Safflower, Carthamus tinctorius L. - Bioversity International

Promoting the conservation and use of underutilized and neglected crops. 7. 

Safflower 

Carthamus tinctorius L. 

Li Dajue and 

Hans-Henning 

Mündel 

IPGRI 

International Plant Genetic Resources Institute

2 Safflower. Carthamus tinctorius L. 

The International Plant Genetic Resources Institute (IPGRI) is an autonomous international 

scientific organization operating under the aegis of the Consultative Group 

on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR). The international status of IPGRI is 

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Kenya, Mauritania, Morocco, Pakistan, Panama, Peru, Poland, Portugal, Romania, 

Russia, Senegal, Slovak Republic, Sudan, Switzerland, Syria, Tunisia, Turkey, Ukraine 

and Uganda. IPGRI’s mandate is to advance the conservation and use of plant genetic 

resources for the benefit of present and future generations. IPGRI works in partnership 

with other organizations, undertaking research, training and the provision of 

scientific and technical advice and information, and has a particularly strong 

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Bank, IDRC, UNDP and the World Bank. 

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independent foundation under public law. The foundation statute assigns to IPK 

the task of conducting basic research in the area of plant genetics and research on 

cultivated plants. 

The geographical designations employed and the presentation of material in 

this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part 

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reflect the views of these participating organizations. 

Citation: 

Li Dajue and Hans-Henning Mündel. 1996. Safflower. Carthamus tinctorius L. Promoting 

the conservation and use of underutilized and neglected crops. 7. Institute 

of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research, Gatersleben/International Plant Genetic 

Resources Institute, Rome, Italy. 

ISBN 92-9043-297-7 

IPGRI IPK 

Via delle Sette Chiese 142 Corrensstrasse 3 

00145 Rome 06466 Gatersleben 

Italy Germany 

© International Plant Genetic Resources Institute, 1996


Contents 

Foreword 4 

Dedication 6 

Acknowledgements 7 

Introduction 8 

1 Names, taxonomy and centres of diversity 9 

1.1 Names 9 

1.2 Species 9 

1.3 Cultivated safflower and its relatives 9 

1.4 Centres of similarity of C. tinctorius 11 

1.5 Other Carthamus species with 12 pairs of chromosomes 11 

1.6 Carthamus species with 10 pairs of chromosomes 12 

1.7 Carthamus species with 11, 22 and 32 pairs of chromosomes 12 

1.8 Alloploids of cultivated safflower with species of different 

chromosome numbers 13 

1.9 Genus reclassification 13 

2 Safflower biology, production and genetics 15 

2.1 Biology 15 

2.2 Production issues 18 

2.3 Genetics 19 

3 Uses and world distribution 25 

3.1 Uses 25 

3.2 World distribution and production 33 

4 Breeding 36 

4.1 Crossing techniques 36 

4.2 Breeding methods 36 

4.3 Biotechnology 37 

5 Research priorities and constraints 39 

5.1 Safflower Workshop, Davis, California, USA, 1981 39 

5.2 Second International Safflower Conference, Hyderabad, 

AP India, 1989 44 

5.3 North American Safflower Conference, Great Falls, Montana, 

USA, 1996 47 

6 Collecting and evaluations 49 

6.1 Germplasm collecting 49 

6.2 Evaluations 52 

6.3 Institutions holding safflower collections 66 

6.4 Safflower research: centres/individuals and examples of varieties 

produced 68 

7 Literature guides 72 

7.1 Handbooks, monographs, safflower descriptor list 72 

7.2 Recent production guides 73 

8 References 74 

3


Foreword 

Humanity relies on a diverse range of cultivated species; at least 6000 such species 

are used for a variety of purposes. It is often stated that only a few staple crops 

produce the majority of the food supply. This might be correct but the important 

contribution of many minor species should not be underestimated. Agricultural 

research has traditionally focused on these staples, while relatively little attention 

has been given to minor (or underutilized or neglected) crops, particularly by scientists 

in developed countries. Such crops have, therefore, generally failed to attract 

significant research funding. Unlike most staples, many of these neglected species 

are adapted to various marginal growing conditions such as those of the Andean 

and Himalayan highlands, arid areas, salt-affected soils, etc. Furthermore, many 

crops considered neglected at a global level are staples at a national or regional level 

(e.g. tef, fonio, Andean roots and tubers, etc.), contribute considerably to food supply 

in certain periods (e.g. indigenous fruit trees) or are important for a nutritionally 

well-balanced diet (e.g. indigenous vegetables). The limited information available 

on many important and frequently basic aspects of neglected and underutilized 

crops hinders their development and their sustainable conservation. One major 

factor hampering this development is that the information available on germplasm 

is scattered and not readily accessible, i.e. only found in ‘grey literature’ or written 

in little-known languages. Moreover, existing knowledge on the genetic potential 

of neglected crops is limited. This has resulted, frequently, in uncoordinated research 

efforts for most neglected crops, as well as in inefficient approaches to the 

conservation of these genetic resources. 

This volume on safflower attempts to address the needs of plant breeders, geneticists, 

genetic resources specialists, plant pathologists, crop entomologists and 

others interested in a practical tool for pursuing their interests in relation to safflower. 

The authors have attempted to emphasize the globality of safflower research, 

with special emphasis on collection and evaluation of safflower genetic resources 

(Chapter 6) from a diversity of regions and in numerous research establishments 

around the world. Examples are provided of evaluations for characters and 

germplasm lines of potential direct value to safflower researchers. To facilitate successful 

exchange of germplasm material, the PI numbers (Plant Introduction numbers 

of the USDA World Collection) are used wherever possible, as a unifying system 

across many country collections. The unpublished notes of Knowles, who made 

several safflower collection expeditions in 1958, 1964-65 and 1975, were available to 

the second author (Mündel) and have been used extensively. 

This series of monographs intends to draw attention to a number of species 

which have been neglected in a varying degree by researchers or have been 

underutilized economically. It is hoped that the information compiled will contribute 

to: (1) identifying constraints in and possible solutions to the use of the crops, (2) 

identifying possible untapped genetic diversity for breeding and crop improvement 

programmes and (3) detecting existing gaps in available conservation and use approaches. 

This series intends to contribute to improvement of the potential value of


these crops through increased use of the available genetic diversity. In addition, it is 

hoped that the monographs in the series will form a valuable reference source for all 

those scientists involved in conservation, research, improvement and promotion of 

these crops. 

This series is the result of a joint project between the International Plant Genetic 

Resources Institute (IPGRI) and the Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research 

(IPK). Financial support provided by the Federal Ministry of Economic Cooperation 

and Development (BMZ) of Germany through the German Agency for 

Technical Cooperation (GTZ) is duly acknowledged. 

Series editors: 

Dr Joachim Heller 

Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research (IPK) 

Dr Jan Engels 

International Plant Genetic Resources Institute (IPGRI) 

Prof. Dr Karl Hammer 

Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research (IPK) 

5


Dedication 

This volume is dedicated to the memory of Dr Paulden F. Knowles, the safflower 

germplasm collector extraordinaire, whose collections have touched and benefited 

safflower germplasm research and breeding around the world. His collections of 

cultivated, wild and weedy relatives of safflower from around the world were the 

product of plant exploration expeditions Dr Knowles undertook in the 1950s, 1960s 

and 1970s. The widely used USDA World Collection owes most of its safflower lines 

to Dr Knowles’ collecting efforts. This World Collection has resulted in valuable 

material and indeed provides the core of collections of safflower in many countries 

and even more institutions.


Acknowledgements 

Acknowledgments are due to the management of the Agriculture and Agri-Food 

Canada Research Centre at Lethbridge, Alberta, Canada, for authorizing the second 

author (Mündel) time to work on the manuscript. Thanks are also due to the following 

at Lethbridge: Helen McMenamin for major editorial assistance; Dr Eric 

Williams for clarification of diseases related to the section on Chinese medicinal 

uses of safflower; Dr Beverly J. Mündel-Atherstone and Cathy Johnson for bibliographic 

research and assistance; José Barbieri for assistance with Spanish (e.g. section 

1.9 on the new classification of the genus Carthamus); John Braun and Charles 

Pavlik for assistance with databases, BJ and PI identifications; and Cathy Daniels 

for assistance with tables. 

Li Dajue and H.-Henning Mündel 

22 July 1996 

The International Plant Genetic Resources Institute would like to thank Dr P. Hanelt, 

Dr V.R. Rao and Mr Zongwen Zhang for their critical review of the manuscript. 

Grateful thanks are also extended to Dr H.-H. Mündel for his permission to reproduce 

Figures 2-9 and the cover illustration, and to Akademie Verlag, Berlin for their 

permission to reproduce Figure 1. 

7


Introduction 

Safflower, Carthamus tinctorius L., is a member of the family Compositae or 

Asteraceae, cultivated mainly for its seed, which is used as edible oil and as birdseed. 

Traditionally, the crop was grown for its flowers, used for colouring and 

flavouring foods and making dyes, especially before cheaper aniline dyes became 

available, and in medicines. 

Safflower is a highly branched, herbaceous, thistle-like annual or winter annual, 

usually with many long sharp spines on the leaves. Plants are 30-150 cm tall with 

globular flower heads (capitula) and, commonly, brilliant yellow, orange or red flowers. 

Achenes are smooth, four-sided and generally lack pappus. 

The plant has a strong taproot which enables it to thrive in dry climates. In India 

the crop has traditionally been grown in the ‘rabi’ or winter dry season in mixtures 

with other ‘rabi’ crops, such as wheat and sorghum. After emergence, the crop 

maintains a rosette form for some weeks before rapid elongation to mature height. 

The florets are self-pollinating but seedset can be increased by bees or other insects. 

Safflower is one of humanity’s oldest crops, but generally it has been grown on 

small plots for the grower’s personal use and it remains a minor crop with world 

seed production around 800 000 t per year (Gyulai 1996). Oil has been produced 

commercially and for export for about 50 years, first as an oil source for the paint 

industry, now for its edible oil for cooking, margarine and salad oil. Over 60 countries 

grow safflower, but over half is produced in India (mainly for the domestic 

vegetable oil market). Production in the USA, Mexico, Ethiopia, Argentina and 

Australia comprises most of the remainder. China has a significant area planted to 

safflower, but the florets are harvested for use in traditional medicines and the crop 

is not reported internationally. 

This monograph is intended to provide information on potential resources for 

the safflower scientific community. Some information has not been subjected to the 

rigorous scrutiny of scientific peer review but may be valuable since safflower has 

not attracted scientific study until relatively recently and the medicinal uses in China 

have not been generally acessible to the rest of the world.


1 Names, taxonomy and centres of diversity 

1.1 Names 

Safflower is most commonly known as ‘kusum’ (India, Pakistan), derived from the 

Sanskrit, ‘kusumbha’ (Chavan 1961), and as ‘honghua’ (red flower) in China. Its use 

as a less costly substitute for saffron is indicated by the names false saffron, bastard 

saffron, thistle saffron and dyer’s saffron (Weiss 1983). Common names, with countries 

and/or languages, are shown in Table 1. Other safflower names recorded include: 

‘agnisikha’, ‘asfiore’, ‘assfore’, ‘asfrole’, ‘brarta’, ‘carthami flos’, ‘flase’, 

‘ghurtom’, ‘golzardu’, ‘hebu’, ‘kahil’, ‘kajena-goli’, ‘kamal lotarra’, ‘kar’, ‘karar’, 

‘kazhirak’, ‘khariah’, ‘kharkool’, ‘khartum’, ‘khasdonah’, ‘kouchan-gule’, ‘ma’, 

‘maswarh’, ‘ostur’, ‘saffiore’, ‘snecus’, ‘su’, ‘suban’, ‘zaffrole’, ‘zaffrone’ (Chavan 1961; 

Smith 1996). 

1.2 Species 

Knowledge of the cytogenetic and taxonomic relationships among species of Carthamus 

provides a basis for the effective utilization of characteristics in wild and weedy 

relatives of Carthamus tinctorius in future breeding programmes. Kumar (1991) provides 

an appraisal of past cytogenetic research in safflower, identifying gaps and deficiencies. 

Information still missing relates to such aspects as the original chromosome 

number of the genus Carthamus and the genetic distance among possible donors in 

relation to the recipient. A number of wild species, such as C. persicus (syn. 

C. flavescens), C. lanatus, C. oxyacanthus and C. palaestinus, were identified by Kumar 

and Agrawal (1989) as good sources of resistance or tolerance to various diseases and 

pests. Drought-hardiness and resistance to alternaria leaf blight have been partly 

incorporated into cultivated types through repeated backcrossing and selection. 

1.3 Cultivated safflower and its relatives 

Cytogenetic studies led Imrie and Knowles (1970) and Khidir and Knowles (1970) to 

suggest that Carthamus palaestinus Eig, a self-compatible wild species restricted to 

the deserts of southern Israel and western Iraq (Zeven and Zhukovsky 1975), with 

white and yellow flowered forms, is the progenitor from which derive the weedy 

species C. oxyacanthus Bieb., a mixture of self-compatible and self-incompatible 

types, and C. persicus Willd., a self-incompatible species. These in turn are considered 

the parental species of the cultivated species C. tinctorius L. (Ashri and Knowles 

1960). The four species have the genome formula BB and 2n=24 chromosomes; intercrosses, 

in all combinations, produce fertile hybrids (Knowles 1959). Pairing of 

chromosomes is essentially complete in hybrids between these species; this is not 

the case if the parental species have different chromosome numbers (Ashri and 

Knowles 1960). Introgression of the weedy and cultivated species may still take 

place (Zeven and Zhukovsky 1975). 

The weedy progenitors of cultivated safflower are widely distributed in the areas 

where safflower is grown. Carthamus oxyacanthus is a very serious common 

9


Table 1. Safflower names around the world. 

Country Common name Reference Notes 

Afghanistan Muswar, Maswarah Knowles 1959 Kabul 

Kajireh Knowles 1959 Herat 

Kariza Knowles 1959 Ghazni 

Arabia (Iran, Jordan, Qurtum, Gurtum, Osfur, Asper Knowles 1959 

Syria, Egypt) Kurtum, Usfar Chavan 1961 

Bangladesh Kusum, Kusumppuli Chavan 1961 

China Honghua, Grass safflower, Yuan Guobi 

Compositae safflower, Huai 

safflower, Chuan safflower, 

Du safflower 

et al. 1989 

Ethiopia Suff Smith 1996 

France Le carthame 

Germany Saflor, Färberdistel 

India Jafran Chavan 1961 (Assamese) 

Kusumba Knowles 1959 Bihar 

Kusumbo Chavan 1961 (Gujarathi) 

Kusum Karrah Chavan 1961 (Hindi) 

Kusuma Knowles 1959 Hyderabad 

Kusumbe, Kusume Chavan 1961 (Kanarese) 

Hubulkhurtum (‘seed of safflower’) Knowles 1959 Kashmir 

Kardai, Kardi Chavan 1961 (Marathi) 

Kasumba Chavan 1961 (Punjabi) 

Pavari Chavan 1961 (Sindhi) 

Sendurakam Chavan 1961 (Tamil) 

Kushumba Chavan 1961 (Telugu) 

Iran Golbar aftab Knowles 1959 Ghom 

Koshe or Kousheh, Kafsha or Kafshe Knowles 1959 Isfahan 

Kajireh, Golzardu Knowles 1959 Meshed 

Kajena goli, Khardam Knowles 1959 Saveh 

Khasdonah, Laba torbak Knowles 1959 Shiraz 

Zafaran-Golu Knowles 1959 Tabriz (Turkish) 

Italy Cartama 

Japan Benibana, Benihana Smith 1996 

Latin America Cartamó, Azafrancillo Smith 1996 

Pakistan Kusumba Knowles 1959 

Spain Alazor, Azafran romí Knowles 1959 

Turkey Aspir, Dikken Knowles 1959 

Kazhira Chavan 1961 (Persian) 

Cnicus, Cnecus, Cnikos Weiss 1971 (early Greek) 

Onicus Chavan 1961 (Latin)


weed of Pakistan and northwest India, west to Iraq, adapted to habitats associated 

with people and crop cultivation (Ashri and Knowles 1960), common in disturbed 

soils along roadsides and growing after crops such as wheat and barley are harvested. 

It is a branching, very spiny, annual weed. Seeds contain approximately 28% oil and 

can be used for culinary purposes and as lighting fuel (Weiss 1983). Seeds are mostly 

small and black with no pappus. Carthamus persicus is also a very serious weed, in 

Syria, Lebanon and Turkey (Knowles 1959, 1965) with light yellow to orange flowers. 

Outer involucral bracts are narrow and extend beyond the head (Ashri and Knowles 

1960). The black seeds have pappus and are rhombic in cross-section. 

1.4 Centres of similarity of C. tinctorius 

Knowles (1969) coined the term ‘centres of similarity’ for seven regions which 

are not centres of diversity or origin, but of remarkably similar safflower types 

(Table 2). 

Ashri (1973), after examining 13 morphological features of 2000 safflower accessions 

from 30 countries, modified Knowles’ list and added three more centres of 

similarity to the list. Using the D2 analysis developed by Mahalanobis, as well as 

canonical analysis, Patel et al. (1989) confirmed the presence of considerable genetic 

diversity in a population of 56 representative genotypes from India and other countries. 

Plant height, seed yield, branching height and seed weight accounted for 80% 

of the diversity. The 14 clusters formed were not associated with geographical regions, 

confirming that factors aside from geographic isolation contribute to genetic 

diversity in C. tinctorius. 

Table 2. Characteristics of safflower from different centres of similarity, listed in 

order of decreasing frequency. 

Centre Height Branching Spines Head size Flower 

colour 

Far East tall interm. sp, spls interm. r 

India-Pakistan short many sp small, interm. o, w, r 

Middle East tall few spls interm., large r, o, y, w 

Egypt interm. few sp, spls large, interm. o, y, w, r 

Sudan short, interm. interm. sp small, interm. y, o 

Ethiopia tall many sp small r 

Europe int. interm. sp, spls interm. o, r, y, w 

Abbreviations: interm.=intermediate; sp=spiny; spls=spineless; r=red; w=white; o=orange; y=yellow (adapted from 

Knowles 1969). 

1.5 Other Carthamus species with 12 pairs of chromosomes 

Carthamus arborescens L., found in Spain and adjacent northern Africa, has 12 pairs 

of chromosomes but failed to hybridize with other Carthamus species (Ashri and 

11


Knowles 1960). Carthamus riphaeus Font Quer is very restricted in occurrence, having 

been found only in a small area in northern Morocco (Ashri and Knowles 1960). 

Carthamus nitidus Boiss., while classified by Ashri and Knowles (1960) as having 10 

pairs of chromosomes, has subsequently been reclassified as having 12 pairs (Kumar 

1989; López-González 1989). Nevertheless, this species is sufficiently isolated from 

the other species to constitute a separate section (López-González 1989). 

1.6 Carthamus species with 10 pairs of chromosomes 

The species having 10 pairs of chromosomes are characterized by a preponderance 

of purple, blue and pink flowers and include C. boissieri Halácsy, C. dentatus 

Vahl (genome formula A 1 A 1 ), C. glaucus Bieb. and its various subspecies (genome 

formulae AA or AA/A 3 A 3 ), C. leucocaulos Sm. (genome formula A 2 A 2 ) and C. tenuis 

(Boiss.&Bl.) Bornm. (López-González 1989). The subspecies of C. glaucus together 

cover the area east and north of the Mediterranean Sea: subsp. glaucus (I.B.) 

Schank, in Transcaucasia, Syria, Turkey and Iran; subsp. anatolicus (Boiss.) Han. in 

Israel; subsp. glandulosus Han. in Jordan, and subsp. tenuis (Boiss. & Bl.) Schank in 

Israel. 

1.7 Carthamus species with 11, 22 and 32 pairs of chromosomes 

The only species with 11 pairs of chromosomes is C. divaricatus (Beg. & Vace.) Pamp., 

which has a very restricted range in Libya (Knowles 1988). Flowers may be yellow, 

purple or white with yellow pollen. It is self-incompatible but it will cross with 

species having 10 pairs of chromosomes and produce partly fertile hybrids. Crosses 

with C. tinctorius are possible, but hybrids are sterile. 

Carthamus lanatus L., with 22 pairs of chromosomes and a genome formula of 

A 1 A 1 B 1 B 1 , occurs naturally in Portugal, Spain, Morocco, Greece and Turkey. Because 

its oil content is 16%, and thus suitable for human use (Weiss 1983), it was 

introduced to Australia where it became a noxious weed. It is considered a progenitor 

of the two species with 2n=64: C. creticus L. (syn. C. baeticus (Boiss. & 

Reuter) Nyman with a genome formula of A 1 A 1 B 1 B 1 A 2 A 2 ) and C. turkestanicus M. 

Popov, with a genome formula of A 1 A 1 B 1 B 1 AA (Khidir and Knowles 1970). Carthamus 

leucocaulos Sibth. & Sm., with 2n=20 chromosomes and a genome formula of 

A 2 A 2 , found on the islands of Greece, is considered another progenitor of C. creticus 

(Khidir and Knowles 1970), and C. glaucus, with 2n=20 and the genome formula 

AA, is considered the other progenitor of C. turkestanicus. Carthamus lanatus is 

self-compatible and has yellow or white flowers, with yellow pollen. Carthamus 

creticus has spread to the eastern Mediterranean, north Africa and Spain; it is selfpollinated, 

has white pollen, and is a vigorous competitor in nature (Khidir and 

Knowles 1970). Carthamus turkestanicus is found in west Asia, east to Kashmir and 

in Ethiopia; it has 22 pairs of chromosomes in common (homologues) with 

C. creticus, also has white pollen, and its similarity in appearance to C. lanatus in 

Thrace suggests considerable gene exchange (Khidir and Knowles 1970).


1.8 Alloploids of cultivated safflower with species of different 

chromosome numbers 

Fertile hybrids between C. tinctorius (2n=24) and C. tenuis (2n=20), with a high number 

of bivalents, and with C. lanatus (2n=44), have been achieved artificially (Ashri 

and Knowles 1960). 

1.9 Genus reclassification 

A new classification system, based on anatomical, chorological (biogeographic, related 

to distribution) and biosystematic information, has been developed and proposed 

by López-González (1989) working in Madrid, Spain. In this system, the two 

genera Carthamus and Carduncellus are replaced by four new genera: Phonus, 

Lamottea, Carthamus and Carduncellus. The respective type species are: Carthamus 

arborescens L., Carthamus caeruleus L., Carthamus tinctorius L., and Carduncellus 

monspelienium All. Species of the three genera Phonus, Lamottea and Carduncellus are 

all classified as perennial and have 24 chromosomes in their genomes, whereas the 

newly circumscribed genus Carthamus contains only annual species, and has members 

of 20, 22, 24, 44 and 64 chromosomes, including several putative allopolyploid 

species. 

The geographical distribution for the four proposed genera is as follows: Phonus 

is found in the Iberian Peninsula (Spain and Portugal) and northern Africa; Lamottea 

is mainly found in the western Mediterranean regions; Carthamus is found in west 

and central Asia as well as in the Mediterranean region; and Carduncellus is found in 

the western European region of the Mediterranean, northern Africa, Egypt and Israel/Palestine. 

Only the new genus Carthamus is further subdivided into sections, with the species 

indicated. 

Section Carthamus has 24 chromosomes and includes the following species: 

C. curdicus Hanelt, C. gypsicola Ilj., C. oxyacanthus Bieb., C. palaestinus Eig, 

C. persicus Willd. and C. tinctorius L. 

The position of C. nitidus Boiss. [2n = 24] is questionable. This species seems to 

be sufficiently isolated from the rest of the genus to form a separate section. 

Section Odonthagnathius (DC.) Hanelt (incl. Sect. Lepidopappus Hanelt) has 20 

or 22 chromosomes and includes the following species: C. boissieri Halácsy, 

C. dentatus Vahl, C. divaricatus Beguinot & Vacc. (with 22 chromosomes), 

C. glaucus Bieb., C. leucocaulos Sm. and C. tenuis (Boiss. & Bl.) Bornm. 

Section Atractylis Reichenb., with a presumed x number of 11, contains numerous 

polyploids, including the following species: C. lanatus L., C. creticus 

[C. baeticus (Boiss. & Reuter) Nyman] and C. turkestanicus M. Popov. 

13


Fig. 1. Carthamus tinctorius L. (a) branch with capitulum, (b) disk (tubular) floret, (c) anther tube (slit 

on one side), (d) stigma, (e) achene (seed) (Drawing by R. Kilian in P. Hanelt (1961) Kulturpflanze 

9, p. 120; reprinted with permission of the Akademie Verlag, Berlin).


2 Safflower biology, production and genetics 

2.1 Biology 

Safflower (Carthamus tinctorius L.) a member of the family Compositae or 

Asteraceae, is a branching, thistle-like herbaceous annual or winter annual plant, 

with numerous spines on leaves and bracts (Fig. 1), mainly grown in dry hot climates 

as an oilseed, birdseed or for its flowers, used as dye sources and for medicinal 

purposes. The typically white achenes, averaging from 0.030 to 0.045 g, 

are smooth (in some varieties varying amounts of pappus, tufts of hairs may be 

present on the end adjacent to the plant) and four-sided, with a thick pericarp 

(Figs. 1, 2). Germination is followed by a slow-growing rosette stage, during which 

numerous leaves are produced near ground level, strong taproots develop and 

begin to penetrate deep into the soil, but no long stems form. During this rosette 

stage, young safflower plants are resistant to cold, even frost, but the crop is very 

vulnerable to fast-growing weeds. Subsequently, stems elongate quickly and 

branch extensively (Fig. 3). Branch to stem angles range from 30 to 70º and the 

degree of branching is genetically and environmentally controlled. Each stem 

ends in a globular flower capitulum, enclosed by clasping bracts, which are typically 

spiny (Fig. 4). 

Fig. 2. Seeds with pappus (left), white, normal (right) (reprinted with permission from Mündel et al. 1992). 

15


Fig. 4. Single plant showing 

primary, secondary and 

tertiary heads (reprinted with 

permission from Mündel et al. 

1992). 

Fig. 3. Schematic sketch of 

growth stages of safflower 

(reprinted with permission 

from Mündel et al. 1992).


In fully developed safflower plants, with soil of adequate depth, the taproots 

penetrate 2-3 m, with numerous thin horizontal lateral roots. The deep root system 

enables the plant to draw moisture and nutrients from a considerable depth, 

conferring on safflower the ability to survive in areas with little surface moisture. 

Flowering begins in the primary capitulum, then the secondary capitula and so 

forth. Within a capitulum, flowering begins in the outer circle of florets and 

progresses centripetally towards the centre of the capitulum over several days, up 

to a week. The total bloom stage may last for 4 weeks or more, greatly influenced 

by growing environment. Shades of orange, yellow and red flowers are most common 

in early bloom, but post-bloom colours are darker. White flowers occur rarely. 

The florets are tubular and largely self-pollinating with generally less than 10% outcrossing 

(Knowles 1969). Pollination occurs as the style and stigma grow through 

the surrounding anther column at the base of the clasping corolla (Fig. 1). An 

unpollinated, elongated stigma may remain receptive for several days. Bees, 

bumblebees and other insects seek out safflower blossoms for both pollen and nectar 

and can increase levels of outcrossing. Wind-pollination does not contribute to 

safflower seedset. Developed capitula contain 15-30 or more achenes (Fig. 5), which 

mature from 4 to 5 weeks after flowering. 

Fig. 5. Cross-section of mature safflower head (capitulum), showing seeds enclosed by outer 

involucral bracts (reprinted with permission from Mündel et al. 1992). 

17


A mature achene of common varieties is made up of 33-60% hull and 40-67% 

kernel. Oil content ranges from 20 to 45% or more of the whole seed. Selection for 

high oil content in modern cultivars has reduced the pericarp thickness. Seed mass 

increases rapidly during the first 15 days after flowering. In California, oil content 

increased 5- to 10-fold during the 10-15 days after flowering (Hill and Knowles 1968). 

Leininger and Urie (1964) determined that, for their varieties in their growth environment, 

maximum dry matter accumulation, maximum oil content, maximum germination 

and minimum hull percentage occurred 28 days after fertilization of a floret, 

when the seed moisture content was 22-25%. 

Leaf size varies greatly among varieties and on an individual plant, and ranges 

typically from 2.5 to 5 cm wide and 10 to 15 cm long. Leaves are usually deeply 

serrated on the lower stem, but short and stiff, ovate to obovate around the inflorescence, 

where they form the involucral bracts. Lower leaves are generally spineless, 

but further up the stem spines develop in the bud stage and become strong, hard 

spines by full flowering. Varieties that are almost completely free of spines have 

been developed for hand harvest of floral parts and of seeds in certain geographic 

regions (e.g. China, nontraditional areas of India). 

2.2 Production issues 

Over the past few decades, fact sheets and production guides have been provided 

for safflower growers in different countries. A sampling of those published in the 

past 5 years in North America is given in the literature section. 

Safflower is generally considered a daylength-neutral, long-day plant. However, 

the origin of varieties is very important in this connection: summer crop varieties 

from temperate regions, sown during shortening days as a winter crop in subtropical 

or tropical regions, have a very long rosette phase (several months), with 

greatly delayed maturity. 

Seeding rates vary greatly around the globe, in part related to variety growth 

habits, growth environments and cultural methods, particularly row spacing. As long 

as soil moisture reserves are present, safflower compensates for low plant populations 

by increased branching and other yield component adjustments (Mündel 1969). 

Seeding rates for optimum production vary from around 10-15 kg/ha in very droughtprone 

regions, or those where branching is to be encouraged, up to 40-45 kg/ha or 

even more for irrigated environments, in regions and with varieties showing minimal 

branching. Germination of safflower seed occurs at temperatures as low as 2-5º C. 

During the rosette stage, the growing point of the young safflower plant is protected 

from cold by multiple layers of young leaves and leaf primordia, and temperatures 

as low as –7ºC do not kill the plant (Mündel et al. 1992). The first few 

leaves emerging after a frost may show some injury, but the plant recovers and 

continues to grow quite normally. However, during the elongation phase, even a 

light frost can cause substantial damage. At the other end of the plant’s development, 

frost just after flowering (during kernel filling) can dramatically lower yields 

and oil levels, or kill the seed completely.


During the early stages of growth, especially during the rosette stage, safflower 

is a poor competitor with weeds. Numerous weed species, left unchecked, can 

become taller than safflower and effectively shade the crop, competing for sunlight, 

nutrients and soil moisture. Weeds can cut safflower yields greatly and can cause 

complete crop losses. Only a limited number of chemical herbicides are registered 

for use on safflower, mainly because of the high cost of testing required in a number 

of countries for this minor crop. In Canada the trifluralins and ethalfluralins are 

registered for pre-plant incorporation to control a variety of grass and broadleaf 

weeds; a sethoxydim has been registered for post-emergent control of grassy weeds 

and volunteer cereals (Blackshaw et al. 1990). Seeding safflower into a firm moist 

seedbed not only enhances its emergence and stand, but also improves vigour and 

allows the crop to compete more effectively with weeds. Mechanical or manual 

control of weeds emerging prior to safflower emergence is advised. 

Safflower, with its deep taproot and xerophytic attribute of spines, has good 

drought and heat tolerance. The crop may use considerable amounts of soil moisture, 

but it does not survive standing water for even a few hours in warm weather 

(air temperatures above 20ºC), partly owing to the rapid spread of soilborne pathogens 

such as Phytophthora (Rubis 1981) and Pythium, but also because anaerobic 

conditions cause plant death very quickly (Mündel et al. 1995). Well-drained, deep, 

fertile, sandy loam soils support maximum safflower yields. In heavy clay soils, 

crusting may reduce emergence of seedlings and seeding rates that are higher than 

normal are needed. In general, if moisture has been limiting, one good irrigation 

just prior to bloom increases yield significantly. Such a system of ‘protective irrigation’ 

is used widely in India (A.K. Deshmuk, pers. comm., 1986). Excess rainfall, 

especially after flowering begins, contributes to a vast array of leaf and head diseases, 

which reduce yields and even cause crop loss. Kolte (1985) provides a detailed 

discussion of safflower diseases. Prolonged rainfall during flowering interferes 

with pollination and seedset, as do high temperatures (i.e. >32ºC) during pollen 

shedding in the mornings (Mündel et al. 1992). Highest yields, with very low 

disease infection have been achieved with subirrigation, as practised in the Sacramento 

Valley of California, USA (A.B. Hill, pers. comm., 1968). 

Safflower is a long-season crop with a deep taproot that can draw moisture 

from deep in the subsoil. Thus, it can access and utilize nutrients from below the 

root zone of cereal crops. Nevertheless, fertilizers tend to increase yields and oil 

levels, especially in irrigated or higher rainfall areas. Furthermore, in areas afflicted 

with dryland salinity, safflower uses surplus water from recharge areas, drawing 

down the moisture with the salts dissolved in it, preventing expansion of saline 

seeps (Mündel et al. 1992). 

2.3 Genetics 

The outcome of the studies of inheritance of safflower characters is greatly influenced 

by the selection of parental lines and many sets of parent lines have been 

used in crosses, especially in diallel crosses. Valid determinations of the heritability, 

19


mode of action and potential for utilization by breeders of genes associated with 

particular characters will likely require cumulative results from several studies. Only 

a sampling of studies, on traits discussed in Chapter 6, is presented here, to indicate 

the types of gene action that have been found in potentially useful characters of 

safflower. Estimates of heritability for seed yield and oil content generally have 

been low (e.g. Gupta and Singh 1988). 

2.3.1 Seed and oil quality 

As the thick pericarp tends to keep the oil content in safflower low, reduction of the 

pericarp directly increases oil percentages. A number of genes with specific phenotypes 

have been identified: partial hull (par par), recessive to normal hull, inherited 

independently of thin hull (th th) and striped hull (stp stp) (Urie 1981), grey-striped 

hull (stp 2 ) (Abel and Lorance 1975) and reduced hull (rh rh) (small dark blotches on 

the seed). Partial hull plants produce achenes which are predominantly dark owing 

to a reduction in the outer sclerenchyma layer of the pericarp, resulting in high oil 

and protein levels; the partial hull character is recessive to reduced hull (Urie 1986). 

Normal hull is dominant or partly dominant to reduced hull, depending on the 

normal-hull parent used (Urie and Zimmer 1970a). Thin hull (th th) is associated in 

a pleiotropic effect, by the thickening of endothelial cell walls in the anthers, with a 

type of structural male sterility, but hybrid seed production was unsuccessful because 

of the sensitivity of this genotype to environmental effects (Urie and Zimmer 

1970b). Striped hull (stp stp) is associated with an undesirable colour and odour 

(Urie and Zimmer 1970b) in oil. 

Table 3. Palmitic (C16:0), stearic (C18:0), oleic (C18:1) and linoleic (C18:2) acid 

content of oil of selected safflower lines and possible genotypes. 

Fatty acid content in safflower oil (%, range) 

C16:0 C18:0 C18:1 C18:2 

Oil type Genotype Palmitic Stearic Oleic Linoleic 

Very high linoleic OlOlliliStSt 3-5 1-2 5-7 87-89 

High linoleic OlOlLiLiStSt 6-8 2-3 16-20 71-75 

High oleic ololLiLiStSt 5-6 1-2 75-80 14-18 

Intermediate oleic ol’ol’LiLiStSt 5-6 1-2 41-53 39-52 

High stearic OlOlLiListst 5-6 4-11 13-15 69-72 

Adapted from Knowles (1989). 

Interest in a few major fatty acids in the oil of safflower has been high and the 

genetics of seed content of oleic, linoleic, stearic and palmitic acids were studied by


Futehally (reported by Knowles 1989) (Table 3). The three genes that control production 

of oleic, linoleic and stearic acids (ol ol, li li and st st, respectively) appear to 

be major recessive genes at different loci. Increases in stearic acid are accompanied 

by decreases in the percentage of oleic or linoleic acid or both and, in certain genotypes, 

it appears that cooler growing temperatures reduce stearic and oleic acids 

while increasing linoleic acid (Ladd and Knowles 1971). Two alleles have been reported 

for the ol locus, and this locus is linked to trigenic male-female sterility (S1) 

(Carapetian and Knowles 1993). 

2.3.2 Plant and developmental characters 

Time of flowering was studied by Kotecha (1979), using interspecific crosses of wild 

and domestic safflower. Time of flowering was identified as a quantitatively inherited 

trait, influenced by dominance, additive and epistatic gene effects. Based on 

data from a 10-parent diallel cross, Gupta and Singh (1988b) found partial dominance 

for days to flowering and overdominance in the F 1 to complete dominance in 

the F 2 for days to maturity. 

Ashri (1971a) found capitula per plant was the most important yield component 

in safflower. Narkhede and Patil (1987) also reported that this character contributed 

most to a heterotic effect in 17 crosses of safflower. Number of primary and secondary 

branches was the next most important contributor to the heterotic effect. Most 

of the characters studied appeared to be controlled by nonadditive gene action with 

a degree of overdominance. Correlated responses in various crosses showed that 

selection for capitula per plant was effective for the improvement of yield (Patil et al. 

1994). Capitula per plant seemed to be controlled by four groups of genes in a 10parent 

incomplete diallel cross (Gupta and Singh 1988a), with mainly nonadditive 

gene action. However, additive gene action controlled the number of primary 

branches. In studying yield-related traits over six generations, Narkhede et al. (1987) 

determined that dominance effects were predominant for capitula per plant (and 

for branches per plant) and duplicate epistasis was evident for all characters studied. 

These authors recommend reciprocal recurrent selection for the improvement 

of safflower yields. 

Safflower generally lacks seed dormancy and can germinate in the head if rainfall 

occurs at harvest time. In interspecific crosses of safflower (C. tinctorius) with 

its wild relative, C. palaestinus, Kotecha and Zimmerman (1978) observed nonadditive 

variation for germination time in most crosses. Transgressive segregation 

for no germination was observed. These workers suggested that genes at a minimum 

of four loci control germination. When freshly harvested, one line, BJ-26, 

identified in China by the first author (Li Dajue), required about twice as long as 

the average of tested lines to germinate, i.e. 112 hours compared with the average 

of around 60 hours. After 7-8 years in storage, BJ-26 required 66 hours for germination. 

In efforts to produce hybrid safflower, Heaton and Knowles (1980) registered 

two male sterile safflower germplasm lines, UC-148 and UC-149. A single recessive 

21


gene (ms ms) conferred complete male sterility. Pollen viability in the heterozygote 

was normal, as was female fertility of the ms ms plants. 

Spininess is considered a handicap in introducing safflower to new areas, especially 

where manual harvest is involved. Narkhede and Deokar (1990) found that 

spines are basically dominant over spinelessness and concluded that four genes – 

Sa, Sb, Sc and Sd – are involved in determining level of spininess. Sa is considered 

the main gene, with any two of the remaining genes acting as complementary duplicates 

in action. 

Studies on the inheritance of pappus (not desirable in commercial cultivars) and 

seed weight led Kotecha (1979) to conclude that both traits are controlled by at least 

two loci. Most genetic variance is additive but nonadditive gene effects were detected. 

Flower colour is generally considered neutral for seed yield and oil, but when 

the crop is grown for the florets, colour is important. In India, Narkhede and Deokar 

(1986) identified four dominant genes: Y, C, O and R. The gene C and combinations 

C+O, C+R and C+O+R produced greyish white flowers; Y+C produced red flowers; 

Y+C+O and Y+C+O+R produced yellowish brown flowers. 

2.3.3 Disease resistance 

The genetics and mode of inheritance of disease resistance and tolerance, like those 

for other biotic and abiotic stresses (e.g. insects, parasitic weeds, salinity or alkalinity) 

are not well defined in most cases. These characteristics can most readily be 

incorporated into new lines by subjecting germplasm to the relevant stress in the 

field or laboratory and selecting unaffected plants for breeding programmes. Knowledge 

of the genetics involved would help breeders in this process; however, there is 

a great need for rapid, effective and economical screening tools to identify resistant 

germplasm, preferably at the seedling stage. The only other option is to screen the 

final products of a breeding programme, advanced lines being evaluated for release 

as potential varieties; but this does not permit active selection. 

Germplasm lines or varieties with identified resistance to some of the major crop 

diseases have been identified. The genetics have been determined in only a few 

cases. 

Alternaria resistance, to the fungus Alternaria carthami (for symptoms see Figs. 6 

and 7), together with resistance to the bacterial pathogen Pseudomonas syringeae, has 

been successfully incorporated into several safflower varieties, e.g. Oker, Hartman 

and Girard produced by the team led by the breeder J.W. Bergman at Sidney, Montana, 

USA. Beginning in the early 1960s, this group crossed commercial cultivars 

with mass-selected resistant lines from a disease nursery (Bergman et al. 1985, 1987, 

1989). In Australia, E.K.S. Harrigan developed Sironaria from a programme of backcrossing 

to Gila, incorporating resistance to races of A. carthami prevalent in Australia 

(Harrigan 1987a). 

Rust resistance against Puccinia carthami has been identified, and five improved 

lines (PCA, PVM-1, PCM-2, PCN and PCOy), each carrying a different dominant


Fig. 7. Healthy seedling with 

branching roots on right; four 

diseased seedlings on left: 

from damping-off pathogens 

(e.g. seedborne Alternaria 

carthami or soilborne Pythium 

ultimum) (reprinted with 

permission from Mündel et al. 

1992). 

Fig. 6. Disease symptoms of 

Alternaria carthami on 

safflower leaves (reprinted 

with permission from Mündel 

et al. 1992). 

gene for rust resistance, have been developed (Zimmer and Urie 1970). These lines 

together provided effective resistance, in both seedling and foliage stages, against 

all races of rust identified at that time. Lesaf 175, developed by Mündel (1987), 

incorporates the dominant gene A from PCA into a striped-hull, white-flowering, 

high-oil line. 

Germplasm identified as VFR-1, developed by Thomas (1971) from the breeding 

line Nebraska 4051, incorporates resistance to verticillium wilt, fusarium wilt and 

rot, and rhizoctonia root rot, caused by Verticillium albo-atrum Reinke & Berth., 

Fusarium oxysporum Schlecht f. sp. carthami Klis. & Hous. and Rhizoctonia solani Kuhn, 

respectively. A total of 14 spiny and spineless germplasm lines (GP18 to GP31), 

resistant to four races of F. oxysporum f.sp. carthami, were registered by Klisiewicz 

and Urie (1982). Resistance to all prevalent races of root rot caused by Phytophthora 

drechsleri Tuck was incorporated into the cultivar Dart (Abel and Lorance 1975). 

Sclerotinia head rot (caused by Sclerotinia sclerotiorum (Lib.) de Bary) (for symptoms 

see Fig. 8) resistance was incorporated into the first registered Canadian safflower 

cultivar, the early maturing Saffire, following mass selection and screening 

in disease nurseries (Mündel et al. 1985). 

23


Fig. 8. Infected heads with sclerotia of Sclerotinia sclerotiorum in base of heads (reprinted with 

permission from Mündel et al. 1992).


3 Uses and world distribution 

3.1 Uses 

3.1.1 Historical 

In Egypt, dye from safflower was used to colour cotton and silk as well as ceremonial 

ointment used in religious ceremonies and to anoint mummies prior to binding. 

Safflower seeds and packets and garlands of florets have been found with 4000year-old 

mummies (Weiss 1971). The oil was used as an unguent and for lighting. 

By the 18th century, Egyptian safflower dye was used in Italy, France and Britain to 

colour cheese and flavour sausage. 

According to Weiss (1971), safflower has been used in the Middle East, India and 

Africa for purgative and alexipharmic (antidote) effects, as well as in a medicated oil, 

to promote sweating and cure fevers. Florets were widely used to colour and flavour 

soups and rice as well as cloth, potions and unguents. Safflower was used as a pot 

herb and as a laxative (De Materia Medica Dioscorides, cited by Weiss 1983). The 10th 

century Arab pharmacist, Mesua (cited by Chavan 1961), distinguished the safflower 

of India from the plant of the same name around Baghdad, which is recognizable from 

his drawing as C. tinctorius. Safflower was retained in the European pharmacopoeia 

until recently, but seldom prescribed as a specific remedy (Weiss 1983). The Japanese 

pharmacopoeia details use of safflower (Weiss 1971). 

Safflower dyes were particularly important to the carpet-weaving industries of 

eastern Europe, the Middle East and the Indian subcontinent. Carthamin dye was 

used extensively to colour cloth until the 19th century, when cheaper aniline dyes 

became available. Hebrew writings since the 2nd century AD have described the 

use of tablets of carthamin dye for food colouring, rouge and medicine (Weiss 1983). 

3.1.2 Whole plants 

A tea made from safflower foliage is used to prevent abortion and infertility by 

women in Afghanistan and India (Weiss 1983). All parts of the plant are sold by 

herbalists in India and Pakistan as ‘pansari’ to remedy various ailments and as an 

aphrodisiac (Knowles 1965). 

Young leaves and thinnings are eaten boiled, as a vegetable side dish with curry 

or rice in India, Pakistan and Burma. 

Until this century, soot from charred safflower plants was used to make kohl, 

the Egyptian cosmetic (Weiss 1983). 

Safflower can be grazed or stored as hay or silage. The forage is palatable and 

its feed value and yields are similar to or better than oats or alfalfa (Smith 1996; 

Wichman 1996). On the Great Plains of North America, the crop remains green after 

other crops have matured. Tests in India show that seed production from a ratooned 

crop is possible. Safflower straw is used similarly to cereal straws. Two or 

three rows of safflower around a cereal field can help keep free-ranging cattle out of 

the grain (Chavan 1961). 

25


3.1.3 Flowers 

In China, a pleasant-tasting herbal tea is prepared from safflower blossoms (Li Dajue 

and Han Yuanzhou 1993). Spineless varieties have been used as cut flowers in western 

Europe, Japan and Latin America. 

3.1.3.1 Colouring food and cosmetic 

Addition of safflower florets to foods is a widespread and ancient tradition. True 

saffron is perhaps the world’s most costly spice, and safflower is a common adulterant 

or substitute. Rice, soup, sauces, bread and pickles take on a yellow to bright 

orange colour from the florets. Health concerns regarding synthetic food colourings 

may increase demand for safflower-derived food colouring. China produces 

carthamin dye for use in food, particularly at a large factory in Kunming in Yunnan 

Province. Cosmetic rouge can be made from carthamin dye mixed with French 

chalk, and the Japanese cosmetic (‘beni’) (Weiss 1983) and lipsticks include safflower 

colouring (Smith 1996). 

3.1.3.2 Dyes 

Until this century, when cheaper aniline dyes became available, safflower was mainly 

grown for dye. The water-soluble yellow dye, carthamidin, and a water-insoluble 

red dye, carthamin, which is readily soluble in alkali, can be obtained from safflower 

florets (Weiss 1983). Yellow florets contain little or no red dye (Smith 1996). 

Dye manufacture has virtually ceased in Asia, but dye is still prepared on a small 

scale for traditional and religious occasions. Flowers are collected in the early morning 

and dried in the shade. To extract the dye, corollas are washed for 3-4 days in 

acidulated water in which the dye dissolves. The remaining flower pulp is dried 

into small cubes and sold locally or treated with sodium carbonate solution to extract 

the carmine which is then precipitated by dilute acids. Mid-season pickings 

from the Dacca area of Bangladesh are considered to be of high quality and yields of 

70-140 kg/ha are normal. Florets can be collected after the crop ripens, so that dye 

and oilseed can to be obtained from the same crop (Chavan 1961). Florets contain 

0.3-0.6% carthamin. Colouring 1 kg of cotton yarn crimson requires 1 kg of dye, 

rose pink requires 500 g, and light pink, 250 g (Weiss 1971). 

3.1.3.3 Medicines 

In China, safflower is grown almost exclusively for its flowers, which are used in 

treatment of many illnesses as well as in tonic tea. Safflower has a bitter herbal taste, 

but the Institute of Botany of the Chinese Academy of Sciences in Beijing has developed 

a nonbitter, sweet-smelling tea which contains amino acids, minerals and vitamins 

B 1 , B 2 , B 12 , C and E. Safflower preparations should be stored in light-resistant 

containers (Weiss 1971). The main active ingredient in safflower medicines is safflower 

yellow, which is water-soluble, but alcohol extracts are used in some preparations. 

Many clinical and laboratory studies support the use of safflower medicines for 

menstrual problems, cardiovascular disease and pain and swelling associated with


trauma. 

Laboratory studies: The pharmacology of safflower includes excitation of smooth 

muscles. A dose-dependent increase in frequency and amplitude of contraction of 

uterine tissue of dog, rat, cavy (e.g. guinea pig) and mouse persisted for up to 

4 hours. The response could be increased to the point of spasm and was greater in 

tissue from pregnant animals. Excitation effects on intestinal muscle of the same 

species were brief. The bronchi smooth muscle of cavy was also affected (Sun Shixi 

1955). 

Contraction effects of safflower on blood vessels of toad and of dog kidney, with 

a reduction in kidney volume, have been reported. However, extracts of safflower 

produce a long-term drop in blood pressure of dogs, cats and hypertensive rats (Liu 

et al. 1992) and the adrenaline-induced reduction of capillary blood flow in rat was 

inhibited or reversed (Qi Ming et al. 1984). Small doses of safflower decoction increased 

the amplitude and systolic volume of the heartbeat in dog. 

A 2-week course of safflower yellow reduced total cholesterol and raised HDLcholesterol 

in rabbit without affecting beta-lipoproteins, triglycerides or liver function 

(Qi Wengxuan et al. 1987). In rat, safflower decreased platelet aggregation and 

blood coagulation in vivo and in vitro (Li Chengzhu et al. 1983). Huang Zhengliang 

et al. (1984, 1987) found that safflower yellow at 220 mg/ml completely inhibited 

aggregation of rabbit platelets and prevented experimental thrombosis in rat. In 

mice treated with E-Hong injection liquor, ADP-induced thrombi were smaller and 

persisted for shorter periods than in control animals (Shen Qingliang et al. 1988). 

Safflower treatment increased uterus weight in ovariectomized mice and increased 

seminal vesicle weight in castrated mice, but by a smaller amount than 

treatment with sex hormones did (Jia Hanqing et al. 1980). 

Strong, long-lasting analgesic effects of safflower yellow have been reported. In 

mice, the foot-lifting response to formaldehyde, the histamine-mediated increase in 

capillary blood flow and granulation caused by cotton-ball irritation, were all inhibited. 

The central nervous system effects of barbitone and chloral hydrate were enhanced 

by safflower yellow and those of nikethamide (convulsions and some deaths) 

were reduced (Huang Zhengliang et al. 1984). 

Clinical use of safflower: Safflower dilates arteries, reduces hypertension and increases 

blood flow and, hence, oxygenation of tissues. It also inhibits thrombus 

formation and, over time, dissolves thrombi (Anonymous 1972). Many prescriptions 

for invigorating blood circulation, especially those for treatment of heart disease, 

include safflower along with other herbs and have been used in treatment of 

many diseases (Wang Guishen 1985). 

Cardiovascular disease treatment is the main use of safflower because it invigorates 

the circulation. In 83% of patients with coronary disease, blood cholesterol 

levels have been reduced after 6 weeks of treatment (Wang Guimiao and Li Yili 

1985). Experiments with dogs suggest injections of safflower can reduce the damage 

done to the heart muscle by an infarction. Heart arrythmia and hypertension 

27


were reduced by safflower treatment three times a day for 4 weeks (Wang 

Bungzhang et al. 1978; Wang Guimiao and Li Yili 1985). A nasal drip of safflower 

and other herbs speeded blood flow in the medial cranial artery (Duo Zhenshun et 

al. 1992). Injections of safflower extract at Fengfu, Yamen, Fengchi and other acupuncture 

points every 3 days increased blood flow in the coronary artery (Wang 

Guimiao and Li Yili 1985). 

Treatment of cerebral thrombosis with safflower improved and lowered blood 

pressure in over 90% of patients (Wang Guimiao and Li Yili 1985; Yu Damao 1987). 

Herbal decoctions including safflower were also effective in treatment of cerebral 

embolism (Zhou Zuolin 1992). Lu Zhoucai (1991) treated hemiplegia with a combination 

of western and Chinese medicine including safflower. 

Safflower decoctions have been used successfully for treatment of male sterility 

(Qin Yuehao 1990) and dead sperm excess disease (Qu Chun 1990). Treatment with 

safflower resulted in pregnancy in 56 of 77 infertile women who had been infertile 

for 1.5-10 years (Zhou Wenyu 1986). 

Labour can be induced by a preparation of safflower, ideally along with rupture 

of membranes. According to Liu Yaling (1985), the combination was more effective 

than western medicine. Safflower boiled in wine along with other flower decoctions 

is recommended to counter retained afterbirth and retained stillbirth (Wang 

Guimiao and Li Yili 1985). Safflower, along with Chinese angelica (Angelica sinensis) 

and wine, is used to induce abortion early in pregnancy (Wang Guimiao and Li Yili 

1985). For delayed, heavy and painful menstrual periods, safflower soaked in warm 

white wine or combined with other herbs is advised (Chen Xiuqin 1990; Wang 

Guimiao and Li Yili 1985; Zhong Xiumei 1992). Safflower combined with peachkernel 

(Prunus persica), Chinese angelica, chuanxiong (Ligusticum wallichii) and 

peony-root (Paeonia lactiflora) is used for some types of amenorrhea (Wang Guimiao 

and Li Yili 1985). Therapy designed to improve circulation cured pelvic infections 

in 67% of cases and improved others as well (Wang Chunru 1989). 

Recovery from vaso-vagal fainting associated with post-partum haemorrhage 

has been associated with the steam from a soup of safflower in water (Wang Guimiao 

and Li Yili 1985). 

Chinese medicine recognizes many types of rheumatism. Prescriptions including 

safflower were successful treatments for sciatica (Wang Guimiao and Li Yili 1985) 

and thorax rheumatism (Zheng Yukun 1988). Safflower wine is recommended for 

62 types of rheumatism. 

Safflower prescriptions have been very effective treatments for rheumatoid arthritis 

(Wang Yue and Wang Luqiu 1990; Wang Zhaoming et al. 1985). A preparation 

of stir-fried earthworm, poisonnut (Strychnos nuxvomica) and safflower (10:7:7 by 

weight) is reported to be highly effective in treating arthritis of the joints (Yau 

Honghai 1985). 

Safflower, along with other herbs, has been used to treat respiratory diseases 

including pertussis (whooping cough) and chronic bronchitis (Wang Guimiao and 

Li Yili 1985).


Chronic gastritis and atrophic gastritis, treated with 50 to 120 doses of safflower 

florets, were cured or improved in over 80% of cases (Chu Hang et al. 1985; Ma Shen 

et al. 1989; Wu Lian’en 1992). A safflower decoction cured 70% of patients with 

ankyloenteron (Dong Jiayun 1988). Constipation caused by medicines for mental 

illnesses such as schizophrenia has been treated with safflower injections at the 

Tinggong, Yifeng, Anmian, Fengchi, Naiguan, Chanzohong and other acupuncture 

points. The injections stimulate menstrual flow, invigorate main and collateral channels 

and regulate vital energy and blood circulation (Wang Guimiao and Li Yili 1985). 

Treatment of epidemic haemorrhagic fever (disseminated intravascular coagulation 

deficit) in the early stages with safflower-bugleweed (Lycopus lucidus) injections 

prevented further development of the disease (Wang Guimiao and Li Yili 1985). 

Chronic nephritis has been improved by safflower treatments (Wang Guimiao 

and Li Yili 1985; Ye Chuanhui 1986; Zhang Yonghong et al. 1989; Zhao Lijun 1990; 

Zhu Pijiang 1991). Although a seed preparation is suggested for renal calculi (Wang 

Guimiao and Li Yili 1985), other safflower preparations are used to clear the fever 

and regulate urethra function as well as the haematuria associated with calculi. 

Daily or twice daily doses of safflower with ground beetle in glutinous rice or 

millet wine helps muscle injuries heal within a week (Wang Guimiao and Li Yili 

1985). Wrenched joints were also cured (Lu Jianxin 1989). For wrist tenosynovitis, 

steaming and wrapping in a towel soaked in a tea of safflower and other herbs is 

recommended (Qian Zhangquan 1985). A recovery rate of 100% is reported from 

use of safflower and other herbs for treatment of costochondritis (Wang Wenyuan 

1987). Osteochondritis has been cured within 4 days of treatment with compresses 

of safflower and Chinese angelica (Wang Guimiao and Li Yili 1985). Chronic cartilage 

strains of the knee were improved with compresses of safflower and dragon’s 

blood (Daemonoprops draco) (Xu Zhaoxian 1989). Treatment with safflower and other 

herbs was effective for chronic suppurative osteomyelitis (Wang Sai 1992) and for 

cervical spondylosis (Yin Huafu 1988). Bruising can be alleviated by rubbing with 

an alcoholic safflower preparation (Wang Guimiao and Li Yili 1985). Neonatal 

cephalo-haematoma was treated successfully with a safflower and chuanxiong injection. 

Concussion was treated with safflower and peach kernel (Feng Shaoren 

1992). Sequelae of concussion have also been treated with safflower and other herbs 

(Jiang Wei and Kong Fanxue 1992). 

In dermatology, safflower has many beneficial effects, including clearing of vitiligo 

(Bai Pu et al. 1992; Tan Dingquan 1989), treatment of erythema nodosum (Si 

Zaihe 1989) and other skin problems such as pityriasis rosea, polymorphic erythema, 

acne rosacea, urticaria, psoriasis, pruritis and other dermatitis (Wang Guimiao and 

Li Yili 1985). Lupus erythematosus has been improved by safflower and other herbs 

(Wang Zhongying 1989; Wang Guimiao and Li Yili 1985). In cases of nondispersion 

of macula, for example in measles, the circulatory effects and relief of fever by safflower 

are beneficial (Wang Guimiao and Li Yili 1985). An alcoholic preparation of 

safflower and other herbs was completely effective against acne (Liu Yuanxiu 1991). 

High rates of recovery from alopecia are reported from the use of hair-restoring 

29


preparations including safflower (Chen Shendong 1990; Zhao Zhangguang 1988). 

Mixed 1:2 with root bark of Chinese wolfberry (Lycium chinense) in sesame oil, safflower 

is an effective poultice for foot callouses (Wang Guimiao and Li Yili 1985). 

Spraying the throat with a preparation of safflower and Japanese honeysuckle 

(Lonicera japonica) in water had no side effects and was highly effective in about half 

of 100 cases of acute laryngitis and pharyngitis and other throat diseases (Wang 

Shengyun 1985). Safflower treatments, either as topical dust or injections, have been 

recommended for ear infections (Pan Huanhe 1986; Wang Guimiao and Li Yili 1985). 

Safflower eye drops reduce myopia, especially in children (Tao Genyu 1990; 

Wang Guimiao and Li Yili 1985). Trachoma has been successfully treated with safflower 

combined with other herbs (Yin Jialou 1986). Invigoration of the blood circulation 

by safflower has also reduced senile cataracts (Tan Qiuyuan 1992). 

Clinical improvements due to safflower treatment have been reported for leukemia 

(Deng Youan 1988), leucocytopenia (Deng You’an et al. 1984), erythrocytosis 

(Lu Kuijie 1985), allergic purpura, lupus erythematosus (Wang Zhongying 1989; 

Wang Guimiao and Li Yili 1985), goitre (Liu Shulin 1992), anal fissure (Li Yunshan 

1986), jaundice and viral hepatitis (Wang Guimiao and Li Yili 1985) and migraine 

headaches (Wang Guimiao and Li Yili 1985). Climacteric syrup for reduction of 

menopausal flushing includes safflower (Chu Qiuping 1989). 

Knowles (1965) reported that flowers were soaked overnight and applied wet to 

reduce allergy rashes in Egypt. 

3.1.3.4 Safflower pollen 

The pollen is esteemed in China because it is easily collected and contains many 

nutrients. 

3.1.4 Seeds 

3.1.4.1 Birdseed 

Safflower seeds are commonly used as birdseed, especially for members of the parrot 

family and pigeons (Canada, USA, France, Egypt, Japan). The birdseed market, 

which requires bright white seeds, has tripled in the last 5 years to around 25 000 t 

in 1995 and may double in the next 5-10 years (Gyulai 1996). The seed is mainly 

purchased for wild birds, although some is used for caged birds and other small 

pets (Peterson 1996). 

3.1.4.2 Foods 

In Iran, a paste of seeds is used to hasten cheese curd formation (Knowles 1965). 

Smith (1996) reported that an experimental substitution of a safflower seed enzyme 

for rennin produced a pleasant-smelling, soft, white cheese. 

In Ethiopia, finely pounded safflower kernels are mixed with water to prepare a 

drink called ‘fitfit’, which is used on fast-days or mixed with ‘teff’ bread and spices 

to form a porridge (Belayneh and Wolde-Mariam 1991). Crushed dried seeds are


also used to grease the baking plate for the ‘teff’ flatbread. Roasted seeds, generally 

mixed with chickpeas, barley or wheat, are eaten as a snack food in Ethiopia and 

Sudan (Belayneh and Wolde-Mariam 1991). The Egyptians grind the kernels and 

mix in sesame (Knowles 1965). 

3.1.4.3 Medical 

In Pakistan, seed decoctions are used to produce heat and dryness in the body and 

with added sugar, as a laxative (Knowles 1965). For problem menses, at least three 

daily doses (a 1/2 ounce of seed in 8 ounces of water, boiled until reduced by half) 

are given, starting on the first day of menstruation, to increase blood flow. A more 

concentrated dose over a longer period induces abortion. In Kashmir, a decoction 

of whole or ground seeds is used to flush out the urinary tract, improve the liver 

and reduce hives (Knowles 1965). In Bangladesh and China, the treatment for urinary 

calculi is 1/4 ounce of seed mixed with sugar (Knowles 1965; Wang Guimiao 

and Li Yili 1985). Ground seed mixed with mustard oil is used to reduce rheumatic 

pains in Bangladesh (Knowles 1965). 

3.1.5 Oil 

Around the world, safflower is mainly grown for its edible oil for cooking, salad oil 

and margarine. In affluent countries, research linking health and diet has increased 

the demand for the oil, which has the highest polyunsaturated/saturated ratios of 

any oil available. It is nutritionally similar to olive oil, with high levels of linoleic or 

oleic acid, but much less costly. Polyunsaturated fats are associated with lowering 

of blood cholesterol. Also, mono-unsaturates such as oleic safflower oil tend to lower 

blood levels of LDL (‘bad’ cholesterol) without affecting HDL (‘good’ cholesterol) 

(Smith 1996). There is a considerable health food market for safflower oil, especially 

in North America, Germany (Smith 1996) and Japan. 

Safflower oil is stable and its consistency does not change at low temperatures, 

making it particularly suitable for use in chilled foods. Safflower oil salad dressings 

have remained stable and satisfactory to –12ºC (Weiss 1971). High oleic safflower 

oils are very stable on heating, and do not give off smoke or smell during frying 

(Gyulai 1996). Safflower oil is better suited to hydrogenation for margarine than 

soy or canola oils, which are unstable in this process (Kleingarten 1993). 

The Japanese are the major importers of oil and seed for crushing. Traditionally, 

safflower oil was mixed with other oils for ‘tempura’ (Weiss 1983). Now, the 

biggest use of safflower oil (75-85%) is in gift packs for special occasions (Gyulai 

1996), especially during the two gift-giving seasons each year. Safflower oil’s share 

of this market is over 85%, especially as blends of high oleic and high linoleic 

types, which combine health benefits and salad oil attributes with stable cooking 

qualities (Smith 1996). 

Safflower oil is sprayed on various edible products to prevent them absorbing 

or losing water, and thus extends their shelf life (Kleingarten 1993). Smith (1996) 

details many experimental uses of safflower oil in the food industry, but only infant 

31


foods and liquid nutrition formulations have used safflower oil. An oleic oil derivative, 

methyl-oleate, sprayed on grapes on the vine to accelerate drying reduced the 

risk of rain and the cost of producing sun-dried raisins (Smith 1996). 

Safflower oil is an effective nonallergenic dispersant for injectable medications, 

but not widely used (Smith 1996). In Iran, the oil is used in treatment of liver and 

heart ailments (Knowles 1965). The oil is nonallergenic, making it ideal for cosmetics; 

it is used in Macassar hair oil and Bombay sweet oil (Weiss 1971). Charred 

safflower oil has been used to treat sores and rheumatism in India (Weiss 1971). 

The commercialization of safflower in the 1950s was driven, in part, by the paint 

and varnish industry. The oil’s properties (it has no linolenic acid, high linoleic acid and 

low colour values, no wax, low free fatty acids and low unsaponifiables), contribute to 

unsurpassed quality in paints, alkyd resins and coatings (Smith 1996). However, market 

forces (less costly petroleum products and a shift to water-based paints) have limited 

this use. Smith (1996) details potential industrial uses that have not developed 

commercially. The oil has been used to waterproof leather buckets and as axle grease in 

India (Knowles 1965), where it also is used for lighting and manufacture of soap (Weiss 

1971). It is also used to manufacture ‘roghan’ (used to preserve leather), as glass cement, 

to hold ornamental tiles in place and, dissolved in turpentine, for making Afridi cloth, a 

form of batik work. The process for making ‘roghan’ from safflower differs little from 

that using ‘pohli’ oil, described in Section 1.2.8 and the ‘roghan’ is similar (Weiss 1971). 

Industrial uses of safflower oil may expand due to environmental concerns raised 

by exclusive use of fossil fuels. Biodiesel and fuel additives, as well as uses such as 

chainsaw-bar oil, may reduce pollutant effects of exhaust gases. 

3.1.6 Meal 

The meal left after oil extraction is used for animal feed. The residual fat varies with 

the extraction method, from under 2% to 15%. Crude protein also varies: from 20- 

25% for undecorticated meal to up to 42% if hulls are removed. Removal of hulls is 

not generally economical and the meal commonly has 30-40% crude fibre, making it 

unsuitable for monogastric animals such as swine and poultry. It has been used as 

range cow cubes and in compounded feeds for cattle and other livestock (Smith 1996). 

Although cattle apparently find safflower meal palatable, it has a bitter taste which 

makes it unacceptable to humans. Protein isolates prepared from debittered meal can 

be used to fortify bread, pasta and nutritional drinks. An energy bar produced in 

China includes safflower amino acids, safflower yellow and Chinese crabapple. 

3.1.7 Hulls 

Markets for hulls have not been found and crushers generally leave the hulls in the meal 

although removing them would lower the fibre content and raise the feed value of the 

meal. Hulls were used for presto-logs for fireplaces in the early 1950s (Smith 1996). 

Among the potential uses listed by Smith (1996), safflower hulls had no obvious 

practical disadvantages in the following: 

● filler for paper products – produces a dense, hard-surfaced product


● filler for baked bricks and ceramics – produces light, porous bricks 

● filler for insulation 

● insulation to keep steel ingots from cooling too rapidly 

● supporting material for hydroponic culture 

● soil diluent for seeding 

● metal deburrer, abrasive, cleaner or polisher – hulls are tough and resilient, but 

not absorbent 

● packing material for fragile items 

● additive for drilling mud 

● low-ash fuel – burns readily, but is bulky 

● charcoal briquette manufacture might also yield useful volatile materials. 

3.1.8 Use of wild relatives of safflower 

Chavan (1961) describes C. lanatus, or saffron thistle, a small herb 15-45 cm high 

found from the Atlantic-Mediterranean coast to Kashmir at altitudes up to 1800 m. 

It yields an oil similar to that of safflower, but oil content peaks at around 16% before 

ripening and then diminishes. Saffron thistle is reported to be sudorific (sweatinducing), 

fever-reducing and anthelmintic (Chavan 1961). 

Carthamus oxyacanthus, wild safflower, is an annual bushy thorny weed in northern 

India and northern Pakistan known as ‘kandiari’ or ‘pohli’. The fruits are collected 

for the seeds, which contain about 28% oil, which is similar to safflower oil 

(Chavan 1961). ‘Pohli’ oil is used in cooking and for lighting and to prepare ‘roghan’, 

soft soap and varnish and, in the Punjab, to dress ulcers and remedy itch. ‘Pohli’ oil 

is boiled in an earthen pot for about 12 hours and then poured, still boiling, into cold 

water, where it forms a gelatinous mass. This ‘roghan’ is stored in tins and sold 

locally for making Afridi wax-cloth and as a glass-cement (Chavan 1961). 

3.2 World distribution and production 

Traditionally, cultivation of safflower has been in a band from the Mediterranean to 

the Pacific Ocean at latitudes between 20ºS and 40ºN, wherever a hot, dry climate 

suits the crop. When the crop was widely used for dye, safflower was grown as far 

north as southern Germany and Alsace in France (Weiss 1971). Today, the crop is 

grown for local use as an oilseed or a food colourant wherever its heat tolerance and 

ability to survive on minimal surface moisture provide an agronomic and economic 

niche for it. World markets, transportation and crushing facilities as well as agronomic 

factors affect the area seeded to safflower in countries where agriculture is 

dependent on world trade. As a minor crop, safflower is particularly vulnerable to 

the vagaries of the market, pests and adverse weather patterns. These have contributed 

to wide swings in production and seeded area in several countries. Production 

in some of the major safflower-growing countries is shown in Table 4. 

33


Table 4. Safflower production worldwide and in countries with over 10 000 ha 

in 5 of 10 years between 1985 and 1994. 

1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 

Argentina 

area harvested † 3 4 15 15 50 50 50 15 21 12 

production ‡ 2 10 11 11 33 35 35 16 7 32 

Australia 

area harvested 44 30 38 46 33 19 37 32 55 23 

production 28 19 25 41 21 10 24 21 23 25 

Ethiopia 


production 32 33 33 34 34 34 35 35 36 35 

India 


production 497 348 353 462 445 487 327 203 342 430 

Mexico 


production 180 161 219 247 142 159 88 59 59 69 

USA 


production 110 147 155 143 159 139 104 148 227 184 

Former USSR 


production 4 5 4 7 9 6 7 23 43 13 

World 


production 876 737 811 960 850 873 620 690 737 790 

† Area in ‘000 ha; ‡ production in ‘000 tons (1 ton = 0.907 tonnes) (adapted from Smith 1996).


India produces about half the world’s safflower each year, but very little is exported. 

In terms of world trade, the USA, together with a very small production 

from the southern prairies of Canada, produces 180 000-200 000 t per year. Most 

production from Australia (10 000-20 000 t/year), Argentina (10 000 t/year) and 

Mexico (80 000-100 000 t/year) is exported, mainly to Japan and Europe with some 

Mexican oil entering the USA (Gyulai 1996). 

Chinese safflower production on 35 000-40 000 ha/year is not included in most 

crop estimates because it is mainly grown for its florets rather than as an oilseed. It 

is grown throughout most of the country, but over two-thirds of the area seeded is 

in Xinjiang Autonomous District. Increasing use of safflower as an oilseed is expanding 

the area seeded to the crop. 

35


4 Breeding 

4.1 Crossing techniques 

Safflower is a predominantly self-pollinating crop, with the genetic potential of over 

90% for selfing, although environmental conditions may result in outcrossing exceeding 

50%. Heterogeneity builds up quickly in safflower populations. Bees of 

several genera, as well as other insects, are attracted to safflower for pollen and 

nectar. Wind transportation of pollen is not a major factor in cross-pollination. To 

enhance their genetic homogeneity, plants selected as parents for genetic studies 

and breeding purposes are selfed by covering the flowers for one or two successive 

generations with cloth or paper bags. To ensure planned crossing, flowers are emasculated 

by removing the anther tubes, along with the upper portion of the corolla 

tubes and petal lobes, in the late bud stage (Knowles 1980). The next day, when the 

styles have elongated, the emasculated florets are fertilized with pollen from a 

preselected flower or head. This quite time-consuming technique is generally followed 

in breeding programmes. 

A mass-emasculation technique developed at the Nimbkar Agricultural Research 

Institute (NARI) in Phaltan, India, takes less time than emasculation of individual 

florets and allows more efficient production of crossed seeds (Deshmuk and Ranga 

Rao 1989). On first flower initiation, 5-10 fully developed capitula from the top 4-5 

branches of each plant are covered with low- to medium-density polythene bags. 

All other branches are pruned off. Temperature and moisture build-up inside the 

bags prevents dehiscence of anthers. At 50% flowering, in the mornings, bags are 

removed, flowers are pollinated with the desired pollen source and the bags are 

closed. To maximize seedset, the procedure is repeated on three successive days. 

On completion of flowering, polythene bags are replaced with tissue paper bags, to 

reduce moisture accumulation and disease in the head. One person can bag 105 

capitula per hour using this technique, compared with the conventional emasculation 

rate of 15 florets on each of 12 capitula. Using the mass-emasculation method, 

a total of 1207 crossed seeds can be produced per person-hour compared with 102 

by the conventional method. However, this mass-emasculation technique is only 

effective at the moderate temperatures of December and early January at Phaltan; at 

higher temperatures, the pollen is sterilized in the bags. 

4.2 Breeding methods 

Plant breeders of safflower have generally used variations on the pedigree method 

for handling segregating generations (Knowles 1989), selecting for highly heritable 

characters (e.g. early maturity, disease resistance) beginning from single F 2 plants. 

Uniform F 3 or F 4 lines with superior expression of desired characters can be advanced 

to small-scale yield tests. Backcrossing has been used to introduce specific 

characters, especially disease resistance, into otherwise good commercial cultivars. 

Mass selection from fields naturally infested with a multitude of diseases has 

been used to develop cultivars with improved field resistance to several diseases.


Beginning in the early 1960s, this system of initial screening for field resistance to 

leaf blight caused by Alternaria carthami and bacterial blight caused by Pseudomonas 

syringae, followed by crossing to commercial varieties, was used in the development 

of Oker, Hartman and Girard in Montana, USA (Bergman et al. 1985, 1987, 1989). In 

subsequent crosses, advanced breeding lines with improved oil levels, rather than 

the original disease-resistant selections, were used. 

Recurrent selection programmes also have been used in safflower. In a 

programme begun in 1970 in Arizona, USA, Rubis (1981) used structural male sterility 

associated with the thin-hulled gene (th th) to enforce outcrossing and produce 

lines highly resistant to root rot caused by Phytophthora spp. This method was developed 

to create a high selection pressure in order to select new genetic recombinations 

with high resistance to the fungal pathogen. The thin-hull gene has shown 

crossability of 98-100%. Flooding, along with high temperatures at flowering time, 

following moisture stress imposes a very strong selection pressure for resistance to 

phytophthora root rot. Introduction of the thin-hull gene into the population enforced 

fertilization of surviving plants by pollen from other surviving plants. Thus, 

a complete cycle of recurrent selection was achieved in a single year. By following 

this procedure, the survival rate increased from 14% in the best plots in 1972 to 85% 

in 1980, while the check variety (Royal) was 100% killed. 

Genic male sterility, identified in safflower by Heaton and Knowles (1982), has 

been considered for use in hybridization to produce high-yielding cultivars. However, 

manual removal of male-fertile plants in crossing blocks has generally made 

this procedure prohibitively expensive where labour costs are high. Carapetian 

(1994) identified three interacting, unlinked nuclear genes controlling the inheritance 

of male-female sterility in safflower, using a cross of US-10 (S1S1s2s2s3s3) and 

the geographically distant Indian line 54-147 (s1s1S2S2S3S3). 

A hybrid safflower breeding programme initiated in 1974 by A.B. Hill uses a 

cytoplasmic male-sterility system (Hill 1996). The average yield advantage of recent 

hybrids, compared at several sites in California, Arizona, North Dakota, Canada, 

Pakistan, Mexico and Spain, was 127% over the best parental lines. Oil levels of the 

hybrids, which averaged 34% in 1983, increased to 40 and 42% in 1994; levels of 45% 

and higher are currently being developed. 

4.3 Biotechnology 

A range of biotechnological methods has been tested on safflower, with varying 

success. A sampling only is presented here. Anther culture resulted in up to 48% 

callus formation from the Indian cultivar Manjira, following cold pretreatment of 

immature flower buds and culturing on MS medium with 2 mg benzyladenine, 

0.5 mg NAA/L and 2% sucrose (Prasad et al. 1990). Anther-derived calluses showed 

47% haploid, 30% diploid and 16% triploid. 

A cooperative project between J.W. Bergman in Sidney, Montana, USA and W.E. 

Dyer of Montana State University, Bozeman, is mapping the DNA of safflower lines 

as an aid in future identification of lines (Bergman 1996). Agrobacterium tumefaciens- 

37


mediated transformations and regenerations of transgenic safflower are also being 

undertaken, using the cultivar Centennial (Ying et al. 1992). Efficient callus formation 

was achieved from cotyledon, stem and leaf explants. Shoot buds were regenerated 

from 26% of leaf-derived calluses on callus induction medium. Transformation 

and stable integration of transgenes was confirmed by the use of GUS assay 

and DNA hybridization in kanamycin-resistant calluses and GUS assay in regenerated 

shoots. A protocol was established for the transformation and regeneration of 

safflower, based on co-cultivation of explants on induction medium, transferral to 

shoot formation medium containing carbenicilin, followed by transfer to the same 

medium containing kanamycin (Orlikowska et al. 1995). After regeneration of the 

leafy structures, transfer to elongation medium containing geneticin follows; after 

elongation, shoots are detached from the original explant tissue and transferred to 

the same medium, with only transformed shoots remaining healthy and being transferred 

to rooting medium. Root regeneration, while successful, is still at too low a 

percentage for this system to be a practical breeding tool (J.W. Bergman, pers. comm., 

1996). In India, a protocol for easy and efficient regeneration of plantlets with welldeveloped 

root systems was developed using the cultivars A-1 and Manjira 

(Tejovathi and Anwar 1993). Cotyledons excised from 2- to 3-day-old seedlings and 

cultured on MS medium supplemented with 0.1 mg NAA +0.5 mg 

benzylaminopurine/L gave the greatest shoot bud formation, inducing 10-12 shoot 

buds/explants. Transferring these regenerated shoots to the MS medium containing 

1 or 2 mg 2,4,5-trichlorophenoxy propionic acid/L induced rooting. 

In Freiburg, Germany, the team of U. Matern and R.E. Kneusel attempted to use 

genetic engineering techniques for safflower to introduce resistance to leaf blight 

caused by Alternaria spp. (Matern and Kneusel 1993). This group used molecular 

methods to identify the macrolide, brefeldin A, as the phytotoxin from A. carthami 

which suppresses the plant’s defence response and is thus identified as a virulence 

factor of the fungal pathogen. The phytotoxin is inactivated in a one-step hydrolysis 

by a strain of Bacillus subtilis, and incorporation of the DNA directing manufacture 

of the enzyme responsible into the safflower genome was proposed as an effective 

means to protect safflower from alternaria leaf spot disease. The gene was 

identified, cloned and successful regenerations have been carried out using tester 

strains of Agrobacterium tumefaciens, but efforts at transformations of safflower with 

the isolated brefeldin A-esterase gene were not successful and the team has disbanded 

(U. Matern, pers. comm., 1996).


5 Research priorities and constraints 

The research priorities expressed by any group reflect the diverse knowledge bases 

and regional needs and concerns of individuals. We present here the consensus of 

safflower stakeholders, including those involved in research, extension, industry 

and production. Several fora have presented opportunities for ‘think tanks’ on specific 

concerns. A complete list is impossible, but we have attempted to present all 

the issues raised, with major emphasis on genetic resources affecting the international 

safflower research community. The sections of this monograph dealing with 

the major collections and their evaluations, as well as work by institutions developing 

varieties (i.e. Chapter 6) should be consulted for progress or lack of progress in 

relation to a number of the issues (e.g. disease resistances) discussed. 

5.1 Safflower workshop, Davis, California, USA, 1981 

Following the First International Safflower Conference, at the University of California 

in Davis, CA, USA, on 17 and 18 July 1981, 26 research, administration and commercial 

development workers participated in a workshop discussion (Knowles 

1981:285-292). The discussion leader for each topic presented the consensus from 

that section. 

5.1.1 Constraints in safflower production and research to remove them 

These were presented in descending order of priority, considering the needs of the 

smallholding farmer and the large fully mechanized operation. 

5.1.1.1 Susceptibility to disease and insect pests 

Safflower has developed from wild species of desert or arid environment and is 

very susceptible to foliar diseases favoured by a moist atmosphere; root-rotting organisms, 

especially those favoured under irrigation; and a large number of insects, 

especially in those regions where safflower and its related species evolved. Greater 

resistance to those diseases and insects would allow safflower production over a 

much larger area than at present. 

● Susceptibility to foliar diseases: These have been particularly serious in areas 

where rainfall occurs between the late bud stage and near maturity. Most serious 

and widespread is leaf blight caused by Alternaria carthami. Other foliar 

diseases of more localized concern include those caused by Botrytis cinerea, 

Cercospora carthami, Pseudomonas syringae, Puccinia carthami and Ramularia 

carthami. 

● Susceptibility to root-rotting organisms: Various species of Phytophthora as well 

as Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. carthami and Verticillium dahliae are serious in many 

areas. 

● Susceptibility to insects: The most serious in limiting safflower distribution has 

been the safflower fly (Acanthiophilus helianthi) which is confined to Africa, Asia 

and Europe. Aphids are also a major constraint in India and Spain. 

Research to remove these constraints requires joint efforts of plant breeders and 

39


pathologists or entomologists. Accurate tests which quickly measure the resistance 

of a large number of genotypes are required. An understanding of the inheritance 

of resistance in the host and of virulence and nonvirulence of different physiological 

races of pathogens and insects is needed. 

5.1.1.2 Developmental pattern 

● Early maturity: Development of cultivars that mature several weeks earlier than 

those commercially grown in the USA would make safflower more competitive 

with wheat and permit double cropping and production of safflower in currently 

marginal areas (e.g. Canada). 

● Duration of rosette stage: The rosette stage protects the crop from frost, but 

safflower is frequently overgrown with weeds during this stage, resulting in 

poor crops. 

● Lack of dormancy at maturity: Germination of mature seed in the heads of 

standing plants following rains lasting more than 24 hours adversely affects 

quantity and quality of harvested crops in a number of regions of the world. 

Germplasm screening for dormancy may prove very beneficial. 

5.1.1.3 Morphological ideotype 

● Angle of branching: Research is needed to evaluate whether appressed types 

produce denser stands with more heads per hectare and facilitate mechanical 

and manual harvest. 

● Spines: Varieties with reduced or absent spines are needed in regions of nontraditional 

production, where flowers and seeds are hand-harvested. Generally, 

such varieties have been lower in yield and oil content than spiny types. 

● Seed hull: Well-developed hulls generally result in oil levels below 30%. Reductions 

in hull thickness, for example by the partial hull gene (par par), offer the 

potential of varieties with more than 50% oil. There is a choice of striped or 

smooth hulls and hulls without melanin pigment. Research should relate 

changes in the amounts and character of hull to yield and quality of both oil and 

protein, and the effects that such changes may have on losses to birds, insects 

and seed damage during mechanical harvest. 

5.1.1.4 Resistance to stress 

● Increased resistance to drought: Although safflower is considered drought-resistant, 

in large part owing to its strong taproot, identification of genotypes which 

are more efficient in water use would increase production on dryland and where 

irrigation water is limited. 

● Greater resistance to salinity: Safflower has shown considerable tolerance to 

soil salinity, but greater tolerance is needed. Often safflower is grown in dryland 

and irrigated areas subject to increasing salinity. More evaluations of 

germplasm under saline conditions are needed. 

● Greater resistance to cold: With greater resistance to cold, true winter saf-


flower types might be developed, to grow alongside winter wheat. Study of 

genotypes of cultivated safflower and gene recombinations from crosses of 

cultivated safflower with wild species could define the limits of cold tolerance. 

5.1.2 Other research of high priority 

5.1.2.1 Increase yield through genetic manipulation 

● Change of ideotype: Examine the potential of changes in the morphology of the 

plant and physiological characteristics to affect yield. 

● Heterosis: Develop hybrid cultivars using cytoplasmic male sterility systems. 

● Interspecific hybridization and cytogenetics: Explore the potential of interspecific 

hybridization with and without induction of polyploidy. Encourage changes 

in chromosome structures. 

● Genetic engineering: Evaluate these techniques, particularly when combined 

with mutagenesis. 

5.1.2.2 Production/physiological research 

● Cropping systems: Identify niches in cropping systems where safflower can be 

used, including as a relay or companion crop. 

● Water management: Characterize the best use of water for different soil-climate 

environments, especially as genotypes tolerant to root-rotting organisms are 

identified or developed. 

● Weed control: Study integrated weed control including the use of cropping systems, 

tillage and herbicides. 

● Photoperiod and thermal reactions: Examine responses of various genotypes to 

daylength under various temperature regimes. 

● Allelopathy: Determine whether safflower roots or residue adversely affect the 

growth of other crops, or vice versa. 

5.1.2.3 Product-related research 

● Modification of fatty acid composition of the oil: Present market demand is for 

high linoleic and high oleic oil. The next step will be the development of types 

with fatty acids not now present in safflower oil for specialty uses, such as those 

with short-chain saturated fatty acids (potential substitutes for coconut oil). 

● Modification of amino acid composition of the meal: Increased levels of lysine 

and other essential amino acids would enhance the feed value of the meal. 

● Elimination of toxic substances in the meal: Germplasm should be evaluated to 

find lines with lower levels of the two toxic substances – matairesinol 

monoglucoside and lignan glucoside – found in safflower meal. 

● Product markers: Identification of newly developed products by markers such 

as flower colour, leaf morphology and seed colour would be useful to all phases 

of the industry. 

41


5.1.2.4 Utilization research 

● Oils: Evaluate lines with oils of radically different fatty acids for both edible and 

industrial uses. 

● Toxic substances: Reduce levels of toxic substances in the meal by processing 

techniques. 

● Hulls: Develop better uses for the hulls, possibly as fuel or as raw material for 

structural applications. 

● Fodder: Study the combined use of safflower for grazing and seed production. 

5.1.3 Germplasm 

Despite considerable work in germplasm collecting and evaluation, the group was 

strongly of the opinion that germplasm needs had a very high priority. It expressed 

gratitude to IBPGR for its interest in and support of germplasm collecting, preservation, 

description and evaluation. 

5.1.3.1 Collections 

● Additional areas: There was unanimous agreement that collecting should continue, 

particularly in areas from which collections are scanty. These were identified 

in descending order of priority as: China, East Africa (including Kenya, 

Ethiopia and Sudan), South Asia (including northern tribal areas of India and 

Pakistan, Bangladesh and Burma), Southeast Asia, Japan and Korea. 

● Wild species: Wherever possible, wild species should be collected, particularly 

in the Middle East and islands of the Mediterranean Sea. It was stressed that 

breeders will draw increasingly on genes in wild species as genetic engineering 

techniques for safflower are perfected. 

5.1.3.2 Conservation 

The Conference recommended to IBPGR that the following be designated as global 

repositories: 

● USDA Regional Plant Introduction Station, Washington State University, Pullman, 

WA 99164, USA. It should receive all collections and serve as a central 

databank. 

● National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources, Indian Agricultural Research Institute, 

New Delhi 110 012, India. 

5.1.3.3 Descriptors 

The group discussed and amended the draft list of descriptors prepared by Dr N.N. 

Anishetty, Assistant Executive Secretary, IBPGR and Dr R.B. Singh, IBPGR (Singapore). 

It unanimously recommended that the final version be published by IBPGR. 

5.1.3.4 Evaluation and utilization 

● Plant introduction and conservation stations: Such stations should have responsibility 

for initial evaluations and descriptions of collections.


● Evaluations made elsewhere: Such evaluations should be channelled to national 

plant introduction stations and global repositories. 

● Germplasm pools: Interest was expressed in the germplasm pools being developed 

by Dr D.D. Rubis in Arizona, USA. The hope was expressed that similar 

pools of germplasm will be developed and made available to safflower researchers. 

5.1.3.5 Genetic stocks 

● Gene symbols: The increasing numbers of genes that affect morphology, physiology, 

disease and insect resistance being identified should be standardized and 

catalogued. Rules may be necessary in proposing symbols. 

● Preservation of genetic stocks: The identification of genetic stocks in short-term 

studies (e.g. by graduate students working on theses) and changes in research 

personnel make the loss of genetic stocks a real danger. A special agency, probably 

a plant introduction station, is needed to preserve genetic stocks. 

● Chromosome stocks: These need the same attention as genetic stocks. 

5.1.4 International needs 

5.1.4.1 International trials 

It was recommended that, to meet the long-standing need, standardized international 

safflower trials be developed with the leadership of FAO. Trials should be 

patterned after trials used successfully for other crops. One such trial, coordinated 

from the National Agricultural Research Centre in Islamabad, Pakistan, was initiated 

in 1989, after the Second International Safflower Conference (1989), with the 

assistance of the International Development Research Centre (IDRC) of Canada in 

conjunction with the Oilseeds Network and the Sub-Network on ‘other oil crops’. 

Entries were collected, but the IDRC Network disbanded and trial results could not 

be disseminated. 

5.1.4.2 Newsletter 

There was strong support for the development of a safflower newsletter, to be published 

annually; it was hoped that the initial costs could be borne by FAO. After an 

initial overlap with IDRC’s Oil Crops Newsletter, the Sesame and Safflower Newsletter 

has been published almost every year since 1985. FAO (until 1993 through Dr 

C. Piñeda) is the clearing house for submissions. Dr Amram Ashri from Rehovot, 

Israel edited the first volume; since then, Dr José Fernández-Martínez, with the Institute 

of Sustainable Agriculture, in Córdoba, Spain, has been editor. 

5.1.4.3 International safflower research institute 

The hope was expressed that an institute could be developed to undertake an international 

improvement programme on safflower. However, it was recognized that safflower 

is not deemed important enough as a crop to generate the required support. 

43


5.1.4.4 Future international safflower conferences 

A need was expressed for meetings at 4 to 6-year intervals, with some funding support 

to be sought from FAO, IBPGR and industry. A Safflower International Continuing 

Committee was set up to organize international safflower meetings with Dr 

H.-H. Mündel as Chairman. He was succeeded by Chairmen of local organizing 

committees after the conference hosted by their institution: Dr V. Ranga Rao after 

the Second International Safflower Conference in Hyderabad, India in January 1989; 

Prof. Li Dajue after the Third International Safflower Conference in Beijing, China in 

June 1993; and the Fourth International Safflower Conference is planned for Bari, 

Italy, 2-7 June 1997 (Chair of the local organizing committee is Prof. A. Corleto). 

5.2 Second International Safflower Conference, Hyderabad, AP, India, 

1989 

At this conference, discussants were asked to provide summaries and recommendations 

on assigned topics (Ranga Rao and Ramachandran 1991:382-395). 

5.2.1 Genetic resources (Discussant: Dr J.M.M. Engels, of IBPGR) 

A global Safflower Advisory Committee on Genetic Resources was established with 

limited membership that covered the major safflower production and diversity regions, 

germplasm conservation and utilization as well as research. The original 

committee had to be changed because of deaths and reassignments. As of 1995, the 

eight members of the International Safflower Germplasm Advisory Committee 

(ISGAC) were: Dr P.S. Reddy, Chairman, DOR, Hyderabad, India; Dr A. Ashri, Hebrew 

University, Rehovot, Israel; Dr N.M. Anishetty, FAO, Rome, Italy; Prof. Li 

Dajue, Botanical Gardens, CAS, Beijing, China; Dr R.C. Johnson, USDA/WSU, Pullman, 

WA, USA; Dr Chanda Musa, SeedTec (consultant), Obregon, Mexico; Dr V. 

Ramanatha Rao, IPGRI-Regional Office for Asia, Singapore; and Prof. Zhang 

Zongwen, IPGRI-Office for East Asia, Beijing, China. The mandate of this committee 

is to prepare a comprehensive international safflower germplasm catalogue for 

safflower research workers around the world. Support was requested from FAO, 

IBPGR and IDRC for the committee operations. 

The terms of references for the committee are: 

● coordination of safflower germplasm acquisition and setting of priorities 

● organization of a network of active and base collections 

● establishment of a network of databases; provision of advice on characterization 

and evaluation, including a revision of the descriptor list (as required) 

● establishment of research priorities 

● the identification of training needs. 

Collecting priorities for cultivated and wild species of Carthamus, in descending 

order, are: south and northeast China; Nepal; northwest India, Pakistan, Afghanistan 

and Iran for C. oxyacanthus; Sudan. 

The countries suggested for inclusion in the base collection network were China,


Ethiopia, India, USA and the former USSR. 

Suggested areas of strategic research: seed physiology, regeneration, genetic 

diversity, maintenance of wild Carthamus species, identification of duplicates, core 

collections. 

The conference urged FAO, IBPGR, IDRC and other organizations to provide 

financial and technical support for conservation and utilization of safflower 

germplasm activities. 

5.2.2 Genetics and breeding (Discussant: Dr P.F. Knowles) 

The major research need for safflower was identified as the need to expand the area 

of adaptation through genetic research and breeding programs. 

Germplasm banks containing genotypes with resistance or tolerance to all diseases 

should be set up. The work of Dr Ken Harrigan and his associates in Australia, 

developing cultivars resistant to alternaria leaf blight, was given as an example 

of what is needed for several foliar diseases. Wild species, especially those closely 

related to cultivated safflower, should also be surveyed for resistance. 

A search should be made for genotypes resistant to the more serious insect pests 

and that resistance should be introduced into cultivars. Black aphid was singled out 

as a particularly serious pest in many areas. 

Good sources of earliness should be sought. These would make safflower more 

competitive with wheat in higher latitudes and where safflower is grown as a winter 

crop and is subject to very high temperatures and reduced water supplies as it matures. 

Germplasm banks should be rigorously surveyed for superior spineless genotypes. 

These would facilitate the introduction of safflower to new areas, where harvest 

is manual, as well as for floral-part needs. 

Germplasm, including wild species, should be examined for seed dormancy 

around seed maturity, as is being done by Prof. Li Dajue in China. 

To achieve the superior performance of hybrid cultivars, hybrid breeding efforts, 

studies in heterosis and identification of simple seedling markers for early 

detection of male-fertile plants in seed production plots should be encouraged. 

Hybrids have been produced in India by Maharashtra Hybrid Seeds Company and 

the Nimbkar Agricultural Research Institute, using genetic male sterility, and in the 

USA by A.B. Hill of California, based on a cytoplasmic male sterility system, identified 

by crossing with wild species. 

Modification of safflower oils for both edible and industrial purposes will be 

increasingly important. In recent years, results of nutritional studies with high oleic 

oils have been promising. 

A cultivar network that permits the evaluation of new and improved cultivars 

over a wide range of environments is needed. This would facilitate transfer of improvements 

from breeding programmes between countries. 

A collaborative international screening and cultivar testing system with broad 

support (e.g. from IDRC and similar funding agencies) is needed. Although a large 

45


number of breeding materials of practical interest are being generated around the 

world every year, there is no global system for testing the finished products from 

the breeding programmes under a wide range of agro-ecological conditions for their 

adaptability and reaction to biotic and abiotic stresses. 

Documentation of available genetic resources in safflower should be undertaken. 

The Directorate of Oilseeds Research (DOR), Hyderabad, India would facilitate this. 

5.2.3 Agroproduction (Discussant: Dr V. Ranga Rao) 

Priority areas of research were identified: the economics of safflower compared 

with other crops, identification of specific niches for safflower culture, the potential 

for safflower and its agronomy in sequential and intercropping systems, and efficient 

use of fertilizers. 

5.2.4 Agroprotection (Discussant: Dr H.-H. Mündel) 

Globally, most safflower is produced under low-input conditions and therefore the major 

focus in plant protection should be the development of varieties with resistance to 

the major diseases. International screening nurseries should be established in ‘hot spots’ 

to identify and catalogue materials tolerant and resistant to major biotic constraints. 

The germplasm base should be enhanced through emphasis on wild species. A handbook 

of safflower diseases and pests with their diagnostic characteristics is needed. 

5.2.5 Marketing, processing, utilization, product development, food chemistry 

and nutrition (Discussant: Dr B. Narsing Rao) 

Seeds should be stored whole rather than as decorticated kernels. Mechanical removal 

of hulls raises oil yields and lowers fibre in meal. 

The conditions affecting the extent of aflatoxin as a problem in storage of safflower 

should be studied. High relative humidities (>70%) favour the development 

of aflatoxins and reduce oil content. 

Debittering seed (with 80% ethanol and isopropanol) can improve feed and food 

value; a snack food can be made from treated kernels. 

The use of carthamin yellow as a vegetable food colour in place of synthetic 

dyes should be studied. China has taken the lead in this field. 

Safflower oil, with high linoleic acid content, can be blended with other vegetable 

oils to nutritionally upgrade them. 

5.2.6 Major constraints, future research and developmental needs (Discussant: 

Dr P.F. Knowles) 

The principal constraints and research and developmental needs of the safflowergrowing 

areas of the world represented at the conference are presented. 

5.2.6.1 Constraints 

● Low per-hectare yields associated with low harvest index and low seed-oil contents 

(India, Turkey, Morocco).


● High susceptibility of available commercial cultivars to foliar diseases (Alternaria, 

Ramularia, Puccinia), root rots (Macrophomina), wilts (Fusarium, Verticillium); 

aphids (India), abiotic stresses (drought, salinity, alkalinity), high 

thermosensitivity and daylength sensitivity, long rosette stage. 

● Presence of spines. 

● Lack of region-specific agroproduction technologies (e.g. in African countries) 

to harness the full potential of safflower; absence of information on potential 

production niches. 

● Lack of assured market and price support; absence of demand for safflower seed 

and oil in nontraditional areas. 

● Falling public research support to safflower (major reductions in USA, Australia). 

The small breeding programme in Canada is also being phased out. 

● Absence of processing facilities within reasonable distances of production cen- 

tres. 

5.2.6.2 Priorities and developmental needs 

● Intensification of research for the identification of sources resistant to major biotic 

and abiotic stresses. 

● Development of high-yielding varieties and hybrids with high seed-oil content 

and built-in tolerance to diseases and insect pests. 

● Breeding for less thermosensitivity and daylength sensitivity, high-yielding and 

early maturing varieties. 

● Refinement of agroproduction and agroprotection technologies for maximizing 

yields and returns under diverse agro-ecological situations. 

● Breeding for higher yielding spineless varieties suited to nontraditional areas. 

● Intensification of research to identify new cropping niches for safflower. 

● Development of appropriate seed-processing technologies. 

● Search for viable cytoplasmic male sterility systems for the production of hy- 

brids. 

● Training of research personnel in breeding techniques, identification and management 

of diseases. 

5.3 North American Safflower Conference, Great Falls, Montana, USA, 

1996 

This conference was organized by the Alberta Safflower Growers Association 

(ASGA) to bring together researchers, extension personnel, marketers, processors 

and growers of safflower. After formal presentations, four round-table discussion 

groups identified top research areas. The priorities are listed in decreasing 

rank. 

5.3.1 Weed control 

Registration of available pesticides; chemistry for post-emergence weed control; 

47


harmonization of regulations/registrations between Canada and USA. 

5.3.2 Varietal development 

Improved vigour, disease resistance, earlier maturity; improved oleic varieties and 

dual-purpose birdseed/oleic varieties; expansion of variety selection for valueadded 

uses; development of glyphosate-resistant varieties. 

5.3.3 Marketing research 

Market intelligence/disclosure, market size (oil/meal/birdseed); bird nutrition; 

market opportunities; utilization research (additional uses for oil/meal/forage); 

product promotion; creation of a North American Safflower Association. 

5.3.4 Agronomy 

Rotation studies specific to production zones; yield models to be developed (growing 

degree days vs. solar intensity, etc.); fertility; rooting depth.


6 Collecting and evaluations 

6.1 Germplasm collecting 

Crop-collecting priority regions change over the years. Those for safflower – both 

cultivated and wild Carthamus species – were most recently amended at the Second 

International Safflower Conference in Hyderabad, India, in January 1989 as follows: 

● Priority 1, south and northwest China 

● Priority 2, Nepal 

● Priority 3, northwest India, Pakistan, Afghanistan and Iran for C. oxyacanthus 

● Priority 4, Sudan (Engels 1991). 

In addition, centres in China, Ethiopia, India, Russia and the USA have been 

included in a network of base collections. The same conference subcommittee 

(Engels 1991) suggested strategic research on safflower seed physiology, regeneration, 

genetic diversity, maintenance of wild Carthamus species, identification of duplicates 

in germplasm collections and establishment of a core collection. Despite 

shrinking public national and multilateral support and political turmoil, among a 

multitude of problems that have prevented comprehensive collecting in several of 

the areas identified, a potentially very useful start has been made. This section refers 

to major collecting expeditions, both before and since the 1989 conference, as a 

guide to global germplasm resources. 

Safflower seed is an ‘orthodox’ seed in terms of its storage behaviour, viability of 

seed is maintained best by storing well-dried seed at low humidity and at low temperatures. 

In dry environments, safflower seed equilibrates at around 6-7% moisture. 

Based on the IBPGR guidelines established, ‘medium-term storage’ can be 

accomplished by storage at 4ºC and 30% relative humidity; ‘long-term’ storage can 

be effected at –20ºC. To the extent possible, with the financial resources provided, 

centres storing the collections outlined below use those or similar sets of conditions. 

Unfortunately, however, a number of collections are stored at ambient temperature 

and humidities. This results in a great potential loss of viability and accumulation 

of mutations as viability is reduced. The major collections have and are being stored 

ex situ at germplasm centres. It is possible, however, to conserve germplasm in situ, 

on-farm, to maintain genetic diversity, especially of local landraces adapted to local 

environmental stresses. A farmer-curator scheme called Seeds of Survival (SOS) has 

been piloted mainly for cereal crops, in Ethiopia, by the Plant Genetic Resources 

Centre/Ethiopia (recently renamed the Biodiversity Institute). 

6.1.1 International 

6.1.1.1 FAO 

The FAO has been concerned with germplasm collecting, exchange and use since 

1947 (Anishetty and Esquinas-Alcazar 1991). The FAO programme on plant genetic 

resources has given priority to providing technical assistance for and promoting 

and stimulating activities on species and regions that are not adequately covered by 

49


other international organizations. Involvement in safflower includes, among other 

things, the provision of a clearing-house for articles to the annual Sesame and Safflower 

Newsletter published by Dr José Fernández-Martínez in Córdoba, Spain and 

supporting international conferences. 

6.1.1.2 IBPGR/IPGRI 

Soon after its formation in 1974, the International Board for Plant Genetic Resources 

(IBPGR) established crop and regional priorities for collecting of germplasm. Since 

then, IBPGR has encouraged, and at times assisted, national programmes to develop 

local collecting priorities. In consultation with Dr A. Ashri of the Hebrew 

University in Rehovot, Israel, IBPGR has developed a descriptor list for safflower to 

assist in the documentation of collected germplasm (Engels and Arora 1991). This 

list was finalized by a subcommittee headed by N.M. Anishetty during the First 

International Safflower Conference at Davis, California in 1981. Documentation 

data were divided into three categories: 

● Passport (accession identifiers and information recorded by collectors); 

● Characterization (characters which are highly heritable, can be seen easily and 

are expressed in all environments); 

● Preliminary Evaluation (estimates for a limited number of traits thought desirable 

by users of a particular crop). 

Descriptors and descriptor states must be properly coded or numbered, to facilitate 

use of the documentation. For safflower, the Passport data are divided into 10 ‘accession 

data’ and 15 ‘collection data’ groups; the Characterization and Preliminary Evaluation 

data are categorized into 5 site data and 25 plant (i.e. vegetative, flower/fruit, 

seed) data groups. The complete descriptor list for safflower is available from IBPGR’s 

successor organization, the International Plant Genetic Resources Institute (IPGRI). 

In 1986, the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR), 

of which IPGRI is a member, extended the former IBPGR’s mandate as follows: “To 

further the study, collection, preservation, documentation, evaluation and utilization 

of the genetic diversity of useful plants for the benefit of people throughout the 

world. IBPGR shall act as a catalyst both within and outside the CGIAR system in 

stimulating the action needed to sustain a viable network of institutions for the conservation 

of genetic resources for these plants” (Engels and Arora 1991). 

From 1978 to 1989, IBPGR supported 15 collecting missions which, among a diversity 

of crops, acquired 82 safflower accessions from Algeria, China, Egypt, Ethiopia, 

Libya, Nepal, Oman, Pakistan, Sudan, Syria and Yemen (Rao and Zhou 1993). 

6.1.2 Major national collections 

6.1.2.1 China 

The Safflower Research Group of the Beijing Botanical Garden of the Chinese Academy 

of Sciences, headed by Prof. Li Dajue, has collected, evaluated and documented 

safflower accessions with the support of IBPGR since 1989, with China having been


designated as a top priority for collecting by the First International Safflower Conference 

in 1981 (Knowles 1981). The total of 2051 accessions includes the Dr Paulden 

F. Knowles’ World Collection of 1545 samples from 49 countries, and 465 specimens 

from within China. The Plant Information and Quantitative Analysis Research 

Group of the Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, has developed a 

safflower information system, including a Chinese-English database dictionary 

based on the information collected. Extensive evaluations, based on complete growouts 

of the germplasm at Beijing, have been reported in English (Li Dajue et al. 1993). 

Similar evaluations at Urumqi, in western China, where safflower germplasm collecting 

and evaluation began in 1980, have been reported in Chinese (Wang Zhaomu 

and Fan Lin 1991; Wang Zhaomu et al. 1993). 

The National Crop Gene Bank, Institute of Crop Germplasm Resources, Chinese 

Academy of Sciences in Beijing, set up a safflower germplasm bank during the early 

1990s and collected 261 accessions. The Eighth Five-year Plan (1996-2001) includes 

collecting of an additional 1100 accessions (Li, Zhou and Rao 1993). The Botanical 

Institute in Beijing, in part with assistance from IBPGR/IPGRI, has taken the lead in 

collecting and evaluation. 

6.1.2.2 Ethiopia 

From 1979 to 1985, 116 safflower accessions were collected by staff of the Plant Genetic 

Resources Centre/Ethiopia (PGRC/E) in cooperation with the breeder at the 

Melkawerer Research Centre, which is part of the Institute of Agricultural Research. 

The collections were made in nine administrative regions, mainly in the lower and 

mid-highlands, from subhumid to semi-arid regions, and the genetic diversity of 

this material is reported by Urage and Weyessa (1991). 

6.1.2.3 India 

Safflower research in India is coordinated from Solapur, in Maharashtra State, where 

the Germplasm Management Unit (GMU) is the major repository for world safflower 

germplasm in India, with 6115 accessions assembled from 38 countries 

(Mehtre et al. 1995). The GMU in cooperation with the Project Coordination Unit 

(Safflower) at the Mahatma Phule Agricultural University and the Directorate of 

Oilseeds Research (DOR) in Hyderabad, has coordinated the systematic collecting, 

maintenance, evaluation, documentation and cataloguing of safflower germplasm 

since the early 1980s when characterization of indigenous and exotic collections and 

elimination of duplicate entries reduced the original 9000 accessions to 1196 (Rao et 

al. 1991). 

6.1.2.4 USA 

Dr Paulden F. Knowles, of the University of California at Davis, with financial support 

from the US Department of Agriculture, collected samples of cultivated safflower 

mainly from research stations and bazaars in 14 countries from India, westward 

through the Middle East, North Africa and southern Europe in 1958 (Knowles 

51


1959). In 1964-65, Knowles spent a sabbatical year in nine countries from India 

westward, Egypt, Sudan and Spain, collecting cultivated and wild and weedy safflower 

species and studying its culture and utilization (Knowles 1965). In 1975, he 

visited southern Lebanon, western Turkey and western Iran (Knowles 1991). Collections 

from these expeditions form one of the major sources of safflower 

germplasm available to researchers worldwide (via the Regional Plant Introduction 

Station in Pullman, Washington, USA). 

6.2 Evaluations 

This section attempts to highlight evaluations of safflower germplasm around the 

world. Where expression of the major character(s) evaluated is affected by environmental 

factors such as daylength and temperature, the location is described geographically. 

The reader is referred to the complete evaluations. The list of evaluations 

is incomplete, but the aim has been to present information that will enable 

safflower workers to access germplasm that is useful in their programmes. In general, 

selected entries expressing potentially useful characteristics are sorted by country 

of origin in the tables below. A word of caution is needed here. Partly owing to 

the ease of crossing among safflower lines, especially in landraces and old varieties, 

and partly to potential mechanical mixtures, over time, considerable heterogeneity 

has accumulated in much of the germplasm in the international collections. While 

heterogeneity itself may in fact buffer a line from a diversity of environmental 

stresses, single plant selections, followed by selfing, may be required to ensure that 

specific, simply inherited characters can be identified and used for future specific 

crossing purposes. 

6.2.1 Australia 

The morphological characters of 1424 introductions were recorded and elite lines 

from these were screened for resistance to Alternaria carthami (leaf spot, blight) and 

Phytophthora cryptogea (root rot) at Griffith, New South Wales (Harrigan et al. 1985). 

For each disease, five lines showed resistance and three entries showed resistance to 

both diseases: A504 (Turkey), A948 (Poland) and A949 (Poland). 

6.2.2 China 

The Beijing Botanical Garden of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, in part with assistance 

from IBPGR, has taken the lead in collecting and evaluation safflower 

germplasm. All accessions from China and overseas (largely, the Knowles’ World 

Collection) were grown in the field and evaluated at this site (39º33’N; 116º16’E). 

Detailed evaluations of 33 characters are documented by Li Dajue et al. (1993). Only 

a few examples of potentially useful characters are presented here. Wherever possible, 

as well as the Beijing accession number (BJ), the USDA plant introduction (PI) 

numbers have been used, as these are most widely used. 

Yield/plant, determined for 2021 accessions, averaged 17.2 g/plant, with 86.8% 

of all accessions yielding less than 30 g. The 16 lines with yields above 70 g/plant, 

and their countries of origin, are listed in Table 5.


Table 5. Safflower germplasm with seed yields above 70 g/plant (Beijing evaluations). 

Accession number 

BJ † PI ‡ Yield (g/plant) Country of origin 

1965 426,187 86 Afghanistan (Carthamus spp.) 

1981 367,833 77 Argentina 

2030 401,477 87 Bangladesh 

1351 279,054 82 India 

1398 283,771 78 India 

1568 205,215 77 India 

1656 306,857 77 India 

1675 306,883 84 India 

1681 306,890 78 India 

1796 307,014 89 India 

1847 307,066 87 India 

1866 307,085 87 India 

1913 307,132 83 India 

2117 406,020 78 Iran 

1926 340,072 82 Turkey 

1589 305,536 74 USSR (former) 

1984 369,844 76 USSR (former) 

Adapted from Li Dajue et al. 1993. 

† BJ = Beijing accession numbers; ‡ PI = USDA Plant Introduction numbers. 

Oil, the major marketable component of safflower around the world, was assessed 

in 2021 accessions at Beijing. Oil levels ranged from 11.5 to 47.5% with a 

mean of 28.3% and exceeded 40% in 21 lines (Table 6). BJ-33 had the highest oil 

content, 47.5%. 

Heads (capitula) per plant is greatly influenced by field management (row 

widths, stand) and environment, but is very strongly linked to yield in safflower. 

The average among 2039 accessions evaluated at Beijing was 20 capitula/plant. 

More than 50 capitula/plant were produced by 33 accessions from 13 countries, 

and BJ 1965 (PI 426,187) from Afghanistan produced 90 heads/plant (Table 7). 

Seed dormancy. Lack of seed dormancy results in germination in the head, 

if rain or heavy dew occur around harvest-time. Most commercial safflower 

varieties lack such seed dormancy. At Beijing, 1973 accessions from over 50 countries 

were grown out and freshly harvested seed was subjected to germination 

tests at 20ºC. The average time to achieve at least 60% germination was 60 hours, 

but 21 accessions, mainly from China and Turkey, required more than 120 hours 

(Table 8). 

53


Table 6. Safflower germplasm with seed oil content above 40 % (Beijing evaluations). 


BJ † PI ‡ or locality Oil content (%) Country of origin 

147 Fubei, Xinjiang 40.1 China 

148 Fubei, Xinjiang 42.4 China 

430 Ta Cheng 44.8 China 

2174 – 41.9 China 

2255 Xinjiang 41.0 China 

2451 – 40.2 Ethiopia 

1134 251,910 43.4 Turkey 

7 – 42.1 USA 

29 – 41.8 USA 

30 – 43.8 USA 

31 – 40.8 USA 

32 – 44.0 USA 

33 – 47.5 USA 

35 – 44.4 USA 

38 – 43.0 USA 

42 – 44.0 USA 

401 – 46.0 USA 

402 – 45.2 USA 

403 – 42.4 USA 

404 – 43.3 USA 

547 – 44.3 USA 

† BJ = Beijing accession numbers; ‡ PI = USDA Plant Introduction numbers (adapted from Li Dajue et al. 1993). 

Salt tolerance. In many regions of the world, salinity in soils endangers productive 

crop cultivation. Safflower is known as a crop of moderate salt tolerance (just 

slightly below barley). However, although the more advanced plant can withstand 

considerable salt stress, most varieties are highly susceptible to salt during germination 

and emergence. Thus, varieties of safflower which can tolerate higher levels of 

salt during germination offer a distinct advantage. At Beijing, 2229 accessions from 

50 countries were assessed for salt tolerance during germination (Zhang and Li 1993). 

Seeds were washed twice daily with 1.5% NaCl solution or (checks) with distilled 

water. The time (hours) to germination of saline-treated seeds as a percentage of 

that of the checks was recorded. On the 9-point scale recommended by IBPGR, in 

which 1 is the most salt-tolerant (germination time in salt solution within 20% of that 

in distilled water) and 9 the least salt-tolerant (germination time over 260% of that in 

distilled water), 72 of the entries scored 1 (Table 9).


Table 7. Safflower germplasm producing more than 50 capitula/plant (Beijing 

evaluations). 


BJ † PI ‡ or region Capitula/plant Country of origin 

1510 304,596 51 Afghanistan 

1965 426,187 90 Afghanistan (Carthamus sp.) 

769 209,282 62 Australia 

2025 401,472 53 Bangladesh 

2253 Xinjiang 66 China 

682 195,925 60 Ethiopia 

693 198,844 82 France 

713 199,890 59 India 

730 199,907 52 India 

763 199,952 66 India 

893 248,801 78 India 

933 248,841 56 India 

935 248,843 53 India 

1401 283,774 55 India 

1548 305,191 61 India 

1645 306,846 51 India 

1649 306,850 53 India 

1656 306,857 51 India 

1666 306,873 80 India 

1678 306,887 53 India 

1679 306,888 66 India 

1857 307,076 54 India 

1869 307,088 56 India 

2048 401,589 51 India 

1477 304,467 73 Iran 

2071 405,974 51 Iran 

2077 405,980 52 Iran 

1616 306,684 53 Israel 

1003 250,196 53 Pakistan 

1583 305,530 70 Sudan 

1930 340,076 63 Turkey 

1589 305,536 54 USSR (former) 

1923 314,650 53 USSR (former) 

† BJ = Beijing accession numbers; ‡ PI = USDA Plant Introduction numbers (adapted from Li Dajue et al. 1993). 

55


Table 8. Safflower germplasm requiring over 120 hours to germinate when freshly 

harvested (Beijing evaluations). 


BJ † PI ‡ or region Time for germination (hours) Country of origin 

192 Fujian, Xia Pu 134 China 

195 Zhe Jiang, Shao Xing 127 China 

244 Hebei, Da Ning 123 China 

334 Hebei, Meng Cum 122 China 

335 Jiang Su, Sui Ning 142 China 

341 Hebei, Xian Xian 123 China 

349 Zhe Jiang, Jian De 139 China 

2286 – 126 China 

2288 – 121 China 

2290 – 126 China 

1449 304,438 127 Iran 

1958 343,777 122 Iran 

1274 259,996 132 Pakistan 

1275 259,997 153 Pakistan 

1260 258,416 123 Portugal 

1134 251,910 165 Turkey 

1135 251,997 175 Turkey 

1138 251,980 164 Turkey 

1139 251,981 168 Turkey 

1140 251,982 170 Turkey 

1949 340,095 121 Turkey 

Adapted from Li Dajue et al. 1993. 

† BJ = Beijing accession numbers; ‡ PI = USDA Plant Introduction numbers.


Table 9. Safflower accessions with salt tolerance scores of 1 (Beijing evaluations). 

Accession numbers Country of 

BJ † PI ‡ origin 

1239 253,916 Afghanistan 

1336 268,374 Afghanistan 

2258 Albania 

109 Gao Qing China 

199 Tong hua (Ji Li) China 

2173 – China 

2245 Wo Yang (An Hui) China 

2254 – China 

2255 – China 

2594 269,879 China 

2685 250,009 China 

1072 250,611 Egypt 

1604 306,603 Egypt 

1611 306,610 Egypt 

2694 250,611 Egypt 

798 226,546 Ethiopia 

2213 C. lanatus Germany 

698 199,875 India 

747 199,924 India 

791 212,886 India 

918 248,826 India 

934 248,842 India 

936 248,844 India 

962 248,870 India 

1062 250,600 India 

1243 254,365 India 

1288 260,628 India 

1351 279,054 India 

1390 283,763 India 

1514 305,151 India 

1518 305,155 India 

1679 306,888 India 

1708 306,922 India 

1732 306,947 India 

1775 306,993 India 

1820 307,039 India 

Accession numbers Country of 

BJ PI 

origin 

1855 307,074 India 

217 – Korea 

1080 250,715 Iran 

1082 250,717 Iran 

1111 250,840 Iran 

1112 250,841 Iran 

1118 250,925 Iran 

1119 250,926 Iran 

1132 251,398 Iran 

1250 255,579 Iran 

1463 304,453 Iran 

1476 304,466 Iran 

1478 304,468 Iran 

2074 405,977 Iran 

2102 406,005 Iran 

2494 250,840 Iran 

2496 250,841 Iran 

2579 250,715 Iran 

2695 250,717 Iran 

1212 253,758 Iraq 

1618 306,686 Israel 

1274 259,996 Pakistan 

1275 259,997 Pakistan 

1265 258,421 Portugal 

774 209,287 Romania 

1923 314,650 Russia 

788 210,460 Turkey 

805 237,539 Turkey 

1135 251,997 Turkey 

1138 251,980 Turkey 

1139 251,981 Turkey 

1140 251,982 Turkey 

1936 340,082 Turkey 

2139 407,624 Turkey 

2634 340,082 Turkey 

– 2 USA 

† BJ = Beijing accession numbers; ‡ PI = Plant Introduction numbers from USDA (adapted from Li Dajue et al. 1993). 

57


The tables of the Chinese evaluations, presented above, identify germplasm with 

combinations of desirable characters. For example, among the salt-tolerant lines, 

the Chinese BJ 2255 has high oil; the Indian BJ 1351 (PI 279,054) has high yield/ 

plant and the Pakistani BJ 1679 (PI 306,888) has many heads/plant; BJ 1274 

(PI 259,996) and BJ 1275 (PI 259,997) both require more than 120 hours to germinate; 

the Russian (former USSR) BJ 1923 (PI 314,650) has many heads/plant; the Turkish, 

BJ 1135 (PI 251,997), BJ 1138 (PI 251,980), BJ 1139 (PI 251,981) and BJ 1140 (PI 251,982) 

all have long germination times right after maturity (164-175 hours). 

Evaluations as comprehensive as those at Beijing were carried out on the same 

collection at Urumqi under the guidance of Prof. Wang Zhaomu at the Institute of 

Economic Crops, Xinjiang Academy of Agricultural Sciences, in Urumqi in far western 

China (Wang and Jia 1993). Among other evaluations, 2491 safflower accessions 

from 52 countries were assessed for protein and amino acid composition, with protein 

ranging from 10.0% (Iran) to 26.1% (India and Turkey) and averaging 17.5%. 

High environmental temperatures tended to raise protein levels, but a strong genetic 

component was evident. 

Duration of rosette stage, evaluated under several temperature and photoperiod 

regimes by growing out 695 accessions from world and Chinese collections at 

Kunming (25º01’N), Yuanmo (25º44’N) and Urumqi (43º34’N) in China (Yang 1993), 

had ranges of 32-78, 18-44 and 26-49 days, respectively. The majority of entries were 

daylength-neutral (photo-insensitive), with only 23 responding to daylength. A total 

of 175 were sensitive to temperature, including about a third of the Indian and 

Chinese accessions; 49 were insensitive to both daylength and temperature; 138 were 

sensitive to both. The daylength- and temperature-insensitive entries have good 

potential for wide geographic adaptation and are shown in Table 10 (Yang 1993). 

Table 10. Photoperiod- and temperature-insensitive safflower lines identified at 

Kunming, Yuanmo, and Urumqi, China. 

Country of origin PI number or name 

China Changnin, Midu, Weishan, Wuhu, Xiapu, Yangbi, Yunnan 

India 183,741; 279,052; 305,210; 306,822; 306,961; 395,166 

Iran 388,907; 405,983 

Mexico Mexican dwarf 

Portugal 253,566; 253,561; 258,413; 258,414; 258,415; 258,417 

South Africa 262,437 

Spain 253,388; 262,443 

Switzerland 253,561 

Syria 386,173 

Turkey 304,502; 340,074; 340,075 

Adapted from Yang (1993).


Fatty acid analyses of 1787 accessions from 47 countries and 18 provinces in 

China, grown at Beijing (39º33’N; 116º16’E) were carried out at Yunnan. This 

group had 81 entries originating from 13 different countries containing more 

than 82% linoleic acid; 21 of these exceeded 84%. PI 306829 from India had 85.6% 

linoleic acid, and three Chinese entries exceeded 86% (Changshu from Jiangsu, 

Wuzhong from Ningxia and Woyang Spineless from Anhui Province). In general, 

cooler climates, associated with higher latitudes and increasing altitudes, 

plus strong day and night temperature fluctuations, were associated with high 

linoleic acid. Nine entries from India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and the USA had 

oleic acid contents from 72 to 80.3% (Yang et al. 1993). Palmitic and stearic acid 

were also analyzed. 

6.2.3 Ethiopia 

At Melkawerer (9º15’N, 40º9’E; 750 m above mean sea level; with an annual rainfall 

of 500 mm; average temperatures of 30ºC), 33 parameters were assessed in 133 

landraces in irrigated field plots from 1983 to 1986, planting in November and harvesting 

in April. Height, number of seeds per plant, location of branches, seed size 

and seed yield were recorded. All had white seeds, most had conical seeds and 

most had a bushy growth habit. Flower colour ranged from reddish orange and 

yellow to white. Other parameters measured varied widely (Urage and Weyessa 

1991). Higher yields were observed in lines with bushy growth and red to yellow 

flowers than in more erect and white-flowered lines. The highest-yielding lines 

were PGRC/E numbers 205060, 205064, 205072, 205075 and 205092 (Belayneh and 

Wolde-Mariam 1991). 

6.2.4 India 

6.2.4.1 Solapur evaluations 

A few of the many evaluations performed over the years by the Germplasm Management 

Unit at Solapur are highlighted here. The location is 17º14’N; 75º56’E; altitude 

484 m. 

Between 1987 and 1994, from 936 to 1223 Indian and foreign accessions, including 

965 from China (in 1993-94), were grown in field plots under protective 

irrigation during the ‘rabi’ or dry seasons and evaluated in terms of 56 characters 

(Rao et al. 1990; Patil et al. 1990a; Shende et al. 1990; Rao et al. 1992; Mehtre et al. 

1995). An annual comprehensive catalogue detailing these evaluations is circulated 

to Indian safflower workers and potentially useful lines are reported in the 

Sesame and Safflower Newsletter. Among the 1990-91 evaluations, 37 early maturing 

accessions (35%) were identified (Rao et al. 1992). Fifteen promising entries were selected 

59


from the Chinese material on the basis of yield and yield-contributing characters 

compared with A-1 and Bhima as checks. 

The 1196 accessions resulting from the organization of the Indian safflower 

germplasm were grown out and evaluated for 53 descriptors under various biotic 

(insect, diseases) and abiotic (salinity, alkalinity) stresses (Rao et al. 1991). 

A total of 3465 germplasm accessions were categorized by hull type and analyzed 

by NMR for oil content (Patil et al. 1990). Among the entries exceeding 35% oil 

content: 30 intermediate-hull types contained up to 43.7% oil, 6 of the 92 brownstriped 

hull types had up to 37.6% oil, 5 of the 16 reduced-hull types contained up to 

39.5% oil; 10 of the 17 partial-hull types contained up to 46.8% oil, and the 5 thinhull 

types had 39.1-41.1% oil. The entry with the highest oil content was the partialhulled 

EC 159676, with 46.8% oil. The low oil content in the majority of accessions is 

thought to be in part due to partial or complete nondehiscence of anthers, resulting 

in the development of empty seeds in hull-reduced entries (Patil et al. 1990). Figure 

9 a-c shows reduced-hull, partial-hull and striped-hull types. 

Among 17 Indian safflower varieties screened for resistance to leaf blight caused 

by Alternaria carthami in field and glasshouse trials in 1989 to 1991, one variety, 

Makavya Kusum (HUS-305), showed resistance under both field and glasshouse 

conditions and three were moderately resistant – A-1, Sagaramutyalu (APRR-3) and 

HUS-304 (Deokar et al. 1992). In earlier preliminary screening of 3145 germplasm 

lines in earthen pots, none were rated as resistant and 29 showed tolerance to 

alternaria leaf blight (Deokar et al. 1991). 

Screening 75 germplasm lines for resistance to rhizoctonia root rot did not identify 

any entries as resistant but 10 were rated as tolerant (partial wilting within 10- 

15 days and complete wilting within 25-30 days) (Deokar et al. 1991a). 

6.2.4.2 Other safflower evaluations in India 

The USDA World Collection of Safflower was first imported and evaluated in India 

through the Nimbkar Agricultural Research Institute in Phaltan, Maharashtra 

(now included in the All India Coordinated Safflower Research Programme; Singh 

et al. 1995), where a PL480 grant from the US Department of Agriculture (Grant 

No. FG-In-519; Res. Proj. No. A7CR 23) was used for extensive evaluations in a 

project called ‘Resistance of safflower to insects and diseases’, commencing in 1974 

(Karve 1980). From 1975 to 1980, with a research grant from the Indian Council of 

Agricultural Research, the USDA World Collection of safflower, locally collected 

lines and lines from other breeding programmes in India were evaluated (Anonymous 

1985). A total of 1200 entries were planted in the field in single rows for 

3 years; and half each in the 4th and 5th years. The germplasm was divided into 

two main physiologically adapted types, the winter crop (tropical), represented 

best by the Indian ecotype (relatively early in maturity, short, profusely branching 

and of bushy growth habit, with a lack of resistance to many fungal diseases – 

associated with evolving under dry, cool climatic conditions); and the summer 

crop (subtropical to temperate, responding to long daylength), representing the

a 

c 


61 

Fig. 9. Hull character of seeds: Reduced - rh rh 

gene expression (a); partial - par par gene 

expression (b); striped - stp stp gene 

expression (c) (reprinted with permission from 

Mündel et al. 1992). 

exotic varieties of great variability, requiring warm weather conditions and having 

a long rosette stage. Accessions with expressions of potentially useful/desirable 

characters are presented in the publication, giving local numbers to entries of 

Indian origin and PI numbers for those entries imported as part of the World Collection. 

The entries with PI numbers given which showed high degrees of resistance 

to some of the major biotic stresses (diseases and insect pests) are listed in 

Table 11. 

b


Table 11. Safflower germplasm with high degree of resistance to selected biotic 

stresses (Phaltan evaluations). 

PI number Country of origin PI number Country of origin 

Fungal pathogen (leaf blight): Alternaria carthami 

170,080D 240,409 Egypt 

170,274B 248,362 India 

199,935C India 248,362B India 

209,281A Israel 288,837A 

209,287 Romania 

Fungal pathogen (leaf spot): Ramularia carthami 

181,866A Syria 240,409 Egypt 

183,689A 248,362A India 

199936A India 248,383 India 

209,281 Israel 248,620A Pakistan 

Fungal pathogen (leaf spot): Cercospora carthami 

173,883A India 199,828 

173,885A India 199,892A India 

175,624D Turkey 199,925 India 

Insect pest (safflower fly): Acanthiophilus helianthi 

199,935C India 248,806 India 

Adapted from Anonymous (1985). 

Note: where different types of plants with different observed resistances were detected in an accession screened, 

suffixes were assigned to the selected plant number (A,B). 

In 1990, evaluation of 103 safflower germplasm lines for resistance to leaf spot 

caused by Cercospora carthami did not identify any immune or resistant lines (


6.2.5 Israel 

Dr Amram Ashri and his team, with the help of a PL480 grant from the US government, 

assessed the world germplasm of safflower, including introduced and endemic 

wild Carthamus species, in terms of 56 characters at Rehovot (31º32’N; 34º29’E) 

and Bet Dagan (32º00’N; 34º30’E) for five seasons from 1966 to 1970 (Ashri 1973). In 

1966 and 1967, about 1400 lines were planted; in 1968 and 1969, about 2000; in 1970, 

only about 100. The detailed evaluations included analysis of 20 morphological 

features to assess the variability in safflower originating from different countries. 

Sources of earliness, lateness, tallness and shortness were identified. Correlations 

among characters were estimated and heads per plant was identified as the most 

important yield component. Accessions of C. persicus and C. palaestinus were free of 

the safflower fly (Acanthophilus helianthi Ross), but only three cultivated lines had 

fewer than 25 flies/100 heads (Ashri 1971b). Ten lines were free from rust, 17 free 

from ramularia leaf spot and 22 were free from cercospora leaf spot (Ashri 1971a). 

Sources of resistance to rust, Ramularia and powdery mildew were identified in 

C. persicus, C. oxyacanthus and in other more distantly related wild safflower species. 

6.2.6 Pakistan 

In Islamabad, Pakistan, at the National Agricultural Research Centre, 1294 lines of 

the USDA World Collection have been evaluated for yield, plant height, spininess, 

days to flowering and numbers of flowers per plant (Aslam and Hazara 1993). 

Screening of the entire USDA World Collection of 1982 entries, with the aid of 

a PL480 grant from the US Department of Agriculture (Grant No. FG-Pa-395; Res. 

Proj. No. PK-ARS-226) was carried out from 1985 to 1987 in a project called ‘Evaluation 

and culture of sunflower and safflower in dobari lands of Sind’, commencing 

in 1985 (Chaudhry 1986, 1987, 1988) under the guidance of Dr Altaf Hussain 

Chaudhry, at the Agricultural Research Institute at Tandojam, Sind province in 

the very hot south of the country using irrigation. Screenings were also carried 

out at Shikarpur and Matli in the ‘dobari’ system of growing a crop on residual 

moisture after harvest of a paddy rice crop. Initial screening, to study the reaction 

of different disease and insect pests in single-row field plots, was followed by 

intensive evaluations of 162 selections which showed desirable agronomic traits. 

None of the entries was free from ramularia leaf spot. A total of 160 entries were 

free from the safflower fly. All entries at Tandojam had some rust. Just traces of 

infection with leaf spot caused by Alternaria carthami were found on five entries 

(Table 12). The majority of spineless entries showed safflower fly infection levels 

of 31-40%; but the majority of spiny entries showed only 11-20% infections and 

five spineless entries with 10% or less infection by the safflower fly (Acanthiophilus 

helianthi) were identified (Table 12). Another major pest is the black aphid 

(Macrosiphum solidaginnis) (Chaudhry et al. 1991). Dr Chaudhry is no longer active 

in his breeding programme, but he developed the spineless Thori-78 and the 

early maturing, high-yielding selection no. 28 from Thori-78. 

63


Table 12. Safflower germplasm with high degree of resistance to alternaria leaf spot 

and safflower fly (Sind, Pakistan evaluations). 

PI number Country of origin PI number Country of origin 

Fungal pathogen (leaf blight, ‘Trace’): Alternaria carthami 

251,284 Jordan 262,419 Australia 

253,518 Austria 306,614 Egypt 

253,519 Austria 

Insect pest (safflower fly, =


In 1984 and 1985, 1400 entries of the World Collection were screened for resistance 

to the parasitic weed broomrape (Orobanche crenata Forsk) at Córdoba and 

Sevilla (Osuna) using natural field infection (heavy at Córdoba and light at Sevilla). 

Using absolute lack of emergence of the parasite from any of the plants of the safflower 

entry as the criterion for selection as a potential source of resistance to broomrape, 

11 lines were selected (Melero-Vara et al. 1989). Among 417 rust-resistant lines, 

field and controlled environment testing identified another 12 entries with resistance 

to broomrape (Table 14). 

Table 14. Rust-resistant safflower accessions selected for resistance to Orobanche 

crenata (broomrape) in Spain (identified by PI numbers from USDA World 

Collection) (country of origin in parentheses). 

From two-location test From two rust-screening tests 

199,909 (India) 209,282 (Australia) 

199,911 (India) 210,460 (Turkey) 

248,630 (Pakistan) 239,041 (Morocco) 

253,385 (Israel) 250,608 (Egypt) 

253,894 (Israel) 251,264 (Jordan) 

253,907 (Afghanistan) 251,266 (Jordan) 

262,442 (Spain) 251,285 (Jordan) 

283,748 (India) 253,515 (Germany) 

306,602 (Egypt) 262,439 (Ethiopia) 

312,275 (Hungary) 407,620 (Turkey) 

343,930 (Ethiopia) 407,622 (Turkey) 

407,624 (Turkey) 

Adapted from Melero-Vara et al. (1989) 

6.2.8 USA 

At the Regional Plant Introduction Station in Pullman, Washington (46º28’N; 

117º05’W), the collections from Knowles’ expeditions (1958, 1964-65 and 1975) have 

been grown out, described and are being maintained (Knowles 1985). In recent 

years, a core collection of 210 entries which maintains a high proportion of the genetic 

diversity in the whole collection has been established (Johnson et al. 1993). 

This core has been established to facilitate initial evaluations which may otherwise 

be prohibitive because of complexity or cost. Descriptor data and Random Amplified 

Polymorphic DNAs (RAPDs) for this core collection are being compiled and 

evaluated (Dr R.C. Johnson, pers. comm., 1996). 

At Sydney, in eastern Montana (47º25’N; 104º06’E), Dr J. Bergman is evaluating 

fatty acid contents and other seed-quality characteristics among 1000 accessions received 

from the USDA World Collection. 

65


6.3 Institutions holding safflower collections 

To exchange germplasm, it is essential that the requester provide all the necessary 

documentation to meet requirements for import permits and phytosanitary 

certificates and deal with any costs associated with obtaining samples (importing 

and exporting seed). Although IPGRI (formerly IBPGR) supports the free 

exchange of germplasm and a number of countries and organizations adhere to 

the basic principles espoused by IBPGR in 1974, recent and likely changes in 

intellectual property laws can result in charges for germplasm. In some countries, 

the agencies entrusted with admitting crop germplasm (seeds) also charge 

for that service. 

The accompanying listing of safflower germplasm collections of >75 accessions 

is a combination of an FAO-World Information Warning System on PGR (Germplasm 

Conserved in Genebanks) of 13 December 1995 and personal information available 

to the authors. In some cases the major centre(s) for safflower germplasm are indicated 

without reference to the major national genebank. It is anticipated that the 

appropriate contacts can help provide the necessary information to facilitate an exchange 

of seeds. Unless otherwise indicated, samples are freely available. 


Queensland Department of Primary Industries, PO Box 46, Brisbane, Queensland 

4001, Australia. Samples stored in medium-term storage. Restricted availability of 

samples. 

6.3.2 China 

Beijing Botanical Garden, Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences 

(Academia Sinica), 20 Nan Xin Cun, Xiangshan, Haidian District, Beijing 1000093, 

China. Tel.: +86-10-6259 0833 ext. 2029/2019; Fax: +86-10-6259 2686; E-mail: 

lidj@botany.ihep.ac.cn. In-charge, Prof. Li Dajue. Centre for Chinese safflower 

germplasm collections. Small quantity of collections is in short-term storage. 

Seed of safflower collections is stored in medium- and long-term storage, at the 

National Crop Gene Bank, Institute of Crop Germplasm Resources, Chinese Academy 

of Agricultural Sciences, No. 30, Bai Shi Qiao Road, Beijing 100081, China. 

Tel.: +86-10-6217 4433; Fax: +86-10-6217 4142. 


Ethiopia Biodiversity Institute, PO Box 30726, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Tel.: +251- 

1-180 381 / 612 244; Fax: +251-1-613 722. Dr Seyfu Ketema, Director. This is the 

former Plant Genetic Resources Centre/Ethiopia (PGRC/E), established with the 

assistance of GTZ, Germany in 1976, following IBPGR’s identification of Ethiopia as 

a top priority area for collecting and preservation of germplasm of a wide variety of 

crops. Safflower is in medium- and long-term storage. This institute has been instrumental 

in initiating farmer-curator preserving of germplasm of local landraces 

of crops through a scheme called Seeds of Survival (SoS).


6.3.4 Germany 

The recently reunited Germany now has two major genebanks a short distance apart. 

Institute of Crop Sciences, Federal Research Centre for Agriculture (Bundes- 

Forschungsanstalt für Landwirtschaft - FAL, Institut für Pflanzenbau), 

Bundesallee 50, 38116 Braunschweig, Germany. Tel.: +49-531-596-617; Fax: +49- 

531-596-365. Dr Lothar Frese, in charge. The safflower collection includes wild and 

weedy species, landraces, cultivars and breeding lines. Safflower germplasm is 

stored in both medium- and long-term storage. 

Genebank, Institute for Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research (Institut für 

Pflanzengenetik und Kulturpflanzenforschung - IPK), Corrensstraße 3, 06466 

Gatersleben, Germany. Tel.: +49-39482-5280; Fax: +49-39482-5155; E-mail: 

hammer@ipk-gatersleben.de. Head: Prof. Dr Karl Hammer. Collection includes 74 

accessions of different Carthamus species. Storage is in closed glass containers, with 

silica gel, for both medium- (0ºC) and long-term (–15ºC) storage. 

6.3.5 India 

Storage and availability conditions have not been identified. 

National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources, Pusa Campus, New Delhi, 11012, 

India. Contact possible via IPGRI Tel.: +91-11-5786 112; Fax: +91-11-5731 845. 

Directorate of Oilseeds Research, Indian Council for Agricultural Research 

(ICAR), Rajendranagar, Hyderabad 500 030 A.P., India. Tel./FAX: 91-40-245 222. 

Dr P.S. Reddy, Project Director and Chairman International Safflower Germplasm 

Advisory Committee (ISGAC) is the contact for all germplasm resources and breeding 

programmes in India, irrespective of where they are stored. 

6.3.6 Mexico 

Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Agricolas, Estacion de Iguala, Iguala, Mexico. 

Seed is stored in medium-term storage. 

Program de Oleaginosas (Oilseed Breeding Programme), CIANO/SARH Calle 

Norman E. Borlaug Km 12, Apdo. Postal 515, Cd. Obregón, Sonora State, Mexico 

8500. Storage and availability conditions are not specified. 

Instituto Nacional de Investigacio nes Forestales y Agropecuarias, Col. San 

Rafael, Serapio Rendon, 83-C.P. 06470, Mexico. Availability is not specified; storage 

conditions are medium- and long-term. 

6.3.7 Russia 

N.I. Vavilov All-Russian Research Institute of Plant Industry, Bolshaya Morskaya 

Street 44, 190 000 St.Petersburg, Russia. Tel: +7-812-311-99-01 or -314-22-34; Fax: +7- 

812-311-87-62; E-mail: vir@glas.aps.org. Dr Victor Dragavtsev, Director. Sofia N. 

Kutsova, Acting Head, Industrial Crops Department (including safflower). The world 

collection of safflower has been evaluated inter alia for the fatty acid composition of its 

oil. Availability of germplasm is not specified (although free exchange has taken place 

with second author, Mündel); storage conditions are medium and long term. 

67


6.3.8 United States of America 

Agricultural Research Service/US Department of Agriculture, Western Regional 

Plant Introduction Station, 59 Johnson Hall, Pullman, WA 99164-6402, USA. Tel. 

+1-509-335-1502; Fax: +1-509-335-6654; E-mail: W6RJ@ARS.GRIN.GOV. Curator/ 

Res. Agronomist for safflower: Dr Richard C. Johnson. Centre for distribution of 

USDA World Collection of safflower, including P.F. Knowles’ collections from expeditions 

in 1958, 1964-65 and 1975; domesticated safflower, wild and weedy species. 

Total safflower collection consists of 2042 entries; with a core collection of 210, representing 

10% of the total collection and all 53 countries from which safflower 

germplasm originated (Johnson et al. 1993). Data are catalogued by the Genetic 

Resources Information Network (GRIN) system. Storage conditions are for medium 

term at 4ºC and 30% relative humidity; with long-term storage (–20ºC) of duplicates 

of the samples stored at the National Seed Storage Laboratory in Fort Collins, 

Colorado. On retirement of Dr Dave Rubis, 139 accessions deemed the most valuable 

of his collection/genetic stocks, emphasizing high oleic lines, phytophthora 

root rot resistance, different hull types and seed dormancy, were deposited at Pullman. 

On retirement of Dr Knowles, 220 entries in his special collections were also 

forwarded to Pullman. Prof. Li Dajue has sent samples of his collections in China to 

be included in the World Collection of Safflower at Pullman. Countries which have 

received all or most of this USDA World Collection (over 1700 entries) in the past 

5 years include Canada and Syria. Countries within which either one institution or 

a combination of organizations received at least 100 entries over the past decade 

(1987-96) include Algeria, Argentina, China, India, Israel, Italy, Pakistan and Romania 

(R.C. Johnson and D. Stout, pers. comm., 1996). 

6.4 Safflower research: centres/individuals and examples of varieties 

produced 


At present, there is no active plant breeder developing safflower varieties in this 

country, but over several decades, Dr E.K.S. Harrigan, of CSIRO, at Griffith, New 

South Wales, has done some outstanding work. In 1974, he initiated a disease resistance 

breeding programme at the Division of Irrigation Research (Harrigan et al. 

1985). Shortly before his retirement he released two new varieties: Sironaria, which 

has good field resistance to Australian strains of Alternaria carthami, as well as good 

resistance to phytophthora root rot (Harrigan 1987a), and Sirothora, which has good 

resistance to root rot caused by Phytophthora cryptogea and outyields the old standard 

variety, Gila (Harrigan 1987b). 

6.4.2 Canada 

Dr Hans-Henning Mündel, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Research Centre, 

PO Box 3000 Main, Lethbridge, Alberta, Canada. Tel.: +1-403-327-4591 ext. 448; 

FAX: +1-403-382-3156; E-mail: MUENDEL@EM.AGR.CA. Operates a small saf-


flower breeding and development programme for early maturity and sclerotinia 

head rot resistant varieties (Mündel et al. 1985). Varieties registered in Canada from 

this programme include Saffire (1985), AC Stirling (1991) and AC Sunset (1995). 

6.4.3 China 

Prof. Li Dajue, Beijing Botanical Garden, Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy 

of Sciences (Academia Sinica), 20 Nan Xin Cun, Xiangshan, Haidian District, 

Beijing 1000093, China. Tel.: +86-10-6259 1431 ext. 6071 (office), 6340 (res.); Fax: 

+86-10-6259 0384 or 2686; E-mail: lidj@botany.ihep.ac.cn. Prof. Li Dajue is in charge 

of safflower and sweet sorghum breeding programmes; actively involved in 

germplasm collecting and evaluation in China (supported by IBPGR) and organized 

the Third International Safflower Conference (1993). Safflower cultivars developed 

are characteristically early, spineless, with red flowers and appressed branching or 

seed dormancy. The varieties include the FO-series: e.g. FO-2 is a cross of Ruicheng 

from Shaanxi Province and VFstp-1 (Urie et al. 1976); FO-3, a spineless, striped-hull, 

red-flowered variety, from FO-2 x 23M-8-2 (Xi’an Safflower x Mexican Dwarf); FO- 

4 is a cross of FO-2 x UC-26, spineless, with red flowers and narrow branching; FO- 

8 (Tacheng x AC-1) x 23M-8-2, is also spineless, with red flowers, striped hull seed 

and early maturity. 

Prof. Wang Zhaomu, Institute of Economic Crops, Xinjiang Academy of Agricultural 

Sciences, Urumqi, Xinjiang 830000, China. Tel.: +86-991-452 1547 (office), 

452 0693 (res.). Operates safflower and brassica breeding programmes for western 

China. 


Drs Elias Urage and Bulcha Weyessa, Institute of Agricultural Research, 

Melkawerer Research Centre, PO Box 2003, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Safflower 

varieties developed in Ethiopia include Aklilu which gives high yields in the midhighlands; 

Bako-red and Bako-white selections; Kulumsa Thornless; Bozinan. 

6.4.5 India 

Dr P.S. Reddy, Project Director and Chairman International Safflower 

Germplasm Advisory Committee (ISGAC), Directorate of Oilseeds Research, 

Indian Council of Agricultural Research, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad 500 030 

A.P., India. Tel.: +91-40-245 222 / 245 331; Fax: +91-40-245 222; Telex: 0425 6856 

DOR IN. Contact for germplasm resources and breeding programmes in India. 

Major breeding objectives include earliness, high seed yield and oil content, resistance/tolerance 

to alternaria leaf spot, wilt and root rot, resistance/tolerance to 

aphids and responsiveness to fertilizers. Examples of varieties developed by public 

programmes in India include Annigeri-1, Annigeri-300, Bhima (S-4), CO-1, JSI- 

7 (spineless), K-1, Malavya Kusum (HUS-305), Manjira, Niphad 62-8, Nira (NRS- 

209), S-144 (Reddy and Therumalachar 1976), Sagaramutyalu (APRR-3), Sweta 

(JSF-1), Tara and T-65. 

69


Project Coordinating Unit (Safflower), 91, Bhavani Peth, MPKV, Solapur-413 

002, Maharashtra State, India. The Germplasm Management Unit (GMU) coordinates 

germplasm collecting throughout the country. 

Nimbkar Agricultural Research Institute Phaltan 415-523, Maharashtra State, 

India. Tel.: +91-2166 22396; Fax: +91-2166 22338. Dr Nandini Nimbkar, Director. 

Safflower breeding and development have been carried out here since 1967. The 

variety Nira (NS-209) was released in 1987. 

6.4.6 Mexico 

Program de Oleaginosas (Oilseed Breeding Programme), CIANO/SARH. Calle 

Norman E. Borlaug Km 12, Apdo. Postal 515, Cd. Obregón, Sonora State, Mexico 

8500, Tel./Fax: +52-64 12 16 18. Objectives of this safflower breeding programme 

include high yield, oil levels higher than 38%, linoleic and oleic acid lines, resistance 

to alternaria leaf spot and rust, intermediate to early maturity and wide adaptation. 

Recent varieties from Mexico include Quiriego 88, Sahuaripia 88 and San José 89, 

which, on average, yield 15% higher than Gila (Musa 1993; Musa and Muñoz 1990). 

6.4.7 Spain 

Safflower has had some ups and many downs in Spain (prices, broomrape, safflower 

fly, etc.). Dr José Fernández-Martínez, in cooperation with Dr J. Domínguez- 

Giminez, formerly of the Centre for Agrarian Research and Development (CIDA) 

and then of the Institute of Sustainable Agriculture (IAS), CSIC, Apartado 4084, 

Córdoba, Spain, has developed a number of varieties: the high linoleic acid varieties 

Tomejil, Rancho, Merced; and the high oleic acid varieties Alameda and 

Rinconada (Fernández-Martínez and Domínguez-Giminez 1987). Dr Fernández- 

Martínez is also editor of the annual Sesame and Safflower Newsletter. 

6.4.8 USA 

Dr Jerald W. Bergman, Eastern Agricultural Research Centre, MSU, PO Box 1350, 

Sidney, Montana 59270, USA Tel.: +1-406-482-2208; Fax: +1-406-482-7336, E-mail: 

aaxjb@gemini.oscs.montana.edu. The major ‘public’ safflower breeding 

programme in the USA, emphasizing high oil, high oleic acid, alternaria resistance 

and industrial uses. Recent varieties include: the early maturing Erlin (released in 

1996), Centennial (released in 1991; protected under Plant Variety Protection Act), 

Girard (released in 1986), Oker (released in 1985) – all regular ‘linoleic’ varieties; 

and Montola 2000 (released in 1991; protected under Plant Variety Protection Act), a 

high oleic acid (>80%) variety, followed by Montola 2001; and the high linolenic 

variety, Morlin. 

Arthur B. (Barney) Hill, Director, Safflower Research, c/o Mycogen Plant Sciences, 

20212 County Road 103, Woodland, CA 95776 USA. Tel.: +1-916-666-5338, Fax: 

+1916-666 7993, E-mail: agrimad!mycomad!hill@uunet.uu.net. A private hybrid 

safflower breeding programme, called SAFFTECH, emphasizing high yield and oil.


This was for more than two decades the Cargill safflower breeding programme, 

then part of Agrigenetics, then part of Mycogen. 

Arthur Weisker, Seedtec International, PO Box 2210, Woodland, California 95696, 

USA. Tel.: +1-916-666-7871; Fax: +1-916-662-9125. Runs a safflower breeding 

programme emphasizing improved yield and particular fatty acid profiles (high 

oleic; low saturates). Varieties developed by Seedtec include the previously very 

popular S-208 (1967), then S-541 (1978; high oil), S-317 (their first high oleic) and, 

more recently, S-555 (1988) (high yield and Fusarium tolerance) and S-518 (1991) 

(high oleic acid, >80%). 

Two safflower breeders deserve recognition: Canadian-born Dr P.F. Knowles, 

working at the University of California at Davis, mentioned a number of times in 

this book in connection with his plant-exploration trips that led to the collecting of 

the largest part of the world collection of safflower germplasm. Together with his 

students, he identified many of the taxonomic relationships among the Carthamus 

species, developed the first high oleic safflower variety (UC-1) and was instrumental 

in assisting diverse country programmes to use the collections. Dr Dave Rubis, 

working at the University of Arizona, is the author of most genetic descriptions, 

identifications of genetic stocks and symbols in safflower. In 1958, he developed the 

variety Gila, which became popular in many countries outside the USA (Mexico, 

Australia, Argentina, etc.) for much of the next three decades. 

71


7 Literature guides 

7.1 Handbooks, monographs, safflower descriptor list 

Chavan, V.M. 1961. Niger and Safflower. Indian Central Oilseeds Committee Publ., 

Hyderabad. Pp. 57-150. 

Hanelt, P. 1963. Monographische Übersicht der Gattung Carthamus L. (Compositae). Zeit. 

Feddes Repert. 67:41-180. 

IBPGR Secretariat. 1983. Descriptors for Safflower. AGPG:IBPGR/81/93, Rome, Italy, 

May. 22 p. 

Knowles, P.F. 1989. Safflower. Pp. 363-374 in Oil Crops of the World (G. Röbbelen, R.K. 

Downey and A. Ashri, eds.). McGraw-Hill, New York. [Brief overview of distribution, 

systematics, breeding and utilization.] 

Knowles, P.F. (ed.) 1981. Proceedings First International Safflower Conference, Univ. of 

Calif., Davis, California, USA, July 12-16. 299 p. 

Kolte, S.J. 1985. Diseases of Annual Edible Oilseed Crops, III. Sunflower, Safflower and 

Nigerseed Diseases. CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida, USA. Pp. 97-136. 

Li Dajue. 1993. Abstracts on Safflower. Beijing Botanical Garden, Pub., Beijing, China. 

784 p. [More than 2500 abstracts from important papers, journals, and books worldwide; 

copies may be purchased by sending a certified cheque or money order for 

US$60, payable to the Academy, to Beijing Botanical Garden, Institute of Botany, Chinese 

Academy of Sciences, Beijing 1000093, China.] 

Li Dajue, Zhou Mingde and V. Ramanatha Rao. 1993. Characterization and Evaluation 

of Safflower Germplasm. Geological Pub. House, Beijing, China. 260 text and 16 colour 

p. [Outline of origin, distribution, biology of safflower, collecting and conservation 

strategy, characterization resulting from evaluations of germplasm of safflower, including 

world collection grown in China; copies may be purchased by sending a certified 

cheque or money order for US$45, payable to the academy, to Beijing Botanical 

Garden, Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 1000093, China.] 

Li Dajue and Han Yuanzhou (eds). 1993. Proceedings Third International Safflower Conference, 

Beijing, China, 14-18 June 1993. Beijing Botanical Garden, Institute of Botany, 

Chinese Academy of Sciences. [Copies may be purchased by sending a certified 

cheque or money order for US$75, payable to the Academy, to Beijing Botanical Garden, 

Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 1000093, China.] 

López, González, G. 1989. Acerca de la clasificación natural del género Carthamus L., s.l. 

Anales del Jardín Bot. de Madrid 47(1):11-34. 

Ranga Rao, V. and M. Ramachandran (eds). 1991. Proceedings Second International Safflower 

Conference, Hyderabad, India, Jan. 9-13, 1989. Indian Soc. of Oilseeds Research, 

Pub., Hyderabad, India. 419 text and 11 colour p. 

Smith, J.R. 1996. Safflower. AOCS Press, Champaign, IL, USA. 624 pp. [Emphasis is on 

origin of safflower production, marketing, and research in the USA. Country-by-country 

developments are presented.] 

Weiss, E.A. 1983. Oilseed Crops. Chapter 6. Safflower. Longman Group Limited, 

Longman House, London, UK. Pp. 216-281. 

Weiss, E.A. 1971. Castor, Sesame, and Safflower. Barnes and Noble, Inc., New York. Pp. 

529-744.


7.2 Recent production guides 

Helm, J.L., A.A. Schneiter, N. Riveland, and J. Bergman. 1991. Safflower production. 

North Dakota State University, Fargo, ND 58105, USA, A-870 (revised), 14 AGR-6, 4 

p. 

Mündel, H.-H., R.J. Morrison, R.E. Blackshaw and B. Roth (eds). 1992. Safflower Production 

on the Canadian Prairies. Agric. Can. Res. Station, Lethbridge/Alberta Saffl. 

Growers Assoc., with funding by Farming for the Future Project No. 87-0016, Alberta 

Agric. Research Institute. [35 p., incl. 4 color p. of varieties, seed types, diseases and 

insect pests. Available from Alberta Safflower Growers Assoc. Box 822, Lethbridge, 

Alberta T1J 3Z8, Canada.] 

Smith, H.A., C. Rust, D. Baldridge, J. Bergman and J. Caprio. n.d. Safflower: a Montana 

Specialty Crop. Montana State University, Extension Service, Bozeman, Montana 

59717, USA. 4 p. 

Smith, J.R. 1996. Safflower. Appendix C: Recommended Cropping Practices. AOCS Press, 

Champaign, IL, USA. Pp. 530-552. 

73


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