Seed 

coat—demulcent. 

See Plantago ovata. 

Plantago lanceolata Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Western Himalayas, from 

Kashmir to Garhwal and Simla. 

Plantago lanceolata Linn. 497 

English ◮ Rib Grass, Ribwort Plantain, 

English Plantain, Buckhorn 

Plantain. 

Unani ◮ Baartang, Aspaghol. 

Folk ◮ Balatang. 

Action ◮ Leaf and root—astringent, 

bechic, antiasthmatic, 

anti-inflammatory, hypothermic, 

diuretic. Seed—cathartic, diuretic, 

haemostatic. 


catarrhs of the respiratory tract and 

inflammatory alterations of the oral 

and pharyngeal mucosa; externally 

for inflammatory reactions of the 

skin. (German Commission E, 

ESCOP.) 

Globularin and methyl ester of desacetyl 

asperulosidic acid were isolated 

from the plant along with catapol. 

A crude mucilage, isolated from 

the leaves, contains L-arabinose 26.0, 

D-galactose 35.8, D-glucose 21.9, Dmannose 

4.6, L-rhamnose 4.6 and 

uronic acid 6.9%. Alpha-D-glucan was 

separated from this mucilage. 

Leaves gave aucubin and esculetin, 

in addition to polysaccharides. The 

whole plant yielded rhamnosidoglycoside 

of caffeic acid. Seeds contain 1.1% 

aucubin. Aucubin exhibits antibacterial 

activity. Hepatoprotective effect is 

also attributed to the aucubin content. 

Alcoholic extract of young leaves exhibit 

antibacterial action against Streptococcus 

betahaemolyticus, Micrococcus 

pyogenes var. aureus and Bacillus 

subtilis, thus confirming their woundhealing 

properties. 

P

498 Plantago major Linn. 

P 

Plantago major Linn. 


Habitat ◮ The temperate and alpine 

Himalayas from Kashmir to Bhutan 

at altitudes of 600–3,500 m. 

English ◮ Broadleaf Plantain. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Ashvagola (var.). 

Folk ◮ Isabgol. 

Action ◮ Plant—haemostatic, 

antihistaminic, antibacterial, 

wound-healing in burns and 

inflammation of tissues. Leaves— 

cooling, astringent, diuretic, 

vulnerary, febrifuge. Used for 

diarrhoea, bacillary dysentery, 

hepatitis, urinary diseases, piles, 

ulcers and skin diseases. Leaves 

are used for cystitis with blood, 

haematuria and other bladder 

disorders. 

The aqueous extract of the leaves 

showed anti-inflammatory activity in 

mice. 

The aerial parts contain an iridoid 

glucoside, majoroside. The leaves 

contain a phenylpropanoid glycoside, 

plantamajoside, exhibiting antibacterial 

activity against several pathogenic 

bacteria including E. coli and Staphylococcus 

aureus. (The glycoside is less 

inhibitory than the free acids, caffeic, 

ferulic, and rosmarinic and esculetin.) 

Plantago ovata Forsk. 

Synonym ◮ P. ispaghula Roxb. 


Habitat ◮ Cultivated in parts of 

Rajasthan and Maharashtra. 

English ◮ Ispaghula, Spogel seeds, 

Blond Psyllium. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Ashvagola. Ashwakarna 

(also equated with Shorea robusta). 

Unani ◮ Aspaghol. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Isapppa. 

Folk ◮ Isabgol. 

Action ◮ Seed and husk—laxative, 

diuretic, demulcent, bechic, 

cholinergic. Used in inflammatory 

conditions of the mucous 

membrane of gastrointestinal and 

genitourinary tract, chronic amoebic 

and bacillary dysentery; also in 

hypercholesterolemia. 

Key application ◮ In chronic 

constipation and irritable bowel. 

(German Commission E.) Alsoin 

constipation due to duodenal ulcer 

or diverticulitis (WHO.) German 

Commission E also noted that 

Blond Psyllium seed lowers serum 

cholesterol levels. It has also been 

shown to slow sugar absorption 

thereby reducing blood glucose. 

(ESCOP.) Use of Blond Psyllium 

husk up to six months did not 

clinically alter vitamin or mineral 

status in a review of eight human 

trials. It did not reduce absorption 

of calcium. (J AmGeriatrSoc,43, 

1995; Am J Clin Nutr, 71, 2000; 

Natural Medicines Comprehensive 


The seed contains amino acids including 

valine, alanine, glutamic acid, 

glycine, cystine, lysine, leucine and 

tyrosine; and a mucilage consisting 

of a mixture of polysaccharides composed 

mainly of xylose, arabinose and

galacturonic acid; rhamnose and galactose 

are also present. The seeds also 

gave aucubin, the antibacterial principle. 

The seed coat contains fatty acids 

mainly linoleic, oleic and palmitic acids 

in decreasing concentrations. 

The seeds show a liver protective effect 

on induced hepatotoxicity in mice. 

In China, the plant is used clinically to 

treat certain types of hepatitis (activity 

due to aucubin content). 

Dosage ◮ Husk—5–10 g. (CCRAS.) 

Platanus orientalis Linn. 

Family ◮ Platanaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Native to eastern Mediterranean 

region; cultivated in Kashmir 

and North-western Himalayas at 

1,200–2,400 m. 

English ◮ Oriental Plane, Oriental 

Sycamore. European Plane tree. 

Folk ◮ Chinaar, Buin (Kashmir and 

Punjab). 

Action ◮ Bark—antidiarrhoeal, 

antiscorbutic, antirheumatic. 

Leaf—astringent. Buds—antiseptic, 

used for urinary infection. 

The buds yielded kaempferol, its 

derivatives and caffeic acid. The methanolic 

extract exhibits antiseptic and 

antimicrobial activities. 

The bark contains 1.5% of platanin, 

also 5.9% tannin and 7.3% non-tans. 

The shoots and leaves contain alantoin; 

roots phlobaphene. The sap of 

the tree contains up to 90% mannitol. 

A triterpene, platanolic acid, is found 

in most parts of the plant except the 

fruit. 

Plectranthus mollis Spreng. 499 

Platycodon grandiflorum 

(Jacq.) A. DC. 

Family ◮ Campanulaceae. 

Habitat ◮ East Asia; introduced into 

India and cultivated in rockeries 

and borders. 

English ◮ Balloon Flower, Chinese 

Bell Flower. 

Action ◮ Expectorant and antitussive. 

Root—used to treat cough, tonsillitis 

and asthma, also to treat stomatitis, 

peptic ulcer and inflammatory 

diseases. (WHO.) 

The major chemical constituents of 

the root are triterpene saponins. The 

root exhibits haemolytic action. 

Plectranthus mollis Spreng. 

Synonym ◮ P. incanus Link. 



from Simla to Sikkim and in Bihar, 

Madhya Pradesh and Western 

Ghats. 

Folk ◮ Laal-Aghaadaa (Maharashtra). 

Action ◮ Leaves—styptic, febrifuge. 

The aerial parts yielded an essential 

oil (0.35%) containing piperitenone 

oxide (45.01) and cis-pipestone oxide 

(35.70%) as major constituents. 

The antimicrobial activity of 10 mg 

of the oil was found to be the same as 

that of 10 units of penicillin G. sodium. 

The essential oil also exhibited cardiac 

depressant, respiratory stimulant and 

vasoconstrictor action. The leaves and 

P

500 Plesmonium margaritiferum Schott. 

P 

flowering tops, in addition to the oil, 

also contain resin and tannin. 

Plesmonium margaritiferum 

Schott. 


Habitat ◮ Bengal, Chhota Nagpur, 

Ranchi, Purnea, Vishakhapatnam 


Ayurvedic ◮ Vajrakanda. 

Folk ◮ Kharhar(UttarPradesh). 

Action ◮ Anti-inflammatory (wellground 

tubers are rubbed on 

swellings of the extremities). 

Seeds—externally applied to 

bruises. The tubers are poisonous 

(can be eaten after several boilings). 

Pluchea indica Less. 


Habitat ◮ Sundarbans, in salt 

marshes and mangrove swamps. 

Folk ◮ Kukarondh, Manjurukh 

(Bengal). 

Action ◮ Root and leaves—astringent, 

antipyretic; given in decoction as 

a diaphoretic in fevers. Leaf— 

juice is given for dysentery; 

an infusion for lumbago, also 

against leucorrhoea. Root—antiinflammatory, 


The aerial parts contain terpenic 

glycosides. The root contains sesquiterpenes, 

lignin glycosides, thiophene 

derivatives. 

Theextractsofdefattedrootsshowed 

significant anti-inflammatory activity. 

The extracts inhibited protein exudation 

and leucocyte migration. 

Neuropharmacological studies on 

different experimental models of rodents 

exhibited potent central nervous 

system depressant activity. 

The methanolic fraction of the extract 

exhibited significant hepatoprotective 

activity against induced hepatotoxicity 

in rats and mice. The extract 

also caused significant reduction 

in the elevated serum enzyme levels 

and serum bilirubin content in acute 

liver injury. 

Pluchea lanceolata C. B. Clarke. 


Habitat ◮ Punjab, Upper Gangetic 

plains, Gujarat, Rajasthan. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Raasnaa, Rasanaa, Raasnikaa, 

Rasaa, Yuktaa, Yuktrasaa, 

Suvahaa, Elaaparni. 

Folk ◮ Vaaya-surai (Uttar Pradesh), 

Raayasan. 

Action ◮ Aerial parts—smooth 

muscle relaxant. Stem—antiinflammatory. 

Pluchea lanceolata 

is the source of Raasnaa in Punjab, 

Uttar Pradesh and Gujarat. Vanda 

roxburghii is used as Raasnaa in 

Bengal. Throughout South India, 

Alpinia galanga is accepted as 

Raasnaa. 

The stem and leaves contain moretenol, 

moretenol acetate, neolupenol, octacosanoic, 

hexacosanoic and tetracosanoic 

acid, tetracosanol, hexaco-

sanol, triacontanol, stigmasterol and 

beta-sitosterol-D-glucoside. 

The petroleum extract of the stem 

and leaves and the chloroform-soluble 

portion of the methanolic extract exhibited 

31.9% and 54.5% antioedema 

activity, respectively. The triterpenes, 

moretenol acetate, moretenol and neolupenol 

exhibited 55.2, 32,8 and 39.7% 

anti-inflammatory activity respectively 

as against ibuprofen as standard exhibiting 

65.5% activity. 

Plumbago capensis Thunb. 

Synonym ◮ P. auriculata Lam. 

Family ◮ Plumbaginaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Native to South Africa; 

growningardensinIndia. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Nila-chitraka (blueflowered 

var.). (Bears pale-blue 

flowers.) 

Action ◮ See P. zeylanica. 

Plumbago indica Linn. 

Synonym ◮ P. rosea Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Indigenous to Sikkim and 

khasi hills, grown in Indian gardens. 

English ◮ Rose-coloured Leadwort. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Rakta-chitraka (redflowered 

var.). 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Chittramoolam. 

Action ◮ See P. zeylanica. P. indica 

is preferred in West Bengal and 

Kerala. Both P. indica and P. 

Plumbago zeylanica Linn. 501 

zeylanica contain about 0.9% 

plumbagin. 

Plumbago zeylanica Linn. 



throughout India; also found wild 

in Peninsular India. 

English ◮ Ceylon Leadwort, 

Leadwort. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Chitraka, Agni, Vahni, 

Jvalanaakhya, Krshaanu, Hutaasha, 

Dahana, Sikhi. 

Unani ◮ Sheetraj Hindi. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Chittramoolam. 

Action ◮ Root—intestinal flora 

normalizer, stimulates digestive 

processes; used for dyspepsia. Root 

paste is applied in order to open 

abscesses; a paste prepared with 

milk, vinegar or salt and water, is 

used externally in leprosy and other 

obstinate skin diseases. A cold 

infusion is used for influenza and 

black-water fever. 

Key application ◮ In sprue, malabsorption 

syndrome, piles and inflammatory 

diseases of ano-rectum. 

(The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of 

India.) 

The root yielded naphthoquinone 

derivatives, plumbagin being the most 

important active principle. 

The root extract, after processing 

for plumbagin enhancement, has been 

used in a number of drug formulations 

for liver ailments. Experimentally, 

plumbagin prevented the accumulation 

of triglycerides in liver and aorta 

P

502 Plumeria acuminata Ait. 

P 

and regressed atheromatous plaques 

and abdominal aorta. The chloroform 

extract of the root showed significant 

activity against pencillin-resistant (also 

non-pencillin resistant) strains of Neisseria 

gonorrhoea. (The root is used for 

treating sexually transmitted diseases 

in traditional Indian medicine.) 

In Siddha medicine, in Tamil Nadu, 

the plant is an ingredient in anumberof 

drug formulations for treating cancers 

of the uterus, breast, lungs and oral 

cavity, in addition to haemorrhoids. 

Plumbagin is abortifacient, antiovulatory; 

causes selective testicular lesions 

in dogs; in lower doses it behaves 

like a spindle poison, in higher concentration 

exhibits radiomimetic nucleotoxic 

and cytotoxic effects. 

Dosage ◮ Detoxified root—1–2 g 

powder. (API, Vol. I.) 

Plumeria acuminata Ait. 


Habitat ◮ Native to Mexico; 


English ◮ Pagoda tree. 

Action ◮ Root bark—used in herpes, 

sexually transmitted diseases. 

Bark—stimulant, emmenagogue. 

Root—violent cathartic. Latex— 

purgative, rubefacient. 

Iridoids are present in the leaf, stem, 

flower and root. Plumieride glucoside 

has been isolated from all parts of the 

plant. The plumeric acid, isolated from 

leaves, exhibits promising cytotoxic activity. 

Fulvoplumierin (a pigment) inhibits 

the growth of various strains of Mycobacterium 

tuberculosis. 

Plumeria alba Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Native to West Indies; 


English ◮ White Champa. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Kshira Champaka 

(white-flowered var.). 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Perumal Arali, 

Seemai Arali. 

Action ◮ Root bark—used in blennorrhagia. 

Bark and latex—used 

externally in herpes, syphilitic ulcers 

and scabies. Seed—haemostatic. 

The root gave iridoids—iso-plumericin, 

plumericin, plumieride, plumieride 

coumarate and its glucoside. 

The bark gave alpha-and beta-amyrin 

and their acetates, beta-sitosterol, scopoletin 

and plumieride. The flowers also 

contain plumieride coumarate and 

its glucoside, in addition to quercetin 

derivatives. 

Plumeria rubra Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Native to Mexico; grown 


English ◮ Red Jasmine. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Kshira Champaka 

(red-flowered var.).

Action ◮ Root bark—used in 

blennorrhagia. Flower—bechic 

(used in pectoral syrups). Bark— 

a decoction is used in venereal 

diseases and leprosy. 

The bark contains cytotoxic iridoids 

(including fulvoplumierin which also 

inhibits the growth of Mycobacterium 

tuberculosis) and the lignin, liriodendrin. 

The plant contains the triterpene 

rubrinol which showed antibacterial 

activity against Gram-positive and 

Gram-negative bacteria, including 

Pseudomonas aeruginosa (a causative 

agent responsible for infecting burns, 

wounds, urinary tract and infection in 

cystic fibrosis) and Pseudomonas pseudomallei 

(which causes melioidosis or 

pseudoglandess). 

The herb contains cardiac glycosides 

which have a narrow-margin of safety. 


Podophyllum hexandrum Royle. 

Synonym ◮ P. emodi Wall. ex 



Habitat ◮ Inner ranges of the 

Himalayas, from Kashmir to Sikkim 

at 1,800–4,000 m. 

English ◮ Indian Podophyllum. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Giriparpata. 

Folk ◮ Bana-kakari (Punjab), Venivel 

(Gujarat), Patvel (Maharashtra). 

Paapraa, Paapri. 

Action ◮ Rhizomes and roots— 

antineoplastic. Strongly irritant 

Podophyllum sikkimensis R. Chatterji & Mukerjee. 503 

to skin and mucous membranes. 

Used topically as an ointment for 

venereal warts, verrucae and similar 

conditions. 

Key application ◮ P. peltatum— 

externally, for removal of pointed 

condyloma (skin adjacent to the 

treated area should be protected). 

(German Commission E.) P. hexandrum: 

Podophyllin (10–40%) for 

external application, 2–6 h weekly, 

for anogenital warts. (Indian Herbal 

Pharmacopoeia.) (Podophyllin is 

a mitotic poison.) 

May Apple of North America is 

equated with Podophyllum peltatum 

Linn. The main lignin is podophyllotoxin. 

Podophyllum hexandrum contains 

similar lignans with the exception 

of alpha-and beta-peltatins, which 

are reportedly absent; the concentration 

of podophyllotoxin is up to 4.3%. 

P. peltatum contains about 0.25% and 

the Taiwanese species P. pleianthum 

0.1% podophyllotoxin. 

(Podophyllotoxin is a valuable lignin, 

as it is used for the synthesis 

of chemically administered cytostatic 

etoposide and tenoposide.) 

Podophyllum sikkimensis 

R. Chatterji & Mukerjee. 


Habitat ◮ Sikkim. 

Folk ◮ Paapraa (var.). 

Action ◮ 

tumours. 

Resin—used against 

The rhizomes and roots yield 7.5% 

resin which gave a lignin lactone desig- 

P

504 Pogostemon benghalensis Kuntze. 

P 

nated sikkimotoxin; also 3-galactosidyl 

quercetin, quercetin and isorhamnetin. 

It is yet to be established that the 

lactone possesses properties analogous 

to those of podophyllotoxin. 

Pogostemon benghalensis 

Kuntze. 

Synonym ◮ P. plectranthoides Desf. 



India. 

Folk ◮ Ishwar-jataa. Jui-lataa (Bihar, 

Bengal). Phaangalaa (Maharashtra). 

Action ◮ Root—used in haemorrhage, 

especially in uterine 

haemorrhage. Leaf—styptic; used 

for cleaning wounds. Essential 

oil—antifungal. Acetone extract— 

insecticidal, insect repellent. 

Pogostemon pubescens Benth., synonym 

P. parviflorus Benth. isalsoknown 

as Phaangalaa in Maharashtra. Aerial 

part exhibits antifungal and leaf antibacterial 

activity. 

Sesquiterpene lactone, caryophyllen-9-beta-10-olide, 

has been isolated 

from the whole plant. 

Pogostemon purpurascens Dalz. 

(Manipur and South-western India) 

also possesses properties similar to 

P. benghalensis. The acetone extract 

exhibited larvicidal activity against 

the larvae of malaria vector, Anopheles 

stephensi. It also showed activity 

against yellow fever mosquito. 

Pogostemon cablin Benth. 

Synonym ◮ P. patchouli var. sauvis 

Hook. f. 


Habitat ◮ Native to the Philippines; 

introduced in India. 

English ◮ Patchouli. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Paachi. 

Folk ◮ Paanari. 

Action ◮ Plant—insecticidal. 

Leaves—aninfusionisgivenin 

menstrual troubles. 

The oil, extracted from dried leaves, 

is reported to possess antibacterial activity 

against E. coli, Staphylococcus aureus, 

Streptococcus pyogenes, Bacterium 

coli and B. typhosum. It is also 

found effective against Mycobacterium 

tuberculosis. The oil is used in insectrepellent 

preparations. 

Pogostemon parviflorus Benth. 

Synonym ◮ P. pubescens Benth. 


Habitat ◮ Hills of South-western 

India, ascending to 1,200 m. 

Folk ◮ Phaangalaa (Maharashtra). 

Action ◮ Aerial parts—antifungal, 


Acetone extract of the aerial parts 

exhibits larvicidal activity against the 

larva of malaria vector, Anopheles stephensi 

and Culex quinquefasciatus.

Pogostemon patchoulis 

Hook. f. non-Pelletier. 

Synonym ◮ P. heyneanus Benth. 


Habitat ◮ Western Ghats of 

Karnataka, Kerala and the Nilgiri 

hills up to 1,800 m. 

English ◮ Patchouli. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Paachi, Pancholi. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kadir Pachai. 

Folk ◮ Paanch (Maharashtra), 

Sugandhi Paanadi (Gujarat). 

Action ◮ Leaf—bechic, antiasthmatic. 

Apoulticeofleavesisappliedto 

boils and to relieve headache. 

The plant gave alpha-pyrone derivatives, 

pogopyrones A and B; n-octacosanol, 

beta-sitosterol and its glucoside 

and several flavones. Pogopyrone B exhibited 

cytotoxic activity. 

Polianthes tuberosa Linn. 



cultivated for ornamental use. 

English ◮ Tuberose. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Rajanigandhaa. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Nilasampangi. 

Folk ◮ Gulcheri, Gulshabbu. 

Action ◮ Flowers and bulbs— 

diuretic. Externally used for skin 

eruptions. The bulbs are rubbed 

with turmeric and butter and 

applied over red pimples of infants. 

The bulbs are reported to contain 

Polyalthia longifolia Thw. 505 

an alkaloid, lycorin, which causes 

vomiting. 

Dried and powdered bulbs are used 

for gonorrhoea. 

Polyalthia longifolia Thw. 


Habitat ◮ Native to Sri Lanka; grown 

in gardens throughout the warmer 


English ◮ Mast tree, Fake Asoka tree, 

False Devadaru, Cemetry tree 

Ayurvedic ◮ Devadaari (Devadaaru 

is equated with Cedrus deodara). 

(An adulterant to the bark of Saraca 

asoca.) 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Nettilingam. 

Action ◮ Febrifuge. Causes cardiac 

depression. 

The stem bark contains clerodane 

diterpenes, polyalthialdoic acid and 

kolavenic acid. The stem and its bark 

also contain the cytotoxic aporphine 

alkaloid, liriodenine, besides nor-oliveroline 

and oliveroline-beta-N-oxide. 

Azafluorene alkaloids are also present 

in the bark and leaves. The leaf exhibits 

fungitoxic activity. 

Polyalthia simiarum Hook. f. & 

Thoms. (Orissa, Assam, Bengal, Bihar, 

Eastern Himalaya) is also equated 

with Fake Ashoka tree. It is known 

as Boga-khamtou in Assam, Wojarah, 

Mongai in Orissa and Labshi, Kutti in 

Nepal. 

Polyalthia suberosa Thw. (from Assam 

to Uttar Pradesh in the North 

and Kerala in the South) is known 

P

506 Polycarpaea corymbosa Lam. 

P 

as Chamkhirni. The leaves contain 

alpha-and beta-amyrin, lupeol, betasitosterol, 

stigmasterol and campesterol. 

The stems and leaves contain the 

triterpene, suberosol, which showed 

anti-HIV replication activity. The stem 

bark contains alkaloids, oxostephanine 

and lanuginosine, which exhibited 

antibacterial activity against several 

Gram-positive and Gram-negative 

bacteria. 

Polycarpaea corymbosa Lam. 



part of India, ascending up to 

2,100 m in the Himalaya. 


Siddha/Tamil ◮ Nilaisedachi. 

Folk ◮ Pittapaaparaa (Uttar Pradesh), 

Rupaaphuli (Gujarat). 


applied as poultice. Also prescribed 

in jaundice in the form of pills with 

molasses. Flowering head, along 

with stem and leaves—astringent, 

demulcent. Plant—spermicidal. 

The plant gave camelliagenins (barrigenol) 

and stigmasterol. 

Polycarpon prostratum 

(Forsk.) Alschers & Schweinf. 

Synonym ◮ 

Hook. f. 

P. loeflingii Benth. & 



parts of India in fields and waste 

places. 

Folk ◮ Ghima, Suretaa. 

Action ◮ Leaves—an infusion of 

roasted leaves is given for cough 

following fever, particularly in 

measles. 

Alcoholic extract of the plant exhibits 

spasmolytic activity. The aerial 

parts contain tetrahydroxy triterpenes. 

Presence of a triterpenoid saponin, and 

hentriacontane, hentriacontanol, betaamyrin 

and its acetate, beta-sitosterol 

and stigmasterol is also reported. 

Polygala chinensis 

auct. non Linn. 

Synonym ◮ P. arvensis Willd. 

Family ◮ Polygalaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Throughout India and the 


English ◮ Senega. 

Folk ◮ Meradu, Maraad, Negali 

(Maharashtra). Maraad (Nepal). 

Action ◮ Root—antiasthmatic; used 

as a substitute for Senega obtained 

from the American plant Polygala 

senega. (In Chinese medicine 

Senega refers to P. tenuifolia Willd.) 

Key application ◮ Senega Root— 

in productive cough, catarrh of 

the respiratory tract and chronic 

bronchitis. (German Commission E, 

ESCOP, WHO.) 

Senega yielded lactonic lignans, 

their glycosides and flavonol glycosides. 

The root gave arctiin, afzelin,

myricitrin and rutin. A triterpenic 

saponin was also obtained from the 

plant. The root contains salicylic acid, 

methyl salicylate and senegin (a saponin 

mixture). 

Senega is used for chronic bronchitis, 

catarrh, asthma and croup, as an 

infusion. 

Related species are: P. chinesis Linn., 

synonym P. glomerata Lour; P. telephioides 

Willd., synonym P. brachystachya 

DC. non-Bl., found throughout 

the plains of India. Both the plants are 

used as expectorant, antiasthmatic and 

anticatarrhal. 

Toxic constituents of Polygala senega 

root are: triterpene saponins—6– 

16% senegasaponins A-D with aglycone 

presenegenin or senegin. Saponins 

irritate GI tract mucosa and cause 

reflex secretion of mucous in the bronchioles. 

A French patent is used against graft 

rejection, eczema and multiple sclerosisasananti-inflammatorydrug. 

Polygala crotalarioides 

Buch.-Ham. ex DC. 



Simla to Sikkim and the Khasi Hills. 

Folk ◮ Lilakanthi, Lilakaathi. (Bihar). 

Maraad (var.). 

Action ◮ Root—used for cough 

and pulmonary catarrh; chewed 

or ground and drunk with water 

to expel phlegm from the throat; 

provokes coughing. 

Polygonatum cirrhifolium (Wall.) Royle. 507 

Polygala sibirica Linn. 

Synonym ◮ P. heyneana Wall. 

ex W. & A. 




English ◮ Common Milkwort. 

Folk ◮ Negali, Meradu (var.). 

Action ◮ Leaves—used in spermatorrhoea. 

Root—a decoction is given 

as an expectorant in cold and cough 

and chronic chest diseases. (Used 

as a substitute for Senega.) Also 

used for inflammation of urinary 

bladder; externally for mammary 

abscesses and carbuncles. 

Polygonatum cirrhifolium 

(Wall.) Royle. 


Habitat ◮ Northern Himalayas, from 

1,500 to 3,300 m. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Mahaa-medaa, Medaa, 

(substitute: Asparagus racemosus, 

also Saalab-misri.) 

Folk ◮ Devarigaanl (Gharwal). 

Action ◮ Root—rejuvenating tonic 

for nervous system. 

The root gave neoprazerigenin A- 

3-O-beta-lycotetraoside (PS-III) and 

its methyl proto-type congener (PS- 

II) and steroidal saponins, sibiricoside 

A (PS-I) and sibiricoside B (PS-IV). 


(CCRAS.) 

P

508 Polygonatum multiflorum All. 

P 

Polygonatum multiflorum All. 


Habitat ◮ Western Himalayas 

from Kashmir to Kumaon and in 

Manipur. 

English ◮ Solomon’s Seal. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Mahaa-medaa, Medaa 

(var.). (Substitute: Asparagus 

racemosus.) 

Action ◮ Anti-inflammatory, nervine, 

astringent. Used as an infusion for 

pulmonary complaints; as a poultice 

for piles and bruises. 

The root and herb gave diosgenin 

and its glycosides. 


(CCRAS.) 

Polygonatum verticillatum All. 


Habitat ◮ Temperate Himalayas and 

Manipur. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Medaa. (Substitute: 

Asparagus racemosus.) 

Unani ◮ Shaqaaqul. (Substitute: 

Pastinaca secacul.) 

Folk ◮ Mithaa-dudhiaa. 

Action ◮ Used in Tibetan medicine 

for treating emaciation, senility, 

pulmonary affections. The rhizomes 

is valued as salep. 

The dried rhizomes contain 6.2–9% 

diosgenin. 

The lactins of the rootstock did not 

contain carbohydrates; the amino acid 

revealed presence of 28% aspartic acid 

and asparagine. 

The plant exhibits diuretic properties. 

It gave a digitalis glucoside and is 

considered poisonous by the hill people 

in the Himalayas. 

Polygonum affine D. Don. 

Synonym ◮ 

Green. 

Bistorta affinis (D. Don) 



to Nepal at altitudes of 2,400– 

4,800 m. 

Folk ◮ Khukhudi. 

Action ◮ Flowers—stimulant. 

The inflorescence gave flavonoids, 

including quercetin, isorhamnetin, luteolin 

and apigenin derivatives. The 

leaves contain the flavonoids, 8-Cglucosyltricin 

and isorhamnetin. 

Polygonum aviculare Linn. 


Habitat ◮ From Kashmir to Kumaon. 

English ◮ Knotgrass, Knotweed, 

Mexican Sanguinaria. 

Folk ◮ Machoti, Kesri. 

Action ◮ Astringent and haemostatic. 

Used for excessive menstruation, 

bleeding piles; bleeding from 

bowel, stomach, lungs, nose, throat; 

mucous colitis, children’s summer 

diarrhoea.

Key application ◮ In mild catarrhs of 

the respiratory tract, inflammatory 

changes to the oral and pharyngeal 

mucosa. (German Commission E.) 

The plant gave flavonoids including 

quercetin, avicularin, quercitrin, and 

derivatives of kaempferol, esculetin 

and scopoletin. The plant also gave 

gallic, caffeic, oxalic., silicic, chlorogenic 

and p-coumaric acids; tannins 

including catechin. 

The methanolic extract of the plant 

showed high protection against CCl4induced 

hepatotoxicity in mice. This 

activity is attributed to the presence of 

flavonoid glucosides. 

The flavonoids exhibit astringent 

properties and are found to decrease 

capillary fragility and have a cortisonelike-effect 

on gingival tissue. (JEthnopharmacol, 

74(1), 2001.) 

Polygonum bistorta Linn. 

Synonym ◮ P. paleaceum Wall. ex 

Hook. f. 



Kashmir to Sikkim and the hills of 

Assam. 

English ◮ Snake Weed, Bistort, 

Dragon Wort. 

Unani ◮ Anjabaar. 


haemostatic, astringent, demulcent, 

anticatarrhal, antidiarrhoeal. Used 

for internal haemorrhages, irritable 

bowel, diverticulosis, urinary and 

Polygonum glabrum Willd. 509 

uterine affections. Used as a mouth 

wash and gargle for ulcerated mouth 

and bleeding gums. 

The herb contains ferulic, sinapic, 

vanillic, syringic, melilotic, p-coumaric, 

p-hydroxybenzoic, gentisic, salicyclic 

and ellagic acids, about 15–20% 

tannins mainly catechins. 

When administered before the induction 

of adjuvant arthritis, the 

aqueous-ethanolic extract of the herb 

inhibited both the maximal oedema response 

and the total oedema response 

in rat. 

Polygonum glabrum Willd. 



marshy places, up to 1,900 m. in the 

hills. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Rakta-rohidaa (Gujarat). 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Attalaree. 

Action ◮ Plant juice and rootstock— 

used in pneumonia, consumption, 

jaundice, fevers. Leaf— 

antispasmodic. Used for colic. 

The leaves contain flavonoids— 

quercetin, rhamnetin, quercitrin, avicularin 

and rutin. Flowers contain 

pigments, delphinidin-3,5-diglucoside 

and cyanidin-3,5-diglucoside and 

quercetin. 

The methanolic aqueous extract of 

the leaf gave a pure anthelmintic substance,aterpenoid(PGA).(Theherb 

is used as an anthelmintic in Sudan.) 

P

510 Polygonum hydropiper Linn. 

P 

Polygonum hydropiper Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Throughout India in wet 

places. 

English ◮ Water Pepper, Pepperwort, 

Smartweed. 

Folk ◮ Paakur-muula, Paani-maricha 

(Bengal). 

Action ◮ Haemostatic, astringent, 

anti-inflammatory, diuretic, 

lithotriptic, emmenagogue (used 

as infusion for delayed menses 

and amenorrhoea), antifungal 

(root and leaf used externally). 

Contraindicated during pregnancy. 

The herb contains sesquiterpenes, 

including warburganal and polygodial, 

in the leaves; polygonal, isodrimeninol, 

isopolygodial and confertifolin in 

the seeds; and flavonoids including 

quercetin, kaempferol, isorhamnetin 

and rhamnesin; polygonolide (an isocoumarin). 

Isoquercitrin exhibited significant 

anti-oxidative activity. Polygodial and 

warburganal possess significant antifungal 

property. Warburganal also 

possesses potent cytotoxic and antibiotic 

activity. (The herb is used against 

cancer.) 

Polygonum plebeium R.Br. 


English ◮ Throughout warmer parts 

of India in moist areas, ascending 

to 2,100 m in the Himalayas. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Sarpaakshi (a confusing 

synonym). 

Folk ◮ Muniyaaraa (Bihar), Raaniphool, 

Macheti, Dubiaa Saaga. 

Action ◮ Galactogenic, antidiarrhoeal. 

Powdered herb is given in 

pneumonia. 

The whole plant yields 11% tannin. 

The rootstock contains oxymethylanthraquinone. 

Flowers gave oleanolic acid, betulinic 

acid, epi-friedelanol, beta-sitosterol, 

and flavonoids—quercetin, quercetin- 

3-arabinoside and quercetin-3-rutinoside. 

Polygonum viviparum Linn. 



Kashmir to Sikkim at 3,300– 

4,800 m. 

English ◮ Viviparous Bistort. 

Unani ◮ Anjabaar. (substitute). 

Folk ◮ Billori, Maamekh (Punjab). 

Action ◮ Rootstock—astringent, 

antidiarrhoeal, antileucorrhoeic, 

antiseptic, antiperiodic. Used 

in haemoptysis; also for gleet. 

A decoction is used as a gargle for 

sore throat and spungy gums, as 

a lotion for ulcers. 

Polypodium vulgare Linn. 


English ◮ Polypody Root. 

Unani ◮ Bisfaayaj.

Action ◮ Expectorant, laxative, 

stomachic, cholagogue, alterative, 

antistress. Used in cough, bronchitis,catarrh,lossofappetite, 

dyspepsia; and in skin diseases. 

The rhizome gave saponin glycosides, 

based on polypodosapogenin, 

including osladin; ecdysteroids; phloroglucin 

derivatives; tannin. 

Polyporus officinalis Fries 

Family ◮ Polyporaceae. 

Habitat ◮ On the old trunks of 

various coniferous trees. 

English ◮ White Agaric. 

Unani ◮ Ghaariqoon. 

Action ◮ Used in the treatment of 

sweats in wasting diseases such as 

phthisis (it checks profuse sweats); 

also as an expectorant and diuretic. 

The drug contains agaric acid (agaricin). 

The resinous extract, when burnt, 

yields not more than 2% of a white ash, 

rich in phosphates. The drug gives 4– 

6% soft resin. 

Agaric acid acts as a counter-irritant 

when applied to abraded surfaces or 

mucous membrane. 

Polyscias fruticosa (L.) Harms. 

Synonym ◮ Nothopanax fruticosum 

(L.) Miq. 

Panax fruticosus L. 


Habitat ◮ Cultivated in gardens all 

over India. 

Pongamia pinnata Pierre. 511 

Action ◮ Leaf—used in sinusitis, 

headache, migraine, tonsillitis. Stem 

bark—used for promoting expulsion 

of placenta after child birth. Root— 

antibacterial, antifungal, diuretic. 

Leaf and root—used in dysuria. 

The root contains polyacetylenes, 

falcarinol and heptadeca derivatives. 

Falcarinol and heptadeca exhibited 

strong antibacterial activity against 

Gram-positive bacteria and the dermatophytic 

bacteria, also showed antifungal 

activity. The antibacterial activity 

of falcarinol was found to be 

15 to 35 times stronger than that of 

erythromycin, chloramphenicol and 

oxytetracyclin. 

Polyscias scutellaria (Burm. f.) F. R. 

Fosberg (commonly grown in Indian 

gardens) exhibits anti-inflammatory 

activity. The leaves contain several triterpenoid 

saponins, polyscisaponins, 

oleanolic acid derivatives. 

Pongamia pinnata Pierre. 

Synonym ◮ P. glabra Vent. 

Derris indica (Lam.) Benett. 


Habitat ◮ Western Ghats, tidal 

forests up to 1,200 m. 

English ◮ Pongam Oil tree, Indian 

Beech. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Karanja. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Pungam. 

Action ◮ Oil—applied in scabies, 

herpes, leucoderma and other 

cutaneous diseases; over chest in 

pneumonia and cold; also used 

P

512 Populus alba Linn. 

P 

internally as cholagogue in sluggish 

liver. Leaves—juice is prescribed 

in flatulence, dyspepsia, diarrhoea 

andcough.Aninfusionisgivenfor 

leprosy and gonorrhoea. Root— 

a paste is used in scrofulous 

enlargements; juice is used for 

cleaning foul ulcers and closing 

fistulous sores. Stem bark—given 

internally in bleeding piles. Rind 

of pod and seed—prescribed in 

bronchitis and whooping cough. 

Leaf and seed—antileprotic. Leaf 

and seed oil—antirheumatic. 

The tree is rich in flavonoids and related 

compounds. These include simple 

flavones, furanoflavonoids, chromenoflavones, 

chromenochalcones, 

coumarones, flavone glucosides, sterols, 

triterpenes and a modified phenylalanine 

dipeptide. Seeds and seed oil 

gave karanjin, pongamol, pongapin 

and kanjone. 

The aqueous extract of stem bark 

shows significant sedative and antipyretic 

effects in rats, and antispasmodic 

effect in vitro on smooth muscles. 

In Indonesia, a decoction of the bark 

is drunk after child birth. 

The aqueous extract of seeds showed 

significant antiviral activity against 

herpes simplex viruses HSV-1 and 2 

cell lines experimentally. Albino rats, 

treated with the aqueous extract of 

seeds, recovered faster from induced 

infection and skin-burn than the untreated 

ones. 

Dosage ◮ Seed—250 mg powder; 5– 

10 g for decoction. (API, Vol. I.) 

Populus alba Linn. 

Family ◮ Salicaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Northwestern Himalaya 

at 1,200–3,000 m, also grown in 

avenues. 

English ◮ White Poplar. 

Folk ◮ Safedaa, Jangali Fraas. 

Action ◮ Bark—antirheumatic, 


antipyretic, diuretic, febrifuge, 

stimulant, antiseptic. Used for 

arthritis, rheumatic affections, 

cystitis and other urinary diseases, 

stomach and liver disorders, 

anorexia and debility. 

Key application ◮ Unopened leafbuds 

externally for haemorrhoids, 

frostbite and sunburn. (German 


The bark contains glycosides, salicin 

and populin, erisin and tannin (5–9%). 

Salicin, a bitter tonic and antiperiodic, 

is used like quinine in intermittent 

fever, also in rheumatism. 

Populus nigra Linn. var. 

italica Kochne. 



at 900–3,700 m. 

English ◮ Black Lombardy Poplar. 

Action ◮ Bark and balsam from 

leaf bud— used for cold. Bark— 

depurative. Leaf bud—antiseptic, 

anti-inflammatory.

The bud exudate contains dimethylcaffeic 

acid, which was found active 

against herpes simplex virus type 1. 

A50%ethanolextractofamixture 

of flowers and buds showed 11% inhibition 

of enzymatic conversion of testosterone 

into 5 alpha-dihydrotesterone 

and 4-androstene-3, 17-dione. The extract 

was partitioned between ethylacetate 

and water and the resultant ethylacetate 

fraction contained the active 

compounds, pinobanksin, demethylquercetin 

and pinocembrin. It exhibited 

15% inhibitory activity on the enzyme. 

Pinocembrin was the most potent, 

almost equal to estradiol, which 

wasusedasacontrol. 

The bark of all Populus species contains, 

phenolic glycosides, salicin and 

populin (salicin benzoate). Tannins are 

also present (5–9%). 

Both salicin and populin cause elimination 

of uric acid. Salicin is antiperiodic 

and is used like quinine in intermittent 

fever, also in coryza, rheumatism 

and neuralgia. 

Portulaca oleracea Linn. 

Family ◮ Portulacaceae. 

Habitat ◮ All over India, cultivated 

as a vegetable. 

English ◮ Common Purslane. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Brihat Lonikaa, Lonaa, 

Loni, Ghoddhika, Ghotikaa, 

Upodika, Khursaa. 

Unani ◮ Khurfaa, Kulfaa. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Pulli-keerai, Paruppukirai. 

Portulaca quadrifida Linn. 513 

Action ◮ Refrigerant (reduces body 

heat), mild spasmodic, diuretic, 

antiscorbutic. Used in scurvy and in 

diseases of liver, spleen, kidney and 

bladder; also in dysuria, stomatitis 

and dysentery. A paste of leaves 

is applied to swellings, erysipelas, 

burns and scalds. Seeds—diuretic, 

antidysenteric; applied externally to 

burns and scalds. 

A crude protein-free extract of the 

herb contained l-nor-adrenaline, dopamine 

and l-dopa, also catechol. (The 

fresh plant contained 2.5 mg/g l-noradrenaline 

in one sample.) The extract 

gave a strong pressor response when injected 

intravenously into anaesthetized 

dogs. 

The oral administration of the homogenates 

of P. oleracea reduced the 

blood sugar level of alloxan-diabetic 

rabbits to normal. 

The extract of the leaves and stems 

reduced muscle tone in individuals 

suffering from spasticity and exhibited 

skeletal muscle relaxant activity 

both in vitro and in vivo. The extract 

produced dose-dependent negative inotropic 

and chronotropic effects and 

pressor response on rat blood pressure. 

The diuretic action of the herb is 

attributedtothepresenceofhighpercentage 

of potassium salts. 

Dosage ◮ Plant-125–400 mg powder; 

juice—1–20 ml (CCRAS.) 

Portulaca quadrifida Linn. 


P

514 Portulaca tuberosa Roxb. 

P 


cultivated as a vegetable. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Laghu-lonikaa. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Siru Pasalai-keerai. 

Action ◮ Similar to P. oleracea. 

Used in asthma, cough, urinary 

discharges, inflammations and 

ulcers. A poultice of the herb 

is applied to haemorrhoids and 

erysipelas. 

Portulaca tuberosa Roxb. 

Synonym ◮ P. pilosa Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Peninsular India, near 

sea-coasts. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Bichhuu-buuti. 

Folk ◮ Jangali Gaajar (Gujarat), 

Sanjivani (Bihar). 

Action ◮ Leaves—an infusion 

is given internally in dysuria; 

externally applied to erysipelas. The 

herb shows diuretic, calculolythic, 

analgesic and antipyretic properties. 

The aerial parts contain diterpenoids, 

pilosanone A and B. 

Potentilla anserina Linn. 




English ◮ Silverweed. 


antispasmodic, 

haemostatic. Used for diarrhoea, 

leucorrhoea, dysmenorrhoea, 

arthritis, cramps, kidney stones, 

bleeding piles; as a mouth wash in 

pyrrhoea, gingivitis and sore throat. 

Key application ◮ In mild dismenorrhoeal 

disorders; as a support for 

treatment of milder, nonspecific, 

acute diarrhoea and in light inflammation 

of the oral and pharyngeal 

mucosa. (German Commission E.) 

The plant gave anthocyanins—cyanidin 

and delphinidin. Aerial parts 

gave tannins (2–10%). The plant also 

gave choline, betaine, histidine, an 

essential oil and vitamin E. 

The maximum amounts of tannins 

occur in the root stock (up to 17.5% on 

dry basis). The ethanolic and aqueous 

extract of the herb (1 : 5) contain 0.3 

to 0.8% of tannin. The tannin fraction 

exhibited anti-mutagenic effect. 

Potentilla fruticosa HK. (temperate 

Himalaya) is also used like Silverweed. 

The flowers and young shoots contain 

flavonoids, quercetin, terniflorin, 

tribuloside and (−)-catechin. The plant 

also contains stigmasterol, beta-sitosterol 

and campesterol; (−)-epicatechol 

gallate, (�)-catechol, (−)-epicatechol, 

(−)-epigallocatechol and (−)-epigallocatechol 

gallate have been isolated from 

aerial parts. 

Potentilla arbuscula D. Don. 



Himachal Pradesh to Sikkim and 

the hills of Assam at 1,200–4,350 m.

Ayurvedic ◮ Bajradanti (Kumaon 

and Garhwal). Potentilla fulgens 

HK. is also equated with Bajradanti. 

Action ◮ Rootstock—antidiarrhoeal; 

used in tooth powders for 

strengthening gum and teeth. 

Potentilla nepalensis Hook. 




Folk ◮ Ratanjot (substitute). 

Action ◮ Rootstocks—depurative; 

ash, mixed with oil, is applied to 

burns. 

Pothos scandens Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Cultivated as an ornamental. 

Found in Bihar, North 

Bengal, Orissa, Western Ghats and 

Southwards. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Aanaparuga. 


antiseptic, antimicrobial. Applied to 

smallpox pustules. Root—bruised 

and fried in oil, applied to abscesses. 

Prangos pabularia Lindl. 


Habitat ◮ Kashmir and Himachal 

Pradesh at altitudes of 1,800– 

4,000 m. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Avipriya. 

Premna herbacea Roxb. 515 

Unani ◮ Baadiyaan-kohi, Karafs-ekohi, 

Fitraasaaliyun (also equated 

with Petroselinum crispum Mill. 

Nym. ex auct. Kew.). 

Folk ◮ Komal. 

Action ◮ Root and fruit—diuretic, 

emmenagogue. An infusion of root 

is given for indigestion and irregular 

menses. 

The roots and umbels yielded coumarins 

and their glycosides. Osthol 

(7-methoxy-8-isopentenyl-coumarin), 

which occurs in the dried roots up to 

the extent of 3.6%, has been found to 

be a potent respiratory and circulatory 

stimulant in experimental animals. Its 

respirotonic effect was more marked 

than that of coramine, leptazol and 

caffeine. 

Premna herbacea Roxb. 

Synonym ◮ Pygmaeopremna herbacea 

Moldenke. 


Habitat ◮ The sub-tropical Himalayas 

and in Assam, extending southwards 

through West Bengal, Bihar, Orissa 

into Deccan Peninsula. Roots are 

usually confused with those of 

Clerodendrum serratum and are 

sold as Bhaarangi. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Siru Thekku. 

Folk ◮ Gethiaa, Ghantu Bhaarangi. 

Baaman-haati (Bengal). Fruits 

are known as Bhuumi-jambu, 

Phin Jaamun. The root is known 

as Bhaarangamuula; in Andhra 

Pradesh, Gandu Bhaarangi. 

P

516 Premna integrifolia Linn. 

P 

Action ◮ Root and leaves—given in 

asthma, rheumatism. 

The root contains several diterpenoids. 

Quinonemethide (bharangin) 

is reported from the plant. 

Premna integrifolia Linn. 

Synonym ◮ P. obtusifolia R. Br. 

P. corymbosa auct. non Rottl. & 

Willd. 


Habitat ◮ Indian and Andaman 

Coasts, plains of Assam and Khasi 

hills. 

English ◮ Headache tree. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Agnimantha (Kerala), 

Shriparni, Jayee, Ganikaarikaa, 

Vaataghni. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Munnai 

Folk ◮ Agethaa, Ganiyaari. 

Action ◮ Carminative, galactagogue. 

The tender plant is used for neuralgia 

and rheumatism. A decoction of 

leaves is used for flatulence and 

colic. 

Aqueous extracts of the plant 

showed a powerful action on the uterus 

and gout of the experimental animals, 

causing a marked increase in their activity. 

The leaves contain an isoxazole alkaloid 

premnazole, which was found 

to reduce granuloma formation in rats 

(34.62%), its activity was comparable 

to phenylbutazone (35–36%). 

Premnazole also reduced GPT and 

GOT in serum and liver. Studies suggest 

that premnazole acts probably by 

controlling the activity of the adrenocorticotropic 

hormone. 

Dosage ◮ Leaf, root bark—50– 

100 ml decoction, powder—1–3 g. 

(CCRAS.) 

Premna latifolia Roxb. 


Habitat ◮ Peninsular India, Bihar, 

West Bengal and North-eastern 

India. 

English ◮ Dusky Fire Brand Bark. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Agnimantha (var.). 


munnai. 

Pachumullai, Erumai 

Folk ◮ Agethu (var.). 

Action ◮ Leaves—diuretic, spasmolytic. 

Stem bark—hypoglycaemic. 

The leaves gave a furanoid, premnalatin, 

and flavone glycosides. The 

stem bark gave iridoid glucosides and 

geniposidic acid. 

Premna latifolia var. mucronata C. B. 

Clarke and Premna barbata Wall. are 

known as Bakaar and Basota (in Garhwal). 

These have been equated with the 

classical herb Vasuhatta. 

Premna tomentosa Willd. 

Synonym ◮ 

Lam. 

Cornulia corymbosa 


Habitat ◮ Peninsular India and Bihar 

up to 1,200 m. 

English ◮ Bastard Teak.

Ayurvedic ◮ Agnimanth (var.). 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kolakottathekku 

pinari, Pondanganari. 

Folk ◮ Gineri (var.). 

Action ◮ Bark and essential oil 

of root—used in stomach disorders. 

Leaf—diuretic, vulnerary; 

prescribed as a tonic after child 

birth; used in dropsical affections. 

Pounded leaves—vulnerary. 

The heartwood gave apigenin derivatives. 

The leaves gave essential oil 

containing d-and dl-limonene, betacaryophyllene 

a sesquiterpene hydrocarbon, 

a diterpene hydrocarbon and 

a sesquiterpene tertiary alcohol. 

Primula denticulata Sm. 



Kashmir to Bhutan and in Khasi 

and Jaintia hills at 1,500 m. 

Folk ◮ Keechey (Tibet). 

Action ◮ Root—powder used for 

killing leeches. Flowers—eaten in 

salad. 

The whole plant contains several triterpenoid 

saponins. 

Primula veris Linn., synonym P. 

officinalis Hill and P. elatior Hill are 


Key application ◮ Primula veris, P. 

elatior Hill—the flower and the root 

in catarrhs of the respiratory tract. 

(German Commission E, ESCOP.) 

Contraindicated in gastritis and 

gastric ulcer. (ESCOP.) 

Prosopis chilensis Stuntz. 517 

The roots and rhizomes of P. veris 

and P. elatior contain a saponin, yielding 

a sapogenin, primulagenin A. A flavonol 

glycoside named primulaflavonoloside 

has been reported in the flowers 

of P. veris. The root of P. veris are 

considered as a substitute for Senega 

(Polygala senega) roots. 

Anthocyanidins have been detected 

in most of the Primula species, also 

a highly toxic allergenic substance, 

primin, in the leaves and glandular 

hairs. The floral and foliar parts of the 

different genotypes showed presence of 

kaempferol, quercetin and myricetin. 

Primula vulgaris Huds. 

Synonym ◮ P. acaulis Hill. 


Habitat ◮ Sub-Himalayan region. 

English ◮ Primrose (Evening 

Primrose is equated with Oenothera 

biennis), Cowslip. 

Unani ◮ Nakhud. (Also equated 

with Cicer arietinum by National 

Formulary of Unani Medicine.) 


vulnerary, vermifuge, emetic. Used 

only externally. 

The plant gave phenolic glycosides, 

flavonoids, saponins. 

Prosopis chilensis Stuntz. 

Synonym ◮ Prosopis juliflora DC. 


P

518 Prosopis spicigera Linn. 

P 

Habitat ◮ Argentine, Arid, Mexican, 

Peruvian and Australian species 

have been introduced into India. 

English ◮ Mesquite. 

Folk ◮ Khejaraa, Vilaayati Kikar, 

Kaabuli Kikar. 

Action ◮ Gum—inferior to Gum 

arabic. The dry wood contains 

0.9, bark 3.0–8.4, and roots 6–7% 

tannin. 

The leaves contain piperidine alkaloids, 

juliprosinene, juliflorinine and 

N-methyljuliforidine. Other alkaloids 

present in the leaves are juliprosine, 

isojuliprosine, juliflorine, julifloricine 

and julifloridine. 

A mixture of alkaloids containing 

mainly juliprosine and isojuliprosine 

showed significant antifungal activity 

against dermatophytes (comparable to 

griseofulvin). 

The alkaloid fraction also showed 

broad spectrum bactericidal action 


bacteria (comparable to antibiotics 

like penicillin, streptomycin, 

ampicillin, sulphamethoxazole and tetracycline). 

Significant activity of juliflorine 

against fungi and bacteria, and that 

of julifloricine against bacteria has also 

been reported. 

The fruit gave a flavone glycoside, 

patulitrin which exhibited cytotoxic 

activity. 

Prosopis spicigera Linn. 

Synonym ◮ P. cineraria Druce. 


Habitat ◮ Dry and acrid regions of 

India. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Shami, Tungaa, 

Keshahantri, Shankuphalaa. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kalisam. 

Action ◮ Pod—astringent, pectoral, 

demulcent. Bark—antiinflammatory, 


Flower—administered to prevent 

miscarriage. 

The stem bark contains vitamin K, 

n-octacosyl acetate, the long chain 

aliphatic acid. Presence of glucose, 

rhamnose, sucrose and starch is also 

reported. 

A cytotoxic principle, patulibin, has 

been isolated from flowers. 

Dosage ◮ Leaf, fruit—3–5 g powder, 


Prosopis stephaniana Kunth. 


Habitat ◮ Parts of Punjab and 

Gujarat. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Samudra-shami, Shami 

(var.). 

Folk ◮ Khejaraa (var.) 

Action ◮ Pods and roots—astringent, 

styptic, antidysenteric. 

Prunus amygdalus Batsch var. 

amara (bitter); var. sativa (sweet). 


Habitat ◮ Cultivated in Kashmir 

at elevation of 760–2,400 m, also

in Himachal Pradesh and Uttar 

Pradesh. 

English ◮ Almond. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Vaataama, Vaataada. 

Unani ◮ Baadaam Shireen, Loz. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Vaadumai. 

Action ◮ Kernels—nutritious, 

demulcent and stimulant nervine 

tonic; valuable in diets for peptic 

ulcer. Unripe fruits— astringent, 

applied to gums. Oil—nutritive, 

demulcent, slightly laxative. 

Almond flour made from the residue 

left after expressing almond oil, and almond 

butter, is used for the preparation 

of starch-free diabetic food. 

The chief protein of almond is a globulin, 

amandin, an albumin is also reported. 

Amandin has a high arginine 

content (11.9%). The primary chemical 

difference between the sweet and 

bitter kernel lies in the high content 

(2.5–3.5%) of amygdalin in bitter kernel; 

the ripe sweet almond being free 

of this cyanogenetic glucoside. Owing 

tothepresenceofamygdalin,which 

on enzymatic hydrolysis yields hydrocyanic 

acid, the bitter almond is not fit 

for human consumption. 

The oil yield from bitter kernels is 

usually 38 to 45% and from sweet almond 

44 to 55%. The bitter almond 

oil containing hydrocyanic acid finds 

limited use in medicine as an antispasmodic 

and sedative. Dissolved in 50 

times water, it is applied externally in 

prurigo senilis. Hydrocyanic acid-free 

oil is used for flavouring purposes. 

Partial replacement of saturated fatty 

acids with almonds lowers total 

Prunus avium Linn. 519 

plasma cholesterol and low-density 

lipoprotein cholesterol. 

Prunus armeniaca Linn. 


Habitat ◮ North-western Himalayas, 

particularly in the valleys of 

Kashmir, Chenab and Kullu, and in 

Simla hills at altitudes of 3,000 m. 

English ◮ Apricot. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Peetaalu, Aaluka, 

Urumaana. 

Unani ◮ Khuubaani, Mashmash. 

Action ◮ Powdered kernels— 

antitussive, antiasthmatic. 

The dried apricot contains, 3,4dihydroxybenzoic, 

chlorogenic and 

vanillic acids, quercetin, quercitrin, 

rutin, hyperoside and kaempferol. 

Apricot leaves contain quercetin, cynadin, 

kaempferol, caffeic acid and 

p-coumaric acid. 

Prunus avium Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Native to Eurasia; 

cultivated in Kashmir, Kumaon and 


English ◮ Sweet Cherry. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Elavaaluka, Elaya, 

Harivaaluka. 

Folk ◮ Gilaas, Krusbal. 

Action ◮ Fruit stalks—diuretic, antiinflammatory, 

astringent, used for 

oedema, inflammation of urinary 

P

520 Prunus cerasoides D. Don. 

P 

tract, cystitis, nephritis, urinary 

retention. 

The stems contain salicylic acid, 

organic acids tannins and potassium 

salts. Protocatechuic, p-coumaric, ferulic 

and diferculic acids have been 

identified in the shoots. 

The fruit contains salicylates and 

cyanogenic glycosides, and vitamin A, 

B1 and C. Sugars consist mainly of 

glucose and fructose, with sucrose as 

a minor component. Malic acid is the 

principal acid, small amounts of citric, 

tartaric and succinic acids are also 

reported. The lipids of the fruit pulp 

contain cis-vaccenic acid. 

The acetone extract of peduncle gave 

an isoflavone, prunetin, which on hydrolysis 

yielded an aglycone identified 

as prunetin and sugar as glucose. 

The seeds contain a cyanogenic glycoside 

and are toxic. The bark contains 

tannins up to 16%. 


(CCRAS.) 

Prunus cerasoides D. Don. 

Synonym ◮ P. puddum Roxb. ex 

Brandis. non-Miq. 



from Garhwal to Sikkim, also in 

Ootacamund. 

English ◮ Wild Himalayan Cherry, 

Bird Cheery. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Padmaka, Padmagandhi, 

Padmaadyaa, Padmaakha, 

Padmakaashtha. 

Action ◮ Kernel—antilithic. Stem— 

refrigerant, antipyretic. Tender 

branches are crushed and soaked in 

water and taken internally to avert 

abortion. Oil—similar to that of 

bitter almond oil. 

The plant contains a flavone glucoside, 

puddumin-A. The root bark 

contains beta-sitosterol, stigmasterol, 

ursolic acid, prunetinoside, glucogenkwanin 

and neosakuranin. Seeds contain 

flavonoid glycosides. 

The leaves, twigs, bark and kernels 

contain a cyanogenetic substance. 

Dosage ◮ Heartwood—1–3 g powder. 


Prunus cerasus Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Native of Eurasia; 

cultivated in Kashmir, Himachal 

Pradesh and Kumaon for edible 

fruits. 

English ◮ Sour Cherry. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Elavaaluka (var.). 

Folk ◮ Aalu-baalu, Gilaas. 

Action ◮ Fruit—diuretic, antiinflammatory. 

Used for genitourinary 

inflammations, cystitis and 

urine retention. Bark—febrifuge, 

antidiarrhoeal. Fruit stalk—diuretic. 

Fruit stalk and stem—pectoral. 

Bark and fruit stalk—astringent. 

Kernel—nervine. Leaf—an infusion 

is given for convulsions in children. 

Key application ◮ Heartwood—in 

skin eruptions, erysipelas, obstinate 

skin diseases, haemorrhagic

diseases. As a tonic for promoting 

conception. (The Ayurvedic 


The leaves, fruits and bark gave 

flavone glycosides. The bark contains 

5–7% tannin. The kernel contains 

a considerable proportion of hydrocyanic 

acid. The leaves contain amygdalin. 

(Amygdalin, a nitrile glycoside, 

has been reported to inhibit the growth 

of Sarcoma-180 cells in culture.) 

Prunus domestica Linn. 

Synonym ◮ P. communis Huds. 


Habitat ◮ Cultivated in Kashmir, 

Himachal Pradesh and Kumaon. 

English ◮ Prune. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Aaruka (Prunus domestica 

var. insititia). Aaluubukhaaraa. 

Unani ◮ Aaluuchaa. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Alpagada-pungam. 

Action ◮ Fruit—refrigerant, laxative, 

nutritive. Improves haemoglobin 

levels in iron deficiency. Promotes 

excretion of excess calcium by 

the kidneys. An adjuvant for 

atherosclerosis and arthritis. 

Root—astringent. 

The fruit pulp contains about 44% 

sugar and malic acid as major constituents. 

Kernel contains fixed oil 

about 45% and amygdalin and benzoic 

acid among others. 

The crude extract of the fruit was 

found effective in controlling centrally 

induced emesis in dogs. The ac- 

Prunus persica Batsch. 521 

tion was comparable to that of Metoclopramide 

(Maxolon) and chlorpromazine 

(Largactil). 

Prunus mahaleb Linn. 



West Asia, introduced in India and 


English ◮ Mahaleb Cherry. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Gandha-priyangu. 

(Priyangu is equated with Callicarpa 

macrophylla Vahl.) 

Unani ◮ Mahlib, Habb-ul-Mihlab. 

Folk ◮ Ghaulaa (Maharashtra). 

Action ◮ Kernel—paste applied 

externally for treating freckles and 

blemishes. Contains coumarin, 

salicylic acid, amygdalin and hydrocyanic 

acid as major constituents; 

the oil gave alpha-elecsteric acid. 

Prunus persica Batsch. 

Synonym ◮ Persica vulgaris Nutt. 

Amydgala persica Linn. 



in Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and 

Kumaon. 

English ◮ Peach. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Aaluka, Aaruka, Aru, 

Pichuka. 

Action ◮ Fruit—mild tranquillizer, 

expectorant, diuretic, antipyretic. 

Bark or leaves—used as tea for 

P

522 Pseudarthria viscida Wt. & Arn. 

P 

morning sickness, dry and hard 

cough, whooping cough and 

bronchitis. Leaves—used in 

leucoderma. 

Flowers—galactagogue. 

Peach seeds are a constituent of a traditional 

Chinese herbal drug which has 

been used for the treatment of gynaecological 

disorders such as hypermenorrhea, 

dysmenorrhoea and infertility. 

Peach fruit extract containing nitrile 

glycosides, such as prunasin and amygdalin, 

has been reported to inhibit the 

growth of Sarcoma-180 cells in culture. 

Fast-acting, wrinkle-eliminating 

cosmetic formulations contain peach 

kernel extract as one of the components. 

The heartwood contains beta-sitosterol 

and its D-glucoside, hentriacontane, 

hentriacontanol, and the flavonoids 

naringenin, dihydrokaempferol, 

kaempferol and quercetin. 

Pseudarthria viscida Wt. & Arn. 


Habitat ◮ Orissa throughout South 

India and Gujarat. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Sanaparni, Shaalaparni 

(Kerala). 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Neermalli. 

Action ◮ Root—astringent, febrifuge, 

antirheumatic. A decoction or 

powder is used for biliousness 

and diarrhoea. Used as a substitute 

for Desmodium gangeticum 

(Shaalaparni) in South India. 

Leucopelargonidin has been isolated 


Psidium guajava Linn. 



cultivated chiefly in Uttar Pradesh, 

Punjab, Bihar, Maharashtra, and 


English ◮ Guava 

Ayurvedic ◮ Peruka (non-classical), 

Amaruuda. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Koyya. 

Action ◮ Unripe fruit—antidiarrhoeal. 

Leaves—used for dysentery, 

diabetes, cough and cold. Flowers— 

anthelmintic. 

Guava juice may be helpful in regulating 

blood sugar in type 2 diabetes 

and syndrome X. (Sharon M. Herr.) 

A residue obtained from methanolic 

fraction of unripe fruits was found to 

possess significant antidiarrhoeal activity. 

The fraction decreased gastric 

motility in an experimental animal 

model. The fraction was also found to 

inhibit significantly the growth of different 

strains of Shigella sp. and Vibrio 

cholerae. 

In China and Taiwan, the leaf extract 

is administered for treating diarrhoea, 

dysentery, diabetes and inflammations. 

The leaf extract (containing quercetin) 

inhibits acetylcholine release in the 

gastro-intestinal tract which might account 

for us antidiarrhoeal activity. An 

extract of leaves with a little salt is given 

in relieve whooping cough. 

In New Papua Guinea, decoction of 

new leaf tips is drunk to treat hepatitis. 

Guava seed oil contains very higher 

proporation of linoleic acid (75.52%)

than sunflower, groundnut, olive, soybean 

and coconut oil. The seeds from 

Pakistan yield 9.25% of a fatty oil. 

Vitamin C content of the ripe fruit 

ranges from 100 to 1000 mg/100 g. It 

is highest in the skin and in the flesh 

next to it. 

Psidium cattleyanum Sabine is equated 

with Straberry Guava and is known 

as Seemai Koyya in Tamil Nadu and 

Pahari Payaar in Bengal. The fruit contains 

vitamin C 15–44 mg/100 g. 

Smaller var. of Guava is equated 

with Psidium guineense Sw. It is found 

in Tripura. 

Psoralea corylifolia Linn. 


English ◮ Babchi, Purple Fleabane. 

Habitat ◮ Rajasthan., eastern districts 

of Punjab and adjoining areas of 


Ayurvedic ◮ Somaraaji, Somavalli, 

Somavallik, Soma, Chaandri, 

Vaakuchi, Baakuchi, Avalguja. 

(Somaraaji and Avalguja have also 

been equated with Centratherum 

anthelminticum.) 

Unani ◮ Baabchi, Bakuchi. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Karpoogaarisi. 

Action ◮ Seed—used in leucoderma, 

vitiligo, leprosy, psoriasis and 

inflammatory diseases of the skin, 

both orally and externally. (The 

Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India.) 

The seed and roots contain chalcones, 

flavones, isoflavones, furanocoumarins 

and coumesterol group of 

Pterocarpus dalbergioides Roxb. 523 

compounds. These include psoralen, 

isopsoralen, bavachinin. 

A mixture of psoralen and isopsoralen, 

in a ratio of 1:3, is recommended 

for topical application in leucoderma. 

These furanocoumarins initiate transformation 

of DOPA to melanin under 

the influence of UV light. Seeds 

are powdered and administered orally 

with warm water (5 g/day) in cases of 

eczema. 

Psoralen was found to be cytotoxic 

in vitro. The combination therapy of 

psoralen and UV irradiation has been 

shown to inhibit the growth of tumours 

in vivo. 

Bavachinin-A, isolated from the 

fruits, exhibited marked anti-inflammatory, 

antipyretic and mild analgesic 

properties similar to those of 

oxyphenylbutazone and hydrocortisone. 

It demonstrated better antipyretic 

activity than paracetamol experimentally. 

Oral administration of the powdered 

seeds has generally resulted in 

side reactions (nausea, vomiting, purging); 

external application generally 

proved highly irritant to the skin. 

Dosage ◮ Seed—1–3 g powder 

(CCRAS.); 3–6 g powder (API, 

Vol. I). 

Pterocarpus dalbergioides Roxb. 


Habitat ◮ The Andamans, sparingly 

cultivated in West Bengal. 

English ◮ Andaman Padauk, 

Andaman Redwood. 

P

524 Pterocarpus marsupium Roxb. 

P 

Ayurvedic ◮ Rakta-chandana (var.). 

Siddha ◮ Vengai (Tamil), Yerravegisa 

(Telugu). 

Folk ◮ Chalangada (Andamans). 

Action ◮ See Pterocarpus santalinus. 

The wood contains a red pigment 

santalin and a yellow flavonoid santal, 

both of which also occur in Pterocarpus 

santalinus. The bark and the 

heartwood contain pterostilbene. The 

heartwood yields pterocarpin, liquiritigenin 

and isoliquiritigenin. The sapwood 

gave homopterocarpin additionally. 

Pterocarpus indicus Willd. non-Baker, 

Malay Padauk, is also known as 

Vengai in Tamil and Yerravegisa in Telugu. 

A decoction of the wood is given 

in dropsy and for stone in the bladder. 

The bark-kino is used as an application 

for sores and a decoction of the bark 

or kino is used for diarrhoea. 

Pterocarpus marsupium Roxb. 


Habitat ◮ Throughout the tropical 

zones of India in the hilly regions. 

English ◮ Indian Kino tree, Malabar 

Kino tree. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Asana, Bijaka, Priyaka, 

Pitashaala. 

Unani ◮ Bijaysaar. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Vengai. 

Action ◮ Bark-kino—astringent, 

antihaemorrhagic, antidiarrhoeal. 

Flowers—febrifuge. Leaves—used 

externally for skin diseases. 

Key application ◮ Heartwood— 

in anaemia, worm infestation, 

skin diseases, urinary disorders, 

lipid disorders and obesity. Stem 

bark—in diabetes. (The Ayurvedic 


The heartwood and roots contain 

isoflavonoids, terpenoids and tannins. 

Tannins include the hypoglycaemic 

principle (−)-epicatechin. Stilbenes, 

such as pterostilbene; flavonoids, including 

liquiritigenin, isoliquiritigenin, 

7-hydroxyflavanone, 7,4-dihydroxyflavanone, 

5-deoxykaempferol 

and pterosupin; a benzofuranone marsupsin 

and propterol, p-hydroxy-benzaldehyde 

are active principles of therapeutic 

importance. 

The gum-kino from the bark provides 

a non-glucosidal tannin, Kino 

tannic acid (25–80%). 

The (−)-epi-catechin increases the 

cAMP content of the islets which is 

associated with the increased insulin 

release, conversion of proinsulin to insulin 

and cathepsin B activity. 

Oral administration of ethylacetate 

extract of the heartwood and its flavonoid 

constituents, marsupin, pterosupin 

and liquiritigenin, for 14 consecutive 

days to rats exhibited a significant 

reduction of serum triglycerides, 

total cholesterol and LDL- and 

VLDL-cholesterol levels, but it did not 

exert any significant effect on HDLcholesterol. 

The ethanolic and methanolic extracts 

of the heartwood exhibited significant 

in vitro antimicrobial activity 


bacteria and some strains of 

fungi.

Kino is powerfully astringent. The 

therapeutic value of kino is due to Kino 

tannic acid. 


for decoction. (API, Vol. I); stem 

bark—32–50 g for decoction (API, 

Vol. III). 

Pterocarpus santalinus Linn. f. 


Habitat ◮ Found in Cuddaph district 

of Andhra Pradesh, neighbouring 

areas of Tamil Nadu and Karnataka. 

English ◮ Red Sandalwood, Red 

Sanders. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Raktachandana, 

Raktasaara. 

Unani ◮ Sandal Surkh. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Shivappu chandanam. 

Folk ◮ Laal-chandan. 

Action ◮ Heartwood—antibilious, 

anti-inflammatory, hypoglycaemic, 

astringent, diaphoretic, febrifuge. 

A paste of wood is used externally 

for inflammations and headache. 

Fruit—antidysenteric 

The heartwood contains terpenoids—eudesmol, 

iso-pterocarpolone, 

pterocarpol, cryptomeridiol, pterocarptriol 

and pterocarpdiolone; pigments 

santalins A and B. The bark contains 

triterpenoids—beta-ampyrone, 

lupenone and lupeol derivatives. The 

sapwood gave acetyl oleanolic aldehyde, 

acetyl oleanolic acid and erythrodiol. 

An ethanolic extract (95%) of the 

wood powder was found effective in 

Pterospermum acerifolium Willd. 525 

lowering blood sugar levels in fasting, 

fed, glucose-loaded and streptozotocin 

diabetic models in rats. 

A cream prepared from the methanolic 

extract of the heartwood of Red 

Sandalwood and rhizomes of Curcuma 

longa showed 95.46% inhibition of 

oedema in combination (Curcuma longa 

and red sandalwood showed 65.62 

and 64.14% inhibition respectively, 

when used individually). 

A decoction of the heartwood produced 

potentiation of pentobarbitoneinduced 

hypnosis in albino mice; 

blocked conditioned avoidance response 

in rats and showed anticonvulsant 

and anti-inflammatory activities. 



Pterospermum acerifolium 

Willd. 


Habitat ◮ Maharashtra, Manipur, 

North Bengal, Bihar and Assam, 

Western Ghats and Andaman 

Islands. 

English ◮ Hathipaila. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Muchukunda, 

Muchakunda, Kshatravriksha, 

Chivuka, Prativishnuka, 

Muchukunda Champaa. Karnikaara 

(also equated with Cassia fistula). 

Unani ◮ Gul-e-Muchkun. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Vennangu. 

Action ◮ Flower—anti-inflammatory, 

styptic (used for bleeding piles, 

haematuria, ulcers). Charred 

P

526 Pterospermum canescens Roxb. 

P 

flowers and bark, mixed with the 

powder of Mallotus philippinensis, 

are applied to smallpox eruptions. 

The fresh flowers yielded kaempferol-3-O-beta-D-galactoside, 

along 

with luteolin and its 7-O-glucoside. 

The leaves also contain betulin, lupeol, 

bauerenol, friedelin and betasitosterol. 

Dosage ◮ Flower—3–6 g powder. 

(CCRAS.) 

Pterospermum canescens Roxb. 

Synonym ◮ 

non-Roxb. 

P. suberifolium Lam. 


Habitat ◮ Karnataka and Tamil 

Nadu, occasionally planted in West 

Bengal. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Muchukunda (var.) 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Sempulavu. 

Action ◮ Flowers—anodyne; a paste 

with rice-water and vinegar is used 

externally in migraine. Leaves— 

applied externally in headache. 

Flowers gave arachidic, linoleic, myristic, 

oleic, palmitic and stearic acids 

and beta-sitosterol, kaempferol-3beta-D-galactoside 

and kaempferol- 

3-rutinoside. The flavonoids present 

in the leaves are kaempferol-3-beta-Dgalactoside, 

kaempferol, quercetin and 

its 3-O-arabinoside and 3-O-rhamnoside. 

The leaves also contain betulin, 

beta-amyrin, lupeol, bauerenol, friedelin, 

taraxerone and beta-sitosterol. 

Pueraria lobata (Willd.) Ohwi. 


Habitat ◮ Eastern Himalayas, Assam 

and Khasi Hills. 

English ◮ Tropical Kudze. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Vidaari (var.). 

Action ◮ Root—antipyretic, antiinflammatory, 

spasmolytic. Flower—hepatoprotective. 

The root of P. lobata is used in Chinese 

medicine as an antipyretic and 

spasmolytic agent. 

The root contains pueraria glycosides 

and puerarol. The glycosides 

showed strong antioxidant activity and 

inhibited lipid peroxidation. The root 

also contain several flavones which 

showed 66.8% inhibition against stomach 

cancer in vivo in mice. The isoflayvonoids, 

daidzein, formononetin, 

daidzin and puerarin. Daidzein and 

puerarin show significant anti-inflammatory 

activity. 

The cosmetics containing the root 

extracts with 20–40% puerarin and 20– 

45% sugars (as sucrose) are used as 

moisturizing, skin-lightening and sunscreening 

and hair-growth stimulating 

preparations. 

An isoflavonoid, triterpenoid saponin 

and tryptophan derivative isolated 

from the flowers showed protective effect 

against experimental liver injuries 

in mice. 

The tryptophan derivatives and their 

glycosides exhibited antihyperglycaemic 

activity. 

Pueraria phaseoloides (Roxb.) 

Benth., synonym P. javanica Benth. 

(Sub-Himalayan regions; Assam, An-

dhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Kerala, 

up to 1,100 m) is equated with Tropical 

Kudze. The plant is used against ulcers 

and boils. 

Pueraria tuberosa DC. 


Habitat ◮ Punjab, Western Uttar 

Pradesh, Central India. 

English ◮ Indian Kudze. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Vidaari, Swaadukandaa, 

Ikshugandhaa, Gajavaajipriyaa, 

Kandapalaasha, Bhuumikushmaanda. 

(Substitute for Jivaka and 

Rshabhaka.) 

Folk ◮ Bhui-kumhadaa, Suraal. 

Action ◮ Tuber—diuretic, cardiac 

tonic, galactagogue. Also used for 

fertility control. Root—used as 

a demulcent, and refrigerant in 

fevers, as cataplasm for swelling of 

joints, as galactagogue. 

The butanolic extract of Pueraria 

tuberosa showed significant protection 

against hepatic damage in rats. The 

ethanolic extract of the tubers and its 

butanol and pre-puerarin fractions exhibited 

anti-implantation effect. The 

pure compounds, puerarin, daidzein 

and tuberosin, exhibited significant 

anti-implantation activity in hamsters. 

In Indian medicine, Vidaari and 

Kshira-vidaari are used for promoting 

breast milk and semen, and as 

a restorative tonic. Most authors have 

equated Vidaari with Pueraria tuberosa 

and Kshira-vidaari with Ipomoea digitata. 

Punica granatum Linn. 527 

In Western herbal, Pueraria lobata 

and P. tuberosa roots are used alone 

or in combination with other products 

for symptoms due to alcoholism. But 

preliminary research shows that Kudze 

does not improve sobriety in chronic 

alcoholics. (Natural Medicines Comprehensive 



(CCRAS.) 

Pulicaria dysenterica Bernh. 



Action ◮ Plant—astringent, diuretic. 

Root—antidiarrhoeal. 

antiasthmatic. 

Leaf— 

Punica granatum Linn. 

Family ◮ Punicaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Native to Iran; but 


English ◮ Pomegranate. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Daadima, Daadimba, 

Raktapushpa, Dantabijaa, 

Raktakusumaa, Lohitpushpaka. 

Unani ◮ Anaar, Roomaan, Gulnaar, 

Gulnaar Farsi. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Maathulai. 

Action ◮ Rind of fruit—astringent, 

stomachic, digestive. Used for diarrhoea, 

dysentery, colitis, dyspepsia 

and uterine disorders. Leaf—used 

in stomatitis (recommended by The 

Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India). 

Fresh juice of fruit—refrigerant, 

P

528 Putranjiva roxburghii Wall. 

P 

cosive, antiemetic; given as an 

adjuvant in diarrhoea, dyspepsia, 

biliousness, inflammations of the 

stomach, palpitation, excessive 

thirst and fevers. Bark of stem 

and root—anthelmintic, febrifuge. 

Given for night sweats. Rind of 

fruit, bark of stem and root— 

antidiarrhoeal. Powdered flower 

buds—used in bronchitis. 

The fruit rind (dried) contains up to 

26,stembark10–25,rootbark28and 

leaves 11% tannin. 

The rind gave an ellagitannin (granatin 

B, leaves gave granatins A and 

B and punicafolin); punicalagin, punicalin 

and ellagic acid. Pentose glycosides 

of malvidin and pentunidin 

have also been isolated from the rind. 

Rind extract showed significant hypoglycaemic 

activity in mildly diabetic 

rats. 

Seeds gave malvidin pentose glycoside. 

Flowers gave pelargonidin-3,5-diglucoside; 

also sitosterol, ursolic acid, 

maslinic acid, asiatic acid, sitosterolbeta-D-glucoside 

and gallic acid. 

Extracts of the whole fruit were 

highly active against Micrococcus pyogenes 

var. aureus, E. coli and Pseudomonas 

aeruginosa; also very effective 

against intestinal pathogenic bacilli. 

Aqueous extract of the root was 

found to inhibit the activity of Mycobacterium 

tuberculosis 607. 

The proanthocyanidins of pomegranate 

showed hypolipidaemic activity by 

their ability to enhance resistance of 

vascular wall preventing penetration 

of cholesterol into atherogenic lipoproteins. 

Putranjiva roxburghii Wall. 

Synonym ◮ Drypetes roxburghii 

(Wall.) Hurusawa. 

Family ◮ Euphoriaceae. 


wild and cultivated as an avenue 

tree. 

English ◮ Child-life tree, Indian 

Amulet Plant, Spurious Wild Olive. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Putranjiva, Putrajivaka, 

Putrajiva, Yashtipushpa, Arthsaadhana 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Karupali Garbhadaa 

and Garbhakaraa are misleading 

synonyms. 

Folk ◮ Jiyaapotaa. 

Action ◮ Fruit—powered (deseeded) 

fruits are used against 

cough, cold and sprue. Rosaries of 

hard stones are used for protecting 

children from infections. (Due 

to misleading nomenclature, the 

“conception-promoting” property 

has been attributed to the drug in 

folkmedicine.Itsuseispossiblein 

vaginal infections and genitourinary 

diseases, or skin eruptions during 

pre-conception stage.) 

The seed kernel on steam distillation 

yield 0.5% of a sharp-smelling essential 

oil of the mustard oil type. The oil 

contains isopropyl and 2-butyl isothiocyanates 

as the main constituents and 

2-methyl-butyl isothiocyanate as a minor 

component. The iso-thiocyanates 

are produced on enzymic hydrolysis of 

glycosidic progenitors present in the 

kernels, viz. glucoputranjivin, glucocochlearin 

and glucojiaputin respec-

tively. An additional glucoside, glucocleomin 

has been identified in the seed 

kernel, it affords a non-volatile mustard 

oil, cleomin. A glycosidic pattern 

similar to that in the seed is reported 

in the shoots and roots. 

The fruit pulp contains a large proportion 

of mannitol and small quantities 

of saponin glucosides and alkaloids. 

The seed coat gave putranjivoside, 

putranoside A, B, C and D, betasitosterol 

and tis beta-D-glucoside. 

The leaves gave amentoflavone and 

its derivatives, beta-amyrin and its 

palmite, polyphenols, putranjiva saponin 

A,B,C, and D and stigmasterol. 

The bark contains friedelin, friedelanol, 

friedelanone, friedelan-3,7-dione 

(putranjivadione), 3-alpha-hydroxy 

friedelan- 7-one (roxburgholone), 

carboxylic acid, putric acid, putranjivic 

acid. 

The essential oil from leaves showed 

mild antifungal activity against Rhizoctonia 

solani. 

Pygmaeopemna herbacea 

(Roxb.) Mold. 

Synonym ◮ Premna herbacea Roxb. 


Habitat ◮ Andhra Pradesh, Tamil 

Nadu and Orissa and in some parts 

of Kerala. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Bhumi-jambu. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Siru Thekku. 

Action ◮ Rootstock—antiasthmatic. 

Leaf— bechic, febrifuge. Rootstock 

Pyrus communis Linn. 529 

and leaf—antirheumatic. (Sold in 

South Indian market as Bhaarangi.) 

A diterpenoid quinonemethide 

(bharangin) is reported from the plant. 

Pyrola rotundifolia Linn. 

Family ◮ Pyrolaceae. 

Habitat ◮ North-Western and 

eastern Himalaya at altitudes of 

2,700–3,000 m. and in Khasi and 

Jaintia hills up to 1,500 m. 

Action ◮ Plant—astringent and 

antilithic. Used for healing 

wounds. A decoction of the plant is 

prescribed against profuse menses, 

bloody stools, haemorrhages and 

ulcers in urinary passages. The 

whole herb is used in traditional 

chinese medicine for the treatment 

of arthritis. 

The plant contains ursolic acid, chimaphilin, 

hyperin, quercetin, myricetin 

and gallic acid. Chimaphilin 

and ursolic acid inhibit carrageenaninduced 

oedema in rat paw. Other 

constituents act as protective antioxidants. 

Pyrus communis Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Distributed in the 

temperate regions of Europe and 

West Asia. Grown in Punjab and 

Kashmir. 

English ◮ Common or European 

Pear. 

Folk ◮ Bagu-goshaa, Babbu-goshaa. 

P

530 Pyrus communis Linn. 

P 

Action ◮ Fruits—a good source 

of pectin, help in maintaining 

a desirable acid balance in the 

body. Recommended to patients 

suffering from diabetes because of 

low sucrose content; and included in 

low antigen content diets to alleviate 

the symptoms in the management 

of immune-mediated disease. 

Fresh pear juice exhibited good 

activity against Micrococcus pyogenes 

var. aureus and Escherichia coli. 

An aqueous extract of the leaves was 

active against some strains of E. coli. 

The leaves contain arbutin, isoquercitrin, 

sorbitol, ursolic acid, astragalin 

and tannin (0.8–2.9%). The bark 

contains friedelin, epifriedelanol and 

beta-sitosterol. Phloridzin is present 

in the root bark. 

The plant extract controls the development 

of freckles and blemishes 

on the skin and prevents melanin formation. 

It finds application in skinlightening 

creams.

Quassia indica Nooteboom. 

Synonym ◮ Samadera indica Gaertn. 

S. indica var. lucida Blatter. 

S. lucida Wall. 


Habitat ◮ West Coast, along 

back waters and evergreen forests 

from Maharashtra southwards to 

Trivandrum. 

English ◮ Niepa Bark tree. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Nibam, Niepa, 

Karinjottei. 

Folk ◮ Lokhandi (Maharashtra). 

Action ◮ Bark—febrifuge; juice 

applied to skin diseases. An 

infusion of wood and bark is 

given as emmenagogue. Seed— 

emetic, purgative; used for bilious 

fevers. Seed oil—applied in 

rheumatism. Leaves— externally in 

erysipelas. 

The bark contains the quassinoids, 

indaquassin, A, D, E and F; samaderine 

B to E, dihydrosamaderine B, brucein 

D, soulameolide, cedronin and 

canthin-2, 6-dione. 

Brucin D showed activity against 

Walker’s carcinoma. Samaderine E, 

isolated from the plant, exhibits antileukaemic 

activity. 

Q 

Quercus ilex Linn. 



the Sutlej valley westwards and 

in Kashmir at altitudes of 900– 

2,600 m. 

English ◮ Holly or Holm Oak. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Maayaaphala (var.) 

(galls). 

Action ◮ Leaves—antioxidant. 

Galls—contain 41% tannin. The 

bark contains 7–13%; leaves 2.1% 

tannin and 1.8% non-tannin. 

The leaves contain alpha-tocopherol 

as main antioxidant. The mature leaves 

contain proanthocyanidins 3.3, and 

leucoanthocyanidins 3.4 mg/g (on dry 

matter basis). 

Quercus incana Roxb. 

Synonym ◮ Q. leucotrichophora A. 

Camus ex Bhadur. 


Habitat ◮ Kashmir and Western 

Himalayas up to Nepal at altitudes 

of 1,000–2,400 m. 

English ◮ Grey Oak. 

Unani ◮ Baloot. 

Folk ◮ Shilaa Supaari (Kashmir), 

Phanat (Garhwal), Shiddar 

(Kashmir).

Q 

532 Quercus infectoria Oliv. 

Action ◮ Acrons—diuretic, astringent. 

Used in indigestion and 

diarrhoea (after removing tannin 

and associated substances by the 

process of germination under 

earth). Also used in gonorrhoea. 

The bark contains 6–23% of tannin. 

The stem bark contains friedelin, a triterpenoid, 

beta-sitosterol and a mixture 

of leucoanthocyanidins (including 

leucopelargonidin). Leaves contain 

flavonoids— quercetin, quercetin- 

3-galacto-arabinoside. 

The kernels gave fatty acids, including 

palmitic, lignoceric and oleic. 

Quercus infectoria Oliv. 


Habitat ◮ Indigenous to Greece, 

Syria and Iran. Yields oak galls. 

English ◮ Oak galls, Aleppo galls, 

Mecca galls. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Maajuphalaka, 

Maayaaphala, Maayakku. 

Unani ◮ Maazu. Maaphal. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Maasikkaai. 

Action ◮ Astringent. Bark and 

fruits—used for eczema and 

impetigo. Galls—used for diseases 

of gums and oral cavity (diluted 

with toothpowder or paste; also as 

a gargle in nasal catarrh and sore 

throat. Anointment(1in4parts 

of vaseline) is applied externally in 

haemorrhoids. Also included in 

breast and vaginal firming creams. 

A decoction of galls is used as an 

enema in prolapus of rectum. 

Key application ◮ Quercus robur L. 

bark—externally, in inflammatory 

skin diseases; internally in nonspecific, 

acute diarrhoea, and local 

treatment of mild inflammation 

of the oral cavity and pharyngeal 

region, as well as of genital and anal 

area. (German Commission E.) 


recommends the gall in leucorrhoea, 

dry and itching vagina; topically 

for dental inflammations. 

The fruits gave amentoflavone hexamethyl 

ether, isocryptomerin and 


The alcoholic extract of fruits 

showed 36% liver protection against 

carbon tetrachloride-induced toxicity 

at a dose of 800 mg/kg. 

The galls contain 50–70% gallo tannic 

acid, gallic acid 2–4%, ellagic acid, 

nyctanthic acid, rubric acid, besides 

sugars, starch, an essential oil and anthocyanins. 

Galls were also found to 

contain beta-sitosterol, amentoflavone, 

hexamethyl ether and isocryptomerin. 

Quercus robur (English or European 

oak) is reported to be cultivated in Nilgiris. 

The bark contains 15–20% tannins 

consisting of phlobatannin, ellagitannins 

and gallic acid. 

The bark is contraindicated in cardiac 

insufficiency and hypertonia; externally 

on broken skin. (Sharon M. 

Herr.) 

Dosage ◮ Gall—1–3 g powder. (API, 

Vol. IV.) 

Quillaja saponaria Molina. 

Family ◮ Rosaceae.

Habitat ◮ Indigenous to Chile 

and Peru; introduced in India in 

Ootacamund. 

English ◮ Soap Bark, Quillaia Bark. 

Action ◮ Bark—cutaneous stimulant. 

Its liquid extract is used as a lotion 

for certain skin diseases of the scalp, 

and in antiulcer preparations. 

The detergent and medicinal properties 

of quillaia are due to the presence 

of haemolytic saponins (9–10%) of 

which quillaia-saponin (which yields 

glucuronic acid and quillaic acid, a sapogenin, 

on hydrolysis) is most important. 

Quillaja extracts caused marked 

swelling and haemorrhage in stomach 

and small intestines of mice after 

24 hours. 

An isolated saponin (QS-21) from 

the bark shows evidence that it might 

augment both antibody and cell-mediated 

immune response, significantly 

increasing antibody levels. (Natural 


2007.) 

Quisqualis indica Linn. 

Quisqualis indica Linn. 533 


Habitat ◮ Native to Java and 

Malaysia; cultivated in Indian 

gardens. 

English ◮ Rangoon Creeper. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Rangoon-ki-Bel. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Irangunmalli. 

Folk ◮ Laal-chameli. 

Action ◮ Fruits and seeds— 

anthelmintic (particularly against 

ascarites and soporific). Seeds— 

soporific. Ripe seeds are roasted 

and given in diarrhoea and fever. 

Macerated in oil, are applied to 

parasitic skin diseases. Leaves— 

decoction prescribed in abdominal 

pain. 

The leaves and flowers gave rutin 

and pelargonidin-3-glucoside, quisqualic 

acid, trigonelline, L-proline and 

L-asparagine. 

Quisqualic acid showed anthelmintic 

activity. Seeds gave arachidic, linoleic, 

oleic, palmitic and stearic acids. 

Q

Radermachera xylocarpa 

(Roxb.) K. Schum. 

Synonym ◮ Bignonia xylocarpa Roxb. 

Stereospermum xylocarpum (Roxb.) 

Wt. 


Habitat ◮ Gujarat, Karnataka, Tamil 

Nadu. 

English ◮ Padri tree. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Vedanguruni, Pathiri. 

Folk ◮ Paadiri. Kharsing, Kadashing, 

Bairsinge (Maharashtra). 

Action ◮ Plant—antiseptic. Resin— 

used for the treatment of skin 

diseases. Rootbark—bitter, astringent; 

used as substitute for 

Stereospermumpersonatum (Hassk.) 

D. Chatterjee and S. suaveolens DC. 

(Trumpet-Flower, Yellow Snake 

tree, also known as Padri). 

The leaves gave flavonoids, dinatin 

and its glycoside. Roots yielded Oacetyl 

oleanolic acid, stigmasterol and 

a red pigment, radermachol. 

Randia dumetorum Poir. 

Synonym ◮ R. spinosa Poir. 

R. brandisii Gamble. 

R. longispina W. & A. 

R. tomentosa W. & A. non Blume. 

Xeromphis spinosa Keay. 


R 

Habitat ◮ Assam, Naga and 

Khasi Hills, Travancore and the 


English ◮ Common Emetic Nut. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Madana, Chhardana, 

Pindi, Shalayaka, Vishapushpaka. 

Unani ◮ Mainphal, Jauz-ul-Qai. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Marukkaaraikai, 

Madkarai. 

Folk ◮ Mainphal. 

Action ◮ Fruit—nervine, calmative, 

antispasmodic, emetic, 

anthelmintic, abortifacient. Used as 

a substitute for ipecacuanha. 


recommends the dried fruit in 

chlorosis, common cold, rhinitis and 

obstinate skin diseases. 

The activity of the drug is attributed 

to the presence of saponins which occur 

to the extent of 2–3% in fresh fruits 

and about 10% in dried whole fruit. 

The saponins are concentrated mostly 

in the pulp. A mixture of two saponins, 

viz. randialic or neutral saponin and 

randialic acid or acid saponin has been 

isolated from the pulp. On complete 

hydrolysis both the saponins yield oleanolic 

acid as sapogenin. Ursosaponin, 

isolated from the ethanolic extract of 

the dried whole fruit, gave ursolic acid 

and glucose. Randianin, isolated from 

the fruit, gave a haemolytic triterpenoid 

saponin.

536 Randia uliginosa DC. 

R 

In experimental animals, the drug 

caused haemolysis both in vitro and in 

vivo. Crudesaponinfractionshowed 

haemolytic, molluscidal and immunostimulating 

activities. 

Oleanolic acid 3-glucoside, isolated 

from the seed, exhibited anti-arthritic 

activity in exudative and proliferative 

phases of inflammation in rats. 

Dosage ◮ Fruit—0.5–1.0 g powder 

for decoction, 3–6 g for induction 

vomiting. (API, Vol. I.) 

Randia uliginosa DC. 

Synonym ◮ Catunaregam uliginosa 

(Retz.) Sivarajan. 


Habitat ◮ Southern, Central and 

Eastern India, including Assam and 

Sikkim. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Pindaalu, Pinditaka. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Wagatta, Perunkarai. 

Folk ◮ Mainphal, Pindaar, Pendraa, 

Pendhar. 

Action ◮ Unripe fruit—astringent. 

Root—diuretic; used for biliousness, 


Unripe fruits are roasted and used as 

a remedy for dysentery and diarrhoea. 

The root, boiled in purified butter, is 

also prescribed for dysentery and diarrhoea. 

The fruits, like those of Randia 

spinosa, contain a toxic saponin of 

oleanolic acid. They also contain leucocyanidin 

and mannitol. The flowers 

yield an essential oil similar to Gardenia 

oil. 

Ranunculus arvensis Linn. 




English ◮ Corn Buttercup. 

Folk ◮ Chambul (Punjab). Gagerkanda 

(Kashmir). 

Action ◮ Used in intermittent fevers, 

asthma and gout. 

The active principle of the herb is 

protoanemonin (0.54%) and its glycosidic 

precursor, ranunculin. The herb 

yields hydrocyanic acid in very small 

amounts. 

The leaves contain the antifungal 

lactone protoanemonin which inhibited 

growth of Epidermophyton floccosum 

and the yeast Rhodotorula glutinis. 

Ranunculus sceleratus Linn. 


Habitat ◮ The plains of northern 

India, and the warm valleys of the 

Himalayas from Kashmir to Assam. 

English ◮ Blister Buttercup, Celeryleaved 

Crowfoot. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Kaandira, Kaandakatuka, 

Naasaa-samvedana, Toyavalli, 

Sukaandaka. 

Folk ◮ Jal-dhaniyaa. 

Action ◮ Fresh Plant—highly acrid, 

rubefacient, vesicant and toxic;

causes inflammation of the digestive 

tract. Used after drying or as 

a homoeopathic medicine for skin 

diseases. 

The plant contains anemonin, protoanemonin, 

ranunculine, serotonin 

and other tryptamine derivatives. 

Serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine) 

is a potent vaso-constrictor. Protoanemonin 

possesses strong antibacterial, 

antiviral, cytopathogenic and 

vermicidal properties, and is effective 


bacteria, similar to penicillic 

acid. It inhibits the growth of E. coli, 

Staphylococcus aureus and Candida albicans. 

It inactivates in vitro diptheria 

toxin. 

Dosgae ◮ Whole plant—1–3 g 


Ranunculus trichophyllus Chaix. 

Synonym ◮ R. aquatilis Linn. var. 

capillaceus DC. 


Habitat ◮ Kashmir to Sikkim. 

English ◮ 

Fennel. 

Water Crowfoot, Water 

Ayurvedic ◮ Kaandira (var.). 

Folk ◮ Tohlab (Kashmir). 

Action ◮ Herb—used in intermittent 

fevers, rheumatism and asthma. 

Ranunculus muricatus Linn. (Punjab 

and Kashmir) is used in intermittent 

fevers, gout and asthma in Europe. 

The herb is rubefacient, vesicant and 

narcotic. 

Raphanus sativus Linn. 

Raphanus sativus Linn. 537 



Pradesh, Punjab, Maharashtra and 

Gujarat. 

English ◮ Radish. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Muulaka, Laghumuulaka, 

Muulakapotikaa, Visra, 

Shaaleya, Marusambhava. Pods— 

Sungraa, Singri, Mungraa. 

Unani ◮ Muuli, Turb Fajal. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Mullangi. 

Action ◮ Radish—preparations 

are used in liver, gallbladder and 

urinary complaints. Green leaves— 

diuretic and carminative. Seeds— 

diuretic, purgative, expectorant. 

A decoction of dry radish is given 

orally in piles. Extract of the dry root 

is given for hiccough, influenza, dysentery, 

colic and urinary troubles. 

Key application ◮ In peptic disorders, 

especially those related to dyskinesia 

of the bile ducts; and in catarrhs 

of the upper respiratory tract. 



recommends the juice of the whole 

plant in sinusitis; juice of the root in 

diseases of the throat and sinusitis; and 

the seed in amenorrhoea, cough and 

dyspnoea. 

The fleshy root and seeds contain 

trans-4-methyl-thiobutenyl isothiocyanate 

glucoside (the pungent principle),cyanidin-5-glucoside-3-sophoro- 

R

538 Rauvolfia serpentina Benth. ex Kurz. 

R 

side, pelargonidin diglycoside, cyanidin 

diglycoside, 5-methyl-L-cysteinesulphoxide 

(methiin), steroidal sapogenins 

and sulphorophene. 

The enzymes present in the radish 

are phosphatase, catalase, sucrase, 

amylase, alcohol dehydrogenase and 

pyruvic carboxylase. 

Radish contains caffeic acid and ferulic 

acid which exhibit hepatoprotective 

and choleretic properties. It contains 

choline which prevents deposition 

of fat in liver. Amino acids, ornithine, 

citrulline, arginine, glutamic 

acid and asparatic acid remove toxins 

from the body and urea acumulation. 

Radish is a good source of ascorbic 

acid (15–40 mg/100 g), trace elements 

include aluminium, barium, lithium, 

manganese, silicon, titanium, also iodine 

(upto 18 mcg/100 g) and ascorbigen. 

Roots, leaves, flowers and pods are 

active against Gram-positive bacteria. 

The seeds are reported to contain 

a broad spectrum antibiotic, machrolysin, 

specific against Mycobacterium 

tuberculosis. Raphanin, extracted from 

the seeds, is active against Grampositive 

and Gram-negative bacteria. 

A purified basic protein, homologous 

to nonspecific lipid transfer proteins, 

from seeds showed antifungal activity. 

Raphanus caudatus Linn., synonym 

R. sativus var. caudatus, is known as 

Rat-Tail Radish. 

A native to Java, it is cultivated in 

northern and western India. The root 

is not used; pods, purple or violet in 

colour, are consumed for properties 

attributed to Raphanus sp. These are 

known as Mungraa or Sungraa. 


juice; root—15–30 ml juice. (API, 

Vol. II.) Seed—1–3 g powder. (API, 

Vol. III.) 

Rauvolfia serpentina 

Benth. ex Kurz. 


Habitat ◮ The sub-Himalayas tract 

from Punjab to Nepal, Sikkim, 

Bhutan, Assam, Western Ghats and 


English ◮ Rauvolfia root, Serpentina 

Root, Indian Snakeroot. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Sarpagandhaa 

of Ayurvedic texts was not 

the Sarpagandhaa of modern 

medicine. (Sarpagandhaa was 

equated with Naakuli, Sarpachhatrikaa 

and Varshaasu Chhatrikaaraa. 

Sarpagandhaa and 

Sarpasugandhaa were synonyms of 

Naakuli.) 

Folk ◮ Chhotaa Chaand. 

Action ◮ Root—decoction is 

employed to increase uterine 

contractions and for expulsion 

of foetus in difficult cases. The 

total alkaloidal extract of the root 

induces bradycardia, hypotension, 

sedation. It finds application 

in hypochondria, neuropsychiatric 

disorders, psychosis and 

schizophrenia. 

Key application ◮ In mild, essential 

hypertension (borderline 

hypertension, especially with elevated 

tension of the sympathetic 

nervous system, for example,

sinus tachycardia, anxiety, tension 

and psychomotor irritation, 

when dietetic measures alone 

are not sufficient. (German 


(Average daily dose: 600 mg drug 

corresponding to 6 mg total alkaloid.) 

Treatment is usually administered with 

a diuretic to prevent fluid retention 

which may develop if Rauvolfia root is 

given alone. (WHO.) Contraindicated 

in depression, bleeding disorders, gastric 

and duodenal ulcers. (Sharon M. 

Herr.) Also contraindicated in pregnancy, 

since it has both teratogenic 

and abortifacient potential. (Francis 

Brinker.) 

The root and root bark are rich in 

alkaloids, the most important being 

reserpine, others, around 30, which include 

ajmaline, ajmalicine (raubasine), 

ajmalicine, yohimbine, coryanthine, 

iso-ajmaline, neo-ajmaline, papaverine, 

raubasine, rauwolscine, rescinnamine, 

reserpine, sarpagine, serpentine, 

serpentinine, serpinine and deserpidine. 

Reserpine is hypotensive and tranquilizer, 

used for certain forms of mental 

disorders. Ajmalicine (raubasine) 

and rescinnamine are also hypotensive 

and tranquilizer. Deserpidine is 

sedative, as well as hypotensive. Ajmaline 

exhibits antiarrhythmic activity. 

A number of Rauvolfia species are 

found in India: R. beddomei Hook. f.; 

R. densiflora Benth ex Hook. f. (Himalayas, 

Khasi and Aka Hills; Western 

and Eastern Ghats); R. micrantha 

Hook. f; known as Malabar Rauvolfia, 

(Kerala, up to an altitude of 300 m) 

Rauvolfia tetraphylla Linn. 539 

The roots of R. beddomei contain 

ajmalicine, sarpagine and serpentine, 

but no reserpine. R. densiflora yielded 

0.51% of total alkaloids (reserpine 

0.01%). R. micrantha gave ajmalicine, 

raunamine, reserpiline, sarpagine, 

neosarpagine, in addition to reserpine. 

(In classical Ayurvedic texts, Nakuli 

and Gandha-naakuli were included in 

compound formulations for mental 

diseases.) 

Rauvolfia tetraphylla Linn. 

Synonym ◮ R. canescens L. 


Habitat ◮ Abundant in moist and 

warm regions of West Bengal, 

particularly in 24 Parganas and 

Howrah, and Kerala (as a weed). 

Folk ◮ Badaa Chaand. 

Action ◮ Root—sedative, hypotensive. 

Plant juice, mixed with castor 

oil, is applied to skin diseases and 

to destroy parasites. 

The plant contains a number of 

alkaloids, including rauvolscine, ajmalicine, 

canescine, reserpine, pseudoyohimbine; 

yohimbine, corynanthene, 

raunescine, iso-raunescine and 

recanescine. 

The major alkaloid is rauwolscine 

(alpha-yohimbine), present in the root 

bark (0.1%), stem bark (0.2%) and 

leaves (0.5%). 

The roots are often used as a substitute 

or adulterant of those of R. serpentina, 

though the reserpine content 

of the dried root was found to be comparatively 

low (0.03–0.05%). 

R

540 Reinwardtia indica Dum. 

R 

Reinwardtia indica Dum. 

Family ◮ Linaceae. 


Kashmir to Sikkim; commonly 


English ◮ Winter-Flax, Yellow Flax. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Baasanti. 

Folk ◮ Abai (Maharashtra). 

Action ◮ Plant—used for the 

treatment of paralysis in Bihar. 

The crushed leaves and stems are 

applied to wounds infested with 

maggots. 

Reissantia grahamii 

(Wight) Ding Hou. 

Synonym ◮ Hippocratea grahamii 

Wight. 

Pristimera grahamii 

A. C. Smith. 

Family ◮ Celastraceae; Hippocrateaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Konkan, and the South 


Folk ◮ Danshir, Daushir, Lokhandi, 

Yesti, Zerwati (Maharashtra). 

Action ◮ Root—used for the 

treatment of respiratory affections, 

common cold and influenza. 

The roots contain about twice the 

amount of pristimerin as in R. indica 

and show similar antibiotic properties. 

Pristimerin is found active against 

Streptococcus viridans, causative organism 

for sore throat and tonsilitis, 

and S. pyogenes. 

Reissantia indica Halle. 

Synonym ◮ Hippocratea indica Willd. 

Pristimera indica A. C. Smith. 

Family ◮ Celastraceae; Hippocrateaceae. 

Habitat ◮ North-eastern India. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Odangod. 

Folk ◮ Kazurati, Tirruli (Maharashtra), 

Atari-lataa, Kathapahaariaa, 

Lokhandi (Bengal). 

Action ◮ Root bark—used for the 

treatment of respiratory troubles. 

Stem—febrifuge. Leaves—scorched 

and given to women during 

confinement. Powdered leaves 

and roots are applied to sores and 

wounds. 

The roots contain dulcitol. The root 

bark contains an antibiotic principle, 

pristimerin (0.1%) which shows considered 

in vitro activity against several 

Gram-positive cocci, both haemolytic 

and non-haemolytic. Pristimerin 

also inhibits in vitro growth of different 

strains of Mycobacterium tuberculosis. 

Clinical trials have shown that 

pristimerin is effective in the treatment 

of inflammatory conditions of 

the naso-pharyngeal mucosa resulting 

from common cold and influenzal infections. 

It is found useful as an adjunct 

to the common antibiotic therapy of 

respiratory inflammations of both bacterial 

and viral origin, and is reported 

to possess antitumour properties, but 

its high toxicity precludes its use as 

acancero-staticagent.

Remusatia vivipara Schott. 


Habitat ◮ Maharashtra, Karnataka. 

Folk ◮ Rukhaalu, Maanakand 

(Maharashtra). Lakshmanaa is 

a doubtful synonym 

Action ◮ Root—use for obstinate 

skin diseases and pruritus; also 

for disinfecting genitourinary tract 

and for promoting conception. 

Alocasia indica and Eulophia nuda 

are also known as Maanakanda in 

Indian medicine. Alocasia indica 

is used in Siddha medicine as an 

anti-inflammatory and diuretic 

herb. 

Reseda luteola Linn. 

Family ◮ Resedaccae. 

Habitat ◮ Indigenous to western 

Europe; grown in gardens in India. 

English ◮ Dyer’s Rocket, Weld. 

Action ◮ Plant—diuretic, diaphoretic, 

anthelmintic. 

A luteolin glucoside, luteoloside, has 

been isolated from the fresh blossoms 

and outer parts of the plant. It has a low 

toxicityandmildinfluenceoncapillary 

resistance and possesses diuretic properties. 

Reseda odorata Linn., known as 

Mignonette, is indigenous to North 

Africa and cultivated in gardens in 

India. 

The herb is reported to allay irritation 

and ease pains. The seeds are 

applied externally as a resolvent. The 

Rhamnus purshiana DC. 541 

root is acrid and is used in Spain as 

a laxative, diuretic and diaphoretic. 

Rhamnus procumbens Edgew. 



Simla to Kumaon at an altitude of 

2,300 to 2,600 m. 

English ◮ Buckthorn (related 

species). 

Action ◮ Plant—anticonvulsant, 

anti-inflammatory, anti-ulcer. 

The plant contains kaempferol, 

kaempferol-7-O-methyl ether and 

kaempferol-4 ′ -O-methyl ether. 

The ethyl acetate soluble portion 

of the alcoholic extract showed antinociceptive, 

anticonvulsant and antiinflammatory 

activity. Kaempferol-4 ′ - 

O-methyl ether was found to exhibit 

central nervous system depressant, 

cardiac stimulant, antispasmodic and 


The plant also contain emodin, 

which exhibited cardiac and intestinal 

stimulant, central nervous system 

depressant and analgesic activity in 


Rhamnus purshiana DC. 

Synonym ◮ Frangula purshiana (DC) 

A. Grey. 



introduced in Kashmir, Himachal 

Pradesh, Bhutan and the Nilgiris. 

R

542 Rhamnus virgatus Roxb. 

R 

English ◮ Buckthorn (related 

species), Cascara Sagrada, Sacred 

Bark. 

Action ◮ Bark—stool-softener, 

non-habit forming stimulant 

laxative, pancreatic stimulant. 

Used for dyspepsia and habitual 

constipation. 

Key application ◮ In occasional 

constipation. (German Commission 

E, ESCOP, WHO.) Asastimulant 

laxative. (The British Herbal 


The bark contains up to 10% anthraquinone 

glycosides, consisting of 

thecascarosidesA,B,CandD,about 

70% of the total; other glycosides in minor 

concentrations include barbaloin, 

frangulin, chrysanol, glycosides based 

on emodin, aloe-emodin, emodinoxanthrone 

and chrysophanol; dianthrones, 

and free aglycones. 

The cascarosides act on large intestines 

and stimulate peristalsis. The 

emodin exhibits antispasmodic activity 

in isolated rat intestine. Its antiinflammatory 

and antiseptic action 

was also demonstrated. 

Rhamnus catharticus Linn., is equated 

with common Buckthorn, R. purpurea 

Edgew. with Purple Buckthorn. 

R. purpurea is found in the Himalayas 

from Kashmir to Nepal. 

Dried bark of Rhamnus frangula 

L. (Alder Buckthorn) and dried ripe 

berries of Ramnus catharticus are also 

used against constipation. (German 

Commission E, WHO.) 

Long term use or excessive amounts 

may cause albuminuria, haematuria, 

slowingofintestinaltransitandcardiac 

irregularities. (Sharon M. Herr.) 

Rhamnus triquetra Brandis (known 

as Gudlei, Fagoraa, Gardhan in Punjab; 

Gaunt in Garhwal and Kumaon 

and Katheraa in Jaunsar) is found in 

the Himalayas from Kashmir to Nepal. 

The bark is used as a tonic, astringent 

and deobstruent. Kaempferol, its 7-Omethyl 

ether and 4 ′ -O-methyl ether, 

physcion-8 beta-D-glucoside, emodin 

and its 8 beta-D-glucoside were isolated 

from the whole plant. Emodin 

exhibited CNS depressant activity. (Fitoterapia, 

65, 1994.) The plant exhibited 

significant anti-inflammatory and 

a nonspecific antispasmodic activity. 

It induced cardio-stimulation which 

might be due to the endogenous release 

of catecholamines. 

Rhamnus napalensis Wall. ex M. 

Laws. (known as Archal in Nepal; 

Biringa and Birringguli in Assam) is 

found in eastern Himalayas and the 

hills and plains of Assam, Bihar, Orissa, 

Madhya Pradesh and northern Andhra 

Pradesh, ascending up to an altitude 

of 2,000 m. The fruit, pounded and 

macerated in vinegar, is prescribed for 

the treatment of herpes. 

Rhamnus virgatus Roxb. 


Habitat ◮ Throughout Himalayas, 

Khasi and Jaintia Hills, hills of 

Orissa, Madhya Pradesh, and the 

Nilgiris. 

English ◮ Indian Buckthorn. 

Folk ◮ Chhaduaa, Tadru (Punjab), 

Chadolaa (Garhwal). 

Action ◮ Ripe fruit—purgative, 

emetic. Given in the affections of

spleen. (Purgative action not found 

in the bark.) 

The bark showed only traces of hydroxymethyl 

anthraquinones and did 

not exhibit purgative action on experimental 

animals. 

The plant contains the enzyme, 

rhamnodiastase, capable of hydrolyzing 

flavonoid glycosides. 

Rhamnus wightii Wight & Arn. 


Habitat ◮ Hills of Peninsular India, 


Ayurvedic ◮ Rakta-Rohidaa (a name 

applied to several other astringent 

herbs). 

Action ◮ Bark—bitter, astringent and 

deobstruent. 

The leaves gave chrysophanol, physcion, 

musizin, lupeol, rhamnazin, 

rhamnocitrin, emodin, frangulin A 

and beta-sitosterol. A naphthaleneglucoside 

lactone—beta-sorigenin-1- 

O-beta-D-glucoside has been isolated 

from the stem bark. Cynodontin, 

chrysophanol, physcion, musizin, lupeol, 

emodin, beta-syriogenin, betasitosterol 

and its glucoside were also 

isolated. 

Rhaphidophora laciniata 

(Burm. F.) Merr. 


Habitat ◮ Deccan Peninsula, 

Coromandel Coast, Malabar and 

southwards to Sri Lanka. 

Rheum emodi Wall. ex Meissn. 543 

Folk ◮ Ganesh-kand (Maharashtra); 

Aaanaiittippili (Tamil Nadu). 

Action ◮ Antidote to poisonous 

inflictions; used against bites of 

poisonous raptiles. 

Rheum emodi Wall. ex Meissn. 

Synonym ◮ R. australe D. Don. 


Habitat ◮ Sub-alpine Himalayas, 

from Kashmir to Sikkim at altitudes 

of 3,300–5,200 m.; also cultivated in 

Assam. 

English ◮ Indian Rhubarb, Himalayan 

Rhubarb. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Amlaparni, Pitamuuli, 

Gandhini Revatikaa. Revandachini 

(roots). 

Unani ◮ Revandchini. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Revalchinikattai, 

Nattirevaichini. 

Action ◮ Purgative, astringent, 

aperient. Used for constipation 

and atonic dyspepsia. Not advised 

for patients suffering from gout, 

rheumatism, epilepsy. (When given 

internally, the root imparts a deep 

tinge to the urine.) 

The root gave emodin, emodin- 

3-monomethyl ether, chrysophanol, 

aloe-emodin, rhein. These occur free 

and as quinone, anthrone or dianthrone 

glycosides. The astringent principle 

consists of gallic acid together 

with small amounts of tannin. The 

drug also contain cinnamic and rheinolic 

acids, volatile oil, starch and 

R

544 Rheum nobile Hook. f. & Th. 

R 

calcium oxalate. Two major glycosidic 

active principles, sennoside A and 

B, are present along with free anthraquinones. 

At low doses, the tannin exerts astringent 

effect and relieves diarrhoea; 

at higher doses anthraquinones stimulate 

laxative effect and relieve constipation. 



There are three main types of rhubarbs—Chinese, 

Indian or Himalayan, 

and Rhapontic. 

The Chinese rhubarb consists of the 

rhizomes and roots of Rheum palmatum 

and R. officinale. 

The Indian rhubarb consists of dried 

rhizomes of R. emodi and R. webbianum; 

rhizomes and roots of R. 

moorcroftianum and R. spiciforme are 

also reported to be mixed with the 

drug. R. rhaponticum is the Rhapontic 

rhubarb. 

Rheum moorcroftianum Royle (the 

Himalayas at altitudes of 3,000– 

5,200 m., chiefly in Garhwal and Kumaon) 

possesses properties similar to 

those of R. emodi and the roots are 

mixed with the latter. 

Rheum spiciforme Royle (drier 

ranges of Kumaon and Sikkim at altitudes 

of 2,700–4,800 m.) also possesses 

purgative properties. The rhizomes 

and roots are mixed up with Himalayan 

rhubarb. 

Rheum webbianum Royle (the western 

and central Himalayas at altitudes 

of 3,000–5,000 m.) is the source of 

Himalayan rhubarb. 

Rheum palmatum is esteemed as 

the best type of (Chinese) rhubarb. 

Two new stilbene glycosides, 4 ′ -Omethylpiceid 

and rhapontin, isolat- 

ed from the roots, exhibited moderate 

alpha-glucosidase inhibitory activity. 

Anthraquinone glucoside, pulmatin, 

isolated from the roots, along 

with its congeners, chrysophanein and 

physcionin, showed cytotoxic activity 

against several types of carcinoma 

cells. Polysaccharides, isolated from 

the roots and rhizomes, contained lyxose, 

glucose, galactose, xylose, rhamnose, 

mannose and ribose. 

Dosage ◮ Root—0.2–1.0 g powder. 

(CCRAS.) 

Rheum nobile Hook. f. & Th. 


Habitat ◮ The Himalayas from Nepal 

to Bhutan at 3,900–4,800 m. 

Folk ◮ Tehuka (Sikkim). 

Action ◮ The roots resemble those 

of Rheum emodi, but are spongy 

and inert. Stems are acidic, used as 

salad. Dried leaves are sometimes 

used as a substitute for tobacco. 

Rheum officinale Baillon. 


Habitat ◮ Southeast Tibet, West and 

Northwest China. 

English ◮ Rhubarb. 

Unani ◮ Usaare Rewand. 

Action ◮ Astringent and cathartic 

(anthraquinones are laxative and 

tannins astringent), stomachic, aperient, 

cholinergic, gastric stimulant, 

antispasmodic, anti-inflammatory,

antiseptic. Used for indigestion, 

diarrhoea, dysentery and disorders 

of liver and gallbladder. 

Key application ◮ In constipation. 

Contraindicated in acute intestinal 

inflammation and obstruction. 


The British Herbal Pharmacopoeia, 

WHO.) 

Rhubarb contains 1,8-dihydroxyanthracene 

derivatives. The laxative 

effect of the herb is primarily due to its 

influence on the motility of the colon, 

inhibiting stationary and stimulating 

propulsive contractions. Stimulation 

of the chloride secretion increases the 

water and electrolyte content of stool. 


The plant extract of R. officinale 

is found to be strong and effective 

scavenger of oxygen radicals in xanthine/xanthine 

oxidase and other systems 

in vitro. 

Rheum rhaponticum, known as Rhapontic 

or English rhubarb, is extensively 

cultivated all over Europe and America; 

also cultivated to a small extent in 

India in the Khasi Hills, the Nilgiris 


Rhubarbs contain anthraquinones 

but English rhubarb contains only 

chrysophanic acid and some of its glycosides. 

Stilbene glycosides, present in 

other types, are also found in English 

rhubarb. The roots contain rhapontin. 

(1.42%), reported to restore oestrus 

cycle in castrated female rats. 

Rheum webbianum Royle. 


Rhinacanthus nasutus (L.) Kurz. 545 

Habitat ◮ Western Himalayas. 

Folk ◮ Archa. 

Action ◮ Antispasmodic, muscle 

relaxant, antiseptic. 

The rhizomes contain desoxyrhapontigenin. 

The compound, like papaverine, 

exhibited smooth muscle relaxant 

activity in a wide variety of in 

vitro and in vivo tests. Aqueous alcoholic 

extract showed papaverine-like 

non-specific spasmolytic activity. 

The paste of fresh rhizomes is applied 

on burns, blisters and boils to 

prevent scar formation. 

Rhinacanthus nasutus (L.) Kurz. 

Synonym ◮ R. communis Nees. 

Justicia nasuta L. 




English ◮ Snake Jasmine. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Yuuthiparni, Yuuthikaparni. 

Paalaka-Juuhi. 

Unani ◮ Gul-baglaa. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Nagamalli. 

Action ◮ Leaf, seed and root—used 

for skin diseases. A paste of the 

root, with lime juice, is applied 

externally to eczema, ringworm and 

Dhobi’s itch. 

The roots are reported to contain an 

antiseptic and antiparasitic active principle, 

rhinacanthin (1.9%). The plant is 

rich in potassium salts; also contains 

oxymethyl anthraquinones. 

The flowers contain rutin. 

R

546 Rhizophora mucronata Lam. 

R 

Dosage ◮ Leaf, seed, root—5–10 ml 

juice; 3–5 g powder. (CCRAS.) 

Rhizophora mucronata Lam. 


Habitat ◮ The Sunderbans and along 

the Coromandel Coast and the 


English ◮ True Mangrove. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Peykkandal, Kandal, 

Sorapinnai. 

Folk ◮ Kamo (Bengal), Kandal 


Action ◮ Bark—astringent. Used 

in the treatment of haemorrhages, 

haematuria. 

The leaves contain 9.1, unripe fruits 

12.0, ripe fruits 4.2, twig bark 9–12, and 

wood 7–14% tannins. 

The leaves gave campesterol, cholesterol, 

28-isofucosterol, beta-sitosterol, 

stigmasterol and stigmast-7-en-3 betaol. 

The plant gave alpha-and betaamyrins, 

betulin, lupeol, oleanolic and 

ursolic acids; gibberellins have also 


Honey collected from the flowers is 

reported to be poisonous. 

R. apiculata Blume, also known as 

Kandal, is found mixed up with R. mucronata 

in the tidal marshes of India 


Rhododendron anthopogon 

D. Don. 



Himachal Pradesh to Bhutan, from 

3,000 to 5,000 m. 

Folk ◮ Taalisri (Punjab), Taalish 

(Tibet), Tazaktsum, Taalis-faz 

(Kashmir). 

Action ◮ Leaves—stimulant. The 

plant yields an incense. The leaves 

of R. anthopogon get mixed up with 

those of Abies webbiana (used for 

respiratory diseases). 

The leaves contain quercetin, myricetin, 

taxifolin, kaempferol derivatives, 

ursolic acid and its acetate, epifriedinol, 

beta-sitosterol, betulinic acid 

and rutin. 

The leaves of R. lepidotum Wall. ex 

G.Don,knownasTaalisfurinPunjab; 

and R. setosum D. Don, known as 

Tsalluo in Bhutan, possess properties 

similar to those of R. anthopogon. 

Rhododendron arboreum Sm. 

Synonym ◮ R. puniceum Roxb. 



from Kashmir to Bhutan, the 

Nilgiris, Khasi Hills and Travancore. 

English ◮ Tree-Rhododendron, 

Rose-Tree. 

Folk ◮ Burans (Kumaon), Kurbak, 

Pullaas. 

Action ◮ Leaf—anticephalalgic 

(applied to the forehead). Leaf and 

stem-bark—spasmolytic. Flowers— 

used in diarrhoea and dysentery. 

The green leaves contain a glucoside, 

ericolin. The extracts of leaves,

stems and bark cause hypotension in 

cats and inhibit intestinal movements 

in rabbits. The acetone and chloroform 

extracts and a resinous fraction 

from the alcoholic extract of leaves depress 

respiration. The petroleum ether 

extract decreases the rate of heartbeat 

and contraction in isolated heart of 

frog. 

An alcoholic (50%) extract of the 

flowers lowered blood pressure in dogs 

and albino rats. 

Cyanidin-3-galactoside and cyanidin-3-arbinoside 

are present in the 

pigments of flowers. The leaves of 

var. nilgiricum and var. cinnamonum 

contain ursolic acid, friedelin, epifriedelanol, 

quercetin. A triterpenoid, 

campanulin, has been isolated from 

the leaves of var. nilagaricum. 

Rhododendron barbatum 

Wall. ex G. Don. 



Kumaon to Bhutan, extending to 

Assam. 

English ◮ Giantblood Rhododendron. 

Folk ◮ Chimal (Nepal), Kurbak, 

Guraans. 

Action ◮ Respiratory depressant, 

emetic, toxic. 

The leaves and flowers gave andromedotoxin 

which resembles tertiary 

amine veratrum alkaloids, particularly 

protoveratrine, in pharmacological 

action. Intravenous administration 

of andromedotoxin to dogs 

Rhododendron campanulatum D. Don. 547 

resulted in 20–40% reduction in blood 

pressure. It also closely resembles 

protoveratrine in its stimulating effect 

on the barostatic-pressor-reflexmechanism, 

respiratory effects and 

emetic action. It produces reflex vasodepressor 

responses in intact animals; 

in debuffered dogs, it produced 

vasopressor responses. It also produced, 

both direct and indirect, positive 

ionotropic effects, the latter being 

more pronounced. 

The leaves contain ursolic acid, 

alpha-amyrin, epi-friedelinol, campanulin 

and hyperoside. Chloroform 

extract of the leaves and shoots showed 

a depressant action. The honey from 

flowers is poisonous; contains andromedotoxin. 

Rhododendron campanulatum 

D. Don. 

Synonym ◮ R. aeruginosum Hk. f. 



at altitudes of 2,400–5,200 m. 

Folk ◮ Chimal (Kumaon, Nepal), 

Gagger vurmi, Nichnai (Kashmir). 

Cherailu, Taalis-far. 

Action ◮ Leaves—used in chronic 

rheumatism and sciatica. As a snuff, 

in colds and hemicrania. 

The leaves gave a toxic substance 

which resembles andromedotoxin; besides 

ericolin, ursolic acid, alpha-amyrin, 

friedelin, epi-friedelinol, campanulin, 

quercitin. The pigments of flowers 

contain myricetin and quercetin. 

R

548 Rhododendron cinnabarinum Hook. f. 

R 

Petroleum ether and chloroform extracts 

of leaves, stems and flowers lower 

blood pressure in cats and inhibit intestinal 

movements in rabbits. 

Rhododendron cinnabarinum 

Hook. f. 


Habitat ◮ Eastern Himalayas, 

extending into the Balipura tract 

and Aka hills of Assam at altitudes 

of 2,100–4,000 m. 

Folk ◮ Balu, Sanu, Chimal (Nepal). 

Action ◮ Plant—vasodepressor. 

The plant contains a toxic principle, 

andromedotoxin. The leaves 

are reported to contain friedelin, epifriedelinol, 

alpha-amyrin, campanulin, 

ursolic acid, triterpenes and quercetin. 

Theflowersarereportedtobepoisonous. 

R. falconeri Hook. f., known as Korlinga 

in Nepal, Kegu and Kalma in 

Bhutan, is found in the Himalayas 

from Nepal to Bhutan, Aka Hills, Naga 

Hills and Manipur at altitudes of 2,100– 

4,300 m. 

The leaves and stem contain andromedotoxin; 

leaves also contain ursolic 

acid, alpha-amyrin, friedelin, 

campanulin and quercetin. The flowers 

contain 3-rhamnoside and 3-galactoside 

of quercetin. The bark gave taraxerol, 

betulinic acid and quercetin. 

Petroleum ether extract of the leaves 

and stems lowers blood pressure in cats 

and inhibits intestinal movements in 

rabbits. 

Rhus chinensis Mill. 

Synonym ◮ R. javanica Linn. 

R. semialata Murr. 

Brucea javanica (L.) Merill. 



from Kashmir to Bhutan at 1,300– 

2,400 m. 

Folk ◮ Tatri, Arkhar (Punjab). 

Action ◮ Galls—astringent and 

expectorant. Used in ointments 

and suppositories employed in 

the treatment of haemorrhoids, 

swellings and wounds. Fruits— 

spasmolytic. Used for colic, 


Dry galls contain 50 to 80% tannin 

(in the form of Gallo tannic acid); 

small amounts of fat, resin and gum. 

The stem-bark contains 10.5% tannin. 

The fruit contains tannin, gallic acid 

and potassium acid salts, together with 

small amounts of aluminium, calcium, 

magnesium and iron acid salts of malic, 

tartaric and citric acids. 

The heartwood contained the flavonoids, 

pongapin, tetramethoxyfisetin 

and demethoxykanugin, and a dibenzoylmethane, 

ovalitenone. 

Rhus hookeri Sahni & Bahadur, synonym 

R. insignis Hk. f. is found in SikkimHimalayafromNepaltoBhutan 

at 1,600–2,000 m and in Khasi Hills at 

1,500 m. Juice of the plant is a powerful 

vesicant. The fruit contain a fat similar 

to that found in the fruit of R. javanica. 

Rhus coriaria Linn. 

Family ◮ Anacardiaceae.


English ◮ European or Sicilian 

Sumach (used in Unani medicine). 

Unani ◮ Sumaaq, Taatraak. 

Action ◮ Leaves and seeds— 

astringent, styptic. 

Limonene, nonanal and dec-2 (Z)enal 

were obtained from pericarp oil, 

whereas the leaf oil contained betacaryophyllene 

and patchoulane. Cembrane 

and beta-caryophyllene were 

isolated from branch and bark oil. 

Rhus parviflora Roxb. 


Habitat ◮ Dry hot slopes of the 

Himalayas from Punjab to Nepal 

and in the hills of Madhya Pradesh 


English ◮ Sumach. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Tintidi, Tintindeeka. 

Unani ◮ Sumaaq. 

Folk ◮ Raitung, Tung (Kumaon). 

Action ◮ Fruit juice—vermifuge. 


myricetin, quercetin and kaempferol 

and their 3-O-rhamnosides; the stems 

and leaves also gave hentriacontane, 

hentriacontanol, beta-sitosterol, lignoceric 

acid and iso-rhamnetin-3-alpha- 

L-arvinoside. 

Smooth Sumach and Sweet Sumach 

(Canada and USA) are equated with 

Rhus glabra L. and R. aromatica Ait. 

Smooth Sumach is astringent and diuretic. 

Sweet Sumach is used for its 

antidiabetic activity; the root bark is 

Rhus succedanea Linn. 549 

used for irritable bladder, bed-wetting 

and urinary incontinence. (Natural 


2007.) 


(CCRAS.) 

Rhus succedanea Linn. 

Synonym ◮ R. acuminata DC. 


Habitat ◮ The temperate Himalayas, 

from Kashmir, Sikkim to Bhutan at 

altitudes of 600–2,500 m. 

English ◮ Japanese Wax tree, Wild 

Varnish tree. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Karkatashringee. 

(Used as a substitute for Pistacia 

integerrima galls.). 

Unani ◮ Kaakraasingi. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Karkatakasringi, 

Kadukapoo (galls). 

Action ◮ Thorn-like excrescences 

on the branches—astringent, expectorant; 

prescribed in diarrhoea, 

dysentery and vomiting. Fruits— 

expectorant (used as an adjuvant in 

tuberculosis). 

The sapwood and heartwood contain 

polyphenols. The sapwood contains 

gallo tannin; the heartwood gave 

fisetin, and its -7-glucoside, fustin, garbanzol, 

3,7,4 ′ -trihydroxyflavone, gallic 

and ellagic acid. The bark is reported 

to contain 10% of tannin. 

The juice from the leaves causes blisters. 

Leaves contain 20% tannin (dry 

basis), a flavone glycoside rhoifolin, corilagin 

and shikimic acid. Ethanolic 

R

550 Rhynchosia minima (L.) DC. 

R 

extract of the leaves is reported to exhibit 

anticancer and antiviral activities. 

Latex from the stem also causes blisters. 

Mesocarp of the fruit contains ellagic 

acid. An acid isolated from the 

fruit is reported to be cardiotonic and 

sympathomimetic. It was found to be 

toxic to rabbits. However, the fruits 

are used in the treatment of tuberculosis. 

Hinokiflavone, isolated from the 

fruits, showed cytotoxic activity in vitro 

against KB culture cells. 

Drupes are rich in biflavones. 

The wax obtained from the pulpy 

mesocarp of the fruit contains palmitic 

77,stearic5,dibasic6,oleic12%,and 

linoleic acid (a trace). It is used as 

a substitute for beeswax. 

Rhynchosia minima (L.) DC. 


Habitat ◮ All over plains and in the 

Himalayas up to 1,200 m. 

Folk ◮ Raan-ghevaraa (smaller var.) 

(Maharashtra); Jhinki, Kammervel 

(Gujarat); Chittavarai (Tamil Nadu). 

Action ◮ Leaves—abortifacient. 

Seeds—bitter, toxic. 

The leaves afforded isovitexin and 

apigenin derivatives. 

Aerial parts gave steroidal glycosides, 

along with ergosterol peroxide, 

stigmasterol and lupeol; bergapten, 

isopimpinellin, umbelliferone and 

beta-sitosterol have also been isolated. 

The seed coat and pericarp contained 

gallic and protocatechuic acid, 

prodelphinmidine and hydroquinone 

diacetate and C-glycosyl flavones. 

The extract of seeds shows agglutinating 

activity with certain type of 

human red blood cells. 

R. bracteata Benth. ex Baker (upper 

Gangetic plains) and R. jacobii Chandra 

& Shetty (Tirunelveli, Tamil Nadu) 

contain vitexin, isovitexin, orientin, 

iso-orientin and apigenin derivatives. 

Ribes nigrum Linn. 

Family ◮ Grossulariaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Cold temperate regions 

extending from Himalayas to 

northern Asia and Europe. 

English ◮ European Black Currant. 

Folk ◮ Nabar. 

Action ◮ Dried leaves and twigs— 

a home remedy for coughs. 

Leaves—diuretic, hypotensive, 

refrigerant. An infusion is used 

for inflammatory conditions, 

sore throat, hoarseness. Fruits— 

refrigerant, mildly spasmolytic, 

vasoprotective, anti-inflammatory. 

Black currents are very rich in vitamin 

C (average 150 mg/100g) and contain 

0.9–1.7% pectin as calcium pectate, 

also minerals, potassium (372 mg/ 

100 g). The acidity of the fruit is mainly 

due to citric acid; malic acid is present 

in small amounts. Glucose and fructose 

are principal sugars; sucrose is 

a minor component. 

The flavonoids in the fruits include 

kaempferol, quercetin and myricetin. 

About 0.3% anthocyanosides, concentrated 

mainly in the skin, consist of 

glycosides of cyanidol and delphinidol.

The anthocyanosides are reportedly 

bacteriostatic and exhibit vasoprotective 


They are antisecretory against cholera 

toxin-induced intestinal fluid secretion 

in vitro. 

The leaves contain an anti-inflammatory 

principle, pycnometol and minute 

quantities of an essential oil composed 

mostly of terpenes. 

Polyphenolic extract of buds inhibited 

lipid peroxidation by rat liver microsomes. 

Polyphenols present in R. nigrum 

and R. rubrum (Red Current, Western 

Himalayas from Kumaon to Kashmir) 

exhibit free radical scavenging activity. 

The seed oil lowers VLDL and total 

cholesterol. 

Contraindicated in bleeding disorders. 


Ricinus communis Linn. 




Karnataka, and Orissa. 

English ◮ Castor seed. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Eranda, Chitrabija, 

Triputi; Tribija, Vaataari, 

Chanchu, Manda, Uruvaka, 

Gandharva-hastaa, Panchaangula, 

Vardhamaana, Uttaanpatraka, 

Vyaaghrapuchha, Chitraa. 

Unani ◮ Bedanjeer, Arand. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Ammanakku. 

Action ◮ Oil from seeds and young 

leaf—purgative. Oil is used in 

dermatosis and eczema. Leaves— 

Ricinus communis Linn. 551 

used as poultice to extract the worm. 

Root—a decoction is administered 

for lumbago and allied complaints. 

Bark—purgative. 


recommends the decoction of the 

dried, mature root in rheumatism, pain 

in the urinary bladder, lumbago, diseases 

of the abdomen and inflammations; 

fresh leaf in helminthiasis, dysuria, 

arthritis, pain in the urinary bladder, 

dysuria, abscesses; dried seed powder 

in constipation, rheumatism, diseases 

of the liver and spleen, piles, lumbago, 

sciatica. 

The root extract exhibited significant 

anti-inflammatory activity against 

carrageenan-, bradykinin-, 5-HT-and 

dextran-induced rat hind paw oedema. 

N-Demethylricinine showed dose-dependent 

anticholestatic and hepatoprotective 

activities in rats. 

Castor oil, derived from the seeds, 

is a well-known purgative (dose 5– 

20 ml). 

Castor seed contains toxic components 

(2.8–3.0% on whole seed; about 

10% in the flour) which are highly poisonous 

to human beings and animals. 

The principal toxic substance is the albumin, 

ricin. Allergens and a feebly 

toxic alkaloid ricinine is also present. 

An ulcerative factor in the seed is reported. 

Like other toxalbumins, ricin 

agglutinizes the mammalian red bleed 

corpuscles. (Ricin loses its toxicity 

and antigenic action on treatment with 

potassium permanganate.) 

Castor oil consists principally of ricinoleic 

acid. Stearic, oleic, linoleic 

and dihydroxystearic acids are present 

in small amounts. The strong laxative 

R

552 Rivea corymbosa Hallier f. 

R 

property of castor oil is reported due 

to the local irritant action caused in 

the intestines by ricinoleic acid formed 

by hydrolysis under the influence of 

lipolytic enzymes. (The oil should not 

be used with fat-soluble vermifuge, it 

may increase its absorption and toxicity.) 


decoction. (API, Vol. I.) Leaf—10– 

20 ml juice; 2–5 g powder; seed— 

0.5–3 g powder. (API, Vol. III.) 

Rivea corymbosa Hallier f. 



cultivated as an ornament in gardens 

in Mumbai, Pune and Belgaum. 

English ◮ Ololiuqui, Snake Plant. 

Action ◮ Seeds—narcotic. 

The psychic effect produced by the 

ground seeds have been ascribed to the 

presence of ergot-type alkaloids (up 

to 0.07%) found in embryo. Among 

the principal alkaloids identified in the 

seeds are: ergine, isoergine, elymoclavine, 

lysergol and chanoclavine. Ergometrine, 

clymoclavine, penniclavine 

and ergometrinine have also been reported. 

Ergine has been reported to be 

the most and lysergol the least effective. 

A glucoside, turbicoryn, isolated 

from the seeds, was found to have 

a CNS stimulant action. (Doses exceeding 

31.6 mg/kg proved fatal to test 

animals in 5–10 min.) 

Ergine and isoergine are present in 

the leaves (0.03%, dry basis) and stems 

(0.01%, dry basis) but not in the roots. 

Rivea hypocrateriformis Choisy. 



English ◮ Midnapore Creeper. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Phanji. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Budthi-kiray. 

Folk ◮ Kalmi-lataa, Phaang. 

Action ◮ Root—a tonic after 

childbirth. Leaves—astringent; 

used in haemorrhagic diseases, 

diarrhoea, dysentery. 

Rivea ornate (Roxb.) Choisy. 



Ayurvedic ◮ Phanji (var.). 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Machuttai. 

Folk ◮ Baravat, Phaang. 

Action ◮ Juice of the plant—used 

topically in haemorrhagic diseases 

and piles. 

Rivina humilis Linn. 

Synonym ◮ R. laevis Linn. 

Family ◮ Phytolacaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Native to warmer parts 

of America; introduced into Indian 

gardens. 

English ◮ Baby Pepper, Dog Blood, 

Blood Berry, Rouge-Plant. 

Action ◮ Berries—febrifuge, intestinal 

antiseptic.

A betaxanthin, humilixanthin, has 

been isolated from the berry. 

A decoction of the herb is used for 

cold, chest congestion and pain, diarrhoea 

and jaundice. Berries alleviate 

dysentery and amenorrhoea. 

Pounded leaves are used for woundhealing 

and for treating catarrh. 

Robinia pseudoacacia Linn. 



Jammu & Kashmir. 

English ◮ Locust tree, False Acacia, 

Robinia, Black Locust. 

Action ◮ Leaves—laxative, antispasmodic 

(an infusion is prescribed 

in digestive disorders). Flowers— 

diuretic, antispasmodic. 

Thebark,leavesandrootscontain 

a toxalbumin, robin (1.6% in the bark), 

which resembles ricin present in the 

castor seed. The bark also contains 

a glucoside robinitin (3%), syringin, 

tannin (up to about 7.0%). Inner bark 

contains amygdalin and urease. 

The leaves are rich in calcium, phosphorus 

and potash. The presence of 

glycosides, acaciin, apigenin-7-bioside, 

apigenin-7-trioside and indican, have 

also been reported. 

The flowers are powerfully diuretic 

due to a glycoside, robinin. Flowers 

also contain l-asparagine. 

The roots are rich in asparagine, also 

contain robin. Root bark, if taken in 

excess, is emetic and purgative. 

The bark and young shoots are poisonous 

to livestock. 

Rorippa dufia Hara. 

Rosa alba Linn. 553 

Synonym ◮ R. indica Hiern. 

Nasturtium indicum DC. 

Family ◮ Brassicaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Throughout India, in damp 

places, ascending up to 2,100 m in 

the Himalayas. 

Unani ◮ Khoobkalaan (also equated 

with Sisymbrium iro Linn., Hedge 

Mustard, London Rocket). 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kattu-kadugu. 

Action ◮ Plant—antiscorbutic, 

stimulant, diuretic (given in 

diarrhoea, dysentery and fever). 

Seeds—laxative, prescribed in the 

treatment of asthma. 

Glucosinolates of 8-methylthio-octyl, 

8-methylsulphinyloctyl and 2-phenylethyl 


seeds. 

R. islandica (Oeder) Borbas (Bihar, 

Bengal, Kerala) and R. montana Small 

(Punjab to Sikkim) are used for antiscorbutic, 

digestive and diuretic properties. 

Rosa alba Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Asian Minor region. 

Cultivated in Indian gardens. 

English ◮ Common English Dog 

Rose, White Cottage Rose. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Sevati, Shveta Taruni. 

(Flowers—white or bluish.) 

Unani ◮ Sevati. Garden var.— 

Gul-safed Bustaani, Vard Abyaz. 

R

554 Rosa bourboniana Desportes. 

R 

Wild var.—Gul-safed Sahraai, Vard 

Abyaz Barri. 

Action ◮ Flower—cardiac tonic, 

prescribed in palpitation of heart, 

febrifuge. Petal—laxative. 

Rose hip contains pectin, citric acid 

and malic acid which are responsible 

for its laxative activity. 

The pollen contains carotene (2.08 

mg/100 g), free and bound amino acids 

and sugars. 

The major constituents of the essential 

oil are geraniol, beta-phenylethyl 

alcohol, beta-geranic acid, geraniol esters, 

nerol, citronellol, eugenol, methyleugenol 

and benzoate. 

R. Canina Linn. is equated with (Indian) 

Dog Rose. The anthocyanin, 

isolated from the petals, exhibits radioprotective 

effect. The scavenging and 

antilipoperoxidant activitiesofthefruit 

depend on the polyphenol content. 

Rosa bourboniana Desportes. 



India, particularly in Uttar Pradesh 

on commercial scale, for rose water. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Taruni, Desi Gulaab, 

Baaraamaasi, Cheenia-Gulaab. 

(Flowers—usually purple.) 

Siddha ◮ Rojapoo (Tamil). 

Action ◮ Fruit—applied to wounds, 

injuries, sprains, foul ulcers. 

Rosa centifolia Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Cultivated chiefly in Uttar 

Pradesh and Bihar. 

English ◮ Cabbage Rose, Provence 

Rose, Hundred-leaved Rose. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Shatapatri, Shatapatrikaa 

(Shatapatra is equated with Nelumbo 

nucifera.), Taruni, Devataruni, 

Karnikaa, Chaarukesharaa, Laakshaa, 

Gandhaaddhyaa. (Flowers— 

usually pink and double.) 

Unani ◮ Gul-e-Surkh. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Iroja, Rajapoo. 

Action ◮ Flowers—a decoction is 

prescribed for inflammation of the 

mouth and pharynx, and ulcers 

of the intestine. Powder of rose 

buttons and seeds—astringent in 

haemorrhage and diarrhoea. 

The flowers and leaves contain 1.3 

and 8.5% of saponin respectively. Petels 

are reported to contain methionine 

sulphoxide. 

Cabbage rose yields a volatile oil 

(0.2%) consisting mainly of citronellol, 

geraniol, nerol, phenylethanol, linalool 

and citral. It contains 15% tannins 

(oligomeric proanthocyanidins). 

Dosage ◮ Dried flower—3–6 g 


Rosa chinensis Jacq. 



Kannauj, Kanpur and Hathras. 

English ◮ Bengal Rose, Monthly 

Rose.

Ayurvedic ◮ Taruni-Kantaka (nonclassical). 

(Flowers—crimson or 

pink.) 

Unani ◮ Chini Gulaab. 

Folk ◮ Kaantaa-Gulaab. 

Action ◮ Hips—applied to wounds, 

injuries, sprains and foul ulcers. 

R. chinensis Jacq. and R. borboniana 

Desp. are synonyms of Rosa indica, 

found and cultivated throughout India. 

This variety is also known as Edward 

Rose or Kat Gulaab. 

Rosa damascena Mill. 



Aligarh, Ghazipur and Kannauj, 

grown in gardens throughout India. 

English ◮ Damask Rose. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Taruni. (Flowers—red, 

pink or white.) 

Unani ◮ Gul-e-Surkh, Vard, Varde-Ahmar. 

Stamens—Zard-e-Vard. 

Fruit—Dalik, Samar-ul-Vard, 

Smar-e-Gul. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Irosa. 

Folk ◮ Fasali Gulaab. 

Action ◮ Flower buds—astringent, 

expectorant, laxative; used as 

a cardiac tonic and aperient. 

Stamens and fruits—astringent. 

Petals—Gulkand (a confection in 

sugar)—laxative, anti-inflammatory 

(used in sore throat and tonsilitis. 

Rose water—cooling, refrigerant, 

antiseptic, anti-inflammatory (used 

as a remedy for skin irritation, also 

for sore eyes). 

Rosa macrophylla Lindl. 555 

All parts of the rose plant yielded 

quercetin, kaempferol and cyanidin. 

Lycopene, rubixanthin, zeaxanthin, 

xanthophyll and taraxanthin have been 

isolated from the hips. The flowers 

contain an essential oil with citronellol, 

nerol, geraniol, beta-phenylethanol 

and its glucoside, eugenol and methyl 

eugenol; other constituents include 

organic acids, chlorogenic acid, tannin, 

cyanin, cyanidin and its 3,5-diglucoside, 

quercitrin, carotene and 

sugars. Pollen from flowers contain 

carotene (0.76 mg/100 g), sugars (1.0%) 

and chlorogenic acid (1.5%). Their proline 

content is found unusually high. 

The red colouring matter consists 

of cyanin (9–10% on dry weight basis); 

a yellow glucoside of quercetin 

and quercitrin is also present. Flowers, 

usually, yield 0.04% oil or otto of 

rose. 

Dog Rose, extensively cultivated in 

Europe, North Africa and parts of 

Asia, is equated with Rosa canina Lin. 

The rose hip contains vitamin C (0.2– 

2.0%), malic and citric acid, pectins 

(15%), invert sugar (12–15%), tannins 

(2%), carotenoids, flavonoids. 

Preparations of Rose hips are used 

for the prevention and treatment of 

colds and influenza-type infections, for 

the treatment vitamin C deficiencies; 

and for increasing resistance. 

Rosa macrophylla Lindl. 



from Punjab to Sikkim at altitudes 

of 1,200–3,600 m. 

R

556 Rosa moschata Hook. f. non-Mill. nec Herrm. 

R 

Ayurvedic ◮ Vanya Taruni (nonclassical). 

(Flowers—pink, fruits— 

red.) 

Folk ◮ Ban-gulaab. 

Action ◮ Fruits—rich in vitamin C 

(769 mg/100 g). 

Rosa moschata 

Hook. f. non-Mill. nec Herrm. 

Synonym ◮ R. brunonii Lindl. 


Habitat ◮ Central and Western 

Himalayas, ascending to 3,000 m. 

English ◮ Himalayan Musk Rose. 

(Flowers—white, fruit—orange red 

or dark brown.) 

Ayurvedic ◮ Kubjaka (non-classical). 

Folk ◮ Kujai, Kuujaa. 

Action ◮ Plant—used in bilious 

affections, irritation of the skin and 

eye diseases. Rose water and otto 

is extracted from the flowers in 


Rosa multiflora Thunb. 

Synonym ◮ R. polyantha Sieb. & 

Zucc. 


Habitat ◮ Cultivated in Kulu. 

Occasionally found in hedges and 

abandoned coffee plantations in 

Upper Ghats. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Rakta-Taruni (nonclassical). 

Folk ◮ Gulaab. 

Action ◮ Fruit—antiseptic, applied 

to wounds, injuries, sprains and 

foul ulcers. 

The fruit yielded beta-sitosterol, scoparone, 

salicylic and gallic acid. Fruits 

contained multiflorin; flower petals 

gave astragalin. A purgative compound, 

multinoside A acetate, has been 

isolated from the fruit. Quercetin-3- 

O-xyloside, isoquercitrin and hyperin 

were also isolated. 

Floral absolute oil contains eugenol 

(22.8), phenylethanol (18.1) and heneicosane 

(10.2%). 

The root gave a triterpenoid, tormentic 

acid. 

The plant extract, along with kojic 

acid or its derivatives, produced excellent 

skin-lightening and sun-burn preventing 

effects. 

Rosa rubra Blackw. 

Synonym ◮ R. gallica Linn. 



English ◮ French Rose. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Rakta-Taruni (nonclassical), 

Gulaab. 

Action ◮ Dried petals—tonic 

and astringent. Used in debility, 

excessive mucous discharges and 

bowel complaints. The oil and rose 

water—used in bronchial asthma 

and as a remedy for skin irritation. 

The flowers yield 0.027–0.036% of 

an essential oil. It contains geraniol 

40–76, l-citronellol 15–37, nerol 5–10,

phenyl ethyl alcohol 3–9, eugenol 1, esters 

3–5, phenyl acetic acid traces; and 

stearoptene 15–30%; citronellol, citral, 

farnesol, l-linalool and nonylaldehyde 

are also present. (The flowers, unlike 

those of Rosa damascena, develop their 

perfume when dried.) 

The petals also contain fatty oil, sugars 

(3–14% as invert), tannin (Rosa tannic 

acid 10–24%), cyanin (up to 10%), 

cyanidin and quercitrin. 

The pollen contains carotene (1.67 

mg/100 g), free and bound amino acids 

and sugars. 

Fresh hips and their pulp contain 

545 and 847 mg/100 g vitamin C respectively. 

Rosa sericea Lindl. 



from Chamba eastwards to Bhutan 

and Assam at altitudes of 2,500 to 

4,200 m. 

Folk ◮ Jangali Gulaab. (Flowers— 

white or yellow, fruit—red.) 

Action ◮ Fruits—rich in vitamin C. 

Rosa webbiana Wall. 


Habitat ◮ Dry and inner Himalayas 



Ayurvedic ◮ Laddaakhi-Sevati. 

(Flowers— pink or deep red, fruit— 

red.) 

Rosmarinus officinalis Linn. 557 

Action ◮ Fruits—rich in vitamin C 

(751 mg/100 g,) concentration up to 

8% in dry pulp. 

Roscoea procera Wall. 


Habitat ◮ The Himalayas at altitudes 

of 1,500–2,100 m, in grassy slopes. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Kaakoli, Kshira-Kaakoli. 

Action ◮ Tuberous root—revitalizing 

tonic, age-sustainer; used in 

restorative tonics. 

One of the ingredients of the “Eight 

Tonic Herbs” (Ashta-varga)ofAyurvedic 

medicine. 

Rosmarinus officinalis Linn. 



region, cultivated in Nilgiri 

Hills. 

English ◮ Rosemary. 

Folk ◮ Rusmari. 

Action ◮ Essential oil from flowers 

and leaves—anti-inflammatory, 

astringent, antiseptic, stomachic, 

carminative; used externally in 

circulatory disorders. Flowering 

tops and leaves—carminative, 

diuretic, emmenagogue; vapor 

baths afford relief in incipient 

catarrh, rheumatism and muscular 

affections. 

Key application ◮ Leaf—internally in 

dyspeptic complaints; externally in 

R

558 Rotula aquatica Lour. 

R 

supportive therapy for rheumatic 

diseases and circulatory problems. 

(German Commission E.) Shows 

improvement of hepatic and biliary 

function.(ESCOP.) Carminative, 

spasmolytic of hepatic and biliary 

function. (ESCOP.) Carminative, 

spasmolytic. (The British Herbal 


In research using rats, the essential 

oil and ethanolic extract of rosemary 

decreased drug-induced hepatotoxicity 

and the suppression of bone marrow 

cells. Phenolic compounds in the herb 

exhibit antioxidant activity. (Sharon 

M. Herr.) 

The herb contains volatile oil (1.0– 

2.5%), composed mainly of 1, 8-cineole 

(20–25%), alpha-pinene (15–25%), 

camphor (10–25%), others include borneol, 

isobutyl acetate, camphene, limonene, 

linalool, 3-octanone, terpineol, 

verbenol; flavonoids including apigenin, 

diosmetin, diosmin; rosmarinic 

acid and other phenolic acids; diterpenes; 

rosmaricine; ursolic acid, oleanolic 

acid and their derivatives. 

The anti-inflammatory effect of 

Rosemary has been attributed to rosmarinicacid,ursolicacidandapigenin. 

Among flavonoids, diosmin is reported 

to be more effective in decreasing 

capillary fragility than rutin. A rosmaricine 

derivative exhibits stimulant 

and mild analgesic activity. 

The phenolic fraction, isolated from 

the leaves, also from the oil, exhibits 

antioxidant activity. 

Pressed juice of leaves possesses 

a strong antibacterial action on Staphylococcus 

aureus, E. coli and Bacillis subtilis. 

An infusion of the plant with borax 

is used as a hair wash for preventing 

hair loss. 

Rosemary oil, in combination with 

the essential oil from thyme, lavender 

and cedarwood, showed improvement 

in hair growth by 44% after 7 months 

of treatment for alopecia areata. (Natural 


2007.) 

Rotula aquatica Lour. 

Synonym ◮ Rhabdia lyciodes C. B. 

Clarke in part non Linn. 

Shretia cuneata Wt. 

Family ◮ Borginaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Kumaon to Assam and 

in Central, Western and Southern 

India, and the Andamans. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Cheppu-nerinjal. 

Folk ◮ Paashaanbheda (Karnataka). 

Action ◮ Root—diuretic; used for 

stone in the bladder; also in venereal 

diseases. The diuretic action of the 

root is attributed to the presence of 

allantoin; a sterol, rhabdiol, has also 

been isolated from the roots. 

Rourea minor (Gaertn.) Alston. 

Synonym ◮ R. santaloides Wight & 

Arn. 

Connarus santaloides Vahl. 

Family ◮ Connaraceae. 

Habitat ◮ Western parts of the 

Peninsula, from Konkan southward 

and in West Bengal and Assam. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Vridha.

Folk ◮ Kal-vidhaaraa, Vaakeri 

(Maharashtra), Vardaar. 

Action ◮ Roots and twigs—bitter 

tonic; prescribed in rheumatism, 

pulmonary complaints, scurvy, 

diabetes; externally for ulcers and 

skin diseases. Wood—a decoction 

is administered after parturition 

and as a febrifuge. Wood, roots and 

fruits—poisonous. 

The plant is credited with antiseptic 

and antitubercular properties. 

The roots contain beta-D-glucoside 

of beta-sitosterol, hentriacontane and 

meso-inositol. 

Roylea cinerea (D. Don) Baillon. 

Synonym ◮ R. elegans Wall. ex Benth. 

R. calycina (Roxb.) Briq. 


Habitat ◮ Himalaya from Kashmir 

to Nepal, at 1,200–3,700 m. 

Folk ◮ Patkarru; Titpaati, Karanoi, 

Karui (Kumaon); Kaur, Kauri 

(Punjab). 

Action ◮ Leaves—a decoction is used 

as a bitter tonic and febrifuge; also 

as a tonic in contusions. The leaves 

contain betulin, beta-sitosterol, 

beta-amyrin, stigmasterol, cetyl 

alcohol, glucose, fructose, arabinose 

and palmitic, stearic, oleic, gallic, 

oxalic and tartaric acids. The leaves 

and stems contain the diterpenes, 

calyenone, precalyone and calyone, 

and a triterpene, moronic acid. 

Precalyone exhibited antitumour 

activity against P-388 lymphocytic 

leukaemia. 

Rubia cordifolia Linn. 559 

Aerial parts exhibited spasmolytic 

and CNS-depressant activity. 

Rubia cordifolia Linn. 

Synonym ◮ R. munjesta Roxb. 



ascending to an altitude of 3,700 m. 

English ◮ Indian Madder, Bengal 

Madder. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Manjishthaa, Vikasaa, 

Samangaa, Yojanavalli, Kaalameshika, 

Raktaangi, Raktayashtikaa, 

Arunaa, Gandira, Jingi. 

Unani ◮ Manjeeth. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Manjitti. 

Action ◮ Roots and dried stem— 

blood purifier, astringent, diuretic, 

emmenagogue, deobstruent, 

antidysenteric, antiseptic, alterative. 


recommends the use of the dried 

stem in blood, skin and urinogenital 

disorders; dysentery; piles, ulcers, inflammations; 

erysipelas, skin diseases 

and rheumatism. (Roots, leaves and 

seeds of R.cordifolia,R.tinctorumand 

allied species are used in amenorrhoea, 

liver diseases, gall and spleen complaints.) 

(Mutagenic and carcinogenic 

aspects of the drug are under investigation.) 

It is reported that after oral administration 

of the root decoction, the urine 

and bones of the patient show a red 

tinge. 

The roots are rich in anthraquinones 

and their glycosides (around 20), the 

R

560 Rubia tinctorum Linn. 

R 

important ones include purpurin (trihydroxy 

anthraquinone), munjistin 

(xanthopurpurin-2-carboxylic acid); 

besides xanthopurpurin, peudopurpurin 

(purpurin-3-carboxylic acid), 

free alizarin as well as its glucoside. 

Whole plant yielded pentacylic triterpenic 

acids—rubicoumaric and rubifolic 

acids. 

Antitumour cyclic hexapeptides 

have been isolated from the root (while 

lucidin is thought to be carcinogenic). 

The root extracts of R. sikkimensis 

Kurz, known as Naaga-Madder (Nepal 

eastwards to Assam, Nagaland and Manipur); 

are very similar to those of R. 

cordifolia. 

Dosage ◮ Stem—2–4 g. (API, Vol. 

III.) 

Rubia tinctorum Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Native to Southern Europe 

and parts of Asia; also found in 

Kashmir. 

English ◮ Alizari, European Madder. 

Action ◮ Root—used for menstrual 

and urinary disorders and liver 

diseases. 

The root contains anthraquinone 

and their glycosides, including alizarin, 

purpurin, purpuroxanthin, pseudopurpurin, 

rubiadin, ruberythric acid 

and lucidin primeveroside. There are 

indications that lucidin is carcinogenic. 

All parts of the plant contained an iridoid, 

asperuloside. 

Rubus ellipticus Sm. 


Habitat ◮ Punjab to Assam, extending 

southwards into the Western Ghats 

and Deccan. 

English ◮ Gach Strawberry. 

Folk ◮ Hinsaalu, Anchhu. Gouri-phal 

(Kashmir), Tolu, Aselu (Nepal). 

Action ◮ Root and young stem— 

administered in colic pain. 

Extract of the leaves showed anticonvulsant 

activity against electricalinduced 

convulsions, potentiated hypnotic 

effect of pentobarbitone sodium 

and had positive inotropic and 

chronotropic effects. (Compendium of 

Indian Medicinal Plants, Vol. 5.) 

Rubus fruticosus Linn. (European 

BlackBerry, European Bramble, known 

as Vilaayati Anchhu) is cultivated in the 

valley of Kashmir and in Assam and 

Tamil Nadu up to 2,000 m. A decoction 

of the root is used for dysentery 

and whooping cough. The plant gave 

a triterpenic acid, rubitic acid, characterized 

as 7 alpha-hydroxyursolic 

acid. 

Key application ◮ Rubus fruticosus 

leaf—in nonspecific, acute diarrhoea, 

mild inflammation of the 

mucosa of oral cavity and throat. 


Rubus rugosus Sm. synonym R. 

moluccanus auct non Linn., (known 

as Kalsol in Kumaon) is found in Central 

and Eastern tropical and temperate 

Himalaya from Nepal to Sikkim and 

in Assam. The plant contains triterpenes, 

also afforded rubusic acid and

eta-sitosterol; leaves gave tormentic 

acid. Leaves exhibit astringent, emmenagogue 

and abortifacient properties. 

Rubus niveus Thunb. (Mysore Raspberry, 

Mahabaleshwar Raspberry) is 

common in evergreen forests of Mahabaleshwar. 

European Raspberry is equated with 

Rubus idaeus Linn. The leaves contain 

flavonoids, mainly glycosides of kaempferol, 

quercetin and tannins. Raspberry 

leaf tea has been used in Europe 

to facilitate child birth. Its uterine relaxant 

effects have been demonstrated 

in animals (the extract appears to effect 

only the pregnant uterus, no activity 

has been observed on the nonpregnant 

uterus). 

The leaves of European Raspberry 

(Rubus idaeus) and other species exhibit 

astringent, carminative and spasmolytic 

activity. Leaves are used for 

painful and profuse menstruation and, 

as mentioned earlier, for making parturitioneasier.Aninfusionisusedfor 

bowel complains, also as a blood purifier. 

Leaves contain ascorbic acid (about 

80 mg/100 g). Polyphenol content of 

the fruit (methanolic extract) exhibited 

scavenging and antilipo-peroxidant 

activities. 

Rubus idaeus has been introduced 

into India and is cultivated on a small 

scale in South Indian hill stations. 

The leaf of Rubus idaeus has been 

included among unapproved herbs by 

German Commission E, as its efficacy 

has not been documented. 

Ruellia strepens Linn. 


Ruellia tuberosa Linn. 561 


introduced into Indian garden as 

ornament. 

Folk ◮ Kiranti-takkaaram (Tamil 

Nadu). 

Action ◮ Herb—diuretic; used 

for urinary disorders in Siddha 

medicine. 

Ruellia suffruticosa Roxb. 

Synonym ◮ Dipteracanthus suffruticosus 

Viogt. 


Habitat ◮ Native to central America; 

introduced into Indian gardens as 

ornament. 

Folk ◮ Chaarapaatu, Chaaraparaad 

(Bihar). 

Action ◮ Plant—used in renal 

affections, gonorrhoea, syphilis and 

other venereal diseases. 

Ruellia tuberosa Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Native to central America; 


English ◮ Meadow-weed. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Tapas-kaaya. 

Action ◮ Herb—emetic; used 

as a substitute for ipecacuanha. 

A decoction is given in chronic 

bronchitis; also used as a diuretic 

for the treatment of stones in the 

bladder. 

R

562 Rumex acetosa Linn. 

R 

Rumex acetosa Linn. 




English ◮ Garden Sorrel, Sorrel 

Dock. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Chukram, Chuukaa. 

Unani ◮ Hammaaz-Barri. 

Action ◮ Laxative, diuretic, antiscorbutic, 

refrigerant. Used for scurvy, 

as a cooling drink in febrile disorders, 

as a corrective of scrofulous 

deposits. Seeds—astringent (in 

haemorrhages). 

Flowers—hepatoprotective and antihaemorrhagic. 

Root—used for jaundice, 

also for gravel and stone in the 

kidneys. 

Aerial parts gave rutin, hyperin 

and vitexin and traces of oxymethylanthraquinone. 

The roots contain 

anthraquinones—chrysophanol, physcion 

and emodin anthrones. 

The leaves contain 124.0 mg/100 g 

ascorbic acid, about 0.3% oxalic acid. 

Free oxalic acid caused fatal hypoglycaemia 

in rabbits. 

Rumex acetosella Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Eastern Himalayas, Sikkim 


English ◮ Sheep Sorrel. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Chukrikaa, Chuko. 

Unani ◮ Hammaaz, Shaaka-turshak, 

Tursh, Jangali Paalak. 

Action ◮ Diuretic, diaphoretic, 

antiscorbutic, refrigerant. Fresh 

plant is used in urinary and kidney 

diseases. 

The herb contains anthraquinones, 

chrysophanol, emodin and physcion. 

Free ascorbic acid content (50–150 

mg/100 g) remains constant throughout 

the year. 

Rumex crispus Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Native to Europe; found in 

Mt. Abu. 

English ◮ Yellow Dock, Curled Dock. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Chukra, Chukrikaa, 

Patraamla, Rochani, Shatvedhani. 

Action ◮ Root—used as a laxative 

in rheumatism, bilious disorders, 

and as an astringent in piles and 

haemorrhagic affections; also 

used for skin eruptions, chronic 

skin diseases, scrofula, scurvy, 

congested liver and jaundice. Acts 

like Sarsaparilla when used for 

scrofulous skin affections and 

glandular swellings. Seeds— 

astringent. Used for dysentery. 

The root contains anthraquinones 

(about 2.17–4%) including nepodin, 

and other glycosides based on chrysophanol, 

physcion and emodin; also 

tannins, rumicin and oxalates. Large 

doses should be avoided. Disturbances 

caused by the plant are attributed 

to rumicin. The root and rhizome 

are reported to stimulate bile production. 


Database, 2007.)

The leaves contain 30 mg/100 g ascorbic 

acid. 

R. crispus is pharmacologically more 

active than rhubarb, because the extracts 

of the roots of the former contain 

more quantity of anthraquinones 

(2.17%) than the extracts of the latter 

(1.42%). 

It has been suggested that Amlavetas 

should be equated with R. crispus. 

Rumex dentatus Linn. 


Habitat ◮ The Himalayas up to 

300 m, and in the plains from 

Assam to Western and Southern 

India. 

Folk ◮ Jangali Paalak. 

Action ◮ Plant—astringent; used in 

cutaneous disorders. 

The leaves contain vitamin C 115 mg 

and vitamin A value 11,700 IU/100 g 

and are a rich source of calcium and 

beta-carotene. The dried leaves contained 

7.8% of flavonoids and 0.04% of 

anthraquinone derivatives. Flavonoids 

include rutin, avicularin, quercitrin, 

quercetin. Roots contain chrysophanic 

acid and emodin, the total anthraquinone 

content being 0.13%. 

Rumex hastatus D. Don. 



Kumaon to Kashmir, between 300– 

2,400 m. 

Rumex nepalensis Spreng. 563 

Folk ◮ Amlora, Chumlora (Kumaon); 

Khattimal, Katambal (Punjab). 


The root and bark yield 21–23% tannin. 

Rumex maritimus Linn. 



Assam, Bengal, Western Ghats and 

the Nilgiris. 

English ◮ Golden Dock. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Kunanjara. 

Unani ◮ Seeds—Beejband, (siyah or 

safed), Jangali Paalak. 

Action ◮ Leaves—catharitic; externally 

applied to burns. Seeds— 

incorporated in sex-tonics as aphrodisiac. 

(Seeds of Sida cordifolia 

and Abutilon indicum are also used 

as Beejband.) Roots are used as 

a substitute for rhubarb. 

The leaves contain anthraquinones 

both in free and bound forms. The 

fruits contain rumarin (0.12%) rutin 

and hyperin. The seeds contain 5.1% 

tannin. 

The roots are purgative; contain 

chrysophanic acid, saccharose and tannin 

(6%). 

The seeds and leaves contain rumarin, 

rutin, hyperin, chrysophanic 

acid, charose, tannin, emodin and its 

monoethyl ether, beta-sitosterol and 

its glucoside. 

Rumex nepalensis Spreng. 


R

564 Rumex scutatus Linn. 

R 


Western Ghats and the Nilgiris. 

Folk ◮ Kulli (Kumaon). 

Action ◮ Root—purgative. A substitute 

for Rheum palmatum. Leaves— 

an infusion is given in colic, 

externally applied to syphilitic 

ulcers. 

The roots contain nepodin, chrysophanic 

acid, also 12.8% tannin. 

Rumex scutatus Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Western Himalayas up to 


English ◮ French Sorrel. 

Action ◮ Plant—refrigerant, astringent;givenindysentery. 

Juiceof 

leaves—antiscorbutic. 

The roots contain oxymethyl anthraquinone. 

Rumex vesicarius Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Native to South-west Asia 

and North Africa; cultivated all over 

India, especially in Tripura, West 

Bengal and Bihar. 

English ◮ Bladder-Dock, Country 

Sorrel. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Chukra, Chuko, 

Chakravarti. 

Unani ◮ Hammaaz. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Shakkankeerai. 

Action ◮ Plant—astringent antiscorbutic, 

stomachic, diuretic, used 

for disorders of lymphatic and 

glandularsystem;forbronchitis, 

asthma; constipation, dyspepsia, 

diseases of liver and spleen; urinary 

and renal disorders; alcoholism. 

Seeds—antidysenteric. 

Anthraquinone glucosides, emodin 

and chrysophanol, have been reported 

from leaves, root and seeds. The 

leaves contain large amounts of oxalate 

(21.8% on dry basis); vitamin C content 

is 12 mg and vitamin A 6,100 IU/100 g. 

The leaves of Rumex species are eaten 

in salad or cooked like spinach. 

They contain protein, carbohydrates, 

potassium, magnesium, phosphorus, 

calcium, manganese, copper, zinc, (iodine, 

in some samples), ascorbic acid, 

beta-carotene and thiamine; also oxalic 

acid, potassium binoxalate and some 

tartaric acid. 

Rungia pectinata (L.) Nees. 

Synonym ◮ R. parviflora (L.) Nees 

var. pectinata C. B. Clarke. 

Justicia pectinata L. 


Habitat ◮ Throughout India, in waste 

places and hedges. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Parpata (as adulterant). 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Punakapundu. 

Action ◮ Leaves—juice is aperient, 

febrifuge, refrigerant; bruised leaves 

are applied externally to disperse 

swellings. Root—febrifuge. The 

juice of leaves is given to children 

suffering from smallpox.

Rungia repens Nees. 



a weed in moist places. 


Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kodaga-saleh. 

Folk ◮ Kharmor. 

Action ◮ Herb—vermifuge, diuretic; 

dried and pulverized herb is used 

for cough and fever. Fresh, bruised 

leaves, mixed with castor oil, are 

applied to scalp to cure tinea capitis 

(a scaly fungoid infection). 

The flavonoid pigments in ivorywhite 

and pale yellow flowers (the 

plant also bears blue and pink flowers) 

showed the presence of luteolin 

and chrysoerial (3 ′ -O-methyl luteolin) 

and their glucosides. Deep yellow 

flowers contain isosalipurposide; the 

bluish pink flowers showed presence 

of delphinidin-3,5-diglucoside. 

Ruscus aculeatus Linn. 

Family ◮ Liliaceae; Ruscaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Native to western Europe, 

MediterraneanregionandIran; 

widelygrownasornamentinIndia. 

English ◮ Butcher’s Broom, Jew’s 

Myrtle. 

Action ◮ Rhizomes—deobstruent, 

anti-inflammatory, haemostatic. 

Key application ◮ As supportive 

therapy for discomforts of chronic 

venous insufficiency and for complaints 

of hemorrhoids.(German 

Commission E, ESCOP.) 

Ruta chalepensis Linn. 565 

Aqueous-alcoholic extract of the 

rhizomes contains steroid saponins (up 

to 6% of the extract). The spirostanol 

glycosides, degluconeoruscin and deglucoruscin 

from the extract are absorbed 

in human plasma after oral 

administration. Besides, the rhizomes 

contain two furastanol glycosides, degluconeoruscoide 

and deglucoruscoside. 

The extract is used for the treatment 

of venous insufficiency and enters 

into dermatological and cosmetic 

compositions for the treatment of dark 

skin under the eye and into anti-ageing 

and anti-sun-tanning preparations. 

Ruta chalepensis Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Native to Southern 

Europe and North Africa; cultivated 

in Indian gardens. (Most of 

the reports of the Garden Rue, 

cultivated in India, refer to this 

species and not to Ruta graveolens.) 

Unani ◮ Jangali Sudaab. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Aruvadam-chedi, 

Arvada. 

Action ◮ Plant—antispasmodic, 

sudorific. Stimulates the nervous 

system; commonly used in decoction 

in convulsions and fever. Also 

used as a fumigant in infant catarrh. 

Theplantgaveanessentialoilwhich 

contains chiefly methyl heptyl ketone 

(while Ruta graveolens contains 80– 

90% methyl nonyl ketone and methyl 

heptyl ketone in small amounts). Rutin 

is the most important active principle 

R

566 Ruta graveolens Linn. 

R 

of the plant, responsible for its antiinflammatory 

and tumour-inhibiting 

effect. 

Ruta graveolens Linn. 



region; cultivated all over India. 

English ◮ Garden Rue. 

Unani ◮ Sudaab, Suddaab. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Aruvada. 

Action ◮ Herb—stimulating, antispasmodic, 

stomachic; irritant, 

abortifacient. Used as an emmenagogue, 

in hysterical conditions, 

cough and croupy affections, colic 

and flatulence. Leaf—used in atonic 

amenorrhoea, menorrhoea and 

colic. Externally, used for sciatica, 

headache, muscular chest pain, 

bronchitis and arthritic conditions. 

(Fresh juice of leaves, internally, 

can lead to painful irritations of 

the stomach and intestines). Oil— 

antispasmodic, antiepileptic, emmenagogue, 

rubefacient. (Toxic in 

large doses.) 

Ruta graveolens has been included 


Commission E. 

The herb contains a volatile oil, 

with 2-undecanone (30.73) 2-nonanone 

(18.06), 2-nonyl acetate (11.03), 

psoralen (1.28) and bergapten and xanthotoxin 

(7.24%); rutin (about 2%). 

The flavonoids include quercetin; coumarins 

include bergapten, daphnoretin, 

isoimperatorin, naphthoherniarin, 

psoralen, pangelin, rutamarin, rutarin, 

scopoletin and umbelliferone. Tissue 

cultureoftheplantgavefuracridone 

alkaloids. Tissue culture of the root 

gave gravacridondiol and its glucoside. 

The spasmolytic activity of the herb 

is attributed to the presence of bergapten, 

xanthotoxin and the essential oil. 

Anti-inflammatory and antitumour 

activity is due to rutin. The furocoumarins 

are responsible for the 

herb’s phototoxicity. 

The herb is hepatotoxic, and is contraindicated 

in kidney diseases and 

bleeding disorders. (Sharon M. Herr.) 

Maximum safe level is 0.001% for 

Rue and 0.0002% for the oil. (Natural 


2007.)

Saccharum munja Roxb. 

Synonym ◮ S. sara Roxb. 

S. bengalense Retz. 

Erianthus munja Jesw. 


Habitat ◮ Throughout the plains and 

low hills of India. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Munja, Bhadramuja, 

Vaana, Shara, Sara, Raamshara. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Munjipul, Munjappullu. 

Folk ◮ Sarpata. 

Action ◮ Refrigerant. Useful in 

burning sensation, thirst, dyscrasia, 

erysipelas and urinary complaints. 


recommends the use of the root in 

dysuria, giddiness and vertigo. 

The stem is a good source of furfural 

(yield 5.67%, dry basis). It yields 19.5% 

(on dry weight) of reducing sugars 

when digested with sulphuric acid; glucose, 

xylose, galactose and rhamnose 

have been identified in the hydrolysate 

which contains 34.5% fermentable sugars. 

(It can be used as a potential source 

of alcohol.) 

In Kerala, Saccharum arundinaceum 

Retz. is used as Shara for dysuria, diseases 

due to vitiated blood, erysipelas, 

leucorrhoea and piles. The grass is 

known as Raamshara in North India. 

It can also be used for the production 

of furfural (yield 5.1% dry basis) and 

yields 24.1% of reducing sugars when 

S 

digested with sulphuric acid. The hydrolysate 

contains 65% of fermentable 

sugars,viz. glucose,xylose,galactose 

and rhamnose. 


decoction; 6–10 g powder. (API, 

Vol. III.) 

Saccharum officinarum Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and 

Punjab. 

English ◮ Sugarcane, Noble Cane. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Ikshu, Dirgha-chhada, 

Bhuurirasa, Morata, Asipatra, 

Madhutrna, Gudamuula, Trnarasa. 

Unani ◮ Gannaa, Naishakar. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Karumbu, Nanal. 

Action ◮ Cane Juice—restorative, 

cooling, laxative, demulcent, 

diuretic, antiseptic. Used in general 

debility, haemophilic conditions, 

jaundice and urinary diseases. 


recommends the juice of the stem 

in haemorrhagic diseases and anuria; 

and the root in dysuria. 

Sugarcane juice contains surcose 

(70–80% of soluble solids in the juice), 

glucose and fructose. Non-sugar constituents 

present in the cane juice are 

carbohydrates other than sugars. Asparagine 

and glutamine are prominent 

amino acids in the juice. Other

568 Saccharum spontaneum Linn. 

S 

amino acids include alanine, gammaamino 

butyric acid, aspartic and glutamic 

acids, glycine, leucine, lysine, 

serine and tyrosine. The presence of 

phenylalanine, histidine, valine, proline, 

threonine and arginine, pipecolic 

acid, methionine and tryptophan has 

also been reported. 

Aconitic acid constitutes about 

three-fourths of the total carboxylic 

acid present in the juice. 

Vitamins present in the juice are: 

thiamine, riboflavin, niacin, pantothenic 

acid, biotin, and vitamin D; enzymes 

include diastase, invertase, lactase, 

peroxidase, tyrosinase. 

Phenols in the cane juice are mainly 

polyphenols from tannin and anthocyanin 

from the rind. 

Cane juice contains glycolic acid 

which improves skin complexion as it 

has antiwrinkle effect, prevents scaly 

growth and increases natural collagen 

and elastin in the skin. 

Enzymes present in the seeds include 

large quantities of diastase and 

invertase. 

An ester, vanilloyl-1-O-beta-D-glucoside, 

has been isolated from the 

bagasse. 

The leaves contain alpha-amylase 

and glutathione-S-transferase. 

Dosage ◮ Stem—200–400 ml juice; 

rootstock—15–30 g for decoction. 


Saccharum spontaneum Linn. 



English ◮ Thatch Grass. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Kaasha, Kandekshu, 

Shvetachaamara. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Naanal, Pai Karumbu. 

Action ◮ Plant—cooling, astringent, 

diuretic, galactagogue. Used in the 

treatment of burning sensation, 

dysuria, dyscrasia, kidney and 

bladder stones, dysentery, bleeding 

piles. Root—diuretic, galactagogue. 


recommends the root in calculus, dysuria 

and haemorrhagic diseases. 


Vol. III.) 

The Five-Grassroots (Tripanchmuula) 

of Ayurvedic medicine contain extracts 

of S. munja, S. officinarum and 

S. spontaneum. The compound is prescribed 

as a diuretic. 

Saccolabium papillosum Lindl. 

Family ◮ Orchidace. 

Habitat ◮ The outer range of 

Himalayas from Uttar Pradesh 

eastwards to Sikkim and Assam. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Naakuli (substitute), 

Vrkshaadani (var.). 

Folk ◮ Raasanaa, Naakuli, Gandhalataa. 

Action ◮ Roots—used for rheumatism. 

An alkaloid and a bitter resin has 

been reported in the plant. 

Roots are used as a substitute for 

Sarsaparilla (Hemidesmus indicus).

Sagittaria trifolia Linn. 

Synonym ◮ S. sagittifolia 

Hook. f. (non L.) 

Family ◮ Alismataceae. 


India. 

English ◮ Old world Arrowhead. 

Folk ◮ Chhotaa Kuuta, Muyaa 

(Bengali). 

Action ◮ Plant—discutient, antigalactagogue, 

astringent, antiinflammatory. 

Tuber—used for 

cutaneous diseases. Leaves—powder 

dusted in pruritus; mashed with 

molasses used in sore throat and 

inflammation of the breasts. 

The plant contains a diterpene, sagittariol, 

beta-sitosterol, its glucoside and 

hentriacontanone. The diterpenes, trifoliones 

A, B, C and D, inhibited histamine 

release from rat mast cells. 

The bulbs contain sandaracopimaric 

acid which suppressed the immune 

function of animal T-cells. 

Salacia chinensis Linn. 

Synonym ◮ S. prinoides DC. 

Family ◮ Hippocrateaceae; Celastraceae. 

Habitat ◮ Alarge,climbingshrub 

or small tree occurring throughout 

India, including the Andaman 

Islands. 

English ◮ Saptrangi. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Saptachakraa, Swarnmuula, 

Saptarangi. 

Salacia macrosperma Wight. 569 

Folk ◮ Ingali (Maharashtra), 

Modhuphal (Bengal), Cherukuranti 

(Kerala). 

Action ◮ Roots—used in diabetes. 

Also used for amenorrhoea, 

dysmenorrhoea and genito-urinary 

and venereal diseases. 

The root bark contains proanthocyanidins, 

consisting of monomeric 

leucopelargonidin, its monomer, 

dimer and tetramer; triterpenoids 

(friedelin and its derivatives), mangiferine, 

phlobatannin, and glucosidal 

tannins. 

The stem yielded gutta, dulcitol and 

proanthocyanidin consisting of dimer 

of leucopelargonidin. 


(CCRAS.) 

Salacia macrosperma Wight. 


Habitat ◮ The Western Ghats, from 


Folk ◮ Lendaphala (Maharashtra), 

Anakoranti (Kerala). 

Action ◮ Root—decoction is given 

after parturition. Leaves—applied 

to eczema. 

A decoction of the roots of S. grandiflora 

Kurz, synonym S. longifolia Hook. 

(the Andamans) and S. macrophylla 

Blume, synonym S. flavescens Kurz and 

S. ovalis M. Laws. (Konkan and the Andamans) 

is also given after parturition. 

S

570 Salacia oblonga Wall. ex Wight & Arn. 

S 

Salacia oblonga 

Wall. ex Wight & Arn. 


Habitat ◮ Rain forests of Western 

Ghats from Konkan to Kerala. 

Folk ◮ Chundan (Tamil Nadu), 

Ponkoranti (Kerala). 

Action ◮ Root bark—used for the 

treatment rheumatism; also for 

gonorrhoea, swellings and skin 

diseases. Plant—mildly antiseptic. 

Salacia reticulata Wt. 

Family ◮ Hippocrateacea; Celastraceae. 

Habitat ◮ Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, 

Kerala. 

Folk ◮ Ekanyakam, Koranti (Kerala, 

South India), Anukudu-chettu 

(Andhra Pradesh) 

Action ◮ Plant—mild antiseptic. 

Root bark—used against 

gonorrhoea, skin diseases and inflammations. 

The root bark exhibits 


Salicornia brachiata Roxb. 


Habitat ◮ 

Gujarat. 

Sea coast from Bengal to 

Folk ◮ Kohlu (Andhra Pradesh). 

Action ◮ 

itch. 

Ash—used in mange and 

Air-dried plant contains 8.97% ash; 

a high percentage of sodium and chloride 

ions (sodium 5.68, chloride 

10.02%). The plant is a source of 

alkaline earth (called Sajji), used for 

extracting sodium carbonate. 

Salix acmophylla Boiss. 


Habitat ◮ Sub-Himalayan tracts from 

Uttar Pradesh westwards ascending 

to an altitude of 1,800 m. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Jala-vetasa. 

Action ◮ Bark—febrifuge. 

Salix alba Linn. 


Habitat ◮ North-western Himalayas, 


English ◮ White Willow, European 

Willow. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Jalavetasa. 

Unani ◮ Bed Saadaa. 

Folk ◮ Vivir (Kashmir). 

Action ◮ Analgesic, antiinflammatory, 

febrifuge. Used 

for rheumatic inflammation, 

painful muscles, spondylitis, 

lumbago, sciatica, neuralgia, gout 

and fever. (In 1838, chemists 

identified salicylic acid in the 

bark. Afterwards, synthesized it as 

acetylsalicylic acid, aspirin, in 1899.) 

Key application ◮ In diseases 

accompanied by fever, headache,

heumatic ailments. (German 

Commission E.) The British Herbal 

Pharmacopoeia reported antiinflammatory 

action. The British 

Herbal Compendium additionally 

reported analgesic, antipyretic, 

antirheumatic and astringent 

actions of the willow bark. 

The bark contains phenolic glycosides; 

salicin, picein and triandrin 

with esters of salicylic acid and salicyl 

alcohol, acetylated salicin, salicortin 

and salireposide; tannins; catechin; pcoumaric 

acid; flavonoids and polysaccharides. 

Salicylic acid inhibits prostaglandin 

production, relives pain and brings 

down fever. 

Salix babylonica Linn. 


Habitat ◮ North India, along the 

banks of rivers nad water-courses. 

English ◮ Weeping Willow. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Aatru Paalai. 

Folk ◮ Giur (Kashmir). Bed. 


astringent, antipyretic. Used in 

intermittent and remittent fevers. 

Bark—anthelmintic. Biological 

activity of aerial part—antiviral, 

CNS active, hypothermic. 

The leaves are reported to contain 

delphinidin and cyanidin, fragilin, 

salicin, salicortin, salidroside, tremuloidin, 

triandrin and vimalin. Salicin 

content in the stems and leaves is reported 

to be 3 to 4%. The bark yields 

Salix caprea Linn. 571 

phenolics—triandrin, salicin, gallocatechol, 

catechol. 

Salix caprea Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Kashmir, Punjab, Himachal 

Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh. 

English ◮ Sallow, Goat Willow, 

Common Willow. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Vetasa, Vaanira, 

Vidula, Vanjula, Vaanjulaa. In 

Kerala Homonoia riparia Lour., 

Euphorbiaceae, is used as Vetasa or 

Jalavetasa. 

Unani ◮ Bed Mushk. 

Action ◮ Distilled water from flowers—cordial, 

stimulant; externally 

applied to headache. Stem and 

leaves—astringent. Leaves—decoction 

used as febrifuge. Bark and 

twigs—astringent, applied to piles. 

Ash of wood—used in haemoptysis; 

mixed with vinegar, applied to piles. 

Alkaloids, glycosides and saponins 

of male racemes increase the amplitude 

and slow the heartbeat and act more 

rapidly than digitalis on isolated frog 

heart. 

Flavonoids present in the male racemes 

are: diometin, isorhamnetin, capreoside 

and salicapreoside. 

Phenol glycosides present in the 

bark are: delphinidin, cyanidin, pipecolic 

acid, fragilin, picein, salicin, salicortin, 

salireproside, triandrin and 

vimalin. Tannin content is reported to 

be 8–13%. 

Salix daphnoides Vill. and Salix elegans 

Wall. (The Himalayas from Kash- 

S

572 Salix fragilis Linn 

S 

mir to Nepal) are also known as Jalavetasa. 

Dosage ◮ Leaf, bark, root—50– 


Salix fragilis Linn 


Habitat ◮ Cultivated in Kashmir and 


English ◮ Crack Willow, Kashmir 

Willow. 

Folk ◮ Tilachaang (Himachal 

Pradesh). 

Action ◮ Bark—antirheumatic. 

Key application ◮ For relief of low 

back pain; symptomatic relief of 

mild osteoarthritic and rheumatic 

complaints. (ESCOP.) Thebark 

contains salicin 0.23%, salicase and 

tannin (6–12%). 

The phenol glycosides reported from 

the plant include fragilin, glycosmin, 

grandidentatin, picein, populin, salicin, 

salireposide, salicyloyl tremuloidin, 

triandrin and tremuloidin. 

Willow bark consists of the dried 

bark or twigs of various species of the 

genus Salix, including S. purpurea L. 

and S. daphnoides Vill. 

Salicylate concentrations vary greatly 

among Salix sp. Salix alba bark is reported 

to contain 0.49–0.98% salicin; 

Salix purpurea bark 3–9%, Salix daphnoides 

bark 4.9–5.6% and Salix fragilis 

bark 3.9–10.2%. (Natural Medicines 


Salix nigra Marsh. 


Habitat ◮ Native to America (New 

York and Pennsylvania). 

English ◮ Black Willow. 

Unani ◮ Bed-Siyaah. 

Action ◮ Astringent, febrifuge, sedative, 

nervine tonic. Anaphrodisiac 

(used for reducing sexual activity; 

in spermatorrhoea). Largely used 

in the treatment of nocturnal 

emissions. 

The bark contains tannin, about 1% 

of glucoside salinigrin. Once considered 

a substitute for potassium bromide, 

but without a depressant effect. 

Salix tetrasperma Roxb. 



part of India, along the banks of 

rivers and streams. 

English ◮ Indian Willow. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Jalavetasa, Naadeya, 

Niketan, Baishi. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Attupalai. 

Folk ◮ Vaanira, Vaalunja. 

Action ◮ Dried leaves—antiinflammatory, 

given in rheumatism, 

swellings, piles. Bark—febrifuge. 

The bark is reported to contain 6.5% 

tannin, also salicin A. 

Salix viminalis Linn. (The Himalayas 

from Kashmir to Sikkim) is known 

as Basket Willow and the Osier.

The bark contains 8.2%–8.8% tannin 

and phenol glycosides, fragilin, picein, 

salicin (0.13%), salicortin, salireposide, 

triandrin and vimalin. Salicase, and 

calcium and potassium nitrates are also 

reported from the bark. 


(CCRAS.) 

Salmalia malabarica 

(DC) Schott & Endl. 

Synonym ◮ Bombax ceiba Linn. 

Bombax malabaricum DC. 

Gossampinus malabarica (DC.) 

Merr. 


Habitat ◮ The hotter parts of India, 

up to 1,350 m. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Shaalmali, Mochaa, 

Mochaahva, Pichhila, Raktapushpa, 

Sthiraayu, Kankataadhya, Tuulini. 

Shaalmali-veshtaka (gum). 

Unani ◮ Semal. Mochras (gum). 

Siddha ◮ Mul Ilavam. Ielavampisin 

(gum). 

Folk ◮ Semar. 

Action ◮ Young roots (Semulmusali)—astringent, 

(used for 

dysentery) stimulant, demulcent. 

Fruits—stimulant, diuretic, 

expectorant. Used for chronic inflammation 

of bladder, kidney also 

for calculus affections. Flowers— 

astringent and cooling, applied 

to cutaneous affections. Leaves— 

anti-inflammatory. Stem bark— 

demulcent, styptic. Aqueous extract 

Salmalia malabarica (DC) Schott & Endl. 573 

with curd is given for blooddysentery. 

Bark—paste is applied to 

skin eruptions, boils, acne, pimples. 

Seeds used for chickenpox, smallpox, 

catarrhal affections, chronic 

cystitis and genitourinary diseases. 

Gum—astringent, demulcent, styptic. 

Used for diarrhoea, dysentery, 

haemoptysis, bleeding piles, menorrhagia, 

spermatorrhoea. Root and 

pod—used for the treatment of low 

vitality and debility. 


recommends the stem bark in 

bleeding disorders and in acne vulgaris. 

All parts of the plant gave betasitosterol 

and its glucosides; seeds, bark 

and root bark, lupeol; flowers, hentriacontane, 

hentriacontanol; root bark, 

in addition, gave 7-hydroxycadalene. 

The seed oil yields arachidic, linoleic, 

myristic, oleic and palmitic acids; seeds 

contain carotenes, n-hexacosanol, ethylgallate 

and tocopherols; the gum 

contains gallic and tannic acids, yields 

L-arbinose, D-galactose, D-galacturonic 

acid and D-galactopyranose. 

Younger roots contain more sugars 

(arabinose and galactose 8.2%) and 

peptic substances (6.0%) than the older 

ones. They contain mucilage, starch 

(71.2%), mineral matter (2.1%), tannins 

0.4 and non-tannins 0.1%, along with 

other constituents. 

The Musali compares favourably 

with the nutritive value of Pueraria 

tuberosa, Dioscorea bulbifera, Ipomoea 

digitata and Butea monosperma (all 

used in sexual debility). 

A related species, Salmalia insignis 

(Wall.) Schott & Endl., synonym 

S

574 Salsola kali Linn. 

S 

Bombax insigne Wall. (Assam, Western 

Ghats and the Andamans); is known as 

Semul; Dumboil (Assam), Didu (Andamans) 

and Kal-ilavu (Tamil Nadu). 

Dosage ◮ Stem bark—5–10 g powder. 

(API, Vol. III.) Flower, bark root— 

3–5 g powder. (CCRAS.) 

Salsola kali Linn. 


Habitat ◮ North-West Himalayas 

and Kashmir. 

English ◮ Glass-Wort, Russian 

Thistle, Prickly-Saltwort. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Sarjikaa, Katol, Laanaabuuti, 

Sajji-buuti. 

Unani ◮ Ushnaan, Ghaajuraan. 

Folk ◮ Barilla. 

Action ◮ Plant—cathartic. Juice 

of fresh plant and seed-vessels—a 

potent diuretic. Ash of the plant is 

used in Unani medicine. 

Alcoholic extract of the plant 

showed antimicrobial activity against 

Salmonella paratyphi and Serratia 

marcescens. 

Salvadora oleoides Dcne. 


Habitat ◮ The arid regions of Punjab, 

Rajasthan and western India. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Pilu (bigger var.). 

Siddha ◮ Kalawa (Tamil). 

Action ◮ Leaf—bechic. Bark— 

vesicant. Fruit—febrifuge (in low 

fever), used in enlarged spleen. Oil 

from seed—applied in rheumatic 

affections and after child birth. 

The fruit contains sterols, beta-sitosterol 

and its glucosides and stigmasterol; 

benzylisothiocyanate, n-octacosanol 

and tetracosane; flavonoids including 

quercetin and rutin; thiourea 

derivatives and phospholipids. Myristic, 

lauric and palmitic acids were obtained 

from the seed fat. 

Salvadora persica Linn. 

Synonym ◮ S. persica L. var. wightiana 

Verde. 

S. indica Wt. 


Habitat ◮ Arid regions, on saline 

lands and in coastal regions. 

English ◮ Mustard tree. Salt Bush 

tree, Tooth Brush tree. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Pilu (smaller var.), 

Pilukaa, Sransi, Angaahva, Tikshnavrksha. 

Unani ◮ Miswaak, Araak. 

Siddha ◮ Perungoli. 

Action ◮ Fruit—carminative 

(used in biliousness), deobstruent 

(used for rheumatism, tumours, 

splenomegaly), diuretic, lithotriptic. 

Leaves—decoction used for cough 

and asthma, poultice in painful piles 

and tumours; juice in scurvy. Flowers—stimulant, 

laxative. Applied 

in painful rheumatic conditions. 

Seeds—diuretic; purgative; fatty

oil applied locally on rheumatic 

swellings. Root bark—topically 

vesicant. Bark—emmenagogue, 

ascarifuge, febrifuge. Biological 

activity of stem bark—spasmolytic. 

Plant—anti-inflammatory, 

hypoglycaemic, antibacterial. 

The root gave elemental gammamonoclinic 

sulphur, benzyl glucosinolate, 

salvadourea (a urea derivative), 

m-anisic acid and sitosterol. Benzyl 

isothiocyanate, isolated from the root, 

exhibits antiviral activity against Herpes 

simplex virus-1 which affects oral 

region. (The root is used in many parts 

of the world as a tooth brush.) Root 

bark and stem bark contain trimethylamine. 

Myristic, lauric and palmitic 

acids are the major acid components 

of the seed fat. 

Dosage ◮ Fruit—3–6 g powder; 50– 


Salvia aegyptiaca Linn. 

Synonym ◮ S. pumila Benth. 


Habitat ◮ Arid areas from Delhi 

westwards in Punjab and Rajasthan, 

and southwards in Gujarat and 

Maharashtra. 

Unani ◮ Tukhm-Malangaa. 

Action ◮ Seeds—used for diarrhoea, 

also in haemorrhoids. 

Seeds yield mucilage and a gum 

which contain aldobiuronic acid and 

aldotriouronic acid. 

The mucilage on hydrolysis yields 

D-galactose, L-arabinose, L-rhamnose 

and galacturonic acid. 

Salvia lanata Roxb. 575 

The seeds of this plant are often confused 

with those of Lallemantia royeleana 

Benth. which are also sold as 

Tukhm-Malangaa. 

Salvia coccinea Linn. 


Habitat ◮ 

gardens. 

Cultivated in Indian 

Ayurvedic ◮ Samudrashosha (var.). 

English ◮ Red Sage, Texas Sage. 

Action ◮ Decoction—used in 

renal diseases, also for lumbago. 

Contraindicated during pregnancy. 

Salvia haematodes Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Cultivated in Indian 

gardens. 

English ◮ Blood-veined Sage. 

Unani ◮ Behman Surkh. (Behman 

Safed is equated with Centaurea 

behen Linn.) 

Action ◮ Both the varieties of 

Behman are used in Unani medicine 

as a cardiac and sex tonic, also as 

a liver tonic in jaundice. 

Salvia lanata Roxb. 



from Kashmir to Nepal 

Folk ◮ Kuuthan-Kali. 

S

576 Salvia moorcroftiana Wall. ex Benth. 

S 

Action ◮ Roots—an adulterant of 

Saussurea lappa. Used as a substitute 

for Saliva moorcroftiana. 

Salvia moorcroftiana 

Wall. ex Benth. 




3,000 m. 

Folk ◮ Kaali-jarri (Punjab). 

Action ◮ Root—bechic. Leaves— 

antitussive; applied as poultice to 

boils and chronic skin affections. 

Seeds—antispasmodic, emetic. 

Used for colic, dysentery, also for 

haemorrhoids; applied to boils. 

The root gave a diterpene quinone. 

Salvia officinalis Linn. 



region; grown as an 

ornamental. 

English ◮ Sage. 

Folk ◮ Salvia Sefakuss. 

Action ◮ Plant—astringent, antiinflammatory, 

carminative, antispasmodic, 

antiseptic. Leaf and 

flower—cholagogue, hypoglycaemic, 

antiasthmatic (used for 

respiratory allergy), cholagogue, 

emmenagogue, antisudoriferous, 

antiseptic. Leaf—diaphoretic, 

antipyretic. Used for sore throat, 

laryngitis, tonsillitis, stomatitis. 

Key application ◮ Leaf—internally, 

for dyspeptic symptoms and 

excessive perspiration; externally 

for inflammations of the mucous 

membranes of nose and throat. 

(German Commission E.) ESCOP 

indicates its use for inflammations 

and infections such as stomatitis, 

gingivitis, pharyngitis, and 

hyperhidrosis. 

The leaves contain a volatile oil; 

diterpene bitters including carnosolic 

acid; flavonoids including salvigenin, 

genkwanin, hispidulin, luteolin and 

its derivatives; phenolic acids including 

rosmarinic, caffeic, labiatic; a condensed 

catechin, salvia tannin. 

The roots contain diterpene quinonesroyleanone 

and its derivatives. Volatile 

oil contains alpha-and beta-thujone, 

1,8-cineole and camphor. Thujone 

is strongly antiseptic and carminative, 

also has an oestrogenic action 

that is partly responsible for the 

herb’s hormonal activity in reducing 

breast milk production. The volatile 

oil also relieves muscle spasms. Rosmarinic 

acid, a phenol, allays inflammations. 

Cirsiliol, linalool and alpha-terpineol, 

constituents of the volatile oil, exhibit 

CNS depressant activities. 

In a double blind, randomized and 

placebo controlled trial, extracts of 

Salvia officinalis showed improvement 

in patients with mild to moderate 

Alzheimer disease. (Natural Medicines 


Sageoilisusedinperfumesasadeodorant 

and for the treatment of thrush 

and gingivitis. The herb is used in 

tooth powders, mouth washes, gargles,

poultices, hair tonics and hair dressings. 

Salvia plebeia R. Br. 



India, up to 1,500 m in the hills. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Samudrashosha, 

Kammarkasa. 

Folk ◮ Bhuu-Tulasi. 

Action ◮ Plant—diuretic, anthelmintic, 

astringent, demulcent. 

Leaves—used for toothache. 

Seeds—mucilaginous, used for diarrhoea, 

leucorrhoea, menorrhagia 

and haemorrhoids. 

The plant contains flavones—nepetin 

and hispidulin and their glucosides. 

Flowers also contain nepetin. 

Sitosterol and oleanolic acid are also 

present. The seeds yield secoisolariciresinol 

diester. 

Salvia spinosa Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Native of Baluchistan. 

(Used in Unani medicine.) 

Unani ◮ Kanochaa, Marv. Seeds— 

Tukhm Kanochaa, Tukhm Marv. 

(National Formulary of Unani 

Medicine equated Kanochaa with 

Phyllanthus maderaspatensis Linn.) 

Action ◮ Used for colic and as an 

intestinal tonic, deobstruent and 

disinfectant. Roasted or processed 

seeds are prescribed in diarrhoea 

and dysentery. 

Salvinia cucullata Roxb. 

Sambucus ebulus Linn. 577 

Family ◮ Salviniaceae; Azollaceae. 


shallow, freshwater lakes, ponds, 

ditches. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Aakhukarni (Kerala). 

(Suggested by Rashtriya Ayurveda 

Vidyapeeth.) 

Action ◮ Root—digestive, diuretic, 

febrifuge, anthelmintic. Used for 

epistasis, fever and colic. Also for 

dysuria, polyuria and skin diseases. 

In Kerala, Merremia emarginata 

(Convolvulaceae) orHemionitis arifolia 

(Cheilanthaceae) are used as Aakhukarni. 

Salvinia is an aquatic fern, rich 

in protein, minerals, chlorophyll and 

carotenoids. Its extract exhibited 

strong antifungal activity against Fusarium 

nivale. 

Sambucus ebulus Linn. 

Synonym ◮ S. wightiana Wall. ex W. 

&A. 



English ◮ Dwarf Elder. 

Unani ◮ Khamaan Saghir, Khamaanul-Arzaa, 

(Nabli) Khamaan. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Mushkiyaara 

(Punjab), Khamman, Ganhulaa. 

Action ◮ Diuretic, expectorant. Used 

for kidney and bladder torpor. 

S

578 Sambucus nigra Linn. 

S 

Lipid fraction of drupes contains 

unsaturated fatty acids, sterols, aliphatic 

alcohols, triterpenic alcohols, alphaand 

beta-amyrin; also anthocyanin 

pigments, phenolic acids. The root 

contains beta-sitosterol and alphaamyrin. 

Aqueous extracts induced diuresis 

in rats and exhibited hypotensive 

activity in cats. The extract of 

flowering herb showed significant antiulcerogenic 

activity. 

Sambucus nigra Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Kangra and in Simla hills. 

English ◮ European Elder, Black 

Elder. 

Unani ◮ Khamaan Kabir. 


anticatarrhal, diuretic. Flowers 

and berries—used for common 

cold, influenza, nasal catarrh, 

sinusitis; as a gargle in sore throat. 

Inner bark—cathartic, hydragogue, 

emetic, diuretic. Infusion of bark 

and flowers—given in epilepsy; 

also used as a gentle circulatory 

stimulant, diaphoretic, expectant 

and anticatarrhal; locally in 


Key application ◮ In colds, also as 

a diaphoretic and anticatarrhal. 


Herbal Compendium, WHO.) 

The flowers contain triterpenes including 

ursolic acid; flavonoids (up to 

3%) including rutin; phenolic acids; 

triterpenes; sterols; tannins; mucilage; 

volatile oil (up to 0.2%); leaves gave 

cyanogenic glycosides; berries contain 

flavonoids, anthocyanins, vitamin 

AandC. 

Anti-inflammatory activity of the 

flowers has been attributed to ursolic 

acid. Elder flowers and peppermint 

is an old remedy for influenza in the 

Western herbal. 

The berry is used against influenza 

virus A and B. (J Alt Compliment Med, 

1(4), 1995.) 

Sandoricum indicum Cav. 

Synonym ◮ S. koetjape (Burm. f.) 

Merrill. 


Habitat ◮ Wild in Kangra and in 

Simla hills. 

English ◮ European Elder. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Sevai, Sayai. 

Action ◮ Root—astringent, carminative, 

antispasmodic. Used for 

diarrhoea. Bark—anthelmintic. 

Fruit hulls gave bryonic and bryonolic 

acids, mesoinosital and dimethyl 

mucate; heartwood also gave triterpenic 

acids including katonic and indicic 

acid. 

The seeds gave limonoids—sandoricin 

and 6-hydroxysandoricin. A secotriterpene, 

koetjapic acid, together 

with katonic acid, has been isolated 

from the stem. Sandoricin and 6hydroxysandoricin 

exhibited effective 

antifeedant activity. Katonic acid exhibited 

significant cytotoxicity against 

a variety of cultured human cancer 

cells.

Sanicula europaea Linn. 

Family ◮ Umbelliferae. 

Habitat ◮ Europe, including Britain. 

The Himalayas from Kashmir to 

Bhutan, Assam, Western Ghats and 

Palni hills in South India. 

English ◮ Wood Sanicle. 

Action ◮ Plant—astringent, alterative, 

vulnerary. Used in leucorrhoea, 

menorrhagia, bleeding piles; also in 

diarrhoea and dysentery. The herb 

is also employed as an ingredient of 

an ointment used for septic ulcers. 

The herb contains saponins based on 

saniculogenins; allantoin; chlorogenic 

and rosmarinic acids. The flowers contain 

3.1 and fruits 1.1% rosmarinic acid. 

The leaves contain 0.6% chlorogenic 

acid. The roots contain 23.1, leaves 12.8, 

flowers 6.0 and fruits 5.2% surcose. 

Rhizome contains chlorogeni acid 1.2 

and sucrose 13.9%. 

Sansevieria hyacinthoides 

(Linn.) Druce. 

Synonym ◮ S. zeylanica (L.) Willd. 


Habitat ◮ Native to Sri Lanka; found 

along coastal regions of India from 

Bengal to Tamil Nadu. 

English ◮ Ceylon Bowstring Hemp. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Naagadamani (related 

species) (also known as Muurvaa). 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Marul, Motta manji. 

Action ◮ See S. roxburghiana. Leaves 

and rhizomes are applied externally 

in high fever with delirium. 

Santalum album Linn. 579 

Rhizomes—diuretic, diaphoretic, 

expectorant. 

The leaf contains aconitic acid; the 

root yielded an alkaloid sansevierine 

(0.018%). 

Sansevieria roxburghiana 

J. & J. Schultes 

Synonym ◮ S. zeylanica auct. 

non-(L.) Willd. 


Habitat ◮ The eastern coast of India 

from West Bengal to Tamil Nadu in 

South. 

English ◮ Indian Bowstring Hemp. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Naagadamani, Takshaki. 

Used in West Bengal as a substitute 

for Muurvaa. 

Siddha ◮ Marul, Motta Manji 

(Tamil). 

Action ◮ Rhizomes—mucilaginous, 

used for cough. Tender shoots— 

juice given to children for clearing 

phlegm from the throat. Whole 

plant—finds application in glandular 

enlargement and rheumatism. 

Care must be taken that the herb 

does not accumulate in the system. 

The plant must not be confused with 

Indian Hemp (Cannabis indica). 

Santalum album Linn. 

Family ◮ Santalaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Dry regions of Peninsular 

India from Vindhya mountains 

S

580 Santolina chamaecyparissus Linn. 

S 

southwards, especially in Karnataka 


English ◮ White Sandalwood. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Chandana, Shvetachandana, 

Shrikhanda, Bhadra-Shree, 

Gandhsaara, Malayaja, Hima, 

Ekaangi. 

Unani ◮ Sandal Safed, Sandal-e- 

Abyaz. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Chandanam, Sandana, 

Ingam. 

Action ◮ Cooling, diaphoretic, 

diuretic, expectorant, antiseptic 

and bacteriostatic against Gram 

positive bacteria. Used as a urinary 

antiseptic in chronic cystitis and 

sexually transmitted diseases. 

A paste is applied to temples in 

headache, during fevers and on 

burns, local inflammations and skin 

diseases (to allay pruritus). Essential 

oil—antibacterial, antifungal. Used 

as urinary antiseptic in dysuria, 

urethral discharges and diseases of 

gallbladder. 

Key application ◮ In adjuvant therapy 

of infections of the lower urinary 

tract. Contraindicated in the 

diseases of the parenchyma of the 

kidney. (German Commission E.) 

The bark contains a triterpene—urs- 

12-en-3 butyl-palmitate. Chief constituents 

of the essential oil from heartwood 

are alpha-and beta-santalol. 

Other constituents include sesquiterpenehydrocarbons—alpha-, 

beta-, epibeta-santalene 

and alpha-and betacurcumene 

and beta-farnesene. Dihydroagarofuran 

is also present in the 

essential oil. 



Santolina chamaecyparissus 

Linn. 

Family ◮ Compositae. 


Grownasanornamentalonthe 


English ◮ Lavender Cotton. 

Action ◮ Plant—stomachic, antispasmodic, 

vermifuge, emmenagogue, 

analgesic, anti-inflammatory. 

The herb contains flavonoids, particularly 

6-methoxy flavones; pectolinarigenin, 

hispidulin, nepetin and an 

essential oil. 

The extract of flowers, leaves and 

roots of the plant are reported to be 


Anti-inflammatory effects of the herb 

were demonstrated in rats without ulcerogenicity 

or toxicity. (Planta Medica, 

6, 1986.) 

Sapindus laurifolius Vahl. 

Synonym ◮ S. trifoliatus auct. non 

Linn. 


Habitat ◮ South India; also cultivated 

around villages in Madhya Pradesh, 

Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and West 

Bengal. 

English ◮ Soapnut tree of South 

India.

Ayurvedic ◮ Arishtaka, Phenila, 

Raktabeeja, Reethaakaranja, 

Garbhapaatana. 

Unani ◮ Reethaa. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Puvamkottai, Mani 

pungu. 

Action ◮ Fruit—astringent, emetic, 

detergent, anthelmintic. Pulp— 

aqueous solution used as nasal 

drops in migraine, epilepsy and 

hysteria. Root—used for gout, 

rheumatism and paralysis. 

Saponin from pericarp of nuts yielded 

the genins, methylhedragenate, sapindic 

acid and methyl oleanolate. 


(CCRAS.) 

Sapindus mukorossi Gaertn. 



distributed in the Himalayas from 

Himachal Pradesh eastwards and in 

Assam. 

English ◮ Chinese Soap Berry, Soap 

Nut tree of North India. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Arishtaka, Phenila. 

Folk ◮ Reethaa. 

Action ◮ Fruits—emetic and 

expectorant; used in excessive 

salivation, chlorosis and epilepsy. 

The plant yielded triterpenoid 

glycosides, sapindosides, derived 

from hederagenin. Saponins exhibit 

hypotensive, anticholesterolemic, 

spermicidal and antimicrobial 

properties. 

Sapium sebiferum Roxb. 581 

Saponin A and C sapindoside A and 

B, extracted from the fruit rind, showed 

antifungal activity. Hederagenin, isolated 

from the fruit rind or pericarp, 

is used in skin-lightening and antiinflammatory 

cosmetics. 

Other constituents from the plant 

are flavonoids—quercetin, kaempferol, 

apigenin and rutin. 

Sapium indicum Willd. 


Habitat ◮ Moist parts of India, 

especially along sea-coasts and back 

waters. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Pencolum. 

Folk ◮ Hurnaa (Maharashtra). 

Action ◮ Root bark—emetic, acrid 

and purgative. 

The fruit contains aesculetin. A lactone 

and an alcohol has been isolated 


Sapium sebiferum Roxb. 


Habitat ◮ Native to China; introduced 

at various elevations in northern 

India, chiefly on ravine lands in the 

foothills. Planted throughout India 

as ornament. 

English ◮ Chinese Tallow tree. 

Folk ◮ Tayapippali, Vilaayati 

Shisham, Mom-China. 

Action ◮ Seed oil—vulnerary, emetic, 

purgative; used for skin diseases and 

for promoting healing of wounds. 

S

582 Saponaria officinalis Linn. 

S 

Leaves latex—vesicant. Bark—a 

decoctionisgivenindyspepsia. 

Resin—purgative. 

Chinese vegetable tallow (of low iod. 

val.) is obtained from waxy mass covering 

the seed; the Stillingia Oil (of 

high iod. val.) from the kernel. The tallow 

from Indian trees contains 62.3% 

palmitic and 27.4% oleic acid. A related 

species, S. discolor Muell-Arg., introduced 

into the Lal Bagh Gardens, Bangalore, 

yields a tallow containing comparatively 

more oleic and less palmitic 

acids. Stillingia Oil is considered superior 

to linseed oil. The oil contains lauric, 

myristic, oleic, palmitic and stearic 

acids; the leaves contain ellagic and gallic 

acids, isoquercitrin and tannin 5.5%. 

Ethanol extract of powdered root 

bark yielded 0.1% phloroacetophenone 

2,4-dimethylether and menthol extract 

gave xanthoxyline. The bark also contains 

moretenone, moretenol and a triterpene, 

3-epi-moretenol. 

Saponaria officinalis Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Native to temperate region 

of Europe; introduced in Indian 

gardens. 

English ◮ Bouncing Bet, Soapwort. 

Action ◮ Roots—blood purifier, 

cholagogue, expectorant, diuretic, 

diaphoretic. Roots and leaves— 

used for scrofula and skin diseases. 

Sap used as a depurative for scabies, 

furuncles, hepatic eruptions and 

venereal ulcers (as a lotion). Plant— 

employed for jaundice (to increase 

bile flow); also in respiratory 

disorders (bronchitis, sore throat). 

Key application ◮ Root—in catarrhs 

of the upper respiratory tract. 


The plant contains saponin, sapotoxin 

and saponarin. The root contains 

sapotoxin (4–5%) and saporubrinic 

acid. Saponin content of the root is 

highest (7.7–8.2%) just before flowering 

stage and the lowest (about 3%) 

during the flowering period. The bark 

yield 0.8% of saponin. The leaves contain 

saponarin. Youngest leaves show 

the highest haemolytic activity. 

Aqueous extract of the plant exhibit 


Saponaria vaccaria Linn. 



a weed of cultivated fields of wheat 

and barley. Also cultivated in 

gardens for ornament. 

Folk ◮ Musna, Saabuni. 

Action ◮ See S. officinalis. The 

mucilaginous sap of the plant is 

febrifugalandusedinchronic 

fevers. It is a mild depurative and 

used in the treatment of furuncles 

and scabies. 

Saprosma ternatum 

Benth. & Hk. f. in part. 


Habitat ◮ Hills of Assam, in damp 

places and in the Andamans.

Folk ◮ Bhedeli (Assam). 

Action ◮ Leaf—carminative, eaten to 

relieve flatulence and stomachache. 

A poultice is used after parturition. 

Saraca asoca (Roxb.) De Wilde. 

Synonym ◮ S. indica auct. non L. 


Habitat ◮ Throughout India, except 

Northwestern India, up to 750 m. 

English ◮ Ashoka tree. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Ashoka, Ashoku, 

Hempushpa, Taamrapallava, 

Pindapushpa, Gandhapushpa. 

(Polyalthia longifolia Benth. & 

Hook. f., an ornamental roadside 

tree, is wrongly called Ashoka.) 

Unani ◮ Ashoka. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Asogam. 

Action ◮ Bark—uterine tonic (imparts 

healthy tone to uterus), used 

for suppressed menses, leucorrhoea, 

menstrual pain, menorrhagia, complaints 

of menopause. Also used for 

dyspepsia, biliousness, colic, burning 

sensation. Flowers—pounded 

and mixed with water, used in 

haemorrhagic dysentery, bleeding 

piles and retention of urine. 


recommends the bark in metrohhagia, 

menorrhagia, chronic lymphadenitis 

and inflammations. 

The flowers contain fatty acids 

and gallic acid; apigenin-7-O-beta- 

D-glucoside, cyanidin-3,5-diglucoside, 

kaempferol 3-O-beta-D-glucoside, pelargonidin-3,5-diglucoside, 

quercetin 

Sarcococca saligna (D. Don) Muell.-Arg. 583 

and its 3-O-beta-D-glucoside and sitosterol. 

The bark yields alkanes, esters and 

primary alcohols. It gave n-octacosanol, 

tannin (6%), catechin, (+)-catechol, 

(−)-epicatechin, (−)-epicatechol, 

leucocyanidin, leucopelargonidin, procyanidin 

derivatives, methyl-and ethylcholesterol 

derivatives. 

Quercetin and its 3-O-rhamnoside, 

kaempferol-3-O-alpha-L-rhamnoside, 

amyrin, ceryl alcohol and beta-sitosterol 

have been isolated from leaves 

and stems. 

Alcoholic extract of the bark is reported 

to be active against a wide range 

of bacteria. The aqueous extract has 

been found to enhance the life span of 

mice infected with Ehrlich ascites carcinoma 

by 24%. 

Pure phenolic glucoside (P2), isolated 

from stem bark, exhibited highly 

potent oxytocic activity on different 

mammals and was similar in nature to 

pitocin and ergometrine. 

Dosage ◮ Dried stem bark—20–30 g 

for decoction. (API, Vol. I.) 

Sarcococca saligna 

(D. Don) Muell.-Arg. 

Synonym ◮ S. pruniformis Hook. f. 

S. trinervia Wt. 

Family ◮ Buxaceae. 

Habitat ◮ The Himalayas and the 

hills of North-eastern India up to 

2,700 m. 

Folk ◮ Geru (Garhwal, Patiala), 

Tiliari (Jaunsar), Sukatsing (Kumaon). 

S

584 Sarcostemma brevistigma W. & A. 

S 


treatment of rheumatism and fever. 

The leaves contain steroidal alkaloids, 

including saracosine, saracodine 

and saracodinine; also betulin. 

Aerial parts exhibit spasmolytic, diuretic 


Steroidal alkaloids induce nonrecoverable 

fall in blood pressure in 

dogs. 

Sarcostemma brevistigma 

W. & A. 

Synonym ◮ S. acidum Voigt. 


Habitat ◮ Dry places in West Bengal, 

Bihar and Peninsular India. 

English ◮ Moon Plant, Soma Plant. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Somavalli, Somalataa, 

Somakshiri, Saumyaa, Dwijpriyaa. 

(Not to be confused with Soma of 

the Vedas.) (Substitute: Ephedra 

gerardiana.) 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Somamum, Kodi- 

Kalli. 

Action ◮ Dried stems—emetic. 

Plant—insecticidal. 

The plant contains malic acid, succinic 

acid, reducing sugar, surcosa, 

traces of tannin, an alkaloid, a phytosterol, 

alpha-and beta-amyrins, lupeol 

and lupeol acetate and beta-sitosterol. 

The milky exudate from the stem contains 

4.1% of caoutchouc. Coagulum 

contains: caoutchouc 16, resins 68.1 

and insolubles 15.9%. 

Related species, Sarcostemma brunonianum 

W. & A. (South India), 

known as Perumaattaan kodi in Tamil 

Nadu; S. intermedium Decne (Peninsular 

India), and S. stocksii Hk. f. (Peninsular 

India), are also said to have similar 

uses as those of S. acidum. 

Sarcostemma secamone (L.) Bennet, 

synonym S. esculentum (L. f.) Holm. 

(throughout the plains in semi marshy 

places) is known as Dughdhikaa or 

Duudhilataa in Northern India and 

Usippalai in Tamil Nadu. Whole plant 

is depurative, galactagogue and antiseptic 

(used as a gargle in sore throat 

and stomatitis; fresh root is prescribed 

in jaundice. A pregnane triglycoside, 

esculentin and cardenolide tetraglycosides 

have been isolated from the root. 

Dosage ◮ Milky exudate from stem— 

1–3 drops. (CCRAS.) 

Sarcostigma kleinii W. & A. 

Family ◮ Icacinaceae. 

Habitat ◮ The Western Ghats, from 


Ayurvedic ◮ Ingudi. (Balanites 

aegyptiaca is also equated with 

Ingudi.) 

Siddha ◮ Odal (Tamil). 

Action ◮ Seed oil—used externally 

in rheumatism. Powdered bark— 

given in rheumatism, neurological 

disorders and skin diseases. 

Sassafras albidum (Nutt.) Nees. 

Synonym ◮ S. officinale Nees and 

Eberm. 

S. variifolium Kuntze.


Habitat ◮ Canada to Florida. Dried 

roots of S. albidum are imported 

into India. 

English ◮ Ague tree. 

Unani ◮ Sassafras. 

Action ◮ Root—used earlier 

for rheumatism, gout, kidney 

complaints and skin diseases. 

Safrole is the main constituent of 

the volatile oil (80–90%), in addition 

to condensed tannins, resin, cinnamic 

acid derivatives. Safrole and its 

metabolite, L-hydroxysafrole are both 

neuro- and hepatotoxic (carcinogenic 

in animals). Its internal use is no more 

advised. Safrole-free extracts are ineffective. 

Satureja hortensis Linn. 



region; found in Kashmir. 

English ◮ Summer Savory. Winter 

Savory is equated with S. montana 

L. 

Action ◮ Flowering top—carminative, 

digestive, laxative, stomachic, 

diuretic, sudorific and vermifuge. 

Used in flatulent colic and menstrual 

suppression. A tea (of leaves) is 

given as a carminative and expectorant. 


antifungal, spasmolytic. 

The plant gave fluorine, labiatic acid, 

ursolic acid and beta-sitosterol. Labiatic 

acid is antioxidant. The volatile 

Saussurea affinis Spreng. ex DC. 585 

oil consists mainly of carvacrol with pcymene, 

beta-pinene, beta-phellandrene, 

limonene and borneol. 

The volatile oil of S. montana contains 

carvacrol, p-cymene and thymol 

with alpha-and beta-pinene, cineole 

and borneol. 

Sauropus androgynus Merrill. 


Habitat ◮ Sikkim, Khasi Hills and 

Western Ghats, and also grown in 

South India. 

English ◮ Star Goose Berry. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Thavasai Murungai. 

Action ◮ Plant—known as Multivitamin 

Green for its substantial 

vitamin content. Decoction is given 

in stricture of the bladder and in 

fevers; used as a diuretic. 

The leaves contain protein 6.8; carbohydrates 

11.6; mineral matter 3.4, Ca 

0.57, phosphorus 0.20, iron 28.0 mg, 

carotene (as vitamin A), 9,510 IU, thiamine 

0.48, riboflavin 0.32, nicotinic 

acid 2.6, and vitamin C 247 mg/100 g. 

Saussurea affinis Spreng. ex DC. 


Habitat ◮ Foot Hills of Eastern 

Himalayas and in Aka and Laushai 

Hills. 

Folk ◮ Ganga-muula (Assam). 

Action ◮ Root—juice is prescribed 

in gynaecological diseases. 

S

586 Saussurea gossypiphora D. Don. 

S 

Saussurea gossypiphora D. Don. 


Habitat ◮ Himalayas from Garhwal 

to Sikkim at 4,200–5,100 m. 

Folk ◮ Phen-kamal, Jogi Paashaa, 

Hiyun Kauni. 

Action ◮ Plant, root—a decoction 

is prescribed in gynaecological 

diseases. 

The plant afforded beta-sitosterol, 3stigmastanol, 

stigmast-7-en-3-ol and 

ergostan-3,24-diol. The aerial parts 

of the plant collected from Himalayas 

gave heptacosane, hentriacontane, nonacosane, 

alpha- and beta-amyrins and 

their acetates and palmitates, lupeol, 

its acetate, fructose, glucose and surcose. 

Saussurea heteromalla 

(D. Don) Raizada & Saxena. 

Synonym ◮ S. candicans C. B. Clarke. 

Carduus heteromallus D. Don. 


Folk ◮ Batula, Kaaliziri (Punjab). 

Action ◮ Leaves—antiseptic; 

applied to wounds. Seeds— 

carminative. The plant exhibits 

CNS depressant and hypothermic 

properties. 

Saussurea hieracioides Hook. f (Sikkim 

Himalayas at 3,600–4,200 m) gave 

a sesquilignan, saussol; scopoletin, 

luteolin-7-O-beta-D-glucoside and syringin 

were isolated from the aerial 

parts. 

Saussurea hypoleuca spreng. 

Synonym ◮ S. auriculata (DC.) 

Sch.-Bip. 

Aplotaxis auriculata DC. 




Ayurvedic ◮ Kushtha (pseudo). 

Folk ◮ Uplet (Maharashtra). 


treatment of syphilis. 

The root of the plant is found mixed 

with the root of Kushtha of Indian 

medicine. 

Saussurea lappa 

(Decne) Sch.-Bip. 

Synonym ◮ S. costus (Falc.) Lipsch. 


Habitat ◮ Kashmir, Himachal 

Pradesh and Garhwal at 2500– 

3,000 m; cultivated in Kashmir and 

neighbouring regions. 

English ◮ Kuth, Costus. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Kushtha, Kusht, Vaapya, 

Kaashmira, Gada, Rug, Ruk, 

Aamaya, Paalaka. (Substitute: 

Pushkara Muula, Inula racemosa.) 

Unani ◮ Qust. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kostum, Kottam. 

Folk ◮ Sugandha-Kuutth. 

Action ◮ Root—antispasmodic, 

expectorant, carminative, astringent, 

antiseptic. An ingredient of 

prescriptions for dyspepsia, asthma,

cough, chronic rheumatism, skin 

diseases. Applied locally to wounds 

and ulcerations. Powdered root, 

mixed with mustard oil, is applied 

to scalp in prurigo. 


recommends the root in cough, 

bronchitis, dyspnoea; erysipelas and 

gout. 

The root (containing both the essential 

oil and alkaloid, saussurine) is used 

for asthma, particularly of vagotonic 

type. It produces a definite relaxtion 

of the bronchioles. The relief obtained 

is comparable to that of conventional 

bronchodilators without side effects, 

like a rise in blood pressure, sweating 

or headache even on repeated administration. 

Saussurine depresses parasympathetic 

nervous system. The aminoacidsesquiterpene 

adducts, saussureamines 

A, B and C show antiulcer effect. 

The aqueous extract of the root exhibits 

antianginal activity. 

Essential oil inhibits peristalic movement 

of the gut. It is absorbed from 

the gastro-intestinal tract and partly 

excreted by lungs producing an expectorant 

action and partly by the kidneys 

producing diuretic effect. (In Western 

herbal, Kuth essential oil is not 

prescribed internally.) 

Kuth roots contain resinoids (6%), 

and essential oil (1.5%), alkaloid 

(0.05%) inulin (18%), saussurea lactone 

(20–25%), a fixed oil and minor constituents 

like tannin and sugars. Roots 

obtained from Kashmir are, in general, 

richer in essential oil content than roots 

obtained from Garhwal and Nepal. 

The roots of Punjab variety gave cos- 

Saussurea sacra Edgew. 587 

tunolide, dehydrocostuslactone, costic 

acid, palmitic and linoleic acids, betasitosterol 

and alpha-cyclocostunolide. 

The Kashmir variety, in addition, gave 

alantolactone, beta-cyclocostunolide 

and iso-alantolactone. 

The essential oil of the roots exhibit 

strong antiseptic and disinfectant activity 

against Streptococcus and Staphylococcus. 

Costus speciosus Sm. synonym 

Banksea speciosa, also known as Kushtha, 

is a different herb of Zingiberaceae 

family. Rhizomes and stems yield diosgenin. 

Dosage ◮ Root—0.2–1.0 g powder. 


Saussurea obvallata 

Wall. ex C. B. Clarke. 



Kashmir to Sikkim at 4,200– 

5,000 m. 

Folk ◮ Brahma-kamal (Kumaon); 

Birm-kanwal (Punjab). 

Action ◮ Roots—antiseptic, styptic, 

anti-inflammatory. Applied to 

wounds and cuts. 

Plant—hypothermic. Flower—CNS 

active, antiviral. The flowers, after frying, 

are used in rheumatism. 

Saussurea sacra Edgew. 


S

588 Scaevola frutescens auct. non-Krause. 

S 

Habitat ◮ Near snow line at 

elevations of 4,000 m and above in 


English ◮ Yogiraj Plant, Sacred 

Saussurea. 

Folk ◮ Jogi-paadshaah (Kashmir), 

Ghuggi (Garhwal). 

Action ◮ Plant—used for nervous 

debility. Root—used for 

gynaecological disorders. 

Scaevola frutescens 

auct. non-Krause. 

Synonym ◮ S. koenigii Vahl. 

S. taccada (Gaertn.) Roxb. 

Family ◮ Goodeniaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Sea coasts all around India 

and in the Andaman Islands. 

English ◮ Fan Flower, Malay Rice 

Paper Plant. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Vella-muttangam. 

Folk ◮ Bhadraka, Bhadraaksha. 

Action ◮ Leaves—digestive, carminative; 

applied externally on tumours 

and swollen legs. Fruit—juice, internally 

for inducing menstruation. 

Roots—used for dysentery. 

A decoction of the leaves and the 

bark is reported to combat tachycardia, 

one of the principal symptoms of 

beriberi. The drug reduces the frequency 

of heartbeat, slows down pulse 

rate and at the same time stimulates 

the heart to normal contraction (does 

not possess cumulative action of digitalis). 

The drug acts as a diuretic by 

increasing the tension in the renal arteries 

without causing irritation of the 

kidney parenchyma; and is used for 

dropsy. 

The aerial parts gave loganin, sylvestroside 

III, its dimethyl acetal, cantleyoside 

and its dimethyl acetal. 

Schima wallichii 

(DC.) Korth., Choicy. 


Habitat ◮ Eastern Himalayas from 

Nepal eastwards to Assam, Khasi 

Hills and Manipur up to 2,100 m. 

English ◮ Chilauni Needle Wood. 

Folk ◮ Chilauni. Makria (Assam). 

Action ◮ Stem bark—anthelmintic 

(used for tapeworms), rubefacient. 

Aerial parts—antifungal. 

The plant contains octacosanol, phytol, 

alpha-spinasterol and a saponin, 

schiwallin. Schiwallin is antidermatophytic. 

The bark and leaves contain 6% and 

4% tannin, respectively. 

Schizachyrium exile Stapf. 

Synonym ◮ Andropogon exilis 

Hochst. 


Habitat ◮ Bihar, Assam, Bengal and 

Tamil Nadu. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Sprkaa, Sprk. 


Delphinium Zalil.

Schleichera oleosa (Lour.) Oken. 

Synonym ◮ S. trijuga Willd & Klein. 



from Kashmir to West Bengal; 

Bihar, Punjab, Madhya Pradesh, 

southwards to Peninsular India. 

English ◮ Lac tree, Macassar Oil tree, 

Honey tree, Ceylon Oak. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Koshaamra, Kshudraamra, 

Lakshaa vrksha, Ghanaskandha. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Puvathipuvam, 

Pulaachi. 

Action ◮ Bark—astringent; mixed 

with oil, applied externally in 

skin eruptions. Seed oil—used 

for massage in rheumatism and 

applied in alopecia, itch and acne; 

stimulates hair growth. (Tree is an 

important host of Kusmi lac.) 

Fatty acids of the oil consisted of oleic 

(52.%), gadoleic, stearic, arachidic, 

behenic, palmitoleic and palmitic acids. 

Young leaves contain gallo-tannic acid 

(5.09%, dry matter basis). The bark 

contains 9.4% tannin. 


(CCRAS.) 

Schrebera swientenioides Roxb. 


Habitat ◮ Tropical and subtropical 

Himalayas from Kumaon 

eastwards; also Bihar, West Bengal 

and Peninsular India, up to 1,200 m. 

Schweinfurthia sphaerocarpa A. Br. 589 

English ◮ Weaver’s Beam tree. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Muskakaa. (Mokshaka, 

Ghantaa-Paatali, Kaashthapaatalaa 

are varieties of Paatalaa.) 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Mogalingum. 

Action ◮ Leaves—used in enlargement 

of spleen and in urinary 

discharges. Root—used for leprosy. 

Bark—used for boils and burns. 

Fruits—beneficial in hydrocele. 

The Fruits gave betulinic and oleanolic 

acids. 

Schweinfurthia sphaerocarpa 

A. Br. 

Synonym ◮ S. papilionacea (Burm. f.) 

Boiss. 


Habitat ◮ The arid regions of Gujarat 

and in Rajasthan. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Nepaal-Nimba. 

Folk ◮ Saannipaat (Maharashtra). 

Action ◮ Broken pieces of dried 

fruits, stems and leaves—used in 

enteric fever. Leaf—antidiabetic. 

Fruit, leaf, stem—diuretic. 

An alkaloid, schweinfurthin, a hydrocarbon 

and an unsaturated ketone 

were reported from the leaves. Recently, 

two macrocylic alkaloids, 11epi-ephedradine 

and schweinine, have 

been isolated from the whole plant, 

along with (−)-ephedradine A. Experimentally, 

11-epi-ephedradine A was 

mutagenic to Salmonella typhimurium. 

S

590 Scilla indica Baker non-Roxb. 

S 

Scilla indica Baker non-Roxb. 

Synonym ◮ S. hyacinthiana (Roth) 

Macb. 

Ledebouria hyacinthina Roth. 


Habitat ◮ Central and Southern 

India, including Deccan Peninsula. 

English ◮ South Indian Squill. 

Substitute for White Squill, Urginea 

maritima Baker and Indian Squill, 

Urginea indica Kunth. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Vana-Palaandu (South 

India), Korikanda. 

Unani ◮ Jangli Piyaz. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kattu velvengayam. 

Action ◮ Bulb—cardiotonic, stimulant, 

expectorant, diuretic. Used 

in cough, dysuria, strangury. (Not 

used as a diuretic when kidneys are 

inflamed.) 

The bulb contains cardioactive glycosides 

including bufadienolides, scillaren 

A, scillaridin A and proscillaridin 

A. 

The squill has shown to have cardiac 

effects similar to digoxin, including 

positive inotropic and negative 

chronotropic effects. The aglycones 

in squill are poorly absorbed from 

the GI tract and are therefore less potent 

than digitalis cardiac glycosides. 

Additional cardiovascular properties 

include reducing left ventricular diastolic 

pressure and reducing pathologically 

elevated venous pressure. (Natural 


2007.) 

Large amounts of squill are gastric 

irritants; small amounts expectorant. 

The squill of the Indian bazaars consists 

partly of S. indica and chiefly of 

Urginea indica. 

Scindapsus officinalis Schott. 


Habitat ◮ Tropical Himalayas, 

Bengal, southwards to Andhra 

Pradesh and the Andamans. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Gajakrishna, Hastipippali, 

Gajapippali (also equated with 

Piper chaba). 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Anaitippili. 

Action ◮ Fruits—stimulant, carminative, 

diaphoretic, anthelmintic, 

antidiarrhoeal. Decoction is used 

as an expectorant in asthma. 

Fruits and shoots—hypoglycaemic. 

Fruit pulp—applied externally in 

rheumatism. 


recommends dried pieces of mature 

female spadix in dyspnoea. (Gajapippali 

is wrongly equated with male or 

female inflorescence of Borassus flabellifer 

Linn.) 

The fruits contain two glycosidic 

substances—scindapsin A and B, 

which on hydrolysis yield the aglucons, 

scindapsinidine A and B. Free 

sugars, rhamnose, fructose, glucose 

and xylose together with some di-and 

trisaccharides have been identified in 

the plant. 

Dosage ◮ Dried pieces of mature 

female spadix—2–3 g for infusion. 

(API, Vol. II.)

Scirpus articulatus Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Growninaquaticgardens. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Laghu Kasheruka. 

Folk ◮ Chichodaa. 

Action ◮ Tubers—prescribed in 

diarrhoea and vomiting. 

See S. kysoor. 

Scirpus corymbosus Roth. 



shallow waters. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Kronchaadana. 

Action ◮ Tuber—prescribed for 

diarrhoea, dysentery and emesis. 

Scirpus kysoor Roxb. 

Synonym ◮ S. grossus Linn. f. 



India, especially in swamps, up to 

an altitude of 700 m. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Kasheru, Kasheruka. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Karundan, Gundatigagaddi 

(rhizome). 

Folk ◮ Kaseru. 

Action ◮ Tuber—nutritious, astringent, 

antidiarrhoeal, antiemetic, 

galactagogue, hypoglycaemic, diuretic, 

urinary antiseptic. Used in 

prescriptions for dysuria, diabetes, 

genitourinary affections, dyscrasia 

Scleria lithosperma Sw. 591 

and as a spermopoietic and liver 

tonic. 


recommends the powder of the 

rhizome for promoting spermatogensis 

and development of breast. 

The tuber gave progesterone, sugars, 

tannins, starch and saponins. The fruit 

contains amylase. 

The tuber of Scirpus lacustris L. 

(Kashmir, Ladakh, Kumaon), known 

as Great Bulrush or Clubrush, is also 

used as astringent, diuretic and antimicrobial. 

The aromatic compounds 

isolated from the rhizomes include 

derivatives of benzaldehyde, hydroxybenzoic 

and cinnamic acids. 



Scirpus tuberosus Desf. 

Synonym ◮ S. maritimus C. B. Clarke 

non Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Marshy areas and on the 

banks of streams up to an altitude 

of 3,000 m. 

English ◮ Sea Clubrush. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Raaj Kasheruka. 

Action ◮ Tuberous root—astringent, 

diuretic, laxative. 

Oil from rhizomes on hydrolysis 

gave phellonic acid. 

Scleria lithosperma Sw. 


S

592 Scoparia dulcis Linn. 

S 


an altitude of 900 m, except in acrid 

areas in the West. 

English ◮ Scleria. 

Action ◮ Plant—antinephritic. 

Root—decoction is given after 

parturition. Young tops—given to 

children for enlarged stomach. 

The roots of Scleria biflora Roxb. 

smell strongly of camphor or cajeput. 

The fruits of S. levis are used for 

cough and stomach disorders. 

A decoction of the sedge of S. pergracilis 

(Nees) Kunth (the Himalayas 

from Garhwal to Assam at altitudes of 

1,500 m and in Bihar, West Bengal and 

Deccan Penninsula) is used for cough. 

(Folk names not known. About 28 

species are found in India.) 

Scoparia dulcis Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Indigenous to tropical 

America; introduced into India, 

commonly found as a weed in 

Bengal and Tamil Nadu, and in 

many parts of India. 

English ◮ Sweet Broomweed. 

Folk ◮ Jastimadhu, Madhukam, 

Ghodaa-tulasi. 

Action ◮ Plant—decoction is used 

for gravel and other renal affections. 

Leaves—infusion used in fever, 

cough and bronchitis. Root— 

febrifuge. Stem and leaves—used in 

anemia, albuminaria, ketonuria and 

other complications associated with 

diabetes mellitus. 

An antidiabetic compound, amellin, 

occursintheleavesandstemsofthe 

green plant. 

According to some researchers, hypoglycaemic 

compounds were not 

present in the extracts obtained from 

dry plant material. 


scutellarein and 7-O-methylscutella 

rein. Whole plant gave the triterpenoids, 

dulcitol, friedelin, scopadol, betulinic 

acid, dulcitolic acid and dulciolone. 

Benzoxazolinone, beta-sitosterol, 

D-mannitol, hexacosanol and tritriacontanewerealsoobtainedfrom 

the plant. 

Scopolia anomala Airy Shaw. 

Synonym ◮ S. lurida Dunal. 



Kumaon to Sikkim, up to 3,900 m. 

English ◮ Scopolia. 

Action ◮ Used like belladonna. 

Dried leaves contain 0.32% of alkaloids 

comprising hyoscyamine, himaline, 

atropine and scopolamine. 

Ripe seeds contain a small amount of 

atropine but no hyoscyamine. Extracts 

of leaves, stalks and seeds showed presence 

of atropine, scopolamine, cuscohygrine, 

hellaradine, tropine, scopine. 

The alkaloid himaline exhibits atropine 

type activity. Roots (total alkaloid content 

1.9–2.8%), in addition, contain 

hyoscyamine and himaline. The alkaloid 

content of the root is reported to 

be 4.64 times more than that of the 

leaves of Atropa belladonna.

Flavonoids occurring in the leaves 

and roots are chlorogenic acid, scopoletin, 

and scopoline; the leaves, in addition, 

contain rutin and caffeic acid. 

A related species, S. carniolica 

Jacquin, (rhizome), has been approved 

by German Commission E, for use in 

spasm of gastrointestinal tract, bile 

ducts and urinary tract. 

The rhizome of S. carniolica (Central 

and Eastern Europe) gave tropane alkaloids, 

including hyoscine and hyoscyamine 

with cuscohygrine, tropine and 

pseudotropine. 

Leaf extract of Indian species (S. 

anomala) is found to be more active 

than belladonna infusions. 

Scutellaria galericulata Linn. 



English ◮ Skullcap (equated with S. 

lateriflora Linn.), Scurvy Grass. 

Action ◮ Central nervous relaxant 

and restorative, brain and CNS vasodilator, 

sedative, antispasmodic, 

anticonvulsive. Used for nervous 

stress, disturbed sleep, menstrual 

tension, headache, migraine, neurological 

and neurimotor conditions, 

epilepsy. 

Roots, stem and flowers of S. galericulata 

gave flavonoids and their glycosides, 

chrysin-7-glucuronide, baicalein, 

baicalin, apigenin, apigenin-7glucoside 

and galeroside (baicalcin-7beta-L-rhamnofuranoside).Cytotoxicity 

of baicalin and baicalein (isolated 

from S. barbata D. Don synonym S. 

Scutia myrtina Kurz. 593 

rivularis Wall.) has been investigated 

on human hepatoma cell lines, human 

liver cells and human pancreatic cancer 

line. (Chem Abstr, 121, 292196y, 

1994.) 

S. galericulata is used as an adulterant 

of S. lateriflora. (See also WHO 

monograph on Scutellaria grandiflora 

Adams.) 

In Oriental medicine, Skullcap refers 

to S. baicalensis Georgi. It contains 

the flavonoids baicalin, baicalein, 

wogonin, skullcapflavones I and II in 

addition to other flavones. Baicalin exhibits 

anti-inflammatory and antiallergic 

properties. 

S. baicalensis inhibited lipid peroxidation 

in rat liver and has been clinically 

tested in China; patients with 

chronic hepatitis showed improvement 

(above 70%) in various symptoms. 

(Potter’s New Cyclopedia.) 

According to The British Herbal 

Pharmacopoeia, S. lateriflora can be 

used as a mild sedative. 

Scutia myrtina Kurz. 

Synonym ◮ S. indica Brongn. 


Habitat ◮ The Deccan peninsula 

from Mahabaleshwar southwards, 

and Orissa. 

Folk ◮ Cheemaat (Gujarat, Maharashtra); 

Tuvadi (Tamil Nadu); 

Gariki (Andhra Pradesh). 

Action ◮ Fruit—astringent. Leaf— 

used in an ointment applied locally 

to hasten parturition. 

S

594 Sebastiana chamaelea Muell.-Arg. 

S 

Sebastiana chamaelea 

Muell.-Arg. 



Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal, Orissa 


Folk ◮ Bhui-erendi. 

Action ◮ Plant—astringent, antidiarrhoeal. 

A decoction of the 

plant, mixed with purified butter, is 

applied to the head in vertigo. 

Secale cereale Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Ladakh, Lahul and 

other north-western Himalayan 

areas; and as host for cultivation 

of medicinal ergot (fungus) in 

Kashmir. 

English ◮ Rye Grass. 

Action ◮ Grass—used for benign 

prostatic hyperplasia (BPH), 

chronic prostatis and prostatodynia. 

Ryebread,biscuits,porridgeandalcoholic 

products are available in European 

countries and the US. Rye grain 

contains 12.1% protein; made up of 42% 

gliadin (a prolamine), 42% glutelin, 8% 

globulin and 8% albumin. The biological 

value of Rye protein at 5% level of 

intake is 80.4% and the coefficient of 

true digestibility 91.0%. 

The mineral contents in the grain 

are: calcium 61, potassium 453, magnesium 

155, phosphorus 376, sulphur 

146 and iron 4.8 mg/100 g; and small 

amounts of zinc, copper, manganese 

and aluminium. The carbohydrates 

(73.4%) include surcose, pentosans, 

starch and raffinose. 

Medicinally applicable part of Rye 

Grassisthepolanextract. Theextract 

contains beta-sitosterol; relaxes 

urethral smooth muscle tone and increases 

bladder muscle contraction. 

Some evidence suggests that it might 

affect alpha-adrenergic receptors and 

relax the internal and external bladder 

sphincter muscle. The extract does 

not affect LH, FSH, testosterone or 

dihydrotestosterone. A specific Rye 

Grass pollen extract 126 mg three times 

daily has been used for BHP. (Natural 


2007.) 

(It is not known if Rye Grass pollen 

is comparable to finasteride or hytrin. 

However, it is comparable to Pygeum 

and Paraprost, a Japanese prostate 

remedy containing L-glutamic acid, 

L-alanine and aminoacetic acid.) 

Securinega suffruticosa 

(Pall.) Rehder. 

Synonym ◮ S. ramiflora Muell. 

Flueggea suffruticosa Baill. 


Habitat ◮ Eastern Himalayas, up to 

an altitude of 250 m. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Vellaippula (S. 

virosa). 

Folk ◮ Dalme, Kodarsi, Pandharphali 

(S. virosa). 

Action ◮ Alkaloid, securinine in the 

leaves stimulates central nervous 

system similar to strychnine and

is comparatively less toxic. It is 

found useful in paresis and paralysis 

following infectious diseases and 

physical disorders. (The plant can 

replace strychnine and nux-vomica 

in medicinal preparations.) 

A related species, Securinega virosa 

(Roxb. ex Willd.) Baillon, distributed 

throughout India up to an altitude of 

2,000 m, gave securinine as the main 

alkaloid, along with virosecurinine and 

viroallosecurinine, and a coumarin, 

bergenin. The root bark contains an 

alkaloid, virosine. Whole root contains 

alkaloids, hordenine (flueggeine) 

and nor-securinine. A decoction of 

the root is given to induce sleep and 

for fever; that of bark in diarrhoea and 

pneumonia. The leaves are reported to 

be given in venereal diseases. 

Selaginella involvens Spring. 

Family ◮ Selaginellaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Hilly regions of India at 


Ayurvedic ◮ Kara-jodi-kanda (related 

species). 

Folk ◮ Hatthaa jodi (related species). 

Action ◮ Used as an age-sustaining 

tonic. The original source is S. 

rupestris Spring. 

Selaginella rupestris Spring. 

Family ◮ Selaginellaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Indian gardens, as 

ornaments. 

Selenicereus grandiflorus Britton & Rose. 595 

English ◮ Little Clubmoss. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Kara-jodi-Kanda. 

Folk ◮ Hatthaajodi. 

Action ◮ Plant—a decoction is 

prescribed as a tonic and protective 

medicine after child birth; also as 

a sedative. 

S. tamariscina Spring var. pulvinata 

(Kumaon to Assam), known as Hatthaajodi, 

is used as an age-sustaining 

tonic and has been credited with the 

property of prolonging life. A decoction 

is prescribed for amenorrhoea, 

bleeding piles and prolapse of rectum. 

A decoction of S. wallichii Spring 

(hilly regions of north-eastern India), 

knownasHatthaajodi,isprescribed 

after childbirth. S. willdenovii Baker 

(Nicobar Islands) is also known as 

Hatthaajodi. Its infusion is administered 

in cases of high fever and ashes 

are used in a liniment for backache. 

Selenicereus grandiflorus 

Britton & Rose. 

Synonym ◮ Cereus grandiflorus Mill. 


Habitat ◮ Indigenous to Mexico; 

introduced in Indian gardens. 

English ◮ Night-Blooming Cereus, 

Sweet-scented Cactus. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Visarpin, Mahaapushpa, 

Raatripraphulla. 

Action ◮ Flowers and tender shoots— 

cardiac stimulant and diuretic (used 

forirritablebladderandcongested 

kidneys), central nervous system 

stimulant. 

S

596 Selinum monnieri Linn. 

S 

The plant contains alkaloids (including 

cactine) and flavonoids based on 

isorhamnetin. 

Alkaloid, cactine is reported to have 

a digitalis-like activity on the heart. 

(Alcoholic extract is used in homoeopathy.) 

Selinum monnieri Linn. 


Habitat ◮ East Bengal, Bhutan and 

Assam. 

Folk ◮ Muraa (var.). 

Action ◮ Fruits—extracts used for 

osteoporosis, gynaecological problems 

and stress-related disorders. 

Seeds—prescribed in rheumatism 

and renal diseases. 

In Japan, the plant is mainly used for 

the treatment of swelling of women’s 

genitals. 

The aerial parts contain the chromones, 

cnidimol and karenin. The fruits 

contain the benzofurans, cnidioside A, 

B and C, cnidiol b and C; besides furanocoumarins, 

imperatorin, bergapten, 

xanthotoxin, osthol and several terpenoids. 

The seeds and volatile oil 

from the fruits also contain osthol and 

other coumarins. 

The coumarins prevented glucocorticoid-induced 

osteoporosis in rats; 

they also reversed bone loss at early 

menopausal stage. Osthol showed antiallergic 

activity. Cnidioside A and 

B and cnidiol b alleviate physiological 

disorders caused by physical and 

mental stress; enhancement of sexual 

activity has also been observed. 

Selinum tenuifolium 

Wall. ex DC. 

Synonym ◮ S. candollei DC. 



Kashmir to Nepal at altitudes of 

1,800–4,200 m. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Muraa, Surabhi, Daitya, 

Gandhakuti, Gandhavati. (Substitute 

for Nardostachys jatamansi.) 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Mural. 

Folk ◮ Bhuutakeshi (Kashmir), Muur 

(Garhwal). 

Action ◮ Roots—sedative, analgesic. 

Isoimperatorin and oxypeucedanin 

have been isolated as major inotropic 

constituents from the rhizomes. 


recommends the root in syncope, 

giddiness, also for asthma. 


Vol. II.) 

Selinum vaginatum C. B. Clarke. 


Habitat ◮ North-Western Himalayas 



Ayurvedic ◮ Rochanaa-Tagara. 

Folk ◮ Peshaavari-Bhuutakeshi 

(Kashmir), Taggar (Garhwal). 

Action ◮ Roots—used as a nervine 

sedative. Oil—sedative, analgesic, 

hypotensive.

The roots gave coumarins, angelicin, 

oroselol, lomatin, selinidin, vaginidin, 

vaginol; a flavone derivative selinone; 

a sesquiterpene vaginatin. 

The dry roots yield an essential oil 

containing alpha-pinene45.5 limonene 

25.3, camphene 5.7, beta-phellandrene 

5.2, alpha-thujene 1.2, fenchyl alcohol 

3.2, terpineol 3.8, and a ketone 2.6%. 

Beta-pinene and fenchone have also 


The roots are sold in the drug markets 

of Jammu mixed with those of 

Seseli sibiricum. The roots are also used 

as a substitute for Nardostachys jatamansi. 

Semecarpus anacardium Linn. f. 


Habitat ◮ Punjab, Assam, Khasi Hills, 

Madhya Pradesh and Peninsular 

India. 

English ◮ Marking-Nut. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Bhallaataka, Bhallata, 

Arushkara, Agnik, Agnimukha, 

Sophkrit, Viravrksha. 

Unani ◮ Balaadur, Bhilaayan, 

Bhilaavaan. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Shenkottei, Erimugi. 

(Kattu shen-kottai is equated with 

S. travancorica Bedd., found in 

evergreen forests of Tinnevelly and 

Travancore.) 

Folk ◮ Bhilaavaa. 

Action ◮ Toxic drug, used only after 

curing. Fruit—caustic, astringent, 

anti-inflammatory, antitumour. 

Used in rheumatoid arthritis and 

Semecarpus anacardium Linn. f. 597 

for the treatment of tumours and 

malignant growths. 

A decoction, mixed with milk or 

butter fat, is prescribed in asthma, 

neuralgia, sciatica, gout, hemiplegia, 

epilepsy. Kernel oil—antiseptic; used 

externally in gout, leucoderma, psoriasis 

and leprosy. Bark gum—used for 

nervous debility; in leprous, scrofulous 

and venereal affections. 

Bigger var. is equated with S. kurzii 

Engler. 

The nut shells contain biflavonoids, 

including tetrahydrobustaflavone, tetrahydroamentoflavone 

and anacarduflavanone; 

nallaflavone; anacardic acid; 

aromatic amines and bhilawanol. Bhilawanolisamixtureofphenoliccompounds, 

including cis and trans isomers 

of urushenol (3-pentadecenyl-8 ′ 

catechol), monohydroxy phenol and 

semicarpol. These are the major constituents 

of the shell liquid, isolated 

from the nuts (about 46% of the weight 

of extract). 

A mixture of closely related pentadecyl 

catechols exhibits anticancer activity. 

Extracts of the fruit was found effective 

against human epidermoid carcinoma 

of the naso-pharynx in tissue 

culture. 

Milk extract of the nut showed 

anti-inflammatory activity against carrageenin, 

5-HT and formaldehydeinduced 

rat paw oedema in acute antiinflammatory 

studies. (About 20% 

animals developed gangrene of limbs, 

tail and ears.) 

Dosage ◮ Detoxified fruit—1–2 g in 

milk confection. (API, Vol. II.) 

S

598 Sempervivum tectorum Linn. 

S 

Sempervivum tectorum Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Nilgiris, as ornament. (A 

commongardenplantinBritain 

and Europe.) 

English ◮ Houseleek. 

Action ◮ Leaves—refrigerant, 

astringent, antispasmodic; applied 

as poultice to inflammatory 

conditions of skin. Juice of the 

leaves is applied topically for 

treating corns. 

The leaves sliced in two and the inner 

surface applied to warts, act as a positive 

cure for corns. 

The leaves contain tannin, malic acid 

and mucilage. Three related species are 

found in the alpine Himalayan range 

from Kumaon to Kashmir. 

Senecio jacquemontianus 

Benth. 



and Kashmir at elevation of 3,000– 

3,900 m. 

Folk ◮ Poshkar, Hatermuula 

(Kashmir). 

Action ◮ Root—nervine tonic. Used 

as an adulterant of Saussurea lappa. 

Whole plant extract gave senecionine. 

Senecio vulgaris Linn. 


Habitat ◮ The Nilgiris and Uttar 

Pradesh. Introduced into Indian 

gardens 

English ◮ Groundsel. 

Action ◮ Formerly used as a diuretic, 

diaphoretic and emmenagogue, in 

dysmenorrhoea and bilious pains. 

No more recommended for internal 

use due to high concentration of 

hepatotoxic alkaloids. Infusion is 

used as a lotion in chronic mastitis, 

gout and haemorrhoids. Extracts of 

the plant are haemostatic. 

From the dried plant material alkaloids 

(0.053–00.095%) have been isolated, 

including, seneciphylline, senecionine 

and retrorsine. Senecionine 

and retrorsine have been demonstrated 

to induce hepatic necrosis in experimental 

animals. The plant contains 

950 mcg/kg of iodine on fresh basis. 

A related species used in Western 

herbal, Senecio aureus Linn. (Golden 

Groundsel, Squaw Weed) is a uterine 

relaxant, stimulant to gravid uterus and 

asoothingdrugfornervousandvascular 

irritability, menopausal symptoms, 

hot flushes. Alkaloidsincludesenecifoline, 

senescine, senecionine and otosenine—pyrrolizidine 

alkaloids, in isolation,arehighlytoxictoliver.Theplant 

is recommended only for external use 

as a douche for excessive vaginal discharge. 

Seronoa repens (Bartram) Small. 

Synonym ◮ Sabal serrulata (Michaux) 

Nichols. 

Family ◮ Palmae.

Habitat ◮ Southeastern North 

America. 

English ◮ Sabal, Saw Palmetto. 

Action ◮ Ripe fruit—diuretic, 

urinary antiseptic, antiandrogenic, 

and antiexudative. 

The fruit contains fatty acids, especially 

capric, caproic, caprylic, lauric, 

myristic, oleic, linoleic, linolenic, 

stearic and palmitic acids; sterols, principally 

beta-sitosterol and its 3-glucoside 

(and fatty acid derivatives), campesterol 

and stigmasterol; triglycerides; 

triterpenes; alkanols; polysaccharides; 

flavonoids; essential oil and anthranilic 

acid. 

Key application ◮ In urination 

problems due to benign prostatic 

hyperplasia stages I and II (German 

Commission E, ESCOP, WHO.)(The 

lipophilic extracts of Saw Palmetto 

berries are used in France and 

Germany for the treatment of BPH. 

In a study (1999), shrinkage of the 

epithelial tissue in the transition 

zone of the prostate has been 

recorded. (Expanded Commission E 

Monographs.) (For Clinical studies, 

see ESCOP.) 

In India, Sabal palmetto Lodd. Ex 

Roem. & Schult (Sabal or Cabbage 

Palm) is planted in gardens for ornament. 

The sweet drupes are eaten as 

such or cooked for preparing a syrup. 

Other species of Sabal introduced into 

Indian gardens are: S. mauritiiformis 

Griseb. & Wendl., S. mexicana Mart., 

S. umbraculifera Mart., and S. minor 

Pers. The leaves of S. mexicana contain 

cyanidin. The leaves of S. minor 

Sesamum indicum Linn. 599 

contain caffeic, p-coumaric and sinapic 

acids. 

Sesamum indicum Linn. 

Synonym ◮ S. orientale Linn. 

Family ◮ Pedaliaceae. 


Pradesh, Rajasthan, Orissa, Gujarat, 

Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, and 

Maharashtra. 

English ◮ Sesame, Gingelly. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Tila, Snehphala. 

Unani ◮ Kunjad, Til. 

Siddha ◮ Ellu (seed), Nallennai (oil). 

Action ◮ Seeds—an important 

source of protein; also rich in 

thiamine and niacine. Nourishing, 

lactagogue, diuretic, laxative, 

emollient. Powdered seeds—given 

internally in amenorrhoea and 

dysmenorrhoea. (Black seeds are 

preferred in Indian medicine.) Paste 

is applied to burns, scalds, piles. 

Leaves—used in affections of kidney 

and bladder. Bland mucilage is used 

in infantile diarrhoea, dysentery, 

catarrh and bladder troubles, acute 

cystitis and strangury. 

Non-saponifiable fraction of the 

seed oil gave sterols, a lignans, sesamin 

and a nitrolactone, sesamolin. Sesamin 

and sesamolin are not found in any other 

vegetable oil. Sesamin is present in 

a concentration of 0.5 to 1.0%. The oil 

from the white seeds from West Bengal 

and Assam is reported to contain 

about 2.5% sesamin. Sesamol, a phenolic 

antioxidant, is present in traces. 

S

600 Sesbania bispinosa W. f. Wight. 

S 

The leaves gave a flavonoid, pedalin. 

Pinoresinol has also been reported 


The seed contains thiamine, niacin, 

riboflavin, nicotinic acid, pantothenic 

acid, folic acid, biotin, pyridoxine, inositol, 

choline, p-aminobenzoic acid, 

ascorbic acid, vitamin A, alpha-and 

beta-tocopherol. Sugars present are 

glucose, surcose, galactose, planteose, 

raffinose. Fatty acid in the seed are 

myristic, palmitic, stearic, arachidic, 

hexadecenoic, oleic, linoleic and lignoceric. 

Basic aroma compounds of the roasted 

seeds consisted of mainly dimethyl 

thiazole and substituted pyrozines. 



Sesbania bispinosa W. f. Wight. 

Synonym ◮ S. aculeata (Willd.) Poir. 



plains, southwards to Peninsular 

India. 

English ◮ Prickly Sesban, Dhaincha. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Jayanti (var.), Itkata 

(var.). 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Mudchembai. 

Action ◮ Seeds—used externally 

in ringworm and skin diseases. 

Plant—used for treating wounds. 

The leaf, stem and fruit gave positive 

test for alkaloids. A mixture of 

saponins, reported to be present in the 

seeds, yields on hydrolysis oleanolic 

acid and neutral sapogenin. Colloidal 

substances similar to those of marine 

algae, locust bean gum, guar gum and 

gum tragacanth are reported in the 

seeds. 

Sesbania grandiflora (L.) Poir. 

Synonym ◮ Agati grandiflora Desv. 



growninAssam,Bengal,Punjab, 

Vadodara, Andhra Pradesh and 

Tamil Nadu. 

English ◮ Agati Sesban, Swamp Pea. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Agastya, Agasti, 

Munidrum, Munitaru, Muni, 

Vangasena, Vakrapushpa, Kumbha. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Agatti. 

Action ◮ Plant—astringent, antihistaminic, 

febrifuge. Used 

for intermittent fevers, catarrh, 

cough, consumption, glandular 

enlargement. 

The aqueous extract of flowers has 

been found to produce haemolysis of 

human and sheet erythrocytes even at 

low concentration due to methyl ester 

of oleanolic acid. Flowers also gave 

nonacosan-6-one and kaempferol-3rutinoside. 

The seed gave kaempferol-3,7-diglucoside, 

(+)-leucocyanidin and cyanidin-3-glucoside. 

Seed also contains 

galactomannan. 

A saponin present in the leaves 

on hydrolysis gave an acid sapogenin 

oleanoic acid, galactose, rhamnose and 

glucuronic acid. Besides saponin, the 

leaves contain an aliphatic alcohol, 

grandiflorol.

The bark contains gum and tannin. 

The red gum is used as a substitute for 

Gum arabic. An infusion of the bark 

is given in first stages of smallpox and 

other eruptive fevers (emetic in large 

doses). 

Dosage ◮ Whole plant—10– 


(CCRAS.) 

Sesbania sesban (Linn.) Merrill. 

Synonym ◮ S. aegyptiaca Pers. 


Habitat ◮ Cultivated and wild 


English ◮ Common Sesban. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Jayantikaa, Jayanti, Jayaa, 

Jwaalaamukhi, Suukshma-muulaa, 

Suukshma-patraa, Keshruuhaa, 

Balaamotaa. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Sembai, Karumsembai 

(leaf). 

Folk ◮ Jainta. 

Action ◮ Seed and bark—astringent, 

emmenagogue. Used in 

menorrhagia, spleen enlargement 

and diarrhoea. Leaves—antiinflammatory. 

Bark—juice applied 

to cutaneous eruptions. Unsaponifiable 

matter of fixed oil from seeds— 

cardiac depressant, antibacterial. 


recommends the use of the leaf in 

dysuria. 

The pods and leaves contain cholesterol, 

campesterol and beta-sitosterol. 

Flowers contain cyanidin and delphinidin 

glucosides. Pollen and pollen tubes 

Seseli sibiricum Benth. ex C. B. Clarke 601 

contain alpha-ketoglutaric, oxaloacetic 

and pyruvic acids. 

Dosage ◮ Leaf—3–6 g powder. (API, 

Vol. II.) 

Seseli indicum W. & A. 

Synonym ◮ S. diffusum (Roxb. ex 

Sm.) Santapau & Wagh 


Habitat ◮ Outer hills of the Himalayas 

in Kumaon and in the plains from 

Punjab to Bengal, and in Tamil 

Nadu and Mysore. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Vanya-yamaani. 

Action ◮ Seeds—stimulant, anthelmintic 

(used for round worms), 

carminative. 

Seselin, isolated from the seeds, exhibited 

significant and dose-dependent 


acute inflammation in 

rats. It also exhibited significant analgesic 

activity and was found to be safe 

in oral doses up to 6 g/kg (body weight) 

in 72 h mortality test in mice. 

A sample of commercial oil, available 

as Ajmod Oil, is reported to contain 

(+)-limonene (50%), seselin, (−)beta-selinene 

and beta-cyclolavendulic 

acid. 

Seseli sibiricum 

Benth. ex C. B. Clarke 


Habitat ◮ Jammu and Kashmir at 


S

602 Setaria italica (Linn.) Beauv. 

S 

Ayurvedic ◮ Bhuutakeshi. Selinum 

sp. are also known as Bhuutakeshi. 

Action ◮ Used for mental disorders 

as a tranquilizer. Volatile oil— 

hypotensive. 

The volatile oil, distilled from the 

root, contains alpha-and beta-pinene, 

myrcene, limonene, p-cymene, betaphellandrene 

(major constituent), fenchone, 

fenchyl alcohol and acetate, 

fenchyl hydroxy cinnamate, osthol, phydroxy 

cinnamate (0.1%), sesibricin, 

imperatorin and bergapten. 

The volatile oil from aerial parts 

causes a fall in blood pressure, vasoconstriction 

and stimulation of respiration. 

The action appears to be 

tranquillizing. It potentiates the effects 

of pentobarbital in rats and has no anticonvulsant 

activity. Smooth muscle 

activity is inhibited by the oil and negative 

inotropic and chronotropic effects 

are observed on heart muscle. 

Setaria italica (Linn.) Beauv. 


Habitat ◮ Cultivated in Andhra 

Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Gujarat, 

Maharashtra and Karnataka. 

English ◮ Italian Millet, Fox-tail 

Millet. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Kangu, Kanguni, 

Kangunikaa, Priyangu Dhaanya 

(Millet). (Priyangu, aromatic flower 

buds or seed kernels, is a different 

drug. Callicarpa macrophylla and 

Prunus mahaleb are equated with 

Priyangu.) 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Tenai. 

Action ◮ Plant—used as a sedative to 

the gravid uterus. Grain—used for 

alleviating pain after parturition. 

Applied externally in rheumatism. 

(The grain is reported injurious to 

horses. Overfeeding affects kidneys 

and causes swelling and inflammation 

of joints.) 

Analysis of a dehusked sample (79% 

of whole grain) gave following values: 

protein 12.3, fat 4.3, minerals 3.3, 

crude fibre 8.0, and other carbohydrates 

60.9%. The principal protein 

of the millet is prolamin (48%), albumin 

and globulin together form 13– 

14% of the total protein, and glutelin 

37%. The oxidation of unsaturated fatty 

acids, present in the grain, during 

the cold winter months is reported to 

yield toxic substances. 

Shorea robusta Gaertn. f. 


Habitat ◮ North, east and central 

India. 

English ◮ Sal tree. Oleoresin: Sal 

Dammer or Bengal Dammer. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Shaala, Saalasaara, 

Dhuupa-vriksha. (Substitute: 

Vateria indica.) 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kungiliyam, 

Venkungiliyam (resin). 

Action ◮ Fruit—a paste is prescribed 

in diarrhoea. Resin—astringent, 

detergent; antidiarrhoeal and 

antidysenteric. Essential oil of Sal 

resin—antiseptic. Used for skin 

diseases.

The bark contains 7–12, young leaves 

20, twigs and leaves 22, and powder 

dust 12% tannin. The spray-dried aqueous 

extract of the bark contains 39.6% 

of tannins with a trans/non-trans ratio 

of0.73. Thetanninsareofpyrogallol 

type. Oleanolic acid has also been 

isolated from the bark. 

Several triterpenoids have been isolated 

from the resin. Hydroxy-hopanone, 

dammarenediol II (20S) and dammarenolic 

acid are reported to exhibit 

antiviral activity against Herpes simplex. 

The resin on dry distillation yields 

an essential oil, known as Chuaa Oil. 

It consists of 96.0% neutral and 3.0 

and 1.9% phenolic and acidic fractions 

respectively. Non-phenolic portion of 

the oil is reported to have a depressing 

effect on the central nervous system, 

the phenolic portion is less effective. 

Dosage ◮ Heartwood, flower—3– 

5 g powder; 50–100 ml decoction; 

resin—1–3 g. (CCRAS.) 

Sibbaldia parviflora Willd. 


Habitat ◮ Garwal region. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Bajradanti. Barleria 

prionitis L. and Potentilla arbuscula 

D. Don. are also used as Bajradanti.) 

Action ◮ Used as a tooth powder for 

strengthening gums and teeth. 

Sida acuta Burm. f. 

Synonym ◮ S. carpinifolia auct. 

non Linn f. 

Sida cordifolia Linn. 603 




English ◮ Hornbeam-Leaved Sida. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Balaa (white-flowered 

var.). 

Folk ◮ Jangali Methi. 

Action ◮ Root—astringent, cooling, 

stomachic, febrifuge, diuretic; 

used for nervous and sexual 

debility, haemorrhoids, biliary 

disorders. Leaves—demulcent; 

applied to testicular swellings and 

elephantiasis. 

The root contains alkaloids—phenethylamine, 

ephedrine (major), siephedrine, 

vasicinol, vasicinone, vasicine, 

choline, hypaphorine and betaine. 

(These alkaloids are also present 

in aerial parts.) The root also contains 

alpha-amyrin and an hormone, ecdysterone. 

Whole plant, as well as the 

root, contains an alkaloid cryptolepine. 

Cryptolepine exhibits hypotensive and 

antimicrobial activity. 

The seeds contain 0.26% of the alkaloidsandroots0.066%. 

The water-soluble portion of the alcoholic 

extract of the plant exerts spasmodic 

action of the smooth muscles of 

ileum, trachea, uterus and heart of experimental 

animals. (The activity bears 

similarity to that of acetylcholine.) 

Sida cordifolia Linn. 


Habitat ◮ 

places. 

Throughout India in moist 

S

604 Sida rhombifolia Linn. 

S 

English ◮ Country Mallow. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Balaa (yellow-flowered 

var.), Sumanganaa, Kharayashtikaa, 

Balini, Bhadrabalaa, 

Bhadraudani, Vaatyaalikaa. 

Unani ◮ Bariyaara, Khirhati, Khireti, 

Kunayi. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Nilatutti. 

Action ◮ Juice of the plant— 

invigorating, spermatopoietic, 

used in spermatorrhoea. Seeds— 

nervine tonic. Root—(official 

part in Indian medicine) used 

for the treatment of rheumatism; 

neurological disorders (hemiplegia, 

facial paralysis, sciatica); polyuria, 

dysuria, cystitis, strangury and 

hematuria; leucorrhoea and other 

uterine disorders; fevers and general 

debility. Leaves—demulcent, 

febrifuge; used in dysentery. 

Ephedrine and si-ephedrine are the 

major alkaloids in the aerial parts. 

The total alkaloid content is reported 

to be 0.085%, the seeds contain the 

maximum amount. In addition to alkaloids, 

the seeds contain a fatty oil 

(3.23%), steroids, phytosterols, resin, 

resin acids, mucin and potassium nitrate. 

The root contains alkaloids—ephedrine, 

si-ephedrine, beta-phenethylamine, 

carboxylated tryptamines and 

hypaphorine, quinazoline alkaloids— 

vasicinone, vasicine and vasicinol. 

Choline and betaine have also been 

isolated. 

A sitoindoside, isolated from the 

plant, has been reported to exhibit 

adaptogenic and immunostimulatory 

activities. Alcoholic extract of the plant 

possesses antibacterial and antipyretic 

propeptide. Ethanolic extract of the 

plant depresses blood pressure in cats 

and dogs. 

Sida rhombifolia Linn. 



places. 

English ◮ Common Bala. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Mahaabalaa, Mahaasamangaa, 

Sahadevaa, Kshetrabalaa. 

Unani ◮ Bariyaara (red-flowered 

var.). 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Athi Bala-chedi, 

Chitrmutti, Tennacham. 

Action ◮ Plant—used as a supporting 

drug in pulmonary tuberculosis, 

nervous diseases and rheumatism. 

Leaves—applied to swelling as 

paste. Stem-mucilage—demulcent 

and emollient. Used internally in 

skin diseases and as a diuretic and 

febrifuge. 


recommends the root in deficient 

spermatogensis and oedema. 

Alkaloids, ephedrine, si-ephedrine 

and cryptolepine, are reported from 

aerial parts. The root contains 0.054% 

alkaloids, beta-phenethylamine, Nmethyl-beta-phenethylamine,vasicinol, 

vasicinone, vasicine, choline and 

betaine. These alkaloids are also present 

in the aerial parts. 

Alcoholic extract of the root exhibited 

antibacterial and antipyretic activities.

Proteins, linoleic, malvlic and sterculic 

acids have been reported from 

seeds. 


Vol. III.) 

Sida rhombifolia Linn. var. 

rhomboidea (Roxb.) Mast 


Habitat ◮ West Bengal. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Mahaabalaa (whiteflowered 

var.). 

Action ◮ Plant—spasmolytic, antiinflammatory. 

Root—sedative, CNS 

depressant. 

Alkaloids from the plant exhibit 

antibacterial, antifungal and anthelmintic 

properties. 

See S. rhombifolia. 

Sida spinosa Linn. 

Synonym ◮ S. alba Linn. 



parts of India, ascending to an 


English ◮ Prickly Sida. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Naagabalaa, Balaakantakini, 

Gangaati. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Arivalmanai-poondu. 

Folk ◮ Gulasakari, Gangeti, Jangalimethi. 

Action ◮ Root—nervine tonic 

and diaphoretic; used in debility 

Sida veronicaefolia Lam. 605 

and fevers. Decoction given 

as a demulcent in irritability of 

bladder and genitourinary tract. 

Leaves—demulcent and refrigerant; 

used for scalding urine. 

The root contains alkaloids—betaphenethylamine, 

ephedrine, si-ephedrine, 

vasicinol, vasicinone, vasicine, 

choline, hypaphorine, methyl ester, hypaphorine 

and betaine. These alkaloids 

are present in aerial parts as well. 

Ethanolic extract of the plant exhibits 

hypoglycaemic activity. It depressed 

the normal blood pressure and 

lowered the activity of smooth muscles 

of the ileum of experimental animals. 

Sida veronicaefolia Lam. 

Synonym ◮ S. cordata (Burm. f.) 

Borssum. 

S. humilis Cav. 


Habitat ◮ Throughout hotter parts 

of India. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Raajabalaa, Bhumibalaa, 

Prasaarini, Suprasaraa (also equated 

with Naagabalaa, Grewia hirsuta). 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Palampasi. 

Folk ◮ Farid-booti. 

Action ◮ Fruits and flowers—used for 

burning sensation in micturition. 

Leaves—juice, used for diarrhoea; 

poultice applied to cuts and bruises. 

Root bark—used for leucorrhoea 

and genitourinary affections. 

In experimental animals, the herb 

prevented arthritic swellings. 

S

606 Siegesbeckia orientalis Linn. 

S 

The plant contains beta-phenethylamines, 

quinazoline, carboxylated 

tryptamine, linoleic acid, malvalic acid, 

sterculic acid and gossypol. 

Dosage ◮ Root—10–20 ml juice; 50– 


Siegesbeckia orientalis Linn. 



2,000 m. 

English ◮ The Holy Herb, Siegesbeckia. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Katampam, 

Kadambu. 

Folk ◮ Pili-badkadi (Gujarat), Latlatiaa 

(Bihar), Lichkuraa (Garhwal). 

Action ◮ Plant—antiscorbutic, sialagogue, 

cardiotonic, diaphoretic. 

Used for the treatment of rheumatism, 

renal colic and ague. Also 

used as a lotion for gangrenous 

ulcers and sores, syphilis, leprosy, 

ringworm. 

The aerial parts contain sesquiterpene 

lactone, orientin; melampolides 

including orientolide; diterpene, drutigenol 

and the corresponding glucoside 

darutoside. The whole plant, in 

addition, gave 3,7-dimethylquercetin. 

The plant exhibited antiviral, CVS 

active, spasmolytic and hypoglycaemic 

activity. 

Silybum marianum (L.) Gaertn. 



1,800 and Kashmir at 2,400 m, also 


English ◮ Holy Thistle, Milk Thistle. 

Action ◮ Seeds—liver protective, 

gallbladder protective, antioxidant. 

Used in jaundice and other 

biliary affections, intermittent 

fevers, uterine trouble, also as 

a galactagogue. Alcoholic extract 

used for haemorrhoids and as 

a general substitute for adrenaline. 

Seeds are used for controlling 

haemorrhages. Leaves—sudorific 

and aperient. Young leaves and 

flowering heads are consumed by 

diabetics. 


complaints. As an ingredient of 

formulations for toxic liver damage; 

chronic inflammatory liver disease 

and hepatic cirrhosis induced by 

alcohol, drugs or toxins. (Expanded 

Commission E Monographs, WHO.) 

The seeds gave silymarin (flavanol 

lignin mixture), composed mainly of 

silybin A, silybin B (mixture known as 

silibinin), with isosilybin A, isosilybin 

B, silychristin, silydianin. In Germany, 

Milk Thistle has been used extensively 

for liver diseases and jaundice. Silymarin 

has been shown conclusively to 

exert an antihepatotoxic effect in animals 

against a variety of toxins, particularly 

those of death cap mushroom, 

Amanita phalloides. Silybin, when given 

by intravenous injection to human 

patients up to 48 hours after ingestion 

of the death cap, was found to be highly 

effective in preventing fatalities.

Silymarin has been used successfully 

to treat patients with chronic hepatitis 

and cirrhosis; it is active against hepatitis 

B virus, and lowers fat deposits in 

the liver in animals. 

(For hepatic cirrhosis: 420 mg per 

day; for chronic active hepatitis 240 mg 

twice daily—extract containing 70– 

80% silimarin.) 

Sisymbrium irio Linn. 

Family ◮ Cruciferae; Brassicaeae. 

Habitat ◮ Kashmir, Punjab, Haryana 

and from Rajasthan to Uttar Pradesh 

in moist soils. 

English ◮ London Rocket. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Khaaksi. 

Unani ◮ Khuubkalaan. 

Action ◮ Seeds—expectorant, 

restorative, febrifuge, rubefacient, 

antibacterial. Used in asthma. 

Leaves—rich in vitamin C (176 mg/ 

100 g), beta-carotene (10,000 IU/100 g) 

and minerals. Used in throat and chest 

infections. 

Aerial parts yield beta-sitosterol, 3 

beta-D-glucoside, isorhamnetin and 

quercetin. 

The seed contains a flavonoid, isorhamnetin. 

Fatty oil from seeds contain 

linolenic and oleic acids (as chief 

constituents), along with erucic, palmitic 

and stearic acids. 

Ethanolic extract of seeds exhibited 

marked antibacterial action, also antipyretic 

and analgesic effects. 

S. loeselii Linn. (Kashmir and Himachal 

Pradesh) is used in scrofula and 

Smilax aristolochiaefolia Miller. 607 

as an antiscorbutic. The seed oil contains 

erucic acid and larger amounts 

of tetracosenoic acid. The plant contains 

alkaloids, organic acids, tannins, 

glycosides, saponins, coumarins and 

flavonoids. 

Smilax aristolochiaefolia Miller. 

Family ◮ Liliaceae; Smilacaceae. 


and the West Indies. 

English ◮ Sarsaparilla. 

Unani ◮ Ushbaa Maghrabi (Ushbaa 

Desi is equated with Decalepis 

hamiltonii.) 

Action ◮ Alterative, antiinflammatory, 

antipruritic, blood 

purifier, antiseptic. (It was first 

introduced in 1563 as a drug for 

syphilis.) 

In Western herbal, Sarsaparilla is 

equated with Smilax aristolochiaefolia 

(American, Mexican, Vera Cruz 

or Grey Sarsaparilla); S. medica, S. 

regelii (Jamaican, Honduras or Brown 

Sarsaparilla); S. febrifuga (Ecuadorian 

or Guayaquil Sarsaparilla). Hemidesmus 

indicus is equated with Indian 

Sarsaparilla. 

Key application ◮ Preparations of 

sarsaparilla root are used for skin 

diseases, psoriasis and its sequel, 

rheumatic complaints, kidney 

diseases, and as a diaphoretic and 

diuretic. (The claimed efficacy has 

not been established clinically.) 

Included among unapproved herbs 

by German Commission E. 

S

608 Smilax aspera Linn. 

S 

The roots and rhizomes of sarsaparilla 

contain saponins based on aglycones 

sarsapogenin and smilagenin, the major 

one being parillin (sarsaponin), 

with smilasaponin (smilacin) and sarsaparilloside; 

beta-sitosterol, stigmasterol 

and their glucosides. Chief components 

of saponins (0.5–3%) are sarsaparilloside, 

along with parillin as 

a breakdown product. Parillin shows 

antibiotic activity. 

Sarsaparilla root sterols are not anabolic 

steroids, nor are they converted 

in vivo to anabolic steroids. Testosterone, 

till now, has not been detected 

in any plant including sarsaparilla. 

Hemidesmus indicus contains none of 

the saponins or principal constituents 

found in sarsaparilla. (Natural Medicines 


Smilax aspera Linn. 


Habitat ◮ The tropical and temperate 

regions, from Kashmir, Sikkim and 

Assam to South India. 

English ◮ Italian Sarsaparilla. 

Action ◮ Roots used as a substitute 

for Hemidesmus indicus. Rutinhas 

been isolated as a major flavonoid 


Smilax china Linn. 


Habitat ◮ 

China. 

Japan, China and Cochin 

English ◮ China Root. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Chobachini, Chopachini, 

Dweepaantar-Vachaa, Madhusnuhi, 

Hriddhaatri. 

Unani ◮ Chobchini. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Parangi chakkai. 

Action ◮ Tubers—used as alterative 

in venereal diseases, chronic skin 

diseases and rheumatic affections. 

Used as official sarsaparilla. (China 

of homoeopathic medicine is 

Peruvian bark, not Smilax china.) 

Sarsaparilla (Smilax species) is used 

in Oriental as well as in Western herbal 

for its alterative, gentle circulatory 

stimulant and mild testosterone activity. 

The root is known for its steroidal 

saponins. Pro-sapogenin-A of dioscin, 

dioscin, gracillin. Me-protogracillin, 

Me-protodioscin and its 22-hydroxyanalog; 

besides beta-sitosterol glucoside, 

smilaxin, two furostan and one 

spirostane glycosides have been isolated 



(CCRAS.) 

Smilax glabra Roxb. 


Habitat ◮ Assam, Khasi and Garo 

Hills, eastwards to upper Burma, 

Indo-China and southern China. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Dweepaantara-Vachaa, 

Chobachini (bigger var.). 

Action ◮ Roots—used for syphilis, 

venereal diseases and sores, as 

a blood purifier.

Astilbin, 3-O-caffeoyl-shikimic, ferulic, 

palmitic, shikimic and succinic 

acids; engeletin, isoengeletin; glucose; 

daucosterol, beta-sitosterol, stigmasterol 

are major constituents of the root. 

Crude saponins, isolated from the 

plant, produced preventive effect 

on cholesterol-fed atherosclerosis in 

quails. 

Smilax lanceifolia Roxb. 


Habitat ◮ Sikkim Himalayas, Assam 

and Manipur. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Hindi Chobachini. 

Folk ◮ Shukchin (Maharashtra), 

Hariaa. 

Action ◮ Roots—used for rheumatic 

affections. 

Smilax ornata Hook. 



Kumaon eastwards to Khasi, Garo 

and Naga Hills, and in Bihar. 

Unani ◮ Ushbaa. (Jamaica saksaparilla.) 

Action ◮ Roots—used as a blood 

purifying drug. 

Smilax ovalifolia Roxb. 

Synonym ◮ S. macrophylla Roxb. 


Habitat ◮ Tropical parts of India. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Maitri. 

Solanum aculeatissimum Jacq. 609 

Unani ◮ Ushbaa (wild species). 

Folk ◮ Ghot-vel (Maharashtra). 

Action ◮ Roots—used as a substitute 

for Hemidesmus indicus. Used 

for venereal diseases, urinary 

infections, rheumatism. Also used 

for dysentery. (S. perfoliata Lour., 

synonym S. prolifera Roxb. is used 

as a substitute for S. ovalifolia.) 

Smilax zeylanica Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Tropical parts of India 

including hills. Common in eastern 

Himalayas. 

Unani ◮ Jangali Ushbaa. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Malai-thaamara. 

Action ◮ Root—used in prescriptions 

for venereal diseases. Decoction, 

used for abscesses, boils, swellings 

and rheumatism; also for dysentery. 

Used as a substitute for S. ornata. 

Diosgenin is reported from the root 

and leaf. 

Solanum aculeatissimum Jacq. 


Habitat ◮ Assam and Kerala, in 

damp and waste places. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Brihati (related species, 

used in Kerala). Brihati and 

Kantakaari have been used in 

Indian medicine as synonyms. 

S

610 Solanum albicaule Kotschy ex Dunal. 

S 

Action ◮ Both fruit and leaves 

contain glycoalkaloid solanine; 

immature fruits contain more of it 

than the ripe ones. Air-dried leaves 

and fruits contain 0.26 and 0.14% of 

alkaloids, respectively. 

See S. indicum Linn. 

Solanum albicaule 

Kotschy ex Dunal. 


Habitat ◮ Saurashtra (Gujarat) and 

Rajasthan. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Brihati (related species). 

Folk ◮ Narkanta (Rajasthan). 

Action ◮ A decoction of the plant 

is prescribed for the treatment of 

ulcers. 

See S. indicum Linn. 

Solanum aviculare Forst. f. 


Habitat ◮ Introduced to Kashmir for 

experimental cultivation. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Kantakaari (related 

species). 

Action ◮ An important source of 

solasodine, a nitrogen analogue of 

diosgenin and one of the starting 

materials for the synthesis of 

corticosteroids and other steroidal 

hormones. 

See S. xanthocarpum. 

The leaves, stems, flowers and green 

fruits contain the glycoalkaloid, solasonine, 

of which solasodine is the aglycone. 

Besides solasonine, the plant 

contains solamargine and solasodamine. 

The average alkaloidal content (calculated 

as solasodine) of leaves collected 

from Kashmir, is reported to be 0.3% 

(dry weight basis). 

Solanum dubium Fresen. 


Habitat ◮ Sandy coast of Saurashtra 

(Gujarat). 

Ayurvedic ◮ Kantakaari (related 

species). 

Action ◮ Seeds are soaked and 

eateninAfricaforthetreatmentof 


See S. xanthocarpum. 

Solanum dulcamara Linn. 




of 1,200–2,400 m. 

English ◮ Woody Night Shade, 

Bittersweet, Bitter Nightshade, 

Felonwort. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Kaakamaachi-vishesha, 

Valli-kantakaarikaa. 

Unani ◮ Mako (red var.). 

Action ◮ Twigs and root bark— 

stimulating, expectorant, hepatic, 

astringent, antirheumatic, alterative, 

antifungal. Dried branches— 

sedative and analgesic. Used for 

chronic bronchitis, chronic eczema 

and rheumatism.

Key application ◮ As a supportive 

therapy for chronic eczema. 


The plant is rich in alkaloidal glycosides. 

Alpha-, beta-, gamma-solamarine 

were isolated from the fruits. Tomatidenol 

I existed in the plant as alphaand 

beta-solamarine. Solasodine was 

obtained in traces as secondary alkaloid; 

it existed as solasonine and solamargine. 

Aerial parts gave alpha-and 

beta-soladulcine, the glycoalkaloids. 

The sterols were present in free form 

and as esters, glucosides and palmitic 

esters of glucosides. 

Beta-solamarine shows significant 

tumour-inhibiting activity. Steroidal 

saponins are antifungal; alkaloids are 

anticholinergic; solasodine exhibit antiphlogistic 

activity. 

Solanum elaeagnifolium Cav. 



naturalized in India as a weed (met 

with in cultivated fields and gardens 

in Coimbatore). 

English ◮ White Horse-Nettle. 

Action ◮ Plant—used as a poultice 

for sores and ulcers. The plant 

is a rich source of the steroidal 

alkaloid, solasodine. The fruit and 

leaves contain 3–4% (solasodine 

3.2%) and 0.18% total alkaloids. 

Fruits also contain 0.55% diosgenin. 

A related species S. khasianum (Assam, 

Sikkim, West Bengal, Orissa and 

the Nilgiris, ascending to an altitude of 

Solanum ferox Linn. 611 

1,600 m) is also a good source of solasodine. 

The fruits collected from Nilgiris 

contain 5.4% solasodine on dry weight 

basis. 

Solanum erianthum D. Don. 

Synonym ◮ S. verbascifolium auct. 

non Linn. 


Habitat ◮ The tropical and subtropical 

India and the Andamans. 

Cultivated in South India. (for 

berries). 

Folk ◮ Chundai (Tami Nadu, 

Kerala); Rasagadimaanu (Andhra 

Pradesh); Sowdangigida, Kadusinde 

(Karnataka); Kutri (Maharashtra). 

Vidaari is a confusing synonym 

(used by The Wealth of India). 

(Vidaari is equated with Pureraria 

tuberosa.) 

Action ◮ Roots—a decoction is 

prescribed for vertigo. Leaves— 

prescribed for vaginal discharges. 

Various plant parts are ground 

with warm water and applied 

externally to lessen inflammation, 

burning sensation and pain. The 

glycoalkaloid, solasonine is present 

in the leaves and fruits. 

Solanum ferox Linn. 



of India, up to an elevation of 

1,500 m. 

English ◮ Poison-Berry. 

S

612 Solanum indicum Linn. 

S 

Ayurvedic ◮ Brihati, Brihatikaa, 

Mahati, Hinguli, Prasaha, Vartaki, 

Kaantaa, Kshudra-bhantaki, Simhi, 

Bana-bhantaa. Kateri (bigger var.) 

Unani ◮ Katai Kalaan. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Mulli, Pappara-mulli, 

Karimulli. 

Folk ◮ Raam-begun (Bengal). 

Action ◮ Plant and root—stimulant, 

digestive, carminative, astringent, 

expectorant, diaphoretic, 

anthelmintic. Used for catarrhal 

affections, asthma, dry cough; 

dysuria; intestinal worms; colic, 

flatulence, vomiting. Berries—used 

in asthma and rheumatism. 

Air-dried fruits and leaves contain 

solanine; 0.30 and 0.43% of total alkaloids 

respectively. 

Dosage ◮ Fruit, root—3–6 g powder; 


Solanum indicum Linn. 



plains and foot hills. 

English ◮ Poison Berry. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Brihati, Kshudrabhantaaki, 

Kateri (bigger var.). 

Unani ◮ Hadaq, Kataai Kalaan. 

Siddha ◮ 

(root). 

Mullamkatti, Papparamulli 

Folk ◮ Barahantaa. 

Action ◮ Root—carminative, 

expectorant; used for colic, dysuria, 

coughs and catarrhal affections. 

A decoction is prescribed in difficult 

parturition. 

The fruits and leaves contain glycoalkaloid, 

solasonine; the presence 

of solanine in roots, leaves and fruits 

has been reported. Diosgenin is also 

present in leaves, stems and fruits. 

The total alkaloid content of fruit 

varies from 0.2 to 1.8% (dry weight 

basis); plants growing in Jammu and 

Kashmir bear fruits with high alkaloid 

content (total alkaloid 1.8%). 

An alcoholic extract of fruits is active 

against Staphylococcus aureus and 

E. coli. The extract of leaves is also 

active against E. coli. 

The bigger var. of Kateri (Indian 

Nightshade) is also equated with S. anguivi 

Lam., synonym S. indicum auct. 

non L. It contains salasonine, diosgenin, 

beta-sitosterol, lanosterol, solamargine, 

solasodine and tomatidenol. 

The seed oil contains carpestrol. 


decoction. (API, Vol. II.) 

Solanum melongena Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Native to India; cultivated 


English ◮ Eggplant, Brinjal. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Bhantaki, Bhantaa, 

Vaartaaka, Vaartaaku, Vaartaakini, 

Vrintaaka. 

Unani ◮ Baingan. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kathirikai. 

Folk ◮ Baingan, Bhantaa.

Action ◮ Fruit—recommended in liver 

complaints and for amenorrhoea. 

The fruit is reported to stimulate 

the intrahepatic metabolism of 

cholesterol, produces a marked 

drop in blood cholesterol level. 

Aqueous extract of fruit is reported 

to inhibit choline esterase activity 

of human plasma. Root—antiasthmatic. 

Leaves—toxic; used 

mostly externally for the treatment 

of burns, cold sores and abscesses. 

Seeds—anticholesterolemic. 

Steroidal saponins, melongosides 

were isolated from seeds; tigogenin, 

diosgenin were also obtained. Quercetin, 

3-O-rhamnoside and kaempferol- 

3-O-rutinoside have been isolated from 

the leaves. The ethanol extract (80%) 

showed anti-inflammatory activity in 

paw oedema and cotton pellet method 

in rats. Crude extract of fruits showed 

diuresis and dose-dependent hypotensive 

response in normotensive rats. 

Ether-soluble methanolic extract exhibited 

strong inhibitory activity on 

lipoxygenase, involved in atherosclerotic 

processes and platelet aggregation 

in rats. 

Solanum melongena Linn. var. incanum 

Kuntze, synonym S. coagulans 

Forsk. is known as Bana-bhantaa (also 

a synonym of Solanum ferox) andis 

used as Brihati in Kerala. Air-dried 

fruits and leaves from coimbatore contain 

1.05 and 0.97% of alkaloids respectively. 

The fruits contain solasodine, 

campesterol and beta-sitosterol. 

Solamargine, solasodine, ursolic acid 

and its derivatives exhibited significant 

cytotoxic effects against human 

P2C/PRF/5 cells in vitro. 

Solanum nigrum Linn. 

Synonym ◮ S. rubrum Mill. 


Solanum nigrum Linn. 613 

Habitat ◮ Throughout India, in dry 

parts, up to an elevation of 2,100 m. 

English ◮ Black Nightshade. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Kaakamaachi, 

Kaakaahya, Kaakamaataa, 

Dhvankshamaachi. 

Unani ◮ Mako (smallar var., black 

var.) 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Manittakkali. 


antispasmodic, sedative, diuretic, 

laxative, antiseptic; fresh extract is 

used for inflammatory swellings, 

enlargement of liver and spleen 

and in cirrhosis of liver. Berries— 

antidiarrhoeal, antipyretic. Berries 

and flowers—prescribed in cough 

and cold. Leaves— applied hot 

to swollen testicles; paste used 

as poultice to gout, rheumatic 

swellings and skin diseases. 

The berries contain steroidal alkaloid 

glycosides, solasonine, alphaand 

beta-solanigrine, alpha-and betasolamargine; 

steroidal sapogenins, diosgenin 

and tigogenin; solasodine and 

solasodine. 

Solamargine and solasonine are 

present also in leaves. The total alkaloid 

content of fruits and leaves are 

0.101 and 0.431% respectively. 


juice. (API, Vol. II.) 

S

614 Solanum spirale Roxb. 

S 

Solanum spirale Roxb. 


Habitat ◮ Assam, Khasi Hills. Banga 

(Bengal); Titakuchi (Assam); Sohjhari 

(Khasi); Mungas-kajur (root, 

Bihar). 

Action ◮ Root—diuretic, narcotic. 

Unripe berries—poisonous. 

The leaves contain 1.29% alkaloids. 

Partial synthesis of etiolin has been reported. 

Solanum torvum Sw. 


Habitat ◮ Throughout tropical parts 

of India, in waste places. 

English ◮ West Indian Turkey Berry. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Brihati (White-floweredvar.), 

Goshtha-vaartaaku. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Chundai. 

Folk ◮ Ran-Baingan, Goth-begun. 

Action ◮ Plant—digestive, diuretic, 

sedative. Leaves—haemostatic. 

Fruits—useful in liver and spleen 

enlargement (cooked and eaten as 

a vegetable); decoction used for 

cough. Root—used for poulticing 

cracks in feet. 

Unripe fruits and leaves contain the 

glycoalkaloid, solasonine (0.37% total 

alkaloids in air-dried fruits of the plant 

from Khasi and Jaintia hills). Hydrolysis 

of the neutral glucosidal fraction 

yields a steroidal sapogenin, chlorogenin, 

which is rare in Solanum sp. 

The fruits gave sitosterol-D-glucoside. 

Extracts of the plant affect the rate 

and amplitude of respiration, also 

blood pressure. They also contract 

isolated ileum of guinea-pig. Leaves 

contain no vitamin K or derivatives 

of naphthoquinone; their haemostatic 

action may be due to the oil or pectins 

or both. 

Solanum trilobatum Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Deccan Peninsula. 

English ◮ Climbing Brinjal. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Alarka, Vallikantakaarikaa, 

Kantakaari-lataa. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Toothuvilai. 

Action ◮ Berries and flowers—a 

decoction is used for cough and 

chronic bronchitis. 

The steroidal alkaloid, solasodine, is 

present in fruit and leaf of the plant 

(air-dried fruits and leaves from Coimbatore 

gave 0.96 and 0.36% respectively). 

A crude glycoalkaloid mixture, 

isolated from the plant material, 

contained about 20% beta-solamarine. 

The plant exhibited antimitotic, antitumour, 

antibacterial and antifungal activities 

and showed promising results 

in two cancer test systems—KB cell and 

sarcoma 180 in mice. 

Solanum tuberosum Linn. 



grown almost throughout India. 

English ◮ Patoto. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Aaluka, Aaruka, 

Golaalu. (Aaluka, yam of Indian 

medicine, is equated with species of 

Dioscorea.) 

Folk ◮ Aaluu. 

Action ◮ Potatoes are consumed as 

food. Extract of leaves is used as 

antispasmodic in cough. Potato 

juice is given as an adjuvant in 

the treatment of peptic ulcer for 

bringing relief from pain and acidity. 

Starch and very small quantities of 

atropine alkaloids reduce digestive 

secretions and stomach acids. 

Potatoes are good for patients 

suffering from hyperacidity; boiled 

potatoes make an excellent diet for 

those having hypertension. 

Solanum xanthocarpum S. & W. 

Synonym ◮ S. surattense Burm.f. 

S. virginianum Linn. 

S. maccanni Sant. 



English ◮ Wild Eggplant, Yellow- 

Berried Nightshade. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Kantakaari, Kantakaarikaa, 

Vyaaghri, Nidigdhikaa, 

Nidigdhaa, Duhsparshaa, Dhaavani, 

Kshudraa, Keteri (Smallar 

var.), Bhatakataiyaa. Used as 

Lakshmanaa. 

Unani ◮ Kataai Khurd, Hadaq. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kandankatthiri. 

Solidago virga-aurea Linn. 615 

Action ◮ Stimulant, expectorant, 

diuretic, laxative, febrifuge. Used in 

the treatment of cough, bronchitis, 

asthma, for dislodging tenacious 

phlegm; also used against rheumatism, 

enlargement of liver and 

spleen, vomiting, difficult urination, 

bladder stones, skin diseases. 

Fruit—used as an adjuvant for 

promoting conception. 

Fruits gave solasonine, solamargine, 

beta-solamargine and solasodine; petals 

yielded apigenin; stamens gave 

quercetin diglycoside and sitosterol. 

The glycoalkaloid content of fruits collected 

from Jammu and Kashmir is 

reported to be 3.5% (total alkaloids, 

1.1%). The presence of diosgenin in the 

plant has been reported. 

Both glycoalkaloid and fatty acid 

fractions of the plants extracts cause 

liberation of histamine from chopped 

lung tissue. The beneficial effect of the 

drug on bronchial asthma may be attributed 

to the depletion of histamine 

from bronchial and lung tissue. 


decoction. (API, Vol. I.) 

Solidago virga-aurea Linn. 



from Kashmir eastwards and in 

Khasi Hills, up to 3,000 m. 

English ◮ European Goldenrod, 

Woundwort. 

Action ◮ Anticatarrhal, diaphoretic, 

anti-inflammatory, antiseptic to 

mucous membranes. 

S

616 Sonchus arvensis Linn. 

S 



of the lower urinary tract, urinary 

calculi and kidney gravel. (German 

Commission E.) ESCOP also 

indicates its use as an adjuvant in 

the treatment of bacterial infections 

of the urinary tract. 

Anti-inflammatory activity is due to 

phenolic glycosides; antifungal activity 

is due to saponins based on polygalic 

acid (acts specifically against the candida 

fungus, the cause of vaginal and 

oral thrush). As a diuretic, aerial parts 

are used for nephritis and cystitis and 

to flush out kidney and bladder stones; 

urine volume is increased but not sodium 

excretion. 

The plant contains quercitrin, rutin, 

iso-quercitrin, astragalin, kaempferol, 

rhamnoglucoside, quercetin, caffeic 

acid and chlorogenic acid. Aerial parts 

contain diterpenoids of cis-clerodane 

lactone group. 

Sonchus arvensis Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Waste places and fields 

throughout India, up to an altitude 

of 2,400 m. 

English ◮ Corn Sow Thistle. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Sahadevi (bigger var.). 

(Vernonia cinerea is equated with 

Sahadevi.) 

Action ◮ Plant—sedative, hypnotic, 

anodyne, expectorant, diuretic. 

Used for nervous debility. Seeds— 

used for asthma, bronchitis, cough, 

pertussis, fever; decoction in 

insomnia. Leaves—applied to 

swellings. Root—used for diseases 

of the respiratory tract. 

The plant contains amino acids, 

lipids, polymeric hydrocarbons, polyphenols, 

protein; alpha- and betaamyrins, 

lupeol, pseudotaraxasterol, 

taraxasterol. The latex contains mannitol, 

alpha-and beta-lactucerols. Aerial 

parts and fruits contain ceryl alcohol, 

choline, palmitic, tartaric and stearic 

acids. 

Sonchus asper Hill 


Habitat ◮ Waste places and fields 

throughout India, up to elevation of 

3,600 m. 

English ◮ Spinyleaved Sow Thistle. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Sahadevi (bigger var.). 

Folk ◮ Didhi, Mhaataaraa (Maharashtra). 

Action ◮ Emollient. Pounded and 

applied to wounds and boils. 

The latex contains rubber, alphaand 

beta-lactucerols, ceryl alcohol, 

mannitol and traces of acetic acid. 

The whole plant contains the sesquiterpene 

glycosides and ionone glycosides. 

Ascorbic acid (27 mg/100 g) is present 

in the plant. 

Sonchus oleraceus Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Waste places throughout 

India, up to elevation of 2,400 m.

English ◮ Milk Thistle (a confusing 

synonym. Silybum marianum has 

been equated with Milk Thistle.) 

Folk ◮ Duudhi, Dodaka, Dudhaali. 

Action ◮ Galactagogue, febrifuge, 

sedative, vermifuge. Used in 

indigestion and in the treatment of 

diseases of the liver. An ointment 

is made from the decoction for 

wounds and ulcers. 

The leaves contain luteolin, luteolin- 

7-O-glucoside; hydroxycoumarins, cichoriin 

and scopoletin. Apigenin-7-Oglucoside 

was also obtained from the 

leaves and stems. Young leaves are reported 

to contain 4.1 mg/100 g of vitamin 

C. 

Sonneratia caseolaris Engl. 

Family ◮ Sonneratiaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Tidal creeks and mangrove 

swamps of India. 

Folk ◮ Orchaa (Bengal), Tivar, Chipi 


Action ◮ Fruit—fermented juice is 

used for arresting haemorrhage. 

Juice of unripe fruit is given 

in cough. Fruit is also used as 

a poultice in sprains and swellings. 

Fruit wall—vermifuge. 

The stem bark and root bark contain 

9–17 and 11.0 to 11.9% tannin of the 

pyrogallol class. 

The fruit yields 11% pectin on dry 

basis. 

Sophora mollis Grah. ex Baker. 617 

Sophora japonica Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Kashmir; also introduced 

into forest Research Institute, Dehra 

Dun. 

English ◮ Japanese Pagoda tree, 

Chinese Scholar tree, Umbrella tree. 

Action ◮ Flower—bitter, astringent, 

styptic, antibacterial. 

Flower buds are a very rich source 

of rutin (16.0–23.0% dry weight basis), 

several times more than that present 

in Buckwheat which is an important 

source of the flavonoid. 

The plant is used for the treatment 

of bleeding due to hemorrhoids and ulcerative 

colitis. The antihaemorrhagic 

principle, quercetin, has been isolated 

from aqueous extract of dried buds. 

The flower extract has been reported 

to exhibit hepato-protective activity. 

Sophora mollis Grah. ex Baker. 

Synonym ◮ Edwardsia moltis Royle. 



to Nepal, up to an altitude of 

2,100 m. 

English ◮ Himalayan Laburnum. 

Action ◮ Seeds—used for destroying 

vermin. Root—used for promoting 

hair growth. 

The seeds contain an alkaloid cytisine. 

The root imparts dark colour to 

hair. 

S

618 Sophora tomentosa Linn. 

S 

The seeds of S. secundiflora Lag. ex 

DC., known as Mescal-or Coral-Bean 

(Native to America, grown in Indian 

gardens) also contain substantial 

amounts of cytisine. 

The alkaloid, (−)-N-methylcytisine, 

isolated from the seeds, exhibited hypoglycaemic 


Sophora tomentosa Linn. 

Family ◮ Popilionaceae; Fabaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Grown in gardens for its 

bright-yellow flowers. 

English ◮ Sea coast Laburnum, Silver 

Bush. 

Action ◮ Seeds—dangerously 

emetocatharitc, toxic, febrifugal, 

stomachic. Seeds yield a fatty 

oil with expectorant properties. 

Decoction of seeds and roots is 

given in bilious disorders. Leaves— 

emetocathartic. 

Constituents of the aerial parts include 

benzofurans; flavonoids including 

sophoraisoflavone A and B, sophoronol, 

iso-sophoranone-and iso-bavachin. 

The leaves and seeds contain alkaloids—matrine, 

cytisine and small 

amounts of methylcytisine. Cytisine 

is also present in the roots. 

Cytisine possesses insecticidaland 

physiological properties similar to 

those of nicotine. 

Sophoraisoflavone A exhibits antifungal 

activity. 

Sopubia delphinifolia G. Don. 


Habitat ◮ Western India, as a root 

parasite. 

Folk ◮ Dudhaali (Maharashtra). 

Action ◮ Root—juice applied to 

sores on feet, caused by constant 

exposure to water and moisture. 

Alcoholic extract of air-dried powdered 

stems yielded isoflavonoids, 

which were found to be estrogenically 

active in albino rats. 

Sorbus aucuparia Linn. 



distributed in temperate Himalayas 


English ◮ European Mountain Ash, 

Rowan tree, Mountain Ash Berry. 

Folk ◮ Battal (Punjab), Syaar 

(Garhwal). 

Action ◮ Fruits—antiscorbutic, 

depurative, diuretic, astringent, 

aperient, emmenagogue. An 

infusion is given in haemorrhoids, 

strangury and irritation of bladder; 

for disorders of the uric acid 

metabolism, for dissolution of uric 

acid deposits; and for alkalization 

of the blood (“blood purification”). 

(Seeds contain cyanogenic acid; 

should be removed before the fruit 

is used.) Leaves—laxative; used as 

apectoralincoughandbronchitis. 

Bark—astringent. Decoction is 

given in diarrhoea. (It is said to 

produce irritation of the alimentary 

mucous membrane.)



The fruit gave ursolic acid, parasorboside, 

quercetin, iso-quercetin, rutin 

and anthocyanins. 

Candied fruit may contain 30– 

40 mg/100 g of vitamin C and concentrates 

up to 240 mg/100 g. Fresh 

fruit contains vitamin C 39–74 mg, 

carotene 6.2–9.8 mg/100 g. 

Amygdalin (34.27–61.70 mg/100 g) 

and hydrocyanic acid (2.02–3.72 mg/ 

100 g) are reported to be present in 

frozen fruit. 

Leaves, buds, young twigs and bark 

contain amygdalin; tannin (4.47%); 

triterpenoids; sorbose, sorbitol and 

sorbic acid. 

Sorghum vulgare (Linn.) Pers. 

Synonym ◮ Andropogon sorghum 

Brot. 



warmer parts of India. 

English ◮ Sorghum, Broomcorn. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Yaava-naala. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Makkaseelam. 

Folk ◮ Jowaar, Paneraa. 

Action ◮ Grains—demulcent, 

diuretic. A confection of grains and 

Foeniculum vulgare seeds is used as 

a galactagogue. Sorghum is inferior 

to wheat. 

About 80% of sorghum in India belongs 

to the race Durra (Sorghum durra 

(Frosk.) Stapf.). 

Spathodea campanulata Beauv. 619 

Soymida febrifuga A. Juss. 


Habitat ◮ Peninsular India, Rajasthan 

and Bihar. 

English ◮ Indian Red-Wood, Bastard 

Cedar. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Maansrohini, Rohini, 

Rohinaa, Prahaarvalli. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Somi-maram, Wond. 

Action ◮ Bark—antipyretic (particularly 

prescribed in malaria), bitter 

tonic in general debility, astringent 

(used for diarrhoea and dysentery); 

used as a gargle in stomatitis, 

applied to rheumatic swellings. The 

bark is much inferior to cinchona 

bark, but a good substitute for oak 

bark. 

The plant contains mainly tetranor-triterpenoids 

and flavonoids. The 

heartwood gave febrifugine A and 

B, febrinins A and B; flavonoids— 

naringenin, quercetin, myricetin and 

dehydromyricetin. The Root heartwood 

yielded sitosterol, obtusifoliol, 

syringetin and dihydrosyringetin. The 

bark contains tetranor-triterpenoids 

with modified furan ring. 

Petroleum ether extract of the bark 

yielded a steroid, methyl angolensate, 

ether extract yielded a steroid glycoside. 

Dosage ◮ Bark—3–5 g powder. 

(CCRAS.) 

Spathodea campanulata Beauv. 


S

620 Spergularia rubra (Linn.)J.Persl&C.Persl. 

S 

Habitat ◮ Native to tropical Africa. 

Grown as a avenue tree, in Coffee 

estates for shade. 

English ◮ Syringe tree, Fountain tree, 

African Tulip tree. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Patadi. 

Folk ◮ Ruugatuuraa. 

Action ◮ Bark—decoction given 

for dysentery, gastro-intestinal and 

renal ailments. Pulverized bark 

applied to skin diseases. Leaves— 

infusion administered for urethral 

inflammation. 

The stem bark gave oleanolic and 

siaresinolic acids. The bark yields small 

quantities of tannin. Leaves gave caffeic 

and chlorogenic acids, quercetin- 

3-galactoside. Flowers gave malvidin 

and pelargonidin diglycoside. 

An aqueous alcoholic extract of the 

leaves and the hexane and chloroform 

extracts of stem bark showed antimalarial 

activity. 

Spergularia rubra 

(Linn.)J.Persl&C.Persl. 

Synonym ◮ Spergula rubra D. Dietr. 

Family ◮ Caryophylaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Native to Southern France 

and Malta; found in Punjab and 

Western Uttar Pradesh. 

English ◮ Sand-Spurry, Sandwort, 

Arenaria Rubra. 

Action ◮ Diuretic. Used in cystitis 

and urethral colic, dysuria and 

urinary calculi. 

Spermacoce hispida Linn. 

Synonym ◮ Borreria articularis 

(Linn. f.) F.N. Williams. 

Borreria hispida (L.) K. Schum. 

Spermacoce articularis L. f. 


Habitat ◮ The Himalaya, from 

Simla westwards to Assam and 

southwards to Kanyakumari. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Madana Ghanti. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Nellichoori. 

Action ◮ Leaves—an extract is given 

as an astringent in haemorrhoids 

and gall stones. Seeds—demulcent; 

givenindiarrhoeaanddysentery. 

Root—prescribed as a mouthwash 

to cure toothache. A decoction of 

the herb is used in the treatment of 

headache. 

The weed is rich in calcium and 

phosphorus; contains beta-sitosterol, 

ursolic acid and D-mannitol. 

The plant gave alkaloid borreline, 

along with beta-sitosterol, ursolic acid 

and iso-rhamnetin. 

Sphaeranthus indicus 

Linn. (also auct. non L.) 

Synonym ◮ S. senegalensis DC. 

S. hirtus Willd. 


Habitat ◮ Tropical parts of India, 

in rice fields, cultivated lands as 

a weed. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Mundi, Mundika, 

Munditikaa, Bhuukadamba, Alambusta, 

Shraavani, Tapodhanaa.

(Mahamundi, Mahaa-shraavani is 

equated with S. africanus Linn.) 

Unani ◮ Mundi. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kottakarthai. 

Folk ◮ Gorakh-mundi. 

Action ◮ Juice—styptic, emollient, 

resolvent. Also used in hepatic 

and gastric disorders. Seeds and 

root—anthelmintic. Decoction is 

used in cough and other catarrhal 

affections and chest diseases. Root 

bark—given in bleeding piles. 

Flowers—blood purifier, alterative, 

depurative. 


recommends the dried leaf in cervical 

lymphadenitis, chronic sinusitis, 

migraine, epilepsy, lipid disorders, diseases 

of spleen, anaemia, dysuria. 

The drug is mostly administered in 

the form of its steam-distillate. Steam 

distillation of fresh flowering herb 

yields an essential oil containing methyl 

chavicol, alpha-ionone, d-cadinene, 

p-methoxycinnamaldehyde as major 

constituents. A bitter alkaloid, sphaeranthine, 

has been reported in the plant. 

Capitula contains albumin, a fatty 

oil (up to 5%), reducing sugars, 

tannins, mineral matter, a volatile oil 

(0.07%), and a glucoside. No alkaloid 

was detected in the inflorescence. 

The glucoside on hydrolysis 

gave a aglycone, phenolic in nature. 

The unsaponifiable matter of the fatty 

oil showed beta-sitosterol, stigmasterol, 

n-triacontanol, n-pentacosane 

and hentriacontane. The essential oil 

is active against Vibrio cholera and Micrococcus 

pyogenes var. aureus. The 

Spilanthes calva DC. 621 

flower heads gave beta-D-glucoside of 


Eudesmanolides, cryptomeridiol 

and 4-epicryptomeridiol have been 

isolated from flowers. 

Flowers gave a sesquiterpene glycoside, 

sphaeranthanolide, which exhibited 

immune stimulating activity. 

Dosage ◮ Leaf—3–6 g (API, Vol III); 

whole plant—10–20 ml Juice (API, 

Vol. IV). 

Spilanthes calva DC. 

Synonym ◮ S. acmella auct. non (L.) 

Murr. 

S. paniculata auct. non-DC. 

S. pseudoacmella auct. non (L.) 

Murr. 



parts of India, in waste places and 

open moist fields. 

English ◮ Paracress. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Marahattikaa. 

Folk ◮ Marethi, Desi Akarkaraa. 

Action ◮ Plant—antidysenteric. 

Decoction, diuretic and lithotriptic, 

also used in scabies and psoriasis. 

Seeds—used in xerostomia, throat 

infections and neurological affection 

of tongue. Root—purgative. 

Whole plant gave alpha-and betaamyrin 

ester, myricyl alcohol, stigmasterol 

and its glucoside. A tincture made 

from flower heads is used as a substitute 

for the tincture of pyrethrum to 

treat inflammation of jaw-bones and 

caries. 

S

622 Spilanthes oleracea Murr. 

S 

Ethanolic extracts of the herb were 

found to affect the blood pressure of 

dogs and cats, and also the isolated 

ileum of guinea pigs. Spilanthol, obtained 

from the ether as well as pentane 

extracts, shows a strong sialogogic 

action, acts as a local anaesthetic and 

a powerful insecticide. 

Spilanthes oleracea Murr. 


Habitat ◮ Introduced from Brazil; 

often cultivated in Indian gardens. 

English ◮ Brazilian Cress, Para Cress. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Mahaaraashtri, Marethi, 

Desi Akarkaraa. Aakaarakarabha 

of Ayurvedic medicine and 

Aaqarqarha of Unani medicine is 

equated with Anacyclus pyrethrum 

DC. (root is used); S. acmella and S. 

oleracea flowering heads are used as 

Desi Akarkaraa and should not be 

confused with the original drug. 

Action ◮ Flowers—used against 

scurvy, gum troubles, toothache 

and against bladder pains and gout. 

The flower heads yield 1.25% of spilanthol 

from the pentane extract. 

The fresh plant yields an essential 

oil consisting mainly of spilanthol and 

a hydrocarbon, spilanthene. The plant 

also contains cerotic acid, crystalline 

phytosterols, tannic acid, resin, potassium 

malate and large amounts of 

choline and potassium nitrate. 

Spinacia oleracea Linn. 

Synonym ◮ S. tetrandra Roxb. 


Habitat ◮ Native to South-west Asia; 


English ◮ Garden Spinach. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Paalankikaa, Paalankya, 

Paalakyaa. 

Unani ◮ Paalak. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Vasaiyila-keerai. 

Action ◮ Seeds—cooling and laxative; 

given during jaundice. Spinach, as 

apotherb,isrichinnitrogenous 

substances, hydrocarbons and iron 

sesqui-oxide. 

Aerial parts afforded rutin, hyperoside, 

astragalin and caffeic, chlorogenic, 

neochlorogenic and protocatechuic 

acids. Seeds contain glycoprotein-bound 

hexosamine. Roots contain 

spirasaponins. 

Spondias pinnata (Linn. f.) Kurz. 

Synonym ◮ S. mangifera Willd. 


Habitat ◮ A small, aromatic tree 

occurring wild or grown throughout 

the country for edible fruits. 

English ◮ Hog-Plum, Wild Mango. 

Great Hog-Plum is equated with S. 

cytherea Sonn, synonym S. dulcis 

Soland. ex Forst. f. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Aamraataka, Aamraata, 

Aamadaa, Madhuparni, Kundalini, 

Kapitana, Markataamra. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Mambulichi, Kattuma. 

Folk ◮ Jangali Aam.

Action ◮ Fruits, leaves, bark— 

astringent, antidysenteric, antispeptic, 

antiscorbutic. Bark paste 

applied externally to articular and 

muscular rheumatism. Root—used 

for regulating menstruation. 


recommends stem bark in haemorrhagic 

diseases. 

The fruit contains beta-amyrin, oleanolic 

acid and amino acids—glycine, 

cystine, serine, alanine and leucine; 

polysaccharides are also present. 

Aerial parts gave lignoceric acid, 

24-methylenecycloartanone, stigmast- 

4-en-3-one, beta-sitosterol and its glucoside. 

Dosage ◮ Stem bark—5–10 g powder 

for decoction (API, Vol. II); 1–3 g 

powder (API, Vol. III). 

Stachys palustris Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Kashmir, grows in damp 

places, at altitudes of 1,500–1,800 m. 

English ◮ Marsh, Woundwort 

(purple-flowered), Allheal. (In 

Western herbal, Allheal is equated 

with Prunella vulgaris.) 

Action ◮ Haemostatic, sedative, 

antiseptic, antispasmodic, vulnerary. 

Used for haemorrhages, gout, 

cramp, vertigo; applied as poultice 

to wounds. 

The herb contains iridoids, harpagide 

and acetyl harpagide; flavonoids 

based on isoscutellarein and oroxylin 

A. 

Stachytarpheta jamaicensis Vahl. 623 

Stachys sylvatica Linn. 



English ◮ Hedge Woundwort 

(reddish-purple-flowered). 

Action ◮ See S. palustris. 

The plant contains the alkaloids 

betonicine, turicine, stachydrine and 

trigonelline. Alcoholic and aqueous 

extracts of the plant cause contraction 

of isolated uteri of various animals. 

Betonicine has been shown to be 

haemostatic. 

An allied species, S. officinalis, 

known as Betony in Europe, is an 

ageold headache remedy. It contains 

alkaloids (including stachydrine and 

betonicine), also saponins and tannins. 

The plant is mildly sedative and 

relieves nervous tension. 

Stachytarpheta jamaicensis 

Vahl. 

Synonym ◮ S. indica C. B. Clarke. 



English ◮ Brazilian Tea, Bastard 

Vervain, Aaron’s Rod. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Kariyartharani. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Simainayuruvi, 

Simainaivirunji, Naioringi. 

Folk ◮ Chirchiti, Marang Chirchiti. 

Action ◮ Febrifuge, anti-inflammatory. 

In Brazil, the plant 

is externally used for purulent 

ulcers and internally for rheumatic 

S

624 Stellaria aquatica (L.) Scop. 

S 

inflammations and fever. An 

infusion of the bark is used against 


The leaves contain friedelin, stigmasterol, 

ursolic acid, hispidulin, scutellarein, 

choline, phenolic acids, chlorogenic 

acid and flavonoids—6-hydroxyluteolol-7-glucuronide, 

luteolol- 

7-glucuronide and apigenol-7-glucuronide. 

Stems and leaves gave an iridoid 

glycoside, tarphetalin (ipolamiide). 

The leaves are reported to be 

used for colds and cough. 

Stellaria aquatica (L.) Scop. 



from Kashmir to Uttar Pradesh at 

1,200–2,400 m. 

English ◮ Chickweed, Water 

Starwort. 

Folk ◮ Budeolaa. 

Action ◮ Leaves—decoction used in 

galactorrhoea. 

Fresh plant contains an essential oil 

having 3-hydroxymethylfuran, alphapinene, 

limonene, n-hexanol, geraniol, 

camphor, benzyl alcohol, guaiacol, 

cresol, eugenol and carvacrol as 

the major constituents. 

Stellaria media (Linn.) Vill. 

Synonym ◮ Alsine media Linn. 


Habitat ◮ 

1,650 m. 

Throughout India at 600– 

English ◮ Common Chickweed. 

Folk ◮ Kokoon (Jammu); Safed Fulki, 

Buchbuchaa (Delhi). 

Action ◮ Antirheumatic, antiinflammatory, 

astringent, refrigerant, 

demulcent, emollient, 

vulnerary, antipruritic. Dispels excessive 

body heat, relieves irritation. 

Used internally for rheumatism, 

externally in the form of ointment 

for chronic skin conditions, varicose 

ulcers and abscesses. Applied as 

a plaster for broken bones and 

swellings. 

The plant contains saponin glycosides, 

coumarins, flavonoids (including 

rutin), carboxylic acid. The leaves 

contain vitamin C and carotene. 

The plant also contains mucilage and 

is rich in potassium and silicon. The 

aerial parts, in post-flowering period, 

contain 44 mg/100 g of vitamn E. 

Stephania glabra Miers. 


Habitat ◮ Himalayas from Simla 

to Sikkim, Khasi Hills and 

Assam. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Used as Paathaa 

(Cissampelos pareira). 

Folk ◮ Gidaangu (Garhwal), Paahraa 

(Dehradun). 

Action ◮ Tubers—used in pulmonary 

diseases, asthma, intestinal, 

disorders and hyperglycaemia. 

Alkaloid palmitine exhibits antibiotic 

activity; stepharine anti-cholinesterase, 

cycleanine anti-inflammatory

and hyndarine sedative activity. Tetrahydropalmatine 

produces sedative and 

anticonvulsant effects on animals (similar 

but weaker to that of chloropromazine). 

Alkaloids from rhizomes— 

hypotensive. Pronuciferine hydrochloride—spasmolytic.Root—hypoglycaemic, 

spasmolytic, CNS active, antimicrobial. 

Stephania hernandiifolia Walp. 

Synonym ◮ S. japonica Miers. 

S. sotunda Hook. f. & Thorns. 


Habitat ◮ Forests of the Western and 

Eastern Ghats. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Used as Raaj-Paathaa 

in the South. (Raaj-Paathaa is also 

equated with Cyclea arnotii Miers 

in southern and eastern parts of 

India). 

Action ◮ Root—prescribed in 

skin diseases, pruritus, inflamed 

piles, internal abscesses, urinary 

diseases, vomiting, diarrhoea, 

colic, respiratory disorders and as 

a cardiotonic. 

The plant is rich in alkaloids. Aerial 

parts gave epi-stephanine (aknadine), 

hernandifoline, aknadinine and magnoflorine. 

Alkaloid aknadine shows 

significant antispasmodic activity on 

uterine spasms. Cytotoxic alkaloids 

include d-and dl-tetrandrine, d-isochondrodendrine 

and fangchinoline. 

The alkaloid, epi-stephanine (aknadine) 

possesses adrenergic neuron 

blocking activity. 

Sterculia foetida Linn. 

Sterculia urens Roxb. 625 


Habitat ◮ South India, also cultivated 

on roadsides. 

Habitat ◮ The West Coast from 


Siddha/Tamil ◮ Pinari, Kudirai 

Pidukku. 

Folk ◮ Jangali Baadaam (in no way 

related to Prunus amygdalus). 

Action ◮ Bark and leaf—aperient, 

diuretic. Fruit—astringent. Seed 

oil—carminative, laxative. Wood— 

antirheumatic. The wood, boiled 

with seed oil, is used externally in 

rheumatism. 

Beans, called Java Olives, if taken in 

large quantities, cause nausea, act as 

violent purgative. 

The leaves gave glucuronyl derivatives 

of procyanidin, scutellarein and 

luteolin; also taraxerol, n-otacosanol 

and beta-sitosterol. Lupenone, lupeol 

and betulin were obtained from the 

heartwood. Seed and root lipid contained 

cyclopropene fatty acids. Sterculic 

and malvalic acids show carcinogenic 

and co-carcinogenic activities. 

Leucoanthoyanidin-3-O-alpha-Lrhamnopyranoside 

and quercetin 

rhamnoside have been isolated from 

the root. 

Sterculia urens Roxb. 


Habitat ◮ Rajasthan, Assam, Bihar, 

Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, 

southwards to Western Peninsula. 

S

626 Stereospermum personatum (Hassk.) D. Chatterjee. 

S 

English ◮ Karaya Gum. 

Unani ◮ Gond Kateeraa (the 

authentic source is Cochlospermum 

religiosum). 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kavalam. 

Folk ◮ Karai, Kandol (Maharashtra, 

Gujarat). 

Action ◮ Gum used as a substitute 

for tragacanth in throat affections. 

The gum and mucilage contain aldobiuronic 

and aldotriouronic acids. 

The roots contains a coumarin, scopoletin. 

The leaves afforded flavonol glycosides, 

quercetin and kaempferol derivatives; 

beta-amyrin, its acetyl derivative, 

beta-sitosterol and an ester of 

terephthalic acid. Stercurensin, a Cmethylchalcone, 

has been isolated from 

the leaves. 

The gum of Sterculia villosa Roxb. 

(Udall Wood) resembles with that of 

S. urens. Diometin and chrysoeriol 

and their 7-O-glucosides were isolated 

from the wood. 

Stereospermum personatum 

(Hassk.) D. Chatterjee. 

Synonym ◮ S. Chelonoides (Linn. f.) 

DC. (now S. Colais). 

S. tetragonum A. DC. 



especially in the moist regions. 

English ◮ Trumpet Flower, Yellow 

Snake tree. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Paatalaa, Paatali, Paatalai, 

Krishna-vrantaa, Madhu-duuti, 

Kaama-duuti, Ativallabhaa, Taamrapushpi, 

Kuberaakshi. Amoghaa, 

Kumbhipushpi, Ambuvaasini. 

Copper-red-flowered var., known 

as Taamrapushpi, is equated with S. 

suaveolens (Paatalaa) and the whiteflowered 

one with S. chelenoides. 

(Paatalai). 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Paadiri. 

Action ◮ The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia 

of India recommends the 

root of Paatalaa in lipid disorders; 

the stem bark in oedema and 

retention of urine. 

The white-flowered var. purifies 

blood, increases appetite and is prescribed 

for vomiting, hiccough, thirst, 

oedema and inflammatory chest diseases. 

The copper-red-flowered var. is prescribed 

in difficult breathing, vomiting, 

oedema, flatus and high fever. 

Ethanolic extract of the plant showed 

hypoglycaemic and anticancer activity 


A decoction of S. personatum root 

is prescribed for asthma and cough; of 

the leaves in chronic dyspepsia. A decoction 

of the root and leaves is credited 

with antipyretic properties. The 

bark exhibited antibacterial and antitubercular 

properties. 

A decoction of S. suaveolens roots is 

prescribed for intermittent and puerperal 

fevers, inflammatory affections of 

the chest. Extracts of the plant contain 

lapachol. 

The leaves of S. chelonoides contain 

a flavone, stereolensin. The bark 

gave an iridoid glycoside; the root 

bark gave n-triacontanol and betasitosterol; 

the root heartwood gave la-

pachol, dehydro-alpha-lapachone and 

dehydrotectol. Ceryl alcohol, palmitic, 

stearic and oleic acids were isolated 

from the root. Lapachol exhibited cytotoxic 

activity. 

Dosage ◮ Stem bark (white-flowered 

var.)—3–6 g powder. (API, Vol. IV.) 

Root (red-flowered var.)—5–10 g 


Streblus asper Lour. 

Synonym ◮ Epicarpurus orientalis Bl. 


Habitat ◮ Drier parts of Peninsular 

India. 

English ◮ Siamee Rough Brush. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Shaakhotaka, Shaakhota, 

Pitaphalaka. Bhuutavaasa, 

Kharachhada. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Piraayan, Pirai. 

Folk ◮ Sihor. 

Action ◮ Stem bark—febrifuge, 

antidiarrhoeal. Root—applied on 

inflamed swellings and syphilitic 

eruptions. Latex—applied on glandular 

swellings and elephantiasis. 


recommends the use of the stem 

bark in cervical lymphadenitis, also in 

lipid disorders. 

The root bark contained cardenolide 

glycosides, including asperoside and 

strebloside; also yielded 6-deoxyallose. 

Stem bark yielded alpha-amyrin acetate, 

lupeol acetate, lupeol and betasitosterol. 

Asperoside and strebloside exhibited 

antifilarial activity, former being 

Striga gesneroides Vatke. 627 

more effective. Crude extract is used 

for filaria. 

The Central Drug Research Institute, 

Lucknow, has developed an antifilarial 

drug from the crude extract 

of stem. The stem bark is reported 

to cure filarial lymphangitis, lymphoedema, 

chyluria caused by filariasis. 

Dosage ◮ Stem bark—1–3 g powder. 


Striga asiatica (Linn.) Kuntze. 

Synonym ◮ S. lutea Lour. 


Habitat ◮ Throughout the country 

and in the rainfed rice fields of 

Kerala. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Agnivrksha, Kuranti. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Pallipundu. 

Folk ◮ Agiyaa. 

Action ◮ Improves appetite and 

taste. Prescribed in strangury and 

diseases due to vitiated blood. 

Striga gesneroides Vatke. 

Synonym ◮ S. orobanchioides Benth. 


Habitat ◮ Western Peninsular India. 

Folk ◮ Laal-giyaa. 

Action ◮ Used in diabetes (in folk 

medicine). Hypoglycaemic activity, 

not confirmed. 

S

628 Strobilanthes callosus Nees. 

S 

Strobilanthes callosus Nees. 

Synonym ◮ Carvia callosa (Nees) 

Bremek. 


Folk ◮ Maruaa-daanaa, Kaarvi 


Action ◮ Bark—used in external 

applications for parotitis. Flowers— 

vulnerary. Leaves are poisonous. 

Roots contain lupeol; the seeds are 

reported to contain brucine. 

Strobilanthes flaccidifolius 

Nees. 

Synonym ◮ S. cusia (Nees) Imlay. 


Habitat ◮ Assam, Meghalaya, West 

Bengal and Manipur. 

English ◮ Assam Indigo. 

Folk ◮ Ruum, Raampat (Assam); 

Khumaa (Manipur). 

Action ◮ Leaves—astringent, diuretic 

and lithotriptic. 

The indican content of the leaves has 

been reported to be 0.4–1.3%. Lupeol,betulin,lupenone,indigo,indirubin, 

a quinazolinone and a quinazolinedione 


Strophanthus kombe Oliver. 


Habitat ◮ Native to tropical East 

Africa; runs wild at some places in 

West Bengal. 

English ◮ Strophanthus. 

Action ◮ Dry ripe seeds—cardiac 

glycosides (the mixture is known 

as Strophanthin-K) act like digitalis 

but are poorly absorbed from 

the digestive tract, are given by 

injection. 

Strophanthus wightianus Wall. ex 

Wight, known as Nerivalli (Tamil) and 

Kambetti (Malyalam), is found along 

with western coast of Kerala. 

The plant yields 2.1% of glycosides. 

The glycosides are known as cauloside 

and divaricoside, the corresponding 

genins are caudogenin and sarmentogenin; 

the latter a precursor of cortisone. 

Studies have indicated that the 

tinctures prepared from the seeds compare 

favourably with those from the 

seeds of S. kombe. 

Strychnos colubrina Linn. 

Family ◮ Lognaniaceae; Strychnaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Deccan Peninsula from 

Konkan to Cochin. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Kupilu-lataa, Kuchilaalataa. 

Folk ◮ Kaajar-vel (Maharashtra). 

Action ◮ Leaves and roots are 

boiled in oil and applied to 

rheumatic swellings. Wood—used 

for malarial fever and cutaneous 

eruptions. Root—purgative, 

febrifugal, anthelmintic. 

The roots, wood, bark and seeds 

contain alkaloids (bark 5.54%, wood 

0.96%), consisting of brucine and 

strychnine. Beta-sitosterol has been 

reported in the plant.

Strychnos ignatii Bergius. 

Family ◮ Loganiaceae; Strychnaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Native to the Philippines. 

Seeds are imported into India. 

English ◮ Ignatus Beans. 

Unani ◮ Papitaa Vilaayati. (Papitaa 

Desi is equated with Carica papaya 

Linn.) 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kayappankottai. 

Action ◮ Properties similar to those 

of Nux vomica. Used as a stimulant 

and nervine tonic, also for asthma 

and rheumatism. 

The seeds contain indole alkaloids; 

brucine and its N-oxide, alpha-and 

beta-colubrine, diaboline, icajine, novacine, 

strychnine and its N-oxide, and 

12-hydroxyderivatives, vomicine, and 

others. Share of strychnine is 45–60%, 

in indole alkaloids (2.5–5.6%). 

Strychnos nux-vomica Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Tropical India up to an 

altitude of 360 m. 

English ◮ Nux vomica. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Kapilu, Kaakatinduka, 

Kaakendu, Kaakapiluka, 

Vishamushtikaa, Vishamushti, 

Vishatinduka, Kuchilaa, Ksuchalaa. 

Unani ◮ Azaraaqi, Kuchlaa. 

Siddha ◮ Yettikkottai. 

Action ◮ Nervine tonic and a potent 

CNS stimulant. 

Strychnos nux-vomica Linn. 629 

Seeds—used in emotional disorders, 

insomnia, hysteria, epilepsy, paralytic 

and neurological affections, retention 

or nocturnal incontinence of urine, 

spermatorrhoea, sexual debility and 

impotence, general exhaustion; as antidote 

to alcoholism; GIT disorders. 

Bark—juice given in acute dysentery, 

diarrhoea and colic. Root—given in intermittent 

fevers. In Chinese medicine 

a paste made of Nux vomica seeds 

is applied topically for treating facial 

paralysis. 




recommends detoxified seeds in 

paralysis, facial paralysis, sciatica and 

impotency. 

The seeds contain indole alkaloids, 

the major one is strychnine (approx. 

50% of the alkaloids); others include 

strychnine N-oxide, brucine and its 

N-oxide, alpha-and beta-colubrine, 

condylocarpine, diaboline, geissoschizine, 

icajine, isostrychnine, normacusine, 

novacine, pseudobrucine, pseudo-alpha-colubrine,pseudo-beta-colubrine, 

pseudostrychnine and vomicine 

(3-hydro-beta-colubrine). Loganin 

is also present. Pseudostrychnine 

is non-toxic. The alkaloidal content of 

the seeds ranges from 1.8 to 5.3%. 

The leaves contain strychnine and 

brucine (together 1.6%), strychnine 

0.025%; vomicine is the major constituent 

of leaves. The bark contains 

9.9% total alkaloids (brucine 8%, 

strychnine 1.58%); pseudostrychnine, 

pseudobrucine and beta-colubrine in 

small amounts. The roots contain 

0.99% alkaloids (brucine 0.28%, 

strychnine 0.71%). 

S

630 Strychnos potatorum Linn.f. 

S 

Strychnine, when tested for antiulcer 

activity in shay rat model at 

a dose of 0.25 mg/kg body weight, 

complete absence of ulceration was observed 

which was comparable to cimetidine. 

Exhausted Nux-vomica powder 

at a dose of 20 mg/kg body weight, 

and brucine at a dose of 0.25 mg/kg 

body weight gave protection similar to 

strychnine. 

Orally, 30–50 mg Nux-vomica (5 mg 

strychnine) is toxic. 

Dosage ◮ Detoxified seed—60– 

125 mg. (API, Vol. IV.) 

Strychnos potatorum Linn.f. 


Habitat ◮ Forests of West Bengal, 

Central and South India, up to 

1,200 m. 

English ◮ Clearing Nut tree. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Kataka, Katakaphala, 

Payah-prasaadi, Chakshushya, 

Nirmali. 

Unani ◮ Nirmali. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Thettran, Thetrankottai. 

Action ◮ Seed—antidiabetic, 

antidysenteric, emetic. 

Mannogalactan from seeds reduces 

cholesterol and triglycerides (one-tenth 

and one-fifth when compared to clofibrate). 

Seeds are also applied to abscesses, 

and venereal sores (internally 

in gonorrhoea). Fruits—antidiabet- 

ic; antidysenteric, expectorant. (Pulp 

is used as a substitute for ipecacuanha.) 


recommends the seed in dysuria, 

polyuria, urolithiasis, also in epilepsy. 

The seeds, leaves and trunk bark 

gave diabolin (major alkaloid) and 

acetyldiabolin. Seeds alsogave brucine, 

strychnine, novacine, icajine, oleanolic 

acid and its glycoside. Leaves and bark 

gave isomotiol, stigmasterol, campesterol 

and sitosterol. Diabolin exhibits 


A decoction of seeds is given to treat 

stammering. 

The seeds resemble those of Nuxvomica 

but are non-poisonous. The 

ripe seeds are used for clearing muddy 

water. 

Dosage ◮ Seed—3–6 g. (API, Vol. 

IV.) 

Strychnos rheedei C.B.Clarke. 

Synonym ◮ S. cinnamomifolia Thw. 

S. wallichiana Steud. 


Habitat ◮ Western Ghats, from South 

Kanara to Trivandrum, up to 900 m 

and in Andhra Pradesh. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Valli Kanjiram. 

Action ◮ Roots—antirheumatic, 

anti-inflammatory, febrifuge. 

Used for neurological affections, 

elephantiasis and muscular pains. 

Indole type alkaloids have been reported 

from the plant.

Styrax benzoin Dry. 

Family ◮ Styraceae. 

Habitat ◮ Native to South-East Asia 

and East Indies. 

English ◮ True Gum Benzoin, 

Sumatra Benzoin or Gum Benjamin. 

Unani ◮ Lobaan. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Saambiraani. 

Action ◮ Gum—antiseptic, astringent, 

anti-inflammatory, expectorant 

(used for cough and respiratory 

tract catarrh). Used as genitourinary 

antiseptic, as a mouthwash in 

stomatitis, topically on wound and 

ulcers,asaninhalationincolds, 

coughs and bronchitis. Lipophilic 

fraction stimulates phagocytosis. 

The gum contains mainly cinnamic, 

benzoic and sumaresinolic acid esters, 

benzaldehyde and vanillin. 

Styrax officinale Linn. 

Family ◮ Styracaceae. 

Habitat ◮ A native to Asia minor and 

Syria. 

English ◮ The True Storax tree. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Silhaka, Silaarasa, 

Turushka, Kapitaila, Yavandeshaja. 

Folk ◮ Silaajit, Usturak. 

Action ◮ Balsam is used for cough and 

respiratory tract catarrh. Turushka 

was obtained from Styrax officinale. 

Due to scarcity, it was replaced 

by the exudation of Liquidamber 

orientalis Mill. Balsam obtained 

from Altingia excelsa Noronha is 

Swertia angustifolia Buch.-Ham ex D. Don. 631 

used as a substitute for Silhaka and 

is known as Silaarasa (occurs in 

Assam and Arunachal Pradesh). 

Dosage ◮ Balsam—500 mg to 1.0 g. 

(CCRAS.) 

Sutherlandia frutescens R.Br. 




English ◮ Bladdersenna, Cancerwort, 

Cape Baloon Pea. 

Action ◮ Leaves—infusion or 

decoction given in stomach and 

intestinal disorders and hepatic 

affections. Much milder in action 

than true Senna. 

Swertia affinis C. B. Clarke. 

Synonym ◮ S. angustifolia Buch.- 

Ham ex. D. Don var. pulchella 

Burkill. 



from Himachal Pradesh to Bhutan, 

the Khasi and Lushai Hills, Manipur 

at 300–1,800 m. Bihar and 

Peninsular India up to 1,800 m. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Kiraatatikta (related 

species). 

Action ◮ Febrifuge and bitter tonic. 

Swertia angustifolia 

Buch.-Ham ex D. Don. 


S

632 Swertia chirayita (Roxb. ex Flem.) Karst. 

S 


from Kashmir to Bhutan. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Kiraata (sweet var.). 

Folk ◮ Pahaari Kiretta, Mithaa 

(sweet) Kiryaat. 

Action ◮ Used as a substitute for S. 

chirayita. (Inferior in bitter tonic 

properties.) 

Aerial parts gave ursolic acid, xanthones 

and beta-sitosterol. Several 

tetra-and pentaoxygenated xanthones 


Swertia chirayita 

(Roxb. ex Flem.) Karst. 

Synonym ◮ S. chirata (Wall.) C. B. 

Clarke. 

S. tongluensis Burkill. 

Gentiana chirayita Roxb. ex Flem. 

G. chirata Wall. 

Ophelia chirata Griseb. 



Kashmir to Bhutan and in Khasi 

Hills. 

English ◮ Chiretta. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Kiraata, Kairaata, 

Kiraataka, Kandatikta, Kiraatatikta, 

Kiraatatiktaka, Katutikta, Trinnimba, 

Bhuunimba, Aranyatikta, 

Raamasenaka. Bhuunimba (also 

equated with Andrographis 

paniculata). 

Unani ◮ Chiraitaa. 

Siddha ◮ Nilavembu. 

Action ◮ Blood purifier and bitter 

tonic (The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia 

of India); used in skin 

diseases. Other properties: antiinflammatory 

(experimentally, 

the benzene extract was comparable 

with phenylbutazone and 

betamethasone in induced arthritis); 

hypoglycaemic (xanthone, 

swerchirin, lowers blood sugar), 

astringent, stomachic (in dyspepsia 

and diarrhoea); antimalarial (before 

the discovery of Peruvian bark), 

anthelmintic; antiasthmatic, bechic; 

and as a liver tonic (several active 

principles are hepatoprotective). 

The herb contains oxygenated xanthone 

derivatives, including decussatin, 

mangiferin, swerchirin, swertianin, 

isobellidifolin; iridoids including 

chiratin, alkaloids including gentianine, 

gentiocrucine, enicoflavine 

and glycosyl flavones. 

Antitubercular activity has been 

claimed in xanthones. (Natural Medicines 


Green chiretta is equated with Andrographis 

paniculata Nees, Acanthaceae. 


powder; 20–30 g for decoction. 


Swertia ciliata (D. Don) Burtt. 

Synonym ◮ S. purpurascens Wall. ex 

C. B. Clarke. 


Habitat ◮ From Konkan to Kerala at 

1,500–2,000 m. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Shailaja, Kiraatatikta 

(related species).

Action ◮ A substitute for S. 

chirayita. The whole plant contains 

a number of tetraoxygenated and 

pentaoxygenated xanthones. 

Swertia densifolia 

(Griseb.) Kashyapa. 

Synonym ◮ S. decussata Nimmo ex 

Grah. 

Ophelia multiflora Dalz. 


Habitat ◮ From Konkan to Kerala at 

1,500–2,000 m. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Shailaja, Kiraatatikta 

(related species). 

Action ◮ A substitute for S. chirayita 

and Gentiana lutea L. 

The leaves and flowers contain xanthone—swartinin, 

triterpenes, oleanolic 

acid and beta-sitosterol. Decussatin 

is also present in the flowers and root. 

Swertia lawii Burkill. 

Synonym ◮ S. corymbosa var. lawii 

C. B. Clarke. 



Maharashtra to South Kanara at 

1,200 m. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Kiraatatikta (related 

species). 


Swertia chirayita. 

Whole plant gave a number of xanthones. 

Erythrocentaurin has also 

been reported from the plant. 

Swertia paniculata Wall. 

Swietenia mahagoni Jacq. 633 

Synonym ◮ Ophelia paniculata 

(Wall.) D. Don 

O. wallichii G. Don 



Kashmir to Bhutan and in Lushai 

Hills in Mizoram at 1,500–2,400 m. 


Swertia chirayita. 

The root gave xanthones (including 

swerchirin and bellidifolin); flavone- 

C-glycosides—swertisin and homoorientin. 

The plant gave polyoxygenated 

xanthones and xanthone-O-glucosides; 

also a pentacyclic triterpenehederagenin. 

Aerial parts, in addition to 

xanthones, contain ursolic acid. 

Swietenia mahagoni Jacq. 

Family ◮ Symphoremataceae. 


cultivated in South India. 

English ◮ West Indian Mahogany. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Ciminukku. 

Folk ◮ Mahaagani. 

Action ◮ Bark—astringent and 

antipyretic. Used as a substitute for 

cinchona bark is the West Indies. 

The bark contains 15% tannin, the 

wood 6%. 

The seeds have been reported to contain 

a bitter substance; mahoganin, 7deactyl-7-oxogedunin,cyclomahogenol 

and 6-hydroxymethyl angolensate 

are also present. 

S

634 Symphorema involucratum Roxb. 

S 

Tetranortriterpenoids have been isolated 

from cotyledons and seeds. The 

ether extract of the leaves inhibits 

platelet activity factor (PAF)-induced 


Symphorema involucratum 

Roxb. 

Family ◮ Symphoremataceae. 

Habitat ◮ Indo-Malayasian region. 

Found in Deccan Peninsula, 

ascending to 1,200 m, and in 

Bihar, Orissa, Madhya Pradesh and 

Nagaland. 

Folk ◮ Surudu, Konatekkali, 

Gubbadaara (Telugu). 

Action ◮ Quercetin, isolated from 

fresh water flowers, exhibited 

anti-inflammatory activity experimentally, 

comparable to that of 


Symphytum officinale Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Europe and from the 

Mediterranean to Caucasian region. 

Russian Comfrey or Blue Comfrey 

has been introduced in Simla; 

Prickly Camfrey is cultivated in 

Western India. 

English ◮ Comfrey, Knitbone. 

Folk ◮ Sankuutan (Maharashtra). 

Action ◮ Vulnerary (The British 

Herbal Pharmacopoeia), astringent, 

demulcent, haemostatic, tissuerestorative 

(repairs broken bones 

and lacerated flesh, promotes 

formation of a callus). 

Key application ◮ Externally for 

fractures and sprains, to promote 

bone growth and formation of 

callus. (German Commission E.) 

Allantoin, a cell proliferant, helps 

repair damaged tissues. Anti-inflammatory 

action is due to rosmarinic acid 

and other phenolic acids. Used for 

stomach ulcers, irritable bowel syndrome, 

colitis, hiatus hernia; pleurisy, 

bronchitis (contraindicated in oedematous 

conditions of the lung); and 

for the treatment of fractures, sickets, 

varicose ulcers. Experiments, during 

the 1960s, reveal that pyrrolizidine alkaloids 

are toxic to liver (dispute still 

unresolved); it is still not clear if these 

are hepatotoxic in the context of the 

whole plant. The aerial parts are considered 

safe. 

Russian Comfrey or Blue Comfrey 

has been equated with Symphytum 

peregrinum Ledeb. (introduced into 

India in Simla). 

The Plant is a good source of allantoin, 

a drug used in the treatment 

of gastric ulcers, disorders of liver and 

cancer. Tincture of the fresh herb is 

reported to be used for asthma, bronchitis 

and congestive conditions of the 

lungs. 

Symplocos paniculata 

(Thunb.) Miq. 

Synonym ◮ S. crataegoides Buch.- 

Ham. ex Don. 

S. chinensis (Lour.) Druce. 

Prunus paniculatus Thunb. 

Family ◮ Symplocaceae.


Kashmir to Arunachal Pradesh 

and Assam; Khasi Hills at 1,000– 

2,500 m. 

English ◮ Sapphire Berry. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Lodhra-Pattikaa. 

Unani ◮ Lodh Pathaani. 

Action ◮ Leaf—spasmolytic, antiviral, 

antiprotozoal, anthelmintic. Bark— 

used as a tonic for preventing 

abortion. Other uses same as of S. 

racemosa. 

The water-soluble fraction from the 

bark has been reported to exhibit antioxytocic 

activity. Ethanolic extract of 

the leaves showed activity against Entamoeba 

histolytica strain STA, Ascaridia 

galli and Ranikhet-disease virus. It also 

affected blood pressure in dogs and 

cats, and showed activity on the ileum 

of guinea-pigs. The extract of stem also 

affected the blood pressure. 

The leaf and stem are CVS active. 

Symplocos racemosa Roxb. 

Synonym ◮ S. beddomei C. B. Clarke 

S. candolleana Brand. 

Family ◮ Symplocaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Throughout North and 

eastern India, extending southwards 

to Peninsular India. 

English ◮ Lodh tree, Sapphire Berry. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Lodhra, Rodhra, 

Shaavara., Sthulavalkal, Trita, 

Pattikaa Lodhra, Shaabara Lodhra. 

Unani ◮ Lodh Pathaani. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Vellilethi, Vellilothram. 

Symplocos racemosa Roxb. 635 

Action ◮ Bark—used as specific remedy 

for uterine complaints, vaginal 

diseases and menstrual disorders; 

menorrhagia, leucorrhoea (The 

Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India); 

also used in diarrhoea, dysentery, 

vaginal ulcers, inflammatory 

affections and liver disorders. 

The bark gave colloturine, harman 

(loturine) and loturidine. Stem bark 

gave proanthocyanidin-3-monoglucofuranosides 

of 7-O-methyl-and 4’-Omethyl-leucopelargonidin. 

Betulinic, 

oleanolic, acetyl oleanolic and ellagic 

acids are reported from the plant. 

Glycosides, isolated from the ethanolic 

extract of the stem bark, are highly 

astringent and are reported to be responsible 

for the medicinal properties 

of the bark. 

The bark extracts have been reported 

to reduce the frequency and intensity 

of the contractions in vitro of 

both pregnant and non-pregnant uteri 

of animals. A fraction from the bark, 

besides showing action on uteri, was 

spasmogenic on various parts of the 

gastrointestinal tract and could be antagonized 

by atropine. 

The bark extracts were found to inhibit 

the growth of E. coli, Micrococcus 

pyogenes var. aureus, and enteric and 

dysenteric groups of organisms. 

Dosage ◮ Stem bark—3–5 g powder; 

20–30 g for decoction. (API, Vol. I.) 

S. laurina Wall., synonym S. spicata 

Roxb. (North and East Idia, Western 

and Eastern Ghats); S. ramosissima 

Wall. (the temperate Himalayas 

from Garhwal to Bhutan); S. sumuntia 

Buch.-Ham. (Nepal to Bhutan) are also 

equated with Lodhra. 

S

636 Syringa vulgaris Linn. 

S 

The powdered bark is used in folk 

medicine for biliousness, haemorrhages, 

diarrhoea, dysentery and genitourinary 

diseases. 

Symplocos theaefolia Buch-Ham. ex 

D. Don (the Eastern Himalayas from 

Nepal to Bhutan and in the Khasi Hills 

at altitudes between 1,200 and 2,500 m) 

is known as Kharanl in Nepal and 

Dieng-pei or Dieng-twe-pe in khasi. 

The ethanolic extract of leaves 

showed hypoglycaemic activity in rats 

and anticancer activity against Friendvirus-leukaemia 

(solid) in mice. The 

extract of the leaves and of stems 

showed activity against human epidermoid 

carcinoma of the nasopharynx 

in tissue-culture. 

The Wealth of India equated S. laurina 

with Lodh Bholica (Bengal) and S. 

sumuntia with Pathaani Lodh. 

The wood of Symplocos phyllocalyx 

C. B. Clarke is known as Chandan and 

Laal-chandan. It should not be confused 

with Santalum album or Pterocarpus 

santalinus. 

Syringa vulgaris Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Cultivated in gardens in 

the hills. 

English ◮ Common Lilac. 

Action ◮ Bark, leaves and capsules— 

used as antipyretic, especially in 

chronic malaria, and as vermifuge. 

Leaf extract—antipyretic. 

The leaves, flowers and bark contain 

the glucoside, syringin and syringopicrin. 

Syringin is also present in the 

roots and fruits; mannitol has been reported 

in leaves, bark and fruits. The 

leaves contain 131.6 mg/100 g of vitamin 

C. Ursolic acid has also been reported 

in the plant. 

Syzygium aromaticum 

(Linn.) Merr. & Perry. 

Synonym ◮ Eugenia aromatica 

Kuntze. 

Eugenia caryophyllata Thunb. 

Caryophyllus aromaticus Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Cultivated in Tamil Nadu 

and Kerala. 

English ◮ Clove. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Lavanga, Devakusum, 

Devapushpa, Shrisangya, Shriprasuunaka. 

Unani ◮ Qaranful, Laung. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kiraambu, Lavangam. 

Action ◮ Carminative, antiinflammatory, 

antibacterial. Flower 

buds—antiemetic, stimulant, carminative. 

Used in dyspepsia, gastric 

irritation. Oil—employed as a local 

analgesic for hypersensitive dentlines 

and carious cavaties; internally 

as a carminative and antispasmodic. 

Key application ◮ In inflammatory 

changes of oral and pharyngeal 

mucosa; in dentistry; for topical 

anesthesia. (German Commission 

E.) 

Eugenin, triterpene acids, crategolic 

acid and steroid glucosides afford antiinflammatory 

and antiseptic proper-

ties to the buds. Eugenol, a major 

component of the oil, is antibacterial. 

Acetone extract of clove, eugenol and 

acetyleugenol possess cholagogue activity. 

The eugenol and acetyleugenol 

components of the clove oil inhibit 

arachidonate-, adrenalin-andcollageninduced 


Clove terpenes show significant activity 

as inducers of detoxifying enzyme, 

glutathione-S-transferase (GST) 

in mouse liver and intestine and bring 

about carcinogen detoxification. 

Whole cloves might have chemoprotective 

activity against liver and bone 

marrow toxicity. (The Review of Natural 

Products by Facts and Comparisons, 

1999.) 

Dosage ◮ Dried flower-bud—0.5– 

2.0 g powder. (API, Vol. I.) 

Syzygium cerasoideum 

(Roxb.) Chatterjee & Kanjilal f. 

Synonym ◮ S. nervosum DC. 

S. operculatum Niedenz. 

Eugenia operculata Roxb. 



Orissa and Assam up to 600 m and 

in the Western Ghats up to 900 m. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Bhumi Jambu. 

Folk ◮ Rai Jaamun, Dugdugiaa; 

Topaakudaa (Bihar), Peeta-jaam 

(Orissa). 

Action ◮ Fruit—antirheumatic. 

Aerial parat—hypoglycaemic. 

Syzygium cuminii (Linn.) Skeels. 637 

Root—rubefacient. Bark—bitter, 

astringent; given in dysentery, biliousness 

and bronchitis. A concentrate of 

the root infusion is applied and rubbed 

over painful joints. Aerial parts exhibit 


Syzygium cuminii (Linn.) Skeels. 

Synonym ◮ S. jambolanum (Lam.) 

DC. 

Eugenia jambolana Lam. 



India up to 1,800 m. 

English ◮ Java Plum, Jambolan, Black 

Plum. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Jambu, Mahaaphalaa, 

Phalendraa, Surabhipatra. (Fruit— 

black.) 

Unani ◮ Jaamun 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Naaval. 

Action ◮ Fruit—stomachic, carminative, 

diuretic. Bark and seed— 

antidiarrhoeal. Seed—hypoglycaemic. 

Leaf—antibacterial, 

antidysenteric. 

Key application ◮ Bark—in nonspecific 

acute diarrhoea and in 

topical therapy for mild inflammation 

of the oral-pharyngeal mucosa; 

externally in mild, superficial 

inflammation of the skin. (German 

Commission E.) The seed has 

been included among unapproved 

herbs by German Commission E, 

as the blood sugar-lowering effect 

could not be established by several 

S

638 Syzygium hemisphericum (Wt.) Alston 

S 

researchers. Claimed applications 

mentioned in German Commission 

E monograph: in diabetes, also in 

combination preparations for atonic 

and spastic constipation, diseases of 

the pancreas, gastric and pancreatic 

complaints. 


recommends the bark in acute diarrhoea 

and haemorrhagic diseases; the 

seed in hyperglycaemia and polyuria. 

The aqueous alcoholic extract of the 

bark contains bergenin, gallic acid and 

ethyl gallate. 

The fruit contains anthocyanins and 

yielded citric, malic and gallic acids. 

Gallic acid and tannins account for astringency 

of the fruit. Malic acid is 

the major acid (0.59%) of the weight 

of fruit; a small quantity of oxalic acid 

is reported to be present. Glucose and 

fructose are principal sugars in the ripe 

fruit; surcose was not detected. 

The seeds contain tannin (about 

19%), ellagic acid, gallic acid (1–2%), 

beta-sitosterol, 0.05% essential oil; 

myricyl alcohol is present in the unsaponifiable 

matter. 

The stem bark yielded friedelan-3alpha-ol, 

kaempferol, quercetin, betasitosterol 

and its glycoside, kaempferol- 

3-O-glucoside, gallic acid, friedelin 

and betulinic acid. It contained eugenin 

and epi-friedelanol. 10–12% tannins 

were reported. 

The leaves contain aliphatic alcohols, 

sitosterols, betulinic acid and 

crategolic (maslinic) acid. 

The flowers contain triterpenic 

acids—oleanolic acid and crategolic 

acid. The oleanolic acid is a strong 

protector against adriamycin-induced 

lipid peroxidation in liver and heart 

microsomes. 

Phenols, including methylxanthoxylin 

and 2, 6-dihydroxy-4-methoxyacetophene 

have been isolated from 

the plant (also from the seed). 

Seeds in a dose of 10 mg/kg p.o. 

on normal and alloxanized rabbits exhibited 

hypoglycaemic activity up to 

23 and 20% respectively. The chloroform 

fraction of seed extract exhibited 

potent anti-inflammatory action 

against both exudative and proliferative 

and chronic phases of inflammation, 

besides exhibiting significant 

anti-arthritic, antipyretic and analgesic 

activities. Water extract exhibited antibacterial 

property against S. boydi 

and S. dysentrae in cases of dysentery 

and diarrhoea. 

The bark extract is reported to have 

an effect on glycogenolysis and glycogen 

storage in animals. 

Dosage ◮ Stem bark—10–20 g 

for decoction; dried seed—3–6 g 

powder. (API, Vol. II.) 

Syzygium hemisphericum 

(Wt.) Alston 

Synonym ◮ Eugenia hemispherica 

Wt. 

Jambosa hemispherica (Wt.) Walp. 


Habitat ◮ South India, particularly 

in the Nilgiri, Palni and Annamalai 

hills and Western Ghats. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Vellai Naval. 

Action ◮ Bark—antibilious; also used 

for syphilitic affections.

Syzygium jambos (Linn.) Alston. 

Synonym ◮ Eugenia jambos 

Linn. Jambosa vulgaris DC. 



of India. 

English ◮ Rose Apple. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Raaj-Jambu. (Fruits— 

pale yellow or pinkish white). 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Peru Navel. 

Folk ◮ Gulaabjaamun. 

Action ◮ Fruit—used in liver 

complaints. Bark—astringent, 

antidiarrhoeal, antidysenteric. 

Leaves—astringent, anti-inflammatory. 

The juice of fresh fruit contains alanine, 

aspartic acid, cystine or cysteine, 

glutamine, threonine and tyrosine. The 

essential oil, obtained from leaves, is 

a good source of dl-alpha-pinene (26– 

84%) and l-limonene (23–84%). 

Ethyl acetate and methanolic extract 

of the leaves are very effective in curing 

pedal oedema and in acute and chronic 

swelling; also gave encouraging results 

in arthritis. Though all extracts 

(methanolic, hexane, dichloromethane 

and ethyl acetate) of the leaves exhibit 

anti-inflammatory activity, a 10% aqueous 

extract of the leaves is found significantly 

effective when compared to 

80 mg/kg of phenylbutazone. 

In Brazil, a decoction of dry leaves 

is given in diabetes. 

Aerial parts exhibit diuretic activity. 

Syzygium zeylanicum (Linn.) DC. 639 

Syzygium malaccense 

(Linn.) Merrill & Perry. 

Synonym ◮ Eugenia malccensis Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Cultivated in Bengal and 

South India, chiefly in gardens. 

English ◮ Malay Apple, Mountain 

Apple. 

Action ◮ Leaves—dried and 

powdered, used against stomatitis. 

Bark—astringent; used for making 

a mouthwash for thrush. 

The extracts of seeds, fruits, leaves, 

stem and bark show varying degree of 

antibiotic activity against Micrococcus 

pyogenes var. aureus. An extract of 

fruits (without seeds) is moderately effective 

against E. coli and those of bark 

and leaves against Shigella paradys. 

The extracts of the plant, excluding 

root,affecttherateandamplitudeof 

respiration and also blood pressure. 

Syzygium zeylanicum 

(Linn.) DC. 

Synonym ◮ Eugenia zeylanica (L.) 

Wight. 


Habitat ◮ Maharshtra, Mysore, 

Kerala, Orissa and Andaman 

Islands. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Marungi. 

Folk ◮ Bhedas (Maharashtra). 

Action ◮ Leaves and roots— 

vermifuge. Plant—stimulant, 

antirheumatic. (Berries—white, the 

size of a pea; edible.) 

S

640 Syzygium zeylanicum (Linn.) DC. 

S 

Among other members of the genus, 

S. arnottianum (Wight) Walp. and S. 

caryophyllatum (Linn.) Alston are distributed 

in South India, particularly in 

Western Ghats. The fruits are edible. 

Stem bark of all the species contain 

tannin, that of S. arnottianum up to 

16%.

Tabernaemontana coronaria 

(Jacq.) Willd. 

Synonym ◮ T. divaricata (L.) R. Br. 

Ervatamia coronaria (Jacq.) Staph. 

E. divaricata (L.) Burkill. 


Habitat ◮ Sub-Himalayan tract. 

Cultivated in gardens. 

English ◮ East Indian Rosebay. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Tagar, Nandivriksha (The 

Wealth of India); Nandi Pushpa. 

(Tagar is equated with Valeriana 

hardwickii and Nandivrksha with 

Cedrela toona.) 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Nandiyavattam. 

Folk ◮ Tengari, Chaandani. 

Action ◮ Leaves—milky juice, antiinflammatory; 

applied to wounds. 

Flowers—mixed with oil, used 

in skin diseases. Root—acrid, 

anodyne; relieves toothache, also 

used as a vermicide. 

Various parts of the plant are used 

in the indigenous system of medicine 

for the treatment of skin diseases and 

cancer. A decoction of leaves is used as 

antihypertensive and diuretic. 

The plant from Sri Lanka (root, 

leaves and flowers) contain several indole 

alkaloids including voacristine, 

voacangine, coronaridine, vobasine, 

tabernaemontanine and dregamine. 

Isovoacristic hydrochloride, found in 

the plant, caused bradycardia in frogs 

and rabbits. The flowers contain an 

T 

alkaloid tabersonine which is reported 

to show hypotensive effect on anaesthetized 

cats. 

Coronaridine showed autonomic as 

well as CNS activity when tested for biological 

action in animals. It produced 

analgesia and was effective in suppressing 

foot-shock-induced rage in mice. 

Indole alkaloid (I) inhibited HC1induced 

ulcer in mice by 48.8%. 

The crude alkaloid extracts of the 

leaves, bark and flowers exhibit antibacterial 

activity against Staphylococcus 

aureus. 

Tabernaemontana dichotoma 

Roxb. 

Synonym ◮ Ervatamia dichotoma 

Blatter. 

Rejoua dichotoma Gamble. 


Habitat ◮ Western Ghats at low 

elevations. 

English ◮ Eve’s Apple, Forbidden 

Fruit. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kandalaippalai, 

Kattalari-palai. 

Folk ◮ Tengari (Var.). 

Action ◮ Seed, leaves, bark— 

purgative. Latex—cathartic. 

The fruit gave the alkaloid, coronaridine. 

Root bark gave alkaloids— 

heyneanine and voacristine hydroxyindolenine. 

The petroleum ether-ex-

642 Tacca aspera Roxb. 

T 

tractable alkaloids of the fruit showed 

CNS depressant and hypotensive activities. 

Tabernaemontana heyneana Wall., 

synonym, Ervatamia heyneana Cooke 

is also equated with Tengari of Indian 

medicine. 

The wood and stembark yielded indole 

alkaloids; ursolic acid, beta-amyrin 

and beta-amyrin acetate. A number 

of alkaloids showed cytotoxic activity. 

(Phytochemistry, 19, 1980.) 

Tacca aspera Roxb. 

Synonym ◮ T. integrifolia Ker-Gawl. 

Habitat ◮ Aka hills in Arunachal 

Pradesh. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Vaaraahikanda (substitute), 

Vaaraahi. (Dioscorea bulbifera 

is equated with Vaaraahikanda.) 

Folk ◮ Duukarkand (Gujarat). 

Action ◮ Tuber—nutritive and 

digestive; applied to haemorrhagic 

diathesis, cachexia, leprosy and 

other cutaneous affections. 

The tuber contains gamma-aminobutyric 

acid, glycine, leucine, valine, 

quercetin-3-arabinoside, D (−)-ribose, 

n-triacontanol, betulinic acid, castanogenin 

and taccalin. 

Tacca pinnatifida Forst. f. 

Synonym ◮ T. leontopetaloides (Linn.) 

Kuntze. 

Family ◮ Taccaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Entire Deccan Peninsula, 

extending into Madhya Pradesh and 

Bihar. 

English ◮ Fiji Arrowroot, Tahiti 

Arrowroot. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Suurana. (Instead of 

wild var., cultivated elephant-footyam, 

Amorphophallus paeoniifolius 

var. campanulatus, is used.) 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Karachunai. 

Action ◮ Tuber—acrid, astringent, 

carminative, anthelmintic. Used in 

the treatment of piles, haemophilic 

conditions, internal abscesses, colic, 

enlargement of spleen, vomiting, 

asthma, bronchitis, elephantiasis 

and intestinal worms. 

The tuber, macerated and repeatedly 

washed with water, yield a starch 

(76.0%). 

The presence of beta-sitosterol, ceryl 

alcohol and taccalin (a bitter principle) 

has been reported in the tuber. 

Taccagenin and leontogenin have 

been isolated froma acid hydrolysate 

of leaf extract. Diosgenin and its 

derivatives, isonarthogenin and isonuatigenin 

together with nuatigenin have 

also been isolated. 

A bitter extract, prepared by washing 

the grated tubers in running water, 

is a rubefacient; and is also given in 


Tagetes erecta Linn. 



cultivated in gardens all over India.

English ◮ Big Marigold, Aztec or 

African Marigold. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Jhandu, Gendaa. 

Unani ◮ Sadbarg, Gul-hazaaraa, 

Gul-jaafari. 

Siddha ◮ Thuruksaamanthi. 

Action ◮ Whole plant—infusion 

useful in cold and bronchitis, 

also in the treatment of rheumatism. 

Flowers—alterative; juice used for 

bleeding piles. Leaves—styptic, applied 

externally to boils and carbuncles; 

muscle pains. Leaves and florets— 

emengagogue, diuretic, vermifuge. 

The flowers gave lutein esters of 

dipalmitate, dimyristate and monomyristate. 

Fresh petals gave hydroxyflavones, 

quercetagetin and tagetiin. 

The plant yields an essential oil containing 

limonene, ocimene, linalyl acetate, 

linalool, tagetone and n-nonyl 

aldehyde as major components. 

The aqueous extract of flowers 

showed activity against Gram-positive 

bacteria. 

Tagetes minuta Linn., synonym 

T. glandulifera Schrank (North-west 

Himalayas; native to South America), 

known as Stinking-Roger, gives highest 

yield of the essential oil with high 

carbonyl content, calculated as tagetone 

among the Tagetes sp. grown in 

India. 

Tagetes patula Linn. (Native to Mexico; 

cultivated in Indian gardens) 

known as French Marigold, is credited 

with nematocidal properties. The 

juice of flower heads is used on cuts 

and wounds. 

Tamarindus indica Linn. 643 


(CCRAS.) 

Talinum triangulare Willd. 

Family ◮ Portulaceceae. 


growninTamilNadu. 

English ◮ Ceylon Spinach, Surinam 

Purslane, Flame Flower, Sweet 

Heart, Water Leaf, Ceylon Spinach. 

Folk ◮ Pasali, Cylon-keerai (Tamil 

Nadu) 

Action ◮ Leaves—used in polyuria. 

Diabetics and invalids use the leaves 

as a substitute for Amaranthus 

gangeticus Linn. 

Tamarindus indica Linn. 

Synonym ◮ T. occidentalis Gaertn. 

T. officinalis HK. 


Habitat ◮ Indigenous to tropical 

Africa; now distributed throughout 

the plains and sub-Himalayan tracts 

of India. 

English ◮ Tamarind tree. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Amli, Amlikaa, Suktaa, 

Chukraa, Chukrikaa, Chinchaa, 

Chandikaa, Tintidika. 

Unani ◮ Tamar Hindi 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Puli, Aanvilam. 

Action ◮ Pulp of fruit—cooling, 

digestive, carminative, laxative, 

antiscorbutic; infusion prescribed 

in febrile diseases and bilious 

disorders; used as a gargle in sore 

T

644 Tamarix aphylla (Linn.) Karst. 

T 

throat; applied as a poultice on 

inflammatory swellings. 


recommends the fruit pulp in tiredness 

without exertion. 

Leaves—juice, used for bleeding 

piles, bilious fever and dysuria. Stembark—antipyretic 

and astringent. 

Used for diarrhoea. Bark is also 

prescribed in asthma and amenorrhoea. 

Seed-kernel—stimulant; used 

as a supporting tonic in sexual debility 


Water stored in the tumbler, made 

out of the wood, is given for treating 

splenic enlargement. 

Ethanolic extract of the seed coat 

exhibited antioxidant activity. Kernel 

gave polysaccharides composed of Dglucose, 

D-xylose, D-galactose and Larabinose 

in a molar ratio of 8 : 4 : 2 : 1. 

Polysaccharides showed immunomodulatory 

activities such as phagocytic 

enhancement, leukocyte migration inhibition 

and inhibition of lymphocyte 

proliferation. 

The leaves gave flavone C-glycosides—orientin, 

vitexin, iso-orientin and 

iso-vitexin. The leaves and fruits gave 

tartaric acid and malic acid. The 

fruit pulp yielded amino acids—serine, 

beta-alanine, proline, pipecolinic 

acid, phenylalanine and leucine. 

A bitter principle, tamarindienal, 

isolated from the fruit pulp, showed 

fungicidal and bactericidal activity 

against Aspergillus nigar, Candida albicans, 

Bacillus subtilis, Staphylococcus 

aureus, E. coli and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. 

The ash of the bark is given in colic 

and indigestion. The ash is also used 

in gargles and mouthwash for apthous 

sores. 

Dosage ◮ Fruit pulp without seeds— 

4–10 g. (API, Vol. IV.) 

Tamarix aphylla (Linn.) Karst. 

Synonym ◮ T. articulata Vahl. 

T. orientalis Forsk. 

Family ◮ Tamaricaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Saline soils of Punjab, 

Haryana, Rajasthan and Gujarat. 

English ◮ Athel, Tamarisk. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Maacheeka, Maachikaa. 

Unani ◮ Maayin Khurd. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Sivappattushavukku. 

Folk ◮ Laal jhaau. Galls—Chhoti- 

Maayin. 

Action ◮ Galls—astringent. Contain 

50% tannin. Bark—contains 14% 

tannin. 

Galls used as a substitute for oakgalls 

and sumac. 

Galls contain polyphenols—gallic 

acid, ellagic acid, dehydrodigallic acid, 

dihydrojuglone-5-glucoside, isoferulic 

acid and juglanin; flavonoids including 

quercetin, its glucoside, isoquercitrin, 

its methyl derivative, tamarixetin and 

tamarixin. 

Tamarix dioica Roxb. 


Habitat ◮ Throughout in river beds 

and near sea-coasts in Tamil Nadu.

Ayurvedic ◮ Maachikaa (related 

species). 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Nirumari. 

Folk ◮ Jhaau. Galls—Maayin. 

Action ◮ Twigs and galls—astringent. 

Tannin content—leaves 8%, twigbark 

10%, galls 50%. 

The leaves gave tamarixetin, kaempferide, 

quercetiin and D-mannitol. 

Aerial parts contain trans-2-hydroxymethoxycinnamic 

acid and isorhamnetin. 

Hexane extract gave hentriacontan-7-ol. 

The flavones (tamaridone and tamadone) 

have also been isolated from 

ethanolic extract, along with hexacosyl-p-coumarate, 

gardenin, nevadensin 

and apigenin. Gardenin B exhibited 

antiviral and anti-invasive activity 

against solid tumours. 

Tamarix ericoides Rottl. 


Habitat ◮ South India, in river beds. 

Ayurvedic ◮ 

species). 

Maachika (related 

Folk ◮ Jhaau. 

Action ◮ Galls—astringent. Leaves— 

decoctionisgivenfortreating 

enlarged spleen; also cough. 

Tamarix indica Roxb. 

Synonym ◮ T. troupii Hole. 

T. gallica auct. non Linn. 


Tanacetum vulgare Linn. 645 

Habitat ◮ North Indian saline or 

water-logged soils; on sandy banks 

in West Bengal, Bihar, Orissa and 

South India. 

English ◮ Takut Galls. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Jhaavuka, Bahugranthikaa, 

Shaavaka. 

Unani ◮ Maayeen Kalaan (large 

galls), Maayeen Khurd (small galls). 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Sirusavakku. 

Folk ◮ Jhaau. 

Action ◮ Galls—astringent, given internally 

in dysentery and diarrhoea. 

Infusion used as a gargle for sore 

throat. Decoction applied to foul 

and sloughing ulcers. Pulverized 

galls, mixed with Vaseline, used for 

piles and anal fissures. Manna— 

mild laxative and expectorant. 

Tannin content—galls 40–50%, 

bark 15.3%; tannin and non-tannin 

ratio, quite high as compared to oak 

bark. 


exhibited antiallergic activity. 

Dosage ◮ Gall, leaf, root—1–3 g 


Tanacetum vulgare Linn. 

Synonym ◮ 

(L.) Bernh. 

Chrysanthemum vulgare 


Habitat ◮ Native to Europe; found as 

an escape in some parts of Kashmir. 

English ◮ Tansy. 

Folk ◮ Peilmundi (Kashmir). 

T

646 Taraktogenos kurzii King. 

T 

Action ◮ Plant—anthelmintic, bitter 

tonic, emmenagogue. Used for 

migraine, neuralgia and nausea; 

as a lotion for scabies. Toxicity 

depends upon thujone content 

of the part used. Tansy oil is 

used as a liniment for gout and 

rheumatism. 

Aerial parts afforded terpenoids— 

tanacetin, vulgarones A and B, tamirin, 

tanacin and tanavulgarol; germacanolides, 

stearic acid, and flavonoids— 

apigenin trimethyl ether, apigenin, 

luteolin, chrysoeriol, diometin, isorhamnetin, 

quercetin and axillarin. 

The leaves contain parthenolide, caffeic, 

chlorogenic, iso-chlorogenic acids 

and vibernitol. 

Indian chemotype contains betathujone 

(28.1%) as the major constituent 

of the essential oil. Other 

constituents are: beta-thujyl alcohol 

8.7, l-camphor 10.0 and cineol 11.8%. 

The leaves contain parthenolide, caffeic, 

chlorogenic, isochlorogenic acid 

and vibernitol. 

Tanacetum parthenium (L.) Schultz 

Bip. (native to Europe and British 

Isles), known as Feverfew, is available 

in India for prophylactic treatment 

of migraine. The characteristic constituents 

of the herb (dried, whole or 

fragmented parts) are sesquiterpene 

lactones of which parthenolide, a germacanolide, 

is the major component. 

(Indian species, T. vulgare leaf also 

contains parthenolide). 

ESCOP recommends the herb for 

the management of migraine for at least 

afewmonths. 

(See ESCOP and WHO monographs.) 

It has been shown that Feverfew 

extract inhibits prostaglandin production 

and arachidonic acid release (this 

activity, at least partly, explains the 

herb’s antiplatelet and antifebrile action). 

The extracts also inhibit secretion 

of serotonin from platelet granules 

and proteins from polymorphonuclear 

leucocytes (PMN’s). Since serotonin is 

implicated in the aetiology of migraine 

and PMN secretion is increased in 

rheumatoid arthritis. Feverfew is used 

in migraine and rheumatoid arthritis. 

(Potter’s New Cyclopaedia.) Somehow, 

beneficial effects were not observed 

in a double-blind placebo-controlled 

trial on 40 women with rheumatoid 

arthritis. (WHO.) 

Taraktogenos kurzii King. 

Synonym ◮ Hydnocarpus Kurzii 

(King.)Warb. 

H. heterophyllus Kurx. 

Habitat ◮ Throughout upper Assam 

and Tripura in evergreen forests. 

Folk ◮ Chaalmogra. 

Action ◮ Kernel yields the true Chaalmoogra 

Oil (Oleum Chaulmoograe), 

used externally in leprosy. 

Bark—astringent, rich in tannins, 

also used as a febrifuge. 

Taraxacum officinale 

Weber ex Wiggers. 



Khasi Hills, Mishmi Hills, Gujarat 

and in hills of South India. 

English ◮ Common Dandelion.

Ayurvedic ◮ Dugdh-pheni, Luutaari, 

Payaswani. 

Unani ◮ Kaanful, Kaasani Dashti, 

Kaasani Sahraayi, Hind-baa-al- 

Barri. (Not to be confused with Cichorium 

intybus, known as Kaasani.) 

Folk ◮ Dudhli, Dudhal. 

Action ◮ Root—diuretic, cholagogue, 

pancreatic and bile duct stimulant, 

stimulant to portal circulation, 

choleretic, urinary antiseptic, 

detoxicant, promotes elimination of 

plasma cholesterol. 

Used chiefly in kidney and liver 

disorders, for rheumatism and as 

a general tonic. A decoction is given 

for infective hepatitis. 

Key application ◮ In dyspepsia, 

loss of appetite, and for diuresis. 

(German Commission E, ESCOP.) 

ESCOP indicates its use for 

restoration of hepatic and biliary 

function. 

Most of the diuretics cause loss of 

potassium, but dandelion leaves contain 

high levels of potassium. 

The leaves and root contain sesquiterpene 

lactones (bitter substances); 

triterpenesandsterols—beta-sitosterol, 

beta-sitosterol-glucosides, taraxasterol, 

psi-taratexol and taraxol; flavonoids, 

including among others, apigenin-7- 

O-glucosides and luteolin-7-O-glucosides; 

mucilages; inulin (2–40%, high 

values in autumn). The amaroids are 

cholagogic and secretolytic. (PDR.) An 

appetite-stimulating bitter has been 

identified as eudesmanolides (previously 

called taraxacin). 

The vitamin A content is higher than 

in carrots. 

Taverniera cuneifolia Arn. 647 

The polysaccharides and aqueous 

extracts exhibited antitumour activity 

in animals. The anti-inflammatory 

activity has also been confirmed in 

animal studies. 

The high K+ content of roots and 

leaves is considered responsible for the 

diuretic activity. 


(CCRAS.) 

Tarenna asiatica (Linn.) Alston. 

Synonym ◮ Webra corymbosa Willd. 


Habitat ◮ Peninsular region, 

ascending to an altitude of 1,000 m, 

and in Assam. 

Folk ◮ Kuraa (Maharashtra). 

Action ◮ Fruit—smashed and applied 

to boils to promote suppuration. 

Leaves—usedinskindiseases. 

Thewholeplant,includingtheroots, 

contained D-mannitol. The leaves contain 

a flavone, corymbosin. 

Taverniera cuneifolia Arn. 

Synonym ◮ T. nummularia Baker 

non-DC. 


Habitat ◮ Plains of Punjab, Gujarat 

andtheDeccaninwasteplaces. 

English ◮ East Indian Moneywort. 

Folk ◮ Jethi-madh (Maharashtra). 

Action ◮ Leaves—used as a poultice 

for sloughing wounds. Root—used 

as a substitute for liquorice. 

T

648 Taxus baccata Linn. 

T 

Taxus baccata Linn. 

Family ◮ Taxaceae. 


Khasi Hills and Manipur. 

English ◮ European Yew. Himalayan 

Yew is equated with Taxus wallichiana 

Zucc., synonym T. baccata 

Linn. subspecies wallichiana (Zucc.) 

Pilgoe, T. baccata Hook. f. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Thunera, Sthauneya, 

Sthauneyaka, Shukapushpa, 

Dhaatri-patra, Vikarna. (Not 

a substitute for Taalisapatra.) 

Unani ◮ Zarnab. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Taaleespatri Bhedam. 

Folk ◮ Birmi, Thuno. 

Action ◮ Herb—CNS depressant; 

reduces motor activity; analgesic, 

anticonvulsant. Leaf used in 

nervousness, epilepsy, hysteria, 

asthma, chronic bronchitis. Leaf 

and fruit—antispasmodic, sedative, 

emmenagogue. 

Berry—used in chronic bronchitis. 

Taxol—antimitotic; also being tried for 

the treatment of severe drug-resistant 

human malaria. (Chem Abstr, 1994, 21, 

124674 j.) (The taxol content in Himalayan 

Yew varied with season and 

location from 0.045–0.130%.) 

The needles contain diterpene esters 

of taxane-type (mixture is known 

as taxine 0.6–2.0%). Taxine consists 

of 11 compounds of which only taxine 

A and B have been characterized. 

Taxol, the diterpene amide, is found 

active against ovarian cancer in humans. 

(clinical results showed 24–30% 

response). The ester alkaloids in higher 

doses are cardiotoxic. 

Dried needles contain biflavonoids, 

including sotetsuflavone, sequoiflavone, 

sciadopitysin, ginkgetin, kayaflavone, 

amentoflavone, beta-sitosterol, 

heptacosanol and surcose. 

The needles gave several phenolics. 

Betuloside (rhododendron) exhibited 

hepatoprotective activity against hepatotoxins 

in rats. 

The seeds are poisonous and contain 

taxine. 

The aqueous extract of leaves 

showed a depressant effect on the central 

nervous system in rats. 


attributedantirheumatic, anticatarrhal, 

insecticidal and wound-healing 

properties to the dried needles of Himalayan 

Yew and indicated the use of 

the drug in powder form (1–3 g) in disorders 

due to vitiated blood, tumours, 

dermatosis and helminthiasis. 

Dosage ◮ Leaf—1–3 g powder. (API, 

Vol. III.) Leaf, bark—3–5 g powder. 

(CCRAS.) 

Tecoma stans (Linn.) H. B. & K. 

Synonym ◮ Stenolobium stans (L.) D. 

Don. 

Bignonia stans Linn. 



English ◮ Yellow Elder, Yellow Bells. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Sonapaati, Thanga 

Arali, Naga Sambagam.

Action ◮ Leaves—hypoglycaemic 

(tecomine and tecostanine are 

hypoglycaemic alkaloids). 

Root—diuretic, vermifuge. 

The flowers contain beta-carotene 

and zeaxanthin. The plant gave phenolic 

acids, beta-sitosterol and triterpenoids—ursolic 

acid, oleanolic acid and 

alpha-amarine. An indole-metabolizing 

enzyme, indole-oxygenase, has 

been isolated from the leaves. Antidiabetic 

activity of the plant was tested on 

streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. 

Tecomella undulata 

(G. Don) Seem. 

Synonym ◮ Tecoma undulata G. 

Don. 

Bignonia undulata Sm. 


Habitat ◮ North-West and Western 

India, and in the outer Himalayas. 

English ◮ Rohida tree. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Rohitaka, Rohi, 

Daadimpushpaka, Daadimchhada, 

Plihaghna. (Amoora rohituka is also 

known as Rohitaka.) 

Action ◮ Bark—relaxant, cardiotonic, 

choleretic. (Heartwood toxic due to 

lapachol.) Used for the treatment 

of leucorrhoea, diseases of the liver 

and spleen, leucoderma, syphilis 


The bark contains tecomin (veratryl 

beta-D-glucoside), alkanes, alkanols 

and beta-sitosterols. The bark also 

yielded chromone glycosides—undulatosides 

A and B, and iridoid glucosides—tecomelloside 

and tecoside. 

Tectona grandis Linn. f. 649 

A quinonoid—lapachol, veratric acid 

and dehydrotectol are also reported 


Water soluble portion of the alcoholic 

as well as chloroform extracts of 

the bark shows smooth muscle relaxant, 

mild cardiotonic and chloretic activities. 

Dosage ◮ Flower, bark—50–100 ml 


Tectona grandis Linn. f. 


Habitat ◮ A tree occurring in 

Western Peninsula, Central India 

and Bihar. 

English ◮ Teak tree. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Shaaka, Bhuumisaha, 

Dwaaradaaru, Varadaaru, Kharachhada, 

Saagawaan, Saagauna. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Thekku. 

Action ◮ Flower—used in bronchitis, 

biliousness and urinary discharges. 

Flower and seed—diuretic. 

Wood—expectorant, anti-inflammatory, 

antibilious, anthelmintic. 

Used for inflammatory swellings. 

Bark—astringent. Used in bronchitis. 

Root—used for anuria and retention 

of urine. Nut oil—used in the 

treatment of scabies and other skin diseases; 

also for promoting hair growth. 


recommends the heartwood in 

lipid disorders, also for treating threatened 

abortion. 

The wood is rich in anthraquinones, 

naphthalene compounds and triterpenic 

and hemi-terpenic compounds. 

T

650 Tephrosia purpurea (L.) Pers. 

T 

The Leaves contain tectoleafquinone. 

The bark contains 7.14% tannin. 

The seed oil contains linoleic acid 

(about 53%), along with lauric, myristic, 

palmitic, stearic, oleic, linolenic 

and arachidic acids. The kernels yield 

44.5% of a fatty oil. 



Tephrosia purpurea (L.) Pers. 

Synonym ◮ T. hamiltonii Drumm. 


Habitat ◮ All over India; also grown 

as green manure and as cover crop. 

English ◮ Purple Tephrosia, Wild 

Indigo. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Sharapunkhaa, 

Vishikha-punkhaa, Sarphokaa. 

Unani ◮ Sarponkhaa, Sarphukaa. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kattu-kolingi, 

Kolingi, Paavali, Mollukkay, 

Kollukkayvelai. 

Action ◮ The drug is considered 

specific for the treatment of 

inflammation of spleen and liver (is 

known as Plihaa-shatru, Plihaari in 

Indian medicine). 

Dried herb—diuretic, deobstruent, 

laxative. Given for the treatment of 

cough, bronchitis, bilious febrile attacks, 

insufficiency of the liver, jaundice 

(not effective in infantile cirrhosis), 

kidney disorders and for the treatment 

of bleeding piles, boils, pimples. 

Also used as a gargle. Root—decoction 

used in dyspepsia, diarrhoea, 

cough, bronchitis, adenoids, asthma 

and rheumatism. Juice is applied to 

skin eruptions. A liniment prepared 

from the root is employed in elephantiasis. 

Oil from seeds—specific against 

eruptions of the skin, eczema, scabies, 

leprosy. Seed extract—hypoglycaemic. 

Powdered aerial parts prevented 

elevation of SGOP, SGPT and bilirubin 

levels. 

Hepatoprotective effect of aerial 

parts was evaluated against (+)-galactosamine-induced 

and carbon tetrachloride-induced 

hepatotoxicity in 

rats. 

The leaves contain rutin and rotenoids 

(0.65–0.80% on dry basis). Rotenoid 

content is highest in the seed 

(1.60–1.80%). 

The leaves also contain a triterpenoid, 

lupeol, and beta-sitosterol. 

Seeds contain a diketone-pongamol; 

a dimethylchromene flavanone isolonchocarpin; 

furanoflavones karanjin 

and kanjone; a flavanone purpurin; 

and sitosterol. A flavonoid, lanceolarin 

B, is also present in seeds. 

The plant extract led to marked lowering 

of blood glucose level in normal 

and alloxan-induced diabetic rabbits. 

In diabetic rabbits the extract exerted 

60–70% hypoglycaemic effect as compared 

to tolbutamide. 

Shveta Sharapunkhaa (stems: covered 

with white hair; flowers: pale pink 

or pale violet) is equated with T. villosa 

Pers. 

The roots gave a prenylated flavanone 

7-methylglabranin; pods contain 

rotenoids—villosin, villon, villosol, 

villosinol, villinol and villosone. 

Thefreshrootiscreditedwithhypoglycaemic 

properties, but leaves did

not show any such effect. The juice 

of the leaf is given in dropsy. Ayurvedic 

classical texts describe it as a special 

drug for treating sterility in women. 

Boiled leaves of T. uniflora subspecies 

petrosa (Kant-punkhaa) are 

used for the treatment of syphilis. The 

medicinal properties of the plant are 

more or less similar to those of T. purpurea, 

but to a milder degree. 

T. spinosa Pers. (South India, ascending 

to 400 m in hills) is also 

known as Kant-punkhaa (Mulukolingi 

in Tamil Nadu). 

The root is applied to inflammations 

and swellings of joints; a decoction is 

given in rheumatism. 

Chalcones, spinochalones A and B 

and flemistrictin A have been isolated 

from the root. Spinochalone C and 

spinoflavonones A and B, and fulvinervin 

A have been isolated from the 

plant. 

Dosage ◮ Plant, root, seed—3–5 g 


Teramnus labialis Spreng. 


Habitat ◮ Punjab, eastwards to 

Bengal, extending southwards into 


Ayurvedic ◮ Maashaparni, Mahaasahaa, 

Suuryaasani, Lomash-parni, 

Kaamboja, Krishna-vrintaa. (In 

Kerala different species of Vigna are 

used as Maashaparni.) 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kattu-ulandu. 

Terminalia arjuna (Roxb.) W. & A. 651 

Action ◮ Fruit—astringent, stomachic, 

febrifugal; also used as 

a nervine tonic in tuberculosis, 

haemoptysis, rheumatism and 

paralysis. Considered invigorating 

in Indian medicine. 


recommends the plant in spermatorrhoea. 

In Ayurvedic texts, Maashaparni 

and Mudgaparni together form a group 

of rejuvenating drugs. 

Mudgaparni is equated with Phaseolus 

trilobus. Maashaparni and Maasha 

(Vigna mungo) are different drugs. 


powder. (API, Vol.III.) 

Terminalia arjuna (Roxb.) W. & A. 



part of India, also grown as an 

avenue tree. 

English ◮ Arjun Terminalia. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Arjuna, Dhananjaya, 

Kaakubha, Kakubha, Aartagala, 

Indravriksha, Paartha, Virataru, 

Viravriksha. 

Unani ◮ Arjun 

Siddha ◮ Marudam. 

Action ◮ Bark—used as a cardioprotective 

and cardiotonic in angina 

and poor coronary circulation; as 

a diuretic in cirrhosis of liver and for 

symptomatic relief in hypertension; 

externally in skin diseases, herpes 

and leukoderma. Powdered bark is 

prescribed with milk in fractures 

T

652 Terminalia bellirica Roxb. 

T 

and contusions with excessive ecchymosis, 

also in urinary discharges 

and strangury. Fruit—deobstruent. 


recommends the powder of the 

stembark in emaciation, chest diseases, 

cardiac disorders, lipid imbalances and 

polyuria. 

The bark extract contains acids (arjunolic 

acid, terminic acid), glycosides 

(arjunetin, arjunosides I–IV), 

and strong antioxidants—flavones, 

tannins, oligomeric proanthocyanidins. 

The bark extract (500 mg every 8 h) 

given to (58 male) patients with stable 

angina with provocable ischemia on 

treadmill exercise, led to improvement 

in clinical and treadmill exercise parameters 

as compared to placebo therapy. 

These benefits were similar to those 

observed with isosorbide mononitrate 

(40 mg/day). (Indian Heart J. 2002, 

54(4), 441.) 

Arjunolic acid exhibited significant 

cardiac protection in isoproterenolinduced 

myocardial necrosis in rats. 

(Mol Cell Biochem, 2001, 224 (1–2), 

135–42.) A study demonstrated that the 

alcoholic extract of Terminalia arjuna 

bark augmented endogenous antioxidant 

compounds of the rat heart and 

prevented from isoproterenol-induced 

myocardial ischemic reperfusion injury. 

(Life Sci. 2003, 73 (21), 2727– 

2739.) Cardiac lipid peroxidation in 

male Wistar rats was reduced by 38.8% 

� 2.6% at a dose of 90 mg/kg, in a study 

based on aqueous freeze-dried extract 

of the bark. (Phytother Res. 2001, 15(6), 

510–23.) 

Oral administration of bark powder 

(400 mg/kg body weight) for 10 

days produced significant increase in 

circulating histamine, a little increase 

in 5-HT, catecholamines and HDL 

cholesterol, and decrease in total lipid, 

triglycerides and total cholesterol in 

normal rats. 

Casuarinin, a hydrolyzable tannin, 

isolated from the bark, exhibited antiherpes 

virus activity by inhibiting viral 

attachment and penetration. 50% 

ethanolic extract of the bark exhibited 

significant increase in the tensile of the 

incision wounds. 

Dosage ◮ Stembark—3–6 g powder. 


Terminalia bellirica Roxb. 


Habitat ◮ Throughout deciduous 

forests of India. 

English ◮ Belleric Myrobalan, 

Bastard Myrobalan. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Bibhitaka, Vibhitaka, 

Bibhitaki, Bibhita, Baibhita, Aksha, 

Akshaka, Kaamaghna, Kalidru Kali, 

Karshaphala. 

Unani ◮ Balelaa, Baheraa. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Thaanrikkaai, 

Thandri. 

Action ◮ Fruit—purgative when 

half ripe, astringent when ripe; 

antipyretic; used in prescriptions for 

diarrhoea, dyspepsia, biliousness; 

cough, bronchitis and upper 

respiratory tract infections, tropical 

pulmonary eosinophilia and allergic 

eruptions.


recommends the drug in powder 

form in emesis and worm infestation, 

in addition to other therapeutic applications. 

The fruits contain beta-sitosterol, 

gallic and ellagic acids, ethyl gallate, 

galloyl glucose, chebulagic acid and 

a cardiac glycoside, bellaricanin. 

The fruits produce hepato-protective 

effect in CCl4-induced liver injury 

in mice. Alcoholic extract of the fruit 

exerted a negative chrono-and inotropic 

and hypotensive effect of varying 

magnitude in a dose dependent fashion 

on isolated rat and frog atria and 

rabbit heart. 

The fruit contains all components 

of Chebulic myrobalan (T. chebula)except 

corilagin and chebulic acid. 

The fleshy fruit pulp contains 21.4% 

tannin, both condensed and hydrolysable 

types. 

The flower showed spermicidal activity. 



Terminalia bialata Steud. 


Habitat ◮ Andamans. 

English ◮ White Chuglam, Silvergrey 

Wood. 

Action ◮ Bark—cardiac stimulant. It 

contains tannins and is used as an 

adulterant to cutch. 

Terminalia catappa Linn. 

Synonym ◮ T. procera Roxb. 

Terminalia chebula Retz. 653 



hotter parts of India, also in the 


English ◮ Indian Almond, Tropical 

Almond. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Natuvadom. 

Folk ◮ Jangali Baadaam, Desi 

Baadaam. 


mild diuretic. Leaf— 

antiseptic, anti-inflammatory. Oil 

from kernel—substitute for almond 

oil; contains oleic, linoleic, palmitic 

and stearic acids. Fresh kernels 

resemble almonds; contain fat 52.02, 

protein 25.42, sugars as glucose 

5.98%. Leaf—sudorific; applied to 

rheumatic joints. Ointment made 

from juice—used in scabies and 

other cutaneous affections. 

The husk and endocarp contain tannins 

and pentosans. The heartwood 

and stembark contain beta-sitosterol 

and its palmitate. The heartwood, in 

addition, contain terminolic acid and 

triterpenic methyl esters. 

Terminalia chebula Retz. 


Habitat ◮ Abundant in Northern 

India. Also occurs in the forests of 

Assam, West Bengal, Bihar, Assam, 

especially in Konkan. 

English ◮ Chebulic Myrobalan, Black 

Myrobalan. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Haritaki, Kaayasthaa, 

Pathyaa, Shreyasi, Shivaa. (Jivanti, 

T

654 Terminalia citrina Roxb. ex Flem. 

T 

Puutanaa, Vijayaa, Abhayaa, Rohini, 

Chetaki, Amritaa—according to 

some scholars, these represent seven 

varieties of Haritaki; now used as 

synonyms.) 

Unani ◮ Harad, Halelaa siyaah, 

Halelaa zard, Halelaa Kaabuli 

(varieties). 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kadukkai. 

Action ◮ Gentle purgative, astringent 

(unripe fruits are more purgative, 

ripe ones are more astringent; 

sennoside A and anthraquinone 

glycoside is laxative, tannins are 

astringent), stomachic, antibilious, 

alterative. Used in prescriptions 

for treating flatulence, constipation, 

diarrhoea, dysentery, cyst, digestive 

disorders, vomiting, enlarged liver 

and spleen, cough and bronchial 

asthma, and for metabolic harmony. 

Bark—diuretic. 

The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India, 

along with other therapeutic applications, 

indicated the use of powder 

of mature fruits in intermittent fevers, 

chronic fevers, anaemia and polyuria. 

The fruits of T. chebula are used 

in combination with Emblica officinalis 

and T. bellirica (under the name 

Triphalaa) in the treatment of liver 

and kidney dysfunctions. The main 

purgative ingredient of Triphalaa is T. 

chebula (the purgative principle is in 

the pericarp of the fruit). 

Shikimic, gallic, triacontanoic and 

palmitic acids, beta-sitosterol, daucosterol, 

triethyl ester of chebulic acid and 

ethyl ester of gallic acid; a new ellagitannin, 

terchebulin, along with punicalagin 

and teaflavin A have been iso- 

lated from the fruits. A new triterpene, 

chebupentol, and arjungenin, terminoic 

acid and arjunolic acid were also 

isolated from the fruit. 

Antioxidant constituents of the 

plant, phloroglucinol and pyrogallol 

have been isolated along with ferulic, 

vanillic, p-coumaric and caffeic acids. 

Ether extract showed higher antioxidant 

activity than BHA and BHT, Acid 

esters present in phenolic fraction of 

extract, were found most effective. 

Dosage ◮ Pericarp of mature fruit— 

3–6 g powder. (API, Vol. I.) 

Terminalia citrina Roxb. ex Flem. 


Habitat ◮ Foothills of Himalayas 

from Nepal eastwards to Assam. 

Folk ◮ Haritaki (Bengal); Monalu 

(Assam), Suravaari Harad (Gujarat). 

Action ◮ Bark—diuretic, cardiotonic. 

Fruits—used as those of T. chebula. 

The tannin in the fruit is reported to 

be between 30–40% of the dry weight. 

Terminalia coriacea 

Wight & Arn. 


Habitat ◮ Western Andhra Pradesh 

and Central India. 

English ◮ Leathery Murdah. 

Folk ◮ Tani (Andhra Pradesh) 

Action ◮ Bark—cardiac stimulant.

Terminalia myriocarpa 

Heurck & Muell.-Arg. 


Habitat ◮ Eastern Himalayas, from 

North Bengal eastwards to Assam, 

Khasi Hills and Arunachal Pradesh. 

English ◮ Hollock. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Kakubha(alsoasynonym 

of Arjuna tree). 

Action ◮ Bark—cardiac stimulant, 

mild diuretic. 

The bark gave beta-sitosterol, and 

about 18% tannins. Ellagic, gallic, chebulinic 

and chebulagic acids—main 

constituents of ellagitannins, and leuco-cyanidin, 

an important precursor to 

flavonoid tannins, have been isolated. 

Terminalia paniculata Roth. 


Habitat ◮ Forests of Western Ghats 

and Eastern Ghats up to 1,200 m. 

English ◮ Flowering Murdah. 

Folk ◮ Kinjal (Maharashtra); 

Neemeeri, Nimiri (Andhra 

Pradesh); Pekadukkai (Tamil 

Nadu); Pilamuruthu, Pillamurda 

(Kerala). Kindal (trade). 

Action ◮ Bark—diuretic, cardiotonic. 

Juice of the bark, mixed with 

purified butter and rock-salt, is 

applied in parotitis. 

The heartwood gave 3,3 ′ -O-dimethylellagic 

acid and 3,4,3 ′ -O-trimethylflavellagic 

acid. A triterpene 

Terminalia tomentosa W. & A. 655 

carboxylic acid, beta-sitosterol, a glycoside 

3,3 ′ -di-O-methylellagic acid- 

4-monoglucoside and O-pentamethyl 

flavellagic acid have been isolated. 

The bark contains 14% tannins, also 


Terminalia tomentosa W. & A. 

Synonym ◮ T. alata Heyne ex Roth. 


Habitat ◮ Common in the forests, 

especially in the humid regions of 

India, including the sub-Himalayan 

tracts of North-West provinces, 

Nepal and Sikkim; also southwards 

throughout the Peninsula. 

English ◮ Laurel (trade). (The Wealth 

of India.) 

Ayurvedic ◮ Asana (Asana is 

equated with Bridelia montana 

Willd.) Bijaka (also equated 

with Pterocarpus marsupium 

Roxb.) (Asana and Bijaka are 

considered as synonyms in Indian 

medicine.) Jaranadrum, a substitute 

of Ashwakarna, and Kaushik are 

also doubtful synonyms. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Karramarda. 

Folk ◮ Sarj, Saaj. Sain (Dehra Dun). 

Action ◮ Bark—astringent, antidiarrhoeal, 

styptic, antileucorrheal. 

Used for haemorrhagic diseases, 

skin diseases, erysipelas, leucoderma. 

The bark contain 18.7% 

tannin. 

Beta-sitosterol, arjunic and arjunolic 

acids, arjunetin, betulinic and ellagic 

acids have been isolated from the 

bark. 

T

656 Tetracera indica Merrill. 

T 

Hydrolysis of gum gave oligo-saccharides, 

disaccharides and monosaccharides. 

Leaves and fruits gave betasitosterol. 

Laurel is native to Mediterranean region 

and is equated with Laurus nobilis 

Linn. (Lauraceae.) The leaves and essential 

oil are stomachic, cholagogue, 

stimulant and diaphoretic. The oil has 

been used against dandruff, also as an 

external application for rheumatism. 

Tetracera indica Merrill. 

Synonym ◮ T. assa DC. 


Habitat ◮ Assam. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Anaittichal. (A 

related species T. laevis Vahl, is 

found in the forests of Kerala.) 


of shoots is given in pulmonary 

haemorrhages and is used as a gargle 

in aphthae. 

The leaves yielded beta-sitosterol, 

lupeol, betulin and betulinic acid. 

T. laevis (Vennelvalli, Piripul) also 

possesses similar properties. A decoction 

of leaves, mixed with rice-gruel, is 

given for the treatment of aphthae. 

Tetragonia expansa Murr. 

Synonym ◮ T. tetragonioides (Pall.) 

O. Kuntze. 

Family ◮ Tetragoniaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Cultivated in the hills of 

North Bengal, Shillong and other 

hill stations, and in the Deccan, in 

Mysore. 

English ◮ New Zealand Spinach. 

Folk ◮ Chikesoppu (Karnataka). 


Spinacia oleracea, asarichsource 

of calcium, phosphorus, iron and 

vitamins A, B and C. Given in 

pulmonary and intestinal affections. 

The shoots of the plant contain 

saponin, but the seeds do not. The 

saponin has low toxicity which disappears 

on boiling the leaves. A sample 

of the plant contained 1.2% oxalic 

acid, combined as calcium oxalate 

which is higher than found in common 

spinach. Losses of phosphorus 

andirononcookingarealsoreported 

to be high. 

The roots, leaves and immature 

fruits gave positive reaction for the 

presence of alkaloids. Cerebroside has 

been synthesized. 

Tetrastigma serrulatum Planch. 

Synonym ◮ Vitis capreolata D. Don. 


Habitat ◮ From Garhwal to Bhutan, 


Folk ◮ Charchari (Nepal). 

Action ◮ Alcoholic extract of 

aerial parats, when injected 

intramuscularly in rats, showed 


The plant was found toxic to adult 

albino mice.

Teucrium chamaedrys Linn. 

Family ◮ Labiateae; Lamiaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Native to Europe. Imported 

for use in Unani medicine. 

English ◮ Germander, Wall Germander. 

Unani ◮ Usqurdiyun, Kamaazariuus. 

Action ◮ Gastric stimulant, diuretic, 

sudorific. Used in spleen disorders 

and rheumatism; topically in skin 

diseases. 

The herb contains iridoid glycosides, 

including harpagide and acetyl 

harpagide; clerodane and neoclerodane 

diterpenes; phenylpropanoids; 

volatile oil, containing about 60% caryophyllene; 

tannins and polyphenols. 

One of the major furanoneoerodane 

diterpenes, teucrin A, is hepatotoxic. 

Ether extract of the flowering herb 

shows antibacterial activity. 

Teucrium scordium Linn. 

Family ◮ Labiatae, Lamiaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Native to Europe; found in 

Kashmir. 

English ◮ Water-Germander. 

Action ◮ Stimulant, antiseptic, 

sudorific. Given for phthisis and 

cough. An infusion is used as 

laxative in piles, as a gargle in sore 

throat and stomatitis. An extract 

of the herb is given in lupus and 

actinomycosis. Flower tops and 

leaves—astringent, diaphoretic, 

vermifuge. 

Thalictrum foliolosum DC. 657 

The herb contains iridoids, including 

harpagide and acetyl harpagide; furanoid 

diterpenes; also choline, rutin, 

quercetin, iso-quercetin, stigmasterol, 

beta-sitosterol, beta-amyrin, chlorogenic 

and ursolic acids. 

Thalictrum foliolosum DC. 



from 1,500 to 2,400 m, in the Khasi 

hills and in Kashmir, Punjab, Delhi, 

Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and Orissa. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Pitarangaa, Piyaaraangaa. 

Pitamuulikaa (substitute). 

Unani ◮ Mamiri. (Mamiraa is 

equated with Coptis teeta Wall.) 

Action ◮ Plant—used against gout 

and rheumatism. Root—febrifuge, 

antiperiodic; a bitter tonic during 

convalescence. 

The root contains alkaloids berberine 

and magnoflorine. (Berberine 

causes a stimulant action on the movements 

of the gastrointestinal tract, a depression 

of both the auricles and ventricles 

and distinct dilatation of the 

heart. Magnoflorine induces hypotention.) 

Berberine content is reduced to 

one-fourth and magnoflorine to traces 

after 6 months. The root also contains 

palmitine and jatrorrhizine. 

Thalictrum sp. (about 17 species are 

found in India)—alkaloidal structure 

exhibits antitumoral activity. 

Over 60 isoquinoline and diterpenoid 

alkaloids have been isolated. 

(See The Wealth of India, Vol. X.) 

T

658 Themeda arundinacea (Roxb.) Ridley. 

T 

Following are the important Thalictrum 

sp. occurring in India: 

T. alpinum Linn. (the alpine Himalayas 

and western Tibet at altitudes 

between 3,000 and 5,100 m); T. elegans 

Wall. ex Royle (the sub-alpine 

Himalayas from Kashmir to Sikkim 

at altitudes from 3,000 to 3,900 m); 

T. foetidum Linn. (North-West Himalayas); 

T. javanicum Blume (the 

temperate Himalayas from Kashmir 

to Sikkim, Khasi hills, Kodaikanal 

and Nilgiri hills); T. minus Linn. (the 

temperate Himalayas); T. reniforme 

Wall. (the temperate Himalayas from 

Kulu to Sikkim between 2,400 and 

3,000 m). 

Themeda arundinacea 

(Roxb.) Ridley. 

Synonym ◮ Anthistiria gigantea 

Hack. subspecies arundinacea 

Hack. 


Habitat ◮ The Himalayas and plains 

of India. 

English ◮ Ulla Grass. Karad grass 

is equated with T. quadrivalvis (L.) 

Kuntze. 

Folk ◮ Sarkharaa, Kapoor Ghass. 

Action ◮ Febrifuge. 

Theobroma cacao Linn. 



cultivated in South India and Orissa. 

English ◮ Cocoa, Theobroma, 

Chocolate tree. 

Action ◮ Leaves—Central nervous 

system stimulant, local anaesthetic 

(due to cocaine). 

Seeds—stimulating and diuretic 

(due to caffeine). 

Cocoa contains methylxanthine, 

which acts as a diuretic. Preparations 

ofCocoaareusedforliver,bladderand 

kidney ailments, diabetes, as a general 

tonic and as an astringent for diarrhoea. 

Cocoa and cocoa products can 

cause migraine headache, can also result 

in constipation. 



Thespesia lampas 

(Cav.) Dalz. & Gibs. 

Synonym ◮ Azanza lampas (Cav.) 

Alef. 


Habitat ◮ Grown as an ornamental. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Tundikera. 

Folk ◮ Bana-Kapaasi. Raan-bhendi 


Action ◮ Flowers—used for cutaneous 

diseases. Roots and fruits— 

used for treating gonorrhoea and 

syphilis. 

Gossypol is reported to be present 

in the plant—roots 2.75, flower buds 

1.95, seeds 1.74, leaves 0.98 and stems 

0.16%. The flowers contain quercetin 

and protocatechuic acid.

Thespesia populnea 

Soland. ex Correa. 

Synonym ◮ Hibiscus populneus Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Coastal regions of India 

and the Andamans; and also grown 


English ◮ Portia tree, Tulip tree, 

Umbrella tree, False Rosewood. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Paarisha, Kapitana, 

Paarshvpippala, Gardabhaanda. 

Siddha ◮ Poovarsu. 

Action ◮ Specific for skin diseases. 

Root, fruit and leaf—used 

in psoriasis, scabies and other 

cutaneous diseases. Lupenone, 

lupeol and alkanes show activity 

against both Gram-positive and 

Gram-negative bacteria. Bark— 

used for the treatment of haemorrhoids 

and chronic dysentery. 

Leaf— anti-inflammatory. 

The flowers gave populnetin, herbacetin, 

populneol, quercetin and its glycosides, 

kaempferol and its glycosides, 

rutin, gossypol, beta-sitosterol and 

its glycosides, nonacosane, lupenone, 

myricyl alcohol, lupeol and gossypetin. 

Presence of thespesin (0.4%) and 

herbacetin has been reported from 

fruits. Thespesin has been proved to 

be optically active gossypol. Gossypol 

occurring in cotton plant is optically 

inactive, whereas the gossypol from T. 

populnea has a high dextro-rotation. 

It exhibits antifertility, anti-tumour, 

anti-amoebic and anti-HIV activities. 

The ethanolic extract of fruits 

showed antiviral and anticancer activity 

in mice. 

Thevetia peruviana (Pers.) K. Schum. 659 

Thevetia peruviana 

(Pers.) K. Schum. 

Synonym ◮ T. neriifolia Juss. ex 

Steud. 



cultivated as hedge plant in the 

plains throughout India. 

English ◮ Yellow Oleander. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Pita-Karavira, Ashvaghna, 

Divyapushpa. (White 

and red-flowered var. is equated 

with Nerium oleander, the yellowflowered 

var with T. peruviana.) 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Pachiyalari. 

Action ◮ See Nerium oleander. 

Bark and leaves—bitter cathartic, 

emetic; poisonous. Roots—a plaster 

is applied to tumours. 

All parts of the plant produce poisonous 

latex. Karnels contained nearly 

seven times as much glycosides as 

leaves, stems, flowers or fruit pulp. The 

roots and bark also contain glycosides. 

Of all Thevetia glycosides, peruvoside 

is the most important cardiac glycoside. 

It produced a fall in right arterial 

pressure and a rise in cardiac output. 

A few cases of arrhythmia responded 

well to peruvoside. Thevetin and other 

glycosides are reported to exhibit 

digitalis-like effect. As a cardiac glycoside, 

the potency of neriifolin is moderate. 

Cerberin is even weaker than 

neriifolin. Cerebroside is the weakest 

glycoside in its cardiac effect. 

In addition to seeds, neriifolin and 

peruvoside have been isolated from the 

bark in small amounts. 

T

660 Thlaspi arvense Linn. 

T 


(CCRAS.) 

Thlaspi arvense Linn. 

Family ◮ Crucifereae; Brassicaceae. 

Habitat ◮ The temperate and 

sub-alpine Himalayas. 

English ◮ Pennycress, Fanweed. 

Folk ◮ Drekaa (Laddakh). 

Action ◮ Astringent, diuretic, bloodpurifier. 

Seeds—stimulant. Plant— 

a good source of vitamin C (70– 

469 mg/100 g). Ripe seeds are 

poisonous (pouring boiling water 

over the seeds before use prevents 

poisoning). 

Leaves as well as seeds contain a glucoside, 

sinigrin. 

Thuja orientalis Linn. 

Synonym ◮ Biota orientalis Endl. 

Family ◮ Cupressaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Native to China; planted 

all over India in gardens. 

English ◮ Oriental Arbor-Vitae. 

Folk ◮ Morepankhi. 

Action ◮ Leaves—diuretic, insecticidal 

antipyretic. 

The leaves contain rhodoxanthin, 

amentoflavone, hinokiflavone, quercetin, 

myricetin, carotene (20.8 mg/100 g 

dry basis), xanthophyll and ascorbic 

acid (68 mg/100 g). Essential oil, obtained 

from twigs (0.32) and berries 

(0.25%), contains alpha-thujene, (+)sabinene, 

(+)-camphene, cedrol, cedrenol 

and alpha-and beta-pinenes as 

major constituents. 

American Arbor-Vitae and White 

Cedar has been equated with T. occidentalisandisusedasThuja. 

It was introduced into India from 

North America, and grows as a Christmas 

tree in the plains of India. 

Leaves—aninfusionisusedasauterine 

stimulant, emmenagogue and diuretic. 

Boiled in lard, are applied externally 

for rheumatism. Bark—astringent, 

emmenagogue, diuretic. Oil— 

poisonous, disinfectant, insecticidal. 

Seed and fruit— antibacterial; inhibited 

the growth of Gram-positive microorganisms. 

The leaves yields a volatile oil, containing 

thujone as major component, 

with iso-thujone, borneol, bornyl acetate, 

l-fenchone, limonene, sabinene, 

camphor, l-alpha-thujene; flavonoids, 

mucilage, tannins. 

The heartwood yields a non-toxic 

antibiotic substance. It gave sesquiterpene 

alcohols—occidentalol and occidol; 

also alpha-beta-and gammaeudesmol. 

Thuja is used in homoeopathy for 

tissue degeneration and tumours, warts 

and fungoid growths, both internally 

and externally. 

Thymus serpyllum Linn. 



also found in temperate Himalayas 

from Kashmir to Nepal; grown in 

gardens in western India.

English ◮ Mother-of-thyme, Wild 

Thyme. Thymus vulgaris (Garden 

Thyme) is found in the Nilgiris at 

higher elevations. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Ajagandhaa, Vana- 

Yavaani. (Not to be confused with 

Yavaani, Ajmodaa, Shataahvaa, 

Raajikaa and Tilaparni.) 

Unani ◮ Haashaa, Jangali Pudinaa. 

Action ◮ Antiseptic, antibacterial, 

antifungal, antiviral, antispasmodic, 

mild sedative, expectorant. T. 

serpyllum and T. vulgaris L. are used 

for coughs and common cold. 

Key application ◮ German Commission 

E approved T. vulgaris for 

symptoms of bronchitis, whooping 

cough and catarrhs of the upper 

respiratory tracts. Also to treat 

stomatitis. (ESCOP.) 


recognizes expectorant activity of T. 

serpyllum. 

T. serpyllum contains more linalool 

and p-cymol than Garden Thyme (T. 

vulgaris). Major constituent of the 

volatile oil of both the species (highly 

variable) is thymol; with carvacrol 

(lesser amount in T. serpyllum, higher 

in T. vulgaris), 1,8-cineole, borneol, 

geraniol, linalool. bornyl and linalyl 

acetate, thymol methyl ether and 

alpha-pinene. 

Flavonoids include apigenin, luteolin, 

thymonin, naringenin; other constituents 

include labiatic acid, caffeic 

acid, tannins. 

The flavonoid fraction has shown to 

have a potent effect on smooth muscle 

on guinea-pig trachea and ileum. 

Tilia sp. Linn. 661 

Thymol is expectorant and antiseptic. 

Thymol and carvacrol are spasmolytic. 

Thymol is also urinary tract 

antiseptic and anthelmintic. 



Thysanolaena agrostis Nees. 

Synonym ◮ 

Kuntze. 

T. maxima (Roxb.) 



English ◮ Bouquet-Grass, Broom- 

Grass, Tiger-Grass, Amliso. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Juurnaa, Juurnaahv. 

Folk ◮ Junaar, Pirlu. 

Action ◮ Root—a decoction is used 

as a mouthwash during fever, also 

after parturition. 

Tilia sp. Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Temperate regions 

of northern hemisphere. Spp. 

introduced into India: Tilia cordata 

Mill. (Himachal Pradesh at 

elevations of 2,100 m.) and T. 

europaea Linn., synonym T. vulgaris 

Hayne (Kulu, Manali and Simla). 

English ◮ Small-leaved Lime or 

Linden and Common Lime or 

European Linden (respectively). 

Action ◮ Flowers—nervine tonic, 

spasmolytic, sedative, hypotensive. 

An infusion is used for the treatment 

of hysteria and indigestion. 

T

662 Tiliacora acuminata (Lam.)HK.f.&Thoms. 

T 

The flowers contain a volatile oil 

up to about 0.1% containing farnesol; 

flavonoids including hesperidin, quercetin, 

astralagin, tiliroside; phenolic 

acidssuchaschlorogenicandcaffeic, 

tannins and mucilage (in the bract). 

In Western herbal, the flowers are 

an ingredient in blood pressure tablets 

and mixtures and blood pressure medicinal 

teas. 

Tiliacora acuminata 

(Lam.)HK.f.&Thoms. 

Synonym ◮ T. racemosa Colebr. 


Habitat ◮ Throughout tropical India. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kodaparuavalli. 

Folk ◮ Tiliyaa-koraa (Bihar, Bengal). 

Action ◮ Plant—CVS and CNS 

active, spasmolytic, hypothermic. 

Used externally for skin diseases. 

The rootbark contains bis-benzylisoquinoline 

alkaloids—tiliacorine, tiliarine, 

tiliacorinine, nor-tiliacorinines 

A and B, corine, tiliacine and mohinine. 

The alkaloid tiliacoridine has 

been reported from the leaves. 

Tinospora cordifolia 

(Willd.) Miers ex Hook. f. & Thoms. 


Habitat ◮ Tropical India and the 


Ayurvedic ◮ Guduuchi, Guduuchikaa, 

Guluuchi, Amrita, Amritaa, 

Amritalataa, Amritavalli, 

Chinnaruuhaa, Chinnodbhavaa, 

Madhuparni, Vatsaadani, Tantrikaa, 

Kundalini. Guduuchi sattva 

(starch). 

Unani ◮ Gilo, Gulanchaa. Sat-e-Gilo 

(starch). 

Siddha ◮ Seenil, Amrida-valli. 

Folk ◮ Giloya. 

Action ◮ Herb—antipyretic, antiperiodic, 

anti-inflammatory, 

antirheumatic, spasmolytic, hypoglycaemic, 

hepatoprotective. Water 

extract increases urine output. Stem 

juice—prescribed in high fever; 

decoction in rheumatic and bilious 

fevers. Aqueous extract of the 

plant—fabrifuge. Starch—antacid, 

antidiarrhoeal and antidysenteric. 

The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India, 

along with other therapeutic applications, 

recommends the dried stems 

in jaundice, anaemia, polyuria and skin 

diseases. 

The stem contains alkaloidal constituents, 

including berberine; bitter 

principles, including columbin, chasmanthin, 

palmarin and tinosporon, 

tinosporic acid and tinosporol. 

The drug is reported to possess onefifth 

of the analgesic effect of sodium 

salicylate. Its aqueous extract has 

ahighphagocyticindex. 

Alcoholic extract of the stem shows 

activity against E. coli. Active principles 

were found to inhibit in vitro the 

growth of Mycobacterium tuberculosis. 

Oral administration of alcoholic extract 

of the root resulted in a significant 

reduction in blood and urine glucose 

andinlipidsinserumandtissuesof

alloxan diabetic rats. (Phytother Res. 

2003 17 (4), 410–3.) 

A significant reduction in levels of 

SGOT, SGPT, ALP and bilirubin were 

observed following T. cordifolia treatment 

during CCl4 intoxication in mature 

rats. (J. Toxicol Sci. 2002, 27 (3), 

139–46.) The plant extract showed in 

vitro inactivating activity in Hepatitis- 

Bsurfaceantigen.(Indian Drugs, 1993, 

30, 549.) 

Anewhypoglycaemicagentwasisolated 

from the plant; it was found to be 

1,2-substituted pyrrolidine. 

The starch from roots and stem, 

used in chronic diarrhoea and dysentery, 

contains a polysaccharide having 

1–4 glucan with occasional branching 

points. 

Dosage ◮ Stem—3–6 g powder; 20– 

30 g for decoction. (API, Vol. I.) 

Tinospora crispa 

Linn. Miers ex Hook. f. Thoms. 

Synonym ◮ T. rumphii Boerl. 



Ayurvedic ◮ Guduuchi (related 

species). 

Action ◮ Plant—diuretic, as powerful 

a febrifuge as cinchona. 

The plant contains a bitter principle 

picrotein and furanoditerpene glycoside, 

tinocrisposide. 

Stem, roots and tubers contain a diterpenoid—tinosporan, 

which appears 

to be closely related to columbin. 

Toddalia asiatica (Linn.) Lam. 663 

The mucilage from leaves gave galactan, 

pentosan, methyl pentosan and 

sugars. 

Tinospora malabarica 

Miers ex Hook. f. 

Synonym ◮ T. sinensis (Lour.) 

Merrill. 

T. tomentosa (Colebr.) Miers. 



ascending to an altitude of 1,000 m. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Kandodbhava-guduchi, 

Vatsaadani, Padma-Guduuchi. 

Folk ◮ Gurch. 

Action ◮ Fresh leaves and stem 

are used in chronic rheumatism. 

Known as “muscle-relaxing vine” in 

China. 

Used as a substitute for T. cordifolia. 

The plant is an inferior substitute 

as it contains less of carbohydrates, 

sterols, alkaloids and tannins. 

Alkaloid magnoflorine shows hypotensive 

as well as curare-like effect 

in animals. 

Toddalia asiatica (Linn.) Lam. 

Synonym ◮ T. aculeata Pers. 


Habitat ◮ Tropical Himalayas, from 

Kumaon eastwards to Assam, Khasi 

hills and throughout the Western 

Peninsula. 

English ◮ Wild Orange tree, Forest 

Pepper. 

T

664 Torenia travancorica Gamble. 

T 

Ayurvedic ◮ Kanchana. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kattu Milagu, 

Milagaranai. 

Folk ◮ Jangali Kaali-mirch, Kanja. 

Action ◮ Whole plant—febrifuge, 

diuretic, Leaves—antispasmodic. 

Rootbark—antipyretic, diaphoretic, 

antiperiodic. 

Used as a tonic during convalescence 

and constitutional debility. (The 

rootbark was used medicinally in the 

past in Europe under the name Lopez 

Root or Cortex Radicis as an antimalarial 

drug.) 

Unripe fruits and roots are included 

in liniments used for rheumatism. 

The rootbark contains alkaloids, including 

toddaline, toddalinine, skimmianine. 

The root gave coumarins, including 

toddanol, toddanone, toddasin, 

pimpinellin, iso-pimpinellin and 

toddalolactone. 

Alkaloid toddaline is irritant to the 

mucous membrane, bronchi, intestines 

and the bladder. 

Ethanolic extract of var. obtusifolia 

Gemble, found in the Nilgiris, Tamil 

Nadu, exhibited spasmolytic activity. 

Among the coumarins, chlorocoumarin 

is the most important active 

principle and can be used an alternative 

for papaverine obtained from 

poppy. 

Torenia travancorica Gamble. 

Synonym ◮ T. asiatica Hook. f. in 

part, non Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Western Ghats in the 

Nilgiris, Madurai, Coimbatore 

and Tirunelveli. (Torenias are 

ornamental herbs.) 

Folk ◮ Kakapu (Kerala). 

Action ◮ Used in prescriptions for 

gonorrhoea. 

Torenia polygonoides Benth. (North 

East India) is used in urinary tract 

infections, topically for aching joints, 

sores and ulcers. T. thouarsii Kuntze 

(coastal areas of Mysore) is used for 

ulcers. 

Trachelospermum fragrans 

Hook. f. 

Synonym ◮ T. lucidum (D. Don) K. 

Schum. 


Habitat ◮ Temperate and subtropical 

Himalaya from Kumaon to 

Arunachal Pradesh and in Assam, 

Meghalaya up to 2,100 m. 

Folk ◮ Duudhi (Kumaon), Akhaahilataa 

(Assam). 


Alstonia scholaris. 

T. jasminoides Lem. (Star-Jasmine), 

native to China and Japan, is cultivated 

all over India. Alkaline extracts of 

the leaf and stem show activity against 

yeast. The leaves and twigs contain 

dambonitol, cyclitol, arctiin, tracheloside, 

beta-amyrin and its acetate, lupeol 

acetate, and a mixture of betastosterol, 

stigmasterol and campesterol. 

A flavone glycoside was isolated 

from the butanol extract of dried leaves

and several indole alkaloids from the 

alcoholic extract of dried leaves and 

twigs. 

The leaves, stem and twigs are used 

for treating rheumatic arthritis, nervous 

disorders, urine retention and as 

a tonic for weak muscles or nerves. 

Trachyspermum ammi 

(Linn.) Sprague. 

Synonym ◮ T. copticum Link. 

Carum copticum Benth. ex Hiern. 


Habitat ◮ Cultivated in Madhya 

Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, 

Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh, 

Rajasthan and Bihar. 

English ◮ Ammi, Lovage, Carum, 

Ajowan. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Yavaani, Yamaani, 

Yavaanikaa, Yamaanikaa, Dipyaka. 

Unani ◮ Nankhwaah, Desi Ajawaayin. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Omam. 

Action ◮ Fruits—carminative, 

antispasmodic, anticholerin, antidiarrhoeal, 

bechic, stimulant. 


recommends the dried fruits in 

tympanitis, constipation, colic and 

helminthiasis. Oil—used as an expectorant 

in emphysema, bronchial and 

other respiratory ailments. 

Used externally in cases of rheumatism. 

Leaf juice—anthelmintic. Root— 

carminative, diuretic, febrifuge. 

The aqueous extract of the fruit is 

a popular remedy for diarrhoea in Indian 

medicine. 

Trachyspermum roxburghianum (DC.) Craib. 665 

The fruit, in addition to protein 

(17.1), fat (21.8), carbohydrates (24.6) 

and mineral matter (7.9%), contains 

sugars, tannins, flavone and sterol. The 

seeds contain a phenolic glucoside, 

2-methyl-3-glucosyloxy-5-isopropyl 

phenol. 

The principal constituents of the 

Ajowan oil are the phenols, mainly 

thymol (35–60%) and some carvacrol. 

(Crystalized thymol is known in the 

trade as Ajowan-kaa-phuul, Flowerof-Ajowan.) 

Thymol is a powerful antiseptic and 

antifungal. It is an ingredient in deodorant 

mouth-washes, toothpastes 

and gargles. The aqueous portion, 

left after the separation of essential 

oil, is known as Omum-water and is 

prescribed in flatulence and gripe, especially 

in children. 



Trachyspermum 

roxburghianum (DC.) Craib. 

Synonym ◮ Carum roxburghianum 

(DC.) Benth. & Hk. f. 


Habitat ◮ 

India. 

Cultivated throughout 

English ◮ Ajmud. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Ajamodaa, Ajamoda, 

Ayamoda, Ajmoja, Dipyaka. 

Unani ◮ Karafs-e-Hindi. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Ashamtagam. 

Action ◮ Seeds—carminative, 

stomachic, stimulant, cardiac tonic. 

T

666 Tragia involucrata Linn. 

T 

Used for dyspepsia, vomiting, 

hiccough, bronchitis, asthma, 

and pain in bladder; also as an 

emmenagogue. 

The seeds yield the coumarins— 

bergaptene, 7-methoxy-6-methyl coumarin 

and umbelliferone. Beta-sitosterol 

is also reported. 


from the seeds are d-limonene (35.1), 

alpha-terpinene (19.4), d-linalool (4.7), 

dl-terpineol (5.7) and dl-piperitone 

(13.6%). Thymol content is 1.7%. 

The fruit (Ajmud) induced hyperactivity 

of the central nervous system in 

mice. It also exhibited activity against 

Entamoeba histolytica. The ketonic 

substances exhibit powerful antispasmodic 

activity. 

The fruit left after the extraction of 

the essential oil showed pronounced 

cardiotonic activity. 

The oil produced marked diuretic 

effect in rabbits. It lowered blood pressure 

in dogs and rats. 

Tragia involucrata Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Outer Himalayan ranges 

eastwards to Assam; southwards 

to Travancore, throughout warmer 


English ◮ Indian Stinging-Nettle. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Vrishchhikaali, 

Vrishchhika-patrikaa. Used in 

Kerala as Duraalabhaa. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Chenthatti, Sirrukanchori. 

Action ◮ Root—febrifuge, diaphoretic, 

alterative, blood purifier. Given 

in fever when the extremities are 

cold; also for pain in arms and legs. 

Used as a blood purifier in venereal 

diseases; applied externally to skin 

eruptions. Fruit—paste used in 

baldness. 

Dosage ◮ Whole plant—3–6 g. (API, 

Vol. IV.) 

Tragopogon porrifolius Linn. 

Synonym ◮ T. sinuatum Ave. Lall. 



grown in Himachal Pradesh and 

Maharashtra. 

English ◮ Salify, Vegetable-Oyster, 

Purple Goat’s Beard, Oyster Plant. 

Action ◮ Root—specific in obstructions 

of the gall in jaundice; 

antibilious. Also used for treating 

arteriosclerosis and high blood 

pressure. 

T. porrifolius contain several flavonoids, 

including orientin and isoorientin. 

The seeds yield an oil which contains 

a saturated epoxy acid viz. cis-9, 

10-epoxysteric acid and several conjugated 

dienoic acids. 

Cooked flashy roots of T. porrifolius 

contain sodium 8, potassium 183, calcium 

60, magnesium 14, iron 1.2, copper 

0.1, phosphorus 53, sulphur 25 and 

chlorine 46 mg/100 g. A large parts of 

carbohydrates occur as inulin.

Trapa bispinosa Roxb. 

Synonym ◮ T. natans Linn. var. bispinosa 

(Roxb.) Makino. 

T. quadrispinosa Wall. 

Family ◮ Trapaceae. 


English ◮ Water Chestnut. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Shrngaataka, Shrngaata, 

Shrngamuula, Trikota, Jalaphala, 

Trikonaphala, Paaniyaphala, 

Jalkanda,Trikona,Trika. 

Unani ◮ Singhaaraa. 

Siddha ◮ Singara 

Action ◮ The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia 

of India recommends the 

use of dried kernels in bleeding 

disorders, threatened abortion, 

dysuria, polyuria and oedema. 

Flour of dried kernels is used in 

preparations for breaking fast in India. 

The flour is rich in proteins and 

minerals. The flour, prepared from 

dried kernels, of red and white varieties 

contain: phosphorus 45, 48; sulphur 

122.81, 130.16; calcium 60, 20; magnesium 

200, 160; sodium 100, 80; and 

potassium 1800, 1760 mg/100 g; iron 

145.16, 129.02 and manganese 18.93, 

11.36 ppm, respectively. The starch, 

isolated from flour, consists of 15% 

amylose and 85% amylopectin. 

Dosage ◮ Dried seed—5–10 g 

powder. (API, Vol. IV.) 

Trema orientalis Blume. 

Synonym ◮ T. amboinensis auct. non 

Blume. 


Trewia nudiflora Linn. 667 


humid regions, up to 2,430 m. 

English ◮ Charcoal tree, Indian 

Nettle tree. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Ambaratthi, Chenkolam. 

Folk ◮ Gio. 


styptic; prescribed for diarrhoea, 

haematuria. Bark—analgesic. 

Used as poultice for muscular pain. 

Root, bark and leaves—used in epilepsy. 

The bark contains 16% tannin. Stembark 

gave triterpenoid alcohols simiarenol 

and tremetol; a triterpene simiurenone; 

octacosanoic acid and 1octacosanyl 

acetate. 

Alcoholic extract of the roots produced 

a progressive depression of 

blood pressure (a total of 50% in 1 h) 

in cats. 

Trewia nudiflora Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Throughout moist and hot 


English ◮ False White Teak, Gutel. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Shriparni, Tumri, 

Pindaara. Shriparni is a synonym of 

Gambhaari (Gmelina arborea). 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Attarasu, Nay Kumil. 

Action ◮ Plant—antibilious, antiflatulent, 

bechic, anti-inflammatory. 

Root—carminative, antirheumatic. 

T

668 Trianthema decandra Linn. 

T 

Applied as poultice in gout and 

rheumatism. Plant extract showed antileukaemic 

activity. 

Plant contains a pyridine alkaloid, 

N-methyl-5-carboxamide-2-pyridone. 

Leavescontainanalkaloid,nudiflorine. 

Bark yields taraxerone and betasitosterol. 

Seeds contain an alkaloid 

ricinidine. The seeds also contain 

a maytansinoid compound, trewiasine 

(TWS). It exhibited significant cytotoxic 

activity against various human 

cell lines in vitro. 

The charcoal made from the wood 

is rich in potassium (21.16%). 

Trewia polycarpa Benth. ex Hook. f. 

(Western Ghats, Konkan and Kerala) 

is also a related species of Tumri. 

Trianthema decandra Linn. 


Habitat ◮ South India, Gujarat, 

Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh and 

Haryana. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Varshaabhu (related 

species). 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Vellai Sharunnai. 

Folk ◮ Bisakhaparaa. 

Action ◮ Root—deobstruent; used for 

asthma, hepatitis and amenorrhoea. 

The root, leaf and stem gave positive 

test for alkaloid. The plant is a good 

source of zinc (1.077 � 0.188) and 

copper (0.416 � 0.057) mg/100 g. 

Trianthema govindia 

Buch.-Ham ex G. Don. 

Synonym ◮ T. pentandra auct. non 

Linn. 


Habitat ◮ The plains from Punjab 

to Bihar, extending southwards to 

Karnataka. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Varshaabhu (related 

species). 

Action ◮ Plant—astringent in 

stomach diseases, deobstruent, 


The root and stems contain hentriacontane, 

hentriacontanol, beta-sitosterol 

glucoside, stigmasterol glucoside 

and nonacos-1-en-4-one. 

Trianthema portulacastrum 

Linn. 

Synonym ◮ T. monogyna Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Cultivated fields and 

wastelands. 

English ◮ Horse Purslane. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Varshaabhu, Vrshchira, 

Vishakharparikaa, Shilaatikaa, 

Shothaghni, Kshdra. Wrongly 

equated with Shveta-punarnavaa 

or Rakta-punarnavaa. Varshaabhu 

and Punarnavaa are two different 

herbs. T. portulacastrum is a rainy 

season annual. Rakta-punarnavaa 

is equated with Boerhavia diffusa, 

Shveta-punarnavaa with whiteflowered 

species, B. erecta L. (B. 

punarnava).

Unani ◮ Biskhaparaa. 

Siddha ◮ Sharunai. 

Folk ◮ Pathari, Bisakhaparaa. 

Action ◮ Root—antipyretic, analgesic, 

spasmolytic, deobstruent, 

cathartic, anti-inflammatory. 

Leaves—diuretic; used in oedema 

and dropsy. A decoction of the herb 

is used as an antidote to alcoholic poison. 


recommends the dried root in diseases 

of the liver and spleen, anaemia 

and oedema. 


exhibited hepatoprotective activity in 

CCl4-induced intoxication in rats. The 

acetone-insoluble fraction of the extract 

is responsible for the activity. 

The red and white flowers contain 

an alkaloid trianthemine, also 

punaranavine. The plant also gave 

ecdysterone (0.01 g/kg), a potential 

chemosterilant; nicotinic acid and ascorbic 

acid. The plant is rich in phosphorus 

and iron but poor in calcium. 

The high content of oxalate affects 

the assimilation of calcium. Carotene 

(2.3 mg/100 g) has also been reported. 

Trianthema sp. are used as adulterant 

of the roots of Boerhavia diffusa. 


Vol. IV.) 

Tribulus alatus Delile. 


Habitat ◮ Rajasthan, Gujarat, Punjab 

and Haryana. 

Tribulus terrestris Linn. 669 

English ◮ Winged Caltrops. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Gokshura (related 

species). 

Unani ◮ Gokharu-kalaan. 

Folk ◮ Desi Gokharu, Aakharaa., 

Hasaka. 

Action ◮ Fruits—diuretic, antiinflammatory, 

emmenagogue. Used 

for uterine and genitourinary 

disorders. 

Seed—astringent, diuretic; given to 

women to ensure fecundity. 

The fruit gave sterols—stigmasterol, 

campesterol and beta-sitosterol; flavonoids—luteolin,kaempferol-3-glucoside 

and rutin; sapogenins—diosgenin, 

gitogenin and chlorogenin. Root, 

stems, leaves and seeds contain sapogenins—diosgenin, 

gitogenin and 

chlorogenin; sterols—beta-sitosterol 

and stigmasterol. 

Tribulus terrestris Linn. 



5,400 m. 

English ◮ Land-Caltrops, Puncture 

Vine. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Gokshura, Gokshuraka, 

Kshudra (Laghu) Gokharu, 

Shvadamshtraa, Swaadu-kantaka, 

Trikanta, Trikantaka. (Larger 

var. is equated with Pedalium murex 

Linn. The fruits of both the varieties 

are conical and have four spines, 

not three as the synonyms denote. 

Hence, Acanthospermum hispidum 

DC. and Martynia annua Linn. have 

T

670 Trichodesma indicum R. Br. 

T 

been suggested as the source of 

Trikantaka.) 

Unani ◮ Khaar-e-Khasak Khurd. 

Siddha ◮ Sirunenunji, Nerinjil, 

Nerunjil. 

Action ◮ Fruits—diuretic, demulcent, 

anti-inflammatory, anabolic, 

spasmolytic, muscle relaxant, 

hypotensive, hypoglycaemic. Used 

in strangury, calculus affections, 

urolithiasis, crystalluria, urinary 

discharges, pruritus-ani, as a tonic 

in sexual inadequacy; also as 

a supporting medicine in cough 

and asthma. Leaf—diuretic, 

haemostatic. Root—stomachic, 

diuretic. 

In addition to all these applications, 


attributes cardiotonic properties to the 

root and fruit. 

The plant contains saponins, which 

on hydrolysis yield sapogenins—diosgenin, 

gitogenin, chlorogenin, ruscogenin, 

25D-spirosta-3, 5-diene, among 

others. Flavonoids—rutin, quercetin, 

kaempferol, kaempferol-3-glucoside 

and-rutinoside, and tribuloside have 

been isolated from the leaves and fruits. 

The seeds contain carboline alkaloids— 

harmane and harmine. Harmol is also 

reported from the herb. 

A saponin (unidentified) is reported 

effective for treating angina pectoris 

in people with coronary heart disease 

(406 cases were treated). (Natural 


2007.) 

Diuretic (more than furosemide), 

proerectile aphrodisiac, hypotensive, 

hypolipidaemic, hypoglycaemic (40– 

67% in diabetic mice) activities have 

been confirmed in several experimental 

studies. (Pub Med, Medline abstracts, 

2003.) 


(CCRAS.) 

Trichodesma indicum R. Br. 


Habitat ◮ The greater part of India 

in the plains. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Adah-pushpi, Adhomukha, 

Gandhapushpika, Andhaka. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kalhudaitumbai. 

Folk ◮ Andhaahuli. 

Action ◮ Herb—Diuretic, emollient, 

febrifuge. Leaf—depurative. Root— 

anti-inflammatory, astringent, 

antidysenteric. Pounded and 

applied to swelling of joints. 

Flower—sudorific and pectoral. 

The seeds gave linoleic, linolenic, 

oleic, palmitic and stearic acids. Hexacosane, 

ethylhexacosanoate, 21,24hexacosadienoic 

acid ethylester have 

been isolated from the leaves. 

Dosage ◮ Root—5–10 g paste. 

(CCRAS.) 

Trichodesma zeylanicum R. Br. 


Habitat ◮ Peninsular India, crossing 

into West Bengal. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Adah-pushpi (related 

species), Jhingi.

Folk ◮ Hetenuriyaa, Jalasirasa. 

Jinghini (Maharashtra). 

Action ◮ Flower—sudorific, pectoral. 

Leaves—diuretic, emollient, demulcent. 

Root—applied to wounds as 

analgesic. 

Seeds contain a toxic alkaloid supinine 

(1% dry seeds). Aqueous extracts 

of stems, leaves and fruits is very toxic 

to cockroaches. 

Tricholepis angustifolia DC. 


Habitat ◮ Coastal regions of Kerala 


Ayurvedic ◮ Brahmadandi (related 

species). 

Folk ◮ Uuntakataaraa. 

Action ◮ Diuretic, bechic. 

Tricholepis glaberrima DC. 


Habitat ◮ Rajasthan, Madhya 

Pradesh and Peninsular India. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Brahmadandi. 

Action ◮ Antiseptic (used in 

leucoderma), nervine tonic (used 

in seminal debility), urinary tract 

disinfectant. Root—bechic. 

The plant contains betulin, spinasterol, 

stigmasterol, stigma-7-enol and 

a triterpenoid—cycloart-23-en-3beta, 

25-diol. 

Trichosanthes bracteata (Lam.) Viogt. 671 

Trichosanthes anguina Linn. 



India particularly in South India. 

English ◮ Snake-Gourd. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Dadhipushpi, Chichinda, 

Shvetaraaji, Ahiphala. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Pudal. 

Folk ◮ Chichindaa, Chichendaa. 

Action ◮ Root and seed—antibilious, 

vermifuge, antidiarrhoeal. Fruits— 

improve appetite, cure biliousness. 

Alpha-, beta-, gamma-carotenes, 

cryptoxanthin, lycopene, lutein, hentriacontane, 

ceryl alcohol, quercetin, 

alpha-amyrin, taraxerone, oxalic acid, 

surcose, and beta-sitosterol have been 

isolated from the fruit. The seed 

gave kaempferol, its 3-O-glucoside and 

quercetin. 

The plant gave cucurbita-5,24dienol, 

24-ethylcholesta-7-enol, 24ethylcholesta-7, 

22-dienol. 

Trichosanthes bracteata 

(Lam.) Viogt. 

Synonym ◮ T. palmata Roxb. 

T. lepiniana (Naud.) Cogn. 

Involucraria lepiniana Naud. 



places. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Indravaaruni (red 

var.), Vishaalaa, Mahaakaala, 

Mahendra-vaaruni. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Korattai. 

T

672 Trichosanthes cordata Roxb. 

T 

Folk ◮ Mahkaar, Maakaal, Laal 

Indraayana, Kondal. 

Action ◮ Same as that of Citrullus 

colocynthis. The fruits are poisonous. 

The seed extract show 

haemagglutinating activity. Fruit— 

cathartic, antiasthmatic (the fruit 

is smoked in asthma and lung diseases), 

anti-inflammatory (used for 

rheumatic affections, weakness of 

limbs, dental diseases, hemicrania). 

The root gave tetrahydroxypentacyclic 

triterpenoid, trichotetrol. Cyclotrichosantol 

and cycloeucalenol 

have been isolated from the leaves. 

Trichosanthes cordata Roxb. 


Habitat ◮ Foot hills of the Himalayas 

from Garhwal to Sikkim and in 

north-eastern India, up to 500 m. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Vidaari (var.), Bhuumikushmaanda, 

Patola (related 

species.). 

Folk ◮ Bhui-kumhraa. 

Action ◮ Tuber—dried powder given 

in enlarged spleen and liver; applied 

externally on leprous ulcers. 

Used in prescriptions for haemorrhagic 

diseases and in spermatopoietic 

tonics. Aerial parts—diuretic. 

The seeds yield 23.3% (dry basis) 

a fatty oil containing 32.3% of punicic 

acid. 

Trichosanthes cucumerina Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Found throughout India 

in scrub-jungles and waste places. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Amritaphala, Vana- 

Patota, Tikta-Patoli. 

Siddha ◮ Kattu Pey Pudal. 

Action ◮ Bitter fruits—blood 

purifier (used in the treatment 

of skin diseases); germicidal; 

appetizer, laxative (used in bilious 

disorders); hepatoprotective. Root 

and seed—anthelmintic, antifebrile. 

Whole plant—antipyretic. Root— 

cathartic. Leaves—used externally 

in alopecia. 

Cucurbitacin B has been isolated 

from the fruits.The root tuber contains 

glycoproteins and beta-trichosanthin. 

The leaves gave luteolin-7-glucoside, 

kaempferol, 3,7-dirhamnoside and 3glucoside-7-rhamnoside,cucurbitacins 

B and E, oleanolic acid, betasitosterol 

and its D-glucoside. The 

seed oil showed the presence of punicic 

acid; oleic, linoleic, eleostearic, 

palmitic, stearic and arachidic acids. 

Meso-inositol was found to be present 

in the plant. 

Trichosanthes dioica Roxb. 


Habitat ◮ Warmer regions of India, 

particularly in Uttar Pradesh. Bihar, 

West Bengal and Assam. 

English ◮ Patol, Pointed Gourd. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Patola, Kulaka, Raajiphala, 

Karkashchhada, Karkasha, 

Bijagarbha. 

Unani ◮ Parwal.

Siddha ◮ Kommu Patolia. 

Action ◮ Aerial parts—hypoglycaemic. 

Fruits—juice of unripe 

fruits used in spermatorrhoea. 

Leaves—febrifuge; prescribed as 

a diet in enlargement of liver and 

spleen; piles and fistula. Root— 

cathartic, febrifuge. 

The fruits contain free amino acids, 

nicotinic acid, riboflavin, vitamin C, 

thiamine, 5-hydroxytryptamine. Mature 

plant and root gave cucurbita-5, 

24-dienol. Colocynthin, trichosanthin, 

hentriacontane have been isolated 


Fatty acids from the seeds comprise 

elaeostearic, linoleic, oleic and saturated 

acids. 

The whole fruit and pulp produced 

significant hypocholesterolaemic, hypotriglyceridaemic 

and hyper-phospholipidaemic 

effects in normal and 

midly diabetic human subjects. 

Extracts of seeds exhibit haemagglunating 

activity. 


(CCRAS.) 

Trichosanthes nervifolia Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Karnataka, Kerala and 

Tamil Nadu. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Patoli (related species of 

Patola). 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kombu Pudalai. 

Action ◮ Herb—bitter tonic, 

febrifuge. Root—purgative. Fruit— 

used as dentifrice. 

Tridax procumbens Linn. 

Tridax procumbens Linn. 673 

Family ◮ Asteraceae; Compositae. 

Habitat ◮ Waste places, road sides 

and hedges throughout India. 

English ◮ Mexican Daisy. 

Ayurvedic ◮ 

synonym). 

Jayanti (doubtful 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Vettukkaaya-thalai. 

Folk ◮ Akala Kohadi (Bihar). 

Action ◮ Leaves—styptic, antidiarrhoeal, 

antidysenteric. Also used 

for bronchial catarrh. 

The leaf juice exhibits antiseptic, 

insecticidal and parasiticidal properties. 

It is used to check haemorrhage 

from wounds, cuts and bruises, also 

for restoring hair growth. 

An aqueous extract of the plant produced 

reflex tachycardia and showed 

a transient hypotensive effect on normal 

blood pressure of dogs; it had also 

showed a marked depressant action on 

the respiration. 


(excluding roots) at a dose of 300 mg 

showed good anti-secretory antidiarrhoeal 

activity against E. coli enterotoxin-induced 

secretory response in rabbit 

and guinea-pig ileal loop models. 

Alcoholic extract of aerial parts 

also showed hepatoprotective action 

against acute hepatitis induced by CCl4 


The leaves contain fumaric acid. The 

plant gave n-alkanes, saturated and unsaturated 

fatty acids along with dotriacontanol, 

beta-amyrin, beta-amyrone, 

lupeol, fucosterol and beta-sitosterol. 

Flowers contain glucoluteolin, isoquercetin 

and quercetin. Presence 

T

674 Trifolium pratense Linn. 

T 

of lauric, myristic, palmitic, stearic, 

arachidic, behenic, palmitoleic, linoleic 

and linolenic acid is reported in 

aerial parts except flower tops. 

Trifolium pratense Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Kashmir to Garhwal at 

1,200–2,400 m, and the Nilgiris. 

English ◮ Red Clover. 

Unani ◮ Ispast, Berseem, Clover 

(equated with T. alexandricum 

Linn.) 

Folk ◮ Trepatra (Punjab). 

Action ◮ Flower—deobstruent, antispasmodic, 

expectorant, sedative, 

anti-inflammatory, antidermatosis. 

Used for psoriasis, eczema and other 

skin diseases; and as an expectorant 

in coughs and bronchitis. Also used 

as antineoplastic against tumours and 

hard swellings. 

The plant contains iso-flavonoids— 

calycosin-7-galactoside, calycosin, 

pseudobaptigenin, fornononetin, diadzein 

and medicagol; also hydroxypterocarpans. 

The flowerheads contain phenolic 

glycosides, flavonoids, salicylates, 

coumarins, cyanogenic glycosides, 

starch and fatty acids. Flavonoids 

in the flowers and leaves are oestrogenic; 

provide relief in menopausal 

complaints. 


recognizes anti-inflammatory property 

of the flower. 

Trifolium alexandricum, according 

to National Formulary of Unani Medi- 

cine, is used as Ispast. The seeds contain 

xanthosin. 

Trigonella corniculata Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Kashmir to Sikkim, and in 

Bihar and West Bengal. Cultivated 

in North India. 

Unani ◮ Pirang. 

Folk ◮ Kasuri Methi, Maarwaari 

Methi, Champaa Methi. 

Action ◮ Leaves—rich in phosphorus. 

Fruits—bitter, astringent and 

styptic. Applied to swellings and 

bruises. 

The seeds afforded ethyl-alpha-Dgalactopyranoside,glycoflavones—vitexin 

(apigenin-C-glucoside), apigenin-6-8-di-C-monoglucoside 

and its 

monoacetate; also contain triacontane, 

22,23-dihydrostigmasterol, choline and 

betaine; saponins on hydrolysis gave 

yuccagenin and diosgenin. 

Trigonella foenum-graecum 

Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Widely cultivated in many 


English ◮ Fenugreek. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Methikaa, Methi, 

Vastikaa, Selu, Methini, Dipani, 

Bahupatrikaa, Bodhaini, Gandhaphala. 

Unani ◮ Hulbaa, Methi.

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Vendhayam. 

Action ◮ Seeds—used in loss of 

appetite, flatulence, dyspepsia, 

colic; diarrhoea, dysentery; enlargement 

of liver and spleen; and as 

alactagogueandpuerperaltonic. 


E reported secretolytic, 

hypermic and mild antiseptic 

activity of the seed. The British 

Herbal Pharmacopoeia reported 

its actions as demulcent and hypoglycaemic. 

ESCOP and WHO 

monographs indicate the use of 

seeds in adjuvant therapy for diabetes 

mellitus, anorexia, also in 

hypercholesterolaemia. 

The seeds gave alkaloids, including 

trigonelline, gentianine and carpaine; 

saponins, based mainly on the sapogenins, 

diosgenin and its isomer 

yamogenin, gitogenin and tigogenin; 

flavonoids, including vitexin and its 

glycosides and esters and luteolin; a 

volatile oil in small quantities. The 

mucilage (25–30%) is mostly a galactomannan. 

A C-steroidal sapogenin peptide ester, 

fenugreekine, exhibited hypoglycaemic 

activity. 

About 80% of the total content 

of free amino acids in the seeds is 

present as 4-hydroxyisoleucine, which 

appears to directly stimulate insulin. 

(Eur J Pharmacol, 390, 2000; Natural 


2007.) 

Saponin rich extracts reduce blood 

levels of the cholesterol. The fibrous 

fraction of seeds also causes a reduction 

in blood lipids. 

Trigonella incisa Benth. 675 

The aqueous extract is demulcent, 

promoted healing of gastric ulcers produced 

experimentally in rats and exhibited 

a smooth muscle relaxing effect 

in rabbits without affecting either the 

heart or blood pressure. 

Fenugreek has been reported to 

stimulate the liver microsomal cytochrome 

P450 dependent aryl hydroxylase 

and cytochrome b5 in rats; 

increased bile secretion has also been 

observed. 

Fenugreek extract containing trigonelline 

and trigonellic acid may be used 

as a hair growth stimulant. 


(CCRAS.) 

Trigonella incisa Benth. 

Synonym ◮ T. polycerata auct. non L. 

Family ◮ Papillionaceae; Fabaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Punjab plains and Western 

Himalaya, up to 1,800 m. 

Folk ◮ Sainji, Chini, Shirgona 

(Punjab), Chainhari (Delhi), Methi 


Action ◮ Seeds—antidiarrhoeic. 

Aerial parts and pods contain steroidal 

sapogenins—diosgenin 0.04, 0.25; 

and tigogenin 0.008, 0.18% respectively. 

Various plant parts and tissues in 

culture contain flavonoids, the major 

being luteolin, besides kaempferol, 

quercetin and apigenin. 

T

676 Trigonella uncata Boiss. 

T 

Trigonella uncata Boiss. 


Habitat ◮ Afghanistan, Persia. 

English ◮ Tonkin Bean, Melilot, 

King’s Crown. 

Unani ◮ Iklil-ul-Malik (also equated 

with Melilotus alba Desv., and 

Astragalus homosus Linn.). 

Folk ◮ Sainji (white-flowered var.). 

Action ◮ Beans—anti-inflammatory, 

anodyne, diuretic, emmenagogue. 

(Indian species, bearing smaller 

beans, has been equated with Trigonella 

corniculata and is known as Pirang.) 

Triphasia trifolia 

(Burm. f.) P. Wils. 


Habitat ◮ Wild in parts of Peninsular 

India; cultivated in gardens. 

English ◮ Lime Berry, Myrtle-Lime, 

Chinese Lime. 

Folk ◮ Chinese Naarangi. 

Action ◮ Leaves—used in skin 

diseases and in preparation of bath 

salts. Ripe fruits—used against 

cough. 

The leaves contain the alkaloid Omethylhalfordinol 

and coumarins, including 

umbelliferone, isomeranzin 

and triphasiol. 

Triticum aestivum Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Cultivated as a food 

crop mainly in Punjab, Haryana, 

Uttar Pradesh., Madhya Pradesh, 

Maharashtra, Bihar and Rajasthan. 

English ◮ Wheat. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Godhuuma. 

Folk ◮ Gehun. 

Action ◮ Wheat germ oil is rich 

in tocopherol (vitamin E) content, 

total tocopherols 1897 mcg/g, alpha 

tocopherol 67%. The presence of 

ergosterol (provitamin D) has also 


Wheat germ is also used for its 

minerals, proteins and lipid contents. 

Germ proteins are rich in lysine (5.28– 

5.55 g/100 g protein) and possess high 

biological value (94%) and protein efficiency 

ratio (2.9). 

Wheat germ contains haemagglutinating 

andantipyreticfactors, but these 

are destroyed by toasting. It also contains 

haemoproteins, possessing peroxidase 

activity. 

In adult rats, addition of wheat germ 

(7%) to a high fat (cholesterol) diet significantly 

decreased VLDL-cholesterol 

and VLDL-triglycerides and increased 

the HDL-cholesterol after-7 weeks of 

feeding. 

Bran oil contains tocopherols, but 

major part of them (68%) is in epsilon 

form; alpha-tocopherol forms only 11% 

of the total. 

Gluten lipids, associated with gluten, 

contain a high percentage of linoleic 

acid; lowering of serum cholesterol 

level has been observed in experiments 

(lipid-free gluten is devoid of 

cholesterol-lowering effect).

Sensitivity to gluten has also been 

reported(evenwhenwholewheatflour 

was used). 

Triumfetta rhomboidea Jacq. 

Synonym ◮ T. angulata Lam. 


Habitat ◮ Throughout tropical and 

subtropical India, up to 1,200 m in 


English ◮ Burbush, Burweed. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Jhinjhireetaa, Gippit. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Ottupullu. 

Folk ◮ Chikti, Biriyaaraa. 

Action ◮ Leaves and bark—astringent, 

anticholerin, demulcent. Used 

in diarrhoea and dysentery. Root— 

styptic, diuretic, galactogenic. Hot 

infusion facilitates childbirth and 

hastens parturition. Pounded roots 

are given for the treatment of ulcers. 

Leaves and flowers—used against 

leprosy. 

T. rotundifolia Linn., known as Mudappondu 

in Tamil Nadu and Bankitutturi 

in Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka,isusedasademulcent.Alcoholic 

extract of the root showed antiinflammatory 

activity and reduced cotton 

pellet granuloma formation in albino 

rats. Alcoholic extract of the whole 

plant exhibited antimicrobial activity. 

Tropaeolum majus Linn. 

Family ◮ Tropaeolaceae. 

Tulipa gesneriana Linn. 677 


grownasanornamentalandsalad 

herb. 

English ◮ Garden Nasturtium, Indian 

Cress, Climbing-Nasturtium. 


increases resistance to bacterial infections, 

reduces catarrh formation 

and expels phlegm. Juice of the 

plant—given internally for treating 

scrofula. Flowers—used for healing 

wounds. Seeds— purgative. 

Common Nasturtium contains glucocyanates 

(including glycotropeoline), 

spilanthol, myrosin (an enzyme), 

oxalic acid and vitamin C. The leaves 

from the young plant showed greater 

antibiotic activity than the stems; roots 

were inactive. 

Extracts and preparations of T. majus 

are found efficacious in the infections 

of urinary and respiratory tract, 

but have no effect on infections of the 

biliary tract or in typhoid fever. 

Tulipa gesneriana Linn. 




English ◮ Common Garden Tulip, 

Late Tulip. Tulip tree is equated 

with Liriodendron tulipifera. 

Unani ◮ Tulipa stellata Hook bulbs 

are wrongly equated with Suranjaan 

of Unani medicine. Colchicum 

luteum Baker is the source of 

Suranjaan Talkh (bitter), and 

Merendera persica of Suranjaan 

Shireen (sweet). 

T

678 Turnera ulmifolia Linn. 

T 

Folk ◮ Tulip. 

Action ◮ Bulbs—mitogenic (TG 

lectin-erythrocyte, and TG lectinyeast). 

A cardiotoxic alkaloid has been reported 

from the leaves. Antibiotic 

D-glucosides (tuliposides), inhibit the 

growth of Bacillus subtilis, have been 

isolated from pistils, stalks and leaves. 

Turnera ulmifolia Linn. 

Synonym ◮ T. angustifolia Mill. 

Family ◮ Turneraceae. 

Habitat ◮ West Bengal and Orissa and 

in the Peninsular India, particularly 

on the coast. 

English ◮ West Indian Holly, 

Sagerose. 

Folk ◮ Bhinjir (Maharashtra). 

Action ◮ Herb—prescribed in 

indigestion, biliousness (leaves 

are used against dysentery), chest 

ailments and rheumatism. 

The fresh plant yields a mixture 

of cyanohydrin glucosides—deidaclin 

and tetraphyllin. Seeds, along with 

normal fatty acids, contain a few unusual 

fatty acids, including vernolic, 

malvalic and octanoic acids. 

An allied species Turnera diffusa 

var. aphrodisiaca, a native to the Gulf of 

Mexico, Southern California, (known 

as Damiana) is used in India by homoeopathic 

practitioners as a tonic 

and sex restorative, and for treating 

premature ejaculation. 

Turnera diffusa Willd. has been 

included among unapproved herbs 

by German Commission E. The British 

Herbal Pharmacopoeia recognizes its 

thymoleptic activity. 

Turraea villosa Benn. 


Habitat ◮ Gujarat to Karnataka, both 

on the hills and the coasts, and in 

the Anamalai Hills in Tamil Nadu 

up to 1,200 m. 

Folk ◮ Pandre, Kapuur—bhendi 


Action ◮ Root—applied to fistula; 

also administered in leprosy. 

Villosterol, a pregnene steroid, has 

been isolated from the plant. 

T. virens Linn. (Kerala) is reported 

to be employed in the treatment of fits. 

Tussilago farfara Linn. 



Kashmir to Nepal at 1,500–3,500 m. 

English ◮ Coughwort, Coltsfoot, 

Asses’ Foot. 

Unani ◮ Fanjiyun. 

Action ◮ Leaves and flowers— 

anticatarrhal, antitussive, expectorant, 

antispasmodic, demulcent, 

anti-inflammatory. Used for dry, 

unproductive, irritative cough, 

smoker’s cough, whooping cough, 

bronchial asthma (effect shortlived), 

laryngitis.

Key application ◮ In acute catarrh 

of the respiratory tract with cough 

and hoarseness; acute, mild inflammation 

of the oral and pharyngeal 

mucosa. Contraindicated during 

pregnancy and nursing. (German 


The leaves and flowers contain flavonoids 

including rutin, hyperoside and 

isoquercetin; pyrrolizidine alkaloids 

including senkirkine and tussilagine 

(about 0.015%); mucilage (about 8%) 

consisting of polysaccharides based on 

glucose, galactose, fructose, arabinose 

and xylose; inulin, tannins. 

Polysaccharides are anti-inflammatory 

and immuno-stimulating, as well 

as demulcent. Flavonoids also have 

anti-inflammatory and antispasmodic 

action. Pyrrolizidine alkaloids have 

caused hepatotoxicity in rats fed daily 

on high doses, but not on daily low 

dose regimes. These are largely destroyed 

when the herb is boiled. 

The leaf contains an inhibitor of 

platelet activating factor (PAF). The 

PAF inhibitor can account for Coltsfoot’s 

efficacy in asthma. The constituent, 

tussilagone has respiratory 

stimulant and cardiovascular (including 

pressor) activities. In animal studies, 

Coltsfoot is reported to have a pressoreffectsimilartodopaminebutwithout 

tachyphylasis. (Natural Medicines 


Tylophora fasciculata 

Buch.-Ham ex Wight. 


Tylophora indica (Burm. f.) Merrill. 679 

Habitat ◮ Sub-Himalayas tract from 

Uttar Pradesh to Meghalaya and in 

central and Peninsular India. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Go-chandanaa. 

Action ◮ Toxic. Used as a substitute 

for Cephaelis ipecacuanha as 

emetic, purgative and febrifuge; 

externally on unhealthy ulcers and 

wounds. 

Tylophora indica 

(Burm. f.) Merrill. 

Synonym ◮ T. asthamatica Wight & 

Arn. 


Habitat ◮ Assam, West Bengal, 

Orissa and Peninsular India. 

English ◮ Emetic Swallow Wort, 

Indian or Country Ipecacuanha. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Antamuula, Muulini, 

Arkaparni. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Nay Palai, Nangilaippiratti. 

Action ◮ Leaves—used for bronchial 

asthma and allergic rhinitis. 

The whole plant yielded alkaloids 

including tylophorine, tylphorinine, 

desmethyltylophorine and desmethyltylophorinine, 

and a flavonoid kaempferol. 

The root yielded alkaloids, 

tylophorinidine and gamma-fagarine. 

The leaves gave tylophorinidine, dsepticine, 

d-iso-tylocrebrine; triterpenoids 

alpha-and beta-amyrin; betasitosterol, 

stigmasterol and campesterol; 

phenylalanine; and quercetin. 

Ceryl alcohol has also been reported 


T

680 Tylophora tenuis Blume 

T 

The plant exhibited anti-amoebic 

activity against axenic and polyaxenic 

strains of Entamoeba histolytica. 

Tylophorine and 4-methoxy-14hydroxytylophorine 

are 2 and 4 times 

more effective, respectively, than the 

standard drugs Emetine dihydrochloride 

and Metroindazole. Tylophorine 

is found effective in intestinal as well as 

hepatic amoebiasis in test animals, but 

its gross toxicity excludes its potential 

use in humans. 

Tylophorine also exhibits anti-inflammatory 

and anti-tumour properties. 

Desmethyltylophorine gave promising 

results in leukaemia. 

The drug irritates the digestive tract. 

Tylophora tenuis Blume 

Synonym ◮ T. tenuissima (Roxb.) W. 

&A. 


Habitat ◮ Tamil Nadu up to 2,100 m, 

and along the back waters in Kerala 


Folk ◮ Nanjaruppan (Tamil Nadu, 

Kerala). 

Action ◮ Plant—alexipharmic; used 

for the treatment of urticaria, 

smallpox, excessive perspiration, 

biolious swellings, as an antidote 

to arsenic poisoning. Leaves—used 

for scabies. 

Typha australis Schum. & Thonn. 

Synonym ◮ T. angustata Bory & 

Chaub. 

Family ◮ Typhaceae. 



English ◮ Lesser Indian Reed-Mace. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Gundra, Gundraa, 

Gundraka, Guntha. (Gundraa 

has also been interpreted as 

Bhadramustaa, Cyperus rotundus 

Linn.) 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Sambu. 

Folk ◮ Pater, Gondapateraa. 

Action ◮ Rhizomes—astringent and 

diuretic. Spikes—ash is used for 

healing wounds. The pollen, mixed 

with honey, is applied to wounds 

and sores or taken internally 

for treating uterine bleeding and 

haematuria. 

The plant contains isorhamnetin, 

pentacosane and sterols. A flavonol 

glucoside, yielding quercetin on hydrolysis, 

has been reported in the plant. 

Dosage ◮ Rhizome—50–100 ml 


Typha elephantina Roxb. 


Habitat ◮ Kashmir and from Uttar 

Pradesh to Assam, in stagnant, fresh 

and brackish-water. 

English ◮ Elephant Grass, Bulrush, 

Indian Reed-Mace. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Gundra, Gundraa, 

Gundraka, Potagala. (related 

species of T. australis.) 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Anai Korai, Chambu.

Folk ◮ Gondapateraa. 

Action ◮ Rhizomes—astringent 

and diuretic; used for dysentery. 

Pollen—used for internal and 

external bleeding; uterine bleeding, 

blood in urine, nose bleeds. 

The herb contains isorhamnetin, 

pentacosane and plant sterols. 

Typha laxmanni Lepech. 


Habitat ◮ Kashmir (Gilgit), at 

2,700 m. 

English ◮ Scented Flag. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Airakaa. 

Folk ◮ Pizh (Kashmir). 

Action ◮ Stamens—astringent and 

styptic. Used externally. 

Typhonium trilobatum (L.) Schott. 681 

Typhonium trilobatum 

(L.) Schott. 


Habitat ◮ Peninsular India, and from 

Yamuna eastwards; also grown in 

South India. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Karu Karunai 

Kizhangu, Karunai Kizhangu. 

Action ◮ Tuber—applied as poultice 

on scirrhous tumours (fresh tuber 

is very acrid and a powerful 

stimulant). Eaten with bananas, the 

tubers relax the bowels and provide 

relief in haemorrhoids (tubers 

become innocuous on heating or 

drying). 

The tubers contain carotene, folic 

acid, niacin, thiamine, sterols and betasitosterol. 

T

Ulmus wallichiana Planch. 


Habitat ◮ The North Western 

Himalayas. 

English ◮ Himalayan Elm. Slippery 

Elm is equated with Ulmus fulva. 

Folk ◮ Hemar, Kitamaara. 

Action ◮ Bark—astringent, demulcent, 

emollient, expectorant, 

diuretic. 


Ulmus fulva Michx, though known 

as Indian or Sweet Elm, is an American 

plant and does not occur in India. 

Powdered bark of Ulmus fulva gives 

a mucilage, composed of galactose, 3methyl 

galactose, rhamnose and galacturonic 

acid residues. As a gruel it 

is prescribed for patients with gastric 

or duodenal ulcers. Coarse powdered 

bark is applied as poultice to burns and 

skin eruptions. 

The mucilages cause reflex stimulation 

of nerve endings in the GI tract 

andleadtomucoussecretionwhich 

protects the GI tract against ulceration 

and excess acidity. (Natural Medicines 


Uncaria gambier Roxb. 


Habitat ◮ Malaysia and Indonesia. 

U 

English ◮ Pale Catechu, Gambier. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Khadira (related 

species). 

Folk ◮ Chinai Katthaa. 

Action ◮ Intestinal astringent. 

Uses similar to Black Catechu 

(Acacia catechu). The extract of 

the leaves and shoots contains 

tannins, mainly catechins up to 

35% and catechu tannic acid up 

to 50%; indole alkaloids including 

gambirine, gambiridine; flavonoids 

such as quercetin; pigments and 

gambirfluorescin. 

Gambirine is reported to be hypotensive; 

d-catechu constricts blood 

vessels. Catechins protect the liver 

from infection. 

A related species, U. rhynchophylla, 

native to China, known as Gou Teng in 

Chinese medicine, is used for eclampsia, 

headache, 

dizziness, convulsions, high fever 

and hypertension. (WHO.) 

Unona desmos Raeusch. 

Synonym ◮ 

Lour. 

Desmos cochinchinensis 



Action ◮ Root—febrifuge. 

The roots contain a desmoflavone. 

A cycloartane triterpenoid desmosinol 

has been isolated from stem. The root

U 

684 Uraria alopecuroides Wight. 

of U. discolor Vahl, synonym Desmos 

chinensis Lour. (forests of north-east, 

south and west India) is given for vertigo. 

The root contains a flavonoid desmal. 

Desmal inhibited tyrosine kinase 

in situ in epidermal growth factor 

(EGF) receptor overexpressing 

NIH3T3 (ERIZ) cells. It also inhibited 

EGF-induced inositol phosphate 

formation and morphological changes. 

Uraria alopecuroides Wight. 


Habitat ◮ Grasslands and forestglades 

from Uttar Pradesh to Assam 

and in Orissa, Andhra Pradesh and 

Karnataka. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Prishniparni (related 

species). 

Action ◮ Pods and roots—used 

against ringworm. 

Uraria crinita Desv. 


Habitat ◮ Throughout Himalayas, 

up to an altitude of 2,700 m and in 

Khasi, Aka and Lushai hills. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Prishniparni (related 

sp.). 

Action ◮ Prescribed in dysentery, 

diarrhoea; enlarged spleen and 

liver; also for the treatment of 

pustules, tumours and fistula. 

Uraria lagopoides DC. 

Synonym ◮ U. lagopodioides Desv. 


Habitat ◮ Grasslands of Bihar, Orissa, 

West Bengal and Palni Hills. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Prishniparni. (Prishniparni 

and Shaaliparni are used 

together in Indian medicine. Both 

have been equated with Uraria sp., 

U. lagopoides and U. picta. 

Siddha ◮ Moovilai. 

Action ◮ Whole plant—anticatarrhal 

and alterative. Root—used in 

prescriptions for intermittent fevers, 

pulmonary inflammation and as 

a recuperating tonic. Leaves— 

prescribed in diarrhoea. 

Flavonoids, including 5-hydroxy-7, 

4 ′ -dimethoxy flavonol, have been isolated 


The plant is mentioned as an abortifacient 

in ancient Ayurvedic texts. Hot 

aqueous extract of the shoots showed 

oxytocic activity on both gravid and 

non-gravid uteri of experimental animals. 

The aqueous extract of the plant 

shows anti-implantation activity on 

rats and spasmogenic effect on the 

guts of rabbits and uteri of rats. 

Uraria picta Desv. 

Synonym ◮ Hedysarum pictum Jacq. 


Habitat ◮ Throughout India, in dry 

grasslands. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Prishniparni, Prithakparni, 

Simhapushpi, Kalashi, 

Dhaavani, Guhaa, Chitraparni.

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Oripai. 

Action ◮ Root—prescribed for cough, 

chills and fevers. Leaves—antiseptic, 

used for urinary discharges and 

genitourinary infections. 


recommends a decoction of whole 

plant in alcoholism, insanity, psychosis; 

cough, bronchitis, dyspnoea; diseases 

due to vitiated blood; gout; bleeding 

piles; blood dysentery, acute diarrhoea. 

The plant is credited with fracturehealing 

properties. Its total extract 

exhibits better and quicker healing of 

fractures in experimental animals due 

to early accumulation of phosphorus 

and more deposition of calcium. 


powder for decoction. (API, Vol. 

IV.) 

Urena lobata Linn. Mast. 



of India, frequent in West Bengal. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Naagabalaa (Grewia 

hirsuta and Sida veronicaefolia are 

also equated with Naagabalaa). 

Used as Balaa in Kerala. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Ottatti. 

Action ◮ Root—diuretic, emollient, 

antispasmodic (roots and stem 

used in severe windy colic), 

antirheumatic. Flowers—used as 

a pectoral and expectorant in dry 

and inveterate coughs. An infusion 

is used as a gargle for aphthae amd 

sore throat. 

Urginea indica (Roxb.) Kunth. 685 

The aerial parts gave magniferin and 

quercetin. Alkanes, stigmasterol and 

beta-sitosterol are reported from the 

whole plant. The seeds contain protein, 

pentosan and mucilage. 

Urena lobata Linn. var. 

sinuata King. 

Synonym ◮ U. sinuata Linn. 





Balaa. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Ottatti. 

Folk ◮ Lot-loti, Kunjuyaa. 

Action ◮ Leaves—used in inflammation 

of intestines and bladder. 

Flowers—an infusion is used 

in bronchitis. Root—emollient 

and refrigerant. Used in external 

application for lumbago and 

rheumatism. 

Urginea indica (Roxb.) Kunth. 

Synonym ◮ Drimia indica Roxb. 

non-(Wt.) Baker. 


Habitat ◮ Western Himalayas, Bihar, 

Konkan and along the Coromandel 

Coast. U. maritima (L.) Baker is 

native to Mediterranean region. 

English ◮ Indian Squill, Sea Onion 

(red and white varieties). 

Ayurvedic ◮ Vana-palaandu, 

Kolakanda, Vajrakanda. 

U

U 

686 Urtica dioica Linn. 

Unani ◮ Unsul-e-Hindi, Isqueele-Hindi, 

Piyaaz-Dasti, Piyaaz- 

Sahraayi, Jangali Piyaaz. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Narivengayam. 


European Squill, Urginea maritima. 

Expectorant (in dry respiratory 

conditions, whooping cough and 

bronchial asthma), antispasmodic, 

emetic (in large doses), diuretic 

(promotes fluid elimination in 

heart disease), cardiac tonic (effect, 

non-cumulative). Used topically 

as a hair tonic for dandruff and 

seborrhoea (active constituent is 

thought to be scilliroside of the Red 

Squill.) 

Key application ◮ Urginea maritima—in 

milder cases of heart 

insufficiency, also for diminished 

kidney capacity. (German 


Bulbs contain cardiac glycosides, 

scillarens A and B. Bulb, leaves and 

root contain stigmasterol, sitosterol 

and campesterol. Bulbs also contain 

hentriacontanol, octacosanoic acid. 

Defatted air-dried bulbs afforded 6desacetoxyscillirosidin. 

The plant exhibits cyanogenetic activity. 

Urginea maritima (White Squill) is 

contraindicated in potassium deficiency 

or when digitalis glycosides are being 

used (Francis Brinker), in hypercalcaemia 

and hyperkalaemia (Sharon 

M. Herr). 

Urginea coromandeliana Hook. f. 

non-Wight, synonym U. wightiana 

Hook f. (Coromandel coast and in dry 

regions of Andhra Pradesh and Tamil 

Nadu up to 3,000 m) is used as a substitute 

for Indian Squill (U. indica). 

Dosage ◮ Bulb—120–200 mg powder. 

(CCRAS.) 

Urtica dioica Linn. 



from Kashmir to Simla at 2,400– 

3,600 m. 

English ◮ Stinging Nettle. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Vrishchhiyaa-shaaka 


Unani ◮ Anjuraa. 

Folk ◮ Shisuun (Kumaon). 

Action ◮ Plant—diuretic, astringent, 

antihaemorrhagic; eliminates uric 

acid from the body, detoxifies the 

blood. Externally, astringent and 

haemostatic. 

Used internally for the treatment 

of nephritis, haemoptysis and other 

haemorrhages. 

Key application ◮ Above ground 

parts—as a supportive therapy for 

rheumatic ailments (internally and 

externally). Internally, in irrigation 

therapy for inflammatory diseases of 

the lower urinary tract and prevention 

and treatment of kidney gravel. 


The British Herbal Compendium, 

The British Herbal Pharmacopoeia.) 

Root—in symptomatic treatment of 

micturition disorders (dysuria, pollakiuria, 

nocturia, urine retention) 

in benign prostatic hyperplasia at

stages I and II. (German Commission 

E, ESCOP, WHO, The British 


Clinical experiments have confirmed 

the utility of the herb as a haemostatic 

in uterine haemorrhage and 

bleeding from nose. The herb is also 

used in sciatica, rheumatism and palsy. 

The treatment for paralysis comprises 

slapping the patient with a bundle of 

twigs. Alcoholic extract of Russian 

sp. is used in the cholecystitis and habitual 

constipation. 

The root exhibits an antiproliferative 

effect on prostatic epithelial and 

stromal cells. It may also lessen the effects 

of androgenic hormones by competitively 

blocking acess to human sex 

hormone binding globulin. (Planta 

Med, 63, 1997; ibid, 66, 2000. Also, 

ESCOP monograph; Altern Complem 

Ther, 1998; Simon Mills; Natural Medicines 


In Europe, the juice of the leaves or 

roots, mixed with honey or sugar, was 

prescribed for bronchial asthma. In the 

USA, a freeze-dried preparation of the 

herb (300 mg gelatin capsules) has been 

found to improve condition of allergic 

rhinitis patients. The powdered seeds 

were considered a cure for goitre. (M. 

Grieve.) 

The urticating properties of the hairs 

are attributed to the presence of acetylcholine, 

histamine and 5-hydroxytryptamine 

(5-HT). A histamine-liberating 

enzyme is also present. 

Acetylcholine is present in the 

leaves, rootlets, rhizomes and cortex 

in the ascending order of concentration. 

Histamine is not present in the 

underground parts of the plant. Its 

Urtica pilulifera Linn. 687 

concentration in the leaves is about 

four times than that in the stem-cortex. 

Betaine and choline are present in the 

leaves. 

The leaves gave flavonoids (including 

rutin), sterols, carotenoids, vitamins 

(including C, B group, K), minerals, 

plant phenolic acids. The coumarin 

scopoletin has been isolated from the 

flowers and the root. 

A polysaccharide fraction obtained 

from aqueous extract showed antiinflammatory 


rat paw oedema and lymphocyte 

transformation test. A lectin was 

found to stimulate proliferation of human 

lymphocytes. (Planta Med, 55, 

1989.) 

The leaf and root is contraindicated 

in kidney disease and pregnancy. 

5-hydroxytryptamine is a uterotropic 

constituent. (Francis Brinker.) 

Urtica parviflora Roxb. 


Habitat ◮ Temperate Himalayas and 

the Nilgiris. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Vrishchhiyaa-shaaka. 

Folk ◮ Shisuun (Kumaon). 

Action ◮ Roots—employed for 

the treatment of fractures and 

dislocations. Leaves and inflorescences—prescribed 

as a tonic and 

as a cleaning agent after parturition. 

Urtica pilulifera Linn. 


U

U 

688 Usnea longissima Ach. 

Habitat ◮ Simla and other hill 

stations. 

English ◮ Roman Nettle. 


Vrishchiyaa-shaaka. 

Unani ◮ Anjuraa. 

Action ◮ Diuretic, astringent, 

haemostatic. 

The leaves and stems contain an indole 

alkaloid, bufotenin. 5-hydroxytryptamine 

is located mainly in strings. 

Urtica urens Linn. (Dog Nettle, 

Small Nettle) is found in Dehra Dun 

and is Udhampur district of J. & K. 

The inflorescence and leaves contain 

the flavonoid compounds of kaempferol, 

isorhamnetin, quercetin, apigenin, 

diosmetin and luteolin. Presence of 

chlorogenic acid is also reported. 

The fluid extract of roots has been 

found to be useful in mild cases of 

prostate enlargement by improving 

micturia in men over 60 years. 

Usnea longissima Ach. 

Family ◮ Usneaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Common in temperate 

and alpine Himalayas, as a moss on 

trees. 

English ◮ Lichen. 

Unani ◮ Ushnaa. 

Action ◮ Moss—used as an expectorant 

and in the treatment of 

ulcers. 


E approves Usnea (dried thallus 

of U. barbata, U. florida, U. hirta and 

U. plicata) for mild inflammations 

of the oral and pharyngeal mucosa. 

Usnea preparations are used clinically 

by North American herbalists 

for antibacterial action against Grampositive 

bacteria in local or systemic 

infections and for antifungal action 

against Candida albicans. (Expanded 


U. longissima contains 3–4% usnic 

acid, also barbatic acid and arabitol. 

Usnic acid and barbatic acid possess 

marked anti-tubercular activity. Barbatic 

acid produces usnic acid, is active 

against Streptococcus haemolyticus 

and pneumococcus sp. and inhibits the 

growth of tubercle bacillus. 

Utricularia bifida Linn. 

Family ◮ Lentibulariaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Marshy places, as a weed. 

English ◮ Bladder wort. 

Folk ◮ Jhangi (smallar var.) 

Action ◮ Diuretic (used against urinary 

disorders), anti-inflammatory 

and antispasmodic (used against 

cough). Used topically for mucous 

membrane inflammations, burns 

and wounds. 

U. stellaris is equated with bigger 

var. of Jhangi. 

Uvaria narum Blume. 


Habitat ◮ Western ghats from 

Maharashtra southwards up to an 

altitude of 1,200 m.

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Pulichan. 

Action ◮ Root and leaves—used 

in intermittent fevers, biliousness, 

jaundice; also in rheumatic affections; 

bruised in salt water, used 

in skin diseases. A decoction of 

the root bark is given to women to 

control fits at the time of delivery. 

Acetogenins, including stereoisomers, 

are important constituents of 

the root bark. Glutinone, glutinol, 

taraxerol, beta-sitosterol and benzyl 

Uvaria narum Blume. 689 

benzoate have also been isolated. The 

essential oil of the root bark of Kerala 

plant contains bornyl acetate 15.2% and 

patchoulenone 8.1%. 

A decoction and roots of Uvaria 

gandiflora Roxb., synonym U. purpurea 

Blume (Indian Botanic Garden, 

Kolkata) is used for flatulence, 

stomachache; also after childbirth. 

A decoction of U. micrantha (A. DC.) 

Hook. f. & Thoms. (tropical forests 

of the Andamans) is also administered 

after childbirth as a prophylactic. 

U

Vaccaria pyramidata (L.) Medik. 

Synonym ◮ Saponaria vaccaria L. 



a weed. 

English ◮ Soapwort, Cow Herb. 

Folk ◮ Musna, Saabuni. 

Action ◮ Roots—used for cough, 

asthma and other respiratory 

disorders; for jaundice, liver and 

spleen diseases (increases bile flow). 

Mucilaginous sap—used in scabies. 

Saponins of the root showed haemolytic 

activity. Lanostenol, stigmasterol, 

beta-sitosterol and diosgenin 


Xanthones, vaccaxanthone and sapxanthone, 

and a oligosaccharide, vaccarose, 

have also been isolated. 

Vaccinium myrtillus Linn. 

Family ◮ Vacciniaceae. 

Habitat ◮ UK, Europe and North 

America. (About 21 species of 

Vaccinium are found in India.) 

English ◮ Bilberry, Blueberry. 

Action ◮ Astringent, diuretic, 

refrigerant. 

Key application ◮ Fruit—in nonspecific,acute 

diarrhoea; topically in 

mild inflammation of the mucous 

membranes of the mouth and 

throat (German Commission E); 

V 

anthocyanine enriched extracts of 

the fruit, in symptomatic treatment 

of problems related to varicose 

veins, such as heavy legs. (ESCOP.) 

Cranberry (Vaccinium sp.) is used 

in urinary incontinence and for 

UTI prevention. (Sharon M. Herr.) 

The main constituents of the Bilberry 

fruit are anthocyanosides 0.5%. 

Other constituents include tannins, hydroxycinnamic 

and hydroxybenzoic 

acids, flavonol glycosides, flavan-3-ols, 

iridoids, terpenes, pectins and organic 

plant acids. (ESCOP.) 

In India, V. symplocifolium Alston, 

syn. V. leschenaultii Wight, known as 

Kilapalam in Tamil Nadu, is abundantly 

found in the mountains of South India 

up to an altitude of 2,400 m V. neilgherrense 

Wight, known as Kalavu in 

Tamil Nadu and Olenangu in Karnataka, 

is commonly found in the hills of 

Kerala, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu at 


Valeriana dubia Bunge. 

Synonym ◮ V. officinalis auct. non 

Linn. 

Family ◮ Valerianacea. 


Kashmir at Sonamarg at 2,400– 

2,700 m. 

English ◮ Common Valerian. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Abhramaansi.

V 

692 Valeriana hardwickii Wall. 

Action ◮ Rhizome and roots— 

sedative, hypotensive, cardiotonic; 

depressant on CNS, antispasmodic; 

used for hysteria, neurosis, 

nervousness, hypochondriasis. 

The roots and rhizomes yielded alkaloids—dipyridylmethylketone,actinidine, 

iso-valeramide and valerianine; 

sesquiterpene ketone-valeranone. 

Bornyl acetate is the major constituent 

of the root oil, 31.5%, whereas it is only 

6.6% in leaf oil. Bornyl isovalerate is 

reported from the root oil. 

Valeriana hardwickii Wall. 



from Kashmir to Bhutan at altitudes 

of 1,200–3,60 m and in the Khasi 

and Jaintia hills between 1,500 and 

1,800 m. 

Folk ◮ Sugandhabaalaa, Tagger, 

Taggar-ganthodaa. Asaarun (Kumaon). 

Action ◮ Used as V. jatamansi and V. 

officinalis. 

Valeriana hardwickii is known as 

Taggar-ganthodaa in Mumbai and 

AsaaruninKumaon. InUnanimedicine, 

Asaarun is equated with Asarum 

europaeum Linn. (Aristolochiaceae). It 

is known as Subul-e-barri, Naardinbarri 

and Persian Tagar; Wild Nard, 

Hazel Wort and Asarabacca in English. 

Though sedative and brain tonic, 

Asaarun should not be equated with 

Tagara. 

Baalaka is a confusing synonym of 

Tagara. It should be equated with Pavonia 

odorata Willd. (Malvaceae). 

Baalaka (syns: Ambu, Baala, Barhishtha, 

Hrivera, Jala, Kacha, Muurdhaja, 

Udichi, Udichya) is known as 

Sugandhabaalaa in Northern markets. 

In South India Coleus vettiveroides 

K. C. Jacob (Labiateae) is preferred 

as Baalaka. Delphinium brunonianum 

Royle (Ranunculaceae), with synonyms 

Kutila, Nata, Vakra, is also used 

as Tagara. 

Valeriana leschenaultii DC. var. 

brunoniana C. B. Clarke. 


Habitat ◮ Karnakata and the Nilgiris. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Tagara (related species). 

Folk ◮ Sugandhabaalaa, Taggar, 

Baalaka. 


valerian. 

Valeriana officinalis Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Native to Eurasia. (V. 

officinalis auct. non Linn. is found 

in Kashmir at Sonamarg at 2,400– 

2,700 m) 

English ◮ Valerian, Garden Heliotrope, 

Common Valerian. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Tagara, Nata. Baalaka 

(syn. Udichya, Jala, Barhishtha) is 

also equated with Valeriana sp. 

Folk ◮ Sugandhabaalaa, taggar.

Action ◮ Tranquillizer, hypnotic, 

a natural relaxant to higher 

nerve centres. Used for nervous 

tension, sleeplessness, restlessness, 

palpitation, tension, headache, 

migraine, menstrual pain, intestinal 

cramps, bronchial spasm. 

Key application ◮ Internally for 

restlessness and sleeping disorders 

based on nervous conditions 

(German Commission E). (See 

Expanded Commission E, ESCOP 

and WHO monographs.) 

Constituents of the root include valtrates, 

didrovaltrates and isovalerates. 

Other constituents include 0.4–1.4% 

monoterpenes and sesquiterpenes, caffeic, 

gamma-aminobutyric (GABA) 

and chlorogenic acids, beta-sitosterol, 

methyl, 2-pyrrolketone, choline, tannins, 

gums alkaloids and resin. (Expanded 


The volatile oil (0.5–2%) contains 

bornyl acetate and bornyl isovalerate as 

the principal components. Other constituents 

include beta-caryophyllene, 

valeranone, valerenal, valerenic acid 

and other sesquiterpenoids and monoterpenes. 

The co-occurrence of three cyclopentane-sesquiterpenoids 

(valerenic 

acid, acetoxyvalerenic acid and valerenal) 

is confined to Valeriana officinalis 

L. and permits its distinction from V. 

edulis and V. Wallichii. (WHO.) 

The important active compounds of 

valerian are the valepotriates (iridoid 

molecules) and valeric acid. Originally 

it was thought that valepotriates were 

responsible for the herbs sedative effect,but,lateron,anaqueousextract 

of the root has also been shown to 

Valeriana pyrolaefolia Decne. 693 

have a sedative effect. Since valepotriates 

are not soluble in water, it was 

concluded that valerenic acid is also 

the chemical factor responsible for the 

sedative effect of the herb. Most commercial 

extracts in Western herbal are 

water-soluble extracts standardized for 

valerenic acids. 

Large doses of valepotriates from the 

herb decreased benzodiazepines and 

diazepam withdrawl symptoms in rats. 

At low doses valerian enhances binding 

of flunitrazepam, but at high doses it 

inhibits binding of the drug. Valerenic 

acid inhibits breakdown of GABA, and 

hydroxypinoresinol binds to benzodiazepine 

receptor. (Sharon M. Herr.) 

The safety of valepotriates has been 

questioned. 

Currently valerian is an approved 

over-the-counter medicine in Germany, 

Belgium, France, Switzerland 

and Italy. (The British Herbal Compendium.) 

See Valeriana dubia Bunge, syn. V. 

officinalis auct. non Linn., known as 

Common Valerian. 

Valeriana pyrolaefolia Decne. 



from Kashmir to Bhutan. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Dhyaamaka (including 

among aromatic drugs of Jatamansi 

group.) 

Folk ◮ Sugandhabaalaa. 

Action ◮ Used as V. jatamansi. 

V

V 

694 Valeriana wallichii DC. 

Valeriana wallichii DC. 

Synonym ◮ V. jatamansi Jones. 

Nardostachys jatamansi (Jones) DC. 



Kashmir to Bhutan, above 3,000 m, 

and Khasia Hills. 

English ◮ Indian Valerian. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Tagara, Sugandhabaalaa, 

Kaalaanusaari, Kaalaanusaarikaa, 

Nata. (Delphinum brunonianum 

Royle, Ranunculaceae, syn. Kutila, 

Nata, Vakra, is also used as Tagara.) 

Unani ◮ Asaarun, Tagar Reshewaalaa. 

Siddha ◮ Tagarai. 

Folk ◮ Taggar, Baalaka, Mushkbaalaa, 

Asaarun, Tagar-ganthodaa. 


used as a substitute for Valeriana 

officinalis; prescribed as a remedy 

for hysteria, nervous unrest 

and emotional troubles, and as 

a sedative. 

Rhizomes and roots contain cyclopentapyrans,acacetin-7-O-rutinosides, 

valtrate, didrovaltrate, linarin 

iso-valerinate, valepotriates and an iridoid 

ester glycoside, valerosidatum. 

Cyclopentapyrans exhibit sedative, 

tranquilizing and bacteriocidal properties. 

Valtrate and didrovaltrate were cytotoxic 

to hepatoma cells in culture and 

inhibited synthesis of DNA and protein 

in tumor cells. 

Root—spasmolytic. Essential oil— 

antibacterial. (Indian Valerian oils are 

considered poor as compared to those 

of V. officinalis oils.) The essential oil 

from roots contains calarene, betabargamotene, 

valeranone, ar-curcumene, 

maalioxide and maalitol. Main 

acids present are isovaleric acid and 

(+)-beta-methyl valeric acid. 

Valeriana jatamansi auct. non Jones, 

synonyms Nardostachys grandiflora 

DC. and N. jatamansi DC. is equated 

with Indian Spikenard, Musk-Root 

and Jataamaansi. 



Vallaris solanacea Kuntze 

Synonym ◮ V. heynei Spreng. 

V. dichotoma (Roxb.) Wall. ex G. 

Don. 



cultivated in gardens. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Aasphotaa, Asphuka, 

Bhadravalli, Saarivaa-utpala (white 

var.). 

Folk ◮ Haapharamaali var. Dudhi-bel 

(Garhwal). 

Action ◮ Latex—applied to old 

wounds and sores (mildly irritant). 

Bark—astringent. Seeds—cardiac 

tonic. 

Seeds are rich in cardiac glycosides; 

contain acoschimperoside P, 

mono-O-acetylvallaroside, mono-Oacetylsolanoside,mono-O-acetylacoschimperoside 

P, vallaroside, vallarosolanoside, 

solanoside and 16-deacetyl-16-anhydroacoschimperoside 

P. Oacetylsolanoside 

is a potent cardiotonic.

The seed oil contains palmitic, oleic 

and linoleic acids. The leaves gave 

beta-sitosterol, beta-amyrin and ursolic 

acid. 

Vallaris glabra Kuntze (West Bengal) 

is also equated with Aasphotaa. 

Vallisneria spiralis Linn. 

Family ◮ Hydrocharitaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Hydrophyte; throughout 

India. 

English ◮ Eel-Grass, Tape Grass, 

Wild Celery. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Shaivala, Shaivaala. 

(Ceratophyllum demersum Linn. is 

also equated with Shaivala.) 

Folk ◮ Sevaar. 

Action ◮ Plant—stomachic, refrigerant, 

demulcent. Also used in 

leucorrhoea and spermatorrhoea. 

Extracts of the plant yielded polysaccharides 

containing D-galactose, 

D-xylose, L-arabinose, L-rhamnose, 

uronic acid, acidic xylan and an arabino 

galactan. 

Vanda roxburghii R. Br. 

Synonym ◮ V. tessellata G. Don. 


Habitat ◮ From Uttar Pradesh to 

West Bengal, extending southwards 

to Kerala. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Raasnaa (used in 

Eastern India). Pluchea lanceolata 

is the accepted source of Raasnaa. 

Vanda spathulata Spreng. 695 

Throughout South India Alpinia 

galanga is used as Raasnaa. 

Folk ◮ Baandaa-Raasnaa. 

Action ◮ Roots—antipyretic, antiinflammatory, 

tranquilizer, tonic to 

liver, laxative. Used in rheumatism, 

lumbago, inflammations; diseases 

of the nervous system; diseases of 

the abdomen, dyspepsia; bronchitis, 

chest diseases. Roots form a constituent 

of medicated oils, used 

externally on rheumatic swellings 

and neurological affections. Root 

is also used in the treatment of 

fractures. 

Petroleum ether, chloroform and 

methanol extracts of the root showed 

anti-inflammatory activity in rats. 

Ethanolic extract of the root also 

showed hepatoprotective activity in 

albino mice. 

The root yielded tetracosyl ferulate 

and beta-sitosterol D-glucoside. 

Petroleum ether, chloroform and methanol 

extracts of the root showed 54.3, 

42.1 and 21.9% anti-inflammatory activity 

at a dose of 0.5 g/kg in rats. 

Heptacosane, octacosanol and traces 

of their higher homologues, a bitter 

principle, saponin, beta-sitosterol and 

tannins were isolated from the plant. 

Vanda spathulata Spreng. 


Habitat ◮ Kerala. 

Ayurvedic ◮ 

Baandaa. 

Svarna-pushpa Bandaa, 

Folk ◮ Ponnampomaraiva (Kerala). 

V

V 

696 Vandellia pedunculata Benth. 

Action ◮ Flowers—dried flowers are 

powdered and given for asthma, 

consumption, also for mood-swings 

and psychosomatic bursts. 

Vandellia pedunculata Benth. 

Synonym ◮ Lindernia cordifolia 

(Colsmann) Merrill. 


Habitat ◮ The Himalayas up to 1,200– 

1,700 m and throughout India. 

Folk ◮ Gadaga-vel (Maharashtra). 

Action ◮ Used for sexually transmitted 

diseases and urethral discharges. 

Vandellia pyxidaria Maxim, synonym 

Vandellia erecta Benth. (The 

Himalayas from Kashmir to Assam, 

common in Bengal; also in central and 

South India) is known as Vakapushpi. 

The plant is used for gonorrhoea. 

Plant juice is given to children who 

pass green stool. 

Vangueria spinosa Hook. f. 

Synonym ◮ Meyna laxiflora Robyns. 


Habitat ◮ West Bengal, Bihar and 

Orissa. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Pinditaka, Snigdhpinditaka. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Manakkarai. 

Folk ◮ Muyana. Chiracholi, Alu 


Action ◮ Fruits—refrigerant and 

cholagogue; used in biliary complaints 

and hepatic congestion. Dry 

fruits—narcotic; used in dysentery. 

The seeds contain linoleic, oleic, 

palmitic and stearic acids. 

Vateria indica Linn. 

Synonym ◮ V. malabarica Bl. 


Habitat ◮ Peninsular India, from 

Kanara to Trivandrum and in 

Coorg. 

English ◮ White Damar, Indian 

Copal-Tree, Malabar Tallow tree, 

Piney Varnish-Tree. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Sarja, Sarjaka, Karsya, 

Sasyasumbara, Devdhuupa, 

Marich-patraka. Chhaagakarna. 

Ajakarna and Shaala (related 

species) are also equated with V. 

indica. 

Unani ◮ Raal. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kungiliyam, Vellai 

Kundarakam. 

Action ◮ Resin—astringent, antibacterial, 

antidiarrhoeal, emmenagogue. 

Used for chronic bronchitis, 

piles, skin eruptions, ringworm, 

scrofula, tubercular glands, ulcers, 

wounds, boils; urinary discharges; 

amenorrhoea; gonorrhoea and 

syphilis. Bark—antidysenteric. Oil 

and resin—antirheumatic. Resin 

enters into a number of antiseptic 

and anti-inflammatory ointments. 

Leaves—juice is applied to cure 

burns. Orally administered to 

prevent vomiting.


recommends the resinous exudate 

internally (1–2 g) in lipid disorders, 

anaemia, genitourinary diseases, diarrhoea 

and diseases due to vitiated 

blood; externally in gout, abscesses, 

skin diseases, burns, eruptions. 

The bark contains polyphenols—dlepi-catechin, 

levorotatory isomers of 

fisetinidol, fzelechin; and bergenin. 

Resin is a complex mixture of several 

triterpene hydrocarbons, ketones, 

alcohols and acids, along with small 

amounts of sesquiterpenes. On distillation, 

the oleoresin gave an essential 

oil (76%), consisting of phenolic constituents 

and azulenes. The essential 

oil shows marked antibacterial activity 


micro-organism. 

The leaves and roots contain bergenin 

and hope phenol. The seed also 

contain bergenin. Hope phenol 

showed fungicidal activity. The plant 

exhibited anti-ulcerogenic activity in 

rats. 

The fruit shell contains 25% tannins. 

Dosage ◮ Resinous exudate—1–2 g 


Ventilago denticulata Willd. 

Synonym ◮ V. calyculata Tul. 

V. madraspatana var. calyculata 

(Tul.) King. 


Habitat ◮ Throughout India in hotter 

parts, usually climbing on trees. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Raktavalli. 

Ventilago madraspatana Gaertn. 697 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Pappili. 

Folk ◮ Pitti, Raamadhaani, Kevati 

(var.). 

Action ◮ Stem bark—powdered and 

mixed with sesame oil, externally 

applied to skin diseases and 

sprains. Root bark—used for atonic 

dyspepsia, mild fever and debility. 

Sap—used for the treatment of 

deafness. 

The stem bark gave friedelin and 

several anthraquinones. The root contains 

anthraquinones, ventinones A 

and B. Major constituents of the root 

bark are emodin, its glucoside and corresponding 

analogues, ventiloquinones. 

The fruit, leaves and stem gave 

lupeol, beta-sitosterol and its glucoside. 

Ventilago madraspatana 

Gaertn. 


Habitat ◮ Maharashtra and South 

India. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Taamravalli, Kaivartikaa, 

Vaamataruni. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Pappili-chaka, 

Vempadam, Sural-pattai. 

Folk ◮ Kevati. 

Action ◮ Root bark—carminative, 

stomachic, febrifuge; used in 

atonic dyspepsia, debility and skin 

diseases. The plant is used against 

scabies. 

The roots contain anthraquinones, 

ventinones A and B, physcion and 

V

V 

698 Vepris bilocularis (Wight & Arn.) Engl. 

chrysophanol. The root bark afforded 

naphthalene derivatives and several 

naphthaquinones, anthraquinones— 

islandicin, emodin, xanthorin and its 

5-methyl ether. 

In South India, V. bombaiensis Dalz. 

is found in Mukkali forest, Coimbatore 

District, Tamil Nadu, and V. goughii in 

Coorg, Nilgiris and Kurnool. 

Vepris bilocularis 

(Wight & Arn.) Engl. 

Synonym ◮ Toddalia bilocularis 

Wight & Arn. 


Habitat ◮ North Kanara, forests 

of Malabar, Annamalai and 

Travancore, up to 1,200 m. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Krishna-Agaru. (In 

South India V. bilocularis is used 

as Krishna-Agaru and Dysoxylum 

labricum Bedd. ex Hiern as 

Shveta-Agaru.) 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Devadaram. 

Action ◮ Wood—extract in oil is 

used for rheumatic swellings and 

skin diseases. Root—used for 

biliousness. 

Alkaloids from stem bark included 

kokusaginine, skimmianine, flindersiamine, 

evoxanthine, N-methylacridone 

derivatives, maculine and veprisone. 

The leaves contain a triterpenoid, 

lupeol. 

Veratrum viride Ait. 


Habitat ◮ The temperate regions of 

northern hemisphere; introduced in 

Jammu and Kashmir for cultivation. 

English ◮ American Hellbore, Green 

Hellebore. 


cardiac depressant, hypotensive. 

(Contraindicated in cardiac disease. 

Large doses cause bradycardia.) 

Used in the treatment of convulsions, 

headache, neuralgia, 

inflammatory affections of respiratory 

tract; and as sedative. Formerly 

used for high blood pressure, 

especially associated with toxemia 

of pregnancy. 

Ceveratrum-type alkaloids, found 

as esters, are hypotensive and cause 

vasodilatation (probably by inhibition 

of vasomotor centre and stimulation of 

the vagus). Overdoses cause vomiting. 

Alkaloids are teratogenic. 

Verbascum thapsus Linn. 

Synonym ◮ V. phlomoides L. 



Western Ghats and the Nilgiris. 

English ◮ Cow’s Lungwort, Common 

Mullein. (Large-flowered Mullein is 

equated with V. densiflorum Bertol.) 

Ayurvedic ◮ Ban Tambaaku, Gidar 

Tambaaku, Phullaa. 

Action ◮ Herb—soothing and 

relaxant for irritable respiratory 

conditions (asthma, emphysema, 

tracheitis), pectoral demulcent, 

antispasmodic, mild sedative.


the respiratory tract. (German 


The capsule contains saponins, thapsuines 

A and B and hydroxythapsuines 

A and B. The plant also contains 

varatric acid, 5-ethoxymethyl furfural, 

saikogenin, alpha-spinasterol and iridoids, 

aucubin and catalpol. The leaves 

contain rotenone. 

The flower extract showed activity 

against influenza and herpes simplex 

virus. 

The plant has been employed for the 

treatment of asthma. There is little evidence 

to indicate that the plant can 

offer more than mild astringent and 

topical soothing effects. 

Verbena officinalis Linn. 


Habitat ◮ The Himalayas, Khasi and 

Lushai Hills, Bihar, West Bengal, 


English ◮ Vervain, Pigeon’s Grass. 

Unani ◮ Saal-ul-hamaam, Faristariun. 

Action ◮ Plant—nervine, antidepressant, 

anticonvulsant; prescribed 

in liver and gall bladder complaints 

(spasm of the bladder and 

strangury), nervous and menstrual 

disorders; also for bronchitis, 

asthma and febrile affections. 



The plant contains an iridoid glycoside, 

hastatoside; loganin; methyl- 

Vernonia cinerea Less. 699 

cyclopentane monoterpenoid, verbenalin; 

verbascoside and eukovoside. 

The stem and roots are quite rich in 

stachyose. Aerial parts gave lupeol, 

beta-sitosterol, ursolic acid, aucubin 

and artemetin. 

The herb is credited with weak parasympathomimetic 

activity. Verbenalin 

exhibited mild purgative activity in animal 

studies. Emetic in high doses. 

Vervain tea decreased absorption of 

non-heme iron by 59% in human subjects. 


Vernonia cinerea Less. 



India. Common in waste places and 

road side. 

English ◮ Ash coloured Fleabane, 

Purple Fleabane. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Sahadevi, Uttamkanyaka, 

Dandotpalaa. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Naichotte Poonde. 

Action ◮ Plant—febrifuge, diaphoretic 

(infusion of herb, combined with 

quinine, is used against malaria). 

Used as a specific herb for leucorrhoea, 

dysuria, spasm of bladder, 

strangury and for haematological 

disorders, as a blood purifier and 

styptic. Also used in asthma. 

Seeds—anthelmintic, antiflatulent, 

antispasmodic; used in dysuria, 

leucoderma, psoriasis and other 

skin diseases. Roots—anthelmintic; 

decoction used for colic. 


recommends the plant in inter- 

V

V 

700 Vernonia javanica DC. 

mittent fever, filariasis, pityriasis versicolour 

(tinea versicolor), blisters, boils, 

vaginal discharges and in cases of psychoneurosis. 

Aerial parts gave luteolin-7-monobeta-D-glucopyranoside. 

Whole plant 

gave triterpene compounds—betaamyrin 

acetate, lupeol acetate, betaamyrin 

and lupeol; sterols—beta-sitosterol, 

stigmasterol and alpha-spinasterol; 

phenolic resin and potassium chloride. 


juice; 5–10 g powder for external 

use. (API, Vol. III.) 

Vernonia javanica DC. 

Synonym ◮ V. arborea Hook. f. non- 

Buch.-Ham. 


Habitat ◮ West Bengal, Assam, 

Meghalaya and Western Ghats. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Shutthi. 

Action ◮ Bark—febrifuge. The bark 

is chewed as a substitute for betel 

leaves. 

Vernonia patula Merrill. 

Synonym ◮ V. chinensis Less. 


Habitat ◮ The Aka hills of Arunachal 

Pradesh, as a weed. 

Action ◮ Leaves and roots— 

decoctionusedincoldsand 

fevers. Young plants—used for 

the treatment of convulsions in 

children. 

Vernonia roxburghii Less. 


Habitat ◮ Himachal Pradesh, Uttar 

Pradesh, West Bengal and Bihar. 

Ayurvedic ◮ 

species). 

Sahadevi (related 

Folk ◮ Doraa-baahaa. 

Action ◮ Roots—used for articular 

rheumatism. 

Vernonia teres Wall. ex DC. 



Kumaon to Sikkim; Bihar and 

Central India. 

Action ◮ Herb—used for dysmenorrhoea, 

and for the treatment of 

wounds and ulcers. Flower-heads— 

ascaricidal. 

The leaf juice showed in vitro activity 

against earthworms, tapeworms and 

roundworms. 

Veronica beccabunga Linn. 



Kashmir at 2,700–3,600 m. 

English ◮ Brooklime. 

Folk ◮ Titalokiyaa, Tezhak. 

Action ◮ Antiscorbutic, blood 

purifier, alterative, diuretic. Used 

for scurvy, scrofulous affections, 

swollen piles, lithiasis, skin diseases, 

burns, ulcers.

The plant gave iridoid glycosides including 

aucubin; bitters and tannins. 

Aucubin has been reported to stimulate 

the uric acid secretion of the kidneys. 

Vetiveria zizaniodes 

(Linn.) Nash. 

Synonym ◮ Andropogon muricatus 

Retz. 

A. squarrosus Hook.f.(nonL.f.). 


Habitat ◮ A perennial grass, 

cultivated chiefly in Rajasthan, 

Uttar Pradesh., Punjab and the West 

Coast. 

English ◮ Vetiver, Khas. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Ushira, Bahu-muulaka, 

Sugandhimuula, Jataamedaa, 

Indragupta, Nalada, Laamajjaka, 

Sevya, Samagandhaka, Jalavaasa, 

Virana, Aadhya. 

Unani ◮ Cuscus, Khas 

Siddha ◮ Vettiver, Vilamichaver. 

Action ◮ Root—infusion used as 

refrigerant, febrifuge, diaphoretic; 

stimulant, stomachic, antispasmodic, 

emmenagogue, astringent, blood 

purifier. Used in fevers, colic, flatulence, 

vomiting, spermatorrhoea 

and strangury. Root oil—used 

in obstinate vomiting, colic and 

flatulence. 


recommend the root in dysuria. 

Major constituents of North Indian 

laevorotatory oil, (obtained from wild 

roots) are antipodal terpenoids, while 

those of South Indian dextrorotatory 

Viburnum coriaceum Blume. 701 

oils (obtained from cultivated roots) 

are sesquiterpene ketones and alcohols. 

The North India Khas oil contains 

large amounts of khusilal, other sesquiterpenes 

include khusol, khusimol, 

khusitone, cadinene and laevojuneol. 

The South Indian Khas oil constituents 

are largely nootkatone, vestipiranes 

and substances of tricyclic zizaane 

structure. Khusilal is absent in typical 

dextrorotatory Khas oils. 

The oils from other producing countries 

are found to be dextrorotatory 

similar to that from South India. 

Dosage ◮ Fibrous root—3–6 g for 

infusion. (API, Vol. III.) 

Viburnum coriaceum Blume. 



Punjab and Bhutan at altitudes of 

1,200–2,500 m, also in the Nilgiris. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Tilvaka (related species). 

Folk ◮ Kaalaa Titmuliyaa, Tita, 

Karwaa (Kumaon). 

Action ◮ The root and stem bark— 

antispasmodic, uterine sedative. 


shows antiprotozoal activity against 

Entamoeba hystolytica. 

The root and stem bark (also of 

V. foetidum) possess distinct odour of 

the root of valerian. The extracts of 

root and stem bark exhibited antispasmodic 

activity and were comparable 

with those of the bark of V. opulus 

var. americanum and V. prunifolium. 

Laal Titmuliyaa (Kumaon) is equated 

with Viburnum mullaha Buch-Ham. 

V

V 

702 Viburnum cotinifolium D. Don. 

ex D. Don syn. V. stellulatum Wall ex 

DC. 

Viburnum cotinifolium D. Don. 




1,200–3,300 m. 

Folk ◮ Richh, Richhabi, Khimor 

(Punjab), Gwiaa, Ghinwaa, Guyaa, 

Ghenu (Kumaon). 

Action ◮ Bark—used in menorrhagia 

and metrorrhagia. 

Viburnum foetidum Wall. 


Habitat ◮ Khasi hills at altitudes of 

900–1,800 m. 

Folk ◮ Narwel (Maharashtra). 


antispasmodic. Juice used in 

menorrhagia and as a sedative (a 

substitute for American Viburnum 

bark) in uterine disorders, and in 

post-partum haemorrhage. See 

Viburnum coriaceum and V. opulus. 

Viburnum nervosum 


Synonym ◮ V. grandiflorum Wall. ex 

DC. 



Kashmir to Sikkim at altitudes of 

3,000–4,000 m. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Tilvaka. 

Folk ◮ Telam, Timoi (Kumaon), 

Tilen, Thelkaa (Garhwal). 

Action ◮ Bark—astringent; contain 

13.1% tannin on dry basis. 

Viburnum opulus Linn. var. 

americanum (Mill.) Ait. 


Habitat ◮ Native to North America. 

Dried bark imported into India. 

English ◮ Cranberry Bush, Crampbark. 

Action ◮ Used as a diuretic and 

as a uterine sedative in functional 

uterine disorders. 

The activity of the bark has been attributed 

to the presence of uterine relaxants, 

acting directly on the muscle 

and not through sympathomimetic action. 

Themusclerelaxantsincludean 

essential oil, an amorphous, bitter phenolic 

glucoside, esculetin and scopoletin. 

The bark contains hydroquinones, 

arbutin, methylarbutin and traces of 

hydroquinone; coumarins including 

scopoletin and scopoline; tannins 

mainly catechins. 

The polycondensed tannins produced 

significant angioprotective effect 

in rats. 

Viburnum prunifolium Linn. 

Family ◮ Caprifoliaceae.

Habitat ◮ Native to eastern and central 

USA. (Experimental cultivation 

in the Nilgiri hills.) 

English ◮ Black Haw. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Tilvaka (related species). 

Action ◮ Uterine sedative (used 

in the treatment for threatened 

miscarriage, under strict medical 

supervision. Spasmolytic. (The 


Used after childbirth to check 

bleeding and pain, also in dysmenorrhoea. 

The stem and root bark gave coumarins 

including scopoletin, aesculetin 

and scoplin; a biflavone, amentoflavone; 

triterpenes including oleanolic 

and ursolic acid and their acetates, 

caffeic acid derivatives; salicylic acid, 

salicin, arbutin (traces); tannins (2%). 

Coumarin, scopoletin, is a uterine 

sedative, while salicin is an analgesic. 

Vicia faba Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Native to North Africa; 

commonly grown in North Western 

India. 

English ◮ Broad bean, Windsor bean. 

Unani ◮ Baaqlaa. 

Action ◮ Fresh beans—cooked 

alone or with meat, are prescribed 

in Unani medicine for cough, 

also for resolving inflammations. 

Externally, the bean and flowers are 

used as a poultice for inflammations, 

warts and burns. 

Vicoa indica DC. 703 

A number of harmful principles are 

reported in the broad beans. A large 

amount of Dopa, mainly in free state 

and partly in the form of its betaglucoside; 

and gluco alkaloids, vicine 

and convicine, have been isolated. 

Ingestion of fresh, uncooked or partiallycookedbeansisnotrecommended. 

The seeds gave positive test for hydrocyanic 

acid and also contain arsenic. 

The fresh beans exhibit an oestrogenic 

activity. Phytoalexins of the immature 

seeds exhibit antifungal activity. 

Malic, citric and glyceric acids are 

the principal organic acids present in 

the pods (also present in the hulls). 

The glyceric acid on subcutaneous injection 

produced a marked diuresis in 

rabbit. (A decoction of the leaves and 

stems of the field bean, Faba vulgaris 

Moench, is used as a diuretic.) 

An aqueous extract of the root nodules 

exhibited vasoconstricting activity 

on rabbits. 

Vicoa indica DC. 

Synonym ◮ V. auriculata Cass. 



of India, ascending to an altitude of 

about 1,800 m in the Himalayas. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Vandhyaavari. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Jimikipoo, Mookuti, 

Poondu. 

Folk ◮ Banjhori, Vajarangi. 

V

V 

704 Victoria regia Lindl. 

Action ◮ Plant—used for contraception. 

Aerial parts contain the sesquiterpene 

lactones (vicolide A-D), the 28nortriterpenoidal 

glucosides (vicoside 

A and B), the triterpenoid vicosigenin 

and monoterpenediol vicodiol, besides 

several n-alkanes and n-alkanoic acid 

esters. 

Vicolide A-D showed anti-inflammatory 

activity against cotton pellet 

granuloma in rats. Vicolide D showed 

antipyretic activity. 

Antifertility activity has been attributed 

to the presence of vicolide 

B and D, while A and C have been 

reported to be devoid of antifertility 

activity. Vicolide D was found to be 

anti-oestrogenic in nature. 

Victoria regia Lindl. 

Synonym ◮ V. amazonica Sow. 



growninpoolsinbotanicgardens. 

English ◮ Royal Waterlily. Water 

Maize (seeds). 

Ayurvedic ◮ Brihat-patra Kamal. 

Action ◮ Seed—refrigerant, cooling 

to the nervous system. Pond 

Lily root—externally, astringent, 

antiscrofulous. An infusion is used 

as a gargle for ulcers in the mouth 

and throat. 

The leaves contain the anthocyanins, 

delphinidin and cyanidin. 

Vinca major (Linn.) Pich. 

Synonym ◮ V. pubescens Urv. 


Habitat ◮ Native to Europe. Found 

in the Himalayas, West Bengal and 

Palni Hills. 

English ◮ Green Periwinkle, Greater 

Periwinkle. 

Action ◮ Astringent, antihaemorrhagic, 

hypotensive. Used to treat 

menorrhagia and leucorrhoea. 

The herb contains indole alkaloids; 

majdine, isomajdine, majoridine, akuammine, 

akuammigine, carpanaubine, 

irvine, reserpine, serpentine, sarpagine, 

tetrahydroalstonine, vincamajine 

and vincamajoreine; and tannins. 

The cytotoxic dimeric alkaloids 

present in Vinca rosea L., used in the 

treatment of certain types of cancer, 

have not been found in Vinca major. 

Vinca minor Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Grown in Indian gardens 


English ◮ Lesser Periwinkle. 

Action ◮ Astringent and circulatory 

stimulant (contain alkaloid vincamine). 

Used for gastric catarrh, 

chronic dyspepsia; restlessness, 

headache, dizziness, and for the 

prevention of premature aging of 

brain cells, as a geriatic support. 

The herb contains indole alkaloids 

(0.15–1.4%). The major constituent

in vincamine; others include vinic, 

apovincamine, vincadifformin. 

Vincamine is hypotensive; increases 

blood flow and oxygen supply to 

the brain. The vincamine content in 

the herb is low and fluctuates greatly. 

Overdose of the extract brings about 

a severe drop in blood pressure. 

Vincamine, as a pure substance is 

available for therapeutic administration. 

Vinca pusilla Murr. 

Synonym ◮ Catharanthus pusillus G. 

Don. 

Lochnera pusilla (Murr.) K. Schum. 


Habitat ◮ West Bengal and throughout 

greater part of India, as a weed. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Sangkhi, Sangkhaphuli 

(The Wealth of India). 

Folk ◮ Milagaipoondu (Tamil Nadu), 

Kapavila (Kerala), Vishakanegale 

(Karnataka), Neru (Andhra 

Pradesh) Mirchaai (Bihar). 

Action ◮ Plant—oncolytic (tumourresolving). 

A decoction of the dried 

plant boiled in oil is used in the 

treatment of lumbago. 

The plant contains ajmalicine, rauwolscine, 

vindoline, pusiline and pusilinine, 

while leurosine, lochnerinine, 

venoterpine, vindorosine and vincapusine 

have been isolated from the leaves. 

The root gave lochnericine. 

Leurosine is cytotoxic. Pusiline and 

pusilinine cause marked depression of 

the heart. 

Vinca rosea Linn. 

Vinca rosea Linn. 705 

Synonym ◮ Catharanthus roseus 

(Linn.) G.Don. 


Habitat ◮ Native of West Indies; 

commonly grown in Indian gardens. 

English ◮ Madagascar Periwinkle. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Sadaapushpaa, Sadampushpa, 

Nityakalyaani, Sadaabahaar. 

Siddha ◮ Nithiya kalyani, Sudukadu 

mallikai. 

Action ◮ Cytotoxic. 

Over one hundred monomeric and 

bisindole alkaloids have been isolated. 

The indole alkaloid, vincamine, is 

a vasodilator; the bisindole alkaloids 

vinblastine and vincristine proved tobe 

highly effective as cancer chemotherapeutic 

agents. 

Vinblastine and vincristine are clinically 

used in a number of thrombocytopenic 

disorders, such as refractory 

idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpurea 

and haemolytic anaemia. 

Vinblastine in combination with 

other chemotherapeutic agents (cisplatin 

and bleomycin) is used for the 

treatment of metastatic testicular cancer; 

also against bladder cancer, breast 

cancer, non-small cell lung cancer and 

Hodgkin’s lymphoma in combination 

with other drugs. 

Vincristine, in various combinations, 

is highly effective in acute leukemia 

in children and lymphocytic leukemia; 

and pediatric tumours. (The Treatise 

on Indian Medicinal Plants.) 

V

V 

706 Viola biflora Linn. 

Viola biflora Linn. 




of 1,800–3,000 m. 

Unani ◮ Banafashaa (related species). 

Action ◮ Leaves—laxative, emollient. 

Flowers—antiseptic, pectoral, 

diaphoretic. Root—emetic. 

The herb is used as a substitute for 

Banafashaa obtained from V. odorata. 

The leaves are used for treating skin 

eruptions and the flowers for skin irritation. 

Viola cinerea Boiss. var. 

stocksii (Boiss.) W. Beck. 

Synonym ◮ V. stocksii Boiss. 


Habitat ◮ Punjab, Western Rajasthan, 

Gujarat. 


Folk ◮ Jinkobanafashaa (Gujarat). 

Action ◮ Root—emetic. Used as 

a substitute and adulterant of ipecac. 

The herb is sold in the market as 

Banafashaa. 

Viola odorata Linn. 



in Kashmir. 

English ◮ Sweet Violet. 

Unani ◮ Banafashaa, Banafsaj, 

Kakosh, Fareer. 

Action ◮ Expectorant, antiinflammatory, 

diaphoretic, antipyretic, 

diuretic. Used for 

catarrhal and pulmonary affections, 

also for diseases of liver and 

intestines. 


by German Commission E, but it has 

been mentioned that the traditional use 

of sweet violet root as an expectorant 

for the respiratory tract is well documented. 


recognizes expectorant activity of the 

leaf. 

The flowers (var. maxima) are a 

source of rutoside. The flowers also 

contain anthocyanin, violanin chloride, 

which on hydrolysis yields glucose, 

delphinidin, rhamnose and pcoumaric 

acid. High content of tocopherol 

is also reported from flowers. 

Dried flowers contain anthocyanin 

4.0, total flavonoids 1.1, rutoside 0.4, 

mucilage 18, and ash 8.5%. 

The leaves contain friedelin and 


The essential oil from the entire 

plant consists of methyl salicylate. A di- 

C-glycoside, violanthin, has been reported 


Viola patrinii Ging. 


Habitat ◮ The Himalayas, Eastern 



Action ◮ Dried flowers—used 

for coughs and colds. Herb—

uised and applied to ulcers; 

also prescribed in syphilis and 

scrofula. (In Chinese medicine, 

recommended against cancerous 

growths.) 

Viola pilosa Blume. 


Habitat ◮ Kashmir to Sikkim and 

Nilgiri hills at 1,500–2,100 m. 

Unani ◮ Banafashaa (related species) 

Folk ◮ Thungtu (Kumaon). 

Action ◮ Uses same as those of V. 

odorata. A medicinal oil of Unani 

medicine, Roghan-e-Banafashaa, is 

prepared from the plant. Flowers, as 

tea, are used for treating headache. 

Active principle of the herb is an 

alkaloid, violine. 

Viola sylvestris Lam. (in part) 



English ◮ Pale Wood Violet, Wood 

Violet. 


Action ◮ Plant—pectoral, bechic; 

used in chest troubles. Stem, leaf 

and flower—applied to foul sores 

and wounds. 

Viola tricolor Linn. 


Viscum album Linn. 707 



English ◮ Heartsease, Wild Pansy. 


Action ◮ Herb—anti-inflammatory, 

antiallergic, expectorant, diuretic, 

antirheumatic, alterative. Used for 

bronchitis, rheumatism, chronic 

skin disorders and for preventing 

capillary haemorrhage when under 

corticosteroid therapy. Root— 

antidysenteric; used as a substitute 

for Cephaelis ipecacuanha. 

Key application ◮ Externally in 

mild seborrheic skin diseases and 

milk scall in children. (German 

Commission E.) The British Herbal 

Pharmacopoeia recognizes the 

herb as an expectorant and 

dermatological agent. 

The herb contains rutin, violin and 

salicylic acid. The flower contains 

rutin, quercetin, violanthin (6,8-diglycoside 

of apigenin), violaxanthin, phydroxycinnamic 

acid and delphinidin. 

A flavone C-glycoside-saponarin 

has also been obtained from flowers. 

Flowers, in addition, contain 15-cisviolaxanthin. 

The herb exhibits anticoagulant 

property and diminishes the aggregation 

of platelets. It can be used as 

a preventive measure against thrombosis. 

Viscum album Linn. 

Synonym ◮ V. costatum Gamble. 

Family ◮ Viscaceae; Loranthaceae. 

V

V 

708 Viscum articulatum Burm. 


Kashmir to Nepal between 1,200 

and 2,700 m (a semiparasitic plant). 

English ◮ European Mistletoe. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Bandaaka, Suvarnabandaaka. 

Vrikshaadani (substitute). 

Unani ◮ Kishmish Kaabuli. 

Action ◮ Vasodilator, cardiac depressant, 

tranquiliser, stimulates 

the vagus nerve which slows the 

pulse, anti-inflammatory, diuretic, 

immune enhancer, antineoplastic. 

Used for hypertension and 

tachycardia, as a nervine tonic. 

The extract of leafy twigs is antiinflammatory 

exerting an action upon 

capillary permeability and oedema. It 

stimulates granulation and the neoformation 

of connective tissue. 

Key application ◮ For treating 

degenerative inflammation of 

the joints by stimulating cutivisceral 

reflexes following local 

inflammation brought about by 

intradermal injections; as palliative 

therapy for malignant tumour 

through non-specific stimulation. 


Mistletoe contains glycoproteins; 

flavonoids, usually quercetin-derived 

(dependent on host tree to some extent); 

polypeptides; phenylcarboxylic 

acids; polysaccharides (including viscid 

acid); alkaloids; lignans. 

Cardiotonic activity is due to the lignans. 

The polysaccharides stimulate 

the immune response. Antineoplastic 

activity is claimed to be responsible 

for prolongation of survival time in 

cancer patients. Polypeptides (viscotoxins) 

inhibit tumours and stimulate 

immune resistance. 

(For uses of lectin from Mistletoe in 

cancer, see Eur J cancer, 2001,Jan,37(1), 

23–31; Eur J Cancer 2001, 37 (15), 1910– 

1920.) (For application in hepatitis, see 

Fitoterapia, 70, 2001.) 

Viscum articulatum Burm. 

Family ◮ Viscaceae, Loranthaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Most parts of India; 

a superparasite in Western India 

on Loranthus sp. which itself is 

parasitic on Eugenia sp. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Bandaak (related 

species); Jivantikaa, Kaamavriksha, 

Nilavalli. (The Wealth of India.) 

Folk ◮ Panapuuduu (Maharashtra), 

Bodobaando (Gujarat). 

Action ◮ Plant—febrifuge, aphrodisiac. 

Paste is applied to bone 

fractures. 

The plant gave oleanolic acid, ceryl 

oleanolate and meso-inositol. 

Viscum monoicum Roxb. ex DC. 

Family ◮ Viscaceae; Laoranthaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Sikkim, a parasite of 

Strychnos nux-vomica tree. 

Ayurvedic ◮ 

mohanikaa. 

Katukavalli, Pashu- 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Pulluri, Pullurivi. 

Folk ◮ Kuchleikaa-malang, Kuchlekaa-baandaa.

Action ◮ Properties more or less 

similar to Strychnos nux-vomica. 

Used as a substitute for strychnine 

and brucine. 

(The plant is also parasitic on Albizia 

amara, A. odoratissima, Pongamia pinnata 

and Ziziplus oenoplia.) 

Viscum orientale Willd. 

Family ◮ Viscaceae; Loranthaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Bihar, West Bengal and 

Kerala. (The plant parasitizing 

Strychnos nux-vomica tree are used 

in Indian medicine.) 



nux-vomica. Poultice of leaves is 

used for neuralgia; ashes of the plant 

for the treatment of skin diseases. 

Vitex agnus-castus Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Mediterranean region; 

South-West Asian countries, up to 

Pakistan. (Seeds are imported from 

Iran.) 

English ◮ Monk’s Pepper-tree, Hemp 

tree. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Renukaa (seed). 

Renukaa and Harenukaa are 

synonyms in Indian medicine. 

Unani ◮ Sambhaalu. 

Action ◮ Dried ripe fruit—acts 

on the anterior pituitary gland, 

reducing FSH and increasing LSH; 

Vitex agnus-castus Linn. 709 

stimulates production of progesterone 

by reducing oestrogen; 

used as a substitution therapy in 

primary and secondary corpus 

luteum deficiency. Used for premenstrual 

syndrome, for regulating 

hormones in amenorrhoea and for 

bleeding between periods; also as 

a galactagogue and to assist bust 

development. 

The herb is also used in the treatment 

of premature old age due tosexual 

excess, nervous debility and impotence 

(as a homoeopathic drug). Vitex agnus 

extract is found to lower prolactin levels 

in men (the decrease in prolactin 

levels results in improved sexual performance. 

Males with hyperprolactinaemia 

frequently face impotence). 

Key application ◮ In irregularities 

of menstrual cycle, premenstrual 

complaints, mastodynia. (German 

Commission E.) Asahormonal 

modulator. (The British Herbal 


The methanolic extract of the flowering 

stems of Vitex agnus-castus yielded 

iridoids, angnucastoside-A, B and 

C, in addition to aucubin, agnuside, 

mussaenosidic acid and 6 ′ -O-p-hydroxybenzoylmussaenosidic 

acid, and 

phenylbutenone glucoside, myzodendrone. 

Dopaminergic compounds, present 

in the herb, are clinically important 

compounds which improve premenstrual 

mastodynia and other symptoms 

of premenstrual syndrome. 

The herb may counteract birth control 

pills. (Sharon M. Herr.) 

V

V 

710 Vitex leucoxylon Linn. f. 

Vitex leucoxylon Linn. f. 


Habitat ◮ Throughout Deccan 

Peninsula. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Paaraavata-padi, 

Kaakajanghaa. (Kaakajanghaa is 

also equated with Leea aequata 

Linn.) 

Action ◮ Roots—febrifuge, astringent. 

Ethanolic extract and cold aqueous 

infusion of the leaf were found to suppress 

acetic acid-induced writhing in 

mice and carrageenan-induced hind 

paw oedema in rats. The flavonoids 

exhibited anti-inflammatory activity. 

Vitex negundo Linn. 



warmer zones; ascending to 900 m 

in the North-western Himalaya. 

English ◮ Five-leaved Chaste tree. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Nirgundi, Shephaalikaa, 

Sindhuka, Sindhuvaara, 

Suvahaa, Sugandhikaa. Nila, Nilanirgundi, 

Shveta nirgundi (var.). 

White-flowered var. is known 

as Sinduvaara, blue-flowered as 

Nirgundi or Shephaali, 

Unani ◮ Sambhaalu, Fanjankisht. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Nochi, Nalla Nochi, 

Vellai Nochchi, Nirkundi. 

Action ◮ Seeds—prescribed in 

spermatorrhoea, and for promoting 

spermiogenesis (in Unani 

medicine). Also given as a rejuvenating 

tonic for retarding old age 

and for retaining and promoting 

virility. (in Ayurvedic medicine). 

Leaf—anti-inflammatory, analgesic; 

removesfoetiddischargesand 

worms from ulcers. Flowers—astringent, 

febrifuge, antidiarrhoeic; 

prescribed in liver complaint. Oil— 

applied to sinus, scrofulous sores. 


recommends the leaf (also the root) 

in excessive vaginal discharges, oedema, 

skin diseases, pruritus, helminthiasis, 

rheumatism, and puerperal 

fever. 

A water extract of the leaves, when 

administered to rats, exhibited antiinflammatory, 

analgesic, antihistaminic 

and membrane stabilizing and antioxidant 

activities. (J. Ethnopharmocol, 

2003, (203), 199–206.) Methanolic 

extract of leaves showed remarkable 

antihistaminic activity. 

The leaves contain iridoid glycosides, 

isomeric flavanones and flavonoids, 

besides casticin and the glucosides, 

luteolin-7-glucoside and alpha- 

D-glucoside of a tetrahydroxy monomethoxy 

flavone. 

Dried powder of roots contains hentriacontane, 

beta-sitosterol and its aetat 

and stigmasterol. Alcoholic extract 

of the root showed 40–60% antiimplantation 

activity with no antiovulatory 

effect in rats. 

Flavone vitexicarpin (1), isolated 

from the leaves, exhibited broad cytotoxicity 

in human cancer cell line panel. 

Two pentacyclic triterpenoids, betulinic 

acid and ursolic acid, along with an 

aliphatic alcohol, n-hentriacontanol,

eta-sitosterol and p-hydroxybenzoic 

acid have been isolated from leaves. 

The seeds contain p-hydroxybenzoic 

acid, 5-oxyisophthalic acid, glucose 

and the triterpene, vitextriterpene. 

Several anti-inflammatory triterpenoids 

and flavonoids have also been 

isolated from the seeds. The flavanone, 

5,7,3 ′ trihydroxy-6, 8,4 ′ -trimethoxyflavone 

exhibited anti-androgenic activity 

in adult mice and dogs. 

Dosage ◮ Leaf—10–15 ml juice (API, 

Vol. III); root—10–12 ml juice (API, 

Vol. IV.) 

Vitex peduncularis 

Wall. ex Schauer. 


Habitat ◮ Assam, West Bengal, Bihar 


Ayurvedic ◮ Kaakajanghaa. (Leea 

aequata Linn. is also equated with 

Kaakajanghaa.) 

Folk ◮ Chirai-godaa, Chirai-gorwaa, 

Naagpheni. 

Action ◮ Leaves and bark—used in 

malarial and black water fevers. 

Leaves—antibacterial. 

The leaves and root bark gave pachypodol, 

ursolic acid, vitexin and peduncularcin. 

Vitex trifolia Linn. 



tropical and subtropical regions. 

Vitis vinifera Linn. 711 

Ayurvedic ◮ Sinduvaara, Nirgundi 

(white var.). 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Karu Nochi, Siru 

Nochi. 

Folk ◮ Paani-Sambhaalu. 

Action ◮ Leaves—febrifuge, antibacterial, 

anthelmintic, cytotoxic. 

Extract of the leaves showed 

inhibitory action against Mycobacterium 

tuberculosis. Leaves used as 

poultice in rheumatism, inflammations 

and sprains. Root and 

flowers—febrifuge. Root—expectorant. 

Fruit—used in amenorrhoea. 

Aerial parts gave friedelin, betasitosterol 

and its beta-D-glucoside, and 

a long chain hydrocarbon. The leaves 

gave the flavonoids—artemetin, luteolin, 

orientin, casticin; and iridoid glycosides, 

aucubin and agnuside. The 

fruitscontainanalkaloid,vitricin. 

Vitrosin A and vitexicarpin, isolated 

from the plant, blocked spontaneous 

contraction of isolated guinea-pig trachea 

induced by histamine. (Planta 

Med, 2002, Nov., 68/11). 

The leaves are reported to improve 

memory and favour hair growth. Leaf 

extract showed significant antitumour 

activity in the murine tumour system. 

Vitis vinifera Linn. 


Habitat ◮ A woody, shrubby vine, 

cultivated in Punjab, Rajasthan, 

Delhi, Uttar Pradesh Maharashtra, 

Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and 

Tamil Nadu for edible fruits. 

V

V 

712 Vocanga foetida (Blume) Rolfe. 

English ◮ Wine Grape, European 

Grape. (Chinese: P’u-t’ao.) 

Ayurvedic ◮ Draakshaa, Go-stani, 

Mrdvikaa. Dehydrated fruit— 

Daakh, Munnakaa, Kishmish. 

Unani ◮ Angoor. Dehydrated 

fruit—Daakh, Maweez, Zabeeb, 

Munaqqaa, Kishmish. 

Siddha ◮ Draksha. 

Action ◮ Dried fruits, seedless— 

nourishing and invigorating. 

Used in prescriptions for cough, 

respiratory tract catarrh, subacute 

cases of enlarged liver and spleen; 

and in alcohol-based tonics 

(Aasavs). 


recommends dried mature fruits 

(5–10 g) in anaemia, jaundice, dyspepsia, 

constipation, haemorrhagic diseases, 

gout, cough, dyspnoea, and alcoholism. 

Grape vine contains flavonoids, tannins, 

tartrates, inositol, carotenes, choline 

and sugars. The fruit contains tartaric 

and malic acids, sugars, pectin, 

tannin, flavone glycosides, vitamins A, 

B1, B2, C and minerals; anthocyanins 

in red leaves and red grapes. Anthocyanins 

reduce capillary permeability. 

Red leaves are astringent and antiinflammatory; 

an infusion is used for 

diarrhoea, heavy menstrual bleeding 

and uterine haemorrhage; also in the 

treatment of varicose veins and haemorrhoids. 

Oligomeric proanthocyanidin extract 

of the seed is used in atherosclerosis 

due to its free radical scavenging 

ability, also in venous insufficiency, 

night vision, oedema due to injury and 

post surgery oedema. 

Proanthocyanidin extract decreased 

hepatotoxicity of acetaminophen in 

mice. Grape polyphenols, extracted 

from skin and seeds decreased hepatic 

injury from alcohol, but had no effect 

on ethanol-induced lipid changes in 

rats. (Sharon M. Herr.) 

Dosage ◮ Dried mature fruits—5– 

10 g. (API, Vol. III.) 

Vocanga foetida (Blume) Rolfe. 

Synonym ◮ Orchipeda foetida Blume. 


Habitat ◮ Indonesia; cultivated in 


Action ◮ Latex—used for treating 

fistula, pustules and tumours. 

The bark contains a bitter alkaloid 

(yield 0.25%). 

A related species, V. grandifolia 

(Miq.) Rolfe has been introduced into 

the Indian Botanic Garden, Kolkata. 

All parts of the plant contain alkaloids 

which vary seasonally. The trunk bark 

contains as high as 2.72% of alkaloids 

on dry basis in November. The leaves 

contain a mixture of alkaloids (yield up 

to 1.23% on dry weight basis) containing 

vobtusine, vobtusine lactone and 

deoxyvobtusine. 

Volutarella ramosa Roxb. 

Synonym ◮ V. divaricata Benth & 

Hook. f., in part.

Tricholepis procumbens Wight. 

Amberboa divaricata Kuntge. 

Family ◮ Compositae. 

Habitat ◮ All over India, except West 

Bengal and eastwards. 

Unani ◮ Baadaavard, Al-baavard, 

Shukaayi. 

Folk ◮ Bhu-dandi, Sukaayi (Maharashtra). 

Action ◮ Plant—deobstruent, 

aperient, febrifugal, styptic. Used 

for disorders of the liver. The 

mucilage is used in coughs. 

The plant yielded a glucoside procumbenin 

A which yields an aglycone 

Volutarella ramosa Roxb. 713 

procumbenidine and glucose on hydrolysis. 

Fructose, surcose, lactose 

and maltose are also present in the 

plant. 

Shukaayi of Unani medicine is also 

known as Al-shukaayaa, Al-shaukatul-arabia 

and Arabian Thorn. The fruit 

and root are used in Unani medicine 

in chronic fevers and diseases of liver 

and intestines. 

Baadaavard has also been equated 

with Tricholepis procumbens Wight and 

Carduus bendictus. Tricholepis sp. are 

known as Brahmadandi in Ayurvedic 

medicine. Carduus nutans Linn. is 

known as Gul-Baadaavard in Kashmir 

andisusedasfebrifuge. 

V

Wagatea spicata Dalz. 



Ayurvedic ◮ Guchh-karanja. 

Siddha ◮ Okkadi-kodi, Pulinakkagondai. 

Folk ◮ Vaakeri (Maharashtra). 

Caesalpinia digyna Rottl. is also 

known as Vaakeri. 

Action ◮ Roots—used in pneumonia. 

Bark—used externally in skin 

diseases. 

The root contains vakerin. Vakerin 

did not inhibit the stimulating effect of 

histamine and acetylcholine. 

Pods contain considerable quantity 

of tannic acid. 

Wahlenbergia marginata 

(Thunb.) A. DC. 

Synonym ◮ W. gracilis Schrad. 

Family ◮ Campanulaceae. 



Folk ◮ Tosad kesari, Dudma Saaga. 

Action ◮ Root—used in pulmonary 

infections. Herb—used externally 

for strengthening the loose teeth, 

also for skin diseases. 

The flower contains delphinidinchloride-3, 

5-diglucoside. The roots 

contain glucose, sucrose, methyl 9, 

W 

12-octadecadienoate, beta-sitosterol, 

beta-sitosterol glucoside and lupenone. 

Walsura trifoliata 

(A. Juss.) Harms. 

Synonym ◮ W. piscidia Roxb. 


Habitat ◮ Karnataka, Western Ghats, 

Palni and Anaimalai Hills, also 

western India. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Cheddavokko, 

Kanjiram. 

Folk ◮ Waalsuuraa. 

Action ◮ Bark—stimulant, expectorant, 

emmenagogue, emetic. Also 

used to kill vermin in the hair. 

The bark contains saponin and tannin. 

Waltheria indica Linn. 

Synonym ◮ W. americana Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Tropical regions of India. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Shembudu. 

Folk ◮ Khar-Duudhi (Bengal). 

Action ◮ Plant—emollient, bechic, 

febrifuge, purgative, abortifacient. 

Root—prescribed in internal 

haemorrhages.

W 

716 Wedelia biflora DC. 

The plant yields pelargonidin and 

cyanidin glycoside and apigeninidin. 

Anthocyanins were also detected. The 

alkaloid, adouetin-7 sulfamate, induced 

hypothermia and sedation at 

low levels and hyperexcitability at high 

levels. 

A decoction of roots possesses antisyphlitic 

property. 

Wedelia biflora DC. 


Habitat ◮ Near sea-coasts and the 


Ayurvedic ◮ Bhringaraaja (yellowflowered 

var). 

Action ◮ Leaves—used as poultice 

on ulcers, sores, varicose veins; 

paste applied to fungal infections. 

Leaf decction—vulnerary and 

antiscabious. The juice of leaf is also 

given internally with cow’s milk as 

a tonic after child birth. 

The dried leaves contain veratrylidene 

hydrazide and quercetin derivatives. 

The stem contains stigmasterol 

and grandifloric acid. The leaves and 

stem showed antifungal activity. 

Wedelia calendulaceae 

Less. non-Rich. 

Synonym ◮ W. chinensis Merrill. 


Habitat ◮ Bengal,Assam,Konkan, 


Ayurvedic ◮ Bhringaraaja (yellowflowered 

var.), Pitabhringi, 

Pitabhringa-raaja, Avanti, Kesharaaja, 

Kesharaaga. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Manjal karisaalai, 

Potralai kaiyan tagarai, Patalai 

Kaiantakerai. 

Action ◮ Leaves—bechic; used 

in alopecia, juice used for dyeing 

hair and for promoting hair 

growth. Plant—deobstruent; 

used in menorrhagia and abdominal 

swellings, as a tonic 

for hepatic and splenic enlargement. 

See Eclipta alba. 

The expressed juice of the herb contained 

an oil-soluble black dye 11.2; tannin 

220; saponin 500 (contradictory 

reports) and phytosterol 3.75 mg/100 g 

among other constituents. The leaves 

contain isoflavonoids. 

The bisdesmosidic oleanolic acid 

saponins have been isolated from the 

fresh leaves. Significant hepatoprotective 

activity has been found in the prosaponin 

from ginsenoside Ro (chikusetsusaponinV); 

and in coumestans, 

wedelolactone and demethyl wedelolactone, 

isolated from the methanol 

extract of the herb. 

Wedelolactone has also been found 

to be a potent and selective 5-lipoxygenase-inhibitor, 

the process being 

an oxygen radical scavenger mechanism. 

Wedelolactone (0.05%), isolated 

from the leaves, is analogous in structure 

to coumestrol, an estrogen from 

Melilotus sp. (clover).

Wendlandia exserta DC. 


Habitat ◮ Sub-Himalayan region, 

West Bengal, Madhya Pradesh, 


Ayurvedic ◮ Tilaka. 

Folk ◮ Tiliyaa(Bihar),Tilki,Mimri 

(Bengal). 

Action ◮ Bark—administered in 

urinary affections. 

Wendlandia tinctoria DC. 



Garhwal eastwards to Bhutan and 

Khasi hills. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Tilak (related species). 

Action ◮ Bark—used for cramps in 

cholera patients. 

Wigandia caracasana Kunth. 

Family ◮ Hydrophyllaceae. 


introduced into Indian gardens. 

Action ◮ Leaves and branch tips— 

a decoction is used in rheumatism; 

also for whooping cough and 

respiratory problems. 

Solvent extracts of the leaves (ethanol, 

acetone and n-hexane) were found 


Withania ashwagandha Kaul (cultivated var.) 717 

Wikstroemia indica Mey. 

Synonym ◮ W. viridiflora Meissn. 

W. indica var. virdiflora Hook. f. 

Family ◮ Thymelaeaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Eastern Assam; as a weed 

in Tamil Nadu. 

English ◮ Small-Leaf Salago. 

Folk ◮ Salago. 

Action ◮ Root bark—diuretic, 

vesicant, purgative and piscicidal. 

The root bark is reported to contain 

a flavone glycoside, wikstroemin, 

which exhibited diuretic activity. 

In Chinese folk medicine, the bark 

is used for schistosomiasis. 

The stem contains wikstromol, a lignin 

prototype which exhibited antineoplastic 

activity. Daphnoretin, isolated 

from the plant, caused platelet 

aggregation in the blood of rabbits. 

A polysaccharide, comprising glucose, 

arabinose, galacturonic acid, galactose 

and xylose, protected mice against radiation 

and enhanced the formation of 

macrophages. 

Withania ashwagandha 

Kaul (cultivated var.) 

W. somnifera (Linn.) Dunal (Chemotype 

I, II, III: Israele.) 


Habitat ◮ Throughout the drier and 

subtropical parts of India. 

English ◮ Winter Cherry. (Physalis 

alkekengi is also known as Winter 

Cherry.) 

W

W 

718 Withania ashwagandha Kaul (cultivated var.) 

Ayurvedic ◮ Ashwagandhaa, Hayagandhaa, 

Ashwakanda, Gandharvagandhaa, 

Turaga, Turagagandhaa, 

Turangagandhaa, Vaajigandhaa, 

Gokarnaa, Vrishaa, Varaahakarni, 

Varadaa, Balyaa, Vaajikari. (A 

substitute for Kaakoli and Kshirakaakoli.) 

Cultivated var.: Asgandh 

Naagori. (Indian botanists consider 

the cultivated plants distinct from 

the wild ones.) 

Unani ◮ Asgandh. 

Siddha ◮ Amukkuramkizhangu. 

Action ◮ Root—used as an antiinflammatory 

drug for swellings, 

tumours, scrofula and rheumatism; 

and as a sedative and hypnotic 

in anxiety neurosis. Leaf— 

anti-inflammatory, hepatoprotective, 

antibacterial. Fruits and 

seeds—diuretic. Withanine— 

sedative, hypnotic. Withaferin 

A—major component of biologically 

active steroids; as effective 

as hydrocortisone dose for dose. 

Antibacterial, antitumour, antiarthritic, 

significantly protective 

against hepatotoxicity in rats. 

The root contains several alkaloids, 

including withanine, withananine, 

withananinine, pseudo-withanine, 

somnine, somniferine, somniferinine. 

The leaves of Indian chemotype contain 

12 withanolides, including withaferin 

A. Steroidal lactones of withanolide 

series have been isolated. 

Withanine is sedative and hypnotic. 

Withaferin A is antitumour, antiarthritic 

and antibacterial. Anti-inflammatory 

activity has been attributed 

to biologically active steroids, of 

which withaferin A is a major component. 

The activity is comparable to that 

of hydrocortisone sodium succinate. 

Withaferin A also showed significantly 

protective effect against CCl4induced 

hepatotoxicity in rats. It was 

as effective as hydrocortisone dose for 

dose. 

The root extract contains an ingredient 

which has GABA mimetic activity. 

The free amino acids present in the 

root include aspartic acid, glycine, tyrosine, 

alanine, proline, tryptophan, 

glutamic acid and cystine. 


recommends Ashwagandha in impotency. 

This claim could not be sustained 

in a recent experiment and raises 

a doubt about the equation of classical 

Ashwagandha with Withania somnifera. 

A methanolic extract of Withania 

somnifera root induced a marked 

impairment in libido, sexual performance, 

sexual vigour and penile dysfunction 

in male rats. (Llayperuma et 

al, Asian J Androl, 2002, 295–298.) 

The total alkaloids of the root exhibited 

prolonged hypotensive, bradycardiac 

and depressant action of the 

higher cerebral centres in several experimental 

animals. 

A withanolide-free aqueous fraction 

isolated from the roots of Withania 

somnifera exhibited antistress activity 

in a dose-dependent manner in mice. 

(Phytother Res 2003, 531–6.) 

(See also Simon Mills; American 

Herbal Pharmacopoeia, 2000; Natural 


2007.) 


Vol. I.)

Withania coagulans Dunal. 


Habitat ◮ Drier parts of Punjab, 

Gujarat, Simla and Kumaon. 

English ◮ Vegetable Rennet, Indian 

Cheese-maker. 

Unani ◮ Desi Asgandh, Kaaknaj-e- 

Hindi, Paneer, Paneer-band. Akri 

(fruit). 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Ammukkura. 

Action ◮ Alterative, emetic, diuretic. 

Ripe fruits—sedative, CNS depressant, 

antibilious, emetic, antiasthmatic, 

diuretic, anti-inflammatory; 

used in chronic liver troubles 

and strangury. Dried fruits— 

carminative, depurative; used for 

dyspepsia, flatulence and strangury. 

Leaf—alterative, febrifuge. Seeds— 

anti-inflammatory, emetic, diuretic, 

emmenagogue. 

Though known as Desi Asgandh, the 

root is not used in Indian medicine. 

Ashwagandhaa (Bengali) and Ashwagandhi 

(Kannada) are confusing synonyms 

of W. coagulans. In the market 

no distinction is made between the 

berries of W. coagulans and W. somnifera. 

The berries contain a milk-coagulating 

enzyme, esterases, free amino 

acids, fatty oil, an essential oil and alkaloids. 

The amino acid composition 

fairly agrees with that of papain. The 

essential oil was active against Micrococcus 

pyogenes var. aureus and Vibro 

cholerae; also showed anthelmintic activity. 

The withanolides, withacoagin, coagulan 

and withasomidienone have 

Woodfordia fruticosa Kurz. 719 

been isolated fromthe plant, along with 

other withanolides and withaferin. 3beta-hydroxy-2,3- 

dihydrowithanolide 

E, isolated from the fruit showed significant 

hepatoprotective activity and 

anti-inflammatory activity equal to hydrocortisone. 

The ethanolic extract of 

the fruit showed antifungal and that 

of the leaves and stem antibacterial 

activity. 

Woodfordia fruticosa Kurz. 

Synonym ◮ W. floribunda Salisb. 


Habitat ◮ Throughout North India, 

rather scarce in South India. 

English ◮ Fire-flame Bush, Shiranjitea. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Dhaataki, Dhaatri, Kunjaraa, 

Taamrapushpi, Bahupushpi, 

Vahnijwaalaa. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Velakkai. 

Action ◮ Dried flower—purifies 

blood,healsulcers,astringent, 

prescribed in haemetemesis, 

erysipelas, dysentery, diarrhoea, 

menorrhagia, leucorrhoea. Flowers 

are used in alcohol-based tonics 

for fermentation (a yeast strain, 

saccharomyces cerevisiae, has been 

isolated). Bark—uterine sedative. 


recommends the flower in acute 

diarrhoea, haemorrhages, ulcerations 

and erysipelas. 

The dried flowers are powdered and 

sprinkled over ulcers and wounds. The 

flowers also enter into an ointment 

used on pustules of smallpox. 

W

W 

720 Wrightia tinctoria R. Br. 

In small doses the plant stimulates, 

while in large doses depresses the central 

nervous system. 

The flowers and leaves gave polyphenols—ellagic 

acid, polystachoside and 

myricetin-3-galactoside. Flowers also 

gave anthocyanins—pelargonidin- 

3,5-diglucoside and cyanidin–3,5-diglucoside; 

octacosanol, chrysophanol-8-O-beta-D-glucopyranoside 

and 

beta-sitosterol. Hecogenin, mesoinositol 

and flavone glycosides—quercetin- 

3-rhamnoside, naringenin-7-glucoside 

and kaempferol, have been reported 

from flowers. 

The bark contains C-glucoside, bergenin. 

The flowers, leaves and bark contain 

tannins—24.1, 12–20 and 20–27% respectively. 

Dimeric hydrolyzable tannins—woodfordinsA,BandC,and 

trimeric tannins woodfordin D and 

oenothein A and B have been isoalted 

from dried flowers. A new tannin 

monomer, isoschimawalin A and five 

oligomers—woodfordin E, F, G, H and 

I, have also been isoalted. 

Oenothein A and B exhibited remarkable 

host-mediated antitumour 

activity. Woodfordin C and D also 

showed antitumour activity. Woodfordin 

C showed inhibitory activity 

toward DNA topoisomerase II. 

Dosage ◮ Flower—3–6 g powder. 


Wrightia tinctoria R. Br. 


Habitat ◮ Atree,foundinRajasthan, 

Madhya Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. 

English ◮ Pala Indigo Plant. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Shveta Kutaja. (whiteflowered),Punkutaja,Indrayava 

(seeds). 

Unani ◮ Inderjao Shireen. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Irum-paalai, Nilapaalai. 

Action ◮ Bark—antidysenteric. Also 

used in piles and skin diseases. 

Seeds—antidysenteric, astringent, 

febrifuge, anthelmintic. Bark and 

seeds—prescribed in flatulence and 

bilious affections. 

Pods, without seeds, contain the 

cycloartanes, cycloartenone and cycloeucalenol 

along with alpha- and 

beta-amyrin, beta-sitosterol, ursolic 

acid, oleanolic acid and the terpene, 

wrightial. The leaves contain betaamyrin. 

Stem bark gave beta-amyrin, 

beta-sitosterol and lupeol. 

The seeds, leaves and roots have 

been shown to contain an indigoyielding 

glucoside. 

The flowers gave 3-O-rhamnoglucoside 

which exhibited significant antiinflammatory 


hind paw oedema. 

The bark is commonly used as an 

adulterant of Kurchi Bark (obtained 

from Holarrhena antidysenterica). 

Wrightia tomentosa 

Roem. & Schult. 

Synonym ◮ W. arborea (Dennst.) 

Mabberley. 

Family ◮ Apocynaceae.

Habitat ◮ Punjab, Rajasthan, Bihar, 

Assam and Western Peninsula. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Kutaja (red-flowered). 

Indrayava (seeds). 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Pala. 

Action ◮ Two varieties—male 

and female—are mentioned in 

Ayurvedic texts. Mostly, Holarrhena 

is supposed to be the male 

and Wrightia the female. In 

Unani medicine, Inderjao Talkh 

(bitter) is equated with Holarrhena 

antidysenterica (Conesse Bark) 

and Inderjao Shireen (sweet) 

with Wrightia tinctoria (known 

as Dyer’s Oleander, Blue Dyeing 

Roseberry). 

Wrightia tomentosa Roem. & Schult. 721 

Driedbarkisusedasasubstitutefor 

Holarrhena antidysenterica bark. Alkaloid 

conessine is the active principle 

of both the barks. 

Besides conessine, other alkaloids 

present in the bark are conessine dihydrate, 

holarrhine, kurchicine and 

averyminutequantityofconkurchine. 

The bark contains beta-sitosterol, lupeol, 

alpha-amyrin and reducing sugars 

besides alkaloids. 

The isoflavone, wrightiadione, isolated 

from the stem bark, displayed 

cytotoxic activity. Two aliphatic compounds, 

n-tritriacont-16-one and hexaconsan-3, 

6-diol-12-oic acid, have also 

been isolated from the bark. 

See Wrightia tinctoria and Holarrhena 

antidysenterica. 

W

Xanthium strumariumLinn. 

Synonym ◮ X. indicum Koenig. ex 

Roxb. 


Habitat ◮ Tropical India. 

English ◮ Cocklebur, Burweed. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Shankheshwara, Arishta, 

Aartagala. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Maruloomatham, 

Marlumutta. 

Folk ◮ Bana-okraa. 

Action ◮ Plant—used for leucoderma, 

ulcers, abscesses, strumous and 

malignant diseases. 

Root—antitumour. Leaves and 

shoots—applied externally on venereal 

sores, herpes and scrofula. 

Leaves contain seaquiterpene lactones—xanthinin, 

xanthumin, xanthanol 

and iso-xanthanol. Leaves also 

contain isohexacosane, chlorobutanol, 

stearyl alcohol, beta-sitosterol 

and palmitic acid. A highly toxic compound, 

carboxyatractyloside, has been 


Beta-sitosterol glucoside is anti-inflammatory, 

xanthumin is a central 

nervous system depressant. Alcoholic 

solution of xanthinin shows strong 

antibacterial activity against Gramnegative 

bacteria and fungi. A cytotoxic 

compound, xanthatin (a seco- 

4,5-guaianolide) has been detected in 

the resin. 

X 

The root gave n-heptacosanol, stigmasterol, 

3,4,-dihydro oxycinnamic 

acid, beta-sitosterol and its D-glucoside, 

and campesterol. 

Xanthium spinosum Linn. (introduced 

from Europe into West Bengal 

and Assam), known as Spiny Clotbur, 

is used as a diuretic, antiperiodic (also 

in intermittent fevers), sudorific, 

antidiarrhoeal and styptic. 

The whole plant gave several xanthanolides. 

The sesquiterpene lactones, 

xanthinin, solstitialin and stizolicin, 

isolated from the plant, demonstrated 

limited antitumour action in 

vitro. Xanthatin has also been isolated. 

Ximenia americana Linn. 

Synonym ◮ X. spinosa Salisb. 

Family ◮ Olacaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Both the Peninsulas and 

the Andaman Islands. 

English ◮ Tallow-Wood, False 

Sandal-Wood. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Chiru-illantai, 

Kadaranji, Siruyilandai. 

Action ◮ Fruits—known as Wild 

Plum or Wild Olive, are used as 

a substitute for lemon. Fruits and 

seeds—laxative. Root and leaves— 

decoctiongiveninjaundice, 

diarrhoea and during fevers. 

Root—used for venereal diseases. 

Bark—astringent, applied to sores. 

Wood—used as a substitute for 

sandalwood.

X 

724 Xylia xylocarpa (Roxb.) Taub. 

The root contains fat, rich in acetylenic 

acids, including ximenynic acid. 

The bark contains 17% tannin. An extract 

of leaves gave positive test for 

presence of free triterpenoids. 

Alcoholic extract of the plant 

showed antiviral and hypotensive activity 

in primary tests on animals. 

A cyanogenic and antimicrobial 

constituent, sambunigrin, is present 

in the plant. Natural lignified products 

from the plant significantly stimulate 

iodination of human peripheral blood 

polymorphonuclear cells. 

The fruit contains 60.3 mg/100 g 

ascorbic acid. 

Xylia xylocarpa (Roxb.) Taub. 

Synonym ◮ X. dolabriformis Benth. 



Siddha/Tamil ◮ Irul. 

Folk ◮ Jambu, Suriaa. 

Action ◮ Bark—anthelmintic, 

antidiarrhoeal. Seed oil—antirheumatic. 

Bark and seed oil— 

antileprotic, used for ulcers and 

piles. A decoction of the bark 

powder is given with honey as 

avermifuge. 

The leaves contain beta-sitosterol 

and t-5-hydroxypipecolic acid which 

was shown to be an inhibitor of blood 


The bark from South India gave tannin 

17.1 and non-tans 11.1%; also contains 

triterpenes. The leaves contain 

2.8% of tannins. 

The seed yielded oil with oleic 21.5, 

linoleic 34.8, behenic 21.3 and lignoceric 

10.2% fatty acids. 

Xylocarpus granatum Koen. 

Synonym ◮ Carapa granatum (Koen.) 

Alston. 

Habitat ◮ Coastal regions of India, 

especially in Tamil Nadu. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Somanthiri, Kanlolanyey. 

English ◮ The Puzzle Fruit tree. 

Folk ◮ Pussur, Dhundul. 


febrifuge. 

The bark and leaves contain friedelin, 

beta-sitosterol, stigmasterol; tetranorterpenoids—oxomeliacderivatives. 

Bark, in addition, contains triacontanol. 

The heartwood contains 

beta-sitosterol and gedunin. Different 

parts of the plant contain tannins— 

fruit pulp 8.57, leaves 7.92, twig bark 

14.82, branch bark 20.58, bole bark 

23.73, branch wood 4.67 and bole wood 

4.94%. 

A closely related species X.gangeticus 

Prain occurs in West Bengal and 


Xylopia parviflora 

Hook. f. Thoms. 


Habitat ◮ Evergreen forests of Kerala 

up to an altitude of 600 m.

Folk ◮ Saanthu, Kalpottan (Kerala), 

Kalpootha, Chiddavintai (Tamil 

Nadu), ulli (Karnataka). 

Action ◮ Root bark—antiseptic, 

used for ulcers. Root bark, flowers, 

fruits—used for oral hygiene. 

Fruits of Xylopia aromatica are 

chewed with betel leaves; also used 

in cough and cold. The fruits, known 

as Suvaali Pippali, have no relationship 

with Pippali of Indian medicine. 

The plant contains pinenes. 

Xylosma longifolium Clos. 


Habitat ◮ Shady ravines of the 

Western Himalayas from Kashmir 

to Kumaon and on low hills up to 


Folk ◮ Sallu (Kumaon), Sailu 

(Himachal Pradesh, North India), 

Dandal (North India), Katahaar 

(Assam). 

Action ◮ An extract of young and 

tender leaves resembles opium in 

action and is used in Assam for 

intoxication. The herb exhibits 

antispasmodic, narcotic and 

sedative activity. It is prescribed 

in dysentery, restlessness and 

insomnia. 

Xyris commplanata R. Br. 

Xyris indica Linn. 725 

Synonym ◮ X. anceps HK. f. 

Family ◮ Xyridaceae. 


Folk ◮ Kochelachi-pullu (Kerala). 

Action ◮ Herb—antiseptic. Bruised 

leaves and their juice, dried 

into powder and mixed with 

brandy, are used for ringworm, 

itches, leprosy and other skin 

diseases. 

Xyris indica Linn. 

Synonym ◮ X. robusta Mart. 

Family ◮ Xyridaceae. 

Habitat ◮ West Bengal, Assam 

and Western Peninsula, generally 

on sandy soils and salt marshes. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Daadmaari, Dhobi 

Deeb. 

Folk ◮ Haabiduuba (Bengal), 

Kochelachi-pullu (Malayalam). 

Action ◮ Plant—used for ringworm, 

itches and leprosy. 

Xyris pauciflora Willd. (marshy areas 

in Bihar, West Bengal and Tamil 

Nadu) is prescribed as a sedative for 

insomnia. 

X

Yucca aloifolia Linn. 

Family ◮ Liliaceae, Agavaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Common in gardens in 

warm tropical regions. 

Action ◮ fruit—used as a purgative. 

Flowers contain aloifoline. Seeds 

contain indole melanins. The leaves 

contain tigogenin (76%), sarsasapogenin, 

gitogenin, hecogenin, smilagenin, 

neotigogenin and samogenin. 

Aloifoline is specifically active 

against Lewis lung-tumour as well as 

other transplanted mouse neoplasms. 

Several spirostanol saponin glycosidesfromrhizomesandinflorescence 


Yucca filamentosa Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Indigenous to southern 

United States; introduced into 


English ◮ Adam’s Needle. 

Action ◮ Rhizomes and leaves—used 

for the treatment of glandular and 

liver and gallbladder disorders; in 

bilious headaches accompanied by 

yellow tongue; in despondency and 

irritability. Root—tincture is used 

in the treatment of rheumatism; 

Y 

a poultice or salve is used in 


The leaves contain steroidal sapogenins 

sarsasapogenin, gitogenin, tigogenin, 

diosgenin, kammogenin, 

yuccagenin, hecogenin, manogenin, 

mexogenin, chlorogenin and smilagenin. 

The rhizomes contain mainly 

sarsasapogenin. 

Tincture of the herb is used in 

Homoeopathic medicine for bilious 

symptoms with headache. 

Yucca gloriosa Linn. 

Synonym ◮ Y. recurvifolia Salisb. 



introduced into India as a garden 

plant. 

English ◮ Spanish Dagger-Plant, 

Adam’s Needle. 

Action ◮ Fruit—anti-inflammatory, 

blood purifier, cholagogue. Used in 

rheumatism, oedema, bronchitis, 

asthma and chest diseases; also 

for ulcers, sores, dysentery and 

haemorrhagic septicaemia. 

Yuccas are an important source of 

steroidal sapogenins, precursors of 

sex-hormones and steroids. Related 

species, Yucca bacata, Y. glauca, and 

Y. brevifolica, are used for hormonal 

disturbances, menstrual disorders, 

varicose veins, arthritis and rheumatism.

Y 

728 Yucca gloriosa Linn. 

Oxycanthin, extracted from Yucca 

plant, is used for the treatment of pruritus. 

It also stimulates hair growth. 

The leaves of Yucca gloriosa contain 

sapogenins—titogenin derivatives, 

smilagenin, hecogenin, diosgenin, glo- 

riogenin, 12-beta-hydroxysmilagenin 

and chlorogenin. Beta-sitosterol is also 

reported from leaves. 

Essential oil fromleaves contains cis- 

9-nonadecene and cis-8-heptadecene 

as major constituents.

Zamia angustifolia Jacq. 

Family ◮ Cycadaceae. 

Habitat ◮ Native to tropical and 

sub-tropical America; introduced 

into Indian gardens. 

Action ◮ Plant—toxic, insecticidal. 

The leaves contain bilobetin, ginkgetin 

and sciadopitysin, which have 

been isolated from the leaves of Ginkgo 

biloba Linn. (Ginkgo extract is used for 

cerebral insufficiency and for improving 

mental performance in geriatric 

patients.) Other flavone compounds 

include amentoflavone, sequoiaflavone 

and amentoflavone derivatives. 

Zanonia indica Linn. 


Habitat ◮ The peninsular India, 

khasi hills of Meghalaya and the 


Ayurvedic ◮ Chirpoti, Chirpotaa, 

Kuntali, Tiktaka. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Penar-valli. 

Folk ◮ Parpoti. 

Action ◮ Fruits—cathartic, used 

for cough and asthma. Leaves— 

antispasmodic; topically applied to 

reduce inflammation and irritation. 

Plant—febrifuge. 

Z 

Zantedeschia aethiopica 

(L.) Spreng. 

Synonym ◮ Richardia africana 

Kunth. 


Habitat ◮ Cooler parts of Bihar and 

Orissa. 

Action ◮ Leaves—used as a poultice 

on sores, boils, wounds, burns, 

insect-bites and on painful parts of 

gout and rheumatism. 

The plant contains an acrid juice 

which is poisonous and irritant; irritation 

is caused by raphides of calcium 

oxalate. A toxic principle has been reported 

from the inflorescence, spathe 

and flower stem. It produced effect in 

rabbits ranging from hypo-aesthesia to 

paralysis. 

The flowers contain cytokinin along 

with swertisin, swertiajaponin, cyanidin, 

peonidin and ferulic acid. 

Roasting and boiling appear to destroy 

the toxicity of leaves. 

Zanthoxylum acanthopodium 

DC. 



from Kumaon to Bhutan, and in 

Khasi hills. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Tumburu.

730 Zanthoxylum armatum DC. 

Z 

Folk ◮ Nepaali Dhaniyaa, Timur. 

Action ◮ Plant—uses similar to 

Zanthoxylum armatum. 

The fruit gave tambulin and tambuletin. 

The stem bark contains lignans—sesamin, 

fargesin and eudesmin; 

triterpenoids—beta-amyrin and 

beta-amyrenone. 

The seeds are extensively used in the 

preparation of tooth powders. 

The essential oil from the seed (from 

Kanpur) contains d-linalool (37.6), dipentene+phellandrene 

(47), citral (6), 

esters as methyl cinnamate (6.2%) and 

free acids. Seeds from Sikkim contain 

50% d-linalool. 

Zanthoxylum armatum DC. 

Synonym ◮ Z. alatum Roxb. 

Z. var. planispinum Sieb. & Zucc. 


Habitat ◮ Jammu & Kashmir and 

Garhwal. 

English ◮ Toothache tree, Indian 

Prickly Ash. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Tumburu (fruit). 

Tejabala, Tejaswani, Tejohva, 

Tejovati (stem bark). 

Unani ◮ Faaghir, Kabaab-e- 

Khandaan. 

Siddha ◮ Tejyovathi. 

Folk ◮ Nepaali Dhaniyaa. 

Action ◮ Stem bark—used in cough, 

dyspnoea, hiccup, stomatitis, 

rheumatism. (The Ayurvedic 

Pharmacopoeia of India.) Stemsand 

thorns—hypoglycaemic. Bark— 

used for cleaning teeth, also for 

treating diarrhoea. Fruits, seeds, 

bark—carminative, antispasmodic, 

anthelmintic. Fruits and seeds— 

used as a tonic in fever, dyspepsia 

and skin diseases. Essential oil of 

the fruit—antibacterial, antifungal 

and deodorant. Used in tooth 

powders. 

The essential oil from dried fruits 

contains linalool (64.1%), linalyl acetate, 

citral, geraniol methyl cinnamate, 

limonene and sabinene. 

Dried bark and branches contain 

lignans—sesamin, fargesin, eudesmin; 

a lactone pulviatide; dictamine, 8hydroxydictamine 

and gamma-fagarine; 

magnoflorine and xanthoplanine. 

The root contains magnoflorine, xanthoplanine, 

skimmianine, dictamine 

and gamma-fagarine. Seeds contain 

flavonoids tambulin and tambulol. 

Dosage ◮ Stem bark—10–20g for 

decoction; fruit—3–4 g. (API, Vol. 

II; Vol. IV.) 

Zanthoxylum americanum Mill. 


Habitat ◮ Canada and North 

America. 

English ◮ Toothache tree, Prickly 

Ash. 

Action ◮ Bark, berries—used 

internally and externaly to treat 

rheumatism and toothache; also 

for circulatory insufficiency and 

fevers.

The bark contains alkaloids gammafagarine, 

beta-fagarine, magnoflorine, 

laurifoline, nitidine, chelerythrine, 

tembetarine, candicine; coumarins include 

xanthyletine, xanthoxyletin and 

alloxanthyletin. 

Related species, found in India, give 

more or less similar pattern of chemical 

constituents and therapeutic activities. 

The bark of Z. armatum is 

used for cleaning teeth. The seeds of 

Z. acanthopodium are extensively used 

in the preparation of tooth-powders. 

The fruits of Z. budrunga and the 

root of Z. nitidum are prescribed for 

toothache. 

Zanthoxylum budrunga 

Wall. ex DC. 

Synonym ◮ Z. limonella (Dennst.) 

Alston. 

Z. rhetsa DC. 

Fagara budrunga Roxb. 

F. rhetsa Roxb. 


Habitat ◮ Meghalaya, foothills of 

Assam and Peninsular India. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Tumburu (Kerala), 

Ashvaghra, Tejabala. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Tratechai. 

Action ◮ Fruits—used for diarrhoea, 

dyspepsia; asthma, bronchitis; 

rheumatism; diseases of the mouth 

and teeth. Pericarp—astringent, 

digestive, stimulant. Essential 

oil—disinfectant, used in infective 

dermatosis. Bark—cholinergic, diuretic, 

hypoglycaemic, spasmolytic. 

Root—emmenagogue, febrifuge. 

Zanthoxylum oxyphyllum Edgew. 731 

The trunk-bark from Assam gave alkaloids—chelerythrine 

(0.014%), evodiamine 

(0.03%) and hydoxyevodiamine 

(0.05%). The essential oil from 

the fruit contains l-sabinene, alphaterpinene, 

beta-phellandrene, 1,4-cineole, 

decanal, octanal, terpinen-4-ol, 

dihydrocarveol, l-cryptone and cuminaldehyde. 

The essential oil exhibits anti-inflammatory, 

anaesthetic and antagonisic 

activity. 

Z. nitidum (Roxb.) DC. (Bihar eastwards 

to Sikkim and Assam) is known 

as Tezmul in Assam. The root is used 

in toothache and stomachache. 

Theplantisusedasoneoftheingredients 

in the preparation of pharmaceutical 

tablets given to drug addicts 

for the treatment of withdrawl symptoms. 

Methanolic extract of the roots gave 

nitidine, chelerythrine and isogaridine. 

The extract showed antitumour 

property. 

Z. ovalifolium Wight (Eastern Himalayas, 

Meghalaya, the Western 

Ghats of South Kanara and Kerala) 

is known as Armadalu in Karnataka 

and Diang-shih in Meghalaya (Khasi 

Hills). The leaf contains diosmetin and 

the heartwood contains flavonoids of 

dihydrofisetin and cinnamaldehyde. 

The bark and fruit possess properties 

similar to other species of the genus. 

Zanthoxylum oxyphyllum 

Edgew. 

Synonym ◮ Xanthoxylon violaceum 

Wall. 

Fagara oxyphylla (Edgew.) Engl. 

Z

732 Zataria multiflora Boiss. 

Z 



Garhwal to Bhutan at 1,800– 

2,700 m, and in Khasi Hills at 1,200– 

1,800 m. 

Folk ◮ Mezenga (Assam); Timur, 

Bhansi (Nepal). 

Action ◮ Bark—stimulant, stomachic, 

sudorific; used in colic; also 

administered in fevers. Fruits— 

prescribed for dyspepsia, also for 

asthma, bronchitis, rheumatism 

and toothache. 

Alkaloids, xanthoxyphyllin and 

corydine and a lactone 3,5-bis furan 2one 

have been isolated from the roots. 

Stem bark gave zanoxyline and rhetsinine. 

Dried branches with bark gave 

lignans (sesamin, eudesmin and epieudesmin), 

fluoroquinolone alkaloid 

gamma-fagarine, triterpenoid lupeol, 

beta-sitosterol and syringaresinol. 

Zataria multiflora Boiss. 


Habitat ◮ Iran, Afghanistan and 

Pakistan. Imported into India. 

English ◮ Wild Thyme. 

Unani ◮ Saatar Faarsi, Al-Saatar, 

Origanon. 

Action ◮ Herb—stimulant, antiinflammatory, 

anodyne, diaphoretic, 

diuretic, emmenagogue, 

anthelmintic, antilithic. Detoxifies 

liver, stomach and intestines. Used 

for inflammatory conditions of the 

liver. 

Essential oil contained phenols 69% 

(consisted mainly of carvacrol and 

traces of thymol) and nonphenols 31% 

(including p-cymene, cineol, borneol, 

zatarinol). Besides essential oil, the 

drug contains alkanes, beta-sitosterol, 

betulin, fatty acids and triterpenic ketones. 

Zea mays Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Native to South America. 

Grown as a food crop mainly in 

Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Madhya 

Pradesh, Bihar, Andhra Pradesh 

and Jammu and Kashmir. 

English ◮ Maize, Corn, Indian Corn. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Mahaa-Kaaya. 

Unani ◮ Makkaa, Zurraa Makkaa. 

Action ◮ Corn Silk—diuretic, 

urinary demulcent, antilithic. Used 

for cystitis, urethritis, prostatitis, 

irritation of the urinary tract by 

phosphatic and uric acids, nephritis, 

uncontrollable bladder, retention, 

pus in the urine, bed-wetting. 

The corn silk gave saponins; alantoin; 

sterols, especially beta-sitosterol 

and stigmasterol; alkaloid hordenine; 

polyphenols; mucilage; potassium; vitamin 

C and K; cryptoxanthin, anthocyanins, 

plant acids, tannin. 

The glycoproteins, seperated from 

corn silk, inhibited IgE antibody formation 

and enhanced IgG and IgM 

formation; they showed antiviral and 

antitumour activities.

Zehneria umbellata Thw. 

Synonym ◮ Melothria heterophylla 

(Lour.) Cogn. 

Solena heterophylla (Lour.) Cogn. 


Habitat ◮ Throughout India 

ascending up to 2,100 m. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Pulivanji. 

Folk ◮ Tarali. Gometi (Maharashtra). 

Banakakaraa (Punjab). Kudri 

(Bengal). 

Action ◮ Root—used for dysuria 

and spermatorrhoea. Leaves— 

topically applied to skin inflammation. 

The seed contains linolenic and oleic 

acids; the root gave columbin. 

Zingiber cassumunar Roxb. 

Synonym ◮ Z. montanum (Koen.) 

Link ex. A. Dietr. 

Z. purpureum Rosc. 


Habitat ◮ Wild throughout India, 

also cultivated in tropical parts of 

India. 

English ◮ Cassumunar Ginger. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Vanardraka, Peja, Peyu, 

Aardikaa, Shringaberikaa. 

Folk ◮ Adarakhi, Bana-adarakhi. 

Action ◮ Rhizome—carminative, 

stimulant, antispasmodic. Used for 

diarrhoea and colic. 

The occurance of an active diastase 

in the rhizome has been reported. 

Zingiber officinale Rosc. 733 

The enzyme resembles in its activity 

with alpha-amylase of Aspergillus 

oryzae. The rhizome gave an essential 

oil consisting of terpinen-4-ol (about 

35%); other constituents are alphaand 

beta-pinene, sabinene, myrcene, 

terpinene, limonene, p-cymene and 

terpinolene. The fresh rhizomes contain 

phenyl butenoic dimers, along 

with cyclohexane derivatives. Hexane 

extract of the rhizome contained 

(E)-4-(3 ′ 4 ′ -dimethoxyphenyl)-but-3en-1-ol, 

known as compound D. Compound 

D showed antispasmodic effect 

on guinea-pig ileum and tracheal 

smooth muscle, also a dose-related 

uterine relaxant effect in situ in nonpregnant 

rats; in pregnant rats the response 

varied with the period of pregnancy. 

Aqueous extract of the rhizome 

showed smooth muscle relaxant and 

anti-inflammatory activity. Antioxidant 

activity was found to be more 

intense than that of known curcuminoid 

antioxidants. It is attributed to 

cassumunin A. 

Zingiber officinale Rosc. 


Habitat ◮ Native to Southeast Asia; 

now cultivated mainly in Kerala, 

Andhra Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, 

West Bengal, Maharashtra. 

English ◮ Ginger. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Fresh rhizome— 

Aardraka, Aadrikaa, Shrngibera, 

shrngavera, Katubhadra. Dried rhizome—Shunthi, 

Naagara, Naagaraa, 

Naagaraka, Aushadha, Mahaushad- 

Z

734 Zingiber zerumbet Rosc. ex.Sm. 

Z 

ha, Vishvaa, Vishvabheshaja, 

Vishvaaushadha. 

Unani ◮ Fresh rhizome—Zanjabeele-Ratab, 

Al-Zanjabeel. Dried 

rhizome—zanjabeel, Zanjabeel-eyaabis. 

Siddha ◮ Fresh rhizome—Inji, 

Allam, Lokottai. Dried rhizome— 

chukku, Sunthi. 

Action ◮ Rhizome—antiemetic, 

antiflatulent, hypocholesterolaemic, 

anti-inflammatory, antispasmodic, 

expectorant, circulatory stimulant, 

diaphoretic, increases bioavailability 

of prescription drugs. Used 

for irritable bowel and diarrhoea, 

colds and influenza. Showed 

encouraging results in migraine 

and cluster headache (J Ethnopharmacol, 

1990, 29, 267–273; Aust 

JMedHerbalism,1995, 7/3, 69– 

78; Natural Medicines Comprehensive 

Database, 2007.) The 


recommends dried rhizomes in 

dyspepsia, loss of appetite, tympanitis, 

anaemia, rheumatism, cough 

and dyspnoea; fresh rhizomes in 

constipation, colic, oedema and 

throat infections. 

Key application ◮ For dyspepsia 

and prevention of motion sickness 

(German Commission E); vomiting 

of pregnancy, anorexia, bronchitis 

and rheumatic complaints (The 

British Herbal Compendium); 

as a post-operative antiemetic. 

(ESCOP). 

The rhizome contains an essential 

oil containing monoterpenes, mainly 

geranial and neral; and sesquiterpenes, 

mainly beta-sesquiphellandrene, betabisabolene, 

ar-curcumene and alphazingiberene; 

pungent principles, consisting 

of gingerols, shogaols and related 

phenolic ketone derivatives. Other 

constituents include diarylheptenones, 

diterpenes, gingesulphonic acid and 

monoacyldigalactosyl glycerols. 

Gingerol and shogaol have been 

shown to suppress gastric contractions. 

Both fresh and dried rhizomes 

suppress gastric secretion and reduce 

vomiting. Gingerol and shogaol have 

gained importance due to their sedative, 

anti-inflammatory, antipyretic, 

analgesic, hypotensive and hepatoprotective 

activities. 

Cardiotonic effects of ginger has 

been attributed to 6-and 8-shagaols 

and gingerols. (Antithrombotic effects 

remain unconfirmed.) Antimigraine 

effect is due to ginger’s ability to decrease 

platelet aggregation. It also acts 

as a potent inhibitor of prostaglandins 

which enhance release of substance P 

from trigeminal fibers. (PDR, 2004.) 

Indian ginger is considered only second 

to Jamaican in quality. 

There are three main types of Indian 

ginger—Cochin ginger (light brown 

or yellowish grey; Calicut ginger from 

Malabar (orange or reddish brown, resembling 

African ginger) and Kolkata 

ginger (greyish brown to greyish blue). 

Zingiber zerumbet Rosc. ex.Sm. 

Synonym ◮ Z. spurium Koen. 

Amomum spurium Gmel. 

A. sylvestre Poir. 

Family ◮ Zingiberaceae.

Habitat ◮ Throughout India from the 

Himalayas, southwards. Cultivated 

in Asian tropics. 

English ◮ Zerumbet Ginger. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Mahaabhari-vachaa 

(also equated with Alpinia galanga), 

Sthula-granthi (also equated with 

Alpinia speciosa). Source of 

Martinique Ginger, used as Shunthi 

in Indian medicine. 

Unani ◮ Narkachoor, Zarambaad. 

(Curcuma caesia is also equated 

with Narkachoor.) 

Folk ◮ Karrallamu (Telugu). 

Action ◮ Rhizomes—used for cough, 

asthma; colic; intestinal worms, and 

in leprosy and skin diseases. Oil— 

antiseptic. 

The rhizome contains several flavonoid 

glycosides and curcumin. 

The oil of Zerumbet contains about 

13% monoterpenes and several sesquiterpenes 

of which humulene and 

zerumbone are major constituents. 

The major constituent of monoterpenes 

is camphene. Unlike the oil of Z. 

officinale, Zerumbet oil does not contain 

any methyl heptanone; instead, it 

contains camphor. 

Zerumbone inhibits the growth of 

Micrococcus pyogenes var. aureus and 

Mycobacterium tuberculosis. 

Indian samples contain only 37.5% 

of zerumbone, while those from Fiji 

58.7, Vietnam 72.3 and Tahiti 65.3%. 

Zizania caduciflora Hand.-Mazz. 


Ziziphus jujuba (Lam.) Gaertn. non-Mill. 735 

Habitat ◮ North-east India (as 

an aquatic grass). (It forms an 

important parat of the floating grass 

island in Logtak Lake, Manipur.) 

Cultivated in China. 

English ◮ Zizania. 

Action ◮ Clums, rhizomes, grains— 

used in China against anaemia and 

fevers, also for heart, kidney and 

liver affections. The herb exhibits 

diuretic activity; leaves are rich in 

vitamin C (142 mg/100 g). 

Ziziphus jujuba 

(Lam.) Gaertn. non-Mill. 

Synonym ◮ Z. mauritiana Lam. 

Rhamnus jujuba L. 


Habitat ◮ Throughout India and in 

the outer Himalayas up to 1,350 m. 

English ◮ Indian Jujube, Common 

Jujube. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Badar, Kola. 

Unani ◮ Ber. 

Siddha ◮ Handai. 

Action ◮ Fruits—wild var.: astringent, 

anodyne, cooling, stomachic, 

styptic. Ripe and dry cultivated 

var.: mild laxative, expectorant. 

Seeds—antidiarrhoeal. Kernels— 

antispasmodic, sedative, antiemetic. 

Leaves—astringent and diaphoretic. 

Stem bark—astringent, used in 

diarrhoea. Root bark—juice 

purgative, externally applied to 

rheumatic inflammations and gout. 

Leaves and twigs—paste applied to 

Z

736 Ziziphus jujuba Mill. 

Z 

abscesses, boils and carbuncles and 

in strangury. 

Leaves gave protopine and berberine; 

exhibited anticholinergic activity. 

FruitsgavecyclicAMPandcyclicGMP, 

Sisyphus saponins I, II and III; jujuboside 

B and p-coumaroylates of alphitolic 

acid. Seeds gave saponins—jujubosides 

A and B; the saponin yields the 

sapogenin—jujubogenin. 

AvarietygrowninHaryana(Naazuka) 

contains sugars 10.5% and ascorbic 

acid 205 mg/100 g. 

Dosage ◮ Dried fruit pulp, devoid 

of seed—3–6 g; stem bark—3– 

5gpowder,10–20gfordecoction. 


Ziziphus jujuba Mill. 

Synonym ◮ Z. sativa Gaertn. 

Z. vulgaris Lam. 


Habitat ◮ Native to North China. 

Also found in Punjab, Himachal 

Pradesh, up to 1,950 m, eastwards 

to West Bengal. 

English ◮ Chinese Tsao. 

Unani ◮ Unnaab. 

Action ◮ Fruit—a nourishing, 

tonic, emollient, antitussive, 

antiallergic; protects liver and 

prevents stress ulcer formation. 

Seed—used for dry cough and 

skin eruptions. Kernel—used in 

insomnia. Bark—used for ulcers 

and wounds. 


3-O-glucosides, rutinosides and diglu- 

cosides of quercetin, rhamnetin and 

eriodictyol, also C-glucosides. The 

bark yields cyclopeptide alkaloids— 

sativanines A, B, C-G; also alkaloids— 

frangulanine, nummularine B and mucronineD.Theberriesgavesaponins 

of dammaran type, known as Sisyphus 

saponins; jujubosides, zizybeosides 

and zizyvyosides, together with 

pentacyclic triterpenoids. Flavonoids 

include naringenin glycosides, vomifoloil 

and roseoside. (Also see WHO 

monograph.) 

Antiallergic activity is due to high 

levels of both cyclic AMP and cyclic 

GMP in the fruit extract. Sedative 

activity and in vitroantitumour activity 

has been shown experimentally. 

Seed extract produces a transient fall 

in blood pressrue and a prolongation 

of thiobarbital-induced sleeping time 

in animals. 

Ziziphus nummularia 

(Burm. f) Wight & Arn. 

Synonym ◮ Z. rotundifolia Lam. 

Rhamnus nummularia Burm. f. 


English ◮ Wild Jujube. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Karkandhu. 

Unani ◮ Jharber, Sadarber. 

Action ◮ Fruit—cooling and 

astringent. Prescribed for bilious 

affections. Leaves—used in scabies 


The root bark contains 12% of tannin 

and cyclopeptide alkaloids—nummularines 

A, B and C, mucronine D

and amphibine H. The leaves contain 

ascorbic acid. Nummularine M, R 

and S, besides frangufoline have been 

isolated from the stem bark. Nummularine 

R and S showed antibacterial 

activity against Gram-negative 

bacteria, while frangufoline was active 

against both Gram-negative and 

Gram-positive bacteria. The alkaloid 

fraction, obtained from the bark, 

showed significant analgesic activity. 

Ziziphus oenoplia Mill. 

Synonym ◮ Rhamnus oenoplia L. 


Habitat ◮ North India and both the 

Peninsulas. 

English ◮ Jackal Jujube. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Laghu-badara, Shrgaalabadari. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Soorai. 

Action ◮ Fruits—stomachic. Root— 

given for hyperacidity and ascaris 

infection. 

Stem bark and root bark contain cyclopeptide 

alkaloids—zizyphines A, B, 

C, D, E, F and G, and zizyphinine. The 

bark contains 12% tannin. 

Aerial parts exhibit diuretic and hypotensive 

activity. 

Ziziphus rugosa Lam. 



Kumaon eastwards, Bihar, Assam, 

in Central and South India. 

Ziziphus xylopyra Willd. 737 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Charai Kattu Ilandai, 

Kottaimaram, Todari. 

Folk ◮ Churnaa, Sekaraa (Bihar); 

Torana (Gujarat). 


Flowers—used in 

prescriptions for menorrhagia. 

Stem and fruit—hypotensive. 

The bark contains vanillic acid, betulin, 

betulinic acid, kaempferol, quercetin, 

myricetin, apigenin and apigenin-7-O-glucoside. 

The bark also contains 

several N-formyl cyclopeptide alkaloids. 

The triterpene saponins isolated 

from the bark showed CNS depressant, 

tranquilizing and analgesic activity in 

albino rats and produced no hepatotoxicity. 

The cyclopeptide alkaloids of 

the plant show antibacterial as well as 


Ziziphus trinervia Roxb. 

Synonym ◮ Z. glabrata Heyne ex 

Roth. 


Habitat ◮ Gujarat, Western Ghats 

of Tamil Nadu and Kerala at low 

elevations. 

English ◮ Jagged Jujube. 

Siddha/Tamil ◮ Karakattam. 

Action ◮ Leaf—depurative; employed 

to purify blood and as an alterative 

in chronic venereal affections. 

Ziziphus xylopyra Willd. 


Z

738 Zornia diphylla (L.) Pers. 

Z 

Habitat ◮ Lac host in Madhya 

Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh and 

Punjab. 

Ayurvedic ◮ Ghontaa, Ghonta-Phala. 

(Rangeeni lac is recovered from the 

tree.) 

Siddha ◮ Kottei. Kombarakku (lac). 


Fruit contains catechol-type tannins 

(8–12%), bark contains 7.2% tannins. 

Alcoholic extract of the bark possesses 

anti-nociceptive, anti-convulsant 

and anti-inflammatory properties. 

The plant contains alkaloids, amphibine 

H and nummularine K. Both 

the alkaloids showed significant antimicrobial 

activity. 

Host plant of Laccifer sp. (L. indicola 

Kapur, synonym L. indica Misra 

and L. jhansiensis Misra) is Z. mauritiana 

Lam. in Bihar and Jhansi (Uttar 

Pradesh). Lac is styptic, used in haematemesis; 

promotes tissue regeneration 

and wound healing. Applied to 

carries and diseased dentition. 

Zornia diphylla (L.) Pers. 


Habitat ◮ Throughout plains of 

India, ascending up to 1,200 m in 

Kumaon. 

Folk ◮ Samraapani (Gujarat), 

Dupatiyaa. 

Action ◮ Herb—used for the 

treatment of dysentery. Root— 

given to induce sleep. 

The herb, collected at the flowering 

stage from Mumbai, contained sil- 

ica 3.87, calcium 1.02, magnesium 1.00, 

potassium 0.53, phosphorus 0.18%; iodine 

content 0.026–00.049 ppm (drymatter 

basis). 

Zosima orientalis Hoffm. 

Synonym ◮ Z. absinthifolia Link. 


Habitat ◮ West Asia. Recorded from 

Maharashtra. 

Action ◮ Herb—used for cough and 

bowel disorders. 

The fruits and roots yield a mixture 

of coumarin lactones, 1.5% and 3.2% respectively; 

these include two isomeric 

dihydrofurocoumarins—zosimin and 

deltonin. On saponification, zosimin 

yielded a hydroxyacetone called zosimol 

and cis-2,3-dimethyl acrylic acid. 

It showed antitumour activity against 

Ehrlich ascites cells in vitro. 

Herbal cheese is prepared from the 

fresh leaves and stems in Turkey. 

Zygophyllum simplex Linn. 


Habitat ◮ Arid and sandy tracts 

of Punjab, Rajasthan and Gujarat. 

Folk ◮ Alethi (Punjab), Lunio, 

Lunwaa (Rajasthan). 

Action ◮ Leaves and seeds—an 

infusion is applied to the eyes in 

ophthalmia and glucoma. Seeds— 

anthelmintic.

An acylated glycoside was isolated 

from aerial parts. Isorhamnetin, 

its 3-O-glucoside, kaempferol-3-Orutinoside, 

sitosterol glucoside and 

quinovic acid-3 alpha-L-rhamnoside 

were present in the herb. 

Zygophyllum simplex Linn. 739 

An infusion of the leaves acts as 

a skin cleanser. The plant contains 

free ascorbic acid. The leaves and 

fruits contain kaempferol; quercetin 

(0.10 mg/g dry weight) is present in 

fruits. 

Z

Abbreviations 

Appendix 

5-HT 5-hydroxytryptamine 

ACE Angiotensin converting enzyme 

ACTH Andrenocorticotrophic hormone 

AFI The Ayurvedic Formulary of India 

Revised English Edition 

API The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India, PartI,Volume 

I 1989, Volume II 1999, III 2001, IV 2004. 

Aq. Aqueous 

BP Blood pressure 

British Herbal 

Compendium 

British Herbal 

Pharmacopoeia 

Ed. Bradley PR., published by British Herbal Medicine 

Association, 1992. 

Published by British Herbal Medicine Association, 

Exeter, UK., 1996. 

bw. Body weight 

CCRAS Central Council for Research in Ayurveda and Siddha, 

New Delhi. Standard Nomenclature of Ayurvedic 

Medicinal Plants. 

CCRUM Central Council for Research in Unani Medicine 

CIMAP Central Institute of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants, 

Lucknow. Dictionary of Indian Medicinal Plants, 

Akhtar Husain et al., 1992. 

cm Centimeter 

CNS Central nervous system 

CVS Cardiovascular system 

d Day(s) 

DOPA Dihydroxyphenylalanine 

ECG Electrocardiogram

742 Appendix 

E. coli Escherichia coli 

ESCOP European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. 

Completely revised second edition. 

ESR Erythrocyte sedimentation rate 

EtOH Ethyl alcohol 

Ext Extract 

g Gram 

g/kg Grams per kilogram 

GABA Gamma aminobutyric acid 

German 

Commission E 

Monographs (1998) and expanded monographs (2000) 

published by American Botanical Council. 

GIT Gastrointestinal tract 

GOT Glutamic-oxaloacetic transaminase 

GPT Glutamic-pyruvic transaminase 

Hb Haemoglobin 

HDL High density lipoprotein 

ICMR Indian Council of Medical Research, New Delhi 

Ig. Immunoglobulin 

i.m. Intramuscular 

i.p. Intraperitoneal 

i.v. Intravenous 

IHD Ischaemic heart disease 

IU International units 

KCal Kilocalorie 

l Litre 

LD50 Median lethal dose 

LDL Low density lipoproteins 

L-Dopa L-3,4-Dihydroxyphenylalanine 

LH Luteinizing hormones 

mcg Microgram 

mg Milligram

min Minimum 

min Minute(s) 

ml Millilitre, 20 drops of water, 1 cc 

mm Millimetre 

mp. Melting point 

No. Number 

PDR PDR for Herbal Medicines, Third Edition, 2005, 

Published by Thomson PDR, Montvale. 

pet. Petroleum 

po Per oral 

ppm Parts per million 

sc Subcutaneous 

SGOT Serum glutamic-oxaloacetic transaminase 

SGPT Serum glutamic-pyruvic transaminase 

Sh Shigella 

sp./spp. (one) (several) species 

Staph. Staphylococcus 

Strept. Streptococcus 

tsp 1 heaped teaspoonful: 3 gram 

1 levelled teaspoonful: 1.5 gram or 4 ml 

tbsp 1 tablespoonful: 3 tsp. or 15 ml 

UTI Urinary tract infection 

UV Ultraviolet 

v. Volume 

VD Venereal diseases 

VLDL Very low density lipoproteins 

Vib. Vibro 

w/w Weight per weight 

WHO Monographs on Selected Medicinal Plants Vol. 1,2,3. 

wk. Week 

wt. Weight 

Appendix 743

Commission E, ESCOP, WHO, 


Appendix 745 

In 1978, German Federal Health Agency (now called the Federal Institute for 

Drugs and Medical Devices) established an expert committee on herbal remedies 

(called Commission E). The Commission E is composed of 24 members, including 

physicians, pharmacists, non-medical practitioners, pharmacologists, toxicologists, 

biostatisticians, and representatives of the pharmaceutical industry. Fifty 

percent are experts from clinical/therapeutic field. There are 13 full university 

professors on the Commission. The interdisciplinary nature of Commission E is 

unique in the world. The safety and efficacy of over 380 herbs have been assessed 

by the Commission. 

Since 1995, the Commission E has not issued any new monographs. Data from 

studies published subsequent to the Commission E monographs is now used for 

the preparation of ESCOP (European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy) 

monographs. Fully revised and updated 80 monographs have been published 

by ESCOP in its first bound edition in 2003. This is the culmination of 14 years 

work by the ESCOP Scientific Committee involving about 50 committee delegates 

from 15 European countries. Members of ESCOP include experts from Austria, 

Belgium, Denmark, France, Germany, Ireland, Italy, Netherlands, Norway, Spain, 

Sweden, Switzerland and United Kingdom. 

The World Health Organization (WHO) published Guidelines for the Assessment 

of Herbal Medicines in 1991. Subsequently, The WHO Monographs on Selected 

Medicinal Plants, Vol1waspublishedin1999andVol2in2003. Vol. 3isthe 

latest addition. These volumes contain 28, 29 and 31 monographs respectively. 

American Botanical Council, Austin, Texas 78714-4345, published The Complete 

German Commission E Monographs (1998) and Herbal Medicine—Expanded 

Commission E Monographs (2000). 

First bound edition of ESCOP monographs has been published by ESCOP, 

Argyle House, Gandy Street, Exeter EX4 3LS, UK, in collaboration with George 

Thieme, Germany and Thieme, 333 Seventh Avenue, New York, NY 10001, USA. 

WHO monographs, published by The World Health Organization, Geneva, 

Switzerland, are available worldwide through its regional offices. 

The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India, Part I, Vol. I was brought out in 1989, 

Vol. II in 1999, Vol. III in 2001 and Vol. IV in 2004. These volumes cover 

80,78,100 and 68 single herbs, respectively. 

The working format of laying down the standard on single drugs of plant origin 

was prepared more or less on the pattern of Indian Pharmacopoeia (IP), British 

Pharmacopoeia (BP)andUnited States Pharmacopoeia (USP), but “properties and 

action” of the herbal drug are not evidence based. These are based on scriptural 

references and traditional applications of classical polyherbal formulation, and 

on the Ayurvedic concepts.

746 Appendix 

Following explanation has been given in Vol. I: 

“Since the effort is to compile pharmacopoeial monographs of Ayurvedic drugs, 

the accent on classical attributes of respective drugs according to the doctrine 

of Rasa, Guna, Veerya, Vipaaka and Karma has not been lost sight of, though 

some of them appear to be abstract and subjective in the absence of an established 

experimental methods to qualify them.” (Same explanation has been given in Vol. 

IV.) 

Rasa, Guna, Veerya, Vipaaka and Karma, as well as therapeutic uses of the 

herbal drug have been given in Sanskrit (Roman script). 

Non-Ayurvedic readers are advised to refer to the Second Revised English 

Edition of The Ayurvedic Formulary of India, Part I, 2003, for approximate English 

equivalents of diseases and technical terms mentioned in The Ayurvedic 

Pharmacopoeia of India. Therapeutic uses and important formulations in the 

Pharmacopoeia have been quoted from the recognized Ayurvedic classics (in 

Sanskrit). 

The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India is a legal document and every licensed 

manufacturer of Ayurvedic medicines will have to comply with the standards 

prescribed in it.

Divergent Plant Sources of Important Classical Herbs 

PLANT DRUG ACCEPTED SOURCE OTHER SOURCES 

Agaru Aquilaria agallocha 

(Thymelaeaceae) 

Bhaarangi Clerodendrum serratum 

(Verbanaceae) 

Bhuunimba 

Kiraatatikta 

Swertia chirata 

(Gentianaceae) 

Daaruharidraa Berberis aristata 

(Berberidaceae) 

Duraalabha/ 

Dhanvayaasa 

Hapushaa/ 

Havushaa 

Fagonia cretica 

(Zygophyllaceaea) 

Juniperus communis 

(Pinaceae) 

Jivanti Leptadenia reticulata 

(Asclepiadaceae) 

Muurvaa Marsdenia tenacissima 


South India: Dysoxylum malabaricum 

(Meliaceae) 

South India: Premna herbacea 

(Verbanaceae)Bengal:Picrasma 

quassioides (Simarubaceae) 

South India: Andrographis paniculata 

(Acanthaceae) 

South India: Coscinium fenestratum 

(Menispermaceae) 

South India: Tragia involucrata 

(Euphorbiaceae) 

South India: Sphaeranthus indicus 

(Asteraceae) 

South India: Holostemma rheedei 


South India: Chonemorpha macrophylla 

(Apocynaceae) Sansevieria roxburghiana 

(Liliaceae) (IMPCOPS, Chennai) 

Naagakeshara Mesua ferrea (Clusiaceae) SouthIndia: Calophyllum inophyllum 

(Clusiaceae)TamilNadu:Cinnamomum 

wightii (Lauraceae)andDillenia 

pentagyna (Dilleniaceae)fruits 

Paashaanabheda Bergenia ligulata 

(Saxifragaceae) 

Substitute: Aerva lanata 

(Amaranthaceae) 

Prasaarini Paederia foetida 

(Rubiaceae) 

Priyangu Callicarpa macrophylla 

(Verbenaceae) 

Substitute: Prunus mahaleb 

(Rosaceae) 

Appendix 747 

South India: Rotula aquatica 

(Boraginaceae), Homonoia riparia 

(Euphorbiaceae) Gujarat: Iris pseudacorus 

(Iridaceae) 

South India: Merremia tridentata 

(Convolvulaceae) (An altogether different 

plant) 

South India: Callicarpa tomentosa 

(Verbenaceae); Zanthoxylum rhetsa 

(Rutaceae); Aglaia roxburghiana fruits 

(Meliaceae); Myristica malabarica 

(Myristicaceae) dried flowers (IMPCOPS, 

Chennai) 

Prishniparni Uraria picta (Fabaceae) SouthIndia: Pseudarthria viscida 

(Fabaceae) Kerala: Desmodium 

gangeticum (Papilionaceae)

748 Appendix 

PLANT DRUG ACCEPTED SOURCE OTHER SOURCES 

Raasnaa Pluchea lanceolata 

(Asteraceae) 

Substitute: Alpinia galanga 

(Zingiberaceae) 

Renukaa Vitex agnus-castus 

(Verbenaceae) 

Sahachara Barleria prionitis 

(Acanthaceae) 

South India: Alpinia calcarata and Alpinia 

galanga (Zingiberaceae)AndhraPradesh: 

Dodonaea viscosa (Sapindaceae)Eastern 

India: Vanda roxburghii (Orchidaceae) 

Bihar: Lepidagathis trinervis 

(Acanthaceae)MadhyaPradesh: 

Blepharispermum subsessile (Compositae) 

South India: Vitex altissima, Vitex 

negundo (Verbenaceae)InSouthIndia, 

fruits of Vitex spp. are sold as Arenuka. 

Fruits of Piper aurantiacum (Piperaceae) 

are used as Harenukaa/Renukaa. 

(IMPCOPS, Chennai.) 

South India: Niligirianthus ciliatus, 

(Acanthaceae) Kerala: Ecbolium viride 

(Nila Sahachara), Justica betonica (Shveta 

Sahachara) (Acanthaceae) 

Saarivaa Hemidesmus indicus South India: Decalepis hamiltonii; 

Shveta Saarivaa (Asclepiadaceae) Cryptolepis buchanani (Asclepiadaceae); 

Ichnocarpus frutescens used as Krishna 

Saarivaa (Apocynaceae) Kerala, Tamil 

Nadu, Karnataka: Decalepis hamiltonii 


Shati Hedychium spicatum 

(Zingiberaceae) 

Shankhapushpi Convolvulus pluricaulis 

(Convolvulaceae) 

Shringi 

Karkatashringi 

Pistacia integerrima (galls) 

(Anacardiaceae) 

Vidhaari Pueraria tuberosa 

(Fabaceae) 

South India: Kaempeferia galanga, 

Curcuma zedoaria (Zingiberaceae) 

South India: Evolvulus alsinoides, Clitoria 

ternatea (Convolvulaceae and Fabaceae 

respectively) Bengal: Canscora decussata 

(Gentianaceae), Lavandula bipinnata 

(Labiateae; Lamiaceae) 

South India: Rhus semialata galls, Rhus 

succedanea galls (Anacardiaceae). 

South India: Adenia hondala 

(Passifloraceae); Ipomoea paniculata 

(Convolvulaceae); Cycas circinalis 

(Cycadaceae) 

Accepted Sources: Based on Appendix of Ayurvedic Formulary of India,2003. 

Other sources: Based on Ayurvedic Drugs and their Plant Sources, V V Sivarajan and Indira 

Balachandran, 1994; Formulary of Ayurvedic Medicines,IMPCOPS,Chennai,1987;K.Vasudevan 

Nair et al., Ancient Sc Life, 5(1): 49–53, 1985; Plants of Bhava Prakash and Medicinal Plants 

used in Ayurveda, Rashtriya Ayurveda Vidyapeeth, 1999, 1998.

Important Herbs of Non-Indian Origin 

used in Unani system of Medicine 

BOTANICAL 

NAME 

Achillea 

millefolium 

COMMON 

NAME 

ENGLISH 

NAME 

Baranjaasif Yarrow, 

Milfoil 

HABITAT MAIN 

SOURCE 

Eurasia, North America, Pakistan 

temperate zones 

Agaricus albus Ghaariqoon White Agaric Fungus grown on old pine 

trees in South and Central 

Europe 

Alhagi 

pseudalhagi 

syn. Alhagi 

camelorum 

Althaea 

officinalis 

Anacyclus 

pyrethrum 

Aquilaria 

agallocha 

Aristolochia 

longa 

Aristolochia 

rotunda 

Artemisia 

absinthium 

Artemisia 

maritima 

Asarun 

europaeum 

Asparagus 

officinalis 

Turanjbeen 

(Alhagi 

Manna) 

Camel Thorn 

Persian 

Manna Plant 

Khatmi Marsh 

Mallow 

Akarkaraa Spanish 

Pellitory 

Dhooplakkar, 

Agar 

Zaraavand 

Taweel 

Zaraavand 

Madahraj 

Aloe-wood 

Eagle-wood 

Mediterranean and Sahara 

to Central Asia and the 

Himalayas 

Europe, from Denmark 

southwards 

Spain and other 

Mediterranean countries 

Malayan Peninsula, Assam, 

Manipur, Silhat, Bhutan 

Appendix 749 

Europe 

Pakistan 

Iran 

Morocco 

Malacca 

Birthwort Southern Europe Kabul 

Birthwort A. Clematis (Europe) 

A. Longa (North America) 

A. Indica (India) 

Afsanteen Worm wood Europe, South America, 

North Africa, Siberia, 

Mangolia 

Dirmaanaa 

Turki 

Kirmaalaa 

Asaaroon 

Asarabacca 

Santonica 

Worm seed 

Wild Nard 

Hazelwort 

Halyun Sperage, 

Sparrow 

Grass 

North America, Brazil, 

Iran, Baluchistan, 

Pakistan, Kashmir, 

Nepal, Tibet 

Temperate Europe, 

North Asia 

(Birthwort family) 

Europe, Greece, Western 

Asia, Southern parts of 

Russia, Poland 

Iran 

Nepal 

Iran 

China 

Iran

750 Appendix 

BOTANICAL 

NAME 

Asparagus 

racemosus 

Astragalus 

sarcocola 

Bambusa 

arundinacea 

Berberis 

vulgaris 

Blepharis 

edulis 

Borago 

officinalis 

Cardiospermum 

halicacabum 

COMMON 

NAME 

ENGLISH 

NAME 

Sataawari Asparagus 

var. 

Anzaroot 

(gum) 

Banslochan 

(Manna) 

Tabaasheer 

HABITAT MAIN 

SOURCE 

Upper Gangetic plains, Nepal 

Dehradun, Bihar plateau, 

Tropical and sub-tropical 

parts of India including the 

Himalayas and Andamans. 

A. adscendens: Western 

Himalayas, Himachal 

Pradesh, Kumaon, Chamba 

Sarcocola Iran Iran 

Thorny 

bamboo 

manna 

South-East Asia Indonesia 

Zarishk Barberry Europe and the British 

Isles, naturalized in parts of 

North America 

Afghanistan 

Utangan 

seeds 

Sindh, Baluchistan Pakistan 

Gaozabaan England, Europe, North 

Africa, North America 

Habb-e- 

Qilqil 

Carum carvi Kaalaa 

jeeraa 

Centaurea 

behen 

Salvia 

haemotodes 

Colchicum 

autumnale 

Cinnamomum 

zeylanicum 

Commiphora 

mukul 

Behman 

Safed 

Behman 

Surkh 

Suranjaan 

Talkh 

Baloon Vine Tropical America extending 

to Africa and Asia 

Europe,NorthAfrica,Asia Iran 

Iran, 

Baluchistan 

Iran 

White behen Persia Afghanistan 

Red behen 

(sage) 

Bitter 

colchicum 

Meadow 

saffron 

Europe, part of British Isles, 

North Africa, Kashmir 

Afghanistan 

Daarchini Cinnamon Southeast Asia, China China, 

Indonesia 

Guggulu 

(exudate) 

Bdellium Arid rocky tracts of 

Rajasthan, Khandesh, 

Berar, Mysore, Sindh, 

Baluchistan 

Pakistan

BOTANICAL 

NAME 

Commiphora 

myrrha 

Commiphora 

opobalsamum 

Convolvulus 

scammonia 

Corylus 

avellana 

Cuscuta 

epithymum 

(Lesser 

Dodder) 

C. europaea 

(Greater or 

Common 

Dodder) 

Dorema 

ammoniacum 

Doronicum 

pardalianches/ 

Doronicum 

hookeri 

Dracaena 

cinnabari 

Ephedra gerardiana/Ephedra 

vulgaris 

Euphorbia 

resinifera 

Ferula 

assafoetida 

Ferula 

galbaniflua 

COMMON 

NAME 

Bol, 

Hiraabol 

(exudate) 

ENGLISH 

NAME 

Balsaan Balsam tree, 

Gilead 

HABITAT MAIN 

SOURCE 

Myrrh Arabia, Somaliland, 

North-East Africa 

In countries of both sides of 

Red Sea 

Appendix 751 

Dubai 

Yemen 

Saqmonia Scammony Mediterranean region England 

Funduq Hazelnut Turkey,Italy,Spain,USA England, 

Turkey 

Aftimoon 

(Dried 

whole plant 

of Cassytha 

filiformis, 

also of 

Cuscuta 

reflexa are 

sold as 

Aftimoon) 

Dodder or 

Cuscuta 

Ushaq Gum 

Ammoniac 

Darunaj 

aqrabi 

Damm-ul- 

Akhwain 

Leopard’s 

Bane (Also 

equated with 

Arnica 

montana) 

Dragon’s 

Blood 

A parasite in most parts of 

the world 

Pakistan 

Iran, extending into Iran 

southern Siberia 

Europe Iran, 

Europe 

Saudi Arabia, East Africa Yemen 

Somlataa West-Central China, 

Southern Siberia, Japan. 

Also Spain Baluchistan 

Pakistan 

Farfiyun Euphorbium Morocco Morocco 

Hing Assafoetida Eastern Persia, Western 

Afghanistan 

Jaosheer 

(gum-resin) 

Opopanax 

tree 

Galbanum 

Afghanistan,Kazakhstan, 

Iran 

Iran, Cape of Good Hope Iran

752 Appendix 

BOTANICAL 

NAME 

COMMON 

NAME 

ENGLISH 

NAME 

HABITAT MAIN 

SOURCE 

Ferula persica Sakbeenaj Sagapenum Iran Iran 

Fraxinus Sheerkhisht Manna Southern Europe, Spain 

ornus/F. 

routindifolia 

(exudate) 

parts of Asia 

Garcinia Usaar-e- Gambose, Siam, Southern 

Thailand 

hanburyi Revand Gutta Cochin-China, Combodia, 

(extract) Sri Lanka 

Gentiana Ghaafis Gul- Persian Iran Afghanistan 

olivieri e-Ghaafis Gentian 

Glycyrrhiza Asl-us-Soos Liquorice Spain, Germany, France, Iran, 

glabra 

Italy, Russia 

Afghanistan 

Helicteres isora Marorphali East Indian Nepal, Bihar, Bengal, Nepal 

Screw tree central, western and 

southern India, 

Andaman Islands 

Helleborus Kharbaq Black Central and southern Germany 

niger Siyah Hellebore Europe, Germany, Greece, 

Asia Minor 

Hyoscyamus Bazr-ul- Henbane Central and southern Baluchistan, 

niger Banj seeds Europe, Western Asia, Afghanistan 

Khoraasaani 

Ajwaayin 

Siberia 

Hyssopus 

officinalis 

Zufaa Hyssop Southern Europe Afghanistan 

Illicium verum Star Anise Anise of 

China 

China, South-East Asia China 

Ipomoea purga Jalaabaa, Jalap Mexico Mexico 

/ Convolvulus 

jalapa 

Jalaapaa 

Juniperus Hauber, Common Europe, North Africa, Pakistan 

communis Abhal Juniper North Asia, North America 

Lallemantia Baalangu Western Asia, Iran Pakistan, 

royleana 

Baluchistan 

Laurus nobilis Habb-ul- Bay Laurel, Shores of Mediterranean Saudi 

Ghaar Roman 

Laurel 

Southern Europe 

Arabia 

Lavandula Ustuk- French Mediterranean region Morocco 

stoechas huddus Lavender

BOTANICAL 

NAME 

Lepidium 

sativum 

COMMON 

NAME 

Habb-ul- 

Rashaad, 

Haalim 

ENGLISH 

NAME 

HABITAT MAIN 

SOURCE 

Garden Cress Iran Iran 

Lupinus albus Turmus White Lupin North and South America, 

Southern Europe, Egypt 

Marrubium 

vulgare 

Matthiola 

incana 

Melia 

azedarach 

Melissa 

officinalis 

Merendera 

persica 

Myristica 

fragrans 

Myrrhis 

odorata 

Myrtus 

communis 

Ocimum 

basilicum 

Ocimum 

pilosum 

Faraasiyun White 

Horehound 

Turdi Zard 

(Tudri 

Surkh is 

equated 

with 

Cheiranthus 

cheiri) 

Gilli Flower 

Wall Flower 

Common 

Stock 

England, Europe, 

Baluchistan, Iran 

Mediterranean region, 

Western Europe 

Bakaayin Persian Lilac China, Baluchistan, 

Kashmir, Western 

Himalayas, 

South India 

Baadranjboyaa, 

Billilotan 

Suranjaan 

Shireen 

Catmint 

Catnip 

Mountain 

Balm 

Sweet 

Hermodactyl 

Europe, North America, 

Iran 

Iran 

Iran 

Iran 

Appendix 753 

Afghanistan 

Iran 

Iran Iran 

Jaiphal Nutmeg Native to Malacca Islands 

and New Guinea, Sri 

Lanka, West Indies 

Anjudaan 

Roomi 

Habb-ul- 

Aas 

Muurad 

Tukhmsharbati 

(seeds) 

Tukhm-e- 

Rehaan 

(seeds) 

Sri Lanka 

Sweet 

Cherirel 

England Iran 

Myrtle Southern Europe Afghanistan 

Sweet Basil France, Central Asia Europe 

Wild Basil Tropical and warm 

temperate regions 

Pakistan, 

Iran 

Olea europaea Zaitoon Olive Mediterranean region Europe

754 Appendix 

BOTANICAL 

NAME 

Oligochaeta 

ramosa syn. 

Volutarella 

ramosa V. 

divaricata 

Tricholepis 

procumbens 

Amberboa 

divaricata 

Orchis 

latifolia/Orchis 

sp. 

Origanum 

vulgare 

Paeonia 

officinalis 

Pastinaca 

secacul 

Peganum 

harmala 

Peucedanum 

grande 

Phoenix 

dactylifera 

Pimpinella 

anisum 

Pinus 

succinifera 

(now extinct) 

COMMON 

NAME 

Baadaaward 

(Imported 

herb is 

actually 

Fagonia 

arabica) 

Saalab Misri 

(root) 

Saalab 

panjaa 

(root) 

Saalab 

gattaa (root) 

ENGLISH 

NAME 

Marzanjosh Wild 

Morjoram 

HABITAT MAIN 

SOURCE 


Central Asia, India 

Salep Central and southern 

Europe 

England, Europe, North 

Africa, Asia 

Ood saleeb 

Shaqaq-ul- 

Misri 

Peony root Southern Europe, West 

Asia 

Harmal Harmal, 

Syrian Rue, 

Wild Rue, 

Foreign 

Henna 

Duku patti 

(seed) 

Gond 

Chhuhaaraa 

Iran, 

Pakistan 

Iran, 

Pakistan 

Tibet, 

China 

Pakistan 

Iran, Afghanistan, Egypt Afghanistan 


mexico, Asia, Ladakh, 

Kashmir, Punjab 

Iran Iran 

North Africa, Egypt, Syria, 

Saudi Arabia 

Anisoon Anise Originally from Egypt 

Minor. Now cultivated in 

warmer climates and Asia 

Kahrubaa 

(fossil resin) 

Amber Baltic Amber or Malay 

Archipelago found in 

Scandinavia 

Pakistan, 

Iran 

Iran, 

Pakistan 

China, 

Hong Kong, 

Taiwan, 

Malaysia, 

Vietnam 

Germany

BOTANICAL 

NAME 

COMMON 

NAME 

ENGLISH 

NAME 

HABITAT MAIN 

SOURCE 

Piper cubeba Kabaabchini 

Kankol 

Cubeb Java, Sumatra Indonesia 

Piper longum Peepali Long pepper North-eastern, Southern 

India, Sri Lanka, Bengal 

Indonesia 

Pistacia 

integerrima 

Rhus 

succedanea 

Pistacia 

lentiscus 

Kaakraasingi 

(galls) 

Mastagi, 

Roomi 

Mastagi 

Pistacia vera Gul-e-Pistaa 

(flower) 

Polygonum 

bistorta 

Polypodium 

vulgare 

Punica 

granatum 

Quercus 

infectoria 

Crab’s Claw Mediterranean region to 

East Asia, Himalayan 

ranges on the North-west 

Mastich 

(resin) 

Anjabaar Bistort, 

Odewort, 

Snake Weed 

Bisfaayej 

(root) 

Gulnaar 

Faarsi 

Maazu (gall) Gall Oak, 

Dyer’s Oak, 

Aleppo or 

Turkey Galls 

(collected in 

Asiatic 

Turkey in the 

province of 

Aleppo) 

Mecca galls 

Mediterranean region, Iran, 

Afghanistan, Kabul 

Appendix 755 

Pakistan 

Kabul, 

Greece 

Syria, Iran, Afghanistan Iran, 

Afghanistan 

Southern Scotland, 

Western Asia, Japan 

Europe, Turkey Turkey, 

Nepal 

Iran, Saudi Arabia, 

Afghanistan, Baluchistan, 

India 

Greece, Asia Minor, Iran, 

Syria. Mecca galls are from 

Bassorah 

Rheum emodi Revandchini Rhubarb Kashmir to Sikkim, Assam. 

Chinese: R. palmatum and 

R. officinale. English:R. 

rhaponticum (Rhapontic). 

Indian: R. emodi and R. 

Webbianum 

Rhus coriaria Sumaaq Sumach, 

Japan Wax 

tree 


Spain, Italy, Sicily, Iran, 

Afghanistan, Saudi Arabia 

Pakistan, 

Afghanistan 

Iran, 

Turkey 

Nepal

756 Appendix 

BOTANICAL 

NAME 

Rubia 

tinctorum 

COMMON 

NAME 

Salvia plebeia Samundarsokh 

(seeds) 

Sisymbrium 

irio 

Smilax aristolochiaefolia 

ENGLISH 

NAME 

HABITAT MAIN 

SOURCE 

Majeeth Madder Southern Europe and parts 

of Asia 

Khoobkalaan, 

Khaaksi 

(seeds) 

Ushbaa 

Maghrabi 

Sage Seeds Temperate and tropical 

regions 

London 

Rocket 

Mexican 

Sarsaparilla 

Northern India, Iran, 

Europe 

Iran 

Pakistan 

Iran 

Central America Mexico 

Smilax china Chobchini Eastern Asia, China, Japan China 

Strychnos Papitaa Ignatius Bean Philippine Islands, Phillipines 

ignatii Vilaayati 

Cochin-China 

Styrax benzoin Lobaan Gum Java, Sumatra, Malay, Penang, 

benjamine Malacca 

Indonesia 

Syzygium Qaranful, Clove Cultivated in Tamil Nadu, Zanzibar 

aromaticum Laung 

Kerala, Sri Lanka, 

Indonesia, Malacca Islands, 

Tanzania, Madagascar, 

Penang, Brazil, other 

Tropical parts 

Tanacetum Buzidaan Sweet Iran Iran 

umbelliferum Vilaayati Pellitory 

Teucrium Usqurdiyun Wall England, Europe Europe 

chamaedrys Kamaazarius 

Germander 

Thymus 

serpyllum 

Haashaa Wild Thyme England, France, Europe 

Trifolium Ispast Clover, England, Europe, 

Seeds of 

alexandrinum 

Trefoil Mediterranean region Amaran- 

berseem Central and Northern Asia thusretroflexus are 

imported 

from Iran 

Trigonella un- Naakhuunaa Meliot (bean) Iran, Afghanistan Iran 

cata/Melilotus Ikil-ul- Tonkin bean 

officinalis Malik

BOTANICAL 

NAME 

COMMON 

NAME 

ENGLISH 

NAME 

HABITAT MAIN 

SOURCE 

Urginea scilla Isqeel Squill Mediterranean region, 

Spain, Protugal, Morocco, 

Corsica, Southern France, 

Malta, Algeria, Italy, 

Dalmatia, Greece, Syria, 

Asia Minor 

Urtica 

pilulifera 

Valeriana 

hardwickii/V. 

jatamansi 

Anjuraa Roman 

Nettle 

Sugandhabaalaa 

Taggar 

Mushkbaalaa 

Viola odorata Banafshaa 

Gul-e- 

Banafshaa 

Viscum album Koli daakh, 

Mavizaj-e- 

Asli, 

Kishmish 

Kaabali 

Withania 

coagulans 

Withania 

somnifera 

Zataria 

multiflora 

Zizyphus 

jujuba Mill 

Z. sativa 

Gaertin 

Paneer 

Paneer 

Dodaa 

(fruit, seed) 

Indian 

Valerian 

Appendix 757 

Italy, Spain, 

Pakistan 

Europe Europe 

Temperate Himalayas from 

Kashmir to Bhutan; Khasi 

and Jantia Hills. Valerian 

(Valeriana officinalis): 

Europe and Northern Asia 

Nepal 

Sweet Violet Europe, Britain, Asia Pakistan 

Mistletoe Afghanistan, Europe Afghanistan 

Vegetable 

Rennet 

Asgand Winter 

Cherry 

Afghanistan, Baluchistan, 

Sindh, Punjab 

Israel, East of 


South Asia 

Saatar faarsi Savory Saudi Arabia, Iran, 

Afghanistan, Baluchistan 

Unnaab Jujube China, Far East, Middle 

East, Africa 

Iran, 

Pakistan 

Afghanistan 

Pakistan, 

Afghanistan 

Kabul

Standardized Extracts of Indian Herbs used in India 

Appendix 759 

Botanical name/ 

Part used 

Common use/Activity Form, Chemical marker(s) 

Abies webbiana leaf Expectorant Powder/Paste, Alkaloids >0.5% 

Abroma augusta root Emmenagogue Powder/Paste: Alkaloids 0.15%, 

Tannins 2.4%–4% 

Abrus precatorius seed Abortifacient Powder: Glycosides 15%, 

Alkaloids 1% 

Abutilon indicum seed Diuretic, Nervine tonic Powder: Mucilage 10% 

Acacia arabica bark Astringent Powder: Tannins 40% 

Acacia catechu gum Astringent Powder: Tannins 60%, 

Catechins 20% 

Acacia concinna pods Detergent Powder/Paste: Saponins 10%– 

20% 

Achillea millefolium seeds Stimulant, Antispasmodic Powder: Bitters 3% 

Achyranthes aspera plant Alterative, Diuretic Powder/Paste: Saponins 3% 


plant 

Antiperiodic, Antiemetic Powder/Paste: Alkaloids 1%–1.5% 

Aconitum sp. root Antipyretic Powder/Paste: Alkaloids 2% 

Acorus calamus rhizome Antispasmodic Powder/Paste: Vol. Oil 1% 

Adhatoda vasica leaf Expectorant, 

Bronchodilatory 

Powder/Paste: Alkaloids 0.5%– 

2.5% 

Aegle marmelos leaf Anti-diabetic Powder: Tannins 7.5% 

Aegle marmelos unripe 

fruit 

Haemostatic, 

Anti-dysenteric 

Powder/Paste: Tannins 5%, 

Mucilage 10%–15% 

Albizia lebbeck bark Anti-inflammatory Powder/Paste: Tannins 15% 

Allium cepa bulbs Hypolipidemic, 

Hypocholesterolemic 

Powder/Paste: Quercetin 5% 

Allium sativum bulbs Hypocholesterolemic 

Antirheumatic 

Powder/Paste: Alliin 1.5%–2.5% 

by HPLC 

Aloe vera leaf Purgative Powder/Paste/Gel/Gum: Aloin 

1.5% (3:1), Polysaccharides 50% 

(200:1) 

Alpinia galanga rhizome In bronchial catarrh Powder/Paste: Shagaol >4% by 

HPLC 

Alstonia scholaris bark Alterative, Astringent Powder: Alkaloids 0.3%

760 Appendix 


Part used 

Anacyclus pyrethrum 

flowers 

Andrographis paniculata 

plant 


Stimulant, Sialogogue Powder: Alkaloids 0.5% 

Hepatoprotectant, 

Antiviral 

Powder/Paste: Andrographolides 

>10% 

Anethum sowa seed Carminative Powder/Paste: Vol.Oil 3% 

Aphanamixis rohituka 

bark 

Astringent Powder: Tannins 10% 

Apium graveolens seed Carminative Powder/Paste: Vol. Oil 5% 

Argyreia speciosa root Alterative, Nervine tonic Powder: Resin 4.5% 

Asparagus adscendens root Nervine Tonic, 

Galactogogue 

Powder: Saponins >10% 

Asparagus racemosus root Galactogogue Powder/Paste: Saponins >15% 

Asteracantha longifolia 

herb 

Antirheumatic Powder/Paste: Alkaloids 0.35% 

Atropa belladonna leaf Antispasmodic, Sedative Powder/Paste: Alkaloids 0.95%– 

1.6% 

Atropa belladonna root Antispasmodic, Sedative Powder/Paste: Alkaloids 3% 

Azadirachta indica bark Astringent Powder: Bitters 1% 

Azadirachta indica leaf Blood purifier Powder/Paste: Bitters 2.5% 

Bacopa monnieri herb Brain Tonic Powder/Paste: Bacosides 15%– 

50%, Alkaloids 5% 

Barleria prionitis herb Lymphadenitis, 

Powder: Tannins 5%, Alkaloids 

Toothache 

0.5% 

Bauhinia variegata bark Alterative, antileprotic Powder, Tannins 25% 

Berberis aristata root Emmenagogue, 

Cholagogue 

Powder/Paste: Berberine >8% 

Bergenia ligulata root Antiurolithiatic Powder/Paste: Tannins 10% 

Boerhavia diffusa root Diuretic, 


Hepatoprotective 0.08% 

Boswellia serrata gum Antiarthritic Powder/Paste: Boswellic acids 

>50% 

Butea frondosa flowers Astringent Powder/Paste: Glycosides >8% 

Caesalpinia bonducella 

nut 

Antipyretic Powder/Paste: Bonducin 2.5% 

Calotropis gigantea root Emetic, Antiperiodic Powder/Paste: Alkaloids 0.3%

Appendix 761 


Part used 


Camellia sinensis Antioxidant Powder/Paste: Polyphenols >45% 

by HPLC 

Capparis spinosa root Analgesic, Antirheumatic Powder: Glycosides 15% 

Capsicum sp. fruit Antirheumatic Powder/Paste: Capsaicin >3% 

Cassia angustifolia leaf Laxative Powder: Sennosides 15% 

Cassia angustifolia pods Laxative Paste: Sennosides 2.5% 

Cassia fistula fruit Laxative Powder/Paste: 

Oxymethyl-anthraquinones >1% 

Cassia occidentalis fruit Purgative Powder/Paste: 

Oxymethyl-anthraquinones 1.2% 

Cedrus deodara wood Antirheumatic Powder/Paste: Vol. Oil 1% 

Celastrus paniculatus seed Antirheumatic, 

Tranquilizer 

Powder/Paste: Alkaloids 0.1% 

Centella asiatica Leprostatic, Memory 

tonic, Sedative 

Powder/Paste: Asiaticosides 

>10%, 

Asiatic acid 2% 

Cephaelis ipecacuanha 

root 

Emetic Powder/Paste: Alkaloids 1% 

Cephalandra indica leaf Antidiabetic Powder: Resin 2.5% 

Cicer arietinum seeds Nutritive Powder: Protein 15% 

Cichorium intybus seeds Liver and spleen tonic Powder/Paste: Bitters >1% 

Cinchona ledgeriana bark Antimalarial Powder/Paste: Alkaloids 4% 

Cissus quadrangularis 

stem 

Bone healing Powder: Ketosterones >5% 

Citrullus colocynthis fruit Purgative Powder: Bitters 4.5% 

Citrullus colocynthis root Purgative, Antirheumatic Powder, Bitters 5% 

Citrus aurantium peel Antioxidant Powder/Paste: Flavones >4%, 

Vol. Oil 1% 

Citrus medica peel Antiscurvy Powder: Acidity as citric acid 2%, 

Flavones 5% 

Colchicum luteum corms In uric acid diathesis Powder: Alkaloids >0.5% 

Coleus forskohlii root cAMP stimulator, 

Hypotensive 

Commiphora mukul gum Antarthritic, Antilipemic, 

Anticholesterolemic 

Powder: Forskolin >2.5%, 10% & 

20% by HPLC 

Powder/paste: Guggul sterones 

2.5% to 10% by HPLC

762 Appendix 


Part used 


Commiphora myrrha gum Mouthwash, Astringent Powder: Vol. Oil 5% 

Coriandrum sativum 

seeds 

Carminative Powder/Paste: Vol. Oil 1% 

Crataeva nurvala bark Lithotriptic Powder: Saponin >2.5% 

Cucumis sativus seeds Diuretic Powder: Mucilage 24% 

Cuminum cyminum fruit Carminative, Stimulant Powder/Paste: Vol. Oil 1% 

Curcuma amada rhizome Carminative, 

Hypolipidaemic 

Powder/Paste: Vol.Oil 10% 

Curcuma longa rhizome Anti-inflammatory, 

Stomachic 

Powder/Paste: Voil. Oil >10%, 

Curcumin >10% 

Curculigo orchioides root Uresis, Skin diseases Powder: Saponins 20%, Mucilage 

30% 

Cynodon dactylon herb Astringent Powder: Tannins 5% Alkaloids 

+ive 

Cyperus scariosus root Intestinal antiseptic, 

Anti-inflammatory 

DGL Deglycyrrhizinated 

Liquorice 

Dashmool (The Ten 

Roots) 

Datura stramonium leaf Antispasmodic, 

Expectorant 


0.5% 

Antiulcer, Antacid Powder: Flavones 1%, 

Glycyrrhizin3% 

Embelia ribes seed Anthelmintic Powder/Paste: Tannins 1%, 

Embelin 1% 

Emblica officinalis fruit Antioxidant, Source of 

Vitamin C, Antacid, 

Astringent 

Powder/Paste: Tannins >20%, 

Ellagic acid >5% 

Enicostemma littorale herb Bitter tonic, Laxative Powder/Paste: Bitters 4% 

Ephedra vulgaris herb Stimulant Powder/Paste: Alkaloids 0.2%– 

0.5% 

Eugenia jambolana seed Antidiabetic Powder: Saponins 4%, Alkaloids 

0.4%


Part used 


Euphorbia hirta herb Antispasmodic Powder/Paste: Flavones >6% 

Evolvulus alsinoides plant Memory tonic Powder/Paste: Bitters >2.5% 

Ferula foetida resin Carminative, Stimulant Powder: Vol.Oil 1.5% 

Ficus racemosa leaf Astringent Powder: Tannins 5% 

Ficus racemosa bark Astringent Powder: Tannins 10% 

Foeniculum vulgare fruit Carminative, Spasmolytic Powder/Paste: Vol. Oil >1% 

Fumaria Officinalis herb Diaphoretic Powder/Paste: Bitters >1% 

Garcinia cambogia rind In obesity Powder/Liquid: HCA 50% by 

HPLC 

Glycyrrhzia glabra root Expectorant, 


Gossypium herbaceum 

root 

Emmenagogue, 

Galactagogue 

Powder/Paste: Glycyrrhizin by 

Garratt method >15%/24% 

Powder: Alkaloids 0.4%, 

Flavones 1.5% 

Gymnema slyvestre leaf Antidiabetic Powder: Gymnemic acids 25%– 

75% 

Hemidesmus indicus root Alterative, antiseptic Powder/Paste: Saponins 7.5% 

Holarrhena 

antidysenterica seed 

Antidysenteric Powder: Alkaloids 3% 

Holarrhena 

antidysenterica bark 

Antidysenteric, 

Anthelmintic 

Powder/Paste: Alkaloids >4% 

Hydrastis Indian root Emmenagogue Powder/Paste: Hydrastin 1% 

Hyoscyamus niger herb Antispasmodic, Sedative Powder/Paste: Alkaloids 0.28%– 

0.3% 

Hypericum perforatum 

herb 

Antidepressant Powder: Hypericin 0.3% 

Indigofera tinctoria plant Antiseptic, Astringent Powder: Saponins 10% 

Inula racemosa root Antirheumatic, In chronic Powder/Paste: Alantolactone 

bronchitis 

2.5% by HPLC 

Juglans regia bark Astringent, Antiseptic Powder: Tannins 12% 

Lawsonia alba leaf Antimicrobial, 


Powder/Paste: Tannins >5% 

Leptadenia reticulata herb Spermatogenic, 

Galactagogue 

Powder/Paste: Alkaloids 0.5% 

Lobelia nicotianaefolia leaf Antispasmodic Powder/Paste: Alkaloids 0.5% 

Mangifera indica bark Astringent Powder: Tannins 20% 

Appendix 763

764 Appendix 


Part used 


Matricaria chamomilla 

flower 

Antiseptic Paste: Vol. Oil 1% 

Mentha spicata Carminative, Stimulant, 

Spasmolytic 

Powder/Paste: Flavones >2% 

Mesua ferreafruit & flower 

bud 

Astringent, Styptic Powder/Paste: Bitters >2.5% 

Mimusops elegni bark Astringent Powder: Tannins 10% 

Momordica charantia fruit Antidiabetic Powder: Bitters >2.5% 

Morinda citrifolia fruit Stimulant Powder/Liquid: Morindin 15%, 

Scopoletin 0.17% 

Moringa oleifera bark Emmenagogue Powder: Glycosides >5% 

Moringa oleifera leaf Anti-inflammatory Powder/Paste: Alkaloids 0.1% 

Mucuna pruriens seeds Antiparkinsonian, 

Aphrodisiac 

Powder: L-Dopa by IP method 

>15% 

Myrica nagi bark Astringent, Carminative Powder: Tannins 5% 

Myristica fragrans fruit Hypocholesterolemic, 

Carminative 

Powder/Paste: Vol. Oil 4% 

Nardostachys jatamansi Sedative Powder/Paste: Vol. Oil 0.1%– 

root 

0.5% 

Nelumbo nucifera seed Stimulant Powder: Saponins 30% 

Nigella sativa seed Anthelmintic, 

Powder/Paste: Bitters 3%, 

Carminative 

Saponins 15% 

Nyctanthes arbortristis leaf Antirheumatic, 

Anthelmintic 

Powder, Alkaloids 0.15% 

Ocimum basilicum leaf Carminative, Vermifuge Powder/Paste: Tannins 5% Vol. 

Oil 1.5% 

Ocimum sanctum Immunomodulator, Powder/Paste: Tannins >7%, 

herb/leaf 

Expectorant 

Ursolic acid >2% 

Oldenlandia corymbosa Heptoprotective, Powder/Paste: Alkaloids 0.35% 

plant 

Febrifuge 

Onosma echioides root Anticutaneous Powder/Paste: Alkamine 1% 

Operculina turpethum 

root 

Purgative Powder: Resin >10% 

Opuntia dillenii herb Antispasmodic Powder: Tannins 10% 

Orchis mascula tubers Nervine tonic Powder: Saponins 4%, 

Mucilage 20%


Part used 


Phyllanthus niruri herb Antihepatotoxic, Antiviral Powder/Paste: Bitters 1.4%–2% 

Picrorhiza kurroa root Antihepatotoxic, Bitter 

tonic 

Powder/Paste: Kutkin 4%–6%, 

Bitters >6% 

Piper cubeba fruit Carminative, Expectorant Paste, Vol. Oil 8%, Piperine 10% 

Piper longum fruit Carminative, 

Bioavailability enhancer 

Piper nigrum fruit Carminative, 

Bioavailability enhancer 

Powder/Paste Vol. Oil 10%, 

Piperine 5% 

Vol. Oil 7%, Piperine >10% 

Pistacia integerrima galls In bronchitis Powder/Paste: Tannins 20% 

Plumbago indica root Anticutaneous Powder: Alkaloids 0.08–0.15% 

Podophyllum emodi 

rhizome 

Purgative Powder: Resin >20% 

Polygala chinensis root Anticatarrhl Powder/Paste: Saponins 5% 

Pongamia glabra seed Anticutaneous Powder/Paste: Fixed Oil 10% 

Prunus serotina bark Astringent Paste: Tannins 10% 

Psoralea corylifolia seed Antipsoriatic Powder/Paste: Psoralen >5% 

Pterocarpus marsupium Antidiabetic Powder: Alkaloids 0.4%, 

wood 

Pterostilbene 4%–5%, 

Flavones 5% 

Pterocarpus santalinus 

bark 

Astringent, Antidiarrheal Powder/Paste: Santalin >3% 

Pueraria tuberosa root Demulcent, Nervine tonic Powder/Paste: Flavones 6% 

Punica granatum rind Astringent Powder: Ellagic acid by HPLC 

>8%, Tannins 10–20% 

Putranjiva roxburghii 

berries 

Antiviral Powder: Alkaloids 0.5% 

Pyrus malus fruit Nutritive. Natural source 

of Iron 

Powder/Paste: Iron 4% 

Quercus infectoria galls Astringent Powder/Paste: Tannins 40% 

Randia dumetorum fruit Antioxidant, 

Powder/Paste: Oleonolic acid 

heptaprotectine 

>5% 

Rauvolfia serpentina root Hypotensive Powder/Paste: Alkaloids >8% 

Rheum emodi root Blood purifier, Liver Powder/Paste: Oxymethyl 

protectant, Laxative anthraquinones >5% 

Ricinus communis leaf Antiheptatoloxic, 


Powder: Alkaloids 2.5% 

Appendix 765

766 Appendix 


Part used 


Ricinus communis root Laxative Powder: Alkaloids 0.5% 

Rubia cordifolia root Anticutaneous Powder/Paste: Tannins >2% 

Salacia reticulata root Anticutaneous, 

Antirheumatic 

Powder: Glycosides >15%, 

Flavones >5% 

Santalum album wood Coolant, Antibacterial Powder/Paste: Vol. Oil 2% 

Saraca indica bark Uterine tonic Powder/Paste: Tannins >2.5% 

Saussurea lappa root Antispasmodic, 

Carminative 

Powder/Paste: Alkaloids >0.2% 

Sida cordifolia root Nervine Tonic Powder/Paste: Alkaloids >0.1% 

Silybum marianum seeds Hepatoprotectant, Powder: Flavones >50%, 

Diuretic. 

Silymarin 50% 

Solanum nigrum berries Expectorant, Liver tonic Powder/Paste: Alkaloids 0.2%, 

Bitters >1% 

Solanum xanthocarpum Antiasthmatic, 

Powder/Paste: Solasodin >1% 

plant 

Expectorant 

Strychnos nux vomica 

seeds 

CNS stimulant, Analeptic Powder/Paste: Alkaloids 3%–6% 

Swertia chirayita plant Blood purifier Powder: Bitters 4% 

Symplocos racemosa bark Uterine tonic Powder/Paste: Alkaloids 0.5% 

Taraxacum officinale herb Hepatic stimulant Powder/Paste: Bitters 2.5%, 

Alkaloids 0.5% 

Tecomella undulata bark Astringent Powder: Tannins 10% 

Tephrosia purpurea plant Antioxidant, 

Powder/Paste: Rutin 2%–6% 

Antihepatotoxic by HPLC 

Terminalia arjuna bark Cardio vascular support, Powder/Paste: Tannins >25%, 

Antiarrhythemic Arjunic acid >1% 

Terminalia bellirica fruit Detoxificant , Spasmolytic Powder: Tannins >10% 

Terminalia chebula fruit Detoxificant, Purgative Powder: Tannins 20%–40% 

Tinospora cordifolia root Hepatoprotective Powder/Paste: Bitters >1.5% 

Trachyspermum ammi 

fruit 

Carminative Powder/Paste: Vol. Oil 10% 

Tribulus terrestris fruit Spermatogenic, Diuretic, Powder/paste: Saponins 15%– 

Nephroprotective 45% 

Trichosanthes dioica leaf Antidiabetic Powder: Saponins 10% 

Trigonella foenum- Antilipemic, 

Powder: Saponins 15%–40% 

graecum seed 

Anticholesterolemic


Part used 

Trikatu:Dryginger,Long 

pepper and Black pepper 

Triphalaa The Three 

Myrobalans 


Increases bioavailability of 

drugs 

Powder/Paste:Vol.Oil>1%, 

Piperine >2% 

Detoxificant Powder: Tannins >25% 

Triticum sativum bran Nutritive Powder: Vit B1= 40 mcg/g B2= 

6.28 mcg/g B5= 1130 mcg/g 

Triticum sativum germ Anticutaneous Oil, Vit. E 0.8% by HPLC 

Tylophora indica leaf Antiasthmatic Powder/Paste: Alkaloids >0.1% 

Urginea indica bulbs Cardiac stimulant, 

Diuretic 

Paste: Glycosides 10% 

Valeriana wallichii root Sedative Powder/Paste: Valeric acid 0.8% 

Viburnum sp. bark Emmenagogue Powder/Paste: Tannins >1.4% 

Viola odorataflowers/leaf Expectorant, Antiseptic Powder/Paste: Saponins 2.5% 

Vitex negundo leaf Anti-inflammatory Powder/Paste: Alkaloids 0.15% 

Vitis vinifera fruit/seed Antioxidant Powder/paste: Polyphenols >20% 

by HPLC 

Wedelia calendulacea herb Hepatoprotective Powder/Paste: Tannins 5%, 

Saponins 2% 

Withania somnifera root Immunomodulator, 

Antioxidant 

Woodfordia floribunda 

flowers 

Zingiber officinale 

rhizome 

Powder/Paste: Withanolides 

>2.5% 

Antileucorrhoeic Powder/Paste: Tannins 7% 

Anti-inflammatory, 

Carminative, 

Antinauseant 

Powder/Paste: Gingerols by 

HPLC >5% 

Appendix 767 

(continued)

768 Appendix 

Herbal extracts for Cosmetic/Topical Application 


Part used 

Common 

name 

Form Use 

Acacia concinna pods Shikaakaai Powder Shampoos, soaps 

Acorus calamus rhizome Sweet flag Powder/Paste Aromatic, dusting powders, 

skin lotions 

Allium sativum bulbs Garlic Powder/Paste Skin healing products 

Aloe vera leaf Aloe Powder/Paste Radioprotective, moisturizer, 

sunscreen 

Alpinia galanga rhizome Galanga Powder/Paste Aromatic, in dusting powders 

Avena sativa fruit Oat Powder/Paste Skin tonic/moisturizer 

Azadirachta indica leaves Neem Powder/Paste Toothpastes, soaps, shampoos 

Balsamodendron myrrha 

gum 

Myrrh Powder/Paste Soaps/shampoos 

Calendula officinalis 

flowers 

Marigold Paste Skin care products 

Cedrus deodara wood Deodaar Powder/Paste Shampoos/soaps 

Centella asiatica plant Gotu kola Powder/Paste Wound-healing 

Cichorium intybus seed Chicory Powder/Paste For sore eyes/skin of blemishes 

Citrus aurantium peel Orange Paste Skin creams, soaps, shampoos 

Citrus limon peel Lemon Powder Skin and hair loss products 

Coriandrum sativum 

seed 

Coriander Powder Anti-inflammatory 

Crocus sativus stigma Saffron Liquid Postbath massage 

Curcuma longa rhizome Turmeric Powder/Paste Antibacterial, 

skin creams and lotions 

Curcuma zedoaria 

rhizome 

Zedoary Powder/Paste Antibacterial, aromatic 

Daucus carota seeds Carrot Oil Natural source of Vit. A 

Eclipta alba plant Bhringaraaj Powder/Paste Shampoos 

Glycyrrhiza glabra root Liquorice Powder/Paste Anti-inflammatory 

Hedychium spicatum 

rhizome 

Kapurkachri Oil Hair oils 

Hibiscus rosa sinensis 

flowers 

China rose Paste Shampoos


Part used 

Common 

name 

Form Use 

Iris florentina root Orris Powder Additive to dusting powders 

Lawsonia alba leaves Henna Powder/Paste Shampoos 

Matricaria chamomilla 

flowers 

Chamomile Powder/Paste Hair tonic/analgesic 

Moringa oleifera seed Benjamin Oil Hair oils, suntan lotion 

Prunus serotina bark Wild cherry 

bark 

Powder Shampoos 

Pterocarpus santalinus Red Powder/Paste Skin creams 

bark 

sandalwood 

Rubia cordifolia root Manjisthaa Powder/Paste Wound-healing 

Santalum album Sandal wood Powder/Paste Skin lotions 

Triticum sativum germ Wheat germ Oil Skin lotions, natural source of 

Vit E 

Source: Vikram Naharwar, Director, Amsar Pvt. Ltd. Indore-452006. INDIA. 

Appendix 769

Internet Resources of Herbal Medicine 

AGRICOLA (Agricultural Online Access): 

http://www.nal.usda.gov/general_info/agricola/agricola.html 

Alternative Herbal Index: 

http://onhealth.webmed.com/alternative/resource/herbs/index.asp 

Alternative Medicine Connection: www.arxc.com 

Appendix 771 

Alternative Medicine Home Page, from the University of Pittsburg: 

http://www.pitt.edu/-cbw/altm.html 

For WHO Herbal Monographs under “Development”, see entry for Alternative 

Medicine Home Page from the University of Pittsburg. 

Alternative Medicine, University of Texas: 

http://www.sph.uth.tmc.edu/utcam/therapy/htm 

American Botanical Council: http://www.herbalgram.org 

American Herbal Pharmacopoeia: http://www.herbal-aph.org 

American Herbalists Guild: http://www.americanherbalistsguild.com 

Andrew Weil’s Website: www.drweil.com 

Ayurvedic medicines: www.dabur.com www.thehimalayadrugco.com 

British Herbal Medicine Association: http://www.ex.ac.uk/phytonet/bhma.html 

Chinese Medicine: http://www.cintcm.com/index.htm 

Congress on Alternative and Complimentary Therapies: 

www.alternativemed.com 

European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy (ESCOP): 

http://www.escop.com 

Facts and Comparisons, The Review of Natural Products: 

www.factsandcomparisons.com 

Herbs, Chemistry: 

http://friedle.com (flavonoids) 

http://realtime.net/anr (Austin Nutritional Research) 

http://www.aspp.org (Biochemistry and Molecular Biology of plants)

772 Appendix 

HerbMed: http://www.herbmed.org 

Herbal Past and Present Database: 

http://www.extra.hu/hbock/dbase/index.html 

Herb Research Foundation (HRF): http://www.herbs.org 

Links to Medline: 

www.herbmed.org 

http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/herbalmedicine.html 

http://www.seanet.com/?vettf/Medline4.htm 

The Longwood Herbal Task Force: www.mep.edu/herbal 

Medical Herbalism Online: www.medherb.com 

Mother Nature Health Encyclopedia: 

www.mothernature.com/ency/herb/lingustrum.asp 

National Centre for Complimentary and Alternative Medicine (NCCAM): 

http://nccam.nih.gov 

National Library of Medicine: www.nlmgateway.com 

Natural Medicines Comprehensive Database: www.naturaldatabase.com 

The Natural Pharmacist (TNP): 

http://www.memorialhospitaljax.com/healthcontent.asp?page=/choice/ 

demonstration 

New York Academy of Sciences: www.nyas.org www.scientificamerican.com 

New York Academy of Sciences: www.nyas.org 

Phyto Net: http://www.escop.com/phytonet.htm 

Thorne Research Alternative Medicine Review: 

www.thorne.com/altmedrev/index.html 

United States Pharmacopoeia (USP): http://www.usp.org 

World Health Organization (WHO): 

http://who.int/medicines/library/trm/medicinalplants/monographs.shtml

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Govt. of India. 2003. 

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Rocklin, CA. 1995. 

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Ayurveda), New Delhi. 1999. 

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Walden, Essex. 1998. 

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(A-K), LV Asolkar et al., NISCAIR, New Delhi. 

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Pakrashi, Vol. I to VI, NISCAIR, 2003. 

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About the Author 

C.P. Khare 

C. P. Khare was born on December 18, 1932, and has been a herbalist for more 

than fifty years. 

He was born into a family of herbal physicians. He studied the original Ayurvedic 

texts and acquired first-hand knowledge of the cultivation and processing 

of herbs and their usage even before going to college. 

In 1952, he took up journalism. Since then he has edited and contributed many 

features on health and personal problems to various journals. He has been Director 

of India’s largest magazine publishing group for the last twenty-five years– 

publishing twenty six magazines in nine languages (English, Hindi, Gujarati, 

Marathi, Bengali, Kannada, Tamil, Telugu and Malayalam), commanding a total 

circulation of more than 4 million. 

As founder President and Director of the Society for New Age Herbals, which 

started functioning in 1990 in Delhi, he sought the cooperation and participation 

of physicians of modern as well as traditional medicine, pharmacologists and 

scientists to modify, restructure and reassess and age-old herbal formulations 

in the light of pharmacological research and clinical trails being undertaken in 

various research institutes of India. 

He has also been included among the directors of Dabur Ayurvedic Specialities 

Ltd., a herbal major in India. 

This reference work is the outcome of ten years of in-depth study and literary 

research of more than 2000 plant sources of Ayurvedic, Unani and Siddha systems 

of Indian medicine. 

By the same author: East and West integrative 400 detailed monographs on Indian 

medicinal plants—in contemporary setup: Encyclopedia of Indian Medicinal 

Plants/Indian Herbal Remedies. Published by Springer.

Botanical Names 

A 

Abelmoschus esculentus 1 

Abelmoschus moschatus 308 

Abies alba 2 

Abies larix 363 

Abies pindrow 1 

Abies smithiana 484 

Abies spectabilis 2, 270 

Abies webbiana 1, 2, 270, 546 

Abroma augusta 2 

Abrus 93 

Abrus fruticulosus 3 

Abrus laevigatus 3 

Abrus precatorius 3 

Abrus pulchellus 3 

Absinthium officinale 63 

Absinthium vulgare 63 

Abuta grandiflora 152 

Abutilon asiaticum 4 

Abutilon avicennae 4 

Abutilon fruticosum 4 

Abutilon glaucum 4 

Abutilon graveolens 4 

Abutilon hirtum 4 

Abutilon indicum 3, 4, 563 

Abutilon muticum 4 

Abutilon persicum 4 

Abutilon polyandrum 4 

Abutilon theophrastii 4 

Acacia alba 7 

Acacia arabica 4 

Acacia benthamii 5 

Acacia caesia 8 

Acacia canescens 5 

Acacia catechu 5, 6, 8 

Acacia chundra 6 

Acacia concinna 6 

Acacia farnesiana 7 

Acacia ferruginea 8 

Acacia intsia 8 

Index 

Acacia leucophloea 7 

Acacia nilotica 4, 5 

Acacia pennata 8, 9 

Acacia polycantha 8 

Acacia rugata 6 

Acacia senegal 8 

Acacia sinuata 6 

Acacia suma 8 

Acacia sundra 6 

Acacia torta 5, 8 

Acacia verek 8 

Acalypha ciliata 9 

Acalypha fruticosa 9 

Acalypha indica 9 

Acanthospermum hispidum 9, 669 

Acanthus ilicifolius 10 

Acca sellowiana 261 

Achillea lanulosa 10 

Achillea millefolium 8, 368 

Achras zapota 11 

Achyranthes aquatica 166 

Achyranthes aspera 11 

Achyranthes bidentata 12 

Achyranthes rubra-fusca 12 

Achyranthes verschaffeltii 12 

Aconitum atrox 12 

Aconitum balfourii 12 

Aconitum bisma 15 

Aconitum chasmanthum 12, 13 

Aconitum deinorrhizum 13 

Aconitum falconeri 13 

Aconitum ferox 13, 14, 15 

Aconitum heterophyllum 14 

Aconitum laciniatum 15 

Aconitum luridum 15 

Aconitum nepellus 13, 14 

Aconitum palmatum 15 

Aconitum spicatum 15 

Aconitum violaceum 15 

Acorus calamus 16, 17 

Index 

787

778 Index 

Acorus gramineus 16 

Actaea acuminata 17 

Actaea spicata 17 

Actea alba 147 

Actea pachypoda 147 

Actea rubra 147 

Actiniopteris australis 17 

Actiniopteris dichotoma 17 

Actiniopteris radiata 17 

Actinodaphne angustifolia 17 

Actinodaphne hookeri 17 

Actinopteris dichotoma 234 

Adansonia digitata 18 

Adelia neriifolia 314 

Adenanthera pavonina 18 

Adenema hyssopifolium 239 

Adhatoda beddomei 19 

Adhatoda vasica 18, 19, 478 

Adhatoda zeylanica 18 

Adiantum aethiopicum 19 

Adiantum capillus-veneris 19, 20 

Adiantum caudatum 20 

Adiantum emarginatum 19 

Adiantum incisum 20 

Adiantum lunulatum 20 

Adiantum philippense 20 

Adiantum venustum 20 

Adina cordifolia 20 

Aegle marmelos 21, 104 

Aeilema scapiflorum 425 

Aeilema tuberosum 425 

Aerva javanica 21 

Aerva lanata 22, 90, 440 

Aerva persica 21 

Aerva sanguinolenta 22 

Aerva scandens 22 

Aerva tomentosa 21 

Aesculus hippocastanum 22 

Aesculus indica 23 

Aframomum korarima 23 

Aframomum melegueta 23 

Aganosma calycina 24 

Aganosma caryophyllata 24 

Aganosma dichotoma 24 

Agaricus albus 24 

Agaricus campestris 24 

Agaricus ostreatus 25 

Agati grandiflora 600 

Agave americana 25 

Ageratum conyzoides 25 

Aglaia elaeagnoidea 25 

Aglaia roxburghiana 25, 112 

Agrimonia eupatoria 26 

Agrimonia pilosa 26 

Agropyron repens 26 

Ailanthus altissima 27 

Ailanthus excelsa 27 

Ailanthus glandulosa 27 

Ailanthus malabarica 28 

Ailanthus triphysa 28 

Ainsliaea aptera 28 

Ainsliaea latifolia 28 

Aisandra butyracea 391 

Ajuga bracteosa 28 

Alangium begoniaefolium 29 

Alangium chinense 29 

Alangium lamarckii 29 

Alangium salviifolium 29 

Albizia amara 29, 709 

Albizia julibrissin 30 

Albizia lebbeck 30 

Albizia odoratissima 709 

Albizia procera 30 

Aleurites fordii 31 

Aleurites moluccana 31 

Aleurites triloba 31 

Alhagi camelorum 31 

Alhagi maurorum 31 

Alhagi pseudalhagi 31, 259 

Alkanna tinctoria 32, 427, 449 

Allemanda cathartica 32 

Allium ameloprasum 34 

Allium ascalonicum 32 

Allium cepa 33 

Allium fistulosum 33 

Allium leptophyllum 35 

Allium macleanii 34, 452 

Allium macrostemon 33 

Allium porrum 34 

Allium sativum 34 

Allium schoenoprasum 35 

Allium tuberosum 35 

Alocasia indica 35, 541 

Alocasia macrorrhiza 35 

Aloe barbadensis 36 

Aloe indica 36

Aloe littoralis 36 

Aloe vera 36 

Alpinia galanga 37, 38, 500, 695 

Alpinia malaccensis 37 

Alpinia officinarum 37 

Alpinia speciosa 38 

Alpinia zerumbet 38 

Alsine media 624 

Alstonia constricta 39 

Alstonia scholaris 38, 39, 664 

Alstonia venenata 39 

Alternanthera denticulata 39 

Alternanthera repens 39 

Alternanthera sessilis 39 

Alternanthera triandra 39 

Althaea officinalis 40, 395 

Althaea rosea 40 

Altingia excelsa 40, 631 

Amanita muscaria 40 

Amanita pantherina 41 

Amanita phalloides 606 

Amaranthus blitum 41 

Amaranthus caudatus 41 

Amaranthus gangeticus 42, 643 

Amaranthus hypochondriacus 41 

Amaranthus melancholicus 42 

Amaranthus polygamus 42 

Amaranthus spinosus 41 

Amaranthus tricolor 42 

Amaranthus tristis 42 

Amberoa divaricata 42, 713 

Ambroma augusta 2 

Ammannia baccifera 42 

Ammi majus 43 

Ammi visnaga 43 

Amomum aromaticum 44 

Amomum melegueta 23 

Amomum spurium 734 

Amomum subulatum 44 

Amomum sylvestre 734 

Amoora cucullata 44 

Amoora rohituka 56, 649 

Amorphophallus campanulatus 45 

Amorphophallus konjac 45 

Amorphophallus paeoniifolius 642 

Amorphophallus sylvaticus 45 

Amphicome emodi 44 

Amygdalus communis 45 

Amygdalus persica 45, 521 

Anacardium occidentale 46 

Anacyclus officinarum 46 

Anacyclus pyrethrum 46, 622 

Anagallis arvensis 47 

Anamirta cocculus 47 

Anamirta paniculata 47 

Ananas comosus 48 

Anaphalis contorta 48 

Anaphalis neelgerriana 48 

Anastatica hierochuntica 48 

Anchusa azurea 49 

Anchusa italica 49 

Anchusa strigosa 234 

Andrographis echioides 49 

Andrographis paniculata 49, 632 

Andropogon citratus 191 

Andropogon exilis 588 

Andropogon jwarancusa 191 

Andropogon martinii 192 

Andropogon muricatus 50, 701 

Andropogon nardus 192 

Andropogon schoenanthus 192 

Andropogon sorghum 619 

Andropogon squarrosus 701 

Anemone obtusiloba 50, 427 

Anemone pulsatilla 50 

Anethum graveolens 51 

Anethum sowa 51 

Angelica archangelica 51 

Angelica glauca 52 

Anisochilus carnosus 52 

Anisomeles malabarica 53 

Annona cherimola 53 

Annona muricata 53 

Annona reticulata 53 

Annona squamosa 53 

Anogeissus acuminata 54 

Anogeissus latifolia 54 

Anthemis nobilis 54, 55, 400 

Anthistiria gigantea 658 

Anthocephalus cadamba 55, 417 

Anthocephalus chinensis 55 

Anthocephalus indicus 55 

Anthriscus cerefolium 473 

Antiaris toxicaria 55 

Aphanamixis polystachya 56 

Apium crispum 475 

Index 

779

780 Index 

Apium graveolens 56 

Apium leptophyllum 57 

Aplotaxis auriculata 586 

Aquilaria agallocha 57 

Aquilaria malaccensis 57 

Arachis hypogaea 58 

Aralia binnatifida 58 

Aralia pseudo-ginseng 58 

Arctium lappa 58 

Arctostaphylos uva-ursi 59 

Areca catechu 59 

Argemone mexicana 60, 100, 253 

Argyreia elliptica 371 

Argyreia nervosa 60, 61, 83, 334 

Argyreia speciosa 60, 61, 334 

Aristolochia bracteata 61 

Aristolochia bracteolata 61 

Aristolochia indica 61, 450 

Aristolochia longa 62 

Armoracia lapathifolia 62 

Armoracia rusticana 62, 163 

Arnebia benthamii 63 

Arnica montana 223 

Artabotrys hexapetalus 63 

Artabotrys odoratissimus 63 

Artemisia absinthium 63 

Artemisia lacrorum 65 

Artemisia maderaspatana 294 

Artemisia maritima 64 

Artemisia nilagirica 65 

Artemisia officinale 63 

Artemisia parviflora 65 

Artemisia scoparia 338 

Artemisia siversiana 65 

Artemisia stechmaniana 64 

Artemisia vestita 64 

Artemisia vulgaris 65, 368 

Artocarpus heterophyllus 65 

Artocarpus integrifolia 25, 65 

Artocarpus lacucha 66 

Artocarpus lakoocha 66 

Arundo bambos 80 

Arundo donax 66 

Asarum europaeum 67, 692 

Asclepias annularis 313 

Asclepias curassavica 67 

Asclepias tuberosa 68 

Asparagus adscendens 68, 142 

Asparagus curillus 69 

Asparagus filicinus 69 

Asparagus gracilis 69 

Asparagus officinalis 68 

Asparagus racemosus 68, 507, 508 

Asparagus sarmentosus 69 

Asphodelus fistulosus 69 

Asphodelus tenuifolius 33, 69 

Aspidium filix 226 

Aspidopterys indica 70 

Aspidopterys roxburghiana 70 

Asplenium adiantoides 70 

Asplenium adiantum-nigrum 70 

Asplenium ceterach 307 

Asplenium falcatum 70 

Asplenium laciniatum 70 

Asplenium nidus 70 

Asteracantha longifolia 70, 317 

Astragalus candolleanus 71 

Astragalus gummifer 71, 72 

Astragalus hamosus 71, 676 

Astragalus sarcocola 72 

Astragalus strobiliferus 72 

Atalantia floribunda 72 

Atalantia monophylla 72 

Atropa acuminata 72 

Atropa belladonna 72, 73, 204, 396, 592 

Atylosia barbata 73 

Atylosia goensis 73 

Atylosia scarabaeoides 73 

Avena byzantina 73 

Avena sativa 73 

Averrhoa bilimbi 74 

Averrhoa carambola 74 

Avicennia alba 75 

Avicennia officinalis 75 

Azadirachta indica 75, 403 

Azanza lampas 658 

Azima tetracantha 76 

B 

Bacopa monnieri 77, 152 

Balanites aegyptiaca 77, 584 

Balanites roxburghii 77 

Balanophora involucrata 78 

Balanophora polyandra 78 

Baliospermum axillare 78 

Baliospermum calycinum 78

Baliospermum montanum 78, 180, 346 

Baliospermum polyandrum 78 

Balsamodendron caudatum 79 

Balsamodendron mukul 79 

Balsamodendron myrrha 79 

Balsamodendron opobalsamum 80 

Bambusa arundinacea 80 

Bambusa bambos 80 

Banksea speciosa 587 

Barbarea vulgaris 81 

Barleria buxifolia 81 

Barleria cristata 82 

Barleria prionitis 82, 440, 603 

Barleria strigosa 83 

Barringtonia acutangula 83 

Barringtonia racemosa 83 

Basella alba 83 

Basella rubra 83 

Bassia latifolia 392 

Bassia longifolia 84, 392 

Bassia malabarica 392 

Bassia neriifolia 392 

Bauhinia acuminata 85 

Bauhinia candida 86 

Bauhinia malabarica 85 

Bauhinia purpurea 85 

Bauhinia racemosa 85 

Bauhinia retusa 86 

Bauhinia semla 86 

Bauhinia tomentosa 86 

Bauhinia variegata 86 

Begonia laciniata 87 

Begonia palmata 87 

Belamcanda chinensis 87 

Benincasa cerifera 88 

Benincasa hispida 88 

Berberis aristata 88, 89 

Berberis asiatica 88 

Berberis chitria 89 

Berberis lycium 88 

Berberis nepalensis 393 

Berberis ulicina 89 

Berberis vulgaris 89 

Bergenia ciliata 90 

Bergenia ligulata 22, 43, 90 

Beta vulgaris 91 

Betula acuminata 91, 92 

Betula alba 92 

Betula alnoides 91 

Betula bhojpattra 91 

Betula pendula 92 

Betula utilis 91, 92 

Bidens chinensis 92 

Bidens pilosa 92 

Bignonia stans 648 

Bignonia undulata 649 

Bignonia xylocarpa 535 

Biophytum sensitivum 92 

Biota orientalis 660 

Bistorta affinis 508 

Bixa orellana 93 

Blepharis edulis 93, 362 

Blepharis linariaefolia 94 

Blepharis molluginifolia 94 

Blepharis persica 93 

Blepharis sindica 94 

Blepharispermum subsessile 37, 94 

Blumea balsamifera 94 

Blumea densiflora 94 

Blumea eriantha 95 

Blumea fastulosa 95 

Blumea glomerata 95 

Blumea lacera 95 

Boerhavia chinensis 96 

Boerhavia diffusa 96, 668, 669 

Boerhavia erecta 96, 668 

Boerhavia procumbens 96 

Boerhavia punarnava 96, 668 

Boerhavia repanda 96 

Boerhavia repens 96 

Boerhavia verticillata 96 

Bombax ceiba 97, 573 

Bombax insigne 574 

Bombax malabaricum 573 

Borago officinalis 97, 449 

Borassus flabellifer 97, 590 

Borreria articularis 98, 620 

Borreria hispida 98, 620 

Boswellia serrata 98 

Brassica alba 99 

Brassica campestris 99 

Brassica juncea 100 

Brassica juneja 99 

Brassica napus 100 

Brassica nigra 101 

Brayera anthelmintica 101 

Index 

781

782 Index 

Breynia patens 101 

Breynia retusa 101 

Bridelia montana 101, 655 

Bridelia retusa 102 

Brucea javanica 548 

Brucea sativa 102 

Brucea subtlis 102 

Brugmansia suaveolens 102 

Brunella vulgaris 103 

Bryonia alba 396 

Bryonia callosa 182 

Bryonia laciniosa 103 

Bryonia rostrata 353 

Bryonia scabrella 407 

Bryonopsis laciniosa 103 

Bryophyllum calycinum 103, 352 

Bryophyllum pinnatum 21, 103, 352 

Buchanania angustifolia 104 

Buchanania axillaris 104 

Buchanania lanzan 104 

Buchanania latifolia 104 

Bunium persicum 124 

Bupleurum 141 

Bupleurum flacutum 105 

Butea frondosa 105 

Butea monosperma 105 

Butea parviflora 106 

Butea superba 106 

Buxus sempervirens 106 

Buxus wallichiana 106 

C 

Caccinia crassifolia 107 

Caccinia glauca 107 

Cadaba farinosa 107 

Cadaba fruticosa 107 

Cadaba indica 107 

Caesalpinia bonduc 107, 108 

Caesalpinia bonducella 107 

Caesalpinia coriaria 108 

Caesalpinia crista 107 

Caesalpinia digyna 108, 715 

Caesalpinia pulcherrima 109 

Caesalpinia sappan 109 

Cailliea cinerea 212 

Cajanus cajan 110, 222 

Cajanus indicus 110 

Calamus amarus 111 

Calamus draco 199 

Calamus jenkinsianus 199 

Calamus rotang 110, 111 

Calamus roxburghii 110 

Calamus tenuis 111, 199 

Calamus travancoricus 111 

Calendula officinalis 111 

Callicarpa incana 112 

Callicarpa macrophylla 112, 521, 602 

Calonyction bona-nox 331 

Calonyction aculeatum 331 

Calophyllum apetalum 112 

Calophyllum inophyllum 112 

Calophyllum wightianum 112 

Calotropis gigantea 113 

Calotropis procera 113 

Caltha palustris 114 

Calycopteris floribunda 114 

Camellia sinensis 114 

Camellia thea 115 

Canarium commune 115 

Canarium sikkimense 115, 116 

Canarium strictum 115 

Canarium vulgare 115 

Cannabis indica 116, 579 

Cannabis sativa 116 

Canscora decussata 116, 117, 162 

Canscora diffusa 117 

Canscora lawii 117 

Canthium parviflorum 117 

Capparis aphylla 117 

Capparis decidua 117 

Capparis horrida 119 

Capparis moonii 118 

Capparis sepiaria 118 

Capparis spinosa 118 

Capparis zeylanica 119 

Capsella bursa-pastoris 119 

Capsicum annuum 119 

Capsicum frutescens 120 

Carallia brachiata 120 

Carallia integerrima 120 

Carallia lucida 120 

Carapa granatum 724 

Cardiospermum halicacabum 121 

Carduus bendictus 713 

Carduus heteromallus 586 

Carduus nutans 713

Careya arborea 122 

Careya herbacea 122 

Carica papaya 122, 629 

Carissa carandas 123 

Carissa opaca 123 

Carissa paucinervia 123 

Carissa spinarum 123 

Carmona microphylla 231 

Carthamus oxyacantha 124 

Carthamus tinctorius 123 

Carum bulbocastanum 124, 184 

Carum carvi 124, 184 

Carum copticum 665 

Carum roxburghianum 665 

Carvia callosa 628 

Caryophyllus aromaticus 636 

Casearia elliptica 125 

Casearia esculenta 125 

Casearia ovata 125 

Casearia tomentosa 125 

Casearia zeylanica 125 

Cassia absus 126 

Cassia alata 126 

Cassia acutifolia 127 

Cassia angustifolia 127 

Cassia auriculata 127 

Cassia fistula 128, 525 

Cassia javanica 128 

Cassia obovata 128 

Cassia obtusa 128 

Cassia obtusifolia 129 

Cassia occidentalis 129 

Cassia rhombifolia 128 

Cassia senna 127 

Cassia sophera 129 

Cassia tora 130 

Cassine glauca 233 

Cassytha filiformis 130 

Castanea dentata 131 

Castanea sativa 131 

Castanea vulgaris 131 

Casuarina equisetifolia 131 

Catharanthus pusillus 705 

Catharanthus roseus 131, 132, 705 

Catunaregam uliginosa 536 

Caulophyllum thalictroides 147 

Cayratia carnosa 132 

Cayratia pedata 132 

Index 

Cayratia trifolia 132 

Cedrela toona 132, 641 

Cedrus deodara 133, 505 

Cedrus libani 133 

Ceiba pentandra 134 

Celastrus paniculatus 134 

Celosia argentea 135 

Celosia cristata 135, 234 

Celus vettiveroides 468 

Centaurea behen 135, 575 

Centaurium roxburghii 245 

Centella asiatica 77, 136, 170 

Centipeda minima 137 

Centipeda orbicularis 137 

Centratherum anthelminticum 137, 523 

Cephaelis ipecacuanha 24, 138, 284, 434 

Cephalandra indica 162 

Ceratonia siliqua 138 

Ceratophyllum demersum 138, 695 

Cereus grandiflorus 139, 595 

Ceriops candolleana 139 

Ceriops tagal 139 

Ceriscoides turgida 282 

Ceropegia biflora 139 

Ceropegia bulbosa 139 

Ceropegia candelabrum 140 

Ceropegia intermedia 140 

Ceropegia juncea 140 

Ceropegia tuberosa 140 

Ceterach officinarum 307 

Cetraria islandica 140 

Chamaemelum nobile 54, 400 

Chamomilla recutita 400 

Cheiranthus cheiri 140 

Chenopodium album 141 

Chenopodium ambrosioides 141 

Chenopodium botrys 142 

Chloris gayana 142 

Chloris incompleta 142 

Chloris virgata 142 

Chlorophytum arundinaceum 68, 142, 143 

Chlorophytum attenuatum 143 

Chlorophytum indicum 143 

Chlorophytum tuberosum 143 

Chloroxylon swietenia 143 

Chondodendron tomentosum 143 

Chonemorpha fragrans 144 

Chonemorpha macrophylla 144 

783

784 Index 

Chrozophora plicata 144 

Chrozophora rottleri 144 

Chrysanthemum indicum 144 

Chrysanthemum parthenium 145 

Chrysanthemum vulgare 645 

Chukrasia tabularis 145 

Cicca acida 481 

Cicer arietinum 145, 517 

Cichorium endivia 146 

Cichorium intybus 146 

Cimicifuga racemosa 147 

Cimicifuga foetida 147 

Cinchona calisaya 148 

Cinchona ledgeriana 147 

Cinchona officinalis 147 

Cinchona robusta 147 

Cinchona succirubra 148 

Cinnamomum aromaticum 149 

Cinnamomum camphora 148 

Cinnamomum cassia 149 

Cinnamomum glanduliferum 376 

Cinnamomum impressinervium 150 

Cinnamomum malabatrum 151 

Cinnamomum obtusifolium 150 

Cinnamomum tamala 2, 150, 151, 270 

Cinnamomum verum 150 

Cinnamomum wightii 150, 411 

Cinnamomum zeylanicum 150, 151 

Cissampelos pareira 151, 190, 624 

Cissus quadrangularis 152 

Citrullus colocynthis 152, 672 

Citrullus lanatus 153 

Citrullus vulgaris 153 

Citrus aurantifolia 153 

Citrus aurantium 154 

Citrus decumana 155 

Citrus grandis 155 

Citrus limon 154 

Citrus maxima 155 

Citrus medica 153, 156 

Citrus paradisi 155 

Clausena anisata 157 

Clausena excavata 157 

Clausena pentaphylla 157, 427 

Claviceps purpurea 157 

Clematis gouriana 158 

Clematis napaulensis 158 

Clematis recta 158 

Cleome brachycarpa 158 

Cleome gynandra 299 

Cleome icosandra 158 

Cleome monophylla 159 

Cleome vahliana 158 

Cleome viscosa 158 

Clerodendron siphonanthus 159 

Clerodendrum indicum 159 

Clerodendrum inerme 159 

Clerodendrum infortunatum 160 

Clerodendrum multiflorum 160 

Clerodendrum phlomidis 160 

Clerodendrum serratum 160, 485, 515 

Clitoria ternatea 161 

Coccinia cordifolia 162 

Coccinia glauca 449 

Coccinia indica 162 

Cocculus hirsutus 162, 171 

Cocculus indicus 48 

Cocculus leaeba 162 

Cocculus pendulus 162 

Cocculus villosus 162 

Cochlearia armoracia 163 

Cochlearia cochlearioides 163 

Cochlearia flava 163 

Cochlospermum gossypium 163 

Cochlospermum religiosum 163, 626 

Cocos nucifera 163 

Coffea arabica 164 

Coix gigantea 165 

Coix lachryma 165 

Coix lacryma-jobi 165 

Colchicum autumnale 165, 166 

Colchicum luteum 165, 677 

Coleus amboinicus 21, 166 

Coleus aromaticus 166 

Coleus barbatus 166 

Coleus forskohlii 166 

Coleus vettiveroides 167, 692 

Coleus zeylanicus 167 

Colocasia antiquorum 167 

Colocasia esculenta 167 

Commelina benghalensis 168 

Commelina diffusa 168 

Commelina nudiflora 168 

Commelina obliqua 168 

Commelina paludosa 168 

Commelina salicifolia 168

Commiphora 168 

Commiphora abyssinica 79 

Commiphora molmol 79 

Commiphora mukul 79, 329 

Commiphora opobalsamum 80 

Commiphora wightii 79 

Conium maculatum 169 

Connarus santaloides 554 

Convolvulus alsinoides 256 

Convolvulus arvensis 169 

Convolvulus bilobatus 333 

Convolvulus hederacus 332 

Convolvulus jalapa 334 

Convolvulus microphyllus 169 

Convolvulus muricatus 332 

Convolvulus nil 333 

Convolvulus pluricaulis 162, 169, 170, 365 

Convolvulus prostratus 169 

Convolvulus scammonia 170 

Convolvulus tridentatus 411 

Convululus vitifolius 335 

Copaifera langsdorffii 302 

Coptis chinensis 171 

Coptis teeta 170, 657 

Corallocarpus epigaeus 171 

Corchorus acutangulus 171 

Corchorus aestuans 171 

Corchorus capsularis 171, 172 

Corchorus depressus 172 

Corchorus fascicularis 172 

Corchorus olitorius 171 

Cordia dichotoma 173 

Cordia myxa 173 

Cordia obliqua 173 

Cordia rothii 173 

Cordia wallichii 173 

Coriandrum sativum 174 

Cornutia corymbosa 516 

Corydalis cucullaria 211 

Corydalis govaniana 174 

Corydalis solida 174 

Corylus avellana 175 

Corylus colurna 175 

Corylus ferox 175 

Coscinium fenestratum 88, 175, 344 

Costus speciosus 176, 288, 587 

Cotyledon laciniata 352 

Crataegeus oxyacantha 176 

Crataegus crenulata 176 

Crataegus laevigata 177 

Crataegus monogyna 177 

Crataeva magna 177 

Crataeva nurvala 177 

Cressa cretica 177 

Crinum asiaticum 178 

Crinum defixum 178 

Crinum latifolium 178 

Crinum zeylanicum 178 

Crocus sativus 178 

Crotalaria juncea 179 

Crotalaria verrucosa 180 

Croton oblongifolius 180 

Croton polyandrus 78 

Croton tiglium 180, 345 

Cryptolepis buchanani 181, 473 

Ctenolepis cerasiformis 181 

Cucumis callosus 182 

Cucumis maderaspatana 407 

Cucumis melo 181 

Cucumis myriocarpus 181 

Cucumis prophetarum 181 

Cucumis pseudo-colocynthis 182 

Cucumis sativus 182 

Cucumis trigonus 182 

Cucumis utilissimus 181 

Cucurbita hispada 88 

Cucurbita lagenaria 358 

Cucurbita maxima 53, 182, 183 

Cucurbita moschata 183 

Cucurbita pepo 183 

Cucurbita siceraria 358 

Culex quinquefasciatus 504 

Cuminum cyminum 184 

Cupressus sempervirens 184, 194 

Curculigo orchioides 185 

Curcuma amada 185 

Curcuma angustifolia 81, 186 

Curcuma aromatica 186 

Curcuma caesia 187 

Curcuma domestica 187 

Curcuma longa 186, 187, 525 

Curcuma zedoaria 188 

Cuscuta epithymum 189 

Cuscuta reflexa 130, 189 

Cyamopsis tetragonoloba 189 

Cyclea arnotii 190, 625 

Index 

785

786 Index 

Cyclea peltata 190 

Cyclosorus dentatus 226 

Cydonia oblonga 190 

Cydonia vulgaris 190 

Cymbopogon citratus 191 

Cymbopogon jwarancusa 191 

Cymbopogon martinii 192 

Cymbopogon nardus 192 

Cymbopogon schoenanthus 192 

Cynara scolymus 193 

Cynodon dactylon 193 

Cyperus 93 

Cyperus articulatus 194 

Cyperus esculentus 194 

Cyperus kyllinga 356 

Cyperus platystilis 195 

Cyperus rotundus 195, 196, 680 

Cyperus scariosus 195 

Cyperus triceps 356 

Cytisus monopessulanus 196, 197 

Cytisus scoparius 196 

D 

Dactyloctenium aegyptium 199 

Dactylopius cacti 451 

Daemonorops draco 199 

Daemonorops jenkinsianus 199 

Dalbergia emerginata 200 

Dalbergia frondosa 199 

Dalbergia lanceolaria 199 

Dalbergia latifolia 200 

Dalbergia multiflora 201 

Dalbergia sissoides 200 

Dalbergia sissoo 200 

Dalbergia sympathetica 201 

Dalbergia volubilis 201 

Daphne oleoides 201 

Datisca cannabina 202 

Datura alba 202 

Datura fastuosa 203 

Datura innoxia 202 

Datura metel 202, 203 

Datura stramonium 203 

Datura suaveolens 102 

Datura tatula 203 

Daucus carota 204 

Daucus visnaga 43 

Decalepis hamiltoni 205, 607 

Delima scandens 205 

Delonix elata 205, 206 

Delonix regia 205, 206 

Delphinium ajacis 206 

Delphinium brunonianum 206, 692 

Delphinium cashmirianum 206 

Delphinium consolida 206 

Delphinium denudatum 207 

Delphinium elatum 207 

Delphinium pauciflorum 207 

Delphinium semibarbatum 208 

Delphinium speciosum 207 

Delphinium staphisagria 207 

Delphinium vestitium 207 

Delphinium zalil 208, 588 

Dendrobium crumenatum 208 

Dendrobium macraei 208, 480 

Dendrobium normale 208 

Dendrobium ovatum 208 

Dendrophthoe falcata 208, 383 

Dendrophthoe pentandra 384 

Derris indica 209, 511 

Derris trifoliata 209 

Derris uliginosa 209 

Descurainia sophia 209 

Desmochaeta muricata 213 

Desmodium gangeticum 210, 522 

Desmodium triflorum 210 

Desmos chinensis 683 

Desmos cochinchinensis 684 

Desmostachya bipinnata 211 

Dianthus anatolicus 211 

Dianthus carophyllus 211 

Dicentra canadensis 211 

Dicentra cucullaria 212 

Dichroa febrifuga 212 

Dichrostachys cinerea 212 

Dicoma tomentosa 212 

Dictamnus albus 213 

Didymocarpus macrophylla 213 

Didymocarpus pedicellata 213 

Digera arvensis 213 

Digera muricata 213 

Digitalis lanata 213 

Digitalis purpurea 214 

Dillenia indica 214 

Dillenia pentagyna 150 

Dillenia pentagyna 214, 411

Dillenia speciosa 214 

Dioscorea aculeata 216 

Dioscorea alata 215 

Dioscorea anguina 215 

Dioscorea atropurpurea 215 

Dioscorea bulbifera 215, 573, 642 

Dioscorea clarkei 217 

Dioscorea daemona 216 

Dioscorea deltoidea 216, 217 

Dioscorea esculenta 216 

Dioscorea faciculata 216 

Dioscorea glabra 217 

Dioscorea globosa 215 

Dioscorea hamiltonii 217 

Dioscorea hirsuta 216 

Dioscorea hispada 216 

Dioscorea nepalensis 216 

Dioscorea oppositifolia 217 

Dioscorea pentaphylla 217, 331 

Dioscorea prazeri 217 

Dioscorea puber 215 

Dioscorea purpurea 215 

Dioscorea rubella 174 

Dioscorea sativa 215 

Dioscorea skkimensis 177 

Dioscorea spinosa 216 

Dioscorea triphylla 217 

Dioscorea versicolor 215 

Diospyros dubia 219 

Diospyros ebenum 218 

Diospyros embryopteris 218 

Diospyros exsculpta 220 

Diospyros hebecarpa 218 

Diospyros kaki 218 

Diospyros malabarica 218 

Diospyros melanoxylon 219 

Diospyros montana 219 

Diospyros peregrina 218 

Diospyros tomentosa 220 

Diplocyclos palmatus 103 

Dipteracanthus suffruticosus 561 

Dipterocarpus alatus 220 

Dipterocarpus incanus 220 

Dipterocarpus indicus 220 

Dipterocarpus turbinatus 220 

Dodonaea viscosa 37, 221 

Dolichandrone falcata 221, 298 

Dolichos biflorus 222 

Dolichos falcatus 222 

Dolichos lablab 222, 223 

Dorema ammoniacum 223 

Doronicum hookeri 223 

Doronicum pardalianches 224 

Doronicum roylei 224 

Dracaena cinnabari 224 

Dracocephalum moldavica 224, 444 

Dracontium polyphyllum 224 

Dregea volubilis 225 

Drimia indica 685 

Drosera burmannii 225 

Drosera indica 225 

Drosera lunata 225 

Drosera peltata 225 

Drosera rotundifolia 225 

Drynaria quercifolia 226 

Dryobalanops aromatica 226 

Dryobalanops camphora 226 

Dryopteris barbigera 227 

Dryopteris blanfordii 227 

Dryopteris dentata 226 

Dryopteris filix-mas 226 

Dryopteris marginata 227 

Dryopteris odontoloma 227 

Dryopteris schimperiana 227 

Drypetes roxburghii 227, 528 

Duranta plumieri 227 

Duranta repens 227 

Durio zibethinus 227 

Dysoxylum binectariferum 228 

Dysoxylum labricum 698 

E 

Ecballium elaterium 229 

Ecbolium linneanum 82, 229 

Ecbolium viride 229 

Echinochloa colonum 229 

Echinochloa crus-galli 229 

Echinochloa frumentacea 230 

Echinops echinatus 230 

Echium amoenum 49 

Eclipta alba 230, 716 

Eclipta prostrata 230 

Edwardsia mollis 617 

Ehretia aspera 231 

Ehretia buxifolia 231 

Ehretia laevis 231 

Index 

787

788 Index 

Ehretia obtusifolia 231 

Eichhornia crassipes 232 

Eichhornia speciosa 232 

Elaeocarpus cuneatus 233 

Elaeocarpus ganitrus 232 

Elaeocarpus glandulosus 233 

Elaeocarpus oblongus 233 

Elaeocarpus serratus 233 

Elaeocarpus sphaericus 232 

Elaeocarpus tuberculatus 233 

Elaeodendron glaucum 233 

Eleocharis dulcis 233 

Eleocharis plantaginea 233 

Eleocharis tuberosa 233 

Elephantopus scaber 234 

Elettaria cardamomum 234 

Eleusine aegyptiaca 199 

Eleusine coracana 235 

Eleusine indica 236 

Elsholtzia blenda 236 

Elsholtzia ciliata 236 

Elsholtzia cristata 236 

Elytraria acaulis 236 

Elytraria crenata 236 

Embelia ribes 237, 430 

Embelia robusta 237 

Embelia tsjeriam-cottam 237 

Emblica officinalis 238 

Emilia sonchifolia 239 

Enhydra fluctuans 239 

Enicostemma axillare 239 

Enicostemma hyssopifolium 239 

Enicostemma littorale 239 

Enicostemma verticellatum 240 

Entada phaseoloides 240 

Entada pursaetha 240 

Entada scandens 240 

Ephedra gerardiana 241, 584 

Ephedra major 241 

Ephedra sinica 241 

Epicarpurus orientalis 627 

Equisetum arvense 241 

Eragrostis cynosuroides 211 

Erianthus munja 567 

Erigeron canadensis 242 

Eriobotrya japonica 242 

Eriodendron anafractuosum 134 

Eruca sativa 102, 243 

Ervataemia coronaria 244 

Ervataemia divaricata 244 

Ervatamia coronaria 641 

Ervatamia dichotoma 641 

Ervatamia divaricata 641 

Ervatamia heyneana 642 

Erycibe paniculata 244 

Eryngium caeruleum 244, 467 

Eryngium foetidum 244 

Eryngium maritimum 245 

Erythraea centaurium 245 

Erythraea roxburghii 245 

Erythrina indica 245 

Erythrina stricta 246 

Erythrina suberosa 245 

Erythrina variegata 245 

Erythronium americanum 450 

Erythroxylum coca 246 

Erythroxylum indicum 246 

Erythroxylum monogynum 246 

Eucalyptus globulus 247 

Eugenia acutangula 83 

Eugenia aromatica 636 

Eugenia caryophyllata 636 

Eugenia hemispherica 638 

Eugenia jambolana 637 

Eugenia jambos 639 

Eugenia malccensis 639 

Eugenia operculata 637 

Eugenia uniflora 247 

Eugenia zeylanica 639 

Eulaliopsis binata 248 

Eulophia campestris 248 

Eulophia herbacea 248 

Eulophia nuda 248, 301, 541 

Eulophia pratensis 249 

Eulophia ramentacea 249 

Euonymus atropurpureus 249 

Euonymus tingens 249 

Eupatorium ayapana 250 

Eupatorium cannabinum 249 

Eupatorium odorum 250 

Eupatorium triplinerve 250 

Euphorbia acaulis 250, 253 

Euphorbia antiquorum 250 

Euphorbia dracunculoides 251 

Euphorbia hirta 251, 254 

Euphorbia hypericifolia 252

Euphorbia indica 252 

Euphorbia ligularia 252 

Euphorbia microphylla 181 

Euphorbia neriifolia 252 

Euphorbia nivulia 252 

Euphorbia pilosa 253 

Euphorbia pilulifera 251, 254 

Euphorbia resinifera 253 

Euphorbia royleana 253 

Euphorbia thomsoniana 253 

Euphorbia thymifolia 254 

Euphorbia tirucalli 254 

Euphoria longan 254 

Euphrasia officinalis 255, 469 

Euphrasia simplex 255 

Euryale ferox 255 

Evolvulus alsinoides 161, 162, 169, 170, 256 

Evolvulus angustifolius 256 

Evolvulus hirtus 256 

Evolvulus nummularis 256, 335 

Exacum bicolor 256 

Exacum hyssopifolium 239 

Exacum pedunculatum 256 

Exacum perrottetii 256 

Exacum tetragonum 256 

Excoecaria agallocha 256 

Exogonium purga 257, 332, 334 

F 

Faba vulgaris 703 

Fagara budrunga 731 

Fagara oxyphylla 731 

Fagara rhetsa 731 

Fagonia arabica 259 

Fagonia bruguieri 259 

Fagonia cretica 259 

Fagonia schweifurthii 259 

Fagopyrum esculentum 259, 260 

Fagopyrum tataricum 260 

Fagus sylvatica 260 

Farsetia hamiltonii 260 

Farsetia jacquemontii 260 

Feijoa sellowiana 261 

Feronia elephantum 261 

Feronia limonia 261 

Ferula assafoetida 261 

Ferula foetida 261, 262 

Ferula galbaniflua 262 

Ferula gummosa 262 

Ferula jaeschkeana 262, 281 

Ferula narthex 261, 263 

Ferula persica 263 

Ferula silphion 262 

Ferula sumbul 263 

Ficus altissima 263 

Ficus arnottiana 263 

Ficus asperrima 264 

Ficus benghalensis 264 

Ficus benjamina 265 

Ficus carica 265 

Ficus caricoides 267 

Ficus conglomerata 266 

Ficus cordifolia 265 

Ficus cunia 266 

Ficus daemona 266 

Ficus dalhousiae 266 

Ficus glomerata 268 

Ficus heterophylla 266 

Ficus hispida 266 

Ficus infectoria 267 

Ficus lacor 267 

Ficus microcarpa 267 

Ficus oppositifolia 266 

Ficus palmata 267 

Ficus racemosa 268 

Ficus religiosa 269 

Ficus retusa 267 

Ficus rumphii 265 

Ficus semicardata 266 

Ficus talbotii 269 

Ficus viren 267 

Ficus virgata 267 

Fimbristylis annua 269 

Fimbristylis monostachya 269 

Fimbristylis ovata 269 

Flacourtia indica 269 

Flacourtia ramontchi 269 

Flacourtia cataphracta 270 

Flacourtia jangomas 270 

Flacourtia sepiaria 271 

Flueggea suffruticosa 594 

Foeniculum vulgare 51, 271, 325 

Fomes officinalis 24 

Frangula purshiana 541 

Fraxinus excelsior 272 

Fraxinus griffithi 272 

Index 

789

790 Index 

Fraxinus hookery 272 

Fraxinus ornus 272 

Fritillaria cirrhosa 273 

Fritillaria imperialis 273 

Fritillaria roylei 273 

Fucus distichus 273 

Fucus nodosus 274 

Fucus vesiculosus 273 

Fumaria indica 304 

Fumaria officinalis 274, 275 

Fumaria parviflora 275 

Fumaria parviflora 275 

Fumaria vaillantii 275 

Fusarium nivale 577 

G 

Galium aparine 277 

Galium verum 277 

Ganitrus sphaericus 232 

Garcinia cambogia 277 

Garcinia cowa 278 

Garcinia gummi-gutta 277 

Garcinia hanburyi 278 

Garcinia indica 278 

Garcinia kydia 278 

Garcinia mangostana 279 

Garcinia morella 280 

Garcinia pedunculata 280 

Garcinia pictoria 280 

Garcinia purpurea 278 

Garcinia tinctoria 280 

Garcinia xanthochymus 280 

Gardenia arborea 281 

Gardenia augusta 281 

Gardenia florida 281 

Gardenia gummifera 281 

Gardenia inermis 281 

Gardenia jasminoides 281 

Gardenia latifolia 281 

Gardenia lucida 282 

Gardenia resinifera 282 

Gardenia turgida 282 

Garuga pinnata 282 

Gaultheria fragrantissima 283 

Gaultheria procumbens 283 

Gelidium amansii 57, 283 

Gendarussa vulgaris 350 

Gentiana chirata 632 

Gentiana chirayita 632 

Gentiana dahurica 284 

Gentiana decumbens 284 

Gentiana kurroo 283 

Gentiana lutea 256, 284 

Gentiana olivieri 284 

Gentiana tenella 284 

Gentianella tenella 284 

Geophila reniformis 284 

Geophila repens 284 

Geranium affine 285 

Geranium nepalense 285 

Geranium robertianum 285 

Geranium wallichianum 285, 427 

Geum elatum 286 

Geum urbanum 285 

Ginkgo biloba 286 

Girardinia diversifolia 287 

Girardinia heterophylla 287 

Gironniera cuspidata 287 

Gironniera reticulata 287 

Gisekia pharnaceoides 287 

Glinus lotoides 287 

Glinus oppositifolius 418 

Gloriosa superba 287, 317, 378 

Glossocardia bosvallia 288 

Glossocardia linearifolia 288 

Glycine hispada 288 

Glycine max 288 

Glycine soja 288 

Glycosmis arborea 289 

Glycosmis cochinchinensis 289 

Glycosmis pentaphylla 289 

Glycyrrhiza glabra 289 

Gmelina arborea 290 

Gmelina asiatica 291 

Gmelina parvifolia 291 

Gnaphalium luteo-album 291 

Gnetum montanum 291 

Gnetum scandens 291 

Gnetum ula 292 

Gnida eriocephala 292 

Gnida glauca 292 

Gordonia obtusa 292 

Gossampinus malabarica 573 

Gossypium arboreum 292 

Gossypium barbadense 292 

Gossypium herbaceum 293

Gouania leptostachya 293 

Gouania microcarpa 293 

Gouania tiliaefolia 293 

Gracilaria lichenoides 293 

Grangea maderaspatana 294 

Graptophyllum hortense 294 

Graptophyllum picum 294 

Grewia asiatica 294, 479 

Grewia hirsuta 295 

Grewia microcos 413 

Grewia obliqua 295 

Grewia optiva 296 

Grewia polygama 295 

Grewia populifolia 295 

Grewia scabrophylla 295 

Grewia sclerophylla 295 

Grewia subinaequalis 294 

Grewia tenax 295 

Grewia tiliaefolia 295 

Grewia ulmifolia 413 

Grewia villosa 296 

Guaiacum officinale 296 

Guazuma tomentosa 296 

Guazuma ulmifolia 296 

Guettarda speciosa 297 

Guizotia abyssinica 297 

Gymnema hirsutum 297 

Gymnema montanum 297 

Gymnema sylvestre 221, 297, 298, 494 

Gymnosporia Montana 298 

Gymnosporia spinosa 298 

Gynandropsis gynandra 299 

Gynandropsis pentaphylla 299 

Gynocardia odorata 299 

Gynura nudicaulis 300 

Gynura pseudo-china 300 

H 

Habenaria acuminata 301 

Habenaria edgeworthii 301 

Habenaria goodyeroides 301 

Habenaria griffithii 301 

Habenaria intermedia 301 

Haematoxylon campechianum 301 

Hagenia abyssinica 101 

Haplanthus verticillatus 301 

Hardwickia binata 302 

Hardwickia pinnata 354 

Index 

Hedera helix 302 

Hedera himalaica 302 

Hedera nepalensis 302 

Hedera rhombea 302 

Hedychium album 303 

Hedychium coronarium 303 

Hedychium spicatum 303, 351 

Hedyotis corymbosa 288 

Hedyotis diffusa 304 

Hedyotis herbacea 304 

Hedyotis umbellata 448 

Hedysarum gangeticum 210 

Hedysarum pictum 684 

Hedysarum triflorum 210 

Helianthus annuus 304 

Helianthus tuberosus 305 

Helicteres isora 305 

Heliotropium indicum 305 

Helleborus niger 17, 47, 306 

Helleborus virdis 306 

Hemerocallis fulva 306, 355 

Hemidesmus indicus 205, 306, 323, 355, 473, 

568, 607 

Hemidictyum ceterach 307 

Hemionites arifolia 307, 577 

Heracleum candicans 307 

Heracleum concanense 308 

Heracleum lanatum 307 

Heracleum nepalense 307 

Heracleum regins 308 

Heracleum thomsoni 308 

Herniaria glabra 308 

Herniaria hirsuta 308 

Herpestis monnieria 77 

Hesperethusa crenulata 376 

Heterophragma quadriloculare 308 

Heterophragma roxburghii 308 

Hibiscus abelmoschus 308 

Hibiscus cannabinus 309 

Hibiscus esculentus 1 

Hibiscus mutabilis 309 

Hibiscus populneus 659 

Hibiscus rosa-sinensis 309 

Hibiscus sabdariffa 310 

Hibiscus surattensis 311 

Hibiscus syriacus 310 

Hippocratea grahamii 540 

Hippocratea indica 540 

791

792 Index 

Hippophae rhamnoides 311 

Hiptage benghalensis 312 

Hiptage madablota 312 

Holarrhena antidysenterica 312, 720, 721 

Holarrhena pubescens 312 

Holoptelea integrifolia 108, 313 

Holostemma ada-kodien 313 

Holostemma annularis 313 

Holostemma rheedii 313 

Homonoia riparia 314, 571 

Hordeum vulgare 314 

Hovenia acerba 314 

Hovenia dulcis 314 

Hugonia mystax 315 

Humulus lupulus 315 

Huperzia serrata 388 

Hura crepitans 316 

Hybanthus enneaspermus 329 

Hydnocarpus heterophylla 316 

Hydnocarpus heterophyllus 646 

Hydnocarpus kurzii 316 

Hydnocarpus Kurzii 646 

Hydnocarpus laurifolia 316 

Hydnocarpus odorata 299 

Hydnocarpus wightiana 316 

Hydrocotyle asiatica 77, 136 

Hydrocotyle javanica 317 

Hydrocotyle rotundifolia 317 

Hydrolea zeylanica 317 

Hygrophila auriculata 317 

Hygrophila schulli 317 

Hygrophila spinosa 70, 317 

Hymenodictyon excelsum 318 

Hymenodictyon orixense 318 

Hyoscyamus muticus 318 

Hyoscyamus niger 318 

Hypecoum loptocarpum 319 

Hypecoum pendulum 319 

Hypecoum procumbens 319 

Hypericum perforatum 319 

Hyptis suaveolens 320 

Hyssopus officinalis 320 

I 

Iberis amara 323 

Ichnocarpus frutescens 323 

Ilex aquifolium 323 

Ilex paraguariensis 324 

Illicium anisatum 324 

Illicium griffithii 325 

Illicium verum 325 

Impatiens balsamina 325 

Imperata arundinacea 326 

Imperata cylindrica 326 

Indigofera arrecta 326 

Indigofera articulata 326 

Indigofera aspalathoides 327 

Indigofera caerulea 326 

Indigofera cassioides 327 

Indigofera enneaphylla 327 

Indigofera linnaei 327 

Indigofera oblongifolia 327 

Indigofera paucifolia 327 

Indigofera prostrata 328 

Indigofera pulchella 327 

Indigofera tinctoria 289, 328 

Indigofera trifoliata 328 

Inula helenium 329 

Inula racemosa 329, 586 

Inula royleana 329 

Involucraria lepiniana 671 

Ionidium suffruticosum 329 

Ipomoea alba 331 

Ipomoea aquatica 330 

Ipomoea batatas 330 

Ipomoea biloba 61, 333 

Ipomoea bona-nox 331 

Ipomoea digitata 331, 527, 573 

Ipomoea eriocarpa 331 

Ipomoea hederacea 332, 333 

Ipomoea hispida 331 

Ipomoea jalapa 334 

Ipomoea marginata 332 

Ipomoea mauritiana 331 

Ipomoea maxima 335 

Ipomoea muricata 332 

Ipomoea nil 333 

Ipomoea obscura 332 

Ipomoea paniculata 331 

Ipomoea pes-caprae 333, 334 

Ipomoea petaloidea 61, 334 

Ipomoea purga 169, 257, 334 

Ipomoea purpurea 334 

Ipomoea quamoclit 335 

Ipomoea reniformis 256, 335 

Ipomoea reptans 330

Ipomoea sepiaria 335 

Ipomoea sessiliflora 331 

Ipomoea tridentata 411 

Ipomoea turbinata 332 

Ipomoea turpethum 257, 334, 399, 449 

Ipomoea vitifolia 335 

Iresine herbstii 12 

Iris ensata 336 

Iris florentina 336 

Iris germanica 336 

Iris kumaonensis 336 

Iris nepalensis 337 

Iris pallida 336 

Iris pseudacorus 337 

Iris versicolor 337 

Isatis tinctoria 337, 338 

Ixora coccinea 338 

Ixora javanica 339 

Ixora parviflora 338 

Ixora pavetta 338 

J 

Jacaranda acutifolia 341 

Jacaranda filicifolia 341 

Jacaranda mimosifolia 341 

Jacaranda ovalifolia 341 

Jacaranda rhombifolia 341 

Jacobinia tinctoria 19 

Jambosa hemispherica 638 

Jambosa vulgaris 639 

Jasminum angustifolium 341 

Jasminum arborescens 341 

Jasminum auriculatum 342 

Jasminum azoricum 342 

Jasminum bignoniaceum 342 

Jasminum bracteatum 343 

Jasminum flexile 342 

Jasminum grandiflorum 343 

Jasminum heterophyllum 342 

Jasminum hirsutum 343 

Jasminum humile 342 

Jasminum malabaricum 343 

Jasminum multiflorum 343 

Jasminum officinale 342, 343 

Jasminum pubescens 343 

Jasminum rottlerianum 344 

Jasminum roxburghianum 341 

Jasminum sambac 342, 344 

Jateorhiza calumba 344 

Jateorhiza palmata 176, 344 

Jatropha curcas 180, 345 

Jatropha glandulifera 345 

Jatropha gossypifolia 346 

Jatropha multifida 346 

Jatropha panduraefolia 346 

Juglans cineraria 347 

Juglans regia 346, 347 

Juncus communis 347 

Juncus effusus 347 

Juniperus bermudiana 349 

Juniperus chinensis 349 

Juniperus communis 348 

Juniperus excelsa 348 

Juniperus macropoda 348 

Juniperus procera 349 

Juniperus recurva 348 

Juniperus virginiana 349 

Jurinea dolomiacea 349 

Jurinea macrocephala 349 

Jussiaea fissendocarpa 349 

Jussiaea linifolia 349 

Jussiaea suffruticosa 349 

Jussiaea tenella 349 

Justicia adhatoda 18 

Justicia betonica 349 

Justicia betonica 82 

Justicia ecbolium 229 

Justicia gendarussa 350 

Justicia nasuta 545 

Justicia pectinata 564 

Justicia picta 254 

Justicia procumbens 288, 350 

Justicia tranquebariensis 350 

Justicia vasculosa 350 

K 

Kadsura heteroclita 351 

Kadsura roxburghiana 351 

Kadsura wightiana 351 

Kaempferia galanga 351 

Kaempferia rotunda 351 

Kalanchoe brasiliensis 352 

Kalanchoe integra 352 

Kalanchoe laciniata 352 

Kalanchoe pinnata 103, 352 

Kalanchoe schweinfurthii 352 

Index 

793

794 Index 

Kalanchoe spathulata 352 

Kandelia candel 353 

Kandelia rheedii 353 

Kedrostis foetidissima 353 

Kedrostis rostrata 353 

Khaya senegalensis 353 

Kigelia africana 354 

Kigelia pinnata 354 

Kingiodendron pinnatum 354 

Kirganelia reticulata 354 

Kleinhovia hospita 354 

Knema angustifolia 355 

Knema attenuata 391 

Kochia indica 355 

Kochia scoparia 355 

Krameria triandra 355 

Kydia calycina 355 

Kyllinga monocephala 356 

Kyllinga tenuifolia 356 

Kyllinga triceps 207, 356 

L 

Lablab purpureus 222 

Laccifer indica 738 

Laccifer indicola 738 

Laccifer jhansiensis 738 

Lactuca heyneana 357 

Lactuca remotiflora 357 

Lactuca runcinata 357 

Lactuca sativa 357 

Lactuca scariola 357 

Lactuca serriola 357 

Lactuca virosa 358 

Lagenaria leucantha 358 

Lagenaria siceraria 358 

Lagenaria vulgaris 358 

Lagerstroemia flos-reginae 358 

Lagerstroemia indica 359 

Lagerstroemia parviflora 359 

Lagerstroemia reginae 358 

Lagerstroemia speciosa 358 

Laggera alata 359 

Lallemantia royeleana 575 

Lallemantia royleana 360 

Lamium album 360 

Lamium amplexicaule 361 

Lamprachaenium microcephalum 361 

Lannea coromandelica 361 

Lannea grandis 361 

Lansium domesticum 361 

Lantana aculeata 362 

Lantana camara 362 

Laportea crenulata 362 

Larix americana 362 

Larix decidua 362, 363 

Larix europea 363 

Larix griffithiana 362 

Larix griffithii 362 

Larix laricina 362 

Lasia aculeata 363 

Lasia spinosa 363 

Lasiosiphon eriocephalus 292, 363 

Lasiosiphon glaucus 292 

Lathyrus aphaca 363 

Lathyrus sativus 363 

Lathyrus sphaericus 363 

Lathyrus tingitanus 363 

Launaea asplenifolia 49 

Launaea chondrilloides 364 

Launaea mucronata 364 

Launaea pinnatifida 364 

Launaea sarmentosa 364 

Laurus nobilis 364, 656 

Lavandula angustifolia 364 

Lavandula bipinnata 162 

Lavandula bipinnata 365 

Lavandula burmanni 365 

Lavandula officinalis 364 

Lavandula spica 364 

Lavandula stoechas 103, 365 

Lawsonia inermis 366 

Ledebouria hyacinthina 590 

Leea aequata 366, 711 

Leea crispa 367 

Leea hirta 366 

Leea indica 367 

Leea macrophylla 367 

Lens culinaris 367 

Lens esculenta 367 

Leonotis nepetaefolia 368 

Leonurus cardiaca 10, 368 

Lepidagathis cristata 369 

Lepidagathis hamiltoniana 369 

Lepidagathis hyalina 369 

Lepidagathis incurva 369 

Lepidagathis trinervis 369

Lepidium iberis 369 

Lepidium latifolium 369 

Lepidium ruderale 369 

Lepidium sativum 370 

Leptadenia pyrotechnica 371 

Leptadenia reticulata 370, 480 

Leptadenia spartium 371 

Lettsomia elliptica 371 

Leucaena glauca 371 

Leucaena leucocephala 371 

Leucas aspera 372 

Leucas cephalotes 372 

Leucas lavandulaefolia 372 

Leucas linifolia 372 

Leucas martinicensis 373 

Ligularia kaempferi 373 

Ligularia tussilaginea 373 

Lilium candidum 373 

Lilium giganteum 373 

Lilium martagon 374 

Lilium polyphyllum 374 

Lilium tigrinum 374 

Lilium wallichianum 374 

Limnanthemum cristatum 374, 442 

Limnanthemum indicum 374 

Limnanthemum nymphaeoides 375 

Limnophila aromatica 375 

Limnophila conferta 375 

Limnophila gratioloides 375 

Limnophila gratissima 375 

Limnophila indica 375 

Limnophila racemosa 375 

Limnophila roxburghii 375 

Limnophila rugosa 375 

Limonia crenulata 376 

Limonia oligandra 467 

Limonia pentaphylla 289 

Lindenbergia indica 376 

Lindenbergia urticaefolia 376 

Lindera nessiana 376 

Lindernia cordifolia 696 

Linum usitatissimum 376 

Lipasis rostrata 377 

Lippia alba 378 

Lippia geminata 378 

Lippia javanica 378 

Lippia nodiflora 378, 480 

Liquidambar formosana 378 

Liquidambar orientalis 40, 378, 631 

Liriodendron tulipifera 379, 677 

Litchi chinensis 379 

Lithospermum officinanle 379 

Litsea chinensis 380 

Litsea glutinosa 380 

Litsea monopetala 380 

Litsea polyantha 380 

Litsea sebifera 380 

Litsea stocksii 381 

Lobelia affinis 382 

Lobelia cardinalis 382 

Lobelia chinensis 381 

Lobelia cordigera 382 

Lobelia erinus 382 

Lobelia excelsa 382 

Lobelia fulgens 382 

Lobelia inflata 381, 382 

Lobelia leschenaultiana 382 

Lobelia nicotianaefolia 382 

Lobelia pyramidalis 382 

Lobelia radicans 381 

Lobelia succulenta 382 

Lochnera pusilla 705 

Lochnera rosea 131 

Lodoicea maldivica 382 

Lolium temulentum 383 

Lonicera angustifolia 383 

Lonicera caprifolium 383 

Lonicera glauca 383 

Lonicera japonica 383 

Lonicera periclymenum 383 

Lonicera quinquelocularis 383 

Loranthus falcatus 383 

Loranthus pentandrus 384 

Lubis firmun 380 

Ludwigia octovalvis 349 

Luffa acutangula 384 

Luffa aegyptiaca 384 

Luffa cylindrica 384 

Luffa echinata 385 

Luffa graveolens 385 

Luffa pentandra 384 

Lupinus albus 385 

Lupinus angustifolius 385 

Lupinus hirsutus 386 

Lupinus luteus 386 

Lupinus mutabilis 386 

Index 

795

796 Index 

Luvunga eleutherandra 386 

Luvunga scandens 386 

Lycium barbarum 386 

Lycopersicon esculentum 387 

Lycopodium annotinum 388 

Lycopodium clavatum 387 

Lycopodium complanatum 388 

Lycopodium selago 388 

Lycopus europaeus 388 

Lycopus virginicus 388 

Lygodium flexuosum 388 

Lygodium japonicum 389 

Lygodium pinnatifidum 388 

Lyonia ovalifolia 389 

M 

Maba nigrescens 391 

Machilus macrantha 474 

Macrotomia benthamii 63, 449 

Madhuca butyracea 391 

Madhuca indica 391 

Madhuca longifolia 84, 392 

Madhuca neriifolia 392 

Maerua arenaria 393 

Maerua oblongifolia 393 

Magnolia grandiflora 393 

Magnolia pterocarpa 393 

Magnolia sphenocarpa 393 

Maharanga emodi 449 

Mahonia napalensis 393 

Majorana hortensis 452 

Malaxis acuminata 414 

Malaxis muscifera 414 

Mallotus philippensis 393 

Mallotus philippinensis 526 

Malpighia glabra 394 

Malpighia punicifolia 394 

Malus domestica 394 

Malus pumila 394 

Malus sylvestris 394 

Malva coromandeliana 396 

Malva neglecta 395 

Malva rotundifolia 395 

Malva sylvestris 395 

malvastrum 396 

Mammea longifolia 443 

Mandragora autumnalis 396 

Mandragora microcarpa 396 

Mandragora officinarum 396 

Mangifera indica 189, 396 

Manihot esculenta 397 

Manilkara achras 11 

Manilkara hexandra 397 

Manilkara kauki 397 

Manilkara zapota 11 

Maranta arundinacea 81, 398 

Marrubium vulgare 398 

Marsdenia hamiltonii 399 

Marsdenia roylei 398 

Marsdenia tenacissima 399 

Marsilea minuta 399 

Martynia annua 399, 669 

Martynia diandra 10, 399 

Matricaria chamomilla 400 

Matricaria recutita 400 

Matthiola incana 401 

Maytenus emarginata 298 

Maytenus senegulensis 298 

Meconopsis aculeata 401 

Meconopsis horridula 401 

Meconopsis napaulensis 401 

Meconopsis wallichii 401 

Medicago sativa 401 

Melaleuca alternifolia 402 

Melaleuca genistifolia 403 

Melaleuca leucadendron 402 

Melaleuca virdiflora 402 

Melastoma malabathricum 403 

Melastoma normale 403 

Melia azadirachta 75, 403 

Melia azedarach 403 

Melia composita 404 

Melia dubia 353, 404 

Melilotus 716 

Melilotus alba 71, 404, 676 

Melilotus indica 404 

Melilotus officinalis 206, 208, 405 

Melilotus parviflora 404 

Melissa axillaris 405 

Melissa officinalis 406, 436 

Melissa parviflora 405 

Melochia corchorifolia 407 

Melothria heterophylla 733 

Melothria maderaspatana 407 

Melothria perpusilla 407 

Memecylon edule 407

Memecylon umbellatum 407 

Mentha aquatica 408 

Mentha arvensis 408 

Mentha longifolia 408 

Mentha piperata 409, 414 

Mentha spicata 409 

Mentha sylvestris 408 

Mentha viridis 409 

Menyanthes hydrophyllum 374 

Menyanthes indica 374 

Menyanthes trifoliata 410 

Merendera persica 677 

Merremia emarginata 256, 335, 577 

Merremia gangetica 335 

Merremia quinquefolia 410 

Merremia tridentata 411 

Merremia vitifolia 335, 411 

Mesua ferrea 113, 178, 150, 411, 443 

Mesua nagassarium 411 

Meyna laxiflora 412, 696 

Michelia champaca 412 

Michelia montana 412 

Michelia nilagirica 413 

Microcos paniculata 413 

Microglossa pyrifolia 413 

Microglossa volubilis 413 

Micromelum integerrimum 413 

Micromelum minutum 413 

Micromelum pubescens 413 

Micromeria biflora 414 

Micromeria capitellata 414 

Microstylis musifera 377, 414 

Microstylis wallichii 377, 414 

Mikania cordata 414 

Mikania micrantha 414 

Mikania scandens 414 

Miliusa velutina 415 

Millettia auriculata 415 

Millettia extensa 415 

Millettia racemosa 415 

Millingtonia hortensis 415 

Milnea roxburghiana 25 

Mimosa entada 240 

Mimosa pudica 372, 416, 437 

Mimusops elengi 416 

Mimusops hexandra 397 

Mimusops kauki 397 

Mirabilis jalapa 417 

Mitragyna parvifolia 417 

Mollugo cerviana 417 

Mollugo hirta 287 

Mollugo lotoides 287 

Mollugo pentaphylla 418 

Mollugo oppositifolia 418 

Mollugo spergula 418 

Mollugo stricta 418 

Momordica balsamina 325, 418 

Momordica charantia 418 

Momordica cochinchinensis 420 

Momordica cymbalaria 420 

Momordica dioica 420 

Momordica tuberosa 420 

Monarda punctata 409 

Moniera cuneifolia 77 

Monochoria vaginalis 420 

Monotropa uniflora 421 

Morinda bracteata 421 

Morinda citrifolia 421 

Morinda coreia 421 

Morinda tinctoria 421 

Morinda umbellata 421 

Moringa concanensis 422 

Moringa oleifera 422 

Moringa pterygosperma 422 

Morus acidosa 423 

Morus alba 423 

Morus australis 423 

Morus indica 423 

Morus nigra 423 

Mucuna cochinchinensis 425 

Mucuna monosperma 424 

Mucuna nivea 425 

Mucuna pruriens 424 

Mucuna prurita 424 

Mukia scabrella 407 

Murdannia nudiflora 425 

Murdannia scapiflora 425 

Murraya exotica 425 

Murraya koenigii 425 

Murraya paniculata 425 

Musa paradisiaca 426 

Musa sapientum 426 

Mussaenda frondosa 427 

Mussaenda glabrata 427 

Mycrotomia benthami 427 

Myrica esculenta 428 

Index 

797

798 Index 

Myrica nagi 428 

Myristica attenuta 391 

Myristica fragrans 428, 429 

Myristica gibbosa 355 

Myristica malabarica 26, 429 

Myroxylon balsamum 429 

Myroxylon pereirae 430 

Myroxylon toluiferum 429 

Myrrhis odorata 38 

Myrsine africana 430 

Myrsine capitellata 430 

Myrsine semiserrata 430 

Myrtus communis 430 

Myxopyrum serratulum 431 

N 

Naravelia zeylanica 433 

Narcissus tazetta 433 

Nardostachys grandiflora 433, 694 

Nardostachys jatamansi 170, 174, 433, 596, 

694 

Naregamia alata 434 

Nasturtium indicum 553 

Nasturtium officinale 102, 434 

Nelumbium speciosum 435 

Nelumbo nucifera 435, 441, 554 

Nepeta cataria 406, 436 

Nepeta elliptica 170 

Nepeta hindostana 170, 406, 436 

Nepeta longibractea 320 

Nepeta ruderalis 436 

Nephelium litchi 379 

Neptunia oleracea 437 

Neptunia prostrata 437 

Nerium indicum 437 

Nerium odorum 437 

Nerium oleander 437, 659 

Nervilia aragoana 438 

Neuracanthus sphaerostachyus 438 

Nicotiana rustica 439 

Nicotiana tabacum 438 

Nigella damascena 439 

Nigella sativa 439 

Nilgirianthus ciliatus 440 

Nopalea cochenillifera 451 

Nothopanax fruticosum 511 

Nothosaerva brachiata 440 

Notonia grandiflora 440 

Nyctanthes arbor-tristis 440 

Nymphaea alba 441 

Nymphaea lotus 441 

Nymphaea nouchali 441 

Nymphaea rubra 441 

Nymphaea stellata 442 

Nymphoides hydrophyllum 374 

Nymphoides indicum 374 

Nymphoides macrospermum 374, 442 

Nymphoides peltata 375 

O 

Ochna jabotapita 443 

Ochna pumila 443 

Ochna squarrosa 443 

Ochrocarpus longifolius 443 

Ocimum americanum 444 

Ocimum basilicum 443, 452 

Ocimum camphora 445 

Ocimum canum 444 

Ocimum caryophyllatum 443 

Ocimum gratissimum 445 

Ocimum kilimandscharicum 445 

Ocimum minimum 443 

Ocimum pilosum 443 

Ocimum sanctum 444, 445 

Ocimum tenuiflorum 445 

Ocimum viride 446 

Odina wodier 361 

Oenanthe javanica 447 

Oenanthe stolinifera 447 

Oenothera biennis 447, 517 

Oenothera octovalis 349 

Oenothera odorata 447 

Olax scandens 447 

Oldenlandia corymbosa 288, 304 

Oldenlandia herbacea 304 

Oldenlandia umbellata 448 

Olea europaea 448 

Oleum chaulmoograe 646 

Onosma bracteatum 97, 170, 448 

Onosma echioides 32, 427, 449 

Onosma emodi 449 

Onosma hispidum 449 

Onosma hookeri 449 

Operculina petaloidea 334 

Operculina turpethum 257, 334, 399, 449, 450 

Ophelia alba 506

Ophelia chirata 632 

Ophelia multiflora 633 

Ophelia paniculata 633 

Ophelia wallichii 633 

Ophioglossum pendulum 450 

Ophioglossum vulgatum 450 

Ophiorrhiza mungos 450 

Opuntia cochinellifera 451 

Opuntia dillenii 451 

Opuntia ficus-indica 451 

Opuntia stricta 451 

Opuntia vulgaris 451 

Orchipeda foetida 712 

Orchis latifolia 248, 452 

Origanum majorana 452, 453 

Origanum vulgare 452, 453 

Oroxylum indicum 453 

Orthosiphon aristatus 454 

Orthosiphon glabratus 454 

Orthosiphon grandiflorus 454 

Orthosiphon pallidus 454 

Orthosiphon spiralis 454 

Orthosiphon stamineus 454 

Orthosiphon tomentosus 454 

Oryza sativa 454 

Osbeckia chinensis 455 

Osmanthus fragrans 455 

Osmanthus suavis 455 

Osmunda regalis 456 

Osyris arborea 456 

Osyris quadriparita 456 

Osyris wightiana 456 

Ougeinia dalbergioides 456 

Ougeinia oojeinensis 456 

Oxalis acetosella 456 

Oxalis corniculata 457 

Oxalis martiana 457 

Oxalis sensitiva 92 

Oxyria digyna 457 

Oxystelma esculentum 458 

Oxystelma secamone 458 

P 

Paederia foetida 459 

Paederia scandens 459 

Paederia tomentosa 459 

Paeonia emodi 459 

Paeonia officinalis 459 

Panax burkillianus 460 

Panax fruticosus 511 

Panax ginseng 461 

Panax pseudoginseng 460 

Panax quinquefolium 396, 460 

Panax schinseng 396, 460 

Panax sikkimensis 460 

Pandanus facicularis 461 

Pandanus odoratissimus 461 

Pandanus tectorius 461 

Pandanus utilis 461 

Panicum colonum 229 

Panicum crus-galli 229 

Panicum frumentaceum 230 

Panicum miliaceum 461 

Papaver argemone 463 

Papaver dubium 463 

Papaver hybridum 463 

Papaver nudicaule 462, 463 

Papaver orientale 462, 463 

Papaver rhoeas 462 

Papaver somniferum 462 

Paris polyphylla 16, 463 

Parmelia perlata 464 

Parthenium hysterophorus 464 

Parthenocissus himalayana 464 

Paspalum scrobiculatum 465 

Passiflora edulis 465 

Passiflora foetida 465 

Passiflora incarnata 466 

Passiflora laurifolia 466 

Passiflora quadrangularis 466 

Pastinaca sativa 467 

Pastinaca secacul 467, 508 

Paullinia asiatica 467 

Pavetta indica 468 

Pavetta tomentosa 468 

Pavonia odorata 167, 468, 692 

Pavonia zeylanica 468 

Pedalium murex 468, 669 

Pedicularis pectinata 469 

Pedilanthus tithymaloides 469 

Peganum harmala 470 

Pelargonium graveolens 470 

Peltophorum pterocarpum 470 

Pentapetes phoenicea 471 

Pentatropis capensis 471 

Pentatropis cynanchoides 471 

Index 

799

800 Index 

Pentatropis microphylla 400, 471 

Pentatropis spiralis 400, 471 

Pergularia daemia 472 

Pergularia extensa 298, 472 

Pericampylus glaucus 472 

Perilepta auriculata 472 

Perilla elata 236 

Perilla frutescens 472, 473 

Perilla polystachya 236 

Periploca aphylla 473 

Periploca calophylla 473 

Periploca indica 306 

Peristrophe bicalyculata 473 

Persea americana 474 

Persea gratissima 474 

Persea macrantha 474 

Persica vulgaris 521 

Petiveria alliacea 474 

Petroselinum crispum 475, 515 

Peucedanum grande 476 

Peucedanum graveolens 51 

Peucedanum sativum 467 

Peucedanum sowa 51 

Phaseolus aconitifolius 476 

Phaseolus adenanthus 476, 477 

Phaseolus dalzellii 476 

Phaseolus inamoenus 476 

Phaseolus lunatus 476 

Phaseolus mungo 476 

Phaseolus nanus 477 

Phaseolus radiatus 477 

Phaseolus sublobatus 476 

Phaseolus trilobus 477, 651 

Phaseolus vulgaris 477 

Phlogacanthus jenkinsii 478 

Phlogacanthus thyrsiflorus 478 

Phoenix acaulis 478 

Phoenix dactylifera 478 

Phoenix paludosa 479 

Phoenix pusilla 479 

Phoenix sylvestris 479 

Pholidota articulata 479 

Phragmites communis 480 

Phragmites karka 480 

Phragmites maxima 480 

Phragmites roxburghii 480 

Phyla nodiflora 378, 480 

Phyllanthus acidus 480 

Phyllanthus amarus 481, 482 

Phyllanthus distichus 481 

Phyllanthus emblica 238 

Phyllanthus fraternus 481, 482 

Phyllanthus maderaspatensis 482, 577 

Phyllanthus niruri 482 

Phyllanthus reticulatus 354 

Phyllanthus simplex 482 

Phyllanthus urinaria 482 

Phyllanthus virgatus 482 

Physalis alkekengi 483, 717 

Physalis angulata 483 

Physalis minima 483 

Physalis peruviana 483 

Physochlaina praealta 484 

Picea abies 484 

Picea excelsa 484 

Picea morinda 484 

Picea smithiana 484 

Picrasma excelsa 485 

Picrasma quassioides 485 

Picrorhiza kurroa 284, 485, 486 

Picrorhiza scrophulariaeflora 486 

Pieris ovalifolia 389 

Pilocarpus microphyllus 486 

Pimenta dioica 486 

Pimenta officinalis 486 

Pimpinella anisum 324, 486 

Pimpinella saxifraga 487 

Pinus excelsa 487 

Pinus gerardiana 488 

Pinus insularis 488 

Pinus khasya 488 

Pinus larix 363 

Pinus longifolia 488 

Pinus pinaster 489 

Pinus pindrow 1 

Pinus roxburghii 488 

Pinus succinifera 489 

Pinus wallichiana 487 

Pinus webbiana 2, 270 

Piper attenuatum 489 

Piper aurantiacum 493 

Piper bantamense 489 

Piper betle 489 

Piper chaba 490, 590 

Piper cubeba 490 

Piper hamiltonii 491

Piper longum 15, 490, 491 

Piper nigrum 490, 492 

Piper officinarum 490 

Piper peepuloides 492 

Piper retrofractum 490 

Piper schmidtii 492 

Piper sylvaticum 492 

Piper thomsoni 493 

Piper wallichii 493 

Piscidia erythrina 493 

Piscidia piscipula 493 

Pisonia aculeata 493 

Pisonia grandis 494 

Pisonia morindaefolia 494 

Pistacia chinensis 494 

Pistacia integerrima 494, 549 

Pistacia khinjuk 495 

Pistacia lentiscus 494 

Pistacia vera 495 

Pistia stratiotes 232, 495 

Pithecellobium bigeminatum 496 

Pithecellobium dulce 496 

Pithecellobium gracile 496 

Pithecellobium monadelphum 496 

Pittosporum dasycaulon 496 

Pittosporum floribundum 496 

Plantago amplexicaulis 497 

Plantago ispaghula 498 

Plantago lanceolata 497 

Plantago major 498 

Plantago ovata 498 

Platanus orientalis 499 

Platycodon grandiflorum 499 

Plectranthus barbatus 166 

Plectranthus incanus 499 

Plectranthus mollis 499 

Plectranthus zeylanicus 167 

Plectronia parviflora 117 

Plesmonium margaritiferum 500 

Pluchea indica 500 

Pluchea lanceolata 37, 221, 369, 500, 695 

Plumbago auriculata 501 

Plumbago capensis 501 

Plumbago indica 501 

Plumbago rosea 501 

Plumbago zeylanica 501 

Plumeria acuminata 502 

Plumeria alba 502 

Plumeria rubra 502 

Podophyllum emodi 28, 503 

Podophyllum hexandrum 396, 503 

Podophyllum peltatum 503 

Podophyllum pleianthum 503 

Podophyllum sikkimensis 503 

Pogonia flabelliformis 438 

Pogostemon benghalensis 504 

Pogostemon cablin 504 

Pogostemon heyneanus 505 

Pogostemon parviflorus 504 

Pogostemon patchouli 504, 505 

Pogostemon patchouli 504 

Pogostemon plectranthoides 504 

Pogostemon pubescens 504 

Pogostemon purpurascens 504 

Poinciana elata 205, 206 

Poinciana regai 205, 206 

Polianthes tuberosa 505 

Pollinidium angustifolium 248 

Polyalthia longifolia 505 

Polyalthia simiarum 505 

Polyalthia suberosa 505 

Polycarpaea corymbosa 506 

Polycarpaea corymbosa 288 

Polycarpon loeflingii 506 

Polycarpon prostratum 506 

Polygala arvensis 506 

Polygala brachystachya 507 

Polygala chinensis 506, 507 

Polygala crotalarioides 507 

Polygala glomerata 507 

Polygala heyneana 507 

Polygala senega 506, 517 

Polygala sibirica 507 

Polygala telephioides 507 

Polygala tenuifolia 506 

Polygonatum cirrhifolium 507 

Polygonatum multiflorum 508 

Polygonatum verticillatum 467, 508 

Polygonum affine 508 

Polygonum aviculare 508 

Polygonum bistorata 509 

Polygonum glabrum 391, 509 

Polygonum hydropiper 510 

Polygonum paleaceum 509 

Polygonum plebeium 510 

Polygonum viviparum 510 

Index 

801

802 Index 

Polypodium quercifolium 226 

Polypodium vulgare 510 

Polyporus officinalis 511 

Polyscias fruticosa 511 

Polyscias scutellaria 511 

Pongamia glabra 511 

Pongamia pinnata 108, 209, 511, 709 

Populus alba 512 

Populus nigra 512 

Portulaca oleracea 513 

Portulaca pilosa 514 

Portulaca quadrifida 513 

Portulaca tuberosa 514 

Potentilla anserina 514 

Potentilla arbuscula 213, 514, 603 

Potentilla fruticosa 514 

Potentilla fulgens 515 

Potentilla nepalensis 515 

Pothos scandens 515 

Prangos pabularia 515 

Premna arborea 290 

Premna barbata 515, 516 

Premna corymbosa 516 

Premna herbacea 515, 529 

Premna integrifolia 160, 516 

Premna latifolia 516 

Premna obtusifolia 516 

Premna tomentosa 516 

Primula acaulis 517 

Primula denticulata 517 

Primula elatior 517 

Primula officinalis 517 

Primula veris 517 

Primula vulgaris 517 

Pristimera grahamii 540 

Pristimera indica 540 

Prosopis chilensis 517 

Prosopis cineraria 518 

Prosopis juliflora 517 

Prosopis spicigera 518 

Prosopis stephaniana 518 

Prunella vulgaris 103, 623 

Prunus amygdalus 45, 518, 625 

Prunus armeniaca 519 

Prunus avium 519 

Prunus cerasoides 520 

Prunus cerasus 287, 520 

Prunus communis 521 

Prunus domestica 521 

Prunus mahaleb 112, 521, 602 

Prunus paniculatus 634 

Prunus persica 45, 521 

Prunus puddum 520 

Psalliota campestris 20 

Pseudarthria viscida 522 

Psidium cattleyanum 523 

Psidium guajava 522 

Psidium guineense 523 

Psoralea corylifolia 137, 316, 523 

Psychotria ipecacuanha 138 

Pterocarpus dalbergioides 523 

Pterocarpus indicus 524 

Pterocarpus marsupium 102, 355, 524, 655 

Pterocarpus santalinus 524, 525, 636 

Pterospermum acerifolium 525 

Pterospermum canescens 526 

Pterospermum suberifolium 526 

Pueraria javanica 528 

Pueraria lobata 528 

Pueraria phaseoloides 528 

Pueraria tuberosa 331, 414, 527, 573, 611 

Pulicaria dysenterica 527 

Punica granatum 527 

Putranjiva roxburghii 227, 528 

Pygmaeopremna herbacea 515, 529 

Pyrethrum indicum 144 

Pyrola rotundifolia 529 

Pyrus communis 529 

Pyrus malus 394 

Q 

Quamoclit pinnata 335 

Quassia indica 531 

Quercus ilex 531 

Quercus incana 22, 531 

Quercus infectoria 22, 532 

Quercus leucotrichophora 531 

Quercus robur 83, 532 

Quillaja saponaria 532 

Quisqualis indica 533 

R 

Radermachera xylocarpa 535 

Randia brandisii 535 

Randia dumetorum 412, 535 

Randia longifolia 535 

Randia spinosa 535, 536 

Randia tomentosa 535

Randia uliginosa 536 

Ranunculus aquatilis 537 

Ranunculus arvensis 536 

Ranunculus muricatus 537 

Ranunculus sceleratus 536 

Ranunculus trichophyllus 537 

Raphanus caudatus 538 

Raphanus sativus 531 

Rauvolfia beddomei 539 

Rauvolfia canescens 539 

Rauvolfia densiflora 539 

Rauvolfia micrantha 539 

Rauvolfia serpentina 538 

Rauvolfia tetraphylla 539 

Reinwardtia indica 540 

Reissantia grahamii 540 

Reissantia indica 540 

Rejoua dichotoma 641 

Remusatia vivipara 541 

Reseda luteola 541 

Reseda odorata 541 

Rhabdia lyciodes 558 

Rhamnus catharticus 542 

Rhamnus frangula 542 

Rhamnus jujuba 735 

Rhamnus napalensis 542 

Rhamnus nummularia 736 

Rhamnus oenoplia 737 

Rhamnus procumbens 541 

Rhamnus purpurea 542 

Rhamnus purshiana 541 

Rhamnus triquetra 542 

Rhamnus virgata 542 

Rhamnus wightii 391, 543 

Rhaphidophora laciniata 543 

Rheum australe 543 

Rheum emodi 543, 544 

Rheum moorcroftianum 544 

Rheum nobile 544 

Rheum officinale 544, 545 

Rheum palmatum 544, 564 

Rheum rhaponticum 544, 545 

Rheum spiciforme 544 

Rheum webbianum 544, 545 

Rhinacanthus communis 545 

Rhinacanthus nasuta 545 

Rhizophora apiculata 546 

Rhizophora mucronata 546 

Rhododendron aeruginosum 547 

Rhododendron anthopogon 270, 546 

Rhododendron arboreum 546 

Rhododendron barbatum 547 

Rhododendron campanulatum 547 

Rhododendron cinnabarinum 548 

Rhododendron falconeri 548 

Rhododendron lepidotum 270, 546 

Rhododendron puniceum 546 

Rhododendron setosum 546 

Rhus acuminata 549 

Rhus aromatica 549 

Rhus chinensis 548 

Rhus coriaria 548 

Rhus glabra 549 

Rhus hookeri 548 

Rhus insignis 548 

Rhus javanica 548 

Rhus parviflora 549 

Rhus semialata 548 

Rhus succedanea 549 

Rhynchocarpa foetida 353 

Rhynchosia bracteata 550 

Rhynchosia jacobii 550 

Rhynchosia minima 550 

Ribes nigrum 550, 551 

Ribes rubrum 551 

Richardia africana 729 

Ricinus communis 551 

Rivea corymbosa 552 

Rivea hypocrateriformis 552 

Rivea ornata 552 

Rivina humilis 552 

Rivina laevis 552 

Robinia pseudoacacia 553 

Rorippa dufia 553 

Rorippa indica 553 

Rorippa islandica 553 

Rorippa montana 553 

Rorippa nasturtium-aquaticum 434 

Rosa alba 553 

Rosa bourboniana 554, 555 

Rosa brunonii 556 

Rosa canina 554 

Rosa centifolia 554 

Rosa chinensis 554, 555 

Rosa damascena 555 

Rosa gallica 556 

Rosa indica 555 

Rosa macrophylla 555 

Index 

803

804 Index 

Rosa moschata 556 

Rosa multiflora 556 

Rosa polyantha 556 

Rosa rubra 556 

Rosa sericea 557 

Rosa webbiana 557 

Roscoea procera 557 

Rosmarinus officinalis 557 

Rotula aquatica 558 

Rourea minor 558 

Rourea santaloides 558 

Roylea calycina 559 

Roylea cinerea 559 

Roylea elegans 559 

Rubia cordifolia 559 

Rubia munjesta 559 

Rubia sikkimensis 560 

Rubia tinctorum 448, 559, 560 

Rubus ellipticus 560 

Rubus fruticosus 560 

Rubus idaeus 561 

Rubus moluccanus 560 

Rubus niveus 561 

Rubus rugosus 560 

Ruellia strepens 561 

Ruellia suffruticosa 561 

Ruellia tuberosa 561 

Rumex acetosa 457, 562 

Rumex acetosella 562 

Rumex crispus 562, 563 

Rumex dentatus 563 

Rumex hastatus 563 

Rumex maritimus 563 

Rumex nepalensis 563 

Rumex scutatus 564 

Rumex vesicarius 564 

Rungia parviflora 564 

Rungia pectinata 564 

Rungia repens 565 

Ruscus aculeatus 565 

Ruta chalepensis 565 

Ruta graveolens 565, 566 

S 

Sabal palmetto 599 

Sabal serrulata 598 

Saccharum arundinaceum 567 

Saccharum bengalense 567 

Saccharum munja 368, 567 

Saccharum officinarum 567, 568 

Saccharum sara 567 

Saccharum spontaneum 568 

Saccolabium papillosum 568 

Sagittaria sagittifolia 569 

Sagittaria trifolia 569 

Salacia chinensis 125, 569 

Salacia flavescens 569 

Salacia grandiflora 569 

Salacia longifolia 569 

Salacia macrophylla 569 

Salacia macrosperma 125, 569 

Salacia oblonga 570 

Salacia ovalis 569 

Salacia prinoides 569 

Salacia reticulata 570 

Salicornia brachiata 570 

Salix acmophylla 570 

Salix aegyptiaca 270 

Salix alba 570 

Salix babylonica 571 

Salix caprea 111, 571 

Salix daphnoides 571, 572 

Salix elegans 571 

Salix fragilis 572 

Salix nigra 572 

Salix purpurea 572 

Salix tetrasperma 572 

Salix viminalis 572 

Salmalia insignis 573 

Salmalia malabarica 97, 573 

Salsola kali 574 

Salvadora indica 574 

Salvadora oleoides 574 

Salvadora persica 574 

Salvia aegyptiaca 575 

Salvia coccinea 575 

Salvia haematodes 575 

Salvia lanata 575 

Salvia moorcroftiana 576 

Salvia officinalis 576 

Salvia plebeia 60, 577 

Salvia pumila 575 

Salvia spinosa 577 

Salvinia cucullata 577 

Samadera indica 531 

Samadera lucida 531

Sambucus ebulus 577 

Sambucus nigra 578 

Sambucus wightiana 577 

Sandoricum indicum 578 

Sandoricum koetjape 578 

Sanicula europaea 579 

Sansevieria hyacinthoides 579 

Sansevieria roxburghiana 579 

Sansevieria zeylanica 579 

Santalum album 579, 636 

Santolina chamaecyparissus 580 

Sapindus laurifolius 580 

Sapindus mukorossi 581 

Sapindus trifoliatus 580 

Sapium discolor 582 

Sapium indicum 581 

Sapium sebiferum 581 

Saponaria officinalis 582 

Saponaria vaccaria 582 

Sapota achras 9 

Saprosma ternatum 582 

Saraca asoca 371, 505, 583 

Saraca indica 583 

Sarcococca pruniformis 583 

Sarcococca saligna 583 

Sarcococca trinervia 583 

Sarcostemma acidum 584 

Sarcostemma brevistigma 584 

Sarcostemma brunonianum 584 

Sarcostemma esculentum 584 

Sarcostemma intermedium 584 

Sarcostemma secamone 458, 584 

Sarcostemma stocksii 584 

Sarcostigma kleinii 584 

Sarothamnus scoparius 196 

Sassafras albidum 584 

Sassafras officinale 584 

Sassafras variifolium 584 

Satureja hortensis 585 

Satureja montana 585 

Sauropus androgynus 585 

Saussurea affinis 585 

Saussurea auriculata 586 

Saussurea candicans 586 

Saussurea costus 586 

Saussurea gossypiphora 586 

Saussurea heteromalla 586 

Saussurea hieracioides 586 

Saussurea hypoleuca 586 

Saussurea lappa 176, 329, 576, 586 

Saussurea obvallata 587 

Saussurea sacra 587 

Saxifraga ligulata 90 

Scaevola frutescens 588 

Scaevola koenigii 588 

Scaevola taccada 588 

Schima wallichii 588 

Schizachyrium exile 588 

Schleichera oleosa 589 

Schleichera trijuga 589 

Schrebera swientenioides 589 

Schweinfurthia papilionacea 589 

Schweinfurthia sphaerocarpa 589 

Scilla hyacinthiana 590 

Scilla indica 590 

Scindapsus officinalis 590 

Scirpus 93 

Scirpus articulatus 591 

Scirpus corymbosus 591 

Scirpus grossus 591 

Scirpus kysoor 591 

Scirpus lacustris 591 

Scirpus maritimus 591 

Scirpus tuberosus 591 

Scleria biflora 592 

Scleria levis 592 

Scleria lithosperma 591 

Scleria pergracilis 592 

Scoparia dulcis 592 

Scopolia anomala 592 

Scopolia carniolica 593 

Scopolia lurida 592 

Scutellaria baicalensis 593 

Scutellaria barbata 593 

Scutellaria galericulata 593 

Scutellaria grandiflora 593 

Scutellaria lateriflora 593 

Scutellaria rivularis 593 

Scutia indica 593 

Scutia myrtina 593 

Sebastiana chamaelea 594 

Secale cereale 594 

Securinega ramiflora 594 

Securinega suffruticosa 594 

Securinega virosa 595 

Selaginella involvens 595 

Index 

805

806 Index 

Selaginella rupestris 595 

Selaginella tamariscina 595 

Selaginella wallichii 595 

Selaginella willdenovii 595 

Selenicereus grandiflorus 595 

Selinum candollei 596 

Selinum monnieri 596 

Selinum tenuifolium 434, 596 

Selinum vaginatum 596 

Semecarpus anacardium 597 

Semecarpus kurzii 597 

Sempervivum tectorum 598 

Senecio aureus 598 

Senecio jacquemontianus 598 

Senecio kaempferi 373 

Senecio vulgaris 598 

Seronoa mauritiiformis 599 

Seronoa mexicana 599 

Seronoa minor 599 

Seronoa repens 598 

Seronoa umbraculifera 599 

Sesamum indicum 599 

Sesamum orientale 599 

Sesbania aculeata 600 

Sesbania aegyptiaca 601 

Sesbania bispinosa 600 

Sesbania grandiflora 600 

Sesbania sesban 601 

Seseli diffusum 601 

Seseli indicum 601 

Seseli sibiricum 601 

Setaria italica 462, 602 

Shorea robusta 602 

Shretia cuneata 558 

Sibbaldia parviflora 603 

Sida acuta 603 

Sida alba 605 

Sida carpinifolia 603 

Sida cordata 605 

Sida cordifolia 563, 603 

Sida humilis 605 

Sida rhombifolia 604, 605 

Sida spinosa 605 

Sida veronicaefolia 459, 605 

Siegesbeckia orientalis 606 

Silybum marianum 606, 617 

Sinapis alba 99 

Sisymbrium irio 210, 553, 607 

Sisymbrium loeselii 607 

Sisymbrium sophia 209 

Smilax 306, 307, 608 

Smilax aristolochiaefolia 607 

Smilax aspera 608 

Smilax china 608 

Smilax febrifuga 607 

Smilax glabra 608 

Smilax lanceifolia 609 

Smilax macrophylla 609 

Smilax medica 607 

Smilax ornata 609 

Smilax ovalifolia 609 

Smilax perfoliata 609 

Smilax prolifera 609 

Smilax regelii 607 

Smilax zeylanica 609 

Solanum aculeatissimum 609 

Solanum albicaule 610 

Solanum anguivi 612 

Solanum aviculare 610 

Solanum coagulans 613 

Solanum dubium 610 

Solanum dulcamara 610 

Solanum elaeagnifolium 611 

Solanum erianthum 611 

Solanum ferox 611, 613 

Solanum indicum 610, 612 

Solanum khasianum 611 

Solanum lycopersicum 387 

Solanum maccanni 615 

Solanum melongena 612, 613 

Solanum nigrum 613 

Solanum rubrum 613 

Solanum spirale 614 

Solanum surattense 615 

Solanum torvum 614 

Solanum trilobatum 614 

Solanum tuberosum 614 

Solanum verbascifolium 611 

Solanum virginianum 615 

Solanum xanthocarpum 610, 615 

Solena heterophylla 733 

Solidago virga-urea 615 

Sonchus arvensis 616 

Sonchus asper 616 

Sonchus oleraceus 616 

Sonneratia caseolaris 617

Sophora japonica 617 

Sophora mollis 617 

Sophora secundiflora 618 

Sophora tomentosa 618 

Sopubia delphinifolia 618 

Sorbus aucuparia 618 

Sorghum durra 619 

Sorghum vulgare 619 

Soymida febrifuga 619 

Spathodea campanulata 619 

Spergula rubra 620 

Spergularia rubra 620 

Spermacoce articularis 620 

Spermacoce hispida 98, 620 

Sphaeranthus africanus 621 

Sphaeranthus hirtus 620 

Sphaeranthus indicus 92, 620 

Sphaeranthus senegalensis 620 

Spilanthes acmella 621 

Spilanthes calva 621 

Spilanthes oleracea 622 

Spilanthes paniculata 621 

Spilanthes pseudoacmella 621 

Spinacia oleracea 622, 656 

Spinacia tetrandra 622 

Spondias cytherea 622 

Spondias dulcis 622 

Spondias mangifera 622 

Spondias pinnata 622 

Stachys officinalis 623 

Stachys palustris 623 

Stachys sylvatica 623 

Stachytarpheta indica 623 

Stachytarpheta jamaicensis 623 

Stellaria aquatica 624 

Stellaria media 624 

Stenolobium stans 648 

Stephania glabra 624 

Stephania hernandiifolia 151, 625 

Stephania japonica 625 

Stephania rotunda 625 

Sterculia foetida 625 

Sterculia urens 625 

Sterculia villosa 626 

Stereospermum chelonoides 626 

Stereospermum colais 626 

Stereospermum personatum 535, 626 

Stereospermum suaveolens 535, 626 

Index 

Stereospermum tetragonum 626 

Stereospermum xylocarpum 535 

Streblus asper 627 

Striga asiatica 627 

Striga gesneroides 627 

Striga lutea 627 

Striga orobanchioides 627 

Strobilanthes auriculatus 472 

Strobilanthes callosus 628 

Strobilanthes ciliatus 440 

Strobilanthes cusia 628 

Strobilanthes flaccidifolius 628 

Strophanthus kombe 628 

Strophanthus wightianus 628 

Strychnos cinnamomifolia 630 

Strychnos colubrina 628 

Strychnos ignatii 629 

Strychnos nux-vomica 629, 708, 709 

Strychnos potatorum 630 

Strychnos rheedei 630 

Strychnos wallichiana 630 

Styrax benzoin 631 

Styrax officinale 631 

Sutherlandia frutescens 631 

Swertia affinis 631 

Swertia angustifolia 631 

Swertia chirata 374, 632 

Swertia chirayita 44, 159, 240, 245, 256, 632, 

633 

Swertia ciliata 632 

Swertia corymbosa 633 

Swertia decussata 633 

Swertia densifolia 633 

Swertia lawii 633 

Swertia paniculata 633 

Swertia purpurascens 632 

Swertia tongluensis 632 

Swietenia mahagoni 633 

Symphorema involucratum 634 

Symphytum officinale 634 

Symphytum peregrinum 634 

Symplocos beddomei 635 

Symplocos candolleana 635 

Symplocos chinensis 634 

Symplocos crataegoides 634 

Symplocos laurina 635 

Symplocos paniculata 634 

Symplocos phyllocalyx 636 

807

808 Index 

Symplocos racemosa 635 

Symplocos ramosissima 635 

Symplocos spicata 635 

Symplocos sumuntia 635 

Symplocos theaefolia 636 

Syphaeranthus indicus 348 

Syringa vulgaris 636 

Syzygium arnottianum 636 

Syzygium aromaticum 640 

Syzygium caryophyllatum 640 

Syzygium cerasoideum 637 

Syzygium cuminii 637 

Syzygium hemisphericum 638 

Syzygium jambolanum 637 

Syzygium jambos 639 

Syzygium malaccense 639 

Syzygium nervosum 637 

Syzygium operculatum 637 

Syzygium zeylanicum 639 

T 

Tabernaemontana coronaria 244, 641 

Tabernaemontana dichotoma 641 

Tabernaemontana divaricata 641 

Tabernaemontana heyneana 642 

Tacca aspera 642 

Tacca integrifolia 642 

Tacca leontopetaloides 642 

Tacca pinnatifida 642 

Tagetes erecta 642 

Tagetes glandulifera 643 

Tagetes minuta 643 

Tagetes patula 643 

Talinum triangulare 643 

Tamarindus indica 643 

Tamarindus occidentalis 643 

Tamarindus officinalis 643 

Tamarix aphylla 644 

Tamarix articulata 644 

Tamarix dioica 644 

Tamarix ericoides 645 

Tamarix gallica 645 

Tamarix indica 645 

Tamarix orientalis 644 

Tamarix troupii 645 

Tanacetum parthenium 145, 646 

Tanacetum vulgare 645 

Taractogenos 316 

Taraktogenos kurzii 646 

Taraxacum officinale 646 

Tarenna asiatica 647 

Taverniera cuneifolia 647 

Taverniera nummularia 647 

Taxus baccata 648 

Taxus wallichiana 648 

Tecoma stans 648 

Tecoma undulata 56, 391, 649 

Tecomella undulata 391, 649 

Tectona grandis 649 

Tephrosia hamiltonii 650 

Tephrosia purpurea 650 

Tephrosia spinosa 651 

Tephrosia uniflora 651 

Tephrosia villosa 650 

Teramnus labialis 476, 477, 651 

Terminalia alata 655 

Terminalia arjuna 651, 652 

Terminalia bellirica 652 

Terminalia bialata 653 

Terminalia catappa 653 

Terminalia chebula 653 

Terminalia citrina 654 

Terminalia coriacea 654 

Terminalia myriocarpa 655 

Terminalia paniculata 655 

Terminalia procera 653 

Terminalia tomentosa 655 

Tetracera assa 656 

Tetracera indica 656 

Tetracera laevis 656 

Tetracera scandens 205 

Tetragonia expansa 656 

Tetragonia tetragonioides 656 

Tetrastigma serrulatum 656 

Teucrium chamaedrys 657 

Teucrium scordium 657 

Thalictrum alpinum 658 

Thalictrum elegans 658 

Thalictrum foetidum 658 

Thalictrum foliolosum 657 

Thalictrum javanicum 658 

Thalictrum minus 658 

Thalictrum reniforme 658 

Thamnopteris nidus 70 

Themeda arundinacea 658 

Themeda quadrivalvis 658

Theobroma cacao 246, 658 

Thespesia lampas 658 

Thespesia populnea 659 

Thevetia neriifolia 659 

Thevetia peruviana 437, 659 

Thlaspi arvense 660 

Thuja occidentallis 349, 660 

Thuja orientalis 660 

Thymus serpyllum 660, 661 

Thymus vulgaris 661 

Thysanolaena agrostis 661 

Thysanolaena maxima 661 

Tilia 661 

Tilia cordata 661 

Tilia europaea 661 

Tilia vulgaris 661 

Tiliacora acuminata 662 

Tiliacora racemosa 662 

Tinospora cordifolia 662, 663 

Tinospora crispa 663 

Tinospora malabarica 663 

Tinospora rumphii 663 

Tinospora sinensis 663 

Tinospora tomentosa 663 

Toddalia aculeata 467, 663 

Toddalia asiatica 663 

Toddalia bilocularis 698 

Toona ciliata 132 

Torenia asiatica 664 

Torenia polygonoides 664 

Torenia thouarsii 664 

Torenia travancorica 664 

Trachelospermum fragrans 664 

Trachelospermum jasminoides 664 

Trachelospermum lucidum 664 

Trachydium lehmanni 467 

Trachyspermum ammi 665 

Trachyspermum copticum 665 

Trachyspermum involucratum 666 

Trachyspermum roxburghianum 665 

Tragia involucrata 666 

Tragopogon porrifolius 666 

Tragopogon sinuatum 666 

Trapa bispinosa 667 

Trapa natans 131, 667 

Trapa quadrispinosa 667 

Trema amboinensis 667 

Trema orientalis 667 

Trewia nudiflora 667 

Trewia polycarpa 668 

Trianthema 96 

Trianthema decandra 668 

Trianthema govindia 668 

Trianthema monogyna 668 

Trianthema pentandra 668 

Trianthema portulacastrum 96, 668 

Tribulus alatus 669 

Tribulus terrestris 669 

Trichodesma indicum 670 

Trichodesma zeylanicum 670 

Tricholepis angustifolia 361, 671 

Tricholepis glaberrima 42, 671 

Tricholepis procumbens 713 

Trichosanthes anguina 671 

Trichosanthes bracteata 671 

Trichosanthes cordata 672 

Trichosanthes cucumerina 672 

Trichosanthes dioica 672 

Trichosanthes lepiniana 671 

Trichosanthes nervifolia 673 

Trichosanthes palmata 671 

Tridax procumbens 673 

Trifolium alexandricum 674 

Trifolium pratense 405, 674 

Trigonella corniculata 674, 676 

Trigonella foenum-graecum 674 

Trigonella incisa 675 

Trigonella polycerata 675 

Trigonella uncata 71, 676 

Triphasia trifolia 676 

Triticum aestivum 676 

Triticum repens 26 

Triumfetta angulata 677 

Triumfetta rhomboidea 677 

Triumfetta rotundifolia 677 

Tropaeolum majus 677 

Tubiflora acaulis 236 

Tulipa gesneriana 677 

Tulipa stellata 677 

Turnera angustifolia 678 

Turnera diffusa 678 

Turnera ulmifolia 678 

Turraea villosa 678 

Turraea virens 678 

Tussilago farfara 678 

Tylophora asthamatica 679 

Index 

809

810 Index 

Tylophora fasciculata 679 

Tylophora indica 679 

Tylophora tenuis 680 

Tylophora tenuissima 680 

Typha angustata 680 

Typha australis 680 

Typha elephantina 680 

Typha laxmanni 681 

Typhonium trilobatum 681 

U 

Ulmus fulva 683 

Ulmus wallichiana 683 

Uncaria gambier 683 

Uncaria rhynchophylla 683 

Unona desmos 683 

Unona discolor 684 

Uraria alopecuroides 684 

Uraria crinita 684 

Uraria lagopodioides 684 

Uraria lagopoides 684 

Uraria picta 210, 684 

Urena lobata 685 

Urena sinuata 685 

Urginea coromandeliana 686 

Urginea indica 590, 685 

Urginea maritima 590, 685, 686 

Urginea wightiana 686 

Urtica dioica 686 

Urtica parviflora 687 

Urtica pilulifera 687 

Urtica urens 688 

Usnea barbata 688 

Usnea florida 688 

Usnea hirta 688 

Usnea longissima 688 

Usnea plicata 688 

Utricularia bifida 688 

Utricularia stellaris 688 

Uvaria gandiflora 689 

Uvaria micrantha 689 

Uvaria narum 688 

Uvaria purpurea 689 

V 

Vaccaria pyramidata 691 

Vaccinium leschenaultii 691 

Vaccinium myrtillus 691 

Vaccinium neilgherrense 691 

Vaccinium symplocifolium 691 

Valeriana dubia 691, 693 

Valeriana edulis 693 

Valeriana hardwickii 374, 641, 692, 694 

Valeriana jatamansi 468, 692, 693 

Valeriana leschenaultii 692 

Valeriana officinalis 369, 691, 692 

Valeriana pyrolaefolia 693 

Valeriana wallichii 693, 694 

Vallaris dichotoma 694 

Vallaris glabra 695 

Vallaris heynei 694 

Vallaris solanacea 694 

Vallisneria spiralis 138, 695 

Vanda roxburghii 32, 500, 695 

Vanda spathulata 695 

Vanda tessellata 32, 695 

Vandellia erecta 696 

Vandellia pedunculata 696 

Vandellia pyxidaria 696 

Vangueria spinosa 412, 696 

Vateria indica 489, 602, 696 

Vateria malabarica 696 

Ventilago bombaiensis 698 

Ventilago calyculata 697 

Ventilago denticulata 697 

Ventilago goughii 698 

Ventilago madraspatana 697 

Vepris bilocularis 698 

Veratrum viride 698 

Verbascum densiflorum 698 

Verbascum phlomoides 698 

Verbascum thapsus 698 

Verbena officinalis 699 

Vernonia anthelmintica 137 

Vernonia arborea 700 

Vernonia chinensis 700 

Vernonia cinerea 616, 699 

Vernonia javanica 700 

Vernonia patula 700 

Vernonia roxburghii 700 

Vernonia teres 700 

Veronica beccabunga 700 

Vetiveria zizanioides 50, 191, 701 

Viburnum coriaceum 701, 702 

Viburnum cotinifolium 559 

Viburnum foetidum 702

Viburnum grandiflorum 702 

Viburnum mullaha 701 

Viburnum nervosum 702 

Viburnum opulus 701, 702 

Viburnum prunifolium 701, 702 

Viburnum stellulatum 702 

Vicia faba 703 

Vicoa auriculata 703 

Vicoa indica 703 

Victoria amazonica 704 

Victoria regia 704 

Vigna aconitifolia 476 

Vigna mungo 476, 651 

Vigna pilosa 477 

Vigna radiata 477 

Vigna trilobata 477 

Vigna unguiculata 222 

Vinca major 132, 704 

Vinca minor 132, 704 

Vinca pubescens 704 

Vinca pusilla 705 

Vinca rosea 131, 132, 704, 705 

Viola biflora 706 

Viola cinerea 706 

Viola odorata 706 

Viola patrinii 706 

Viola pilosa 707 

Viola stocksii 706 

Viola sylvestris 707 

Viola tricolor 707 

Viscum album 707 

Viscum articulatum 708 

Viscum costatum 707 

Viscum monoicum 708 

Viscum orientale 709 

Visnaga daucoides 43 

Vitex agnus-castus 493, 709 

Vitex leucoxylon 710 

Vitex negundo 493, 710 

Vitex peduncularis 711 

Vitex trifolia 711 

Vitis capreolata 656 

Vitis carnosa 132 

Vitis himalayana 464 

Vitis pedata 132 

Vitis quadrangula 152 

Vitis trifolia 132 

Vitis vinifera 47, 157, 711 

Vocanga foetida 712 

Vocanga grandifolia 712 

Volutarella divaricata 42, 712 

Volutarella ramosa 712 

Index 

W 

Wagetea spicata 715 

Wahlenbergia gracilis 715 

Wahlenbergia marginata 715 

Walsura piscidia 715 

Walsura trifoliata 715 

Waltheria americana 715 

Waltheria indica 715 

Wattakaka volubilis 225 

Webra corymbosa 647 

Wedelia biflora 716 

Wedelia calendulacea 716 

Wedelia chinensis 716 

Wendlandia exserta 717 

Wendlandia tinctoria 717 

Wigandia caracasana 717 

Wikstroemia indica 717 

Wikstroemia viridiflora 717 

Withania ashwagandha 717 

Withania coagulans 719 

Withania somnifera 47, 273, 483, 717, 719 

Woodfordia floribunda 719 

Woodfordia fruticosa 719 

Wrightia arborea 720 

Wrightia tinctoria 720, 721 

Wrightia tomentosa 720 

X 

Xanthium indicum 723 

Xanthium spinosum 723 

Xanthium strumarium 723 

Xanthoxylon violaceum 731 

Xeromphis spinosa 535 

Ximenia americana 723 

Ximenia spinosa 723 

Xylia dolabriformis 724 

Xylia xylocarpa 724 

Xylocarpus gangeticus 724 

Xylocarpus granatum 724 

Xylopia aromatica 725 

Xylopia parviflora 724 

Xylosma longifolium 725 

Xyris anceps 725 

811

812 Index 

Xyris commplanata 725 

Xyris indica 725 

Xyris pauciflora 725 

Xyris robusta 725 

Y 

Yucca aloifolia 727 

Yucca bacata 727 

Yucca brevifolica 727 

Yucca filamentosa 727 

Yucca glauca 727 

Yucca gloriosa 727 

Yucca recurvifolia 727 

Z 

Zamia angustifolia 729 

Zanonia indica 729 

Zantedeschia aethiopica 729 

Zanthoxylum acanthopodium 729, 731 

Zanthoxylum alatum 730 

Zanthoxylum americanum 730 

Zanthoxylum armatum 730, 731 

Zanthoxylum budrunga 731 

Zanthoxylum limonella 731 

Zanthoxylum nitidum 731 

Zanthoxylum ovalifolium 731 

Zanthoxylum oxyphyllum 731 

Zanthoxylum rhetsa 731 

Zataria multiflora 732 

Zea mays 732 

Zehneria hookeriana 407 

Zehneria umbellata 733 

Zingiber cassumunar 733 

Zingiber montanum 733 

Zingiber officinale 196, 733 

Zingiber purpureum 733 

Zingiber spurium 734 

Zingiber zerumbet 734 

Zizania caduciflora 735 

Ziziphus glabrata 737 

Ziziphus jujuba 735, 736 

Ziziphus mauritiana 735 

Ziziphus nummularia 736 

Ziziphus oenoplia 709, 737 

Ziziphus rotundifolia 736 

Ziziphus rugosa 737 

Ziziphus sativa 736 

Ziziphus trinervia 737 

Ziziphus vulgaris 735 

Ziziphus xylopyra 737 

Zornia diphylla 738 

Zosima absinthifolia 738 

Zosima orientalis 738 

Zygophyllum simplex 738 

Spellings of botanical names based on “The Wealth of India” series, CSIR, New Delhi, India.

Crude Herb Identification Guide 

Abies webbiana leaf (Dabur) Abrus precatorious seed (Himalaya) 

Abutilon indicum root (PLIM) Acacia catechu dried wood (Dabur) 

Acacia concinna dried pods (Dabur) Aconitum ferox dried rhizome (Dabur)


dried rhizome (Dabur) 

Adhatoda vasica dried leaf (Hamdard) 

Albizia lebbeck bark (Himalaya) 

Acorus calamus dried rhizome (Himalaya) 

Aegle marmelos dried pulp (Himalaya) 

Aloe barbadensis dried herb (Himalaya)

Alpinia galanga rhizome (Himalaya) Alpinia khulanjan rhizome (Hamdard) 

Alstonia scholaris stem bark (PLIM) 

Althaea officinalis seed (Hamdard) 

Althaea officinalis flower (Hamdard) Amomum subulatum fruit (Himalaya) 

Anacyclus pyrethrum root (Dabur) Ananas comosus dried flesh (Himalaya)

Anethum sowa seeds (Himalaya) 

Aquilaria agallocha dried wood (Dabur) 

Apium graveolens fruit (PLIM) 

Areca catechu red/common 

nut (Hamdard/PLIM) 

Argyreia nervosa plant part (CCRAS) Aristolochia indica root (Hamdard) 

Asparagus racemosus roots (CCRAS) Asteracantha longifolia seed (Himalaya)

Azadirachta indica dried leaf (Himalaya) 

Baliospermum montanum root (PLIM) 

Bauhinia variegata stem bark (PLIM) 

Bacopa monnieri leaf 

Barringtonia acutangula seed (Dabur) 

Berberis aristata stem bark (Dabur)

Bergenia ligulata rhizome (PLIM) 

Boerhavia diffusa dried herb (PLIM) 

Boswellia serrata gum (PLIM) 

Butea monosperma gum (Hamdard) 

Betula utilis outer bark (Himalaya) 

Borago officinalis flower (Hamdard) 

Butea monosperma flower (Himalaya) 

Caesalpinia bonducella seed (Himalaya)

Callicarpa macrophylla 

dried flower (Dabur) 

Capparis spinosa stem (Himalaya) 

Carica papaya dried pulp (Himalaya) 

Calotropis procera plant parts (CCRAS) 

Capsicum annuum fruit (WOI) 

Carthamus tinctorius seed (Hamdard)

Carum carvi fruit (PLIM) 

Cassia angustifolia leaf (Hamdard) 

Celastrus paniculatus seeds (Dabur) 

Cassia absus seed (Hamdard) 

Cedrus deodara wood (Himalaya) 

Centaurea behen root (Hamdard)

Centella asiatica leaf 

Cicer arietinum fruit (Himalaya) 

Cinnamomum tamala bark (Hamdard) 

Chlorophytum arundinaceum 

root (Himalaya) 

Cinnamomum tamala leaf (PLIM) 

Cinnamomum zeylanicum 

stem bark (Himalaya)

Cissampelos pareira root (PLIM) 

Colchicum luteum sweet/bitter corms 

(Hamdard) 

Commiphora molmol gum 

Clitoria ternatea plant parts (CCRAS) 

Coleus forskohlii dried herb (Dabur) 

Commiphora wightii gum (PLIM)

Coptis teeta rhizome (Hamdard) Coriandrum sativum fruit (Himalaya) 

Crataeva nurvala bark (Himalaya) Crotalaria juncea seed (WHO/PLIM) 

Croton tiglium seed (WHO/PLIM) 

Cucumis sativus cut fruits (Himalaya) 

Curculigo orchioides cut rhizome (Dabur) Curcuma zedoaria rhizome (Dabur)

Cyperus rotundus rhizome (Dabur) 

Daucus carota dried root (Himalaya) 

Delphinium denudatum root (Hamdard) 

Datura metel plant parts (CCRAS) 

Decalepis hamiltonii root (CCRUM) 

Didymocarpus pedicellata 

dried herb (Himalaya)

Dioscorea bulbifera tuber sections (Dabur) 

Dracaena cinnabari resin (WHO/PLIM) 

Elettaria cardamomum fruit (WHO/PLIM) 

Dolichos biflorus seed (WHO/PLIM) 

Elaeocarpus ganitrus fruit (Himalaya) 

Embelia ribes fruit (Dabur)

Emblica officinalis dried fruit (Dabur) 

Eucalyptus globulus dried leaf (Himalaya) 

Euphorbia neriifolia stem (WHO/PLIM) Evolvulus alsinoides aerial parts (Himalaya) 

Ficus benghalensis bark (WHO/PLIM) Ficus carica dried fruit (Himalaya) 

Ficus lacor bark (WHO/PLIM) 

Ficus recemosa plant parts (CCRAS)

Ficus religiosa plant parts (CCRAS) 

Foeniculum vulgare fruit (WHO/PLIM) 

Fumaria officinalis dried herb (Himalaya) Glycyrrhiza glabra stem (CCRAS) 

Gossypium herbaceum seed (WHO/PLIM) Gymnema sylvestre dried herb (Dabur) 

Hedychium spicatum rhizome 

(WHO/PLIM) 

Helicteres isora fruit (Hamdard)

Hemidesmus indicus root (WHO/PLIM) 

Hiptage benghalensis 

plant parts (CCRAS) 

Holarrhena antidysenterica seed (Dabur) 

Hibiscus rosa-sinensis dried herb 

(Himalaya) 

Holarrhena antidysenterica 

bark (Himalaya) 

Hyoscyamus niger fruit (Himalaya)

Inula racemosa root (Dabur) 

Jasminum grandiflorum 

dried herb (Himalaya) 

Juglans regia shell (Himalaya) 

Ipomoea digitata dried herb (Himalaya) 

Jateorhiza palmata root 

Kaempferia galanga fruit (Hamdard)

Lactuca serriola seed (Himalaya) 

Lavandula stoechas flower (Hamdard) 

Lens culinaris seed (Himalaya) Leonurus cardiaca seed (Hamdard) 

Leptadenia reticulata stem (Himalaya) Linum usitatissimum seed (Himalaya) 

Malus pumila dried herb (Himalaya) 

Mangifera indica bark (Dabur)

Marsdenia tenacissima root (WHO/PLIM) Martynia annua fruit (Dabur) 

Mentha arvensis dried plant (Himalaya) 

Mesua ferrea anthers (Dabur) 

Michelia champaca bark, stem (CCRAS) Mimosa pudica dried herb (Himalaya) 

Mimusops elengi 

plant parts (CCRAS) Moringa pterygosperma seed (Himalaya)

Mucuna pruriens seed (Hamdard) 

Myristica fragrans aril/nut (Himalaya) 

Nelumbium speciosum 


Murraya koenigii dried herb (Himalaya) 

Nardostachys jatamansi rhizome (Dabur) 

Onosma bracteatum dried plant (Himalaya)

Operculina turpethum root (Dabur) Orchis latifolia root (Hamdard) 

Pandanus tectorius root (WHO/PLIM) Parmelia perlata lichen (Himalaya) 

Pastinaca secacul root (Hamdard) 

Picrorhiza kurroa root (WHO/PLIM) 

Phyllanthus fraternus 

dried herb (WHO/PLIM) 

Piper cubeba fruit (Dabur)

Piper longum fruit (Dabur) Piper longum stem (Dabur) 

Piper nigrum fruit (Hamdard) 

Pluchea lanceolata leaf (Dabur) 

Pistacia integerrima galls (Dabur) 

Plumbago zeylanica root (Dabur)

Polygonum bistorata root stock (Hamdard) Polypodium vulgare rhizome (Hamdard) 

Pongamia pinnata plant parts (CCRAS) 

Premna integrifolia stem (Dabur) 

Prunus amygdalus kernel (Himalaya) Prunus armeniaca kernel (Himalaya) 

Psoralea corylifolia seed (Himalaya) 

Pterocarpus marsupium 

heartwood (WHO/PLIM)

Pterocarpus santalinus heartwood (Dabur) 

Punica granatum flower (Hamard) 

Randia dumetorum fruit (WHO/PLIM) 

Rauvolfia serpentina root (Himalaya) 

Punica granatum dried skin (Himalaya) 

Quercus infectoria gall (Hamdard) 

Raphanus sativus seed (Himalaya) 

Rheum emodi 

knotted aerial parts (WHO/PLIM)

Rheum emodi exudate lump (WHO/PLIM) 

Ricinus communis seed (Himalaya) 

Rosa damascena dried flower (Hamdard) Rosmarinus officinalis 


Rubia cordifolia stem (Himalaya) Santalum album heartwood

Sapindus mukorossi seed (Dabur) 

Saussurea lappa root (Himalaya) 

Scirpus kysoor rhizome (WHO/PLIM) 

Saraca asoca bark (Himalaya) 

Saxifraga ligulata rhizome (Himalaya) 

Selinum candollei rhizome (WHO/PLIM)

Semecarpus anacardium 

fruit (WHO/PLIM) 

Shorea robusta gum (WHO/PLIM) 

Sesamum indicum seed (Himalaya) 

Sida cordifolia dried herb (Himalaya) 

Smilax aristolochaefolia 

root stock (Hamdard) Solanum nigrum berries (Hamdard) 

Solanum surattense dried herb 

(WHO/PLIM) 

Sphaeranthus indicus flower (Hamdard)

Strychnos nux-vomica seed (Dabur) 

Swertia chirayita dried herb (Hamdard) 

Syzygium aromaticum 

flower bud (WHO/PLIM) 

Strychnos potatorum seed (WHO/PLIM) 

Symplocos racemosa bark (Himalaya) 

Tecomella undulata bark (Himalaya) 

Tectona grandis fruit (Himalaya) Terminalia arjuna bark (Dabur)

Terminalia bellirica seeds (CCRAS) 

Tinospora cordifolia plant parts (CCRAS) 

Tribulus terrestris fruit (WHO/PLIM) 

Terminalia chebula yellow var. 

fruit (Hamdard) 

Trachyspermum ammi fruit (WHO/PLIM) 

Trigonella foenum-graecum 

fruit (Himalaya)

Triticum sativum seed (Himalaya) Urtica dioica dried root 

Valeriana wallichii leaf/rhizome 

(CCRAS/PLIM) 

Verbena officinalis dried herb 

Vetiveria zizanioides dried grass (Himalaya) Viburnum prunifolium dried herb

Viola odorata flower (Hamdard) 

Vitex agnus-castus dried berries 

Vitis vinifera dried fruit Withania ashwagandha root (Hamdard) 

Woodfordia fruticosa dried flower (Dabur) 

Wrightia tinctoria bark (Himalaya) 

Yucca recurvifolia plant

Zingiber officinale 

dried rhizome (Hamdard) 

Zizyphus jujuba Mill.—fruit (Hamdard) 

Acknowledgements 

CCRAS: courtesy of Central Council for Research in Ayurveda and Siddha, New Delhi 

CCRUM: courtesy of Central Council for Research in Unani Medicine, New Delhi 

Dabur: courtesy of V.C. Burman, Chairman, Dabur India Ltd., Kaushambi, Ghaziabad- 

201010. U.P. www.dabur.com 

Hamdard: courtesy of Hammad Ahmed, Senior Director, Hamdard (Wakf) Laboratories, 

2A/3, Asaf Ali Road, Hamdard Building, New Delhi-110 002. www.hamdard.com 

Himalaya: courtesy of Dr. S.K. Mitra M.D., Executive Director, The Himalaya Drug Company, 

Makali, Bangalore-562123. www.himalayahealthcare.com 

WHO and PLIM: grateful acknowledgement to the World Health Organization and Pharmaceutical 

Laboratory of Indian Medicine, III-A, C.G.O. Complex-I, Kamla Nehru Nagar, 

Ghaziabad-2010002. Reproduced from R.U. Ahmad et al. (eds) Plant Drugs of Ayurvedic 

Pharmacopoeia of India, Vol. I, 2001; Album of Crude Drugs; Production of ISM 

Drugs with Current Good Manufacturing Practice, 2002. Photographs by S.N. Dhusia 

WOI: courtesy of The Wealth of India, CSIR

Indian Medicinal Plants An Illustrated Dictionary

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