Modern Hindi Grammar - IILS

Modern Hindi 

Grammar 

Omkar N. Koul

Modern Hindi Grammar 

Omkar N. Koul


Omkar N. Koul 

2008 

Dunwoody Press


Copyright © 2008 by McNeil Technologies, Inc. 

All rights reserved. 

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ISBN: 978-1-931546-06-5 

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Printed and bound in the United States of America

ISBN: 978-1-931546-06-5 

9 781931 546065

Table of Contents 

Preface .......................................................................................... i 

Abbreviations ............................................................................ iii 

References .................................................................................. iv 

1. Introduction 

1.1. Area and Its Speakers ......................................................... 1 

1.2. Dialects and Classification ................................................. 1 

1.3. Hindi - Urdu ....................................................................... 2 

1.4. Linguistic Characteristics ................................................... 4 

1.5. Status .................................................................................. 4 

1.6. Grammars in Hindi ............................................................ 7 

2. Phonology 

2.1. Phonological Units (Segmental) ...................................... 11 

2.1.1. Distinctive Segments .................................................. 11 

Vowels ................................................................................ 11 

Consonants .......................................................................... 12 

2.1.2. Description of Phonemes ............................................ 12 

2.1.2.1. Vowels ................................................................... 12 

2.1.2.2. Consonants ............................................................. 14 

2.1.2.3. Distribution of Phonemes and Allophones ............ 19 

2.2. Phonotactics ..................................................................... 20 

2.2.1. Vowel Sequences ........................................................ 20 

2.2.2. Consonant Clusters ..................................................... 20 

2.2.2.1. Word-initial Cosonant Clusters .............................. 20 

2.2.2.2. Word-medial Consonant Clusters .......................... 21 

2.2.2.3. Word-final Consonant Clusters .............................. 23 

2.2.3. Syllable Structure ........................................................ 24 

2.3. Supersegmental Features ................................................. 25 

2.3.1. Nasalization ................................................................. 25 

2.3.2. Length ......................................................................... 26 

2.3.3. Stress ........................................................................... 26 

2.3.4. Intonation .................................................................... 27 

2.3.5. Juncture ....................................................................... 29 

2.4. Morphophonemics ........................................................... 30 

2.4.1. Loss of Phoneme ......................................................... 30 

2.4.2. Addition of Phoneme .................................................. 30 

2.4.3. Alternations ................................................................. 31

3. Morphology 

3.1. Nouns ............................................................................... 33 

3.1.1. Noun Inflection ........................................................... 33 

3.1.1.1. Gender .................................................................... 33 

3.1.1.2. Number .................................................................. 35 

3.1.1.3. Case ........................................................................ 36 

3.1.2. Postpositions ............................................................... 37 

3.1.2.1. The Postposition nao ne ............................................. 37 

3.1.2.2. The Postposition kao ko ............................................ 41 

3.1.2.3. The Postposition sao se ............................................. 47 

3.1.2.4. The Postposition maoM mẽ ............................................ 52 

3.1.2.5. The Postposition pr par .......................................... 53 

3.1.2.6. The Postposition ka ka ............................................ 55 

3.1.2.7. Compound Postpositions........................................ 57 

3.1.3. Noun Derivation .......................................................... 68 

3.1.3.1. Nouns from Nouns ................................................. 68 

3.1.3.2. Nouns from Adjectives .......................................... 70 

3.1.3.3. Nouns from Verbs .................................................. 71 

3.1.4. Noun Compounds ....................................................... 72 

3.1.4.1. Noun-Noun Compounds ........................................ 73 

3.1.4.2. Copulative Compounds .......................................... 73 

3.1.4.3. Reduplicated Compounds ...................................... 73 

3.1.4.4. Partially Duplicated Compounds ........................... 73 

3.1.4.5. Superordinate Compounds ..................................... 74 

3.1.4.6. Complex Compounds ............................................. 74 

3.1.4.7. Hybrid Compounds ................................................ 74 

3.1.4.8. Adjective-Noun Compounds .................................. 74 

3.1.4.9. Modifier-Noun Compounds ................................... 75 

3.2. Pronouns .......................................................................... 75 

3.2.1. Personal Pronouns ....................................................... 75 

3.2.2. Demonstrative Pronouns ............................................. 77 

3.2.3. Relative Pronouns ....................................................... 77 

3.2.4. Reflexive Pronouns ..................................................... 77 

3.2.5. Interrogative Pronouns ................................................ 78 

3.2.6. Indefinite Pronouns ..................................................... 79 

3.2.7. Oblique Forms of Pronouns ........................................ 79 

3.2.8. Compound Pronouns ................................................... 80 

3.3. Adjectives ........................................................................ 81 

3.3.1. Inflected ...................................................................... 82 

3.3.2. Uninflected .................................................................. 82 

3.3.3. Types of Adjectives .................................................... 82 

3.3.4. Degree of Adjectives ................................................... 84

3.3.5. Derivation of Adjectives ............................................. 85 

3.3.6. Numerals ..................................................................... 88 

3.3.6.1. Cardinals ................................................................ 88 

3.3.6.2. Ordinals .................................................................. 90 

3.3.6.3. Fractions ................................................................. 91 

3.3.6.4. Multiplicatives ....................................................... 92 

3.3.6.5. Approximation ....................................................... 92 

3.3.6.6. Aggregation ............................................................ 93 

3.4. Verbs ................................................................................ 93 

3.4.1. The Verb hona: ........................................................... 93 

3.4.2. Main Verbs .................................................................. 95 

3.4.2.1. Intransitive Verbs ................................................... 95 

3.4.2.2. Transitive Verbs ..................................................... 96 

3.4.2.3. Ditransitive Verbs .................................................. 98 

3.4.2.4. Causative Verbs ..................................................... 98 

3.4.2.5. Dative Verbs ........................................................ 100 

3.4.2.6. Conjunct Verbs .................................................... 102 

3.4.2.7. Compound Verbs ................................................. 103 

3.4.3. Tense ......................................................................... 105 

3.4.4. Aspect ....................................................................... 107 

3.4.4.1. Habitual Aspect .................................................... 107 

3.4.4.2. Progressive Aspect ............................................... 111 

3.4.4.3. Perfective Aspect ................................................. 113 

3.4.5. Mood ......................................................................... 116 

3.4.5.1. Indicative Mood ................................................... 116 

3.4.5.2. Imperative Mood .................................................. 116 

3.4.5.3. Subjuntive Mood .................................................. 119 

3.4.6. Voice ......................................................................... 121 

3.4.7. Non-finite Verb Forms .............................................. 122 

3.4.7.1. Infinitives ............................................................. 122 

3.4.7.2. Participles ............................................................. 124 

3.4.7.2.1. Imperfective Participles .................................. 125 

3.4.7.2.2. Perfective Participles ....................................... 126 

3.4.7.2.3. Conjunctive Participles ................................... 128 

3.5. Adverbs .......................................................................... 129 

3.5.1. Types of Adverbs ...................................................... 130 

3.5.2. Expressions of Time ................................................. 133 

3.5.2.1. General Time Expressions ................................... 133 

3.5.2.2. Time of Day ......................................................... 133 

3.5.2.3. Period of Day ....................................................... 135 

3.5.2.4. Days of the Week ................................................. 135 

3.5.2.5. Months of the Year .............................................. 135

3.5.2.6. Year ...................................................................... 136 

3.5.2.7. Seasons ................................................................. 136 

3.5.3. Frequentative ............................................................. 137 

3.6. Particles .......................................................................... 137 

3.6.1. The Particle Bar bhi: ‘also’ ......................................... 137 

3.6.2. The Particle hI hi: ...................................................... 150 

3.6.3. The Particle tao to ........................................................ 155 

3.6.4. The Particle tk tak ‘up to’ ......................................... 157 

3.6.5. The Particle Bar bhar .................................................. 158 

3.6.6. The Particle maa~ ma:tr ................................................ 159 

3.7. Connectives .................................................................... 160 

3.7.1. Mono-morphemic ..................................................... 161 

3.7.2. Poly-morphemic ........................................................ 161 

3.7.3. Phrasal ....................................................................... 161 

3.8. Interjections .................................................................... 162 

4. Syntax 

4.1. Structure of Phrases ....................................................... 165 

4.1.1. Noun Phrase .............................................................. 165 

4.1.2. Postpositional Phrases ............................................... 171 

4.1.3. Adjectival Phrases ..................................................... 173 

4.1.4. Adverbial Phrases ..................................................... 176 

4.2. Structure of Clauses ....................................................... 179 

4.2.1. Subordinate Clauses .................................................. 179 

4.2.2. Noun Clauses ............................................................ 180 

4.2.2.1. Finite Noun Clauses ............................................. 181 

4.2.2.1.1. The ik ki Complement Clauses ........................ 181 

4.2.2.1.2. Direct and Indirect Speech .............................. 182 

4.2.2.1.3. Non-finite Noun Clause .................................. 184 

4.2.3. Relative Clauses ........................................................ 187 

4.2.3.1. Restrictive and Non-restrictive Clauses ............... 189 

4.2.3.2. Non-finite Relative Clauses ................................. 194 

4.2.3.3. Finite Relative Clauses ......................................... 195 

4.2.4. Adverbial Clauses ..................................................... 198 

4.2.4.1. Adverbial Clauses of Time .................................. 198 

4.2.4.2. Manner Clauses .................................................... 200 

4.2.4.3. Purpose Clauses ................................................... 202 

4.2.4.4. Cause Clauses ...................................................... 203 

4.2.4.5. Condition Clauses ................................................ 204 

4.2.4.6. Concession Clauses .............................................. 205 

4.2.4.7. Result Clauses ...................................................... 206

4.3. Sentence Construction ................................................... 207 

4.3.1. Copular Sentences ..................................................... 207 

4.3.2. Verbal Sentences ....................................................... 211 

4.3.2.1. Direct Object ........................................................ 213 

4.3.2.2. Indirect Object ..................................................... 214 

4.3.2.3. Other Types of Verb Argument ........................... 215 

4.3.3. Negation .................................................................... 216 

4.3.3.1. Sentential Negation .............................................. 216 

4.3.3.2. Constituent Negation ........................................... 217 

4.3.3.3. Double/Multiple Negation ................................... 220 

4.3.3.4. Negation and Coordination .................................. 220 

4.3.3.5. Negation and Subordination ................................. 221 

4.3.4. Interrogative .............................................................. 222 

4.3.4.1. Yes-No Questions ................................................ 222 

4.3.4.1.1. Neutral Yes-No Questions .............................. 222 

4.3.4.1.2. Leading Questions........................................... 225 

4.3.4.2. Question-Word Questions .................................... 226 

4.3.4.3. Echo-Questions .................................................... 246 

4.3.4.3.1. Yes-No Echo-Questions .................................. 246 

4.3.4.3.2. Question-Word Echo-Questions ..................... 248 

4.3.4.4. Answers ................................................................ 250 

4.3.5. Imperatives ................................................................ 254 

4.3.5.1. Unmarked or True Imperatives ............................ 254 

4.3.5.2. Prohibitive Imperatives ........................................ 255 

4.3.5.3. Degrees of Imperatives ........................................ 257 

4.3.6. Anaphora ................................................................... 260 

4.3.7. Reflexives ................................................................. 263 

4.3.8. Reciprocals ................................................................ 269 

4.3.9. Equatives ................................................................... 271 

4.3.10. Comparison ............................................................. 274 

4.3.11. Superlatives ............................................................. 277 

4.3.12. Coordination ........................................................... 278 

4.3.12.1. Coordination and Accompaniment .................... 286 

4.3.12.2. Structural Constraints ......................................... 287 

5. Lexicon 

5.1. Animals, Birds and Insects............................................. 293 

5.2. Flowers, Fruits, and Vegetables ..................................... 294 

5.3. Jewels, Metals, and Minerals ......................................... 296 

5.4. Miscellaneous Items ....................................................... 296 

5.5. Body Parts ...................................................................... 302 

5.6. Occupations.................................................................... 303

5.7. Kinship Terms ................................................................ 305 

5.8. Adjectives ...................................................................... 307 

5.9. Verbs .............................................................................. 310 

5.10. Adverbs ........................................................................ 315 

5.11. Conjunctions ................................................................ 317 

5.12. Pronouns ...................................................................... 317

Preface 

Modern Hindi Grammar aims at providing basic information on 

various aspects of Hindi phonology, morphology, and syntax along 

with their unique features or characteristics. 

Hindi has a special status in India. It is spoken by the largest 

population in India. It is the official language of the Union of India 

and eleven state governments, including Delhi. It is taught as a 

second language in all the non-Hindi speaking states under the threelanguage 

formula. Under this formula, a child is supposed to learn 

his mother tongue, Hindi, and English. If a child’s mother tongue is 

Hindi, (s)he is expected to learn an additional modern Indian 

language or a foreign language. Hindi is taught as a foreign language 

in a large number of countries throughout the world. Besides needbased 

language learning materials, there is a need for a 

pedagogically oriented grammar of this language. The present 

grammar aims to fulfill the need of second/foreign language learners 

of Hindi in India as well as other countries. A large number of Hindi 

speakers have settled in non-Hindi speaking states in India, or have 

migrated and settled abroad. The second generation of these 

migrants is fast losing contact with their mother tongue in the 

absence of its use in various domains of their day-to-day life in alien 

surroundings. They are looking for suitable language learning 

materials including pedagogically oriented grammars for 

maintaining the language among their children. 

Hindi has a long tradition of grammars and grammatical literature. 

The existing grammars mentioned in the introduction as well as in 

references are either too old and do not describe modern spoken and 

written Hindi, or they are sketchy or too scholarly or detailed. They 

do not fulfill the needs of second and/or foreign language learners or 

those native speakers who want to maintain the language in an alien 

atmosphere. 

This grammar is pedagogically oriented. It will be of special interest 

to Hindi language learners and teachers in different situations. It will 

also be of interest to linguists and researchers working in the area of 

language typology, and to general readers as well. 

i

In Modern Hindi Grammar we have utilized simple terminology and 

provided suitable descriptions with tables for grammatical 

categories, phrases, and sentence types. The introduction gives a 

survey of the Hindi speaking area and the number of its speakers, its 

classification and dialects, Hindi-Urdu relationship, the status of 

Hindi and its use in administration, education and mass media, Hindi 

grammars, and the objectives of the present grammar. The 

phonology section describes segmental phonemes, suprasegmentals, 

and morphophonology. The morphology provides a description of 

different word classes: nouns, pronouns, adjectives, numerals, 

adverbs, particles, connectives, and interjections. It deals with 

inflectional as well as derivational morphology. The syntax 

describes the structure of phrases, sentence types, complex and 

compound constructions, special word order variations, and other 

intricate syntactic features. The lexicon presents a list of useful 

classified vocabulary which is useful for students and teachers of 

Hindi as well as general readers. This grammar emphasizes special 

features of Hindi that set it apart from other Indo-Aryan languages. 

In short, it will fulfill the needs of the basic language learner as well 

as provide useful information for the linguist and the general reader. 

I would like to take this opportunity to thank Mr. Thomas Creamer, 

Director, Language Research Center (a division of McNeil 

Technologies) for asking me to write this grammar and for deciding 

to publish it. I would like to thank Prof. Anjani Kumar Sinha, and 

Prof. Kashi Wali for going through the first draft of it and for 

offering useful comments and suggestions. Finally, I would like to 

thank my colleagues at the Indian Institute of Language Studies for 

providing their assistance. 

I hope students, researchers, teachers, and linguists will find this 

book useful. 

Omkar N. Koul 

ii

1. first person 

2. second person 

3. third person 

abl ablative case 

adv adverb 

asp aspirated 

aux auxiliary 

caus causative 

cond conditional 

cor correlative 

cp conjunctive participle 

dat dative 

emp emphatic 

erg ergative 

fut future 

gen genitive case 

hon honorific 

imp imperative 

impf imperfective 

inf infinitive 

indef indefinite 

ms masculine singular 

neg negative 

nom nominative 

non hon non honorific 

Abbreviations 

iii 

NP noun phrase 

obl oblique 

part particle 

pass passive 

pl plural 

pol polite 

poss possessive 

postp postposition 

pre presumptive 

prox proximate 

psp past participle 

ptc participle 

q question particle 

refl reflexive 

rel relative 

rem remote 

sbj subjunctive mood 

sg singular 

unas unaspirated 

VP verb phrase 

vd voiced 

vl voiceless 

* ungrammatical

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vii

1. Introduction 

1.1. Area and Its Speakers 

1 

1. INTRODUCTION 

Hindi is an Indo-Aryan language (a branch of the-Indo-European 

family of languages), spoken primarily in the states of Bihar, 

Chattisgarh, Delhi, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jharkhand, Madhya 

Pradesh, Rajasthan, Uttarakhand, and Uttar Pradesh in India. 

Besides being the official language of these states it is also the 

official language of government of India along with English. 

According to the 2001census, it is spoken by 422,048,642 speakers 

which include the speakers of its various dialects and variations of 

speech grouped under Hindi. It is also spoken by a large number of 

people of Indian origin settled abroad. 

1.2. Dialects and Classification 

Hindi and Urdu languages have their origins in Khariboli spoken in 

areas around Delhi. Khariboli was adopted by the Afghans, Persians, 

and Turks as a common language of interaction with the local 

population during the period of Islamic invasions and the 

establishment of Muslim rule in the north of India between the 

eighth and tenth centuries AD. In time, it developed a variety called 

Urdu with significant borrowings from Arabic and Persian and that 

uses a Persian script. It was also known as rexta “mixed language.” 

As Urdu gained patronage in the Muslim courts and developed into 

a literature language, the variety used by the general population 

gradually replaced Sanskrit, literary Prakrits, and Apabhramsas as 

the literary language. This latter variety looked to Sanskrit for 

linguistic borrowings and Sanskrit, Prakrits, and Apabhramsas for 

literary conventions. It is this variety that became known as Hindi. 

Hindi and Urdu have a common form known as Hindustani which is 

essentially a Hindi-Urdu mixed language. This was the variety that 

was adopted by Indian leaders as a symbol of national identity 

during the struggle for freedom. Hindi has been used as a literary 

language since the twelfth century. The development of prose, 

however, began only in the eighteenth century, which marks the 

emergence of Hindi as a full-fledged literary language.


Grierson (1906) has divided Hindi into two groups: Eastern Hindi 

and Western Hindi. Between the Eastern and the Western Prakrits 

there was an intermediate Prakrit called Ardhamagadhi. The modern 

representative of the corresponding Apabhamsa is Eastern Hindi and 

the Shaurasena Apabhramsa of the middle Doab is the parent of 

Western Hindi. In the Eastern group Grierson discusses three 

dialects: Awadhi, Bagheli, and Chattisgarhi. In the Western group he 

discusses five dialects: Hindustani, Braj Bhasha, Kanauji, Bundeli, 

and Bhojpuri. Eastern Hindi is bounded on the north by the language 

of the Nepal Himalaya and on the west by various dialects of 

Western Hindi, of which the principal are Kanauji and Bundeli. On 

the east, it is bounded by the Bhojpuri dialect of Bihari and by 

Oriya. On the South it meets forms of the Marathi language. 

Western Hindi extends to the foot of the Himalayas on the north, 

south to the Jamna valley, and occupies most of Bundelkhand and a 

part of central provinces on the east side. 

The Hindi region is traditionally divided into two: Eastern Hindi and 

Western Hindi. The main dialects of Eastern Hindi are Avadhi, 

Bagheli and Chattisgarhi. The Western Hindi dialects are Haryanvi, 

Braj Bhasha, Bhundeli, Kanuji and Khariboli. The dialects spoken in 

the regions of Bihar (i.e., Maithili, Bhojpuri, Maghi etc.) in 

Rajasthan (i.e., Marwari, Jaipuri, Malvi etc.) and some dialects 

spoken in the northwestern areas of Uttar Pradesh, and Himachal 

Pradesh were kept away from the earlier classification. Now, all of 

these dialects are also covered under the term Hindi. The standard 

Hindi developed from the Khariboli has borrowed lexical items from 

Sanskrit and is the vehicle of all official literary and commercial 

communication. It is intelligible throughout the broad Hindi 

language region. Another literary style, Urdu, has also developed 

from Khariboli and it uses the Perso-Arabic script and borrows from 

Perso-Arabic sources. 

1.3. Hindi – Urdu 

Historical and cultural processes and the linguistic affinity which 

exists in Indian languages led to the emergence of Hindi-Urdu or socalled 

Hindustani as the lingua-franca of major areas of India long 

before its freedom. In an earlier period, the languages of 

administration, Sanskrit in the case of the earliest Hindu kingdoms, 

Persian in the case of the Muslim dynasties, and English in the case 

of the British regime, have mostly remained confined to the elite. 

2

3 


Beginning with the invasion of Mohammed Ghori in the late 12 th 

century AD, the foreign invaders settled down in India to rule. The 

Slave, Tughluq, Lodi, and Mughal dynasties used Persian in their 

administration, but they used the local language spoken in and 

around Delhi for communicating with the people for their day-today 

needs. This local language was a form of Apbhramsha, which 

eventually became Khariboli; they called this language Hindi - a 

language belonging to Hind. Thus, the Hindi language derived its 

name from the Persian towards the end of the 12 th century or 

beginning of the 13 th century. During the Mughal period, the word 

“Urdu” was derived from the Turkish word “Yurt” or “ordu” that 

meant “military encampment.” This variety was distinguished on the 

basis of Perso-Arabic influence at the lexical level and was written 

in the Perso-Arabic script. Hindi-Urdu became the medium of 

communication between the Muslim rulers and the local people. The 

southern variety of the speech, best known as Dakhini, also became 

the medium of literature and socio-religious discourse. This variety 

is influenced by Dravidian languages as a result of language contact. 

Due to a common structural basis, Hindi and Urdu continued to be 

treated as synonymous for centuries at least up to the period of 

Mirza Ghalib. Mirza Ghalib called his language “Hindi” on several 

occasions, though he used the Perso-Arabic script for writing it. He 

named one of his works “ode-e-Hindi” (perfume of Hindi). 

Primarily in the domain of different genres of literature, Hindi and 

Urdu started drifting away from each other not only in the use of 

two different scripts, but also in literary styles and vocabulary. Hindi 

started drawing more and more from Sanskrit, and Urdu from 

Persian and Arabic. The processes continue today. 

During British rule, when English was adopted as the official 

language, local languages were assigned roles for certain functions 

at lower levels of administration. A competition started between the 

proponents or supporters of Hindi and those of Urdu for official 

recognition of their languages. In the first instance, Urdu was 

recognized by the British in the Northwest and Oudh, Bihar, and the 

Central Provinces in 1830 AD as the language of the courts. This 

was followed by the recognition accorded to Hindi in certain areas. 

Hindi and Urdu were involved in controversy and mutual 

competition for their recognition in various domains of education 

and administration. The mutual conflicts intensified at the beginning


of the 20 th century. On the one hand, there were proponents of Hindi 

and Urdu who were eager to maintain separate linguistic identities, 

and, on the other hand, some national leaders wanted to develop 

Hindustani as a combined linguist identity on the basis of its use by 

the general population. 

1.4. Linguistic Characteristics 

Hindi shares major linguistic characteristics with other Indo-Aryan 

languages. It has ten vowels. The length of vowels is phonemic. All 

vowels can be nasalized and nasalization is phonemic. The Hindi 

syllable contains a vowel as its nucleus, followed or preceded by 

consonants. Words usually have two or three syllables. 

Nouns are inflected for number, gender and case. There are two 

numbers: singular and plural, two genders: masculine and feminine; 

and two cases: direct and oblique. Nouns are assigned one of the two 

genders. The gender of inanimate objects is not predictable from the 

form or meaning. Pronouns are inflected for number and case. 

Adjectives are of two types: declinable and indeclinable. The first 

type is uninflected for number, gender, and case, whereas the second 

type is not. 

Verbs are inflected for person, number, gender, tense, mood, and 

aspect. There are three tenses: present, past, and future; three moods: 

imperative, indicative, and subjective; two aspects: imperfective and 

perfective. Hindi is a verb-final language. 

Hindi is written in the Devanagari script which originated from 

Brahmi. The Devanagari script for Hindi is standardized, but certain 

minor variations still exist. In this grammar we are using Devanagari 

and Roman scripts for the data from the language. 

1.5. Status 

As stated above, Hindi is the official language of the Union of India 

and ten states. It is spoken by the largest number of people in India. 

It is widely used in administration, education, and mass media. 

The use of Hindi in administration at the Union level as well as in 

the Hindi speaking states is not free from problems (Koul 1994a). 

There are some serious gaps in the Official Language Policy (OLP), 

4

5 


and the rules and procedures which are being followed in its 

implementation. There are problems related to the development of 

its administrative register. The main problems related to the 

development of the administrative register are: (i) an artificial 

coinage of terminology, (ii) lack of standardization, and (iii) lack of 

coordination between various agencies and duplication of efforts. 

Problems related to its practical use include the lack of proper 

monitoring, lack of encouragement, and absence of strong political 

will. 

The implementation of the OLP at the Union level has become the 

victim of political indecision, the attitude of its protagonists, the lack 

of will of the monitoring agencies, and the lack of adherence to the 

rules and regulations set up for it. Even after its continuous use in 

administration for more than sixty years, its development is still 

questioned by critics. There is a need to review the OLP, and the 

rules and procedures of its implemenation to identify its problems 

and resolve them. 

The Constitution of India adopted in 1950 provides for the use of 

Hindi in Devanagari script as the official language of the Union. 

Article 343 states: 

The official language of the Union shall be Hindi in the Devanagari 

script. The form of numerals to be used for the official purpose of 

the Union shall be the international form of Indian numerals. 

Article 351 provides a directive for the development of Hindi as 

follows: 

It shall be the duty of the Union to promote the spread of the Hindi 

language, to develop it so that it may serve as a medium of 

expression for all the composite culture of India and to secure its 

enrichment by assimilating without interfering with its genius, the 

forms, style and expressions used in Hindustani and in the other 

languages of India specified in the Eighth Schedule, and by drawing, 

whenever necessary or desirable, its vocabulary primarily from 

Sanskrit and secondarily from other languages. 

The Hindi language was supposed to replace English in 1965, fifteen 

years after the adoption of the Constitution of India. The early 

sixties witnessed resentment and agitation, primarily in the southern


states of India, regarding the replacement of English by Hindi. It 

was argued that Hindi was not developed enough to replace English 

in its administrative domain. Thus, the Official Language Act 

(OLA) was passed in 1963 providing for the continuation of English 

as an associate official language in the Union and also for its use in 

parliament for an indefinite period of time. The Act dealt with the 

setting-up of the Committee on Official Language, authorization of 

the Hindi translation of Central and State acts, optional use of Hindi 

in judgments of High courts, etc. The passing of the OLA was 

successful in achieving timely political gains, but it has not been in 

the interest of the development of Hindi and its use as the sole 

official language of the Union in the years to come. 

The development of Hindi has become a complex concern for the 

Government of India. The development of Hindi is often linked to 

the development of other regional languages. The Ministry of Home 

Affairs (Government of India) Resolution (1968) made some 

important recommendations in this regard: 

1. It is the duty of the Government of India to promote the spread 

of the Hindi language. 

2. The development of Hindi as well as other regional languages 

is in the interest of the educational and cultural advancement of 

the country. 

3. Efforts should be made to implement the Three-Language 

Formula. 

4. Compulsory knowledge of Hindi or English should be essential 

for the public service of the Union. 

5. Languages of the Eighth Schedule should be used as alternative 

media for examinations for all-India and higher Central 

services. 

The Resolution adopted by the Ministry of Home Affairs has turned 

out to be merely a political policy statement. It was not followed by 

an action plan for the promotion or the spread of the Hindi language 

in a sustainable manner, although it was rightly realized that the 

development of Hindi and regional languages is necessary for the 

educational and cultural advancement of the country. No clear-cut 

strategies were framed for encouraging their use in education. It did 

not stop the mushrooming of competing English-medium private 

schools. Efforts were made to implement the Three-Language 

Formula, but, in the absence of proper monitoring of its 

6

7 


implementation, the Formula itself was diluted by different states, 

which resulted in its several versions. The Union Public Service 

Commission (UPSC) has made a provision for the use of languages 

of the Eighth Schedule as alternative media for competitive 

examinations, but, in the absence of adequate study materials in 

Hindi and regional languages, English continues to reign supreme as 

the only viable medium of examinations. Hindi is taught to the 

officers and staff of the Central service during their in-service 

training, but there is no urgency for its use as long as English 

continues as an associate official language. The Resolution makes 

important recommendations, but in the absence of an effective 

action plan and a sense of urgency on the part of the agencies 

involved, these recommendations are not implemented properly. 

Hindi has a significant role in education. It is used as a subject of 

study as well as a medium of education in India from the primary 

level to the university level in all the Hindi-speaking states in India. 

It is also used as a medium for technical education at the lower 

levels. Various organizations at the Union and state levels are 

engaged in the preparation of textbooks and supplementary 

instructional materials in Hindi. English continues to be a preferred 

medium of instruction for science and technology at the higher 

levels. 

Hindi has a prominent role in both electronic and print media. Hindi 

is widely used in programs on radio and television and in films. The 

language style of Hindi used in electronic media is close to the 

spoken variety of so-called Hindustani. In the print media, styles 

vary from high Hindi to that commonly understood by the Hindi- 

Urdu speech community. Whereas a few newspapers and periodicals 

prefer high Hindi or the Sanskritized style, others prefer to use the 

Urdu vocabulary. A large number of newspapers, periodicals, and 

journals are published in Hindi. 

1.6. Grammars in Hindi 

Beginning in the eighteenth century, Hindi has a long tradition of 

grammatical literature which falls under the categories of (a) 

traditional grammars, (b) comparative and historical grammars, and 

(c) modern linguistic grammars. Bhatia (1987) provides a critical 

survey of the Hindi grammatical tradition. Traditional grammars 

describe the language using the traditional framework of Sanskrit


grammars. Comparative and historical grammars are mostly 

concerned with presenting the diachronic description of the 

grammatical features at different linguistic levels, especially 

phonology and morphology. They are useful for historical linguists 

and those interested in the comparative linguistics of Indo-Aryan 

languages. 

Modern linguistic grammars in Hindi have been written with various 

objectives. Most of the modern linguistic grammars deal with some 

aspects of syntax at length and tend to apply the western theoretical 

models and raise theoretical issues. They are useful for linguists 

interested in theoretical discussions and are of little use to the 

language learners and teachers of Hindi or to general readers. It is 

important to mention a few grammars here. 

Aryendra Sharma (1958) prepared first detailed descriptive grammar 

of modern Hindi in English. It has been revised and printed several 

times. Though written in a traditional format it presents a good 

description of Hindi. Different linguistic aspects of Hindi have been 

described in various dissertations and independent grammatical 

studies lately. I will specially mention three recent works: Mountaut 

(2005), Kachru (2006), and Agnihotri (2007) written with different 

objectives. 

Moutaut (2005) provides a functional description of Hindi from a 

typological perspective. She provides a brief phonological outline of 

standard Hindi, its morphological analysis, an analysis of simple 

clauses and complex sentences. The final section provides 

representative features of standard Hindi, its various dialects with 

special reference to other neighboring Indo-Aryan languages. She 

presents review of the earlier works on the subject and uses 

examples from various written texts. It is a first linguistic grammar 

of Hindi written from a typological point of view and is useful for 

linguists working in the area of linguistic typology with special 

reference to Indo-Aryan languages. 

Kachru (2006) describes the structure of modern Hindi keeping in 

view primarily the sociolinguistic context of language use. She 

provides description of sounds, devices of word formation, rules of 

phrases, and sentence constructions and conventions and practices of 

language use in spoken and written texts keeping in view recent 

linguistic theories. She also deals with the information and 

8

9 


discourse structure of the current use of Hindi. This is quite useful 

for linguists and language learners of Hindi in various situations. 

Agnihotri (2007) is a practical reference guide to the core structures 

and linguistic features of Hindi. He provides brief description of 

various simple, compound and complex structures of Hindi. Word 

morphology, phonology, and issues related to Devanagari script are 

dealt with adequate examples. It is useful for linguists and students 

of Hindi for reference. 

There is a scope for a pedagogically oriented grammar which 

provides essential information for the use of Hindi language learners 

as well as teachers. The present Modern Hindi Grammar is an effort 

in this direction. It is pedagogically oriented; utilizing simpler 

terminology and authentic data from standard spoken and written 

Hindi; providing useful descriptions and tables of grammatical 

categories as well as simple descriptions of phrases, and sentence 

types designed for the use of language learners, teachers of Hindi at 

various levels. The Phonology describes segmental phonemes 

(vowels, consonants), suprasegmentals (length, stress, intonation), 

and morphophonology (alternations, deletion and insertion, 

allomorphs). The Morphology provides descriptions of nominal 

morphology (noun inflection, gender, number, case, postpositions, 

pronouns, adjectives), verb morphology (types of verbs, verb 

inflections, voice, tense, aspect, mood, non-finite verb forms), and 

adverbs. The Syntax describes the structure of phrases, sentence 

types, complex and compound constructions, other syntactic 

constructions among other items. The Lexicon presents a classified 

vocabulary of Hindi under 12 sub-sections. It is followed by Index.

2. Phonology 

2.1. Phonological Units (Segmental) 

11 

2. PHONOLOGY 

The pulmonic egressive airstream mechanism is involved in the 

production of all phonetic segments of the language. 

2.1.1. Distinctive Segments 

The inventory of the distinctive segments of Hindi is as follows: 

Vowels 

Front Central Back 

High i: u: 

Lower High i u 

Mid e o 

Lower Mid ´ ø 

Low a a: 

The nasalization is phonemic in Hindi. It is represented by the nasal 

sign ˜ written above the vowel signs as given below: 

Front Central Back 

High ĩ: ũ: 

Lower High ĩ ũ 

Mid ẽ õ 

Lower Mid ´~ ø~ 

Low ã ã:

2. PHONOLOGY 

Consonants 

Bilabial 

Labiodental 

Alveolar 

12 

Dental 

Retroflex 

Palatal 

velar 

vl.unasp p t t� k 

vl.asp ph th t�h kh 

vd.unsap b d d� g 

vd.asp 

Affricates 

bh dh d�h gh 

vl.unas c 

vl.asp ch 

Vd.unas j 

vd.asp jh 

Nasal m n n� η 

Trill 

Flap 

r 

unasp r� 

asp r�h 

Lateral 

Fricative 

l 

vl f s š x 

vd z h 

Semivowel v y 

2.1.2. Description of Phonemes 

2.1.2.1. Vowels 

Oral Vowels 

There is a contrast in the position of the tongue, the height of the 

tongue, and the rounding of the lips in the articulation of vowels. 

/i:/ (high front unrounded long vowel): 

[-d i:d Eid 

naIr ni:r water 

jaldI jaldi: hurry 

Glottal 

Stops

i/ (high front unrounded short vowel): 

[maart ima:rat building 

igarnaa girna: to fall 

pit pati husband 

/e/ (mid front unrounded long vowel): 

ek ek one 

rot ret sand 

jaUto ju:te shoes 

/a/ (low central unrounded short vowel): 

Agar agar if 

pr par but 

na na no 

/a:/ (low central unrounded long vowel): 

Aama a:m mango 

Aarama a:ra:m rest 

AcCa accha: good 

/u/ (high back rounded short vowel): 

]znaa ut�hna: to rise 

pu~ putr son 

ikMtu kintu but 

/u:/ (high back rounded long vowel): 

}na u:n wool 

saUd su:d interest 

BaalaU bha:lu: bear 

/o/ (mid back rounded long vowel): 

Aaosa os dew 

raoTI rot�i: bread 

dao do two 

/´/ (lower mid unrounded front vowel) 

eonak ńak mirror 

gaOr g´r stranger 

laO l´ tune 

/ø/ (lower mid rounded back vowel) 

AaOrt ørat woman 

daOlat dølat wealth 

saaO sø hundred 

13 

2. PHONOLOGY

2. PHONOLOGY 

Nasal Vowels 

Nasalization is phonemic in Hindi. All the vowels can be nasalized. 

/ĩ/ [Mca ĩc inch 

ipMjara pĩjra: cage 

/ĩ:/ [IMT ĩ:t� brick 

saIMcanaa sĩ:cna: to irrigate 

nahIM nahĩ: no 

/ẽ/ BaoMT bhẽt� meeting 

maoM mẽ in 

/ã/ MAÐgaUza ãgu:t�ha: thumb 

zMD t�hãd� cold 

/ã:/ AaMÐgana ã:gan courtyard 

maaÐga mã:g demand 

maaÐ mã: mother 

/ũ/ ]MÐsa ũs ounce 

mauMÐh mũh face 

/ũ:/ }ÐT ũ:t� camel 

saUMÐGanaa sũ:ghna: to smell 

jaUMÐ jũ: louse 

/õ/ AaoMz õt�h lip 

gaaoMd gõd gum 

sarsaaoM sarsõ mustard 

/´~/ eoMznaa ´~t�hna: to tighten 

BaOMsa bh´~s buffalo 

maOM m´~ I 

/ø~/ AaOMQaa ø~dha: upside down 

caaOMtIsa cø~ti:s thiry-four 

BaaOM bhø~ eyebrow 

2.1.2.2. Consonants 

Consonants are classified into different groups on the basis of their 

manner and place of articulation. Examples of phonemic 

consonantal segments of Hindi are presented in minimal or near 

minimal pairs. Non-phonemic phonetic segments are also 

exemplified. The examples given below represent their phonetic 

transcription. 

14

Stops and Affricates 

15 

2. PHONOLOGY 

In the production of stops, air coming out of the lungs is stopped at 

the point of articulation and then released with plosion. Stops occur 

at initial, medial, and final positions of words. 

/p/ (voiceless unaspirated bilabial stop): 

pla pal moment 

kpD,a kapr�a: cloth 

saaÐp sã:p snake 

/ph/ (voiceless aspirated bilabial stop): 

fla phal fruit 

safla saphal successful 

saaf sa:ph clean 

/b/ (voiced unaspirated bilabial stop): 

bala bal strength 

AMbar ambar sky 

saba sab all 

/bh/ (voiced aspirated bilabial stop): 

BaalaU bha:lu: bear 

saBaa sabha: meeting 

laaBa la:bh profit 

/t/ (voiceless unaspirated dental stop): 

tar ta:r wire 

katnaa ka:tna: to spin 

rat ra:t night 

/th/ (voiceless aspirated dental stop): 

qaalaI tha:li: palate 

haqaI ha:thi: elephant 

haqa ha:th hand 

/d/ (voiced unaspirated dental stop): 

drvaaja,a darva:za: door 

vadI- vardi: uniform 

baMd band closed 

/dh/ (voiced aspirated dental stop): 

Qana dhan wealth 

AaQaa a:dha: half 

dUQa du:dh milk 

/t�/ (voiceless unaspirated retroflex stop): 

TaokrI t�okri: basket

2. PHONOLOGY 

kaTnaa ka:t�na: to cut 

kaoT kot� coat 

/t�h/ (voiceless aspirated retroflex stop): 

zga t�hag cheat 

imaza[- mit�ha:i: sweets 

Aaz a:t�h eight 

/d�/ (voiced unaspirated retroflex stop): 

D,alaI d�a:li: branch 

inaDr nid�ar fearless 

saaMÐD sã:d� bull 

/d�h/ (voiced aspirated retroflex stop): 

Zaola d�hol drum 

gaZa gad�ha: ditch 

/k/ (voiceless unaspirated velar stop): 

kana ka:n ear 

lakD,I lakr�i: wood 

naak na:k nose 

/kh/ (voiceless aspirated velar stop): 

Kaodnaa khodna: to dig 

doKnaa dekhna: to see 

raK ra:kh ashes 

/g/ (voiced unaspirated velar stop): 

gad-na gardan neck 

Agar agar if 

Aaga a:g fire 

/gh/ (voiced aspirated velar stop): 

Gar ghar home 

saUMÐGanaa sũ:ghna: to smell 

baaGa ba:gh tiger 

In the production of affricates, air coming out of the lungs passes 

with friction when the articulator is released gradually. Affricates 

occur in the initial, medial and final positions of words. 

/c/ (voiceless unaspirated palatal stop): 

caar ca:r four 

baccaa bacca: child 

kaMca kã:c glass 

/ch/ (voiceless aspirated palatal affricate): 

Co che six 

16

maClaI machli: fish 

kuC kuch some 

/j/ (voiced unaspirated palatal affricate): 

jaana ja:n life 

gaajar ga:jar carrot 

taja ta:j crown 

/jh/ (voiced aspirated palatal affricate): 

JaMDa jhãd�a: flag 

sauJaava sujha:v suggestion 

saaÐJa sã:jh evening 

Fricatives 

17 

2. PHONOLOGY 

There are alveolar and glottal fricatives. They occur at all positions. 

/f/ (voiceless labio-dental fricative) 

f,ja,- farz duty 

naf,rt nafrat dislike 

isaf,- sirf only 

/s/ (voiceless alveolar fricative): 

saat sa:t seven 

sasta sasta: cheap 

dsa das ten 

/z/ (voiced alveolar fricative): 

ja,baana zaba:n language 

baaja,ar ba:za:r market 

gaja, gaz yard 

/š/ (voiceless alveolar fricative): 

Sak šak suspicion 

AaSaa a:ša: hope 

naaSa na:š destruction 

/x/ (voiceless velar fricative): 

K,bar xabar news 

AK,baar axba:r newspaper 

SaaK, ša:x branch 

/h/ (voiceless glottal fricative): 

haqaI ha:thi: elephant 

bahar baha:r spring 

rah ra:h way

2. PHONOLOGY 

Nasals 

There are bilabial, alveolar, and velar nasals. The velar nasal occurs 

in medial and final positions only. 

/m/ (voiced bilabial nasal): 

maaqaa ma:tha: forehead 

kmara kamra: room 

Aarama a:ra:m rest 

/n/ (voiced alveolar nasal): 

naak na:k nose 

laanaa la:na: to bring 

Qaana dha:n paddy 

/n�/ (voiced retroflex nasal) 

ANau an�u atom 

pàNa pra:n� life 

/η/ (voiced velar nasal): 

rMganaa raηna: to dye 

rMga raη color 

Trill 

There is a voiced alveolar trill which occurs in all positions. 

/r/ (voiced alveolar trill): 

rssaI rassi: rope 

nama- narm soft 

tar ta:r wire 

Flaps 

/r�/ (voiced unaspirated retroflex flap): 

saD,k sar�ak road 

BaID, bhi:r� crowd 

/r�h/ (voiced aspirated retroflex flap): 

pZ,naa par�hna: to read 

QaaZ, dha:r�h jaw 

18

Lateral 

19 

2. PHONOLOGY 

There is a voiced alveolar lateral which occurs in all positions. 

/l/ (voiced alveolar lateral): 

laaoga log people 

klaa kala: art 

jaala ja:l net 

Semi-vowels 

/v/ (voiced labio-dental semi-vowel): 

vaada va:da: promise 

dvaa[- dava:i: medicine 

naava na:v boat 

/y/ (voiced palatal semi-vowel): 

yaad ya:d memory 

saayaa sa:ya: shade 

raya ra:y opinion 

2.1.2.3. Distribution of Phonemes and Allophones 

The retroflex voiced aspirated stop Z /d�h/ does not occur in the final 

position of words. The velar nasal = /η/, and the retroflex flaps D, 

/r�/and Z, /r�h/ do not occur in the word-initial positions. 

The nasal phoneme na /n/ has dental, retroflex, palatal, and velar 

allophones: na [n], Na [n�], and = [η]. Palatal and velar nasals are not 

assigned any phonemic status in Hindi. Phonetically they are 

pronounced in the speech only when they are followed by palatal 

and velar voiced consonant phonemes. They occur before 

homorganic voiced consonants.

2. PHONOLOGY 

2.2. Phonotactics 

2.2.1. Vowel Sequences 

In Hindi only two vowel sequences are permissible. 

ai: naa[- nai: new 

ia: idAa dia: lamp 

ie cailae calie let’s go 

ui: sau[- sui: needle 

uã: kuÐAa kuã: well 

oi: rao[- roi: wept 

oe Kaoe khoe lost 

2.2.2. Consonant Clusters 

2.2.2.1. Word-initial Consonant Clusters 

Word-initial consonant clusters are not as frequent as the wordmedial 

consonant clusters. 

ky @yaa kya: what 

kr k`ma kram order 

gy gyaarh gya:rah eleven 

gr ga`Mqa granth book 

jy jyaoYz jyešt�h elder 

jv jvar jvar fever 

t�r T/ona t�ren train 

d�y D\yaaoDa d�yod�a: two and a half times 

d�r D/amaa d�ra:ma: drama 

ty %yaaga tya:g sacrifice 

tv %vacaa tvaca: skin 

dhy Qyaana dhya:n attention 

py Pyaar pya:r love 

pr pRqvaI prithvi: earth 

br ba`h\maa bramha: Brahma 

by byaah bya:h marriage 

šy Syaama šya:m Shyam 

šr Eama šram labor 

sv Svaasa šva:s breath 

20

sy syaar sya:r jackal 

zy j,yaada zya:da: more 

nr naR%ya nraty dance 

ny nyaaya nya:y justice 

mr maRga mrig deer 

vy vyai@t vyakti person 

hr )dya hriday heart 

Initial three-consonant clusters 

str s~I stri: woman 

skr sk`Ìna skri:n screen 

smr smaRit smriti: remembrance 

2.2.2.2. Word-medial Consonant Clusters 

21 

2. PHONOLOGY 

Consonant clusters occur frequently in the medial position. Most of 

these clusters are formed across syllable or morpheme boundaries. 

There are some restrictions in the formation of consonant clusters as 

follows: (i) two aspirated consonants do not combine to form a 

consonant cluster, (ii) /ch/ is not combined to form a consonant 

cluster, (iii) /d�/ does not occur as the second member of a consonant 

cluster. Examples of the consonant clusters are given below. 

pt kPtana kapta:n captain 

ps vaapsaI va:psi: return 

fs Afsaaosa afsos sorry 

fl gaF,lat gaflat mistake 

fr naF,rt nafrat hate 

fv AF,vaa afva: rumor 

bn Sabnama šabnam dew 

bz sabja,I sabzi: vegetable 

tm Aa%maa a:tma: soul 

dt bad\tr badtar very bad 

dm badmaaSa badma:š rouge 

kb ma@baUla makbu:l popular 

kt ma@tba maktab school 

kt� A@Tr akt�ar actor 

kd h@,dar hakda:r rightful owner/entitled 

kr [k,rar ikra:r acceptance

2. PHONOLOGY 

ks nau@saana nuksa:n loss 

gv Bagavaana bhagva:n God 

ck Acakna ackan a long button-up coat 

mb AMbar ambar sky 

md namda namda: a carpet 

mjh samJanaa samjhna: to understand 

mv hmvaar hamva:r smooth 

nd AMdr andar inside 

nt� gaMTI gant�i: a bell 

nd� zMD,a thãd�a: cold 

nkh pMKa pãkha: fan 

nj rMijaSa rãjiš anger 

ns [Msaaf insa:ph justice 

nz maMija,la manzil destination 

nv jaanavar ja:nvar bird 

sp Asptala aspata:l hospital 

sb ksbaa kasba: town 

st sasta sasta: cheap 

sd hsdI hasdi: jealous 

sv tsvaIr tasvi:r picture 

št kuStI kušti: wrestling 

šm duSmana dušman enemy 

šv irSvat rišvat bribe 

lt galtI galti: mistake 

lt� ]lTa ult�a: opposite 

lk hlka halka: light in weight 

lm if,lmaI filmi: related to film 

ls AalsaI a:lsi: lethargic 

lz mauilja,ma mulzim accused 

rb gauba-t gurbat poverty 

rd gad-na gardan neck 

rx karK,anaa ka:rxa:na: factory 

rz maja,I- marzi: consent 

rh sarhd sarhad frontier 

rv drvaaja,a darva:za: door 

zm Aaja,maanaa a:zma:na: to try 

hb rhbar rahbar guide 

ht maaohtaja mohta:j dependent 

hs thsaIla tahsi:l tehsil ( subdivision) 

hl maaohllaa mohlla: mohalla (dwelling ward) 

22

yd paayadar pa:yda:r strong 

yv pyavaMd payvand grafting 

Medial three consonant clusters 

mjhn samaJanaa samjhna: to understand 

pgr ]pga`h upgrah satellite 

tpr ]%pàoxa utprokš metaphor 

tthr p%qarIlaa patthri:la: stony 

cct ]ccata uccta: height 

kšp pxapat pakšpa:t partiality 

jjv ]jjala ujjval bright 

ndr And$naI andru:ni: internal 

ndhk AMQakar andhka:r darkness 

ndg baMdgaI bandgi: worship 

nsk saMskar sanska:r rites 

ndn vaMdnaa vandna: prayer 

nyv Qanyavaad dhanyva:d thanks 

rtk nat-kI nartki: dancer (f) 

rkht maUK-ta mu:rkhta: foolishness 

rmc kma-caaarI karmca:ri worker 

ršn dSa-naIya daršni:y worth seeing 

rvj saava-jainak sa:rvjanik public 

syt sadsyata sadasyta: membership 

stm Asqamaa asthma: breathing problem 

št�r raYT/Iya ra:št�ri:y national 

Medial four-consonant clusters 

ntrt svatM~ta svatantrta: independence 

ndrv pMd`hvaaÐ pandhrva: fifteenth 

2.2.2.3. Word-final Consonant Clusters 

23 

2. PHONOLOGY 

Consonant clusters occur less frequently in the word-final position. 

pp gaPp gapp gossip 

pn svaPna svapn dream 

tm K,%ma xatm finish 

tn ya%na yatn try

2. PHONOLOGY 

t�t�h laT\z lat�t�h stick 

cc ]cca ucc high 

cch svacC svacch clean 

kt r@t rakt blood 

mp lamp lamp lamp 

nt sant sant saint 

nk baMk bank bank 

nkh SaMK šankh conch 

st mast mast carefree 

št gaSt gašt take a round 

št� kYT kašt� trouble 

rth Aqa- arth meaning 

rkh maUK- mu:rkh fool 

Final three-consonant clusters 

ntr maM~ mantr hymn 

ndr [Md` indr name of God 

str As~ astr weapon 

2.2.3. Syllable Structure 

Hindi has a (C)(C)V(C)(C) syllable structure. The assignment of the 

medial units to syllables does not depend on morphological 

structure. The first consonant of the medial cluster is assigned to the 

preceding syllable and the remaining elements of the unit to the 

following syllable. In the following examples, the syllable boundary 

is marked with [+] sign. 

nak\ + Saa na@Saa nak+ša: nakša: map 

sauna\ + dr sauMdr sun+dar sundar beautiful 

iksa\ + mat iksmat kis+mat kismat fate 

The vowel-initial syllables are found only in the initial position of 

words. 

AakaSa a:ka:š sky 

AmaRt amrit nectar 

[maart ima:rat building 

[laaja ila:j treatment 

24

There are different types of syllables. 

Monosyllable: 

maaÐ mã: mother 

caaya ca:y tea 

Gar ghar house 

Di-syllable: 

fa,yada fa:ida: profit 

Saaolaa šola: flame 

kagaja, ka:gaz paper 

Tri-syllable: 

nasaIyat nasi:hat advice 

ihrasat hira:sat arrest 

hkIkt haki:kat fact 

Quadra-syllable: 

ihMdustanaI hindusta:ni: Indian 

maukabalaa muka:bila: competition 

[Msaainayat insa:niyat humanity 

2.3. Suprasegmental Features 

25 

2. PHONOLOGY 

Nasalization, length, stress, intonation, and juncture are 

suprasegmental features. 

2.3.1. Nasalization 

Nasalization is an important suprasegmental feature in Hindi. All 

the vowels can be nasalized. Nasalization is distinctive so it has 

phonemic status. 

saasa sa:s mother-in-law saaÐsa sã:s breath 

kaTa ka:t�a: cut kaMÐTa kã:t�a: thorn 

pUC pu:ch ask pUMÐC pũ:ch tail 

gaaod god lap gaaoMd gõd gum 

qaI thi: was qaIM thĩ: were

2. PHONOLOGY 

2.3.2. Length 

Length is phonemic in Hindi. There are three pairs of short and long 

vowels: /i/ and /i:/; /a/ and /a:/; /u/ and /u:/. The following minimal 

pairs illustrate the contrast in the length of these vowels. 

imala mil mix maIla mi:l mile 

dsa das ten dasa da:s servant 

]na un they (obl) }na u:n wool 

2.3.3. Stress 

Stress is not a distinctive feature of Hindi; it is not in phonemic 

contrast. Hindi is a syllable-timed language, sometimes individual 

words are stressed for emphasis only. Usually, the syllable 

preceding the consonant cluster gets stress. 

bauiw buddhi intelligence 

sa%ya saty truth 

The initial cluster of the word also gets stress. 

pòma prem love 

spYTta spašt�ta: clarity 

In di-syllabic words where both syllables have long or short vowels, 

the first syllable is stressed. 

A@sar aksar always 

AMdr andar inside 

Aakar a:ka:r figure 

Aasamaana a:sma:n sky 

In di-syllable words wherein the first syllable contains low front or 

back vowels, the first syllable is stressed. 

f,aOjaI føji: soldier 

kOdI k´di: prisoner 

26

27 

2. PHONOLOGY 

The second syllable is stressed when the first syllable has a short 

vowel and the second has a long vowel. 

nasaIba nasi:b fate 

iktaba kita:b book 

In tri-syllable words, the first syllable is stressed if the first syllable 

has a long vowel, the second has a short vowel, and the third has a 

long vowel. 

baohyaa behaya: shameless 

baovakUf bevaku:ph stupid 

The last syllable is stressed if the first syllable has a short vowel and 

the last two have long vowels. 

ihMdustana hindusta:n India 

banajaara banja:ra: nomad 

In words of more than three syllables, the stress is always on the 

penultimate syllable. 

samaJadarI samajhda:ri: understanding 

2.3.4. Intonation 

There are four major types of intonational patterns: (1) high-fall, 

(2) high-rise, (3) rise-and-fall, (4) mid-level. Intonations have 

syntactic rather than emotional content. Statements have a high-fall 

intonation pattern. Intonation peaks are generally positioned on the 

penultimate word or on the negative particle if there is one. 

1. vah iktaba pZ, rha hO. 

vah kita:b par�h raha: h´. 

he book read-pr is 

He is reading a book. 

2. kagaja, AlamaarI maoM nahIM hMO. 

ka:gaz alma:ri: mẽ nahĩ: h´~ 

papers almirah in neg are 

The papers are not in the almirah.

2. PHONOLOGY 

Yes-no questions and tag questions have a high-rise intonation. 

3. @yaa vah kla Aayaa? 

kya: vah kal a:ya:? 

Q he yesterday came-Q 

Did he come yesterday? 

Information questions have a rise-and-fall intonation. The rise in 

intonation is registered on the question word and the fall is attained 

gradually. 

4. Aap kba baaja,ar gae? 

a:p kab ba:za:r gaye? 

you when market went 

When did you go to the market? 

5. maaohna iksasao imalaa? 

mohan kisse mila:? 

Mohan who-dat met-3s 

Who did Mohan meet? 

Commands generally follow the mid-level intonational pattern. 

6. drvaaja,a baMd krao. 

darva:za: band karo. 

door close do-imp 

Close the door. 

Contrastive and Emphatic Intonation 

The contrastive and emphatic intonations are the same as they 

employ more than the average stress on the constituents of a 

sentence. The element to be contrasted carries a slightly higher 

stress than the emphasized segment. For example, any of the 

elements can be emphasized in the following sentence depending on 

the degree of emphasis. The emphasis is indicated by bolding 

different elements. 

28

7a. Aap idllaI jaa[e. 

a:p dilli: ja:ie. 

you Delhi go-fu-2p 

You go to Delhi. 

7b. Aap idllaI jaa[e. 



7c. Aap idllaI jaa[e. 



2.3.5. Juncture 

29 

2. PHONOLOGY 

Juncture is functional in Hindi. Internal juncture may be considered 

as phonemic juncture. Mostly, the medial clusters have juncture 

because those sequences of sounds do not occur in the same 

syllable. 

mauiSkla muškil difficult 

Anajaana anja:n ignorant 

kuta- kurta: shirt 

badmaaSa badma:š rogue 

The following minimal pairs indicate the phonemic status of 

internal juncture: 

Kanaa kha:na: food 

Ka + naa kha: + na: to eat 

klaa[- kala:i: wrist 

kla + Aa[- kal + a:i: came yesterday 

isaka- sirka: vinegar 

isar + ka sir + ka: of the head 

There are two types of juncture: (i) internal juncture and (ii) 

external juncture. The internal juncture (+) reduces words into 

phrases or compound words in the sentences.

2. PHONOLOGY 

8a. ija,MdgaI + maaOt ka @yaa Baraosaa 

zindagi: + møt ka: kya: bharosa: 

life death-gen what guarantee 

There is no guarantee of life or death. 

External juncture (#) occurs between each word and the words 

joined by this juncture retain their separate identity. 

8b. ija,MdgaI # maaOt ka @yaa Baraosaa 

zindagi: # møt ka: kya: bharosa: 

There is no guarantee of life or death. 

2.4. Morphophonemics 

Various morphological processes can be marked as loss, addition, 

and replacement of phonemes. 

2.4.1. Loss of Phoneme 

The vowel /a/ in the last syllable is dropped when the suffix /-õ/ is 

added to the word. 

AaOrt ørat woman 

AaOrtaoM øratõ women (obl) 

pagala pa:gal mad 

pagalaaoM pa:glõ mad persons (obl) 

The consonant na /n/ of a numeral system is lost before any numeral 

suffix beginning with /t t-, r r-, h h-/ is added. 

tIna ti:n three + rh rah ten marker = torh terah thirteen 

2.4.2. Addition of Phoneme 

The vowel e /-e/ is added to the root before the suffixes are added to 

it. 

itr tir + pna pan = itropna tirepan fifty-three 

itr tir + saz sat�h = itrosaz tiresat�h sixty-three 

30

31 

2. PHONOLOGY 

When different suffixes are added to the root, the an addition of a 

consonant takes place. 

ba ba + tIsa ti:s = batIsa batti:s thirty-two 

Sak šak + [- i: = SakI šaki: one who doubts 

2.4.3. Alternations 

The long vowel Aao /o/ of the verb root changes to a short vowel ] 

/u/ when the suffix -laa /-la:/ is added to the verb roots. 

Kaola khol open + laa la: = Kulaa khula: opened 

rao ro weep + laa la: = Élaa rula: to make weep? 

The long vowel [- /i:/ of the verb root becomes the short [ /i/ when 

the suffix A -a: is added to the verb root. 

pI pi: drink + laa la: = ipla pila: make drink 

saIK si:kh learn + Aa a: = isaKa sikha: teach 

When the suffixes laa /-la:/ or Aa /-a:/ are attached to the 

monosyllabic verbal stems their vowels e /e/ and Aa /a:/ change into 

[ /i/. 

do de give + laa la: = idlaa dila: cause to give 

Ka kha: eat + laa la: = iKlaa khila: cause to eat 

doK dekh see + Aa a: = idKa dikha: cause to see 

In certain morphophonemic changes, some consonants are replaced 

by others. 

tIna ti:n three + pna pan = itropna trepan fifty-three 

[k ik one + caalaIsa ca:li:s = [ktalaIsa ikta:li:s forty-one 

Morphophonemic changes at junctural points or sandhi are very 

common in Hindi. They usually takes place in compound words. 

saUya- su:rya 

sun 

caMd` candr 

moon 

+ Aaid a:di 

etc. 

+ ]dya uday 

rise 

= saUya-aid su:rya:di sun and the 

like. 

= caMdàodya candroday moonrise

3. Morphology 

33 

3. MORPHOLOGY 

This chapter deals with the morphological structure of different 

word classes, describing their inflectional and derivational forms. 

Word classes described include nouns, pronouns, adjectives, verbs, 

adverbs, particles, connectives, and interjections. 

3.1. Nouns 

3.1.1. Noun Inflection 

Nouns in Hindi are inflected for gender, number, and case. There are 

three declensions of nouns; Declension I includes Aa /a:/ ending 

masculine nouns; Declension II includes all other masculine nouns; 

and Declension III includes all feminine nouns. 

3.1.1.1. Gender 

There are two genders in Hindi: masculine and feminine. Besides 

the natural gender of animate nouns, every inanimate noun is 

assigned a gender. Though the gender of a large number of 

inanimate nouns can be predicted by their endings, there are no hard 

and fast rules for assigning the genders. Masculine forms are 

traditionally taken as basic. The gender formation involves (a) 

suffixation, (b) phonological changes, and (c) suppletion. We can 

make some general observations as follows. 

(i) Most of the Aa /a:/ ending masculine nouns have their feminine 

forms ending in [- /i:/. 

laD,ka lar�ka: boy laD,kI lar�ki: girl 

caacaa ca:ca: uncle caacaI ca:ci: aunt 

iballaa billa: he cat iballaI billi: she cat 

baccaa bacca: child (m) baccaI bacci: child (f) 

dada da:da: father’s father dadI da:di: father’s mother 

naanaa na:na: mother’s father naanaI na:ni: mother’s mother 

saalaa sa:la: wife’s brother saalaI sa:li: wife’s sister 

pgalaa pagla: a mad man pgalaI pagli: a mad woman

3. MORPHOLOGY 

In the above examples, the final -Aa /-a:/ in the masculine nouns is 

replaced by - [- /-i:/ in their feminine forms. 

(ii) Most of the - [- /-i:/ ending animate masculine nouns have their 

feminine forms ending in -Ana /-an/. 

Masculine Feminine 

QaaobaI dhobi: washerman Qaaobana dhoban washerwoman 

tolaI teli: oilman tolana telan oilwoman 

maalaI ma:li: gardener (m) maalana ma:lan gardener (f) 

jaaogaI jogi: saint (m) jaaogana jogan saint (f) 

(iii) Some nouns ending in - Aa /-a:/ form their feminine (diminutive) 

by 

replacing -Aa /-a:/ with - [yaa /-iya:/. 

Dbaa d�aba: box iDibayaa d�ibiya: a small box 

(iv) Most of the -Aa /-a:/ ending inanimate nouns are masculine and - 

[- /-i:/ ending inanimate nouns are feminine. 


pMKa pankha: fan pMKI pankhi: a small fan 

saaoTa sot�a: a big stick saaoTI sot�i: a small stick 

kTaora kat�ora: a bowl kTaorI kat�ori: a small bowl 

kaoza kot�ha: a room kaozrI kot�hri: a small room 

In the above examples, the final -Aa /a:/ in the masculine forms is 

replaced by the suffix -[- /i:/. 

(v) The suffix -naI /-ni:/ is added to the masculine nouns to form the 

feminine. 


Saor šer lion SaornaI šerni: lioness 

maaor mor peacock maaornaI morni: peahen 

maasTr ma:st�ar teacher (m) maasTrnaI ma:st�arni: teacher (f) 

}ÐT ũ:t� camel }ÐTnaI ũ:t�ni: she-camel 

naaOkr nøkar servant (m) naaOkranaI nøkra:ni: servant (f) 

34

35 

3. MORPHOLOGY 

(vi) The suffix -[- /-i:/ is added to the masculine nouns to form the 

feminine. 


dasa da:s servant dasaI da:si: maid 

pu~ putr son pu~I putri: daughter 

sauMdr sundar beautiful sauMdrI sundri: beautiful woman 

3.1.1.2. Number 

There are two numbers: singular and plural. 

(i) The -Aa /-a:/ ending masculine nouns (including pronouns and 

adjectives), with a few exceptions change into -e /-e/ ending forms 

in the plural. 

Singular Plural 

laD,ka lar�ka: boy laD,ko lar�ke boys 

GaaoD,a gho:r�a: horse GaaoD,o ghor�e horses 

maora mera: my maoro mere my 

kalaa ka:la: black kalao ka:le black 

The following -Aa /-a:/ ending masculine nouns do not change in 

their plural form. 

ipta pita: father/fathers 

naota neta: leader/leaders 

diryaa dariya: river/rivers 

(ii) All other consonant and/or other vowel-ending nouns do not 

change in their plural forms. 

maaor mor peacock(s) 

kaoT kot� coat(s) 

gaàma gra:m village(s) 

haqaI ha:thi: elephant(s) 

Émaala ruma:l handkerchief/handkerchiefs 

QaaoobaI dhobi: laundry man/ laundry men

3. MORPHOLOGY 

(iii) The feminine plurals are formed by adding the suffix -eM /ẽ/ to 

the consonant-ending singular forms. 

iktaba kita:b book iktabaoM kita:bẽ books 

maoja, mez table maoja,oM mezẽ tables 

gaaya ga:y cow gaayaoM ga:yẽ cows 

(iv) The plural suffix -[yaaÐ -iyã: is added to the -[-M -i: ending feminine 

nouns. 

laD,kI lar�ki: girl + [yaaÐ -iyã: = laD,ikyaaÐ lar�kiyã: girls 

kusaI- kursi: chair + [yaaÐ -iyã: = kuisa-yaaÐ kursiyã: chairs 

khanaI kaha:ni: story + [yaaÐ -iyã: = khainayaaÐ kaha:niyã: stories 

Notice that when the suffix is added the final vowel of the stem is 

deleted. 

3.1.1.3. Case 

The syntactic and semantic functions of noun phrases are expressed 

by case-suffixes, postpositions and derivational processes. There are 

two cases: direct and oblique. Case-suffixes and postpositions are 

used to express syntactic and semantic functions. Case suffixes are 

defined as bound suffixes, which do not occur independently as 

words and are added only to the noun phrases. Case suffixes added 

to the oblique forms of nouns agreeing in number and gender. 

Case Masculine Feminine 

Sg Pl Sg Pl 

Direct Ø Ø Ø Ø 

Oblique -e -e -AaoM -õ -[ -i -AaoM -õ 

Vocative -e -e -Aao -o -[ -i -Aao -o 

The vocative address forms may be preceded by the vocative 

morphemes Aao o/ ho he/ Aro are. The role of case-suffixes and 

postpositions is explained in the paradigms of laD,ka lar�ka: ‘boy’ and 

laD,kI lar�ki: ‘girl’ given below. 

36

Case Noun + Marker 


Sg Pl Sg Pl 

Direct laD,ka laD,ko laD,kI laD,ikyaaÐ 

lar�ka: lar�ke lar�ki: lar�kiyã: 

Oblique laD,ko laD,kaoM laD,kI laD,ikyaaoM 

lar�ke lar�kõ lar�ki: lar�kiyõ 

Vocative Aao o/ ho he/ Aro are laD,ko lar�ke Oh boy 

Aao o/ ho he/ Aro are laD,kao lar�ko Oh boys 

e e/ ho he/ Aro are laD,kI lar�ki: Oh girl 

e e/ ho he/ Aro are laD,ikyaao lar�kiyo Oh girls 

37 

3. MORPHOLOGY 

Case-suffixes followed by postpositions indicate various 

relationships between the noun phrases and the verb phrases. 

3.1.2. Postpositions 

Postpositions have specific semantic functions. They express the 

semantic dimensions of a noun such as benefaction, manner, or 

location. The main postpositions are: nao ne ‘ergative marker’; kao ko 

‘to’; ko ilae ke liye ‘for’; pr par ‘on’; maoM mẽ ‘in’; sao se ‘from’; sao se 

‘with’; ka /ko /kI ka/ke/ki: ‘of’.’ The postpositions are written as 

separate words with nouns (Aimat nao amit ne, ]maa kao uma: ko), but they 

are tagged to pronouns (maOMnao m´~ne ]sakao usko, iksaka kiska:). 

3.1.2.1. The Postposition nao ne 

The postposition nao ne is used with subject noun phrases usually with 

the transitive verbs in the past tense. The verb agrees with the object. 

1. maOMnao p~ ilaKa. 

m´~ne patr likha: 

I-erg letter wrote 

I wrote a letter. 

1a. *maOMnao p~ ilaKa. 

*m´~ patr likha:

3. MORPHOLOGY 

2. ]sanao kpD,o Qaaoe. 

usne kapr�e dhoye 

he-erg clothes washed 

He washed clothes. 

2a. vah kpD,o Qaaoyaa. 

*vah kapr�e dhoya: 

Whenever the objects are followed by the dative postposition kao ko, 

the verb remains in masculine singular form. 

3. maaohna nao baihna /bahnaaoM kao baulaayaa. 

mohan ne bahin/bahnõ ko bula:ya: 

Mohan-erg sister/sisters-dat called 

Mohan called (his) sister/sisters. 

4. hmanao laD,ko / laD,kaoM / laD,kI /laD,ikyaaoM kao pZ,ayaa. 

hamne lar�ke/lar�kõ/lar�ki:/ lar�kiyõ ko par�ha:ya: 

we-erg boy/boys/girl/girls-dat taught 

We taught the boy/boys/girl/girls. 

The nao ne postposition is not used with the subjects of the following 

transitive verbs: laanaa la:na: ‘to bring,’ Kolanaa khelna: ‘to play,’ baaolanaa 

bolna: ‘to speak,’ BaUlanaa bhu:lna: ‘to forget,’ and baknaa bakna: ‘to 

chatter.’ 

5. ]maa kmaIja, laa[-. 

uma: kami:z la:i: 

Uma-nom shirt brought 

Uma brought a shirt. 

5a. *]maa nao kmaIja, laa[-. 

*uma: ne kami:z la:i: 

6. laD,ka baaolaa. 

lar�ka: bola: 

boy said 

The boy said. 

6a. *laD,ko nao baaolaa. 

*lar�ke ne bola: 

38

7. vah rasta BaUlaa. 

voh ra:sta: bhu:la: 

he way forgot 

He forgot/lost the way. 

7a. *]sanao rasta BaUlaa. 

*usne ra:sta: bhu:la: 

8. vah kafI dor baka. 

vah ka:phi: de:r baka: 

he-nom lot duration chattered 

He chattered for a long time. 

8a. *]sanao kafI dor baka. 

*usne ka:phi de:r baka: 

39 

3. MORPHOLOGY 

The postposition nao ne is used with the following intransitive verbs: 

CIMknaa chĩ:kna: ‘to sneeze’; KaÐsanaa khã:sna: ‘to cough’; nahanaa naha:na: 

‘to take a bath’; and qaUknaa thu:kna: ‘to spit’. 

9. ]sanao Gar sao inaklato samaya CIMka. 

usne ghar se nikalte samay chĩ:ka: 

he-erg house-abl from set out-ptc time sneezed 

He sneezed as he was leaving the house. 

10. baImaar vyai@t ³naoó ja,aor sao KaÐsaa. 

bi:ma:r vyakti (ne) zo:r se khã:sa: 

ill person-erg loudly coughed 

The ill person coughed loudly. 

11. maOMnao garma panaI sao nahayaa. 

m´~ne garm pa:ni: se naha:ya: 

I-erg hot water with bathed 

I took a bath in hot water. 

12. tumanao saD,k pr @yaaoM qaUka? 

tumne sar�ak par kyõ thu:ka:? 

you-erg road on why spit-past 

Why did you spit on the road?

3. MORPHOLOGY 

It is not used in constructions using the modal verbs laganaa lagna:, cauknaa 

cukna:, and saknaa sakna:: 

13. vah saoba Kanao lagaa. 

vah seb kha:ne laga: 

he apple eat-inf-obl started 

He started eating apples. 

13a. *]sanao saoba Kanao lagaa. 

*usne seb kha:ne laga: 

14. maOM yah kama kr cauka. 

m´~ yah ka:m kar cuka: 

I this work do completed 

I finished this work. 

14a. *maOMnao yah kama kr cauka. 

*m´~ne yah ka:m kar cuka: 

15. vah icaT\zI ilaK saka. 

vah cit�t�hi: likh saka: 

he letter write could 

He could write a letter. 

15a. *]sanoa icaT\zI ilaK saka. 

*usne cit�t�hi: likh saka: 

In the case of a few transitive verbs like samaJanaa samjhna: ‘to 

understand’ and Kolanaa khelna: ‘to play,’ the use of this postposition is 

optional. 

16. maOMnao ]sakI baat samaJaI. 

m´~ne uski: ba:t samjhi: 

I-erg his/her matter understood 

I understood what he said. 

16a. maOM ]sakI baat samaJaa. 

m´~ uski: ba:t samjha.: 

I his/her matter understood 

I understood what he said. 

40

17. maOM samaJaa vah baImaar hO. 

m´~ samjha: voh bi:ma:r h´. 

I understood he sick is 

I thought he was sick. 

17a. maOMnao samaJaa vah baImaar hO. 

m´~ne samjha: voh bi:ma:r h´. 

18. vah hakI Kolaa. 

vah ha:ki: khe:la:. 

he hockey played 

He played hockey. 

18a. ]sanao hakI KolaI. 

usne haki: khe:li:. 

he-erg hockey played 

He played hockey. 

41 

3. MORPHOLOGY 

The use of the postposition nao ne is invariably found in compound 

verb constructions with the verb samaJanaa samjhna: ‘to understand’ as 

the main verb. 

19. maOMnao baat samaJa laI. 

m´~ne ba:t samajh li: 

I-erg matter understand took 

I understood the matter. 

19a. *maOM baat samaJa laI. 

*m´~ ba:t samajh li: 

3.1.2.2. The Postposition kao ko 

The postposition kao ko is used in different types of sentences and is 

placed after nouns. It is optional when used with object nouns which 

are followed by conjunct verbs with an adjective or adverb and the 

verb. 

1. maoja, (kao) saaf krao. 

mez (ko) sa:f karo 

table (dat) clean do-imp 

Clean the table.

3. MORPHOLOGY 

2. ,kama (kao) K%ma krao. 

ka:m (ko) xatm karo 

work (dat) finish do-imp 

Finish the work. 

3. kar (kao) toja, krao. 

ka:r (ko) tez karo. 

car (dat) fast do-imp 

Speed up the car. 

4. kagaja, (kao) dUr rKaoo. 

ka:gaz (ko) du:r rakho. 

paper (dat) away do-imp 

Keep the paper away. 

5. saMdUk (kao) [Qar/ ]Qar/ }pr/ naIcao rKaoo. 

sandu:k (ko) idhar/udhar/upar/ni:ce rakho 

box (dat) here/there/up/down do-imp 

Keep the box here/there/up/down. 

In the object +kao ko+verb construction, the verb may be transitive or 

causative. 

6. maOMnao p~ (kao) pZ,a. 

m´~ne patr (ko) par�ha: 

I-erg letter (dat) read 

I read the letter. 

7. ]sanao iktaba kao baocaa. 

usne kita:b ko beca: 

he-erg book-dat sold 

He sold the book. 

7a. ]sanao iktaba baocaI. 

usne kita:b beci: 

He sold the book. 

8. ]sanao baccao kao saulaayaa. 

usne bacce ko sula:ya: 

he-erg child-dat sleep-caus 

He made the child sleep. 

42

8a. ]sanao baccaa saulaayaa. 

usne bacca: sula:ya: 

43 

3. MORPHOLOGY 

In the subject + kao ko + complement + verb constructions, the verbs 

express the state of mind, physical experience, involuntarily actions, 

feelings, obligations, and emotions (9-12). 

9. saunaIta kao bauKar hO. 

suni:ta ko bhukha:r h´ 

Sunita-dat fever is 

Sunita has fever. 

10. Amar kao duK huAa. 

amar ko dukh hua: 

Amar-dat pain felt 

Amar felt pain. 

11. maaohna kao KaÐsaI Aa[-. 

mohan ko hãsĩ: a:i: 

Mohan-dat laugh came 

Mohan laughed. 

12. baccao kao Dr lagaa. 

bacce ko d�ar laga: 

child-dat fear struck 

The child was afraid. 

The postposition kao ko is used in the secondary object + kao ko + main 

object + verb constructions. 

13. maOM Apnao Baa[- kao p~ ilaK rha hUM. 

m´~ apne bha:i: ko patr likh raha: hũ: 

I self-obl brother-dat letter write-prog am 

I am writing a letter to my brother. 

Pronouns + kao ko have alternate forms as follows: 

vah vah + kao ko = ]sakao/ ]sao usko/use 

yah yah + kao ko = [sakao/ [sao isko/ise 

[na in + kao ko = [nakao/ [nhoM inko/inhẽ 

]na un + kao ko = ]nakao/ ]nhoM unko/unhẽ

3. MORPHOLOGY 

In the ]sao use/[sao ise/[nhoM inhẽ/]nhoM unhẽ forms, there is an inherent kao ko. 

It is possible to use these forms along with nouns + kao ko. 

14. ]sao/]nhoM maaohna kao do dao. 

use/unhẽ mohan ko de do. 

that/those-dat Mohan-dat give-imp 

Give that/those to Mohan. 

15. [sao lao jaaAao. 

ise le ja:o. 

this-dat take-imp 

Take this. 

The postposition kao ko is not normally used with time adverbials. 

16. vah Aaja Aaegaa. 

vah a:j a:ega:. 

he today come-fut 

He will come today. 

16a. *vah Aaja kao Aaegaa. 

*vah a:j ko a:ega: 

17. vah kla jaaegaa. 

vah kal ja:ega:. 

he tomorrow go-fut 

He will go tomorrow. 

17a. *vah kla kao jaaegaa. 

*vah kal ko ja:ega:. 

But in certain contexts, kao ko can be used with kla kal, not to indicate 

‘tomorrow,’ but to denote an indefinite time in the future. 

18. kaOna jaanao kla kao @yaa haogaa. 

køn ja:ne kal ko kya: hoga:. 

who know-obl tomorrow-obl what happen-fut 

Who knows what will happen tomorrow? 

44

45 

3. MORPHOLOGY 

19. Agar kla kao ]nhoM kuC hao gayaa tao… 

agar kal ko unhẽ kuch ho gaya: to… 

if tomorrow-obl he-obl something happenened then … 

If anything happens to him tomorrow then … 

The postposition kao ko can be used optionally with time adverbs, like 

rat ra:t ‘night,’ Saama ša:m ‘evening,’and duphr dupahar ‘afternoon.’ 

20. Aaja Saama/Saama kao Aap maoro Gar Aa[e. 

a:j ša:m/ša:m ko a:p mere ghar a:iye. 

today evening/-dat you mine house come-imp.pol 

Please come to my house today in the evening. 

The postposition kao ko is not used with place adverbs like yahaÐ yahã: 

‘here’; vahaÐ vahã: ‘there’; }pr upar ‘above’; naIcao ni:ce ‘under’; Aagao a:ge 

‘in front’; and pICo pi:che ‘behind.’ 

21. maOM yahaÐM Aa}Ðgaa. 

m´~ yahã: a:ũ:ga: 

I here come-fut 

I will come here. 

21a. *maOM yahaÐ kao Aa}Ðgaa. 

*m´~ yahã: ko a:ũ:ga: 

22. vao }pr phuÐMcao. 

ve u:par pahũce 

they top reached 

They reached up (the stairs). 

22a. *vao }pr kao phuMÐcao. 

*ve u:par ko pahũce 

The postposition kao ko is added to the subject noun/pronoun if it is 

followed by an object and the verb caaihe ca:hiye ‘need/want’ or the 

modal ‘should’ (i.e., subject + kao ko + object + caaihe ca:hiya). 

23. ]sakao yah AKbaar caaihe. 

usko yeh akhba:r ca:hiye 

he-obl this newspaper wants 

He wants this newspaper.

3. MORPHOLOGY 

24. ]sakao yah kama krnaa caaihe. 

usko yah ka:m karna: ca:hiye 

he-obl this work do-inf should 

He should do this work. 

The verbal noun + kao ko (as complementizer) construction shows 

purpose. 

25. ]sao Aanao kao khao. 

use a:ne ko kaho. 

he-dat come-inf-obl tell-imp 

Tell him to come. 

26. ]znao kao idla krta hO. 

ut�hne ko dil karta: h´ 

rise-inf-obl pp heart want-ptc be 

One would like to get up. 

27. hma dF,tr jaanao kao tOyaar hMO. 

ham daftar ja:ne ko týa:r h´.~ 

we office go-inf-obl pp ready are 

We are ready to go to the office. 

28. Aapko pasa pInao kao @yaa hO? 

a:pke pa:s pi:ne ko kya: h´? 

you-gen-obl near drink-inf-obl pp what is 

What do you have to drink? 

The postposition kao ko can be used for emphasis as well. 

29. jaanao kao @yaa, maOM kBaI BaI jaa sakta hUÐ. 

ja:ne ko kya:, m´~ kabhi: bhi: ja: sakta: hũ:. 

go-inf-obl dat what, I anytime go can be 

What is there, I can go anytime. 

kao ko can also be used to denote an object of a verb requiring a 

predicate. 

30. Aimat garIbaI kao pap samaJata hO. 

amit gari:bi: ko pa:p samajhta: h´. 

46

Amit poverty sin consider-ptc is 

Amit considers poverty a sin. 

31. kpD,aoM kao gaMda mat krao. 

kapr�õ: ko ganda: mat karo. 

clothes dirty neg do-imp 

Don’t dirty your clothes. 

47 

3. MORPHOLOGY 

It is used to denote time. When it is used with time adverbials it 

denotes specificity like daophr kao dopahar ko or maMgalavaar kao maηalva:r ko 

but not janavarI kao janva:ri ko or Aaja kao a:j ko, kla kao kal ko. 

32. vah daophr kao Aaegaa. 

vah dopahar ko a:yega:. 

he noon come-fut 

He will come at noon. 

33. maOM maMgalavaar kao idllaI jaa}Ðgaa. 

m´~ maηalva:r ko dilli: ja:ũ:ga:. 

I Tuesday Delhi go-fut 

I’ll go to Delhi on Tuesday. 

3.1.2.3. The Postposition sao se 

The postposition sao se is used to indicate association or mutual 

dealing. 

1. maOM ]sasao baat krta hUÐ. 

m´~ us-se ba:t kar-ta: hũ:. 

I he-obl-with talk do-ptc am 

I talk with him. 

2. vah pD,aosaI sao laD,a. 

vah par�osi: se lar�a:. 

he neighbor with quarreled 

He quarreled with his neighbor. 

3. naohÉ baccaaoM sao Pyaar krto qao. 

nehru: baccõ se pya:r karte the. 

Nehru children-obl with love do-ptc was 

Nehru used to love children.

3. MORPHOLOGY 

4. mauJasao JaUz na baaolaao. 

mujh-se jhu:t�h na bolo. 

me-obl-with lie neg say-imp 

Don’t lie to me. 

5. ]sasao maja,ak na krao. 

usse maza:k na karo. 

he-obl-post joke don’t do-imp 

Don’t joke with him. 

6. vah pD,aosaI sao nafrt krta hO. 

vah par�osi: se nafrat karta: h´. 

he neighbor with hate do-ptc is 

He hates his neighbor. 

7. maOM Aapsao pàqa-naa krta hUÐ. 

m´~ a:pse pra:rthna: karta: hũ:. 

I you-post request do-ptc am 

I request you. 

8. sarkar sao maaÐga kI jaatI hO. 

sarka:r se mã:g ki: ja:ti: h´. 

government with request do aux is 

The government is requested. 

9. maOM eosao laaogaaoM sao dUr rhnaa psaMd krta hUÐ . 

m´~ ´se logũ: se du:r rahna: pasand karta: hũ:. 

I this type people from far remain-inf like do-ptc am 

I like to be away from this kind of people. 

It is used to indicate a sense of separation or keeping away from 

something. 

10. idla sao kàoQa inakalaao. 

dil se krodh nika:lo 

heart from anger remove-imp 

Remove anger from your mind. 

11. vah dF,tr sao inaklaa. 

vah daftar se nikla:. 

48

he office from came out 

He set out from the office. 

It represents cause, reason and origin. 

12. vah bauKar sao kmaja,aor huAa. 

vah bukha:r se kamzor hua:. 

he fever from weak became 

He became weak by fever. 

13. baIja sao paOQaa inaklata hO. 

bi:j se pødha: nikalta: h´. 

seed from plant comes out 

The plant grows out of a seed. 

14. baat sao baat inaklatI hO. 

ba:t se ba:t nikalti: h´. 

talk from talk comes out 

One thing comes out of the other. 

15. lakD,I sao maojaoM, banatI hOM. 

lakr�i: se meze~ banti: h´~ ~. 

wood from tables make-ptc are 

The tables are made of wood. 

16. imaT\TI sao bat-na banato hOM. 

mit�t�i: se bartan bante h´.~ 

clay from pots make-ptc are 

Pots are made of clay. 

It indicates the starting point, place, time, and direction. 

17. mauJao dF,tr sao tar imalaa . 

mujhe daftar se ta:r mila:. 

I-obl office from telegram got 

I got a telegram from the office. 

18. yahaÐ sao Sahr bahut dUr hO. 

yahã: se šahar bahut du:r h´. 

here from city very far is 

The city is far away from here. 

49 

3. MORPHOLOGY

3. MORPHOLOGY 

19. kla sao Aaja AcCI QUp hO. 

kal se a:j acchi: dhu:p h´. 

yesterday from today good sunshine is 

It is more sunny today than yesterday. 

It indicates time. 

20. vah dor sao gayaa. 

vah der se gaya.: 

he late went 

He went late. 

It is used to indicate the difference or comparison in quality and 

quantity. 

21. vahaÐ sao yahaÐ AiQak garmaI pD,tI hO. 

vahã: se yahã: adhik garmi: par�ti: h´. 

there from here more heat fall-ptc is 

This place is hotter than that place. 

22. vah dao saala sao baImaar hO. 

vah do sa:l se bi:ma:r h´. 

he two year from sick is 

He has been sick for the last two years. 

23. pICo sao Aavaja, Aa[-. 

pi:che se a:va:z a:yi:. 

behind from call came 

Someone called from behind. 

It is used to indicate means, instrument, or agency. 

24. caakU sao sabja,I kaTao. 

ca:ku: se sabzi: ka:t�o. 

knife with vegetable cut-imp 

Cut vegetables with the knife. 

25. klama sao p~ ilaKao. 

kalam se patr likho. 

pen with letter write-imp 

Write a letter with the pen. 

50

26. hma haqa sao Kanaa Kato hOM. 

ham ha:th se kha:na: khate h´~ ~. 

we hand with food eat-ptc are 

We eat our meals with our hands. 

27. paOQaaoM kao panaI sao Qaao laao. 

pødhõ: ko pa:ni: se dho lo. 

plants-obl to water with wash-imp 

Wash the plants with water. 

28. vah baairSa sao BaIga gayaa. 

vah ba:riš se bhi:g gaya: 

he rain with wet became 

He was drenched in the rain. 

29. ]sanao A@la sao kama ikyaa. 

usne akl se ka:m kiya: 

he-erg wit with work did 

He worked with wit. 

It indicates manner. 

30. maorI baat Qyaana sao saunaao. 

meri: ba:t dhya:n se suno. 

my talk attention with listen-imp 

Listen to what I say with attention. 

31. vah toja,I sao Aayaa. 

vah tezi: se a:ya:. 

he fast came 

He came fast. 

32. hma kiznaa[- sao sToSana phuÐcaoo. 

ham kat�hina:yi: se st�ešan pahũce. 

we difficulty with station reached 

We reached the station with difficulty. 

51 

3. MORPHOLOGY

3. MORPHOLOGY 

3.1.2.4. The Postposition maoM mẽ 

The postposition maoM mẽ is used to denote location or presence of 

something in or within; duration; price; comparison with reference 

to more than two; or difference. 

Location 

1. maora dF,tr idllaI maoM hO. 

mera: daftar dilli: mẽ h´. 

my office Delhi in is 

My office is in Delhi. 

2. maora baoTa kalaoja maoM pZ,ta hO. 

mera: bet�a: ka:lej mẽ par�hta: h´. 

my son college in study-ptc is 

My son studies in college. 

3. [sa iktaba maoM tIna saaO pRYT hMO. 

is kita:b mẽ ti:n sø prašt�h h´.~ 

this book in three hundred pages are 

There are three hundred pages in this book. 

Duration 

4. yah laoK maOOMnao caar idna maoM ilaKa. 

yah lekh m´~ne ca:r din mẽ likha:. 

this article I-erg four days in wrote 

I wrote this article in four days. 

5. yah [maart dao saala maoM banaI. 

yeh ima:rat do sa:l mẽ bani:. 

this building two years in constructed 

This building was constructed in two years. 

Price 

6. yah maoja, dao hja,ar ÉpyaaoM maoM imalaa. 

yah mez do haza:r rupyõ mẽ mila:. 

this table two thousand rupees-obl in obtained 

This table cost two thousand rupees. 

7. maOMnao yah kmaIja, tIna saaO ÉpyaaoM maoM laI. 

m´~ne yah kami:z ti:n sø rupyõ mẽ li:. 

52

I-erg this shirt three hundred rupees in got 

I got this shirt for three hundred rupees. 

Comparison 

8. [na laD,kaoM maoM Aimat sabasao caust hO. 

in lar�kõ mẽ amit sa:bse cust h´. 

these boys-obl in Amit all from active 

Amit is the most active out of all these boys. 

3.1.2.5. The Postposition pr par 

53 

3. MORPHOLOGY 

The postposition pr par is used to denote location or position, point 

of time of an action, sequence of actions, cause or reason, and the 

object of verbs. 

Location 

1. kagaja, maoja, pr hO. 

ka:gaz mez par h´. 

paper table on is 

The paper is on table. 

2. maoro kpD,o Ct pr hOM. 

mere kapr�e chat par h´~. 

my clothes roof on are 

My clothes are on the roof. 

3. ]saka dF,tr yahaÐ sao kuC dUrI pr hO. 

uska: daftar yahã: se kuch du:ri: par h´. 

his office here from some distance at is 

His office is some distance from here. 

Point of time 

4. vah samaya pr nahIM phuÐcaa. 

vah samay par nahĩ: pahũca:. 

he time at not reached 

He didn’t arrive in time. 

5. basa caar bajakr dsa imanaT pr AaegaI. 

bas ca:r bajkar das minat� par a:yegi: 

bus four stuck-cp ten minutes at come-fut-f 

The bus will arrive at ten minutes past four.

3. MORPHOLOGY 

Sequence of actions 

6. vahaÐ phuÐMcanao pr hmanao doKa ik kao[- nahIM Aayaa. 

vahã: pahũcne par hamne dekha: ki koi: nahĩ: a:ya:. 

there reach-inf-obl on we-erg saw that no one neg came 

On reaching there, we found that no one had come. 

7. naota ko Aanao pr sabanao tailayaaÐ bajaa[-M. 

neta: ke a:ne par sabne ta:liyã: baja:ĩ:. 

leader-gen come-inf-obl on all-erg clapped hands 

Upon the arrival of the leader, all clapped their hands. 

Cause or reason 

8. QaaooKa donao pr ]sao saja,a hu[-M. 

dhokha: dene par use saza: hui:. 

deceive give-inf-obl on he-obl punishment given 

He was punished for deceiving (someone). 

9. JaUz baaolanao pr maaÐ nao baccao kao DaÐMTa. 

jhu:t�h bolne par mã:ne bacce ko d�ã:t�a:. 

lie tell-inf-obl on mother-erg child-dat scolded 

The mother scolded the child for telling a lie. 

Object of verbs 

10. garIbaaoM pr dyaa krao. 

gari:bõ par daya: karo. 

poor-obl on mercy do-imp 

Be kind to the poor. 

11. vah iksaI pr kàoQa nahIM krta. 

vah kisi: par krodh nahĩ: karta:. 

he someone on anger neg do-pr is 

He doesn’t get angry at anyone. 

12. mauJapr ivaSvaasa krao. 

mujhpar višva:s karo. 

me on faith do-imp 

Have faith in me. 

54

3.1.2.6. The Postposition ka ka 

55 

3. MORPHOLOGY 

The postposition ka ka: is used to denote the relationship between a 

noun or pronoun and another noun that follows it. It is used to 

denote possession and relationship, material or composition, worth 

and measure, source, origin, cause, subject or object of an act, part 

of a whole, purpose or characteristics or trait. The form of this 

postposition agrees with the gender and number of the noun as 

follows. 


Sg Pl Sg Pl 

ka ka: ko ke kI ki kI ki 

Possession and relationship 

1. Aimat ka Baa[- Aaja Aaegaa. 

amit ka: bha:i: a:j a:yega:. 

Amit of brother today come-fut 

Amit’s brother will come today. 

2. Aimat kI baihna/ baihnaoM kla AaegaI/ AaeÐgao. 

amit ki: bahn/bahnẽ kal a:yegi:/a:yẽgi:. 

Amit of sister/sisters tomorrow come-fut-fs/-fp 

Amit’s sister/sisters will come tomorrow. 

3. Aimat ko dao daost prsaaoM AaeMgao. 

amit ke do dost parsõ a:ẽge. 

Amit of two friends day after tomorrow come-fut 

Amit’s two friends will come day after tomorrow. 

Material or composition 

4. SaISao kI AlamaarI TUT ga[-. 

ši:še ki: alma:ri: t�u:t� gayi:. 

glass-obl of almirah broke went 

The glass almirah broke. 

5. imaT\TI ko bat-na AcCo hOM. 

mit�t�i: ke bartan acche h´~. 

clay of pots good are 

The earthen pots are good.

3. MORPHOLOGY 

Measure or worth 

6. ek iklaao caavala iktnao ka hOÆ 

ek kilo ca:val kitne ka: h´? 

one kilogram rice how much-obl of is 

What is the price of one kilogram of rice? 

7. yao dsa Épe ko kolao hOM. 

ye das rupye ke kele h´~. 

these ten rupees of bananas are 

These bananas cost ten rupees. 

Source, origin, or cause 

8. pòmacaMd ko ]pnyaasa yahaÐ nahIM hOM. 

premcand ke upnya:s yahã: nahĩ: h´~. 

Premchand’s novels here neg are 

The novels of Premchand are not available here. 

9. [sa poD, ko fla maIzo hOM. 

is per� ke phal mi:t�he h´~. 

this tree gen fruit sweet are 

The fruit of this tree is delicious. 

Subject (doer of an act) 

10. QaaobaI ka kama AcCa hO. 

dhobi: ka: ka:m accha: h´. 

washerman gen work good is 

The washerman’s work is good. 

Object (of an activity) 

11. ]sako baccaaoM kI iSaxaa AcCI hO. 

uske baccõ ki: šikša: acchi: h´. 

his children-obl of education good is 

The education of the children is good. 

12. ]sako pasa dvaa[- ka Kcaa- nahIM hO. 

uske pa:s dava:i: ka: kharca: nahĩ: h´. 

he-gen near medicine-gen expenses neg is 

He doesn’t have money to pay for medicine. 

56

Part of a whole 

13. yah kagaja, ka TukD,a hO. 

yeh ka:gaz ka: t�ukr�a: h´. 

this paper gen piece is 

This is a piece of paper. 

14. yah [sa poD, kI SaaK hO. 

yeh is per� ki: ša:kh h´. 

it this tree-gen branch-fs is 

It is the branch of this tree. 

Purpose 

14. pInao ka panaI saaf, hO. 

pi:ne ka: pa:ni: sa:f h´. 

drink-obl gen water clean is 

The drinking water is clean. 

Characteristics 

15. dUQa kI imazasa AcCI hO. 

du:dh ki: mit�ha:s acchi: h´. 

milk gen sweetness good is 

The milk is sweet. 

3.1.2.7. Compound Postpositions 

3. MORPHOLOGY 

Compound postpositions are formed by combining the postpositions 

ko ke, kI ki:, and saose with other words in certain set phrases as 

follows. 

(i) ko ke 

ko Alaavaa/Aitir@t ke ala:va:/atirikt in addition to 

ko Anausaar ke anusa:r according to 

ko AMdr ke andar inside 

ko Aagao ke a:ge in front of 

ko Aarpar ke a:rpa:r through 

ko Aasapasa ke a:spa:s near about 

ko baad/]praMt/pScaat ke ba:d/uprã:nt/pašca:t afterwards 

ko par ke pa:r across 

ko karNa ke ka:ran� because of 

ko d\vaara/haqa ke dwa:ra:/ha:th 

57 

through

3. MORPHOLOGY 

ko pasa/inakT/naja,dIk/samaIp ke pa:s/nikat�/nazdi:k/sami:p near 

ko }pr ke upar above 

ko pUva- ke pu:rv before 

ko pìt ke prati for, toward 

ko pìtkUla/ivaÉw/ivaprIt ke pratiku:l/virudh/vipri:t against 

ko ibanaa isavaa/bagaOr ke bina:/siva:/bag´r without 

ko badlao ke badle in place of 

ko barabar/samaana ke bara:bar/sama:n equal 

ko baahr ke ba:har outside of 

ko baIca/maQya ke bi:c/madhya inside of 

ko lagaBaga ke lagbhag about 

ko ilae/vaasto ke liye/va:ste for 

ko yaaogya/laayak ke yogya/la:yak appropriate 

ko samaot/saaqa ke samet/sa:th along with 

ko saamanao ke sa:mne in front of 

ko maukabalao (maoM) ke muka:ble (mẽ) comparison to 

ko yahaÐ/haÐ ke yahã:/hã: at some place 

(ii) kI ki: 

kI Aaor/trf ki: or/taraf towards 

kI Apoxaa ki: apekša: in comparison with 

kI trh/BaaÐit ki: tarah/bhã:ti like 

kI jagah ki: jagah in place of 

(iii) sao se 

sao baahr se ba:har out of 

sao phlao se pahle before 

The compound postpositions are employed to express various 

semantic expressions in combination with other elements. There are, 

however, alternate ways of expression possible where postpositions 

are not used. Examples of the usage of various semantic expressions 

are given below. 

Cause is expressed either by the (i) postposition sao se; or by the (ii) 

compound forms ko karNa ke ka:ran� ‘for the reason of,’ and rkI Aaor ki: 

or ‘side.’ 

58

1. baaZ, sao makana igar gayaa. 

ba:r�h se maka:n gir gaya:. 

flood with house fell 

The house fell down because of the flood. 

2. ]sako karNa mauJaoo nau@saana huAa. 

uske ka:ran� mujhe nuksa:n hua: 

he-gen-obl reason I-obl loss occurred 

I had to suffer loss because of him. 

3. ]sakI Aaor sao mauJaoo kBaI sauK nahIM imalaa. 

uski: or se mujhe kabhi: sukh nahĩ: mila:. 

he-gen-obl side I-dat ever comfort neg got 

He has never provided comfort to me. 

59 

3. MORPHOLOGY 

Purpose is expressed by the use of the oblique infinitive verb 

optionally followed by the postposition ko ilae ke liye ‘for.’ 

4. vah sabja,I laonao (ko ilae) baaja,ar gayaa. 

vah sabzi: lene (ke liye) ba:za:r gaya:. 

he vegetables bring-inf-obl for market went 

He went to the market to buy vegetables. 

Function is expressed by the genitive postpositional phrase - kI trh 

ki: 

tarah ‘like.’ 

5. vah Cato kao saaoTI kI trh [istmaala krta hO. 

vah cha:te ko sot�i: ki: tarah istima:l karta: h´. 

he is umbrella-obl dat stick-gen like use do-pr is 

He uses an umbrella like a stick. 

Reference is denoted by the postpositional expression ko baaro maoM ke 

ba:re mẽ ‘about.’ 

6. ]sanao mauJao Apnao baccaaoM ko baaro maoM kha. 

usne mujhe apne baccõ ke ba:re mẽ kaha:. 

he-erg me self’s children-dat about said 

He told me about his children.

3. MORPHOLOGY 

7. tumho [sako baaro maoM kaoiSaSa krnaI caaihe. 

tumhe iske ba:re mẽ košiš karni: ca:hiye. 

you-obl this-gen-obl for effort do-inf-fs should 

You should make efforts in this regard. 

The compound postposition ko $p/Baosa maoM ke ru:p/bhes mẽ expresses the 

meaning ‘in the form of.’ 

8. raajaa ek iBaKarI ko Baosa / $p maoM inaklaa. 

ra:ja: ek bhikha:ri: ke bhes/ru:p mẽ nikla:. 

king one beggar-gen-obl in set out 

The king went out in the disguise of a beggar. 

The compound postposition maoM sao mẽ se is used to express the sense of 

‘among/out of’.’ Numerals and quantifiers occur after the noun 

marked maoM sao mẽ se. 

9. ]sako ivaQyaaiqa-yaaoM maoM sao caar kSmaIr maoM hOM. 

uske vidya:rthiyõ mẽ se ca:r kašmi:r mẽ h´~. 

he-gen-obl students-obl from four Kashmir-abl in are 

Among his students, four are in Kashmir. 

Value is expressed by the genitive or it can be denoted by the 

expressions kI kImat ki: ki:mat, or ka maUlya ka: mu:ly ‘the price of X’ 

which precedes the value expression. 

10. [sa kmaIja, kI kImat tIna saaO Épe hOM. 

is kami:z ki: ki:mat ti:n sø rupye h´~. 

this shirt-gen price three hundred rupees is 

The price of this shirt is three hundred rupees. 

The compound postposition ko baavajaUd ke ba:vaju:d is used to express 

the meaning of ‘despite of.’ 

11. baImaar haonao ko baavajaUd vah kaya-alaya Aayaa. 

bi:ma:r hone ke ba:vaju:d vah ka:rya:lay a:ya: 

sick be-inf-obl despite he office came 

He came to the office despite being sick. 

Inclusion is expressed by the compound postposition ko samaot ke 

samet/saaqa sa:th ‘including.’ 

60

12. Aapko samaot saaro Anaupisqat/ gaOrhaija,r qao. 

a:pke samet sa:re anupasthit/g´rha:zir the. 

you-gen including all absent were 

All, including you, were absent. 

13. Aapkao imalaakr hma dsa sadsya hOM. 

a:pko mila:kar ham das sadasy h´~. 

you-dat include-cp we ten members are 

We are ten members, including you. 

61 

3. MORPHOLOGY 

Exclusion is expressed by the dative postpositions ko ibanaa ke bina:/ bagaOr 

bag´r ‘without.’ 

14. Amar ko ibanaa/ bagaOr saaro ]pisqat /haija,r qao. 

amar ke bina:/bag´r sa:re upasthit/ha:zir the 

Amar-gen without all present were 

All, excluding/except Amar, were present. 

Addition is expressed either by the use of the comitative compound 

postposition ko saaqa ke sa:th ‘with/ along with,’ or by ko Aitir@t ke 

atirikt/ Alaavaa ala:va: ‘in addition to.’ 

15. maaohna ko saaqa ³saaqa´/Alaavaa ]maa BaI Aa[-. 

mohan ke sa:th (sa:th)/ala:va: uma: bhi: a:yi: 

Mohan-gen with /besides Uma too came 

In addition to Mohan, Uma came too. 

Locational semantic functions are generally marked by the postpositions 

kI Aaor ki: or ‘motion to,’ (ko baIca ke bi:c) maoM sao mẽ se ‘motion 

through.’ 

16. vah gaaÐva kI Aaor calaa. 

vah ga:ũ: ki: or cala: 

he village towards set out 

He set out towards the village. 

17. basa gaaÐva (ko baIca) maoM sao gauja,rtI hO. 

bas ga:ũ: (ke bi:c) mẽ se guzarti: h´ 

bus village-abl through passes-pr is 

The bus passes through the village.

3. MORPHOLOGY 

The approximate location is expressed by ko inakT ke nikat�/ naja,dIk 

nazdi:k/ krIba kari:b ‘near.’ 

18. makana ko inakT/naja,dIk dukana hO. 

maka:n ke nikat� /nazdi:k duka:n h´. 

house near shop is 

The shop is near the house. 

19. vah dF,tr ko naja,dIk tk phuÐcaa. 

vah daphtar ke nazdi:k tak pahũca:. 

he office near up to reached 

He reached up to/ near the house. 

20. baccao kI Aavaaja, Gar ko krIba sao Aa[-. 

bacce ki: a:va:z ghar ke kari:b se a:yi:. 

child-obl gen voice house-gen near from came 

The child’s voice came from near the house. 

Interior location is expressed by ko AMdr ke andar/ maoM mẽ ‘inside of,’or 

ko baIca maoM sao ke bi:c mẽ se ‘from inside’ preceded by the oblique case 

suffixes. 

21. [sa makana maoM/ko AMdr kao[- nahIM rhta hO. 

is maka:n mẽ/ke andar koi: nahĩ: rahta: h´. 

this house inside anyone neg live-pr is 

No one lives inside this house. 

22. baccaa kmaro ko baIca maoM sao inaklaa. 

bacca: kamre ke bi:c mẽ se nikla:. 

child room-abl from came out 

The child came out of the house. 

Exterior location is denoted by the postposition ko ke/ sao se baahr ba:har 

‘outside of.’ 

23. vah gaaÐva ko baahr rhta hO. 

vah ga:ũ: ke ba:har rahta: h´. 

he village outside live-pr is 

He lives outside the village. 

62

24. vah kmaro sao baahr inaklaa. 

vah kamre se ba:har nikla:. 

he room-obl outside set out 

He came out of the room. 

63 

3. MORPHOLOGY 

Anterior location is expressed by the postposition ko saamanao ke sa:mne 

‘in front of.’ It may also be followed by other postpositions like sao se 

‘from,’or tk tak ‘up to.’ 

25. ivaQyaalaya ko saamanao ek baaga hO. 

vidhya:lay ke sa:mne ek ba:g h´. 

school in front of a garden is 

There is a garden in front of the school.’ 

26. dukana ko saamanao sao basa inaklatI hO. 

duka:n ke sa:mne se bas nikalti: h´. 

shop-gen front-obl from bus start-ptc is 

A bus starts in front of the shop. 

27. dukana ko saamanao tk saD,k hO. 

duka:n ke sa:mne tak sar�ak h´. 

shop-gen in front-obl up to road is 

A road is built up to the front of the shop. 

Posterior location is denoted by ko pICo ke pi:che ‘behind. 

28. ivaQyaalaya ko pICo ek dukana hO. 

vidhya:lay ke pi:che ek duka:n h´. 

school-gen behind one shop is 

There is a shop behind the school. 

29. basa Asptala ko pIC sao jaatI hO. 

bas aspata:l ke pi:che se ja:ti: h´ 

bus hospital-gen behind-obl from go-ptc is 

A bus runs at the back of the hospital. 

30. Asptala ko pIC tk basa AatI hO. 

aspata:l ke pi:che tak bas a:ti: h´ 

hospital-gen behind-obl up to bus come-ptc is 

The bus comes up to the back side of the hospital.

3. MORPHOLOGY 

Superior location is denoted by the use of the postpositions }pr (sao) 

u:par (se), ‘above,’ preceded by the oblique case suffixes added to 

the nouns. 

31. makana ko }pr sao pxaI ]D,to hOM. 

maka:n ke u:par se pakši: ur�te h´~. 

house-gen above from birds fly-ptc are 

The birds fly above the (top of the) house. 

Interior and interior-contact locations are not distinguished. They are 

indicated by the postposition naIcao ni:ce ‘under, below,’ naIcao sao ni:ce se 

‘from under’and naIcao tk ni:ce tak ‘up to under’ preceded by the case 

suffixes added to nouns. 

32. ja,maIna ko naIcao panaI inaklaa. 

zami:n ke ni:ce pa:ni: nikla:. 

ground-obl under water came out 

Water appeared from under the ground. 

33. ja,maIna ko naIcao sao panaI calata hO. 

zami:n ke ni:ce se pa:ni: calta: h´. 

ground-obl under from water flow-pr is 

Water is passing through under the ground. 

34. dIvaar ko naIcao tk panaI hO. 

di:va:r ke ni:ce tak pa:ni: h´. 

wall-obl under upto water is 

Water is underneath the wall. 

Lateral and lateral-contact locations are expressed by the 

postpositions ko pasa ke pa:s/ko saaqa sa:th ‘in the company of/besides.’ 

35. Amar ]maa ko pasaÀsaaqa baOza. 

amar uma: ke pa:s/sa:th b´t�ha: 

Amar Uma near sat 

Amar sat near Uma. 

Citerior location is expressed by kI Aaor ki: or ‘towards’ preceded by 

the proximate demonstrative [sa is ‘this’in the oblique case. It is also 

denoted by the term [sa Aaor is or ‘this side’ which does not take a 

separate proximate demonstrative. 

64

36. ]sakI dukana saD,k ko [sa Aaor hO. 

uski: duka:n sar�ak ke is or h´. 

his shop road-obl this side 

His house is on this side of the road. 

65 

3. MORPHOLOGY 

37. nadI ko [sa Aaor iktnao baccao hOM? 

nadi: ke is or kitne bacce h´? 

river this side how many children are 

How many children are there on this side of the river? 

Ulterior location is expressed by kI Aaor ki: or ‘side’ preceded by the 

remote demonstrative ]sa us ‘that.’ It can also be denoted by the use 

of ]sa par us pa:r ‘on the other side.’ 

38. saD,k ko ]sa Aaor nae makana banao hOM. 

sar�ak ke us or naye maka:n bane h´~. 

road-obl that-obl side new houses constructed are 

New houses are constructed on that side of the road. 

39. saD,k ko ]sa par kafI AabaadI hO. 

sar�ak ke us pa:r kaphi: a:ba:di: h´. 

road that side abundant population is 

There is a large population on the other side of the road. 

Medial location is expressed by the terms ko baIca maoM ke bi:c mẽ ‘in the 

middle,’ ko BaItr ke bhi:tar ‘inside,’ or ko drimayaana/maQya maoM ke 

darmia:n/madhy mẽ ‘in the middle,’ ko baIca sao ke bi:c se ‘through the 

middle,’ ko baIca tk ke bi:c tak ‘up to the middle of.’ 

40. maora Gar baaja,ar ko baIca maoM hO. 

mera: ghar ba:za:r ke bi:c mẽ h´. 

my house market middle in is 

My house is in the middle of the market. 

41. yah dukana dao saD,kaoM ko baIca maoM hO. 

yah duka:n do sar�kõ ke bi:c mẽ h´. 

this shop two roads-obl middle is 

This shop is between the two roads.

3. MORPHOLOGY 

42. gaaÐva ko drimayaana ek maisjad hO. 

ga:ũ: ke darmiya:n ek masjid h´. 

village middle is one mosque is 

There is a mosque in the middle of the village. 

43. gaaÐva ko baIca maoM sao ek nadI bahtI hO. 

ga:ũ: ke bi:c mẽ se ek nadi: bahti: h´. 

village middle through one stream flow-ptc is 

A stream passes through the village. 

44. gaaÐva ko baIca tk panaI phuÐcata hO. 

ga:ũ: ke bi:c tak pa:ni: pahũcta: h´. 

village center up to water reach-ptc is 

Water reaches up to the center of the village. 

Circumferential location is denoted by adding ko [d- igad- ke ird gird 

‘around,’ ko caaraoM Aaor ke ca:rõ or ‘on all sides’ preceded by the oblique 

forms of subject nouns. 

45. [sa baaga ko [d- igad-ÀcaaraoM Aaor ek dIvaar hO. 

is ba:g ke ird gird/ca:rõ or ek di:va:r h´. 

this-obl garden around/four sides one wall is 

There is a wall around this garden. 

46. pulaIsa baOMk ko caaraoM trf KD,I hO. 

puli:s bank ke ca:rõ tarph khar�i: h´. 

police bank all sides standing is 

The police are standing on all the sides of the bank. 

Citerior-anterior location is expressed by saamanao sa:mne ‘in front 

of’preceded by the subject nouns in oblique case. The expression ko 

saamanao sao ke sa:mne se is used to denote ‘in the opposite direction.’ 

47. Amar caaor ko saamanao KD,a hO. 

amar cor ke sa:mne khar�a: tha:. 

Amar thief-gen front-obl standing was 

Amar was standing in front of the thief. 

66

48. vah puilasavaalaa ko saamanao sao gauja,ra. 

vah pulisva:la: ke sa:mne se guzra:. 

he policeman-gen front-obl from passed 

He passed in front of the policeman. 

67 

3. MORPHOLOGY 

Motion past an object at some distance is expressed by ko baIca maoM saoo ke 

bi:c mẽ se ‘past/through in(side)’ preceded by the noun in the 

oblique case. 

49. tola laMbaI pa[p sao karKanao tk phuÐcata hO. 

tel lambi: payip se ka:rxa:ne tak pahũcta: h´. 

oil long-fs pipe through factory-obl up to reach-ptc is 

Oil reaches the factory through the long pipe. 

Motion past an object at right and left angles to it is expressed using 

phrases such as da[-M Aaor da:ĩ: or ‘on the right-hand side’ and baa[-M Aaor 

baĩ: or ‘on the left-hand side.’ 

50. saD,k ko AaiKr pr saIQao da[-M Aaor inaklaao. 

sar�ak ke a:khir par si:dhe da:ĩ: or niklo. 

road-gen end at straight right hand side go-imp 

At the end of this road, go straight towards the right. 

51. pula par krko baa[-M Aaor jaanaa. 

pul pa:r karke ba:ĩ: or ja:na:. 

bridge cross-cp left towards go-imp 

After crossing the bridge, go straight towards the left. 

Other directional locatives are exemplified as follows. 

52. Baart ko ]

3. MORPHOLOGY 

53. tuma naak ko saIQa maoM calaao. 

tum na:k ke si:dh mẽ calo. 

you nose-gen straight in walk 

Walk straight ahead. 

Directional/locational precision is expressed by adding the emphatic 

particle - hI hi: to the locative expression. 

54. vah Gar maoM hI rha. 

vah ghar mẽ hi: raha:. 

he home inside-emp remained 

He stayed right inside the house. 

55. ]sanao mauJao saUcanaa drvaaja,o pr hI dI. 

usne mujhe su:cna: darva:ze par hi: di: 

he-erg me message door-at-emp gave 

He conveyed the message to me right at the door. 

3.1.3. Noun Derivation 

A large number of nouns in Hindi are derived from nouns, 

adjectives, and verbs by using prefixes and suffixes. In this process 

certain morphophonemic changes take place. 

3.1.3.1. Nouns from Nouns 

Mostly Persian and Sanskrit prefixes and suffixes are used with the 

nouns of Persian and Sanskrit origin respectively. Some of these are 

used with native words. The most common prefixes are: bao be-, bad 

bad-, bar bar-, naa na:- Ap ap-, ku ku-, dur dur-, and inar nir-. 

bao be- (Persian) without 

Sama- šarm shame baoSama- bešarm shameless 

[-maana i:ma:n faith bao[-maana bei:ma:n dishonest 

matlaba matlab meaning baomatlaba bematlab meaningless 

68

69 

3. MORPHOLOGY 

bad bad- (Persian) bad 

tmaIja, tami:z manner badtmaIja, badtami:z mannerless 

imaja,aja miza:j temperament badimaja,aja badmiza:j bad 

temperament 

ja,at za:t character badja,at badza:t bad character 

bar bar- (Persian) on 

va@t vakt time barva@t barvakt on time 

naa na:- (Persian) not 

psaMd pasand like naapsaMd na:pasand dislike 

Ap ap- (Sanskrit) opposite 

maana ma:n honor Apmaana apma:n dishonor 

Sabd šabd word ApSabd apšabd bad words 

dur dur- (Sanskrit) bad 

dSaa daša: condition dud-Saa durdaša: bad condition 

gait gati: position duga-it durgati: bad position 

ku ku- (Sanskrit) bad 

kma- karm deed kukma- kukarm bad deed 

paoSana pošan nutrition kupaoSana kupošan malnutrition 

inar nir- (Sanskrit) without 

Aadr a:dar respect inaradr nira:dar disrespect 

daoSa doš fault inadao-Sa nirdoš innocent 

The most common suffixes are -dar -da:r, -gar -gar, -bMad -band, and -dana 

-da:n. 

- dar da:r (Persian) owner 

dukana duka:n shop dukanadar duka:nda:r shopkeeper 

ja,maIna zami:n land dja,maInadar zami:nda:r landlord 

gar -gar (Persian) with 

saaoda soda: items saaodagar soda:gar merchant 

jaadU ja:du: magic jaadUgar ja:du:gar magician

3. MORPHOLOGY 

-baMd band (Persian) bound 

kmar kamar waist kmarbaMd kamarband belt 

ibastr bistar bed ibastrbaMd bistarband hold-all 

-dcaI ci: (Persian) with 

K,ja,anaa xaza:na: treasure K,ja,anacaI xaza:anci: cashier 

Af,Ima afi:m opium Af,ImacaI afi:mci: opium addict 

-dana da:n (Persian) container 

klama kalam pen klamadana kalamda:n penholder 

raoSana rošan light raoSanadana rošanda:n window 

-K,anaa kha:na: (Persian) house 

kar ka:r work karK,anaa ka:rxa:na: factory 

Saraba šara:b liquor SarabaKanaa šara:bxa:na: bar 

3.1.3.2. Nouns from Adjectives 

The most productive suffixes used for deriving abstract nouns from 

adjectives are -[- -i:, -ta -ta:, -pan, -Aa[- -a:i:, -[yat -iyat, -Aasa -a:s. 

-[- -i: 

kmaja,aor kamzor weak kmaja,aorI kamzori: weakness 

K,uSa xuš happy K,uSaI xuši: happiness 

garma garam hot garmaI garmi: heat 

garIba gari:b poor garIbaI gari:bi: poverty 

sad- sard cold sadI- sardi: coldness 

maaoTa mot�a: fat maaoTa[- mot�a:i: thickness 

K,raba xara:b bad K,rabaI xara:bi: defect 

saaf sa:f clean safa[- safa:i: cleanliness 

}Ðcaa ũ:ca: high }Ðcaa[- ũ:ca:i: height 

caaOD,a cør�a: wide caaOD,a[- cør�a:i: width 

naok nek noble naokI neki: nobility 

saccaa sacca: true saccaa[- sacca:i: truth 

maIza mi:t�ha: sweet imaza[- mit�ha:i: sweets 

70

-ta -ta: 

maUK- mu:rkh stupid maUK-ta mu:rkhta: stupidity 

piva~ pavitr pure piva~ta pavitarta: purity 

ivaSaoYa višeš special ivaSaoYata višešta: specialty 

ivaSaala viša:l large ivaSaalata viša:lta: largeness 

sauMdr sundar beauty sauMdrta sundarta: beautiful 

samaana sama:n equal samaanata sama:nta: equality 

gaMBaIr gambhi:r serious gaMBaIrta gambhi:rta: seriousness 

-pna -pan 

kccaa kacca: raw kccaapna kacca:pan rawness 

kmaInaa kami:na: mean kmaInaapna kami:na:pan meanness 

pagala pa:gal mad pagalapna pa:galpan madness 

-Aa[- -a:i: 

caZ, car�h climb caZ,a[- car�ha:i: climbing 

pZ, par�h study pZ,a[- par�ha:i: studies 

kmaa kama: earn kmaa[- kama:i: earning 

sauna sun listen saunaa[- suna:i: hearing 

-[yat -iyat 

AsalaI asli: real Asailayat asliyat reality 

Kasa xa:s special Kaisayat xa:siyat specialty 

- Aasa -a:s 

maIzaa mi:t�ha: sweet imazasa mit�ha:s sweetness 

3.1.3.3. Nouns from Verbs 

71 

3. MORPHOLOGY 

The suffix -naa -na: is used to derive gerundive nouns from verb 

stems. The suffixes -Asa -as, -Ana -an, -[- -i:, -vat -vat, and -2 are also 

used to derive abstract nouns from verb stems. 

-naa -na: 

Aa a: come Aanaa a:na: coming 

laa la: bring laanaa la:na: bringing 

ilaK likh write ilaKnaa likhna: writing 

pZ, par�h read pZ,naa par�hna: reading

3. MORPHOLOGY 

- Ana -an 

QaD,k dhar�ak throb QaD,kna dhar�hkan throbbing 

plaga lag attach plagana lagan devotion 

- [- -i: 

jaaoD, jor� add jaaoD,I jor�i: a pair 

laD, lar� quarrel laD,a[- lar�a:i: dispute 

ilaK likh write ilaKa[- likha:i: writing 

pZ, par�h read pZa[- par�ha:i: studies 

-vaT -vat� 

banaa bana: make banaavaT bana:vat� shape 

sajaa saja: decorate sajaavaT saja:vat� decoration 

qak thak be tired qakavaT thaka:vat� tiredness 

-2 

Cap cha:p print Caap cha:p printing 

zga t�hag cheat zga t�hag cheat 

daOD, dør� run daOD, dør� race 

maar ma:r beat maar ma:r beating 

maaoD, mor� turn maaoD, mor� turning point 

]pja upaj produce ]pja upaj product 

har ha:r be defeated har ha:r defeat 

Kca- kharc spend Kca- kharc expenditure 

Kola khel play Kola khel play 

samaJa samajh understand samaJa samajh understanding 

saaoca soc think saaoca soc thinking 

3.1.4. Noun Compounds 

Compounds belonging to the noun category are headed by a noun, 

which is a final member of the group. The first member may be a 

noun, an adjective, or a participle and may be declined for number, 

gender and case. A postposition is attached to the final member of 

the compound. 

72

3.1.4.1. Noun-Noun Compounds 

73 

3. MORPHOLOGY 

Noun-noun compounds can be divided into several subgroups based 

on semantic criteria: copulative compounds, partial duplicated 

compounds, superordinate compounds, complex compounds, hybrid 

compounds, genitive-noun compound, and participial compounds. 

3.1.4.2. Copulative Compounds 

Copulative compounds, also known as co-compounds, are composed 

of semantically-related nouns. Each noun behaves as an independent 

constituent in the sense that each may be separately inflected for 

gender and number, though not for a postposition. Members of some 

compounds occur in a fixed order. 

maata ipta ma:ta: pita: mother and father *pita: ma:ta: 

Baa[- baihna bha:i: bahan brother and sister ?bahan bha:i: 

sauK duK sukh dukh happiness and sorrow dukh sukh 

pap punya pa:p puny sin and good deeds *puny pa:p 

}Ðca naIca ũ:c ni:c high and low *ni:c ũ:c 

3.1.4.3. Reduplicated Compounds 

Reduplicated compounds express exhaustive meaning. 

Gar Gar ghar ghar (house-house) every house 

baccaa baccaa bacca: bacca: (child-child) every child 

pOsaa pOsaa p´sa: p´sa: (penny-penny) every penny 

3.1.4.4. Partially Duplicated Compounds 

In a partial duplicated compound, also known as an echo-compound, 

the second member is formed by changing the initial letter of the 

first member. An initial va /v/ is changed into Sa /š/ or pa /p/; all other 

initial consonants or vowels are replaced by va /v/ or Sa /š/. The 

meaning of the ompound extends beyond the meaning of their 

members. The compounds usually represent the meaning of similar 

or associative things.

3. MORPHOLOGY 

vaanar Saanar va:nar ša:nar monkey and the like 

vaada Saada va:da: ša:da: promise and the like 

vaaoT SaaoT vot� šot� vote and the like 

kama Saama/vaama ka:m ša:m/va:m work and the like 

khanaI vaanaI/SaanaI kaha:ni: va:ni:/šahni: story and the like 

dUQa SaUQa du:dh šu:dh milk and the like 

panaI vaanaI/SaanaI pa:ni: va:ni:/ša:ni: water and the like 

3.1.4.5. Superordinate Compounds 

In this type of compound, the meaning projected by the members 

does not in any way relate to the meaning of the compound as a 

whole. 

haqa paMva ha:th pa:ũ: (hand-feet) body 

Kanaa pInaa kha:na: pi:na: (eating-drinking) lifestyle 

jala vaayaU jal va:yu (water-air) climate 

caaya panaI ca:y pa:ni: (tea-water) refreshment 

3.1.4.6. Complex Compounds 

Complex compounds involving three or more nouns are not very 

common in Hindi. 

tna mana Qana tan man dhan (body-mind-money) devotion 

3.1.4.7. Hybrid Compounds 

In hybrid compounds, one member is usually borrowed from another 

language and the second member is a Hindi noun. 

Dbala raoTI d�abal rot�i: (double-bread ) bread 

rola gaaD,I rel ga:r�i: (tracks-vehicle) train 

3.1.4.8. Adjective-Noun Compounds 

A large number of compounds are composed of an adjective 

followed by a noun. There are no single terms for them. 

74

kalaI imaca- ka:li: mirc (black-pepper) pepper 

CaoTI [laayacaI chot�i: ila:yci: (small cardamom) cardamom 

3.1.4.9. Modifier-Noun Compounds 

75 

3. MORPHOLOGY 

In modifier-noun compounds, the first member acts like a modifier 

or source and the second member is a noun. 

baOla gaaD,I b´l ga:r�i: (bull-vehicle) bullock cart 

gaMgaa jala gaηa: jal (Ganges-water) water of Ganges 

3.2. Pronouns 

Pronouns are inflected for number and case. Broadly, there are seven 

classes of pronouns in Hindi: personal, demonstrative, relative, 

possessive, reflexive, interrogative, and indefinite. Pronouns in the 

direct and oblique cases are presented below. 

3.2.1. Personal Pronouns 

Case Person Sg Pl 

Direct 

1 st maOM mẽ hma ham 

2 nd (sg) tU tu tuma tum 

(hon sg/pl) Aap a:p Aap a:p 

3 rd prox yah yah yao ye 

rem vah vah vao ve 

Note that the personal pronoun Aap a:p is used as an honorific form 

of address for both singular and plural subjects. In the polite speech, 

it is occasionally used for a person spoken about in place of yao ye. 

The term laaoga log may be attached to a plural pronoun for defining or 

emphasizing plurality: Aap laaoga a:p log, hma laaoga ham log, tuma laaoga tum log, 

yao laaoga ye log, vao laaoga ve log.

3. MORPHOLOGY 

Case Person 

Dative kao ko 

Sg Pl 

1 st 

mauJao mujhe/ mauJakao mujhko hmaoM hamẽ/ hmakao hamko 

2 nd tumho tumhe/tumakao tumko tumhoM tumhẽ/tumakao tumko 

Aapkaoo a:pko Aapkaoo a:pko 

3 rd prox [sao ise/[sakao isko [nhoM inhẽ/[nakao inko 

rem ]sao use/]nakao unko ]nhoMunhẽ/]nakao unko 

Ergative nao ne 

1 st maOMnao m´~ne hmanao hamne 

2 nd tUnao tu:ne tumanao tumne 

Aapnao a:pne Aapnao a:pne 

3 rd prox [sanao isne [nhaoMnao inhõne 

rem ]sanao usne ]nhaoMnao unhõne 

Locative pr par 

1 st mauJapr mujhpar hmapr hampar 

2 nd tuJapr tujhpar tumapr tumpar 

Aappr a:ppar Aappr a:ppar 

3 rd prox [sapr ispar [napr inpar 

rem ]sapr uspar ]napr unpar 

Ablative sao se 

1 st mauJasao mujhse hmasao hamse 

2 nd tumasao tum se tumasao tumse 

Aapsao a:pse Aapsao a:pse 

3 rd prox [sasao isse [nasao inse 

rem ]sasao usse ]nasao un se 

Possessive / Genitive ka ka:/ ko ke/kI ki 

1 st maora mera: hmaara hama:ra: 

2 nd tora tera: tumhara tumha:ra: 

Aapka a:pka: Aapka a:pka: 

3 rd prox [saka iska: ]saka uska: 

rem ]saka uska: ]naka unka: 

76

3.2.2. Demonstrative Pronouns 

Direct/Nominative Case 

Sg Pl 

prox yah yeh yao ye 

rem vah vah vao ve 

Oblique Case kao ko/maOM mẽ/pr par/ka ka:/ko ke/kI ki:/ Asao se 

Sg Pl 

prox [sa is [na in 

rem ]sa us ]na un 

3. MORPHOLOGY 

Note that the demonstrative pronouns are also used as personal 

pronouns of the third person. 

There are two additional pronouns which are used in the sense of ‘so 

and so’ to refer to third person subjects: Amauk amuk and f,laaM falã:/ 

f,laanaa fala:na:. 

3.2.3. Relative Pronouns 

Hindi has one relative pronoun: jaao jo ‘who, which, that, what’ in 

both the singular and plural. It is accompanied with vah vah in the 

main sentence called correlative of jaao jo. The correlative form saao so 

‘he, they’ is now obsolete, it is used in proverbs and sayings. The 

term laaoga log may be added to jaao jo to indicate or emphasize plurality: 

jaao laaoga jo log. The oblique forms of the relative pronoun used along 

with the case-signs are as follows. 

Singular Plural 

ijasa jis/ijasanao jisne ijana jin/ijaMhaoMnao jinhõne 

ijasakao jisko/ijasao jise ijanakao jinko/ijaMhoM jinhẽ 

ijasasao jis se ijanasao jin se 

3.2.4. Reflexive Pronouns 

Reflexive pronouns substitute and refer to a noun or pronoun which 

is the logical subject of the sentence. Hindi has three reflexive 

pronouns: Aap a:p, its oblique forms Apnaa apna: and Apnao apne, and a 

compound form of these two, Apnao Aap apne-a:p. The oblique form 

77

3. MORPHOLOGY 

Aapsa a:pas means ‘each other’ or ‘one another.’ The reflexive 

pronoun Aap a:p is also substituted by the Sanskrit borrowed term svayaM 

svayam or Persian-borrowed term K,ud khud in Sanskritized and 

Persianized styles respectively. The reflexive pronoun Aap a:p 

optionally followed by the emphatic form hI hi: has an adjectival 

meaning. It can also be used as an adverb in the meaning ‘of one’s 

own accord, spontaneously.’ Similarly, Apnao Aap apne-a:p can either 

be used in an emphatic sense or in the adverbial meaning of ‘of 

one’s own accord.’ 

1. vah Aap hIÀApnao Aap Gar gayaa. 

vah a:p hi: / apne-a:p ghar gaya: 

he himself emp home went 

He himself went home. 

Note that the oblique forms of Apnao apne and Apnao Aap apne-a:p 

(except when adverbial) mean ‘oneself’ with the casesigns/postpositions 

kaooo ko, sao se, maoM mẽ, and pr par. 

3.2.5. Interrogative Pronouns 

In both singular and plural, there are two basic interrogative 

pronouns: kaOna køn ‘who’(referring to person) and @yaa kya: 

‘what’(referring to things). The interrogative pronoun @yaa kya: is a 

neutral form. It is also used for denoting the interrogative nature of 

the sentence. Note that kaOna køn and @yaa kya: can be used as relative 

pronouns too. 

2. kaOna Aayaa¸ kao[- nahIM jaanata. 

køn a:ya:, koyi: nahĩ: ja:nta: 

who came no one neg knows 

Nobody knows who came. 

The interrogative pronoun @yaa kya: is also used as an exclamatory 

adjective. 

3. @yaa sauMdr baaga hO! 

kya: sundar ba:g h´! 

what beautiful garden is 

What a beautiful garden! 

78

It is also used as an emphatic negation. 

4. laD,kI @yaa hO¸ naaja,uk fUla hO. 

lar�ki: kya: h´, na:zuk phu:l h´. 

girl what is delicate flower is 

It is not a girl; it is a delicate flower. 

(What a girl! Just like a delicate flower.) 

79 

3. MORPHOLOGY 

Interrogative adverbial forms related to these pronouns are: kba kab 

‘when,’ kOsaa kaisa: ‘how,’ kaOnasaa kønsa: ‘which one,’ iktnaa kitna: ‘how 

much.’ 

3.2.6. Indefinite Pronouns 

There are two indefinite pronouns in Hindi: kao[- koi: ‘someone, 

somebody’and kuC kuch ‘something.’ kuC kuch is also used as an 

adjective (numeral and quantitative) and as an adverb meaning 

‘some, a few, a little, partly.’ Similarly, kao[- koi: can be used as an 

adverb in the sense of ‘some, about.’ It can refer to ‘something’ if 

used with -saa -sa:/-saI -si: = kao[- saa koi: sa:/ kao[- saI koi: si:. kao[- koi: may 

also be used as the plural form to indicate ‘some people.’ 

3.2.7. Oblique Forms of Pronouns 

Whereas the same case-signs namely nao ne, kao ko, k sao se, maOM mẽ, pr par 

and ka ka: are attached to pronouns as they are attached to nouns, in 

some cases the oblique forms of pronouns are formed differently. 

Direct Oblique 

Sg Pl Sg Pl 

yah yeh yao ye [sa is [na in 

vah vah vao ve ]sa us ]na un 

jaao jo jaao jo ijasa jis ijana jin 

saao so saao so itsa tis itna tin 

kao[- koi: kao[- koi: iksaI kisi: ikMhIM kinhĩ: 

Note that (i) when the case-signs are added the singular forms yah 

yeh, vah vah, jaao jo, and saao so change to [sa is, ]sa us, ijasa jis and itsa tis 

respectively; kaOna køn and @yaa kya: change to iksa kis; and kuC kuch 

changes to iksaI kisi:. (ii) In the plural, except before nao ne, these

3. MORPHOLOGY 

change to [na in, ]na un, ijana jin, itna tin, ikna kin, and ikMhIM kinhĩ:. (iii) 

Before nao ne, the plural oblique forms are: [nhUM inhũ:, ]nhaoM unhũ:, ijanhaMo 

jinhũ:, iknhaMo kinhũ:, and iknhIM kinhĩ:. (iv) maOM m´~ and tU tu: remain 

unchanged before nao ne: (maOMnao m´~ne, tUnao tu:ne). v) Followed by other 

case-signs, maOM m´~ and tU tu: change to mauJa mujh and tUJa tujh (mauJakao 

mujhko, tuJakao tujhko). (vi) The pronouns hma ham and tuma tum remain 

unchanged before all case-signs: hmakao hamko, tumhoM tumhẽ. (vii) The 

postposition ka ka: is not attached to maOM m´~, tU tu:, and tuma tum. They 

change to the following forms agreeing with the object noun in 

gender and number. 


Sg Pl Sg/Pl 

maora mera: maoro maorI meri: 

tora tera: toro tere torI teri: 

tumhara tumha:ra: tumharo tumha:re tumharI tumha:ri: 

(viii) As an alternative to kao ko, all oblique forms attach an e e in 

singular and hoM hẽ in plural: [sao ise/[sakao isko, ]sao use/]nakao unko, [nhoM inhẽ 

/[nakao inko, ]nhoM unhẽ/]nakao unko, tumhoM tumhẽ/tuJao tujhe, hmaoM hamẽ/hmakao 

hamko. In the case of ham, eoM ẽ is added, not hoM hẽ. Note that eoM ẽ or hoM 

hẽ is not attached to the indefinite pronouns kao[- koi: and kuC kuch. 

As pointed out earlier, the reflexive pronoun ]Aap a:p changes to 

]Apnao apne before the case signs kao ko, ]sao se, maoM mẽ, and pr par. nao ne is 

not added to the reflexive Aap a:p but only to the subject to which Aap 

a:p refers. For denoting various senses of ka ka:, Aap a:p changes to 

Apnaa apna:, Apnao apne, and ApnaI apni:. 

3.2.8. Compound Pronouns 

Two, or more than two pronouns may be compounded or the same 

pronoun may be repeated to convey various shades of meanings. 

The following are some important compound pronouns. 

Apnao Aap apne a:p by oneself 

Aap hI Aap a:p hi: a:p by oneself, to oneself 

jaao kao[- jo koi: who(so)ever 

jaao kuC jo kuch what(so)ever 

jaao jaao jo jo whoever/whatever 

80

81 

3. MORPHOLOGY 

kao[- kao[- koi: koi: some, a few (archaic) 

saba kao[- sab koi: all, everybody (archaic) 

hr kao[- har koi: all, everybody 

kao[- koi: na koi: someone or the other 

kao[- kao[- koi: … koi: some … others or one … another 

kuC na kuC kuch na kuch something or the other 

kuC ka kuC kuch ka: kuch something different from expected 

saba kuC sab kuch everything 

bahut kuC bahut kuch a great deal 

kuC kuC kuch kuch somewhat, a little 

kao[- AaOr koi: ør someone else 

AaOr kao[- ør koi: someone else 

kao[- dUsara koi: du:sra: someone else 

kuC AaOr kuch ør something else, a little more 

AaOr kuC ør kuch something else 

kuC … kuC kuch … kuch some … some (Conjunctive) 

kao[- saa koi: sa: anything, something 

kao[- saa køn sa: which one 

kaOna kaOna køn køn which persons, which ones 

@yaa @yaa kya: kya: which things 

@yaa sao @yaa kya: se kya: something contrary to expectations 

@yaa @yaa kya: … kya: equally, without difference 

Aapsa maoM kI a:pas mẽ/ki: each other, one another 

All the pronouns can be combined with the emphatic particle hI hi: 

like maOM hI m´~ hi: ‘I myself,’ tU hI tu: hi: ‘thou thyself,’ Aap hI a:p hi: 

‘you yourself,’ kao[- hI koi: hi: ‘hardly any one,’ and kuC hI kuch hi: 

‘hardly a few.’ Note that most of these compounds are affected by 

Sandhi and are modified: mauJa mujh + hI hi: = mauJaI mujhi:, tuJa tujh + hI 

hi: = tuJaI tujhi:, hma ham + hI hi: = hmhI hamhi: , tuma tum + hI hi: = tumhI 

atumhi:, vah vah +hI hi: = vahI vahi:, yah yeh + hI hi: = yahI yahi:, ]sa us + 

hI hi: = ]saI usi:, [sa is + hI hi: = [saI isi:, iksa kis + hI hi: = iksaI kisi:, [na 

in +hI hi: = [nhI inhi:, ]na un + hI hi: = ]nhI unhi:, ijana jin + hI hi: + ijanhI 

jinhi:, ikna kin + hI hi: = iknhI kinhi:. 

3.3. Adjectives 

Adjectives in Hindi can be classified into two groups: (i) inflected 

and (ii) uninflected.

3. MORPHOLOGY 

3.3.1. Inflected 

These adjectives are inflected for gender and number. 


Sg Pl Sg / Pl 

baD,a bar�a: baD,o bar�e baD,I bar�i: big 

CaoTa chot�a: CaoTo chot�e CaoTI chot�i: small 

laMbaa lamba: laMbao lambe laMbaI lambi: tall 

kalaa ka:la: kalao kale kalaI ka:li: black 

hra hara: hro hare hrI hari: green 

AcCa accha: AcCo acche AcCI acchi: good 

3.3.2. Uninflected 

These adjectives are not inflected for number and gender. 

sauMdr laD,ka/laD,kI sundar lar�ka: /laṛki: beautiful boy/girl 

duKI AadmaI /aAaOrt dukhi: admi:/ ørat sad man/woman 

safod kpD,a /kmaIja, saphed kapr�a: /kami:z white cloth/shirt 

3.3.3. Types of Adjectives 

There are two broad types of adjectives: (i) those that describe a 

quality or quantity, and (ii) those that distinguish one person or thing 

from another. 

(i) Quality is expressed either by a basic adjective or by an adjective 

derived from a noun. 

sauMdr laD,kI sundar lar�ki: a beautiful girl 

SamaI-laa laD,ka šarmi:la: lar�ka: a bashful boy 

The adjective SamaI-laa šarmi:la: is derived by adding the suffix - [--laa 

i:la: to the noun stem. Negative qualities are expressed by a separate 

set of adjectives and also by adding negative prefixes. 

badsaUrt AaOrt bad-su:rat ørat an ugly woman 

baoSama- laD,ka be-šarm lar�ka: a shameless boy 

82

83 

3. MORPHOLOGY 

Quantity may be expressed either by numerals or by the adjectives 

of quantity like bahut bahut / AiQak adhik ‘a lot,’ kaf,I ka:fi: ‘sufficient,’ 

kma kam ‘less,’ qaaoD,a thor�a: ‘a little.’ 

Co iktabaoM che kita:bẽ six books 

bahut laoga bahut log many people 

qaaoD,a dUQa thor�a: du:dh a little milk 

Adjectives of quantity may also be formed by the combination of 

numeral + unit of measure + (classifier (terms of weight, 

length))/genitive postposition) (+ the particle vaalaa va:la:) + noun. 

dao saaO gaja, laMbaI ³vaalaI´ rssaI. 

do sø gaz lambi: (va:li:) rassi: 

two hundred yards long (gen.) rope 

the two-hundred-yard long rope 

dao iklaao vaja,na vaalaa p%qar. 

do kilo vazan va:la: patthar 

two kilo weight-gen stone 

the stone weighing two kilograms 

The postposition sao se is used in the formation of reduplicated 

adjectival phrases. 

AiQak sao AiQak adhik se adhik at most 

kma sao kma kam se kam at least 

AcCo sao AcCa acche se accha: the best of all 

bauro sao baura bure se bura: worst of all 

maIzo sao maIza mi:t�he se mi: t�ha: very sweet 

Almost all pronouns can function as adjectives. The demonstrative 

adjectives that point out persons or things yah - yeh ‘this,’ ye ‘these’ 

vah vah ‘that,’ ve ‘those’ - are used in the initial position. 

yah Gar yeh ghar this house 

yao iktabaoM ye kita:bẽ these books 

vah laD,ka vah lar�ka: that boy 

vao baccao ve bacce those children

3. MORPHOLOGY 

Interrogative pronouns are used to ask questions. 

kaOna laD,ka? køn laṛka:? which boy? 

@yaa kama? kya: ka:m? what work? 

The possessive pronouns particularize or show relation. 

maora / tora daost mera:/tera: dost my/your friend 

maorI / AapkI baihna meri:/a:pki: bahan my/your sister 

]saka / ]naka Baa[- uska:/unka: bha:i: his/their brother 

Indefinite and relative pronouns, too, function as adjectives. 

kao[- AKbaar koi: akhba:r some newspaper 

kuC saibja,yaaÐ kuch sabziyã: some vegetables 

jaao baccaa jo bacca: the child who 

3.3.4. Degree of Adjectives 

There are three varieties of adjectival degrees: superlative, 

comparative and minimal. Superlative and comparative degrees of 

qualities are denoted with the help of the postposition sao se attached 

to the noun or pronoun (in oblique form) with which the comparison 

is made. Superlative involves comparison with all. For example, 

saba sao baD,I [maart sab se bar�i: ima:rat the biggest building 

saba sao sauMdr laD,kI sab se sundar lar�ki: the most beautiful girl 

Comparative involves comparison between two. 

Apnao daost sao laMbaa apne dost se lamba: taller than his friend 

Minimal involves no comparison. 

maora AcCa daost mera: accha: dost my good friend 

The postposition maoM mẽ is also alternately used to denote the 

superiority of one out of two or more. 

84

daonaaoM maoM baD,a donõ: mẽ bar�a: bigger of the two 

saba maoM }Ðcaa sab mẽ ũ:ca: the tallest 

85 

3. MORPHOLOGY 

Sometimes, the phrase kI Apoxaa ki: apekša: ‘in comparison to’ is 

substituted for sao se. 

]maa kI Apoxaa laMbaI uma: ki: apekša: lambi: taller than Uma 

Notice that words AiQak/j,yaada adhik/zya:da: ‘more’ and kma kam ‘less’ 

may be prefixed to adjectives for denoting comparison. 

saaonao sao AiQak sone se adhik brighter than gold 

camakIlaa camki:la: 

fUla sao j,yaada kaomala phu:l se zya:da: komal more delicate than a 

flower 

baIsa sao kma bi:s se kam less than twenty 

3.3.5. Derivation of Adjectives 

A large number of adjectives are derived from nouns by adding the 

suffixes -Aa -a:, -[- -i:, -]-u:, -[laa -i:la:, -laU -lu:, -[k -ik, -janak -janak, - 

da[--da:i:, -maya -mai:, -vana -van, -Aanaa -a:na: , -naak -na:k, -[-na -i:n, -maMd - 

mand, and -dar -da:r. 

-Aa -a: 

Noun Adjective 

saca sac truth saccaa sacca: truthful 

JaUz jhu:t�h lie JaUza jhu:t�ha: liar 

BaUK bhu:kh hunger BaUKa bhu:kha: hungry 

-[- -i: 

kImat ki:mat price kImatI ki:mti: expensive 

sauK sukh comfort sauKI sukhi: happy 

naok nek good naokI neki: goodness 

phaD, paha:r� mountain phaDI paha:r�i: mountainous 

-}U -u: 

poT pet� stomach poTU pet�u: voracious 

baaja,ar ba:za:r market baaja,a$ ba:za:ru: common

3. MORPHOLOGY 

-[-laa -i:la: 

rsa ras juice rsaIlaa rasi:la: juicy 

ja,hr zahar poison ja,hrIlaa zahri:la: poisonous 

Kca- kharc expense KcaI-laa kharci:la: expensive 

p%qar patthar stone p%qarIlaa patthri:la: stony 

-laU -lu: 

Eawa šradha: faith EawalaU šradha:lu: devotee 

dyaa daya: kindness dyaalaU daya:lu: kind 

-[k -ik 

samaaja sama:j society samaaijak sama:jik social 

iva&ana vigya:n science iva&ainak vigya:nik scientific 

vaYa- varš year vaaiYa-k va:ršik yearly 

-janak -janak 

AaSaa a:ša: hope AaSaajanak a:ša:janak hopeful 

icaMta cinta: worry icaMtajanak cinta:janak worried 

-da[- -da:i: 

sauK sukh comfort sauKda[- sukhda:i: comfortable 

duK dukh pain duKda[- dukhda:i: painful 

-ma[- -mai: 

AaSaa a:ša: hope AaSaama[- a:ša:mai: hopeful 

-vaana -va:n 

Qana dhan wealth Qanavaana dhanva:n wealthy 

bala bal strength balavaana balva:n strong 

-Aanaa -a:na: 

saala sa:l year saalaanaa sa:la:na: yearly 

raoja, roz day raoja,anaa roza:na: daily 

mad- mard man mada-naa marda:na: manly 

-naak -na:k 

dd- dard pain dd-naak dardna:k painful 

K,aOf, xøf fear K,aOf,naak xøfna:k frightful 

86

K,tra xatra: danger K,trnaak xatarna:k dangerous 

-[-na -i:n 

rMga rang color rMgaIna rangi:n colorful 

namak namak salt namakIna namki:n salty 

SaaOk šøk liking SaaOkIna šøki:n fond 

-maMd -mand 

A@la akl wisdom A@lamaMd aklmand wise 

daOlat dølat wealth daOlatmaMd dølatmand wealthy 

-dar -da:r 

maala ma:l property 

maaladar ma:lda:r wealthy 

ja,maIna zami:n land 

ja,maInadar zami:nda:r landlord 

dukana duka:n shop 

dukanadar duka:nda:r shopkeeper 

87 

3. MORPHOLOGY 

When saa sa: ‘like’ is attached to the oblique forms of nouns or 

pronouns, they function as adjectives. 

fUla saa phu:l sa: flower-like 

mauJasaa mujh sa:/ tumasaa tum sa: me-like/you-like 

saa sa: is also attached to adjectives to denote ‘looking, seeming.’ 

When added to quantitative adjectives, it intensifies the meaning. 

laala saa la:l sa: red-looking 

baD,a saa bar�a: sa: big-looking 

dubalaa saa dubla: sa: slim-looking 

kmaja,aor saa kamzor sa: weak-looking 

}Ðcaa saa ũ:ca: sa: high-looking 

bahut saa bahut sa: a great deal 

qaaoD,a saa thor�a: sa: just a little 

The forms of saa sa: (agreeing in number and gender with the noun) 

are also added to the genitive/possessive forms to denote a similarity 

of quality, or possession.

3. MORPHOLOGY 

gaaya ka saa mauMh ga:y ka: sa: mũh a face like that of a cow 

]nako sao kpD,o unke se kapr�e clothes similar to his 

maorI meri:/ torI saI naak teteri: si: na:k a nose like mine/yours 

saa sa: may be replaced by jaOsaa j´sa: with nouns and pronouns (other 

than indefinite or interrogative ones.) 

baMdr saa/jaOsaa bandar sa:/j´sa: similar to a monkey 

tuma saa/jaOsaa tum sa:/j´sa: like you 

The forms of saa sa: can be added to kao[- koi: and kaOna køn to indicate 

‘any one,’ and ‘which one’ respectively. 

kao[- saa rMga koi:-sa: raη any color 

kao[- saI kmaIja, koi:-si: kami:z any shirt 

kaOna saa kaoT køn-sa: kot� which coat 

kaOna saI kmaIja, køn-si: kami:z which shirt 

3.3.6. Numerals 

Numerals are adjectives indicating number. They may by divided 

into cardinals, ordinals, or multiplicatives. 

3.3.6.1. Cardinals 

Cardinal numeral forms in Hindi are given below. 

ek ek 1 dao do 2 

tIna ti:n 3 caar ca:r 4 

paÐca pã:c 5 Co che 6 

saat sa:t 7 Aaz a:t�h 8 

naaO nav 9 dsa das 10 

gyaarh gia:rah 11 baarh ba:rah 12 

torh terah 13 caaOdh cødah 14 

pMd`h pandrah 15 saaolah solah 16 

sa~h satrah 17 Azarh at�ha:rah 18 

]nnaIsa unni:s 19 baIsa bi:s 20 

[@kIsa ikki:s 21 baa[-sa ba:i:s 22 

88

to[-sa tei:s 23 caaObaIsa cøbi:s 24 

pccaIsa pacci:s 25 CbbaIsa chabbi:s 26 

sa

3. MORPHOLOGY 

inanyaanavao ninya:nave 99 saaO sø 100 

SaUnya šu:ny zero hja,ar haza:r 1,000 

Starting with one hundred, the numerals proceed regularly. 

(ek) saaO (ek) sø 100 

ek saaO ek ek sø ek 101 

ek saaO dao ek sø do 102 

dao saaO do sø 200 

dao saaO do sø ek 201 

ek hja,ar ek haza:r 1000 

dao hja,ar tIna do haza:r ti:n 2003 

dao hja,ar saat do haza:r sa:t 2007 

The numerals one thousand and above are as follows. 

(ek) hja,ar (ek) haza:r one thousand 

dsa hja,ar das haza:r ten thousand 

laaK la:kh hundred thousand 

dsa laaK das la:kh million 

kraoD, karor� ten million 

Arba arab thousand million (billion) 

Krba kharab hundred billion 

3.3.6.2. Ordinals 

The first six ordinals are phlaa pahla: ‘first,’ dUsara du:stra: ‘second’; 

tIsara ti:sra: ‘third’; caaOqaa cøtha: ‘fourth’; paMcavaa pã:cva: ‘fifth’; Cza 

chat�ha: ‘sixth.’ The suffix - AaM -ã is added to the cardinals from 

seven onwards to make ordinals: saatvaaM sa:tvã: ‘seventh’; AazvaaM a:t�hvã: 

‘eighth’; naaOvaaM navã: ‘ninth’; dsavaaM dasvã: ‘tenth’; baIsavaaM bi:svã: 

‘twentieth’; tIsavaaM ti:svã: ‘thirteenth’; saaOvaaM søvã: ‘hundredth’; hja,arvaaM 

haza:rvã: ‘thousandth’ etc. 

Adjectives of Quantity 

Nouns denoting measure, and weight preceded by a numeral or by 

an adjective denoting an indefinite number, such as kao[- koi: or kuC 

kuch, are used as adjectives of quantity. 

90

tIna iklaao caavala ti:n kilo ca:val three kilograms of rice 

dao Pyaalao caaya do pya:le ca:y two cups of tea 

kuC baaotla Sahd kuch botal šahad some bottles of honey 

k[- iklaao dUQa kai: kilo du:dh several kilos of milk 

Collective Adjectives 

91 

3. MORPHOLOGY 

Some regular numerals can be replaced by collective adjectives like 

jaaoD,a jor�a: ‘pair,’ caaOkD,a cøkr�a: ‘four,’ pMjaa panja: ‘five,’ C@ka chakka: 

‘six,’ dja-na darjan ‘dozen,’ baIsaI bi:si:/ kaoD,I kor�i: ‘score,’ saOMkD,a s´~kr�a: 

‘hundred.’ They are treated as nouns and may be qualified by the 

regular numerals. 

dao jaaoD,o kpD,o do jor�e kapr�e two pairs of clothes 

tIna dja-na saoba ti:n darjan seb three dozens of apples 

The saOMkD,a s´~kr�a: is also used in the sense of ‘per hundred.’ 

baIsa Épe saOMkD,a bi:s rupye s´~kr�a: twenty rupees per hundred 

3.3.6.3. Fractions 

Fractions are expressed as follows: 

ek baTo caar/pava ek bat�e ca:r/pa:v one quarter 

(pa:v is used mainly for denoting weights) 

ek baTo tIna/itha[- ek bat�e ti:n/tiha:i: one-third 

ek baTo dao/AaQaa ek bat�e do/a:dha: half 

tIna baTo caar/paOna ti:n bat�e ca:r/pøn three quarters 

ek sahI ek baTo ek sahi: ek bat�e one and a quarter 

caar/saaOvaa 

ca:r/sava: 

ek sahI ek baTo dao DoZ, ek sahi: ek bat�e do/d�er�h one and a half 

dao sahI ek baTo dao Z,a[- do sahi: ek bat�e two and a half 

do/d�ha:i: 

paOnao dao pøne do two less by a quarter 

paOnao tIna pøne ti:n three less by a 

quarter 

saaZ,o tIna sa:r�he ti:n three and a half

3. MORPHOLOGY 

Note that saaZ,o sa:r�he denoting ‘half’ is attached to the numerals 

beginning with three: saaZ,o caar sa:r�he ca:r ‘four and half,’ saaZ,o paMca 

sa:r�he pã:c ‘five and half,’ etc. The system of denoting fractions is 

also used to denote fractions of hundred, thousand, ten thousand, etc. 

savaa saaO sava: sø 125 

DoZ, saaO d�er�h sø 150 

sZ,a[- saaO d�ha:i: sø 250 

D,oZ, hja,ar d�er�h haza:r 1,500 

savaa dao laaK sava: do la:kh 2,25,000 

3.3.6.4. Multiplicatives 

Multiplicatives are formed by attaching gaunaa guna:‘multiplied by’ to 

the numerals. The numerals 2 to 8 are slightly modified. 

duganaa dugna: or dUnaa du:na: ‘double,’ itgaunaa tiguna: ‘threefold,’ caaOganaa 

cøguna: ‘fourfold,’ pMcaguanaa pancguna: ‘fivefold,’ Cgaunaa chaguna 

‘sixfold,’ satgaunaa satguna: ‘sevenfold,’ Azgaunaa at�hguna: ‘eightfold.’ 

After this the forms are regular: navagaunaa navguna: ‘ninefold,’ dsagaunaa 

dasguna: ‘tenfold,’ baIsagaunaa bi:sguna: ‘twentyfold,’ tIsagaunaa ti:sguna: 

‘thirtyfold,’ saaOgaunaa søguna: ‘hundredfold,’ hja,argaunaa haza:rguna: 

‘thousandfold. The gaunaa guna: can be attached to fractions too: savaa gaunaa 

sava: guna: 1¼ times as much, D,oZ gaunaa d�er�h guna: 1½ times as much, 

Z,a[- gaunaa d�ha:i: guna: 2 ½ times as much. 

3.3.6.5. Approximation 

Approximation is expressed by placing kao[- koi:, lagaBaga lagbhag, or pàya: 

pra:ya: before the numeral. 

kao[- baIsa AadmaI koi: bi:s a:dmi: about twenty persons 

lagaBaga paÐca saaO laaoga lagbhag pã:c sø log about five hundred people 

pàya: dao saaO vaYa- 

pihlao 

pra:ya: do sø varš 

pahle 

92 

about two hundred years 

ago

It is also expressed by certain pairs of numerals. 

dao-ek do-ek one or two 

dao-tIna do-ti:n about two or three 

dsa-paMca das-pã:c about ten 

saaO-savaa saaO sø- sava: sø about 125 

93 

3. MORPHOLOGY 

Reduplication of a numeral denotes ‘… at a time,’ or ‘…per piece.’ 

dao-dao laD,ko do-do lar�ke two boys at a time 

ek-ek laD,ko kao tIna-tIna 

iktabaoM dao. 

3.3.6.6. Aggregation 

ek-ek lar�ke ko ti:n-ti:n 

kita:bẽ do 

Give three books to 

each boy. 

Aggregation is expressed by adding - AaoM -õ to a numeral. In the case 

of dao do, -naaoM -nõ is added. (e.g., daonaaoM donõ ‘both,’ tInaaoM ti:nõ ‘all the 

three,’ caaraoM ca:rõ ‘all the four,’ dsaaoM dasõ ‘all the ten,’ baIsaaoM bi:sõ ‘all the 

twenty,’ etc.). Notice that -[yaaoM -iyõ is added to numerals dsa das or baIsa 

bi:s to indicate an indefinite large number (e.g., disayaaoM dasiyõ ‘several 

tens,’ baIisayaaoM bi:siyõ ‘several scores,’ etc.) 

The suffix -AaoM -õ is also added to the nouns signifying duration, 

measures, weight to indicate large and indefinite number or quantity. 

(e.g., mahInaaoM mahi:nõ ‘a number of months,’ barsaaoM barsõ ‘a number of 

years,’ baaoiryaaoM Anaaja boriyõ ana:j ‘sackfulls of grains,’ etc. 

3.4. Verbs 

There are two types of verbs: main and auxiliary. 

3.4.1. The Verb hona: 

The verb haonaa hona: ‘to be’ is used as a copula in simple predicative 

sentences, as well as an auxiliary in different types of verbal 

constructions. The verb haonaa hona: has four sets of verbal forms: 

present, past, presumptive, and subjunctive.

3. MORPHOLOGY 

(a) The present tense forms of haonaa hona: agree with their subjects in 

number and person. 

Person Singular Plural 

1 st hUÐM hũ: hOM h´~ 

2 nd (intimate) hO h´ hao ho 

2 nd (polite) hOM h´~ hOM h´~ 

3 rd hO h´ hOM h´~ 

maOM hUÐ m´~ hũ: I am hma hOM ham h´~ we are 

tU hO tu: h´ you are tuma hao tum ho you are 

Aap hOM a:p h´~ you are vah hO vah h´ he/she is 

vao hOM ve h´~ (s)he is/ they are 

(b) The past tense forms of haonaa hona: agree with their subjects in 



Sg Pl Sg Pl 

qaa tha: qao the qaI thi: qaIM thĩ: 

maOM qaa/qaI m´~ tha:/thi: I was 

vah qaa/qaI vah tha:/thi: he/she was 

tU qaa/qaI tu: tha:/thi: you were 

hma/ tuma/ Aap/ yao/ vao qao. ham/tum/a:p/ye/ve the. we/you/she/they were 

hma/ tuma/ Aap/ yao/ vao qaIM. ham/tum/a:p/ye/ve thĩ: we/you/she/they were 

(c) The presumptive forms of the verb haonaa hona: agree with their 

subjects in person, gender, and number. 

Person Masculine Feminine 

Sg Pl Sg Pl 

1 st hUÐgaa hũ:ga: haoMgao hõge hUÐgaI hũ:gi: haoMgaI hõgi: 

2 nd (intimate) haogaa hoga: haogao hoge haogaI hogi: haogaI hogi: 

2 nd (hon sg/pl) haoMgao hõge haoMgao hõge haoMgaI hõgi: haoMgaI hõgi: 

3 rd haogaa hoga: haoMgao hõge haogaI hogi: haoMgaI hõgi: 

94

95 

3. MORPHOLOGY 

(d) The subjunctive forms of haonaa hona: are used to indicate the 

situations of speculative, hypothetical, contingent, or desired nature. 

They agree with their subjects in person and number. 

Person Singular Plural 

1 st hao}Ð hoũ: haoM hõ 

2 nd (intimate) hao ho hao ho 

2 nd (hon sg/pl) haoM hõ haoM hõ 

3 rd hao ho haoM hõ 

maOM hao}Ð m´~ hoũ: hma haoM ham hõ 

tU hao tu: ho tuma hao tum ho/ho 

Aap haoM a:p hõ yah/vah hao yeh/vah ho 

yao/vao haoM ye/ve hõ 

3.4.2. Main Verbs 

There are three types of main verbs: simple verbs, conjunct verbs, 

and compound verbs. A simple verb may consist of one main verb 

and person, gender, number, tense, and aspect markers. In the 

compound verb construction, the person, gender, number, and aspect 

markers are taken by the explicators/operators, and in the conjunct 

verbal construction they are taken by the verb element. We will 

classify the verbal constructions as intransitive, transitive, 

ditransitive, causative, dative, conjunct, and compound. 

3.4.2.1. Intransitive Verbs 

Intransitive verbs like Aa a: ‘come,’ jaa ja: ‘go’ ]z ut�h ‘get up,’ and baOz 

b´t�h ’sit.’ do not take a direct object and are not marked by any 

postposition in the present or future tense. Subjects in such cases are 

controlled by the verb agreement. 

1. vah jaata hO. 

vah ja:ta: h´. 

he go-ptc is 

He goes. 

2. Aimat Gar jaaegaa. 

amit ghar ja:ega:. 

Amit home go-fut 

Amit will go home.

3. MORPHOLOGY 

Besides verb agreement, subjects demonstrate a number of other 

properties which are explained below. Intransitive verbs in the past 

tense take their subjects in the direct case. 

3. vah bahut qak ga[-. 

vah bahut thak gai:. 

she very tired aux 

She was dead tired. 

4. Aimat samaya pr Aayaa. 

amit samay par a:ya:. 

Amit time at came 

Amit came on time. 

Some intransitive verbs, such as Kola khel ‘play’ and laD, lar� ‘fight,’ 

may sometimes be used as transitives when they take abstract nouns 

as objects. 

Intransitive Transitive 

Kolanaa khelna: to play Kola Kolanaa khel khelna: to play a game 

laD,a[- lar�a:i: fight laD,a[- laD,naa lar�a:i: lar�na: fight a battle 

5. maaohna Kolaa. 

mohan khela:. 

Mohan played. 

5a. maaohna Kola Kolaa. 

mohan ne khel khela:. 

Mohan played a game. 

3.4.2.2. Transitive Verbs 

Transitive verbs, such as pZ, par�h ‘read,’ ilaK likh ‘write,’ laa la: 

‘bring,’ do de ‘give,’ lao le ‘take,’ and kr kar ‘do,’ take direct objects, 

and in the past tense they require their subjects must be marked with 

the ergative case markers agreeing with the object in gender and 

number. 

96

6. ]maa nao iktaba pZ,I. 

uma: ne kita:b par�hi:. 

Uma-erg book-fs read-fs 

Uma read a book. 

7. Amar nao AK,baar K,rIda. 

amar ne axba:r xari:da:. 

Amar-erg newspaper-ms bought-ms 

Amar bought a newspaper. 

97 

3. MORPHOLOGY 

Some transitive verbs are derived from intransitives by certain 

vocalic changes to the verb roots. 


mar mar die maar ma:r kill 

Cp chap be printed Cap cha:p print 

kT kat� be cut kaT ka:t� cut 

igar gir fall igara gira: fell 

ipsa pis be ground pIsa pi:s grind 

baMd bandh be tied baaMd ba:ndh tie 

Kula khul be open Kaola khol open 

]z ut�h rise ]za ut�ha: raise 

jaga jag wake up jagaa jaga: awaken 

fOla ph´l stretch fOlaa ph´la: spread 

idK dikh be able to see doK dekh see 

bana ban be made banaa bana: make 

GaUma ghu:m go round GaUmanaa ghuma: turn round 

daOD, dør� run daOD,a dør�a: make x race 

In certain cases besides vocalic changes, some consonantal changes 

also take place. 


TUT t�u:t� break taoD, tor� break 

ibak bik be sold baoca bec sell 

fT phat� be torn faD, pha:r� tear 

saao so: be asleep saulaa sula: to make x to sleep 

bana ban be made banaa bana: to make

3. MORPHOLOGY 

A few transitive verbs like baaola bol ‘to speak,’ samaJa samjh ‘to 

understand’ and BaUla bhu:l ‘to forget’ are sometimes used as 

intransitives and do not take an ergative case marker. 

8. maOM baaolaa/ samaJaa/ BaUlaa. 

m´~ bola: / samjha: / bhu:la:. 

I said/ understood/ forgot. 

3.4.2.3. Ditransitive Verbs 

Some verbs like donaa dena: ‘to give,’ saunaa suna: ‘to tell,’ baocanaa becna: ‘to 

sell’ are called ditransitives. Ditransitives take three arguments, 

namely, subject, object, and indirect objects. Indirect objects are 

always marked in the dative. Other arguments follow the transitive 

pattern noted above. 

9. Amar nao ]maa kao iktaba dI. 

amar ne uma: ko kita:b di:. 

Amar-erg Uma-dat book-fs gave-fs 

Amar gave a book to Uma. 

10. ]maa nao baccao kao khanaI saunaa[-. 

uma: ne bacce ko kaha:ni: suna:i:. 

Uma-erg child-dat story-fs told-fs 

Uma told a story to the child. 

3.4.2.4. Causative Verbs 

Casuative verbs may be derived from transitive verbs by adding 

causative suffixes. They include the transitive verbs derived from 

intransitives. Causative verbs are, therefore, invariably transitive and 

take the same forms as other transitive verbs. There are two types of 

causative forms: causal I and causal II. 

Causal I forms 

Causal I verbs are formed by adding the causal suffix -a: to the 

transitive verb form. As a result of adding this suffix, certain 

morphophonemic changes take place. 

98

99 

3. MORPHOLOGY 

(a) Consonant ending roots with short vowels remain unchanged. 

Transitive Causal I 

kr kar do kra kara: make x do 

sauna sun listen saunaa suna: make x tell 

pZ, par�h study pZ,a par�ha: teach x 

(b) The long vowels of the verb roots are shortened. The vowels e /e/ 

and [- /i:/ change to [ /i/. 


doK dekh see idKa dikha: show 

saIK si:kh learn isaKa sikha: make x learn 

(c) The long vowel ending verb roots are shortened and the suffix 

-laa -la: instead of -Aa-a:, is added to derive the first causal forms. As 

a result of adding the causative suffix to the verb root, the vowels e 

/e/ and Aa /a:/ change to [/i/, and Aao /o/ changes to /u/. 


pI pi: drink iplaa pila: make x drink 

saI si: stitch isalaa sila: make x stitch 

Ka kha: eat iKlaa khila: feed x 

do de give idlaa dila: make x give 

Qaao dho wash Qaulaa dhula: make x wash 

Causal II 

Causal II or extended causatives are formed by adding the causal II 

suffix -vaa -va: to the verb roots. 

Causal I Causal II 

saunaa suna: tell saunavaa sunva: cause x to tell 

pZ,a par�ha: teach pZ,vaa par�hva: cause x to teach y 

]za ut�ha: lift ]zvaa ut�hva: make x to lift 

iplaa pila: make x drink iplavaa pilva: cause x to drink 

jagaa jaga: awaken jagavaa jagva: cause to awaken 

Gaumaa ghuma: move Gaumavaa ghumva: cause x to move 

daOD,a dør�a: make x run daOD,vaa dør�va: cause x to run 

idlaa dila: cause x give idlavaa dilva: cause x to give y

3. MORPHOLOGY 

iKlaa khila: feed iKlavaa khilva: cause x to feed y 

banaa bana: make banavaanaa banva:na cause x to make 

kr kar get done krvaa karva: cause x to do 

Qaulaa dhula: make x wash Qaulavaa dhulva: cause x to wash 

(a) As a result of adding the causal II suffix to the transitive verb 

root, the vowel Aao /o/ changes to ] /u/. 

taoD, tor� break tuD,vaa tur�va: cause x to break 

(b) There are few irregular forms. In the following example, the 

causal suffix -vaa -va is added to the intransitive verb root ibak bik 

‘sell’ instead of its transitive verb form baoca be:c: 

baoca bec sell ibakvaa bikva: cause x to sell 

(c) In certain cases, the meanings of the first and second causals are 

the same as in kranaa kara:na:/ krvaanaa karva:na: ‘to get done’ or Qaulaanaa 

dhula:na:/ Qaulavaanaa dhulva:na: ‘to get washed.’ 

11. maaÐ nao baccao kao dUQa iplaayaa. 

mã: ne bacce ko du:dh pila:ya:. 

mother-erg child to milk drink-caus-past 

The mother made the child drink milk. 

11a. maaÐ nao baccao kao nasa- sao dUQa iplavaayaa. 

mã: ne bacce ko nars se du:dh pilva:ya:. 

mother-er child to nurse by milk drink-cause 

The mother caused the child to drink milk from the nurse. 

3.4.2.5. Dative Verbs 

Most dative verbs fall into the stative-inchoative category of verbs. 

They represent a small class of verbs but are very frequently used. 

They can be derived by substituting the intransitive verbs haonaa hona: 

‘to be,’ and Aanaa a:na: ‘to come’ in place of krnaa karna: ‘to do’ in 

active/conjunct verbs as given below. 

Stative Inchoative Active 

psaMd haonaa psaMd Aanaa psaMd krnaa 

pasand hona: pasand a:na: pasand karna: to like 

100

yaad haonaa yaad Aanaa yaad krnaa 

ya:d hona: ya:d a:na: ya:d karna: to remember 

pta haonaa pta krnaa 

pata: hona: … pata: karna: to find out 

12. ]sakao yah iktaba psaMd hO. 

usko yeh kita:b pasand h´. 

he-dat this book like is 

He likes this book. 

12a. ]sakao yah iktaba psaMd Aa[-. 

usko yeh kita:b pasand a:i:. 

he-dat this book like came 

He liked this book. 

12b. ]sanao yah iktaba psaMd kI. 

usne yeh kita:b pasand ki:. 

he-erg this book like did 

He liked this book. 

13. ]sakao saarI baat yaad hOO. 

usko sa:ri: ba:t ya:d h´. 

he-dat all matter remember is 

He remembers the whole matter. 

13a. ]sakao saarI baat yaad Aa[-. 

usko sa:ri: ba:t ya:d a:i:. 

he-dat all matter remember came 

He remembered the whole matter. 

13b. ]sanao saarI baat yaad kI. 

usne sa:ri: ba:t ya:d ki:. 

he-erg all matter remember did 

He remembered the whole matter. 

14. ]sakaoo yah baat pta hO. 

usko yah ba:t pata: h´. 

he-dat this matter know be 

He knows this matter. 

101 

3. MORPHOLOGY

3. MORPHOLOGY 

14a. ]sanao yah baat pta kI. 

usne yah ba:t pata: ki:. 

he-dat this matter find did 

He found out this thing. 

3.4.2.6. Conjunct Verbs 

A conjunct verb consists of a noun or an adjective and a verb, which 

takes all the verbal inflections. The verbs may be transitive or 

intransitive. The most frequent verbs used in conjunct verbal 

const+ructions are krnaa karna: ‘to do’ and haonaa hona: ‘to be.’ Other 

verbs used are donaa dena: ‘to give,’ Aanaa a:na: ‘to come,’ and laganaa 

lagna: ‘to feel.’ 

15. maOMnao Apnaa kama samaaPt ikyaa. 

m´~ne apna: ka:m sama:pt kiya:. 

I-erg self’s work finish did 

I finished my work. 

15a. yah kama samaaPt huAa. 

yeh ka:m sama:pt hua:. 

this work finish be-past 

This work is done. 

16. drvaaja,a baMd krao. 

darva:za: band karo. 

door close do-imp 


16a. drvaaja,a baMd huAa. 

darva:za: band hua:. 

door close be-past 

The door was closed. 

One class of conjunct verbs is formed by the combination of a noun 

and an intransitive verb, which requires the subject to be marked in 

the oblique case. This class includes psychological predicates such 

as gaussaa Aanaa gussa: a:na: ‘to be angry,’ BaUK laganaa bhu:kh lagna:’to be 

hungry,’ Pyaasa laganaa pya:s lagna:, ‘to be thirsty,’ trsa Aanaa taras a:na: ‘to 

have pity.’ It also includes non-volitional verbs such as idKa[- donaa 

dikha:i: dena: ‘to be seen.’ 

102

17. Amar kao gaussaa Aayaa. 

amar ko gussa: a:ya:. 

Amar-dat anger came 

Amar was angry. 

18. saunaIta kao BaUK/ Pyaasa lagaI. 

suni:ta ko bhu:kh/pya:s lagi:. 

Sunita-dat hunger/thirst struck 

Sunita was hungry/thirsty. 

19. maaohna kao garIba pr trsa Aayaa. 

mohan ko gari:b par taras a:ya:. 

Mohan-dat poor on pity came 

Mohan took pity on the poor. 

20. ]sakao AMtr idKta nahIM. 

usko antar dikhta: nahĩ:. 

he-dat difference see-ptc neg 

He is not able to see the difference. 

3.4.2.7. Compound Verbs 

103 

3. MORPHOLOGY 

Compound verbs in Hindi are combination of Verb 1 + Verb 2 (+ 

inflections). Whereas Verb 1 (also called main verb) expresses 

general meaning and occurs in its stem form, verb 2, which is called 

an explicator/operator, takes all the inflections. The explicators 

belong to a small group of verbs. The original meaning of the 

explicator is lost. They add certain aspectual values, such as 

completion of an action, benefaction, or intensification, to the main 

verb. The most frequent explicators are listed below with their actual 

meaning and the aspectual meanings they add to main verbs. 

Explicators Aspectual Values 

Aa a: come change of state from within 

jaa ja: go change of state 

lao le take action for or toward others 

pD, par� fall action for or towards self 

do de give change of state, suddenness 

jaa ja: go direction away, simple completion 

Dala d�a:l throw speed, recklessness, relief, completion 

CaoD, chor� release psychological separation, relief

3. MORPHOLOGY 

rK rakh put/keep proactiveness, future use in view 

baOz b´t�h sit action for or towards self 

]z ut�h rise action for or towards self 

phuMca pahũc reach action for completion, direction 

cala cal walk direction away, completion 

mar mar die completion, lack of control 

maar ma:r kill change of state, suddenness 

Thus, a compound verb is made of two verbs, the first, the main verb 

which expresses its general meaning and, the second, an 

explicator/operator which is conjugated for different inflections. A 

large number of compound verbs are formed by the combination of 

verbs in which the first verb represents the meaning and the 

explicator takes all the grammatical inflections. Examples of such 

verbs are: Aa jaanaa a: ja:na: ‘to come,’ imala jaanaa mil ja:na: ‘to get,’ Ka laonaa 

kha: lena: ‘to eat,’ pI laonaa pi: lena: ‘to drink,’ lao Aanaa le a:na: ‘to 

bring,’ KrId laonaa xari:d lena: ‘to buy,’ cala donaa cal dena: ‘to leave,’ kr 

baOznaa kar b´t�hna: ‘to do,’ kr Dalanaa kar d�a:lna: ‘to do,’ kr CaoD,naa kar 

chor�na: ‘to do,’ do donaa de dena: ‘to give.’ 

21. saBaI baccao samaya pr Aa gae. 

sabhi: bacce samay par a: gaye. 

all children time on came went 

All the children came on time. 

22. baccao nao saoba Ka ilayaa. 

bacce ne seb kha: liya:. 

child-erg apple eat took 

The child ate an apple. 

23. vah saaro pOsao lao gayaa. 

vah sa:re p´se le gaya:. 

he all money take went 

He took all the money. 

24. ]sanao na[- kar K,rId laI. 

usne nai: ka:r xari:d li:. 

he-erg new car buy took-fs 

He bought a new car. 

104

25. maOMnao Apnaa kama kr Dalaa. 

m´~ne apna: ka:m kar d�a:la:. 

I-erg self’s work do threw 

I completed my work. 

105 

3. MORPHOLOGY 

There are verbal phrases in which there are two or more inflexible 

verbs, such as pIta gayaa pi:ta gaya: ‘went on drinking,’ saunata rha sunta: 

raha: ‘kept on listing,’ saaoyaa pD,a rha soya: par�a: raha: ‘remained 

sleeping,’ calaa gayaa cala: gaya: ‘gone.’ 

26. vah saarI rat caaya pIta gayaa. 

vah sa:ri: ra:t ca:y pi:ta: gaya:. 

he all night tea drink-ptc went-ms 

He kept on drinking tea throughout the night. 

27. vah maorI baat Qyaana sao saunata rha. 

vah meri: ba:t dhya:n se sunta: raha:. 

he my talk attention with listened-ptc remained-ms 

He kept on listening to my story with attention. 

28. vah saara idna saaoyaa pD,a rha. 

vah sa:ra: din soya: par�a: raha:. 

he whole day slept fell remained-ms 

He kept on sleeping for the whole day. 

3.4.3. Tense 

Tense and aspect are major grammatical categories of the verbal 

system in Hindi. There are three grammatical aspects: habitual, 

progressive, and perfective. Each of them is expressed by marking 

the verbal stems. 

Hindi has six tenses: present, past, future, present perfect, habitual 

past, and past perfect. The present tense represents an ongoing 

action, a habitual, repeated or characteristic action, or simply 

expresses a fact. 

1. Amar Gar jaa rha hO. 

amar ghar ja: raha: h´. 

Amar home go-prog is 

Amar is going home.

3. MORPHOLOGY 

2. vah kailaja maoM pZ,ta hO. 

vah ka:lej mẽ par�hta: h´. 

he college in study-pre-hab. be 

He studies in college. 

The verb in (1) is in the progressive aspect and in (2) in the habitual 

aspect. 

The past tense represents an ongoing action or an action completed 

in the past. 

3. Amar idllaI jaa rha qaa. 

amar dilli: ja: raha: tha:. 

Amar Delhi-obl go-prog was 

Amar was going to Delhi. 

4. ]sanao AK,baar pZ,a. 

usne axba:r par�ha:. 

he-erg newspaper read-perf 

He read the newspaper. 

The verb in (3) is in the progressive aspect and in (4) is in the 

perfect aspect. 

The future tense represents an action yet to take place or a state yet 

to come into being. 

5. ]maa kla idllaI jaaegaI. 

uma: kal dilli: ja:egi:. 

Uma tomorrow Delhi-obl go-fut 

Uma will go to Delhi tomorrow. 

The present perfect tense represents a completed act the effect of 

which is still present. 

6. ]sanao yah jagah doKI hO. 

usne yah jagah dekhi: h´. 

he-erg this place see-perf be 

He has seen this place. 

106

107 

3. MORPHOLOGY 

The habitual past tense represents an act habitually done in the past. 

7. vah hmaoSaa maohnat krtaa qaa. 

vah hameša: mehnat karta: tha:. 

he always hard work do-hab be-past 

He always used to work hard. 

The past perfect tense represents an action completed in the past or 

before a certain past time. 

8. Amar prsaaoM savaoro Aayaa qaa. 

amar parsõ savere a:ya: tha:. 

Amar day before yesterday morning-obl came be-past 

Amar had come the day before yesterday in the morning. 

3.4.4. Aspect 

Verbal forms indicating one of these aspects are specified for one of 

the four tenses: present, past, presumptive, and subjunctive. The 

combination of one of the three aspects with the four different tenses 

results in the production of various aspectual-tenses: presenthabitual, 

past-habitual, presumptive-habitual, subjunctive-habitual, 

present-progressive, past-progressive, presumptive-progressive, 

subjunctive-progressive, present-perfective, past-perfective, 

presumptive-perfective, and subjunctive-perfective. It also permits 

the simple-perfective form. Besides these aspectual verb forms, 

some non-aspectual verb forms of Hindi are the future, root 

subjunctive, and the imperative and infinitive forms. They will be 

discussed separately. 

3.4.4.1. Habitual Aspect 

The habitual aspectual-tenses are formed by adding the following 

suffixes to the verb stems agreeing with the subject in gender and 

number: 


Sg Pl Sg / Pl 

-ta -ta: -to -te -tI -ti:

3. MORPHOLOGY 

They are followed by appropriate forms of the auxiliary verb haonaa 

hona:. Present and past habitual forms are used to express habitual 

actions or the state of affairs viewed from the perspective of the 

present and the past respectively. 

Present-habitual 

1. maOM Gar raoja, Aata/ AatI hUÐM. 

m´~ ghar roz a:ta:/a:ti: hũ:. 

I home daily come-ptc-ms/-fs be 

I come home daily. 

2. hma Gar raoja, Aato / AatI hOM. 

ham ghar roz a:te/a:ti: h´~. 

we home daily come-ptc-mp/-fp be 

We come home daily. 

3. tU Gar raoja, jaata/ jaatI hO. 

tu: ghar roz ja:ta:/ja:ti: h´. 

you home daily go-ptc-ms/go-fs be 

You go home daily. 

4. tuma Gar raoja, jaato/ jaatI hao. 

tum ghar roz ja:te/ja:ti: ho. 

you home daily go-ptc-mp/go-fs be 


5. Aap Gar raoja, jaato/ jaatI hOM. 

a:p ghar roz ja:te/ja:ti: h´~. 

you home daily go-m/go-f be 


6. yah/ vah Sahr jaata/ jaatI hO. 

yah/vah šahar ja:ta:/ja:ti: h´. 

(s)he city go-ptc-ms/go-fs be 

He/she goes to the city. 

7. vao Sahr jaato/ jaatI hOM. 

ve šahar ja:te/ja:ti: h´~. 

they city go-ptc-mp/go-f be 

He/she/they goes/goes/go to the city. 

108

Past-habitual 

8. maOM raoj,a baaj,aar jaata qaa /jaatI qaI. 

m´~ roz ba:za:r ja:ta: tha:/ja:ti: thi:. 

I daily market go-ptc-ms was /go-fs was 

I used to go to the market daily. 

9. tU raoja, baaja,ar jaata qaa/ jaatI qaI. 

tu: roz ba:za:r ja:ta: tha:/ja:ti: thi:. 

you daily market go-ptc-ms was/go-ptc-fs was 

You used to go to the market daily. 

109 

3. MORPHOLOGY 

10. tuma/ Aap raoja, dF,tr jaato qao/jaatI qaIM. 

tum/a:p roz daftar ja:te the/ja:ti: thĩ:. 

you-fam/you-hon daily office go-ptc-ms were/go-ptc-fs were 

You used to go to the office daily. 

11. vah savaoro gaaÐva jaata qaa/ jaatI qaI. 

vah savere ga:ũ: ja:ta: tha:/ja:ti: thi:. 

he/she morning-abl village go-ptc-ms was/go-ptc-fs was 

He/She used to go to the village in the morning. 

12. vao Saama kao gaaÐva jaato qao / jaatI qaIM. 

ve ša:m ko ga:ũ: ja:te the/ja:ti: thĩ:. 

they evening-dat at village go-ptc-ms was/go-ptc-fs was 

They used to go to the village in the evening. 

Present-habitual in conjunction with the adverb ABaI abhi: ‘right 

away’indicates that an action is to be carried out in the near future. 

13. maOM ABaI jaata hUÐ. 

m´~ abhi: ja:ta: hũ:. 

I right away go-ptc.ms am 

I’ll go right away. 

In the negative construction of the present-habitual form, the present 

form of the verb haonaa hona: is usually deleted. 

14. vah saubah caaya nahIM pIta. 

vah subah ca:y nahĩ: pi:ta:. 

he morning-abl tea neg drink-ptc.ms 

He doesn’t drink tea in the morning.

3. MORPHOLOGY 

Past-habitual also indicates that an action has taken place in remote 

past. 

15. ]maa haoTla maoM gaanaa gaatI qaI. 

uma: hot�al mẽ ga:na: ga:ti: thi:. 

Uma hotel in song sing-ptc was 

Uma used to sing at the hotel. 

Presumptive-habitual 

Presumptive-habitual forms are used to indicate that an action or 

state of affairs is both habitual and presumed, but not known 

definitely. 

16. maOM Aata hao}Ðgaa/ AatI hao}ÐgaI. 

m´~ a:ta: hoũ:ga: /a:ti: hoũ:gi:. 

I come-ms be-pre.hab/ go-fs be-pre.hab. 

I would be coming. 

17. hma Aato haoMga/o AatI haoMgaIM. 

ham a:te hõge/a:ti: hõgĩ:. 

We would be coming. 

18. tU/ vah Aata haogaa/ AatI haogaI. 

tu:/vah a:ta: hoga:/a:ti: hogi:. 

You/he would be coming. 

19. tuma/ Aap/ vao Aato haMogao / AatI haoMgaI. 

tum/a:p/ve a:te hõge/ a:ti: hõgi:. 

You/they would be coming. 

Subjunctive-habitual 

Subjunctive-habitual forms are used to indicate actions that are both 

habitual and hypothetical, contingent, or speculative, but not directly 

guaranteed to take place. 

20. maOM caahta hUÐ vah AaeÐ. 

m´~ ca:hta: hũ: vah a:yẽ. 

I want him/her to come. 

110

21. maorI [cCa hO Aap yah iktaba pZ,oM. 

meri: iccha: h´ a:p yeh kita:b par�hẽ. 

I want you to read this book. 

22. vah Gar pr kama krta qaa/ krtI qaI. 

vah ghar par ka:m karta: tha: /karti: thi:. 

he/she home at work do-ms/do-fs was 

He/she used to work at home. 

3.4.4.2. Progressive Aspect 

111 

3. MORPHOLOGY 

Progressive aspect verbs are formed by adding the following 

auxiliary forms immediately after the verb stems and appropriate 

forms of the verb hona: ’to be’ and they agree with the person, 

gender, and number of the subject of the verb: 


Sg Pl Sg / Pl 

rha raha: rho rahe rhI rahi: 

The progressive aspect is used to indicate actions or states of affairs 

of a continuous nature or extended through time. There are two 

primary categories: present-progressive and past-progressive. 

Present-progressive 

23. maOM Gar jaa rha/ jaa rhI hUÐ. 

m´~ ghar ja: raha:/ja: rahi: hũ:. 

I home go-prog-ms/ go-prog-fs am 

I am going home. 

24. maOM/ hma/ vao Gar jaa rho/ jaa rhI hOM. 

ham/ve ghar ja: rahe/ ja rahi: h´~. 

we/they home go-prog-mpl/-prog-fpl be-pl 

We/they are going home. 

25. tU kailaja sao Aa rha hO/ rhI hO. 

tu: ka:lej se a: raha: h´ / rahi: h´. 

you-fam/he/she college from come-prog-ms /-prog-fs be-sg 

You are coming from the college.

3. MORPHOLOGY 

26. tuma Kanaa Ka rho/ rhI hao. 

tum kha:na: kha: rahe/rahi: ho. 

you-non.hon pl food eat-prog-mpl/-fpl be 

You are eating food. 

27. Aap/ vao caaya pI rho hOM. 

a:p/ve ca:y pi: rahe h´~. 

you/they tea drink-prog are 

You /they are drinking tea. 

Past-progressive 

28. maOM gaa rha qaa/ rhI qaI. 

m´~ ga: raha: tha:/ rahi: thi:. 

I sing-prog was-ms/sing-prog was-fs 

I was singing. 

29. tU saoba Ka rha qaa/ rhI qaI. 

tu: seb kha: raha: tha:/ rahi: thi:. 

you-fam. apple eat-prog-ms was/ -prog-fs was 

You were eating an apple. 

30. tuma iktaba pZ, rho qao / rhI qaI. 

tum kita:b par�h rahe/rahi: ho. 

you book read-prog-mp/ -fp be 

You are reading a book. 

31. Aap p~ ilaK rho qao. 

a:p patr likh rahe the. 

you-hon letter write-prog be 

You were writing a letter. 

Presumptive-progressive 

Presumptive-progressive forms are used to indicate that an action or 

state of affairs is extended in time and presumed to be occuring. 

32. ]maa idllaI sao Aa rhI haogaI. 

uma: dilli: se a: rahi: hogi:. 

Uma Delhi from come-prog be-presumptive 

Uma must be coming from Delhi. 

112

Subjunctive-progressive 

33. samBava hO vah jaa rha hao. 

sambhav h´ vah ja: raha: ho. 

possible is he go-prog be-subj 

It is possible he would be going. 

34. maumaikna hO vao Aa rho haMo. 

mumkin h´ ve a: rahe hõ. 

possible is they come-prog be-subj 

It is possible they would be coming. 

3.4.4.3. Perfective Aspect 

113 

3. MORPHOLOGY 

Perfective aspect indicates an action or state of affairs that has been 

completed. There are five sets of perfective forms in Hindi: simpleperfective, 

present-perfective, past-perfective, presumptiveperfective 

and subjunctive-perfective. The following perfect 

participle suffixes are added to the main verb stems. In constructions 

with intransitive verbs, they agree with the subject in gender and 

number. In constructions with transitive verbs, they agree with the 

object’s gender and number. 


Sg Pl Sg Pl 

-Aa -a: -e -e -[- -i: -[-M -ĩ: 

These suffixes are added to both intransitive and transitive verbs. 

Verb Masculine Feminine 

Sg Pl Sg Pl 

igar gir fall igara gira: igaro gire igarI giri: igarIM girĩ: 

cala cal walk calaa cala: calao cale calaI cali: calaI calĩ:M 

pZ, par�h read pZ,a par�ha: pZ,o par�he pZ,I par�hi: pZ,IM par�hĩ: 

ilaK likh write ilaKa likha: ilaKo likhe ilaKI likhi: ilaKIM likhĩ: 

In vowel-ending verb stems, the glide -ya -y is inserted before the 

masculine singular ending -Aa -a: is added to the verb stem.

3. MORPHOLOGY 


Sg Pl Sg Pl 

Aa a: come Aayaa a:ya: Aae a:e Aa[- a:i: Aa[-M a:ĩ: 

saao so sleep saaoyaa soya: saaoe soe saao[- soi: saao[-M soĩ: 

saI si: sew isayaa siya: isae sie saI si: saIM sĩ: 

Ko khe row Koyaa kheya: Koyao kheye Ko[- khei: Ko[-M kheĩ: 

jaa ja: go gayaa gaya: gae gae ga[- gai: ga[-M gaĩ: 

Ka kha: eat Kayaa kha:ya: Kae kha:e Ka[- kha:i: Ka[-M kha:ĩ: 

Notice that the verbs saao so ‘sleep’ and saI si: ‘sew’ have alternate 

feminine plural forms; the verb Ko khe ‘row’ has the feminine plural 

form with inserted ya y glide; the verb jaa ja: ‘go’ has an irregular past 

perfective form. 

Some transitive verbs have irregular perfective participle forms. 


Sg Pl Sg Pl 

kr kar do ikyaa kiya: ike kiye kI ki: kIM kĩ: 

lao le take ilayaa liya: ilae liye laI li: laIM lĩ: 

pI pi: drink ipyaa piya: ipyao piye pI pi: pIM pĩ: 

do de give idyaa diya: idyao diye dI di: dIM dĩ: 

Simple-perfective 

The simple-perfective form appears without verbal auxiliaries. 

35. laD,ka/laD,kI Gar gayaa/ ga[-. 

lar�ka:/lar�ki: ghar ga:ya:/ ga:yi:. 

boy/girl home went-ms/went-fs 

The boy/girl went home. 

36. maOMnao /]sanao/ ]nhaoMnao tsvaIr doKI. 

mńe~ /hamne/usne/unhõne tasvi:r dekhi:. 

I-erg/we-erg/(s)he-erg/they-erg picture-fs saw-fs 

I/we/(s)he/they saw the picture. 

Present-perfective 

37. maOM kaolakta gayaa hUÐ. 

m´~ kolkata: gaya: hũ:. 

114

I Kolkata went be-pre 

I have gone to Kolkata. 

38. maOMnao/ hmanao /]nhaoMnao kaolakta doKa hO. 

m´~ne/hamne/unhõne kolkata: dekha: h´. 

I-erg/we-erg/thy-erg Kolkata see-perf be-pre 

I/we/they have seen Kolkata. 

Past-perfective 

39. maOM/ tU /vah baaja,ar gayaa qaa. 

m´~/tu:/vah ba:za:r gaya: tha: 

I/you/(s)he market went-perf be-past 

I/you/(s)he had gone to the market. 

115 

3. MORPHOLOGY 

40. maOMnao/ tumanao /]nhaoMnao/ Kanaa Kayaa qaa. 

m´~ne/tumne/unhõne kha:na: kha:ya: tha: 

I-erg/you-erg/(s)he-erg/they-erg food eat-perf be-past 

I/ you/(s)he/they had eaten the food. 

Presumptive-perfective 

41. vah kla idllaI gayaa haogaa. 

vah kal dilli: gaya: hoga:. 

he tomorrow Delhi went be-pre.perf 

He would have gone to Delhi tomorrow. 

42. ]sanao kla yah iktaba pZ,I haogaI. 

usne kal yah kita:b par�hi: hogi:. 

he-erg tomorrow this book read-fs be-pre.perf 

He would have read this book tomorrow. 

Subjunctive-perfective 

43. vah Aayaa hao. 

vah a:ya: ho. 

he came be-subj.perf 

He might have come. 

44. p%to poD, sao igaro haoM. 

patte per� se gire hõ. 

leaves tree from fell be-subj.perf 

The leaves may have fallen from the tree.

3. MORPHOLOGY 

3.4.5. Mood 

In Hindi there are three moods: indicative, imperative, and optative. 

3.4.5.1. Indicative Mood 

The indicative represents the action as a fact or makes a query about 

it. The verb can be used in habitual (hab), progressive (prog), or 

perfective (perf) aspects. The present and past participle forms of 

these verbs have been explained above. The following aspectual 

marks are added to the verb stem bol ‘say’ in the indicative mood. 


Sg Pl Sg Pl 

Habitual baaolata baaolato baaolatI baaolatIM 

bolta: bolte bolti: boltĩ: 

Progressive baaola rha baaola rho baaola rhI baaola rhIM 

bol raha: bol rahe bol rahi: bol rahĩ: 

Perfective baaolaa baaolao baaolaI baaolaIM 

bola: bole boli: bolĩ: 

The above paradigm shows the agreement of indicative mood with 


3.4.5.2. Imperative Mood 

The imperative expresses an action as a command, a request, a 

warning, a prohibition, etc. The imperative is restricted to the future 

and cannot refer to the present or past tenses. Since the imperative 

denotes a command, request, etc., its proper domain is the second 

person. Indirect commands or requests made to a third person are 

expressed by the subjunctive form. In imperative constructions, the 

subject is omitted and can be guessed from both the context and the 

form of the verb. The verb agrees with the second person subject 

which has three second person pronominal forms: (i) intimate, (ii) 

familiar, and (iii) polite. 

The intimate imperative forms are used in issuing orders/commands 

for those who are usually addressed with the intimate second person 

pronoun tU tu: ‘you.’ The familiar imperatives are used in issuing 

commands to all those who are normally addressed by the familiar 

116

117 

3. MORPHOLOGY 

second-person pronoun tuma tum ‘you.’ Polite imperatives are used for 

making requests to those who are normally addressed by the second 

person pronoun Aap a:p ‘you.’ 

Second Person 

Verb Intimate Familiar Polite 

Aa a: come Aa a: AaAao a:o Aa[e a:iye 

jaa ja: go jaa ja: jaaAao ja:o jaa[e ja:iye 

Ka kha: eat Ka kha: KaAao kha:o Ka[e kha:iye 

pZ, par�h read pZ, par�h pZ,ao par�ho piZ,e par�hiye 

ilaK ,likh write ilaK likh ilaKao likho ilaiKe likhiye 

K,rId xari:d buy K,rId xari:d K,rIdao xari:do K,rIide xari:diye 

In the above, the intimate forms are the same as the verb stem forms; 

in familiar forms, -Aao -o is added to the verb stem form and in polite 

forms -[e -iye is added. 

1. (tU ) Aa /jaa /Ka /pZ, /ilaK /K,rId. 

(tu:) a:/ ja:/kha: / par�h /likh/xari:d 

you-intimate come/go/eat/read/write/buy 

Come/go/eat/read/write/buy. 

1a. (tuma) AaAao /jaaAao /KaAao /pZao, / ilaKao /K,rIdao. 

(tum) a:o/ja:o/kha:o/ par�ho/likho/xari:do 

you-familiar come/go/eat/read/write/buy 

1b. (Aap) Aa[e/ jaa[e/ Ka[e /piZe, /ilaiKe /K,rIide. 

(a:p) a:iye/ja:iye/ kha:iye/pr�hiye/likhiye/khari:diye. 

(you-polite) come/go/read/write/ buy 

Please come/go/eat/read/write/buy 

A few verbs have irregular familiar and polite forms. 

do de give do de dao do dIijae di:jiye 

lao le take lao le laao lo laIijae li:jiye 

kr kar do kr kar krao karo kire kariye/kIijae ki:jiye 

In the above forms, - Aao -o is added to the vowel-ending verb stems 

in the intimate form and the stem vowel is elided. The suffix -[-ijae - 

i:jiye is added in the polite form and the stem vowel is elided. The

3. MORPHOLOGY 

verb kr kar ‘do’ has an alternate form kire kariye ‘do’ in its polite 

form, as well. 

2. (tU ) do / lao / kr 

(tu:) de/le/kar 

(you-familiar.sg) give/take/do 

2a. (tuma) dao / laao / krao 

(tum) do/lo/karo 

(you-familiar.pl) give/take/do 

2b. (Aap ) dIijae / laIijae / kIijae 

(a:p) di:jiye/li:jiye/ki:jiye 

(polite) give/take/do 

The operators take the same imperative forms in the compound verb 

constructions. 

3. yah iktaba lao laao. 

yah kita:b le lo. 

this book take-explicator 

Take this book. 

3a. yah iktaba lao laIijae. 

yah kita:b le li:jiye. 

this book take explicator-polite 

Please take this book. 

4. drvaaja,a baMd kr laaoo. 

darva:za: band kar lo. 

door close do take-explicator-familiar 


4a. drvaaja,a baMd kr laIijae. 

darva:za: band kar li:jiye. 

door close do take-explicator-polite 

Please close the door. 

In negative or prohibitive imperative constructions, the negative 

markers na /nahĩĩ ‘no’ may precede the verb in the infinitive form. 

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3. MORPHOLOGY 

However, it is optional with the use of prohibitive morpheme mat 

‘don’t.’ 

5. dvaa[- mat / na / nahIM Kanaa / Ka laonaa. 

dava:i: mat/na/nahĩ: kha:na:/kha: lena:. 

medicine neg eat-inf./eat take-inf 

Don’t take medicine. 

5a. dvaa[- mat Ka laIijae. 

dava:i: mat kha: li:jiye. 

medicine neg eat take-inf. 

Don’t take medicine. 

3.4.5.3. Subjunctive Mood 

The subjunctive forms are formed by adding certain suffixes to the 

verb stems that agree with the subjects in person and number, e.g., 

Sg Pl 

1 st person -}Ð -ũ: -eÐ -ẽ 

2 nd person (familiar) -e -e -Aao -o 

2 nd person (polite) -eÐ -ẽ -eÐ -ẽ 

3 rd person -e -e -eÐ -ẽ 

The subjunctive forms of the verb haonaa hona: ‘to be’ have been given 

in 3.4.1.(d). Here we will illustrate the subjunctive forms of a few 

other verbs. 

6. maOM jaa}Ð / k$Ð / pZ,UÐ. 

m´~ ja:ũ:/karũ:/ par�hũ: 

I go-subj /do-subj /read-subj 

6a. hma jaaeÐ / kroM / pZ,oM. 

ham ja:ẽ/karẽ/ par�hẽ 

we go-subj /do-subj /read-subj 

6b. tU jaae / kro / pZ,o. 

tu: ja:e/kare/ par�he 

you go-subj /do-subj /read-subj

3. MORPHOLOGY 

6c. tuma jaaAao / krao /pZ,ao. 

tum ja:o/karo/ par�ho 

you go-subj /do-subj /read-subj 

6d. Aap jaaeÐ / kroM / pZ,oM. 

a:p ja:ẽ/karẽ/ par�hẽ 

you go-subj /do-subj /read-subj 

6e. vah Aae / kro / pZ,o. 

vah a:e/kare/ par�he 

he come-subj /do-subj /read-subj 

6f. vaoo AaeÐ /kro/M pZ,oM. 

ve a:ẽ/karẽ/ par�hẽ 

they come-subj/do-subj /read-subj 

The stem final vowels -[- -i: and -} -u:, as in pI pi: ‘drink,’ and CU 

chu: ‘touch’, are shortened in length as -[ -i and -] -u before the 

subjunctive verb suffixes are added to them. 

7. maOM ip}Ð /Cu}Ð. 

m´~ piũ:/chuũ: 

I drink-subj /touch-subj 

7a. hma ipeÐM /CueÐM. 

ham piẽ/chuẽ 

we drink-subj/touch-subj 

7b. tU ipe /Cue. 

tu: pie/chue 

you drink-subj/touch-subj 

7c. tuma ipAao /CuAao. 

tum pio/chuo 

you drink-subj/touch-subj 

7d. Aap ipeÐM / CueÐ. 

a:p piẽ/chuẽ 

yiu drink-subj/touch-subj 

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7e. vah ipe / Cue. 

vah pie/chue 

he drink-subj/touch-subj 

7f. vao ipeÐ /CueÐ. 

ve piẽ/chuẽ 

they drink-subj/touch-subj 

3.4.6. Voice 

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3. MORPHOLOGY 

The verbal stem can also be used to indicate the passive voice. It 

indicates the subject of a verb in the passive voice and it has 

agreement of number, person, and gender. 

1. ]maa sao p~ na ilaKa gayaa. 

uma: se patr na likha: gaya:. 

Uma by letter neg write-pass 

Uma couldn’t write a letter. 

2. ]sasao calaa na gayaa. 

us-se cala: na gaya:. 

she-by walk neg be able 

She couldn’t walk. 

3. ]sasao yah kama nahIM hao sakta. 

us-se yah ka:m nahĩ: ho sakta: 

she-by this work neg be able-model 

She would not be able to do this work. 

4. mauJasao iktaba igar ga[-. 

mujh-se kita:b gir gayi:. 

me-by book fell down 

The book fell from my hands. 

5. ]sasao Aa[-naa TUT gayaa. 

us-se a:yi:na: t�u:t� gaya:. 

she-by mirror break explicator 

The mirror was broken by her.

3. MORPHOLOGY 

6. puranao AKbaaraoM kao fOMka gayaa. 

pura:ne akhba:rõ ko phẽka: gaya:. 

old newspapers-obl dat thrown explicator 

The old newspapers were thrown away. 

It can also be used to express ‘from’or ‘through’ 

7. muaJasao AMgaòja,I pZ, laao. 

mujh-se ãgrezi: par�h lo. 

me-from English learn explicator 

Learn English from me. 

It is used with the indirect objects of verbs meaning ‘to tell, say, ask, 

ask for, beg, demand, claim, request,’ 

8. ]sanao ]maa sao kha ik … 

usne uma: se kaha: ki … 

he-erg Uma said that 

He told Uma that … 

9. ]maa nao mauJasao pUCa ik … 

uma: ne mujh se pu:cha: … 

Uma er me-obl from asked 

Uma asked me … 

10. Aimat nao ]sasao pàqa-naa kI 

amit ne us-se pra:rthana: ki:. 

Amit-erg him/her request made 

Amit requested him/her. 

3.4.7. Non-finite Verb Forms 

We have discussed various finite verbal forms under tense, aspect, 

mood, and voice above. We will now discuss the non-finite forms of 

verbs which include infinitives and participles. 

3.4.7.1. Infinitives 

Infinitives are formed by adding the suffix -naa -na: to the verb stems: 

Aanaa a:na: ‘to come,’ jaanaa ja:na: ‘to go,’ krnaa karna: ‘to do,’ ilaKnaa 

likhna: ‘to write,’ etc. Infinitives are used both as nouns and as 

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3. MORPHOLOGY 

adjectives. An infinitive is usually an abstract noun and, being an 

abstract noun, it is not used in the plural. 

1. jaldI saaonaa zIk hO. 

jaldi: sona: t�hi:kh h´. 

early sleep-inf good is 

It is good to go to sleep early. 

2. ]sako Aanao maoM dor hu[-. 

uske a:ne mẽ der hui:. 

he-gen-obl come-inf-obl in late be-fsg 

He/she arrived late. 

3. maOMnao ]sao jaanao sao raoka. 

m´~ne use ja:ne se roka:. 

I-erg he-dat go-inf-obl from stop-pst 

I stopped him from going. 

Despite being a noun, the infinite can take an object. 

4. vah kama krnao maoM toja, hO. 

vah ka:m karne mẽ tez h´. 

he work do-inf-obl in fast is 

He is prompt in (his) work. 

The postposition kao ko ‘to’ is not added when the infinitive is used as 

an object. 

5. vah iktaba laanaa BaUla gayaa. 

vah kita:b la:na: bhu:l gaya:. 

he book bring-inf forget go-operator-pst 

He forgot to bring the book. 

6. maOM ]sao imalanao jaa}Ðgaa. 

m´~ use milne ja:ũ:ga:. 

I him-obl meet-inf-obl go-fut 

I will go to see him. 

Infinitives are frequently used as adjectives in combination with 

verbs denoting obligation, necessity, requirement, or compulsion 

like caah ca:h ‘want,’ hao ho ‘be,’ and pD, par� ‘compulsion. The

3. MORPHOLOGY 

compounds made are passive in meaning. 

7. maOM caaya pInaa caahta hUÐM. 

m´~ ca:y pi:na: cahta: hũ: 

I tea drink-inf want-ptc am 

I want to drink tea. 

8. mauJao idllaI jaanaa pD,a. 

mujhe dilli: ja:na: par�a:. 

I-dat Delhi go-inf fell(explicator) 

I had to go to Delhi. 

9. ]sao kama Saama tk samaaPt krnaa qaa. 

use ka:m ša:m tak sama:pt karna: tha: 

he-obl work evening up to finish do-inf be-past-obligatory 

He had to finish the work by evening. 

When an infinitive is transitive, it is used as an adjective for its 

object and changes its ending -naa -na: to -naI -ni: or -nao -ne. 

10. ]sao pOsao laanao hMO. 

use p´se la:ne h´~. 

he-obl money bring-inf-obl-pl be-obligatory 

He has to bring money. 

11. ]sao / ]sakao dvaa[- pInaI pD,ogaI. 

use/usko dava:i: pi:ni: par�egi:. 

he-obl tea medicine drink-inf-fs necessary-fut 

He has to drink medicine. 

12. maOMnao ]sakI madd krnaI caahI. 

um´~ne uski: madad karni: ca:hi:. 

I-erg his/her help-f. do-inf.fs want-fs 

I wanted to help him/her. 

3.4.7.2. Participles 

Participles in Hindi are largely verbal in nature and function as 

adjectives and adverbs. They are of two types: imperfective and 

perfective. Whereas imperfective participles represent incomplete or 

unfinished activities, perfective participles designate completed 

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verbal activities. 

3.4.7.2.1. Imperfective Participles 

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3. MORPHOLOGY 

When used adjectivally, imperfective participles are formed by 

adding the suffixes -ta -ta: (ms), -to -te (mp), -tI -ti (fs), and -tIM -tĩ: 

(fp) that are made to agree with the noun in gender and number. 

Adjectival imperfective participles are expanded with one of the 

simple perfective forms of haonaa hona: ‘to be,’ like huAa hua: (ms), and 

hue hue (p), and hu[- hui: (fs). 

1. daOD,ta huAa AadmaI Ék gayaa. 

dør�ta: hua: a:dmi: ruk gaya:. 

run-imp.ptc be-ms man stop went 

The running man stopped. 

2. daOD,to hue baccao Saaor kr rho hOM. 

dør�te hue bacce šor kar rahe h´.~ 

run-imp.ptc be-mp children noise do-prog.asp are 

The running children are making noise. 

3. calatI hu[- basa Ék ga[-. 

calti: hui: bas ruk gai:. 

move-imp.ptc-fs bus stop went 

The moving bus stopped. 

When used adverbially, the suffix -to -te is added to the verb stem 

and is followed by hue hue. 

4. dF,tr sao laaOTto hue maOMnao fla KrIdo. 

daftar se løt�te hue m´~ne phal khari:de. 

office from return-while I-erg fruit bought 

I bought fruit while returning from the office. 

5. baccao skUla jaato hue gaa rho qaoo. 

bacce sku:l ja:tee hue ga: rahe the. 

children school go-while sing-prog.asp were 

The children were singing songs while going to school.

3. MORPHOLOGY 

Adverbial imperfective participles may be reduplicated. 

6. vah pOdla calato - calato qak gayaa. 

vah p´dal calte-calte thak gaya:. 

he on foot walk-ptc walk-ptc tired went 

He was tired of walking on foot. 

7. vah Ct sao igarto - igarto baca gayaa. 

vah chat se girte-girte bac gaya: 

he roof from fall-ptc-fall-ptc save went 

He almost fell from the roof. 

Adverbial imperfective participles are used with different time 

expressions. 

8. vah Gar jaato samaya maayaUsa qaa. 

vah ghar ja:te samay ma:yu:s tha: 

he home go-ptc time sad was 

He was sad when it was time to go home. 

3.4.7.2.2. Perfective Participles 

Perfective participles are formed by adding the adjectival suffixes - 

Aa -a:, -e -e, and -[- -i: to verb stems agreeing with the noun in 

person, gender, and number. A few perfective stems are irregular. 

Perfective participles represent a verbal activity carried through to 

completion. Perfective participles may be employed either 

adjectivally or adverbially. The adjectival participles are expanded 

with the forms of huAa hua:, hue hue, and hu[- hui: that agree with the 

modified noun in person, gender, and number. 

9. baOza (huAa ) laD,ka 

b´t�ha: (hua:) lar�ka: 

the sitting (i.e., seated) boy 

9a. baOzo (hue ) laD,ko 

b´t�he (hue) lar�ke 

the sitting boys 

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9b. baOzI (hu[-) laD,kI laD,ikyaaÐ 

b´t�hi (hui:) lar�ki:/lar�kiyã: 

the sitting girl/girls 

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3. MORPHOLOGY 

The adjectival participles may precede or follow the noun they 

qualify. 

10a. kmaIja, QaulaI (hu[-) hO. 

kami:z dhuli: (hui:) h´. 

shirt washed (perf-ptc) is 

The shirt is washed. 

10b. QaulaI (hu[-) kmaIja, AlamaarI maoM hO. 

dhuli: (hui:) kami:z alma:ri: mẽ h´. 

washed (ptc) shirt almirah in is 

The washed shirt is in almirah. 

There are two types of adverbial participles. In one type, the 

invariable suffix –e -e is employed. 

11. Ct pr baOzo hue vah gaa rha qaa. 

chat par b´t�he hue vah ga: raha: tha:. 

roof at siting-perf.ptc he sing-prog was 

He was singing while sitting on the roof. 

In the other type, the adverbial participle uses the adjectival suffixes 

–Aa -a:,- e -e, and –[- -i:. 

12. na[- kmaIja, phnaI hu[- rmaa baaja,ar jaa rhI qaI. 

nai: kami:z pahni: hui: rama: baza:r ja: rahi: thi:. 

new shirt wear-perf.ptc Rama market go-prog was 

Wearing a new shirt, Rama was going to market. 

The perfective adverbial participles are frequently reduplicated. 

13. vah Gar pr baOzo - baOzo qak gayaa. 

vah ghar par b´t�he-b´t�he thak gaya: 

he home at sitting-perf.ptc tired went(explicator) 

He was tired of sitting at home.

3. MORPHOLOGY 

The perfective participles are used to indicate the passing of time. 

14. Amar kao AmarIka sao Aae hue dao saala hao gae hOM. 

amar ko amri:ka: se a:ye hue do sa:l ho gaye h´~. 

Amar-dat America from came-perf.ptc two years elapsed are 

It has been two years since Amar came from America. 

3.4.7.2.3. Conjunctive Participles 

Conjunctive participles are used to form sentences in which two 

verbal activities share the same subject and one of the activities is a 

temporal antecedent of the other. In this construction, the verb of the 

first clause is used in the verb stem form and is immediately 

followed by kar, while the verb of the subsequent clause takes all 

the conjugation markers. 

15. vah Gar phuÐcakr baaja,ar gayaa. 

vah ghar pahũckar ba:za:r gaya:. 

he home reach after-cp market went 

He went to the market after coming home. 

16. ]sanao AK,baar pZ,kr icaT\zI ilaKI. 

usne axba:r par�h kar cit�t�hi: likhi:. 

he-erg neewspaper read after-cp letter-fs wrote-fs 

He wrote a letter after reading the newspaper. 

If the verb krnaa karna: ‘to do’ appears in the main clause either 

independently or as a part of a compound, the form ke is used in 

place of kr kar. 

17. dF,tr ka kama samaaPt krko vah Gar gayaa. 

daftar ka: ka:m sama:pt karke vah ghar gaya: 

office of work finish do-cp he home went 

He went home after finishing the office work. 

Sometimes the conjunctive clauses are used in the adverbial 

sense. 

18. Amar daOD,kr Aayaa. 

amar dør� kar a:ya:. 

Amar run do-cp came 

Amar came running. 

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19. ]maa mauskrakr baaolaI … 

uma: muskara kar boli: … 

Uma smile do-cp said 

Uma said smilingly … 

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3. MORPHOLOGY 

The conjunctive participle marker kar is also used in certain fixed 

expressions. 

20. maOM ivaSaoYa/ K,asa krko Amar sao imalaa. 

m´~ višeš/xa:s karke amar se mila:. 

I especially do-cp Amar with met 

I especially met Amar. 

21. vah idllaI haokr Aayaa. 

vah dilli: ho kar a:ya:. 

he Delhi be do-cp came 

He came via Delhi. 

22. ek - ek krko saBaI ivaQyaaqaI- Aae. 

ek - ek karke sabhhi: vidhya:rthi: a:ye. 

one one do-cp all students came 

All the students came one by one. 

3.5. Adverbs 

An adverb may precede an adjective, a verb, and sometimes another 

adverb as a qualifier or modifier. 

Preceding an adjective 

1. vah maora bahut AcCa daost hO. 

vah mera: bahut accha: dost h´. 

He my very good friend is 

He is my very good friend. 

Preceding a verb 

2. maora daost raoja, Aata hO. 

mera: dost roz a:ta: h´. 

my friend daily come-ptc is 

My friend comes daily.

3. MORPHOLOGY 

Preceding another adverb 

3. vah kla bahut toja, daOD,a. 

vah kal bahut tez dør�ha:. 

he yesterday very fast ran 

He ran very fast yesterday. 

3.5.1. Types of Adverbs 

Adverbs can be classified by form or function. By function, adverbs 

can be grouped into the following subclasses. 

(a) Adverbs of time/duration: Aaja a:j ‘today,’ kla kal ‘yesterday,’ saubah 

subah ‘morning.’ 

(b) Adverbs of place or direction: AMdr andar ‘in/inside,’ baahr ba:har 

‘out/outside.’ 

(c) Adverbs of manner: AasaanaI sao a:sa:ni: se ‘easily,’ QaIro-QaIro dhi:re- 

dhi:re ‘slowly.’ 

(d) Adverbs of reason: garIbaI ko karNa gari:bi: ke ka:ran� ‘for the reason 

of poverty,’ kmaja,aorI ko karNa kamzori: ke ka:ran� ‘for the reason of 

weakness.’ 

(e) Adverbs of instrument: klama sao kalam se ‘with pen,’ caakU sao ca:ku: se 

‘with knife.’ 

(f) Adverbs of purpose: pZ,nao ko ilae par�hne ke liye ‘for reading,’ kama ko 

ilae ka:m ke liye ‘for work.’ 

(g) Comitative: X -ko saaqa -ke sa:th ‘with/ in the company of X,’ and 

(h) Adverbs of degree/intensity: bahut bahut ‘very,’ kafI ka:phi: 

‘enough,’ ivarlaa hI kao[- virla: hi: koyi: ‘hardly any,’ lagaBaga lagbhag 

‘approximately.’ 

By form, adverbs can be classified into the following subgroups: (a) 

basic or non-derived adverbs, (b) derived adverbs, (c) phrasal 

adverbs, (d) reduplicated adverbs, and (e) particles. 

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3. MORPHOLOGY 

(a) The basic or non-derived adverbs may be either pure adverbs like 

Aaja a:j ‘today,’ sada sada:/ hmaoSaa hameša: ‘always,’ or may be formed 

by adding the postposition se to nouns, adjectives, or adverbs. 

4. vah hmaoSaa AcCI maohnat krta hO. 

vah hameša: acchi: mehnat karta: h´. 

he always good hard work do-ptc is 

He always works very hard. 

5. ]sanao Apnaa kama KuSaI sao ikyaa. 

usne apna: ka:m khuši: se kiya:. 

she-erg own work happiness with did 

She did her work very happily. 

6. naIcao sao }pr AcCa idKta hO. 

ni:ce se u:par accha: dikhta: h´. 

below from top good appear is 

It looks better at the top than at the bottom. 

7. baahr sao AMdr AiQak zMD,a hO. 

ba:har se andar adhik t�hãd�a: h´. 

outside from inside more cold is 

It is colder inside than outside. 

8. ]sanao ekdma sao maora haqa pkD,a. 

usne ekdam se mera: ha:th pakr�a: 

he-erg at once my hand caught 

He caught hold of my hand at once. 

9. maOMnao JaT sao ]sakI baat maana laI. 

m´~ne jhat� se uski: ba:t ma:n li:. 

I-erg at once his talk agreed 

I agreed with what he said immediately. 

(b) Derived adverbs are formed by adding adverbial suffixes to the 

base form of demonstrative, relative, correlative, and interrogative 

pronouns. Locative adverbs are formed by adding the -[-M -ĩ:/ -AaM pr - 

ã: par suffixes: yahaÐ yahã:/ yahIM pr yahĩ:(par) ‘here,’ vahaÐ vah-ã:/ vahIM 

vahĩ:/ vahaÐ hI vahã: hi: ‘there,’ khaÐ kahã:/ khIM kahĩ: ‘where.’ 

Directional adverbs are formed by adding the suffix -sao -se/-kI -ki: or

3. MORPHOLOGY 

as in yahaÐ sao yahã: se/[Qar sao idhar se ‘in this direction,’ vahaÐ sao vahã: se/ 

vahaÐ kI Aaor vahã: ki: or/ ]Qar sao udhar se ‘in that direction’, khaÐ sao kahã: 

se/ khaÐ kI Aaor kahã: ki: or ‘in which direction.’ Manner adverbs are 

formed by adding the suffixes -trh tarah/p`kar praka:r as in [sa trh is 

tarah/ [sa p`kar is praka:r ‘in this manner,’ ]sa trh us tarah/ ]sa p`kar us 

praka:r ‘in that manner,’ iksa trh kis tarah ‘in which manner.’ 

(c) Phrasal adverbs are formed by adding a simple or a compound 

postposition to a noun. 

10. vah tIna idna ko baad/pScaat Aayaa. 

vah ti:n din ke ba:d/pašca:t a:ya:. 

he three days post. after came 

He came after three days. 

11. ]sanao pZ,nao sao phlao ApnaI eonak saaf, kI. 

usne patr par�hne se pahle apnii ńak sa:f ki:. 

he-erg letter read-inf-obl post before self’s glasses clean did 

He cleaned his glasses before reading the letter. 

12. hmaaro Gar ko pICo ek baD,a pak- hO. 

hama:re ghar ke pi:che ek bar�a: pa:rk h´. 

our house post. behind a big park is 

There is a big park behind our house. 

(d) Adverbs can be reduplicated to show intensity and distribution: 

QaIro- QaIro dhi:re-dhi:re ‘slowly,’ toja, - toja, tez- tez ‘fast’, khaÐ- khaÐ kahã: - 

kahã: ‘where’, kBaI- kBaI kabhi: - kabhi: ‘sometimes.’ 

13. vah QaIro- QaIro/ toja, - toja, calata hO. 

vah dhi:re- dhi:re/tez- tez calta: h´. 

he slowly/fast walk-ptc is 

He walks slowly/quickly.’ 

14. pta nahIM vah khaÐ- khaÐ gayaa. 

pata: nahĩ: vah kahã: - kahã: gaya:. 

aware neg he where where went 

One doesn’t know which places did he go to? 

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3. MORPHOLOGY 

Reduplicated adverbs may be separated by the negative particle na 

to express indefiniteness: kBaI na kBaI kabhi: na kabhi: ‘sometime or 

other.’ 

15. kBaI na kBaI vah ApnaI galtI maanaogaI. 

kabhi: na kabhi: vah apni: galti: ma:nega:. 

sometime neg sometime he self’s mistake accept-fut 

He will realize his mistake some day. 

3.5.2. Expressions of Time 

3.5.2.1. General Time Expressions 

General time expressions employ nouns in the direct and oblique 

cases. The dative sufix kao ko is added to adverbs of time, such as duphr 

duphar ‘noon,’ Saama ša:m ‘evening,’ rat ra:t ‘night,’ idna din ‘day,’ kla 

kal ‘tomorrow/yesterday.’ 

1. Aap duphr kao Aa[e. 

a:p duphar ko a:yiye. 

you noon dat come-pol 

Please come at noon. 

2. rat kao AiQak gamaI- nahIM rhtI. 

ra:t ko adhik garmi: nahĩ: rahti:. 

night dat more hot neg remain-ptc 

It is not very hot during the night. 

3.5.2.2. Time of Day 

Time of day is expressed by bajao baje. It is used in reporting time and 

not in expressions such as ek GaMTo ko baad ek ghant�e ke ba:d ‘after one 

hour.’ In such cases, GaMTa ghant�a: ‘hour’ is used in the oblique case 

with a postposition. 

3. vah dF,tr sao dsa bajao Aa[-. 

vah daftar se das baje a:yi:. 

she office from ten o’clock came-fs 

She came from the office at ten o’clock.

3. MORPHOLOGY 

4. vah dao GaMTo ko baad Aa[-. 

vah do ghant�e ke ba:d a:yi:. 

she two hour-obl post came-fs 

She came after two hours.’ 

The expressions ‘quarter,’ ‘three-quarters,’ and ‘half an hour’ 

precede the numerals. 

5. vah savaa/ paOna/o saaD,o caar bajao gayaa. 

vah søa:/pøne/sa:r�e ca:r baje: gaya:. 

he quarter past/quarter to/half past four o’clock went 

He went at quarter past/quarter to/half past four. 

Expressons indicating minutes before the hour add the dative suffix 

to the infinitive of the verb followed by the postposition maoM me� ‘in’. 

The expression kma kam ‘less’ also is used. 

6. vah Co bajanao maoM dsa imanaT pr Aayaa. 

vah che bajne me� das minat� par a:ya:. 

he six o’clock-inf-obl in ten minute at came 

He came at ten minutes to six. 

6a. vah dsa imanaT kma Co bajao Aayaa. 

vah das minat� kam che baje a:ya:. 

he ten minutes less six o’clock came 

He came at ten minutes to six. 

Two types of expressions are used to ask for the time. 

7. sanaya @yaa huAa/ hO? 

samay k’a: hua:/h´? 

time what happened/is 

What time is it? 

7a. iktnao baja gae? 

kitne baj gaye? 

how much strike went 

What time is it? 

134

3.5.2.3. Period of Day 

135 

3. MORPHOLOGY 

Periods of day are usually expressed by various nouns in the direct 

or oblique case with or without postpositions: savaoro- savaoro savere 

(savere) ‘early in the morning,’ rat kao ra:t ko ‘during the night’, idna maoM 

din me� ‘during the day,’ dor sao der se ‘late.’ Other frequent 

expressions are: pàt: kala pra:ta: ka:l ‘eary in the morning,’ saMQyaa 

sandhya: ‘dusk/evening,’ daophr dophar ‘noon’, daophr ko baad dophar ke 

ba:d ‘afternoon.’ 

3.5.2.4. Days of the Week 

The days of the week are: 

saaomavaar somva:r Monday 

maMgalavaar mangalva:r Tuesday 

bauQavaar budhva:r Wednesday 

gauÉvaar guruva:r Thursday 

Sauk`vaar šukrva:r Friday 

Sainavaar šaniva:r/šani:car va:r Saturday 

rivavaar/[tvaar raviva:r/itva:r Sunday 

3.5.2.5. Months of the Year 

Months are expressed in both indigenous and English forms. 

1. Hindi months 

baOsaaK vaiša:kh April-May 

jyaoYz jyešt�h May-June 

AYaaZ, aša:r�h June-July 

Eaavana šra:van� July-August 

Baad` bha:dr August-September 

AaiSvana a:švin September-October 

kait-k ka:rtik October-November 

maaga- ma:rg November-December 

paOYa pøš December-January 

maaGa ma:gh January-February 

falgauna pha:lgun February-March 

caOt` caitra March-April

3. MORPHOLOGY 

2. English nativized versions: janavarI janvari:, frvarI pharvari:, maaca- 

ma:rc, Aip`la april, ma[- mai:, jaUna ju:n, jaula[- julay, Agast agast, isatmbar 

sitambar, A@taobar akto:bar, navaMbar navambar, idsaMbar disambar. 

3.5.2.6. Year 

In Hindi, a reference to a year is usually to the year AD called [-svaI 

i:svi:. Hindus refer to their indigenous calendar as ibak`maI bikrami or 

Saak ša:k and Muslims as ihjarI hijiri:. The term sana\ san used before the 

Christian year, is optionally followed by [-svaI i:svi:. Similarly, an 

indigenous year starts with saMvat\ samvat before the year and ends with 

ibak`maI bikrami. 

8. sana\ ]naIsa saaO saaz [-svaI maoM 

san uni:s sø sa:t�h i:svi: me� 

year nineteen hundred sixty Christian era in 

in the year 1960 AD 

9. saMvat\ dao hja,ar saaz ibak`maI maoM 

samvat do haza:r sa:t�h bikrami: me� 

year two thousand sixty Bikrami in 

in the year 2060 Bikrami 

The terms [-saa pUva- i:sa: pu:rv ‘before Christ’ are used to denote BC. 

10. [-saa pUva- Co saaO vaYa-M 

i:sa: pu:rv che sø varš 

Christ before six hundred years 

six hundred years before Christ 

3.5.2.7. Seasons 

There are five major seasons: vasaMt vasant ‘spring,’ gaÌSma gri:šm 

‘summer,’ barsaat barsa:t ‘rainy season’, Sard sharad ‘autumn,’ and 

SaItkala ši:tka:l ‘winter.’ These terms can be followed by?tu ritu/ maaOsama 

møsim ‘season’ in both the direct and oblique cases with or without a 

postposition. 

136

11. vasaMt ³?tu´maoM fUla iKlato hOM. 

vasant (ritu) me� phu:l khilte h´.� 

spring (season) in flowers bloom-ptc are 

Flowers bloom during spring. 

3.5.3. Frequentative 

137 

3. MORPHOLOGY 

Frequentative expressions employ reduplication, an emphatic 

particle, or pìt prati/ hr har ‘every’ before a time expression. 

raoja,, raoja, roz roz every day 

pìt idna prati din every day 

hr GaMTo har gant�e every hour 

rat Bar ra:t bhar whole night 

vahr pla har pal every moment 

12. vah raoja, raoja, / pìt idna pOsao maaÐgata hO. 

vah roz roz/ prati din p´se mã:gta: h´. 

he daily/every day money demand-ptc is 

He asks for money daily. 

3.6. Particles 

Particles are generally attached to a particular word in a sentences to 

mark emphasis, or contrast. The main particles used in Hindi are: BaI 

bhi:, hI hi:, tao to, tk tak, Bar bhar, and maa~ ma:tra. The use of these 

particles with different word classes covers a wide range of shades 

of meaning and semantic interpretations. Here we will illustrate the 

use of these particles with detailed reference to the prominent 

particles BaI bhi: and hI hi:. 

3.6.1. The Particle Bar bhi: ‘also’ 

The particle BaI bhi: is used with different types of nouns in the direct 

or oblique case. It immediately follows a noun in the direct case and 

the postposition in the oblique case. 

1. Amar BaI gayaa. 

amar bhi: gaya:. 

Amar part went 

Amar also went.

3. MORPHOLOGY 

2. laD,ka BaI Aayaa. 

lar�ka: bhi: a:ya:. 

boy part came 

The boy also came. 

3. gamaI- BaI hO. 

garmi: bhi: h´. 

hot part is 

It is hot, too. 

In the oblique case, BaI bhi: is placed immediately after the 

postposition following the noun. 

4. Amar kao BaI jaanaa hO. 

amar ko bhi: ja:na: h´. 

Amar-dat part go-inf is 

Amar, too, will have to go. 

5. maaohna nao BaI raoTI Ka[-. 

mohan ne bhi: rot�i: kha:yi:. 

Mohan-erg part bread ate-fem 

Mohan, too, ate his meals.’ 

6. raQaa saoo BaI galtI hu[-. 

radha: se bhi: galti: hui:. 

Radha-abl part mistake happened 

Radha, too, committed a mistake. 

It is to be noted that BaI bhi: cannot be used between a noun and a 

postposition. 

7. Gar maoM BaI gamaI- hO. 

ghar mẽ bhi: garmi: h´. 

house in part hot is 

It is hot in the house as well. 

But not 

7a. *Gar BaI maoM gamaI- hO. 

*ghar bhi: mẽ garmi: h´. 

138

It is also not used in vocative constructions. 

8. *saaohna BaI AaAao! 

*sohan bhi: ao! 

Sohan part come-voc 

9. *ho laD,ko BaI 

*he! lar�ke bhi: 

oh! boy-voc part 

139 

3. MORPHOLOGY 

The particle BaI bhi: can be used with all types of direct and oblique 

personal, demonstrative, indefinite, relative, and reflexive pronouns. 

10. maOM/ tU/ vah BaI Aayaa. 

m´~/tu:/vah bhi: a:ya:. 

I/you/he part came 

I/you/he came too. 

11. hma/ tuma / vao BaI Aae. 

ham/tum/ve bhi: a:ye. 

we/you/they part came 

We/you/they came too. 

12. mauJao / tuJao BaI jaanaa hO. 

mujhe/tujhe bhi: ja:na: h´. 

I/you/he-obl part go-inf aux 

I/you, too, have to go. 

13. hmaoM/ Aapkao / ]nhMo BaI jaanaa hO. 

hamẽ/a:pko/unhẽ bhi: ja:na: h´. 

we/you/they-obl part go-inf aux 

We/you/they, too, have to go.’ 

14. mauJakao / tuJakao / ]sakao BaI vaapsa Aanaa hO. 

mujhko/tujhko/usko bhi: va:pas a:na: h´. 

I/you/he-obl part go-inf aux 

I/you/he, too, will have to return.

3. MORPHOLOGY 

15. vah maora /tumhara/ Aapka/ ]saka/ ]naka BaI daost hO. 

vah mera:/tumha:ra:/a:pka:/uska:/unka: bhi: dost h´. 

he my/your/his/their friend is part friend is 

He is my/your/his/their friend, too. 

16. vah mauJasao /tumharo sao/ Aapsao/]sasao/ ]nasao BaI baD,a hO. 

vah mujhse/tuma:hre se/a:pse/usse/unse bhi: bar�a: h´. 

he me/you/him/they also elder is 

He is older than me/you/him/her. 

17. ]sao/]sakaoo/ ]nhoM/]nakaoo BaI baulaa laa[e. 

use/usko/unhẽ/unko bhi: bula: la:yie. 

he/they part call bring. 

Please call him/her/them also. 

18. Aap [sako baaro maoM BaI kuC kIijae. 

a:p iske ba:re mẽ bhi: kuch ki:jiye. 

you this-gen about part something do-pl 

Please do something for it. 

19. Aap iktnaI BaI kaoiSaSa kIijae safla nahIM haoMgao. 

a:p kitni: bhi: košiš ki:jiye, saphal nahĩ: hõge. 

you how much part try do success neg be 

No matter how much you try, you won’t succeed. 

20. Aap mauJao kao[- BaI iktaba do dIijae. 

a:p mujhe koyi: bhi: kita:b de di:jiye. 

you me-dat any part book give-pl 

Please give me any book. 

In the oblique form of the indefinite pronouns, the particle BaI bhi: is 

placed after the postpositions. 

21. Aap iksaI kao BaI baulaa[e. 

a:p kisi: ko bhi: bula:iye. 

you any-dat part call-pl 

Please call anyone. 

140

Not 

21a. *Aap iksaI BaI kao baulaa[e. 

*a:p kisi: bhi: ko bula:yie. 

141 

3. MORPHOLOGY 

The use of the particle BaI bhi: with the indefinite pronouns kao[- koyi: 

and kuC kuch, represent different meanings: kao[- BaI koyi: bhi: ‘anyone,’ 

kuC BaI kuch bhi: ‘anything.’ 

22. Aap jaao BaI kama krnaa caahto hOM¸ kr laIijae. 

a:p jo bhi: ka:m karna: cahte h´~, kar li:jiye. 

you any part work want is do take 

Whatever work you want to do, go ahead. 

23. jaba BaI Aap Aato hOM¸ iktaba saaqa lao Aato hOM. 

jab bhi: a:p a:te h´~, kita:b sa:th le a:te h´~. 

when part you come are book with bring past aux 

Whenever you come, bring your book with you. 

24. vah Aaap jaOsaa BaI nahIM hO. 

vah a:p j´sa: bhi: nahĩ: h´~. 

he you like part neg is 

‘He is not even like you.’ 

25. Aap ijatnaa BaI pOsaa do sakto hOM¸ do dIijae. 

a:p jitna: bhi: p´sa: de sakte h´~, de di:jiye. 

you as much part money give can give-pl 

Whatever money you can give, please give it. 

In the oblique case, the particle BaI bhi: is placed after the 

postpositions. 

26. ijasakao/ijanakao BaI jaanaa h¸O jaaAao/ calao jaaeÐ. 

jisko/jinko bhi: ja:na h´, ja:o/cale ja:yẽ. 

who-dat part go-inf. is go go-subj 

Whosoever has to go may leave. 

The use of the particle BaI bhi: with relative pronouns represents 

different meanings: jaao BaI jo bhi: ‘whosoever’ or ‘whatsoever,’ jaba BaI 

jab bhi: ‘whenever,’ ijatnaa BaI jitna: bhi: ‘whatever.’

3. MORPHOLOGY 

27. vah Aap BaI maohnat krta hO¸ dUsaraoM kao BaI krvaata hO. 

vah a:p bhi: mehnat karta: h´, du:srõko bhi: karva:ta: h´. 

he self part hard work do is others-obl dat part do-caus is 

He works hard himself and makes others work hard too. 

28. Aap Apnao Aap/ svayaM / svat: BaI yah kama kr sakto hOM. 

a:p apne a:p/svayam/ svatah bhi: yah ka:m kar sakte h´~. 

you self part this work do-abl are 

You can do this work yourself. 

In the case of oblique forms, the particle BaI bhi: is placed after the 

postposition, not between the pronoun and the postposition. 

The particle BaI bhi: is used with different types of adjectives. It 

always follows the adjectives. 

29. vah laD,kI sauMdr BaI hO AaOr bauiwmaana BaI. 

vah lar�ki: sundar bhi: h´ ør buddhima:n bhi:. 

that girl beautiful part is and intelligent part 

That girl is beautiful as well as intelligent. 

30. iktnao BaI maja,dUr @yaaoM na AaeÐ¸ yah kama Aaja nahIM hao sakta. 

kitne bhi: mazdu:r kyõ na a:yẽ, yah ka:m a:j nahĩ: ho sakta:. 

how much part laborers neg come-subj this work today neg 

possible 

No matter how many laborers come, this work cannot be 

finished today. 

31. [sa dukana pr iklaao Bar BaI caInaI nahIM hO. 

is duka:n par kilo bhar bhi: ci:ni: nahĩ: h´. 

this shop at kilogram about part sugar neg is 

There is not even a kilogram of sugar in this shop. 

32. kOsaa BaI kama hao¸ vah kr laogaa. 

k´sa: bhi: ka:m ho, vah kar lega:. 

what type part work be he do explicator-fut 

No matter what type of work it is, he would be able to do it. 

In (29), (30), and (31), the particle BaI bhi: is merely an emphatic 

marker. In (32), however, the expression kOsaa BaI k´sa: bhi: is a 

combined phrase meaning ‘any type of.’ If BaI bhi: is deleted, the 

142

sentence will be ungrammatical. 

143 

3. MORPHOLOGY 

The particle BaI bhi: is used with different forms of the verb hao ho ‘be’ 

and the auxiliary verb. 

33. maaohna hO (BaI) ik nahIM? 

mohan h´ (bhi:) ki nahĩ:? 

Mohan be (part) or neg 

Is Mohan there or not? 

34. vah haogaa BaI ik nahIM? 

vah hoga: bhi: ki nahĩ:? 

he be-fut part or neg 

Will he be there or not? 

35. Aap AaeÐgao BaI ik nahIM? 

a:p a:yẽge bhi: ki nahĩ:? 

you come-fut part or neg 

Will you come or not? 

In the above examples, the particle BaI bhi: is used for emphasis only. 

Barring the progressive forms, the particle BaI bhi: is used with 

different types of verbs. 

36. ]saka Gar jaanaa BaI zIk nahI,M qaa. 

uska: ghar ja:na: bhi: t�hi:k nahĩ: tha:. 

his home go-ing part right neg was 

His going home was not good. 

37. vah krnao vaalaa BaI hO AaOr krvaanao vaalaa BaI. 

vah karne va:la: bhi: h´ ør karva:ne va:la: bhi:. 

he do-ing-obl part is and do-caus part 

He can do it himself and get it done, too. 

38. vah dukana pr jaata BaI hO ik nahIM. 

vah duka:n par ja:ta: bhi: h´ ki nahĩ:. 

he shop at go part is or neg 

Does he go to the shop or not?

3. MORPHOLOGY 

39. Aap Aae BaI AaOr calao BaI gae. 

a:p a:ye bhi: ør cale bhi: gaye. 

you came part and go-obl part went 

You came and have left, too. 

40. Aapkao vahaÐ gae BaI bahut idna hao gae. 

a:p ko vahã: gaye bhi: bahut din ho gaye. 

you-dat there went-obl part many days passed 

It is a long time since you have gone over there. 

41. vah Ka BaI rha hO AaOr baatoM BaI kr rha hO. 

vah kha: bhi: raha: h´ ør ba:tẽ bhi: kar raha: h´. 

he eat part prog is and talk part do-prog is 

He is eating as well as talking. 

It is to be noted that the particle BaI bhi: cannot follow the progressive 

aspect marker rha raha:. 

42. vah Ka BaI rha hO. 

vah kha: bhi: raha: h´. 

he eat part prog is 

He has been eating. 

Not 

42a. *vah Ka rha BaI hO. 

*vah kha: raha: bhi: h´. 

The particle BaI bhi: can be used with conjunct verbs. It is used either 

between the main verb and the operator (auxiliary verb) or following 

the main verb and the operator as follows. 

43. ]sanao doKa BaI qaa. 

usne dekha: bhi: tha:. 

he-erg saw part was 

He had seen it. 

44. ]sao laanao BaI dao. 

use la:ne bhi: do. 

he-abl being-inf-obl part let 

Let him bring (it). 

144

45. Aba jaanao BaI dao. 

ab ja:ne bhi: do. 

now go-inf-obl part let 

Now let it go. 

46. maOMnao icaT\zI ilaK BaI dI hO. 

m´~ne cit�t�hi: likh bhi: di: h´. 

I-erg letter write part gave (explicator) is 

I have written a letter, too. 

145 

3. MORPHOLOGY 

The particle BaI bhi: is also used between the main verb and the 

negative marker. 

47. vah Aayaa BaI nahIM. 

vah a:ya: bhi: nahĩ:. 

he came part neg 

He did not even come. 

48. rmaoSa BaI Aayaa nahIM. 

rameš bhi: a:ya: nahĩ:. 

Ramesh part came neg 

Even Ramesh did not come. 

Notice the change of meaning in the use of the particle BaI bhi: 

different from the lexical meaning ‘also’ in the following examples. 

49. vah ]sako Gar gayaa BaI magar ]sao imala BaI na saka. 

vah uske ghar gaya: bhi:, magar use mil bhi: na saka:. 

he his home went part but he-dat met part neg able 

He did go to his house, but could not meet him. 

50. vah jaaegaa BaI yaa baOza hI rhogaa. 

vah ja:yega: bhi: ya: b´t�ha: hi: rahega:. 

he go-fut part or sit part remain-fut 

Will he go or keep on sitting? 

51. vah vahaÐ gayaa BaI nahIM. 

vah vahã: gaya: bhi: nahĩ:. 

he came part neg 

He did not even go there.

3. MORPHOLOGY 

52. jaanao BaI dao. 

ja:ne bhi: do. 

go-inf-obl part let-imp 

Let it go. 

53. rhnao BaI dao. 

rahne bhi: do. 

remain-inf-obl part let-imp 

Let it be. 

The particle BaI bhi: can be used with different types of adverbs. 

54. yahaÐ BaI zMD, hO. 

yahã: bhi: t�hãd� h´. 

here part cold is 

It is cold over here, too. 

55. vahaÐ BaI doKao. 

vahã: bhi: dekho. 

there part See-imp 

Please look over there, too. 

56. idna Bar BaI yahaÐ kama na huAa. 

din bhar bhi: yahã: ka:m na hua:. 

day part here work neg be-part 

The work could not be done for the whole day over here. 

57. paÐca BaI baja gae¸ vah Aayaa nahIM. 

pã:c bhi: baj gaye, vah a:ya: nahĩ:. 

five part struck went he came neg 

It is now five o’clock and he has not come. 

58. baar baar BaI jaanaa zIk nahIM hO. 

ba:r ba:r bhi: ja:na t�hi:k nahĩ: h´. 

again part go-inf right neg is 

It is not good to go time and again. 

146

59. jaOsao BaI hao vah Aa jaaegaa. 

j´se bhi: ho vah a: ja:yega:. 

somehow part be he com-fut 

He will come somehow. 

60. vah [sailae gayaa Saayad pOsao imalao. 

vah isliye bhi: gaya: ša:yad p´se milẽ. 

he for this part went perhaps money get-subj 

He went in the hope of getting money. 

61. maOM na BaI jaa}Ð tuma ja,$r jaanaa. 

m´~ na bhi: ja:ũ: tum zaru:r ja:na:. 

I neg part go-subj you definitely go-inf-imp 

You should go, even if I don’t. 

62. kBaI haÐ BaI kraogao? 

kabhi: hã: bhi: karoge? 

sometime yes part do-fut 

Will you ever say yes? 

147 

3. MORPHOLOGY 

63. yah BaI nahIM kraogao tao @yaa kraogaoo? 

yeh bhi: nahĩ: karoge to kya: karoge? 

this part neg do-fut part what do-fut 

If you are not able to do this much, what else will you do? 

The use of the particle BaI bhi: with different adverbs represents 

different meanings: Aba BaI ab bhi: ‘even now’ tba BaI tab bhi: ‘even 

then,’ ‘even so,’ jaba BaI jab bhi: ‘whenever,’ jahaÐ BaI jahã: bhi: ‘where 

ever’ khIM BaI kahĩ: bhi: ‘anywhere,’ jahaÐ khIM BaI jahã: kahĩ: bhi: ‘in any 

place whatsoever,’ ifr BaI phir bhi: ‘yet’ ‘even so.’ 

The particle BaI bhi: is used after certain case markers and /or 

postpositions as well. 

64. ]sako pasa BaI kama nahIM hO. 

uske pa:s bhi: ka:m nahĩ: h´. 

he-gen-abl near part work neg is 

He, too, doesn’t have work.

3. MORPHOLOGY 

65. [sako ibanaa BaI kama haogaa. 

iske bina: bhi: ka:m hoga:. 

this-gen-obl without part work be-fut 

The work can be done even without it. 

66. ]sako badlao BaI kao[- nahIM Aayaa. 

uske badle bhi: koyi: nahĩ: a:ya:. 

he-gen-obl place part someone neg came 

No one came in his place. 

The particle BaI bhi: used with AaOr ør ‘and’ indicates the meaning of 

‘more.’ 

67. naIlaI saaD,I maoM vah AaOr BaI sauMdr lagatI hO. 

ni:li: sa:r�i: mẽ vah ør bhi: sundar lagti: h´. 

blue saree in she more beautiful appear-ptc-is 

She appears more beautiful in a blue sari. 

68. AaOr BaI AcCa huAa. 

ør bhi: accha: hua:. 

more good happened 

It is better still. 

From the semantic point of view, BaI bhi: represents different 

meanings depending on its use in different contexts. The meanings 

are represented in the following examples. 

69. kama Aasaana BaI hO AaOr idlacasp BaI. 

ka:m a:sa:n bhi: h´ ør dilcasp bhi:. 

work easy part is and interesting part 

The work is easy and interesting, too. 

70. vah maoro saaqa baaolata BaI nahIM. 

vah mere sa:th bolta: bhi: nahĩ:. 

he I-poss-obl with speak-ptc part neg 

He doesn’t even talk with me. 

148

71. jaanao BaI dao. 

ja:ne bhi: do. 

go-inf-obl part let-imp 

Let it go. 

72. saoba CaoTa hO ifr BaI maIza hO. 

seb chot�a: h´ phir bhi: mi:t�ha: h´. 

apple small is even then part sweet is 

Despite of being small, the apple is sweet. 

73. maaÐ kao doKkr baccaa AaOr BaI ja,aor sao raoyaa. 

mã: ko dekh kar bacca: ør bhi: zor se cila:ya:. 

mother-dat see-cp child more part loudly cried 

On seeing the mother, the child cried more loudly. 

74. ]sao kuC BaI samaJa maoM nahIM Aayaa. 

use kuch bhi: samajh mẽ nahĩ: a:ya:. 

he-dat anything understand in neg came 

He was not able to understand anything. 

149 

3. MORPHOLOGY 

In the above sentences, BaI bhi: represents the general meaning of 

‘too,’ ‘even’ and ‘let’ in the sentences (69), (70), and (71) 

respectively. In (72), ifr BaI phir bhi: represents the meaning of ‘even 

then.’ In (73), AaOr BaI ør bhi: represents the meaning of ‘more,’ and in 

(74), kuC BaI kuch bhi: represents the meaning of ‘anything.’ 

The particle BaI bhi: can be used interchangeably with hI hi: in certain 

examples with no change in the meaning. 

75. ]sao maora sauJaava ibalkula BaI / hI psaMd na Aayaa. 

use mera: sujha:v bilkul bhi:/hi: pasand na a:ya:. 

he-dat my suggestion exact part like neg came 

He did not like my suggestion at all. 

In such cases, the use of the particle BaI bhi: or hI hi: is meant to 

emphasize only. Wherever BaI bhi: adds meaning to the sentence, it 

cannot be interchanged with hI hi:.

3. MORPHOLOGY 

76. naIlaI saaD,I maoM vah AaOr BaI sauMdr lagatI hO. 

ni:li: sa:r�i: mẽ vah ør bhi: sundar lagti: h´. 

blue sari in she more part beautiful appear is 

She looks more beautiful in the blue sari. 

76a. *naIlaI saaD,I maoM vah AaOr hI sauMdr lagatI hO. 

*ni:li: sa:r�i: mẽ vah ør hi: sundar lagti: h´. 

3.6.2. The particle hI hi: 

The particle hI hi: is generally used for emphasis and also in the 

sense of ‘exclusiveness’ or ‘alone.’ As indicated above, the particle 

hI hi: can be used as an emphatic marker with nouns. It can also be 

used with different types of pronouns in both the direct and the 

oblique cases: maOM hI m´~ hi: ‘I myself,’ tU hI tu: hi: ‘thou thyself,’ Aap hI 

a:p hi: ‘you yourself,’ kao[- hI koi: hi: ‘hardly anyone,’ kuC hI kuch hi: 

‘hardly anything,’ ‘hardly a few.’ 

1. maOM hI Aa}Ðgaa. 

m´~ hi: a:ũ:ga:. 

I past come-fut 

I will come myself. 

2. Aap hI bata[e. 

a:p hi: bata:yiye. 

you part say 

You say (it) yourself. 

3. kao[- hI yah kama kr sakta hO. 

koyi: hi: yah ka:m kar sakta: h´. 

any part this work do able-ptc aux 

Hardly anyone can do this work. 

4. kuC hI laaoga Aae qao. 

kuch hi: log a:ye the. 

some part people came aux 

Hardly a few people had come. 

Adding the emphatic particle hI hi: to certain words results in certain 

phonological changes. 

150

(a) Aba ab + hI hi: = ABaI abhi: just now 

tba tab + hI hi: = tBaI tabhi: just then 

saba sab + hI hi: = saBaI sabhi: all, everybody 

151 

3. MORPHOLOGY 

When hI hi: is preceded by pronouns in the oblique case, such as [sa 

is, ]sa us, iksa kis, and ijasa jis, the h h is elided. 

(b) [sa is + hI hi: = [saI isi: this very 

]sa us + hI hi: = ]saI usi: that same 

iksa kis + hI hi: = iksaI kisi: someone 

hI jis + hI hi: = ijasaI jisi: the very one which 

The h h is dropped when preceded by mauJa mujh, tuJa tujh, yah yah, vah 

vah, or hma ham. 

(c) mauJa mujh + hI hi: = mauJaI mujhi: me myself 

tuJa tujh + hI hi: = tuJaI tujhi: you yourself 

yah yah + hI hi: = yahI yahi: this itself 

vah vah + hI hi: = vahI vahi: he himself 

hma ham + hI hi: = hmaIM hamĩ: we ourselves 

In certain cases, exclusiveness is dropped in the preceding word and 

the final vowel is nasalized. 

yahaÐ yahã: + hI hi: = yahIM yahĩ: at this very place 

jahaÐ jahã: + hI hi: = hI jahIM jahĩ: wherever 

vahaÐ vahã: + hI hi: = vahIM vahĩ: at that very place 

khaÐ kahã: + hI hi: = khIM kahĩ: somewhere 

The emphatic particle hI hi: is frequently used with different types of 

pronouns. Its use with reflexive pronouns is quite interesting. Hindi 

has only four reflexive pronouns: Aap a:p, its oblique forms Apnaa 

apna: and Apnao apne, and a compound of these two Apnao Aap apne-a:p 

‘by oneself’; Aapsa a:pas meaning ‘each other,’ or ‘one another.’ 

When Aap a:p is followed by hI hi:, it has an adjectival intensifying 

force and qualifies a noun or a pronoun which, as a rule, is the 

logical subject of the sentences.

3. MORPHOLOGY 

5. maaohna Aap hI vahaÐ gayaa. 

mohan a:p hi: vahã: gaya:. 

Mohan self part there went 

Mohan went there on his own. 

6. mauJao Aap hI jaanaa pD,ogaa. 

mujhe a:p hi: ja:na: par�ega:. 

me-dat self part go-inf fall-fut 

I shall have to go myself. 

7. vao Aap hI AaeÐgao. 

ve a:p hi: a:yẽge. 

they self part come-fut 

They themselves will come. 

8. Syaama nao Aap hI yah icaT\zI ilaKI hO. 

šya:m ne a:p hi: yah cit�t�hi: likhi: h´. 

Shyam-erg self part this letter wrote is 

Shyam has himself written this letter. 

Aap hI a:p hi: sometimes qualifies nouns or pronouns which are not 

the logical subjects of the sentences. 

9. ]samaoM Aap hI saahsa nahIM hO. 

usmẽ a:p hi: sa:has nahĩ: h´. 

he in self part courage neg is 

He himself has no courage. 

10. ]saka Aap hI idvaalaa inakla jaaegaa. 

uska: a:p hi: diva:la: nikal ja:yega: 

he -gen self part bankrupt come go-fut 

He will himself become bankrupt. 

Aap hI a:p hi: can be used as an adverb to mean ‘of one’s own 

accord.’ 

11. vah Aap hI Asptala gayaa. 

vah a:p hi: aspata:l gaya:. 

he self part hospital went 

He went to the hospital on his own. 

152

16a. vah Aaja gayaa haogaa. 

vah a:j gaya: hoga:. 

he today went be-presumptive 

He might have gone today. 

153 

3. MORPHOLOGY 

It is interesting to note the different shades of the meanings of the 

particle hI hi: in the following sentences. 

12. Amar ko Aato hI maaohna calaa gayaa. 

amar ke a:te hi: mohan cala: gaya:. 

Amar-gen-come-ptc part mohan went 

As soon as Amar came, Mohan left. 

13a. raQaa Aa rhI qaI. 

ra:dha: a: rahi: thi:. 

Radha come-prog was-f 

Radha was coming. 

13b. raQaa Aa hI rhI qaI. 

ra:dha: a: hi: rahi: thi:. 

Radha was come-part-prog was-f 

Radha was just coming. 

14a. maaohna jaaegaa. 

mohan ja:yega:. 

Mohan go-fut 

Mohan will go. 

14b. maaohna jaaegaa hI. 

mohan ja:yega: hi:. 

Mohan go-fut part 

Mohan will certainly go. 

15a. maOM gayaa nahIM. 

m´~ gaya: nahĩ:. 

I went part neg 

I did not go. 

15b. maOM gayaa hI nahIM. 

m´~ gaya: hi: nahĩ:. 

I went part neg 

I did not go at all.

3. MORPHOLOGY 

16b. vah Aaja hI gayaa haogaa. 

vah a:j hi: gaya: hoga:. 

he today part went be-presumptive 

He might have gone just today. 

17a. yah AcCa huAa. 

yeh accha: hua:. 

this good happened 

It is good. 

17b. yah AcCa hI huAa. 

yeh accha: hi: hua:. 

this good part happened 

It is good (emphatic). 

18a. AcCa hUÐ. 

accha: hũ: 

good am 

I am fine. 

18b. AcCa hI hUÐ. 

accha: hi: hũ:. 

good part am 

I am fine (emphatic). 

19a. kuC AaOr maja,a Aayaa. 

kuch ør maza: a:ya:. 

some more enjoyment came 

It was an extra enjoyment. 

19b. kuC AaOr hI maja,a Aayaa. 

kuch ør hi: maza: a:ya: 

some more part enjoyment came 

It was quite a different kind of enjoyment. 

20. baccao nao tsvaIr @yaa doKI¸ tsvaIr hI faD, DalaI. 

bacce ne tasvi:r kya: dekhi:, tasvi:r (hi:) pha:r� d�a:li: 

child-erg picture what saw picture (emp) tear explicator-past 

Instead of seeing it, the child has torn off the picture. 

154

155 

3. MORPHOLOGY 

In sentence (12), the particle hI hi: becomes part of the verb adding 

the meaning ‘as soon as.’ In (13b), the particle hI hi: adds the 

meaning of ‘just.’ In (14b), the particle hI hi: adds the meaning 

‘certainly.’ In (15b), it adds the meaning ‘at all.’ In (16b) and (17b), 

it makes the adjectives emphatic. By adding the particle hI hi: to kuC 

AaOr kuch ør in sentence (19b), it gives the meaning ‘different kind 

of.’ Thus, besides its use for emphasis, the particle hI hi: adds 

different shades of meaning depending on its use. 

3.6.3. The Particle tao to 

The particle tao to is mostly used as an emphatic marker and also 

denotes contrast. 

1. vah Aayaa tao hO. 

vah a:ya: to h´. 

he came part is 

He has come indeed. 

2. ]sao AMdr Aanao tao dao. 

use andar a:ne to do. 

he-dat inside come-inf+obl part let 

Let him come inside. 

3. maaomabatI tao imalaI¸ idyaasalaa[- nahIM. 

mombati: to mili:, diya:sala:yi: nahĩ:. 

candle part found match-box neg 

The candle was found, (but) not the matchbox. 

4. vah ]sako pasa tao gayaa¸ pr baaolaa nahIM. 

vah uske pa:s to gaya:, par bola: nahĩ:. 

he he-gen+obl near part went but said neg 

He did go near him, but did not speak. 

The particle to is also added to the negative marker nahIM nahĩ:. The 

phrase nahIM tao nahĩ: to has several uses including as an emphatic 

negative reply denoting ‘surprise’ or ‘disapproval.’

3. MORPHOLOGY 

5. Aap Aagara gae qao? 

a:p a:gra: gaye the? 

you Agra went were 

Did you go to Agra? 

5a. nahIM tao. 

nahĩ: to. 

neg part 

Not really/Not at all. 

As a coordinate conjunction, nahIM tao nahĩ: to means ‘otherwise.’ 

6. toja, calaao¸ nahIM tao gaaD,I CUT jaaegaI. 

tez calo, nahĩ: to ga:r�i: chu:t� ja:yegi:. 

Fast walk neg part train miss-fut 

Walk fast, otherwise you will miss the train. 

Another use in combination with the particle BaI bhi: indicates ‘yet, 

even so.’ 

7. Agar vah khogaa BaI¸ tao BaI maOM ]sako saaqa nahIM jaa}Ðgaa. 

agar vah kahega: bhi:, to bhi: m´~ uske sa:th nahĩ: ja:ũ:ga:. 

If he say-fut part part ĩ he-gen-obl with neg go-fut 

Even if he says so, I will not go with him. 

In sentence (7), tao BaI to bhi: can be replaced by ifr BaI phir bhi: ‘even 

so, yet.’ In its adverbial use, tao to is a correlative of jaba jab ‘when’ or 

of yaid yadi ‘if’ and it signifies ‘then.’ 

8. jaba ]sao maalaUma huAa¸ tao vah raonao lagaa. 

jab use ma:lu:m hua, to vah rone laga:. 

when he-dat know be-past part he cry-inf-obl starts 

When he came to know, (then) he began to cry. 

8a. yaid tuma Gar gae tao pCtaAaogao. 

yadi tum ghar gaye to pachta:oge. 

if you home went part repent-fut 

If you go to your home, (then) you will repent. 

156

3.6.4. The Particle tk tak ‘up to’ 

157 

3. MORPHOLOGY 

The particle tk tak has two primary meanings: as the limited particle 

‘even’ and as the postposition ‘up to.’ 

1. ]sanao tar tk nahIM Baojaa. 

usne ta:r tak nahĩ: bheja:. 

he-erg wire part neg sent 

He did not even send a telegram. 

2. ]sanao maorI baat tk nahIM saunaI. 

usne meri: ba:t tak nahĩ: suni:. 

he-erg my talk part neg listened 

He did not even listen to what I said. 

As a postposition, tk tak is used in the sense of ‘up to’ or ‘until.’ 

3. vah kla tk ja,$r Aaegaa. 

vah kal tak zaru:r a:yega:. 

he tomorrow part definitely come-fut 

He will come by tomorrow definitely. 

4. vah kla tk pOsaa laaOTaegaa. 

vah kal tak p´sa: løt�a:yega:. 

he tomorrow part money return-fut 

He will return the money by tomorrow. 

5. vahaÐ phuÐcanao tk dao idna lagaoMgao. 

vahã: pahũcne tak do din lagẽge. 

there reach-inf-obl part two days take-fut 

It will take two days to reach there. 

6. jaba tk Aap Aa&a nahIM doMgao, maOM nahIM jaa}Ðgaa. 

jab tak a:p a:gya: nahĩ: dẽge, m´~ nahĩ: ja:ũ:ga:. 

when part you permission neg give-fut I neg go-fut 

Until you permit me, I will not go.

3. MORPHOLOGY 

3.6.5. The Particle Bar bhar 

The particle Bar bhar denotes the meaning of ‘measuring a …,’ 

‘weighing a…,’ ‘a…ful,’ etc. In this meaning, it acts like a suffix, 

forming the adjectives from nouns. Unlike the English suffix -full, it 

is a separate word which can be attached to nouns, adjectives, verbs, 

and other parts of speech. 

1. maITr Bar kpD,a do dIoijae. 

mi:t�ar bhar kapr�a: de di:jiye. 

meter part cloth give-fut 

Please give (a piece of ) cloth measuring a meter. 

2. vah iklaao Bar dUQa ek baar pI sakta hO. 

vah kilo bhar du:dh ek ba:r pi: sakta: h´. 

he kilogram part milk one time drink able-ptc aux 

He can drink a kilogram of milk at a time. 

3. Gar maoM mauT\zI Bar caavala nahIM hO. 

ghar mẽ mut�t�hi: bhar ca:val nahĩ: h´. 

home in handful part rice neg is 

There is not even a handful of rice in the house. 

As a particle, Bar bhar denotes the meanings ‘the entire…,’ ‘the 

whole…, ‘only,’ and ‘just.’ 

4. doSa Bar maoM caunaava hao rho hOMO. 

deš bhar mẽ cuna:v ho rahe h´~. 

country part in election be prog are 

The elections are being held throughout the entire country. 

5. vah idna Bar saaoyaa rha. 

vah din bhar soya: raha:. 

he day part slept remained 

He slept for the whole day. 

6. ]sanao pla Bar BaI Aarama nahIM ikyaa. 

usne pal bhar bhi: a:ra:m nah´~ kiya:. 

he-erg moment part rest neg did 

He did not rest even for a moment. 

158

159 

3. MORPHOLOGY 

7. Gar Bar maoM baccao Saaor krto rho. 

ghar bhar mẽ bacce šor karte rahe. 

home part in children noise do-pr remained 

The children made noise throughout the entire house.’ 

8. Aap doKto Bar hao¸ KrIdto nahIM. 

a:p dekhte bhar ho, khari:dte nahĩ:. 

you see-pr part be purchase-pr neg 

You only look but do not purchase. 

Notice that in sentence (8), Bar bhar can be replaced by the particle hI 

hi:. 

3.6.6. The Particle maa~ ma:tr 

The particle maa~ ma:tr is borrowed from Sanskrit and means ‘only’ or 

‘whole.’ In Sanskrit, it is used as a suffix and is attached to nouns. 

ivaQyaa vidhya: + maa~ ma:tr = ivaQyaamaa~ vidhya:ma:tr only learning 

pla pal + maa~ ma:tr = plamaa~ palma:tr only a moment 

maanava ma:nav + maa~ ma:tr = maanavamaa~ ma:navma:tr all of humanity 

In Hindi, the particle maa~ ma:tr is an equivalent of kovala keval or hI hi: 

‘only,’ ‘alone.’ It is also used as a separate word. 

1. Aap iktaba maa~ dIijae. 

a:p kita:b ma:tr di:jiye. 

You book part give-fut 

Please give only the book. 

1a. Aap kovala iktaba dIijae. 

a:p keval kita:b di:jiye. 

Please give only the book. 

1b. Aap iktaba hI dIijae. 

a:p kita:b hi: di:jiye. 

Please give just the book. 

2. mauJao saaO Épe maa~ dIijae. 

mujhe sø rupaye ma:tr di:jiye. 

me hundred rupees part give-fut 

Please give me a hundred rupees only.

3. MORPHOLOGY 

2a. mauJao maa~ saaO Épe dIijae. 

mujhe ma:tr sø rupaye di:jiye. 

2b. mauJao kovala saaO Épe dIijae. 

mujhe keval sø rupaye di:jiye. 

The particle Bar ma:tr can also be used in the initial position in 

sentences. It can be replaced by Bar keval as in (3a). 

3. maa~ ]sanao yah kama nahIM ikyaa. 

ma:tra usne yah ka:m nahĩ: kiya:. 

part he-erg this work neg did 

He was the only one not to do this work. 

3a. kovala ]sanao yah kama nahIM ikyaa. 

keval usne yah ka:m nahĩ: kiya:. 

To sum up, the use of various particles in Hindi is important from a 

semantic point of view. Besides their use as emphatic markers, they 

cover a wide range of meanings and further shades of meanings 

when used in combination with various word classes. They are 

frequently used in different dialects and styles of speech in Hindi. 

3.7. Connectives 

Connectives are words that join two elements. 

AaOr ør and yaa ya: or 

laoikna lekin but ik ki that 

magar magar but bailk balki rather 

vanaa- varna: otherwise [sa ilae isi: liye that is why, therefore 

@yaaoMik kyõki because taik ta:ki so that 

Agar agar ‘if’ halaaMik ha:lã:ki ‘though’ 

Structurally, connectives are divided into three classes: (i) monomorphemic, 

(ii) poly-morphemic, and (iii) phrasal. 

160

3.7.1. Mono-morphemic 

Mono-morphemic is composed of only one morpheme. 

1. maOM Gar gayaa AaOr Amar baaj,aar gayaa. 

m´~ ghar gaya: ør amar ba:za:r gaya:. 

I house went and Amar market went 

I went home and Amar went to the market. 

2. tuma [Qar AaAaogao yaa maOM ]Qar Aa}Ðgaa. 

tum idhar a:oge ya: m´~ udhar a:ũ:ga:. 

you here come-fut or I there come-fut 

You will come here or I will come there. 

3.7.2. Poly-morphemic 

161 

3. MORPHOLOGY 

Poly-morphemics are composed of two or more morphemes. 

3. maOM Aaja kalaoja nahIM gayaa¸ @yaaoMik maorI tbaIyat zIk nahIM hO. 

m´~ a:j ka:lej nahĩ: gaya: kyũki meri: tabiyat t�hi:k nahĩ:h´. 

I today college neg went because my health right neg be 

Today I didn’t go to college because I am not well. 

4. ]sanao Kanaa nahIM Kayaa¸ [sailae maOMnao BaI nahIM Kayaa. 

usne kha:na: nahĩ: kha:ya:, is liye m´~ne bhi: nahĩ: kha:ya:. 

He food neg ate for that I part neg eat 

He did’t eat the food, therefore I also didn’t eat. 

3.7.3. Phrasal 

Phrasals consist of two elements interrupted by intervening words, 

such as Agar agar … tao to ‘if … then.’ 

5. Agar tuma khao tao maOM Aa}Ðgaa. 

agar tum kaho to m´~ a:ũga:. 

If you say-fut then I come-fut 

If you say so then I will come.

3. MORPHOLOGY 

3.8. Interjections 

Interjections express some emotions such as pain, pleasure, anger, 

surprise, and disgust. An interjection is in the vocative case and has 

no grammatical relation with any other word in the sentence. In 

Hindi, interjections are used as independent words or they can be 

prefixed to nouns. 

ho Bagavaana! he bhagva:n! O God! 

Aao laD,ko! o lar�ke! O boy! 

Surprise is expressed by: Aaoh oh! Aroo are! Aaohao oho! @yaa kya:! 

1. Aaoh / Aroo / Aaohao / @yaa tuma Aa gae! 

oh/are/oho/kya: tum a: gaye! 

o/what you came 

O you came! 

Applause is expressed by: vaah va:h! KUba khu:b! SaabaaSa ša:ba:š! 

2. vaah / KUba / SaabaaSa baoTo tumanao AcCa kama ikyaa! 

va:h/khu:b/ša:ba:š bet�e tumne accha: ka:m kiya:! 

oh son-voc you-erg good work did 

Oh (my) son, you have done good work! 

Sorrow or grief is expressed by: haya ha:y! ha ha:! Aha a:h! ]f uph! 

Afsaaosa afsos! 

3. haya / ha / Aah /]f /Afsaaosa yah @yaa huAa! 

ha:y/ha:/a:h/uph/afsos yah kya: hua:! 

alas this what happened 

Alas what happened! 

Joy is expressed by: Aaha a:ha:! Aha aha:! vaah vaah va:h - va:h! 

4. Aaha / Aha / vaah - vaah @yaa sauMdr jagah hO! 

a:ha:/aha:/va:h-va:h kya: sundar jaga:h h´! 

oh what beautiful place is 

Oh what a beautiful place! 

162

163 

3. MORPHOLOGY 

Disgust or disapproval is expressed by: CI chi: (CI chi:)! qaU thu:! 

iQa@kar dhikka:r! 

5. CI ( CI )/ qaU / iQa@kar iktnaa gaMda hO! 

chi: (chi:)/thu:/dikka:r kitna: ganda: h´! 

shame, how dirty is 

Shame, how dirty it is! 

Distress is expressed by: haya ro ha:y re! 

6. haya ro maOM lauT gayaa! 

ha:y re m´~ lut� gaya: 

oh I rob went(explicator) 

Oh I am robbed (of everything)! 

Certain nouns, pronouns, adjectives and verbs are used as 

interjections. 

7. rama rama ra:m ra:m! (expresses sympathy or disapproval) 

8. baap ro baap ba:p re ba:p! (expresses surprise or distress) 

9. AcCa accha:! (expresses surprise) 

10. @yaa kya:! (expresses surprise) 

11. jaa mar ja: mar! (expresses rebuke) 

Some interjections can be used as nouns. 

12. @yaaoM haya haya kr rho hao? 

kyõ ha:y ha:y kar rahe ho? 

why expression of ditress do-prp be 

Why are you raising the hue and cry?

4. Syntax 

4.1. Structure of Phrases 

4.1.1. Noun Phrase 

4. maaohna kI CaoTI baoiTyaaÐ jaa rhI hOM. 

mohan ki: chot�i: bet�iyã: ja rahi: h´~. 

Mohan-gen-fpl small daughters go-prog are 

Mohan’s younger daughters are going. 

165 

4. SYNTAX 

A noun phrase is defined as a nominal head preceded by one or 

more modifiers. It also serves as a nucleus of a postpositional 

phrase. It may function as a subject or object (indirect or direct) 

predicative complement or as a direct object of a postposition. A 

noun or a pronoun can be the minimum constituent of a noun phrase. 

A nominal may be modified by a variety of modifiers such as 

adjectives, quantifiers, numerals, emphatic markers, limiters and 

comparative, equative, and superlative markers. 

Attributive adjectives immediately precede a nominal head as a 

modifier, e.g., nayaa kaoT naya: kot� ‘new coat’ and sauMdr laD,kI sundar lar�ki: 

‘beautiful girl.’ Possessive adjectives precede the head noun as 

modifiers in noun phrases. They may or may not also be preceded 

by an appropriate form of the genitive postposition ka ka:/ ko ke/ kI 

ki: agreeing in gender and number with the object noun. 

1. AjaIt ka baD,a baoTa Aayaa. 

aji:t ka: bar�a: bet�a: a:ya:. 

Ajit-gen-ms elder son came 

Ajit’s elder son came. 

2. AjaIt ko dao ima~ Aae. 

aji:t ke do mitr a:ye 

Ajit-gen-mpl two friends came 

Ajit’s two friends came. 

3. maaohna kI CaoTI baoTI sauMdr hO. 

mohan ki: chot�i: bet�i: sundar h´.. 

Mohan-gen-f younger daughter beautiful is 

Mohan’s younger daughter is beautiful.

4. SYNTAX 

There is no distinct category of articles used in Hindi. The concept 

of definiteness and indefiniteness is expressed indirectly by means 

of pronouns, and the numeral ek ek ‘one.’ 

5. kao[- ek laD,ka 

koi:/ek lar�ka: 

some /a/one boy 

6. yah/vah baccaa 

yah/vah bacca: 

this/that child 

The numeral ek ek and the indefinite pronoun kao[- koi: ‘some(one)’ 

are used in place of an indefinite article. A definite determiner 

involves either a demonstrative/personal pronoun or a zero marking 

as given in (6). It is only the context which disambiguates the 

potential ambiguity present in the above two sentences. 

Besides determiners, a noun may be preceded by quantifiers and 

numerals in the form of (i) approximate/ordinal (e.g., lagaBaga lagbhag 

‘about,’ krIba kari:b ‘almost,’ kovala keval ‘only,’ phlaa pahla: ‘first’, dUsara 

du:sra: ‘second’, tIsara ti:sra: ‘third’, caaOqaa cautha: ‘fourth’), (ii) 

cardinal/ multiplicative/fraction (e.g., ek ek ‘one,’ dao do ‘two,’ duganaa 

dugna: ‘twice,’ itganaa tigna: ‘three-fold,’ AaQaa a:dha: ‘half’, tIsara Baaga 

ti:sra: bha:g/ ihsaa hisa: ‘one-third’, caaOqaa Baaga cøtha: bha:g/ihsaa hisa: 

‘one-fourth,’), and (iii) collective/measure (e.g., jaaoD,I jor�i: ‘pair’, dja-na 

darjan ‘dozen,’ iklaao kilo ‘kilogram,’ AaQaa iklaao a:dha: kilo ‘half a 

kilogram’). 

Definite + Cardinal + Noun 

7. yao caar kmaIja,oM AcCI hOM. 

ye ca:r kami:zẽ acchi: h´~ 

these four shirts good are 

These four shirts are good. 

Definite + Ordinal + Noun 

8. phlaa baccaa hmaoSaa lajaIlaa haota hO. 

pahla: bacca: hameša: lajji:la: hota: h´. 

166

first child always shy be-ptc 

The first child is always shy. 

Definite + Ordinal + Cardinal + Noun 

9. yao phlao dao laoK Cpnao yaaogya hOM. 

ye pahle do lekh chapne yogya h´.~ 

these first two essays print-inf-obl suitable are 

These first two essays are worth publishing. 

Definite + Cardinal + Collective 

10. yao tIna dja-na AMD,o taja,o hOM. 

ye ti:n darjan ãd�e ta:ze h´.~ 

these three dozen eggs fresh are 

These three dozen eggs are fresh. 

Definite + Cardinal + Measure 

11. vao paÐca baaoiryaaÐ caavala ipClao saala kI hOM. 

ve pã:c boriyã: ca:val pichle sa:l ki: h´~. 

those five sacks rice last year gen-fp are 

Those five sacks of rice are last year’s. 

Definite + Ordinal + Fractional + Measure 

12. yah dUsara vaalaa AaQaa iklaao caavala zIk nahIM hO. 

yah du:sra:(va:la:) a:dha: kilo ca:val t�hi:k nahĩ: h´. 

this second half kilogram rice good not is 

This second half kilogram of rice is not good. 

167 

4. SYNTAX 

Notice that quantifiers such as saaro sa:re/ tmaama tama:m ‘all’ follow a 

head noun when the head noun is a pronoun. 

13. yao saBaI iktabaoM maOMnao pZ,I hOM. 

ye sabhi: kita:bẽ m´~ne par�hi: h´~. 

these all books I-erg read-past-fp are 

I have read all these books.

4. SYNTAX 

14. hma saaro inaSaat baaga saOr krnao jaaeÐgao. 

ham sa:re niša:t ba:g s´r karne ja:yẽge. 

we all Nishat Bagh walk do-inf-abl go-fut 

All of us will go for a walk to Nishat Bagh. 

Limiters such as isaf- sirf/ kovala keval/ ‘only’ precede the head noun, 

whereas emphatic particles -hI -hi: ‘only’ and BaI bhi: ‘also’ follow 

the head noun. 

15. kovala yao phlao dao baccao [imthana maoM baOzo. 

keval ye pahle do bacce imtiha:n mẽ b´t�he. 

only these first two children exam in sat 

Only these two children appeared in the examination. 

16. kovala baccaa hI baaja,ar Aayaa. 

keval bacca: hi: ba:za:r a:ya:. 

only child-limiter market came 

Only the child came to the market. 

17. maaÐ BaI Aa[- AaOr baccaa BaI. 

mã: bhi: a:yi: ør bacca: bhi:. 

mother also came and child too 

The mother came and so did the child. 

Comparative, superlative and equative structures are formed by 

adding certain morphological forms after the head noun. The 

comparatives are formed by adding se after adding the ablative case 

markers to the genitive forms of the head noun. 

18. naIrja saunaIla sao bauiwmaana hO. 

neeraj suni:l se buddhima:n h´. 

Neeraj Sunil than intelligent is 

Neeraj is more intelligent than Sunil. 

19. vah maoro sao maaoTa hO. 

vah mere se mot�a: h´. 

he is me-gen-abl than fat is 

He is fatter than me. 

168

169 

4. SYNTAX 

Superlatives are formed by adding sabasao sab se before the head noun. 

20. sabasao laMbaa laD,ka kaOna hO? 

sabse lamba: lar�ka: køn h´? 

superlative tall boy who is 

Who is the tallest boy? 

21. AjaIt @laasa maoM sabasao CaoTa hO. 

aji:t kala:s mẽ sab se chot�a: h´. 

Ajit class in superlative young is 

Ajit is the youngest of all in the class. 

Equative structures are formed by adding a form of jaOsaa j´sa:/ jaOsao 

j´se/jaOsaI j´si: ‘like’ that agrees with the head noun in gender and 

number. 

22. AjaIt Amar jaOsaa caalaak hO. 

aji:t amar j´sa: ca:la:k h´. 

Ajit Amar like clever is 

Ajit is as clever as Amar. 

23. hma ]na jaOsao caalaak nahIM hOM. 

ham un j´se ca:la:k nahĩ: h´~. 

we they like clever not are 

We are not as clever as they are. 

24. SaIlaa ]maa jaOsaI gaaorI nahIM hO. 

ši:la: uma: j´si: gori: nahĩ: h´. 

Shiela Uma like fair complexioned neg is 

Shiela is not as fair-complexioned as Uma. 

25. yao saoba ]na saobaaoM jaOsao maIzo hOM. 

ye seb un sebõ j´se mi:t�he h´~. 

these apples those apples like delicious are 

These apples are as delicious as those ones are.

4. SYNTAX 

The terms ek jaOsao ek j´se/ jaOsaI j´si: ‘as good as/alike’ are also used in 

equative expressions. 

26. yao dao Baa[- ek jaOsao hOM. 

ye do bha:i: ek j´se h´~. 

these two brothers alike are 

These two brothers are alike. 

27. yao bahnaoM ek jaOsaI hOM. 

ye bahnẽ ek j´si: h´~. 

these sisters alike are 

These sisters are alike. 

There are certain co-occurrence restrictions. Indefinite determiners 

do not co-occur with ordinals. Similarly, the multiplicatives do not 

co-occur with collective or measure quantifiers. There are other 

usage constraints on modifiers. For example, the combination of 

indefinite determiners and cardinal quantifiers is possible; the 

combination of an indefinite determiner and a demonstrative 

pronoun in not allowed. 

28. kao[- baccaa yah kama nahIM kr sakta. 

koi: bacca: yah ka:m nahĩ: kar sakta:. 

some/any(one) child this work neg do can-ptc 

No child can do this work. 

28a. *kao[- vah baccaa yah kama nahIM kr sakta. 

*koi: vah bacca: yah ka:m nahĩ: kar sakta:. 

Similarly, the combination of multiplicative and collective 

quantifiers do not yield well-formed sentences. 

29. *duganaa jaaoD,a dstanaa 

*dugna: jor�i: dasta:na: 

twice pair gloves 

As mentioned above, emphatic particles and limiters follow head 

nouns. All other constituents precede the head noun they modify. 

There is a flexibility in the word order of the preceding modifiers as 

illustrated below. 

170

Demonstrative - possessive - quantifier - adjective - head noun 

30. yao maoro saaro AcCo ima~ 

ye mere sa:re acche mitr 

these my all good friends 

all these good friends of mine 

171 

4. SYNTAX 

Possessive - demonstrative - quantifier - adverbial - adjective - noun 

30a. maoro yao saaro bahut AcCo ima~ 

mere ye sa:re bahut acche mitr 

my these all very good friends 

all these very good friends of mine 

Demonstrative - quantifier - possessive - adverbial -adjective - noun 

30b. yao saaro maoro bahut AcCo ima~ 

ye sa:re mere bahut acche mitr 

these all my very good friends 

Possessive - quantifier - demonstrative - adverbial -adjective - noun 

30c. maoro saaro yao bahut AcCo ima~ 

mere sa:re ye bahut acche mitr 

my all these very good friends 

Quantifier - demonstrative - possessive - adverbial -adjective - noun 

30d. saaro yao maoro bahut AcCo ima~ 

sa:re ye mere bahut acche mitr 

The word order constraint for adverbs and adjective is quite strict. 

The word order of the constituents of demonstrative, possessive and 

quantifier appear quite flexible. 

4.1.2. Postpositional Phrases 

A postpositional phrase is defined as a noun phrase followed by an 

oblique case marker and a postposition. Time adverbials take case 

markers as well as postpositions.

4. SYNTAX 

1. vah savaoro Gar sao Aayaa. 

vah savere ghar se a:ya:. 

he morning-obl home from came 

He came in the morning from home. 

1a. *vah savaora Aayaa ³Gar saoó 

*vah savera: a:ya: (ghar se). 

2. AjaIt Saama kao kama krta hO. 

aji:t ša:m ko ka:m karta: h´. 

Ajit is evening-obl work do-ptc is 

Ajit works in the evening. 

2a. *AjaIt Saama kama krta hO. 

*aji:t ša:m ka:m karta: h´. 

3. ]sanao idna kao kuC nahIM Kayaa. 

usne din ko kuch nahĩ: kha:ya:. 

he-erg day-obl for nothing neg ate 

He didn’t eat anything during the day. 

4. ]sanao idna Bar kuC nahIM Kayaa. 

usne din bhar kuch nahĩ: kha:ya:. 

he-erg day for nothing neg ate 

He didn’t eat anything for the whole day. 

5. vah savaoro sao Saama tk kama krta hO. 

vah savere se ša:m tak ka:m karta: h´. 

he morning-obl from evening up to work do-ptc is 

He works from morning till evening. 

The use of the direct forms of the time adverbials savaora savera: and 

Saama ša:m in sentences (1a) and (2a) make them ungrammatical. 

A postposition may be added to simple or compound noun phrases 

that consist of more than one element. 

6. hmaaro dF,tr sao 

hama:re daftar se 

our-obl office from 

from our office 

172

7. makana ko drvaaja,o sao 

maka:n ke darva:ze se 

house of door-obl from 

from the door of the house 

173 

4. SYNTAX 

Notice that the presence of a postposition changes all the elements 

of the compound noun phrase from direct to oblique by adding the 

oblique case markers. 

There are a limited number of compound postpositions used in Hindi 

such as Aagao a:ge/ pICo kI Aaor pi:che ki: or ‘in front/back of’, and da[-M 

da:ĩ:/ baa[-M Aaor ba:ĩ: or ‘towards right/left’. All these are directional. 

The first element indicates the direction, and is followed by the 

postpositional form kI Aaor ki: or ‘toward’. They are always used after 

the oblique noun. Notice that a free postposition without an 

argument functions as an adverb. 

It is possible to modify postpositions by using a limiter tk tak ‘up 

to/till,’ or a particle hI hi: ‘only.’ 

8. vah Saama tk phuÐcaogaa. 

vah ša:m tak pahũcega:. 

he evening up to reach-m 

He will reach by evening. 

9. tuma iktaba maoja, pr hI rKao. 

tum kita:b mez par hi: rakho. 

you book table on emp keep 

You just keep the book on the table. 

4.1.3. Adjectival Phrases 

Adjective phrases are of two types: simple and complex. Simple 

adjectives may also be divided into basic and derived adjectives. 

The derived adjectives are derived from other word classes such as 

nouns. The examples of basic adjectives are: AcCa accha: ‘good,’ laMbaa 

lamba: ‘long,’ saaf, sa:f ‘clean,’ etc. Derived adjectives are derived 

from nouns:

4. SYNTAX 

maohnat mehnat hard 

work 

+ [- i: = maohnatI mehnati: hard worker 

ihmmat himmat courage + [- i: = ihmmatI himmati: courageous 

daZ,I da:r�hi: beard + vaalaa = daZ,I vaalaa da:r�hi: va:la: 

va:la: bearded 

Adjectives may also be derived from adverbs: 

pICo pi:che behind + laa la: = ipClaa pichla: last 

naja,dIk nazdi:k near + [- i = naja,dIkI nazdi:ki: close one 

The use of the forms of vaalaa va:la: and genitive markers ka ka:/ ko ke/ 

kI ki: are frequently employed in the derivation of adjectives. Their 

forms agree with the following noun in number and and gender as 

follows: 


Sg Pl Sg Pl 

vaalaa va:la: vaalao va:le vaalaI va:li: vaalaI va:li: 

-ka ka: -ko ke -kI ki: -kI ki: 

1. idllaI vaalaa dukanadar 

dilli: va:la: duka:nda:r 

Delhi of shopkeeper 

the shopkeeper from Delhi 

2. dUr ka irSatodar 

du:r ka: rišteda:r 

distance of relative 

a distant relative 

Complex adjectives are finite (full relative clauses) as well as nonfinite 

(participle used as adjectives). Adjectives usually precede the 

nouns they modify. 

It is difficult to define adjective phrases because adjectives are not 

distinguished morphologically from nouns. However, it is possible 

to distinguish an adjectival phrase from a noun phrase because: (1) 

the semantics of adjectives is quite distinct from that of nouns; (2) 

an adjective phrase functions as a modifier for a substantive; (3) 

174

175 

4. SYNTAX 

some adjectives are bound forms and their surface form is 

determined by the number and gender of a following noun. In nouns 

the gender is marked inherently; (4) adjectives usually precede a 

head noun and occur in the attributive position. The word order of 

adjectives with respect to other constituents of an adjective phrase is 

as follows: determiner - quantifier - adjective - noun. 

3. yao dao laMbaI kmaIja,oM 

ye do lambi: kami:zẽ 

these-f two long-fp shirts 

these two long shirts 

There are two types of adjectives: those which do not take a 

complement, and those which do take a complement. Adjectives like 

maOlaa m´la: dirty do not take a complement, whereas adjectives like 

tOyaar taya:r ready do take it. The latter type of adjectives with their 

complements occurs attributively. 

4. kpD,o Qaaonao ko ilae tOyaar laD,ka 

kapr�e dhone ke liye týa:r lar�ka: 

clothes wash-inf-obl for ready boy 

the boy who is ready to wash clothes 

4a. *tOyaar laD,ka 

*týa:r lar�ka: 

4b. laD,ka tOyaar hO. 

lar�ka: týa:r h´. 

The boy is ready. 

Adjectives can be either stative (AcCa accha: good, sauMdr sundar 

beautiful) or non-stative (p`sanna prasann ‘happy’, naaraja, na:ra:z 

‘angry’). 

The adverbs of degree in their basic form can serve as modifiers of 

adjectives. 

5a. yah bahut baD,a/CaoTa poD, hO. 

yeh bahut bar�a:/chot�a: per� h´. 

this very big/ small tree is 

This is a very big/small tree.

4. SYNTAX 

The marker –hI -hi: can be added to adverbs of degree for 

intensification of meaning. 

5b. yah bahut hI baD,a/CaoTa poD, hO. 

yeh bahut hi: bar�a:/chot�a: per� h´ 

This is a very big/small tree. 

4.1.4. Adverbial Phrases 

Phrasal adverbs are formed by adding a simple or a compound 

postposition to a noun. 

1. tIna mahInao ko baad 

ti:n mahi:ne ke ba:d 

three month-obl after 

after three months 

2. pZ,nao sao phlao 

par�hne se pahle 

read-inf-obl before 

before reading 

3. dukana ko pICo 

duka:n ke pi:che 

shop-obl back side 

in the back of the shop 

Adverbs are reduplicated to show intensity and distribution. 

4. Aap khaÐ khaÐ gae? 

a:p kahã: kahã: gaye? 

you-p where where went 

Which places did you visit? 

5. vah kba kba Anaupisqat rhI? 

vah kab kab anupasthit rahi:? 

she when absent remained-fs 

On which dates did she remain absent? 

176

6. vah kBaI kBaI yahaÐ Aata hO. 

vah kabhi: kabhi: yahã: a:ta: h´. 

he sometimes here come-ptc is 

He comes here sometimes. 

177 

4. SYNTAX 

Reduplicated adverbs may be separated by the negative particle na na 

as in the phrases kBaI na kBaI kabhi: na kabhi: ‘sometime or other’. This 

category of adverbials expresses indefiniteness. 

7. vah kBaI na kBaI ja,$r Aaegaa. 

vah kabhi: na kabhi: zaru:r a:yega:. 

he sometime neg sometime definitely come-fut 

He will come sometime or other. 

The emphatic particle hI hi: can occur with an adverb or a noun to 

render an adverbial reading. 

8. vah kovala samaya hI naYT krta hO. 

vah keval samay hi: našt� karta: h´. 

he is only time-emp waste do-ptc is 

He merely wastes time. 

9. Amar hI Aaegaa maaohna nahIM Aaegaa. 

amar hi: a:yega: mohan nahĩ: a:yega:. 

Amar-emp come-fut Mohan neg come-fut 

Only Amar will come, not Mohan. 

Various case markers and postpositions are employed with a noun to 

render an adverbial reading, for example, savaoro savere ‘in the 

morning’, dIvaar pr di:va:r par ‘on the wall’, Gar sao ghar se ‘from the 

house’, and caakU sao ca:ku: se ‘with the knife’. 

10. vah savaoro jaldI dF,tr jaata hO. 

vah savere jaldi: daftar ja:ta: h´ 

he morning-obl early office go-ptc is 

He goes to his office early in the morning. 

11. yah tsvaIr dIvaar pr TaÐgaao. 

yeh tasvi:r di:va:r par tã:go. 

this picture wall on hang 

Hang this picture on the wall.

4. SYNTAX 

12. maOM kla Gar sao Aa}MÐgaa. 

m´~ kal ghar se a:ũ:ga:. 

I tomorrow home from come-fut 

I’ll come from home tomorrow. 

13. saoba caakU sao kaTao. 

seb ca:ku: se ka:t�o. 

apple knife with cut 

Cut the apple with the knife. 

Adverbials may precede or follow the direct object depending on the 

emphasis given to it in the sentence. Compare the examples (10-13) 

with (10a-13a). 

10a. savaoro vah jaldI dF,tr jaata hO. 

savere vah jaldi: daftar ja:ta: h´. 

11a. dIvaar pr yah tsvaIr TaMÐgaao. 

di:va:r par yeh tasvi:r tã:go. 

12a. Gar sao maOM kla Aa}Ðgaa. 

ghar se m´~ kal aũ:ga:. 

13a. caakU sao saoba kaTao. 

ca:ku: se seb ka:t�o. 

Certain adverbs of degree and derived adverbs with j´sa: like can 

sometimes serve as adverbial modifiers of an adverb. 

14. toja, daOD,. 

tez dør� 

fast run 

Run fast. 

14a. baccaaoM jaOsaI toja, daOD, 

baccõ j´si: tez dør� 

children-obl like fast run 

as fast as children run 

178

179 

4. SYNTAX 

Adverbials are always optional and not obligatory in any 

construction. 

4.2. Structure of Clauses 

In this section major constituents of a sentence namely subordinate 

clauses, main clauses (or noun clauses), relative clauses, adverbial 

clauses are discussed. 

4.2.1. Subordinate Clauses 

Subordinate clauses are of two types: finite and non-finite. Finite 

clauses normally have the same sentence structure as main clauses. 

Sometimes they may precede the main clause due to the 

consideration of focus. Consider the following examples: 

Main clause 

1. vah Aaegaa. 

vah a:yega:. 

he come-fu 

He’ll come. 

Subordinate clause 

1a. mauJao AaSaa hO ik vah Aaegaa. 

mujhe a:ša: h´ ki vah a:yega:. 

I-obl hope that he come-fut 

I hope that he will come. 

1b. *ik vah Aaegaa mauJao AaSaa hO 

*ki vah a:yega: mujhe a:ša: h´ 

In case non-finite clause precedes the main clause due to the 

consideration of focus, the complimentizer is dropped and the 

element yah yeh this is added in the initial position of the main clause. 

1c. vah Aaegaa yah maorI AaSaa hO. 

vah a:yega:, yeh meri: a:ša: h´. 

he come-fut, this my hope is 

I hope that he will come.

4. SYNTAX 

Non-finite subordinate clauses are structurally quite distinct from the 

main clauses. They are marked by (i) verb modification, (ii) lack of 

agreement, and (iii) word order. The subordinate verb undergoes a 

process of verbal participation or infinitivization/gerundivization. 

The subordinate verb does not agree with subject and/or object in 

number and gender and is not marked for tense. 

Participle subordinate verb 

2. vah icallaato hue inaklaa. 

vah cilla:te hue nikla:. 

he shriek-ptc left 

He left shrieking. 

The infinitive subordinate clause with an adverbial phrase can be put 

in the initial position. 

3. maora vaaipsa Aanaa maumaikna nahIM. 

mera: va:pas a:na: mumkin nahĩ:. 

my return come-inf possible neg 

It is not possible for me to come back. 

4. maSaIna cala rhI qaI. 

maši:n cal rahi: thi:. 

machine move prog was 

The machine was working. 

4a. vah calatI maSaIna kao doK rha qaa. 

vah calti: maši:n (ko) dekh raha: tha:. 

he running machine-dat see-prog was 

He was watching the running machine. 

4b. *vah maSaIna cala rhI qaI doK rha qaa 

*vah maši:n cal rahi: thi: dekh raha: tha:. 

4.2.2. Noun Clauses 

Noun clauses are of two types: finite and non-finite. 

180

4.2.2.1. Finite Noun Clauses 

181 

4. SYNTAX 

Finite noun clauses are introduced by the subordinator / 

complementizer ki that and follow the main clause verb. They 

function as subjects, direct objects, or complements of the main 

predicate. Finite subject clauses usually occur as subjects of 

adjectival predicates such as saca sac ‘true’, saaf, sa:f/ spYT spašt� ‘clear’, 

and maumaikna mumkin/ saMBava sambhav ‘possible’. 

1. yah saca hO ik maaohna baImaar hO. 

yeh sac h´ ki mohan bi:ma:r h´. 

it true is that Mohan sick is 

It is true that Mohan is sick. 

1a. yah saaf, / spYT qaa ik maaohna baImaar qaa. 

yeh sa:f/spašt� tha: ki mohan bi:ma:r tha:. 

it clear was that Mohan sick was 

It was clear that Mohan was sick. 

4.2.2.1.1. The ik ki Complement Clauses 

ki that complement clauses are usually governed by verbs like jaananaa 

ja:nna: ‘to know’, pta haonaa pata: hona: ‘to know’, khnaa kahna: ‘to 

say’, doKnaa dekhna: ‘to see’, and laganaa lagna: ‘to appear/seem’. 

Consider the following examples. 

2. maOM jaanata qaa ik baf,- igarogaI. 

m´~ ja:nta: tha: ki barf giregi:. 

I know-ptc was that snow fall-fut 

I knew that it would snow. 

3. mauJao lagaa ik vah baImaar hO. 

mujhe laga: ki vah bi:ma:r h´. 

I-obl felt that he sick is 

It seemed to me that he was sick. 

The verb caahnaa cahna: ‘to wish, desire’ in the matrix clause selects a 

conditional verb form in its complement clause.

4. SYNTAX 

4. maOM caahta hUÐ ik vah [imthana do. 

m´~ ca:hta: hũ: ki vah imtiha:n de. 

I desire-ptc am that he exam give 

I wish that he appears in examination. 

4.2.2.1.2. Direct and Indirect Speech 

Direct and indirect speech are not distinguished by the use of any 

syntactic device, such as a quotative marker or particle. However, 

both quoted and reported material may be preceded by the 

complementizer ik ki that which is subordinate to the higher verb of 

communication in the matrix sentence, such as kh kah- ‘say’, pUC 

pu:ch- ‘ask’, ilaK likh- ‘write’, sauna sun- ‘hear’, saaoca soc ‘think’, caah ca:h 

‘desire/want’. 

5. ]sanao kha ik dvaa K,rIdao. 

usne kaha: ki dava: xari:do. 

he-erg said that medicine buy 

He said, buy medicine. 

6. }Yaa nao pUCa ik maOM @yaaoM gaaMÐva jaa}Ðgaa? 

u:ša: ne pu:cha: ki m´~ kyõ ga:ũ: ja:ũ:ga:? 

Usha-erg asked that I why village go-fut 

Usha asked, why should I go to the village? 

7. maaohna nao ilaKa ik tuma yah iktaba pZ,ao. 

mohan ne likha: ki tum yah kita:b par�ho. 

Mohan-erg wrote that you this book read 

Mohan wrote, Read this book. 

8. hmanao saunaa ik vah Da^@Tr hO.. 

hamne suna: ki vah d�a:kt�ar h´. 

we-erg heard that he doctor is 

We heard that he is a doctor. 

9. maOMnao saaocaa ik vah nahIM Aaegaa. 

m´~ne soca: ki vah nahĩ: a:yega:. 

I-erg thought that he neg come-fut 

I thought that he would not come. 

182

183 

4. SYNTAX 

Verbs like sauna sun-, saaoca soc- are ‘hear/say’ type verbs, and they 

usually occur as higher verbs in reported speech. In sentences (7-9), 

the complementizer ik ki precedes quoted material and in sentences 

(10-11), it precedes the reported material. The complementizer is 

frequently omitted. In Hindi, direct speech is preferred to indirect 

speech. Sentence (12) may appear ambiguous. 

10. rama nao kha (ik) vah iktaba pZ,ogaa. 

ra:mne kaha: (ki) vah kita:b par�hega:. 

Ram-erg said (that) he bookread-3s-fut 

(a) Ram(i) said, he(j) will read the book. 

(b) Ram(i) said that he(i) will read the book. 

In (a) Ram and the noun and pronoun are not co-referential, and in 

(b) they are. In this sentence, the first or direct speech reading is 

preferred to the second or indirect speech reading. Instead of using 

indirect speech, it would be more natural to use direct speech in the 

second meaning as in (11). 

11. rama nao kha (ik) maOM iktaba pZ,UÐgaa. 

ra:m ne kaha: (ki) m´~ kita:b par�ũ:ga: 

Ram-erg said (that) I book read-1s-fut 

Ram said, I’ll read a book. 

Sometimes direct and indirect speech can be differentiated with the 

help of number and gender markers. For instance, the gender 

discrepancy between the matrix verb and the embedded verb may 

indicate an indirect quotation. 

12. rama nao kha (ik) maOM p~ ilaK rha hUÐ. 

ra:mne kaha: (ki) m´~ patr likh raha: hũ: 

Ram-erg said (that) I letter write-prog am 

Ram (i) said, I(i)m writing a letter. 

Ram (i) said that I (j) am writing a letter. 

12a. rama nao kha (ik) maOM p~ ilaK rhI hUÐ. 

ra:mne kaha: (ki) m´~ patr likh rahi: hũ: 

Ram-erg said (that) I letter write-prog.fs am 

Ram(i) said that I(j) am writing a letter. 

*Ram(i) said that I(i) am writing a letter.

4. SYNTAX 

In (12a) the auxiliary verb of the embedded sentence is feminine, 

therefore it cannot be co-referential with Ram. Whereas in (12), the 

verb of the embedded sentence is co-referential with the verb of the 

matrix sentence. Sentence (12) can be disambiguated by adding a 

reflexive pronoun svayaM svayam/ Apnao Aap apne a:p ‘self’. 

12b. rama nao kha (ik) maOM svayaM Apnao Aap p~ ilaK rha hUÐ. 

ra:m ne kaha: (ki) m´~ svayam/apne a:p patrlikh raha: hũ:. 

Ram-erg said (that) I self letter write-prog.ms am 

Ram (i) said, Im (i) writing a letter myself. 

Similarly, the nominalization of an embedded sentence may also 

result in a reported speech interpretation. 

13. rama nao maoro/Apnao Aap p~ ilaKnao ko baaro maoM kha. 

ra:m ne mere/apne a:p patr likhne ke ba:re mẽ kaha:. 

Ram-erg my/he-refl letter write-inf-obl about said 

Ram told about my/his writing the letter. 

Thus, there are no quotative markers to distinguish between direct 

and indirect speech. Direct speech is preferred over indirect speech. 

4.2.2.1.3. Non-finite Noun Clause 

A non-finite noun clause may consist of an infinitive (or gerundive) 

verb form. Infinitive gerundive forms can precede or follow the 

matrix clause and are inflected for case like other types of noun 

clauses. Non-finite noun clauses change the embedded verb into its 

infinitival form (stem + naa na:) which lacks subject - verb agreement 

and tense information. The infinitival form is like a derived noun 

which can take case markers and postpositions. The oblique form of 

the infinitival ends in -naa -na:. When changing finite noun clauses 

into nonfinite clauses, certain morphological markers like person, 

number, tense, aspectual suffixes are lost. 

Finite verb Infinitival form 

pZ, par�h read pZ,naa par�hna: to read 

184

14a. maOM pZ,UÐgaa. 

(m´~) par�hũ:ga:. 

(I)read-1s-fut 

I’ll read. 

14b. hma pZ,oMgao. 

(ham) par�hẽge. 

(we) read-1p-fut 

We’ll read. 

14c. kBaI doKa nahIM hO. 

(ve) par�hẽge. 

(they) read-3p-fut 

They’ll read. 

185 

4. SYNTAX 

Notice that -naa -na: is added to the verb stem in the formation of the 

infinitive form. 

15. maora pZ,naa ]sao psaMd nahIM Aayaa. 

mera: par�hna: use pasand nahĩ: a:ya:. 

my read-inf he-dat like neg came 

He did not like me to read. 

16. mauJao pZ,naa psaMd hO. 

mujhe par�hna: pasand h´. 

I-obl read-Inf like is 

I like to read. 

Noun clauses can function as subjects, direct objects, postpositional 

objects, and adverbials. 

Verbs are made non-finite by the processes of infinitivization and 

participialization. Infinitivizaton is the result of adding the suffix –naa 

-na: to the verbal stem. There are three groups of participial 

constructions: (i) present participle, (ii) past participle, and (iii) 

agentive participle. The present participle indicates ongoing action 

or process, the past participle indicates completed action or process, 

and the agentive participle indicates a habitual or potential action or 

process.

4. SYNTAX 

17. vah pZ,a - ilaKa laD,ka hO. 

vah par�ha: - likha: lar�ka: h´. 

he read-past-ms write-past-ms boy is 

He is a literate boy. 

17a. vah pZI - ilaKI laD,kI hO. 

vah par�hi: - likhi: lar�ki: thi:. 

she read-past-fs write- past-fs girl was 

She was a literate girl. 

17b. pZ,nao ilaKnao vaalaa laD,ka samaya baba-ad nahIM krta. 

par�hne likhne va:la: lar�ka: samay barba:d nahĩ: karta:. 

read-inf-obl write-inf-obl gen boy time waste neg do-ptc 

The boy who studies does not waste time. 

Notice that participial forms remain unaltered in the present and past 

participles. It is the auxiliary which takes person, gender, number, 

and tense markers. The participial forms agree with the following 

nouns in number and gender. 


Sg Pl Sg Pl 

ka ka: ko ke kI ki: kI ki: 

18. ]saka ]maa kao kla yah khnaa AcCa nahIM qaa. 

uska: uma: ko kal yeh kahna: accha: nahĩ: tha:. 

he-gen Uma-dat yesterday this say-inf good neg was 

His telling this to Uma yesterday was not proper. 

The word order of non-finite noun clauses remains unchanged. The 

focus-related movements to the left of the non-finite verb yield wellformed 

sentences. Examples of various movements of non-finite 

noun clauses are given as follows: 

Leftward movements of indirect objects 

18a. ]maa kao ]saka kla yah khnaa AcCa nahIM qaa. 

uma: ko uska: kal yah kahna: accha: nahĩ: tha:. 

Uma-dat his yesterday this say-inf good neg was 

His telling this to Uma yesterday was not proper. 

186

Leftward movement of the time adverb 

18b. kla ]saka ]maa kao yah khnaa AcCa nahIM qaa. 

kal uska: uma: ko yah kahna: accha: nahĩ: tha:. 

187 

4. SYNTAX 

Notice that no constituent of the non-finite noun clauses can be 

moved to a position following the non-finite verb khnaa kahna: ‘to 

say’ as below. 

Rightward movement of indirect object 

18c. *]saka kla yah khnaa AcCa nahIM qaa ]maa kao. 

uska: kal yah kahna: accha: nahĩ: tha: uma: ko. 

Rightward movement of time adverb 

18d. *]saka ]maa kao yah khnaa AcCa nahIM qaa kla. 

uska: uma: ko yah kahna: accha: nahĩ: tha: kal. 

4.2.3. Relative Clauses 

There are two types of relative clause constructions: finite and nonfinite 

participial relative clauses. The finite relative clauses maintain 

full sentence structures with subject verb agreement and are very 

common. Participial relative clauses exhibit the non-finite form of 

the verb. The former is more explicit than the latter. The former type 

is also labeled as the real relative clause. 

In the formation of finite relative clauses, the relative marker jaao jo 

‘who’, which is placed in front of the relativized element, the 

correlative marker vah vah ‘that’ is placed at the beginning of the 

head noun, and the second identical or co-referential noun phrase 

may be deleted. The forms of relative and correlative markers are 

given below. 

Relative markers 

Direct Oblique 

Sg Pl Sg Pl 

jaao jo jaao jo ijasa jis ijana jin

4. SYNTAX 

Correlative markers 

vah vah vao ve ]sa us ]na un 

The relative marker begins with a ja /j/ sound, whereas correlative 

markers begin with va / v/ and ] /u/ sounds. In the direct case, the 

noun is not followed by a postposition and when it is, it is in the 

oblique case. The relative and correlative markers change for the 

number and case of the noun. The forms are as follows. 

Direct 

Relative Pronouns Correlative Pronouns 

Sg Pl Sg Pl 

jaao jo jaao jo vah vah vao ve 

Oblique 

ijasa jis ijana jin ]sa us ]na un 

ijasao jise ijanhoM jinhẽ ]sao use ]nhoM unhẽ 

ijasakao jisko ijanakao jinko ]sakao usko ]nakao unko 

ijasasao jisse ijanasao jinse ]sasao usse ]nasao unse 

ijasanao jisne ijanhaoMnao jinhõne ]sanao usne ]nhaoMnao unhõne 

In the examples given below, the symbol Ø indicates the presumed 

site of relativized and head NP prior to deletion. 

1. jaao laD,ka idllaI maoM rhta hO vah Ø maora Baa[- hO. 

jo lar�ka: dilli mẽ rahta: h´ vah Ø mera: bha:i: h´. 

rel boy Delhi-loc live-ptc is cor -Ø my brother is 

The boy, who lives in Delhi, is my brother. 

Sentence (1) consists of two clauses which share an identical and coreferential 

noun phrase. 

Main clause: 

laD,ka maora Baa[- hO. 

lar�ka: mera: bha:i: h´. 

The boy is my brother. 

188

Relative clause: 

laD,ka idllaI maoM rhta hOO. 

lar�ka: dilli: mẽ rahta: h´. 

The boy lives in Delhi. 

189 

4. SYNTAX 

Here the relative clause takes the relative pronoun jaao jo, whereas the 

correlative clause takes the correlative pronoun vah vah. When the 

relative clause precedes the main clause it results in the sentence 

(1a): 

1a. [jaao laD,ka idllaI maoM rhta hO] vah laD,ka maora Baa[- hO. 

[jo lar�ka: dilli mẽ rahta: h´] vah lar�ka: mera: bha:i: h´. 

The second occurrence of laD,ka lar�ka: is deleted to yield sentence 

(1b). There are two other possibilities for relative clauses: (i) the 

relative clause may follow the head noun phrase (1b), and (ii) the 

relative clause may follow the correlative clause (1c). 

1b. vah laD,ka [jaao idllaI maoM rhta hO] maora Baa[- hO. 

vah lar�ka: [jo dilli: mẽ rahta: h´] mera: bha:i: h´. 

1c. vah laD,ka maora Baa[- hO [jaao idllaI maoM rhta hO]. 

vah lar�ka: mera: bha:i: h´ [jo dilli: mẽ rahta: h´]. 

Notice that the participial relative clause is formed by (i) deleting 

the relativized noun phrase, and (ii) changing the verb into a 

participial form by adding the suffix -ta -ta: for the present participle 

and -nao vaalaa -ne va:la: for the agentive participle. 

4.2.3.1. Restrictive and Non-restrictive Clauses 

The restrictive relative clauses allow three possible word orders as 

given above (1a-1c). The non-restrictive relative clauses are those 

where some extra but relevant information is provided about the 

antecedent head noun. They allow only one word order in which the 

additional information follows the head noun. 

2. naoh$ [jaao Baart ko phlao p`QaanamaM~I qao] 

nehru: [jo bha:rat ke pradha:n mantri: the] 

Nehru who India-gen first prime minister was

4. SYNTAX 

[lhabaad maoM janmao. 

ilha:ba:d mẽ janme. 

Allahabad in born 

Nehru, who was the first prime minister of India, was born at 

Allahabad. 

2a. *naoh$ janmao [lhabaad maoM [jaao Baart ko phlao p`QaanamaM~I qao] 

*nehru: janme ilha:ba:d mẽ [jo bha:rat ke pahle pradha:n 

mantri: the]. 

2b. *[jaao Baart ko phlao p`QaanamaM~I qao] vao naoh$ [lahabad maoM janmao. 

*[jo bha:rat ke pahle pradha:n mantri: the] ve nehru: 

illha:ba:d mẽ janme. 

There are no word order differences between a restrictive and 

a non-restrictive participial relative clause. 

3. [Ø idllaI maoM rhnao vaalaa laD,ka] maora Baa[- hO. 

[Ø dilli: mẽ rahne va:la: lar�ka:] mera: bha:i: h´. 

Delhi in live-inf-obl gen boy my brother is 

The boy who lives in Delhi is my brother. 

4. [lhabaad maoM janma laonao vaalao naoh$ Baart ko phlao p`QaanamaM~I qao. 

ilha:ba:d mẽ janm lene va:le nehru: bha:rat ke pahle 

pradha:n mantri: the. 

Born at Allahabad, Nehru was the first prime minister of 

India. 

The relative clause may precede or follow the head noun. The nonrestrictive 

relative clause always follows the head noun. In general, 

the participial relative clauses precede the head noun. 

The form of the relativized element in the relative clause 

corresponding to the head noun (i.e., the relativized element) is 

usually preserved in full when the relative clause precedes the main 

clause. Alternately, it is deleted. It is pronominalized when the head 

is a pronoun. 

5. vah [jaao maohnat krta hO ] ]nnait krta hO. 

vah [jo mehnat karta: h´ ] unnati: karta: h´. 

He who hard work do-pr is progress do-pr is 

He who works hard progresses. 

190

191 

4. SYNTAX 

Here the second occurrence of the identical noun phrase is 

nominalized. The antecedent noun phrase may undergo deletion too, 

as in sentence (6). 

6. [jaao idllaI maoM rhta hO] vah laD,ka maora Baa[- hO. 

[jo dilli: mẽ rahta: h´] vah lar�ka: mera: bha:i: h´. 

Who Delhi in stay is he boy my brother is 

The boy who lives in Delhi is my brother. 

The original position of the relativized element usually remains 

unchanged. In case the relative constituent is placed in the beginning 

of the clause, the effect is that of contrastive focus. 

7. maOMnao vah laoK pZ,a [jaao sairta nao ilaKa hO.] 

m´~ne vah lekh par�ha: [jo sarita: ne likha: h´]. 

I-erg that essay read which Sarita-erg write is 

I read the essay which was written by Salim. 

The place of the relativized direct object is usually in the preverbal 

position. The placement of the relativized object NP to the relative 

clause initial position indicates focus on the relativized NP. The 

relativized adverbials and indirect objects can undergo similar 

movement. 

7a. [maOMnao vah laoK pZ,a] jaao sairta nao ilaKa hO. 

[m´~ne vah lekh par�ha:] jo sarita: ne likha: h´. 

I-erg that essay read which Salim-erg wrote is 

I read the essay which Sarita wrote. 

If the relative clause occurs to the left of the main clause, the 

relativized element can be placed in the sentence initial position. 

7b. [jaao laoK sairta nao ilaKa hO] maOMnao pZ,a vah. 

[jo lekh sarita: ne likha: h´] m´~ne par�ha: vah. 

which essay sarita-erg wrote I read that 

I read the essay which was written by Sarita. 

In the third order, the relative clause follows immediately after the 

head NP.

4. SYNTAX 

7c. maOMnao pZ,a vah laoK jaao sairta nao ilaKa hO. 

m´~ne par�ha: vah lekh jo sarita: ne likha: h´. 

I read that write which Sarita-erg wrote is 

I read the essay written by Sarita. 

In a headless relative clause, the relative clause cannot be placed 

immediately after the head NP. 

8. [raja nao jaao saunaa] maOMnao saunaa nahIM. 

[ra:j ne jo suna:] m´~ne suna: nahĩ:. 

Raj-erg rel heard I-erg hear not 

I didnt hear what Raj heard. 

However, it is possible to place the relative clause to the right of the 

main clause. 

8a. maOMnao saunaa nahIM [jaao raja nao saunaa.] 

m´~ne suna: nahĩ: [jo ra:j ne suna:.]. 

I didnt hear what Raj heard. 

All the constituents of a main clause except the verb can be 

relativized in a finite relative clause. 

Relativization of subject 

9. vah AadmaI [jaao Ø Aayaa:] 

vah a:dmi: [jo Ø a:ya:] 

cor person rel came 

the person who came 

Relativization of direct object 

10. vah AadmaI [ijasao Ø maOM yahaM laayaa:] 

vah a:dmi: [jise Ø m´~ yahã: la:ya:] 

cor person rel I here brought 

the person whom I brought here 

Relativization of indirect object 

11. vah AadmaI [ijasao Ø maOMnao iktaba dI] 

vah a:dmi: [jise Ø m´~ne kita:b di:] 

cor person rel I-erg watch gave 

the person who I gave the book 

192

Relativization of adjunct (object of associative postposition) 

12. vah AadmaI [ijasako Ø saaqa maOM idllaI gayaa] 

vah a:dmi: [jiske Ø sa:th m´~ dilli: gaya:] 

cor person rel with I Delhi went 

the person with whom I went to Delhi 

Relativization of adjunct (object of a locative postposition) 

13. vah dF,tr [ijasamaoM Ø maOM kama krta hUÐ] 

vah daftar [jis Ø mẽ m´~ ka:m karta: hũ:] 

cor office rel in I work do-ptc am 

the office in which I work 

Relativization of possessor noun 

14. vah AadmaI [ijasaka Ø yah makana hO] 

vah a:dmi: [jiska: Ø yeh maka:n h´ ] 

cor person rel-poss this house is 

the man whose house this is 

Relativization of object of comparison 

15. vah makana [ijasasao Ø yah makana baD,a hO] 

vah maka:n [jisse Ø yeh maka:n bar�a: h´] 

cor house rel than this house big is 

the house which is smaller than this house 

Relativization of a subordinate subject 

16. vah laD,ka [jaao Ø ]maa nao kha hakI Kolata hO] gayaa. 

vah lar�ka: [jo Ø uma: ne kaha: ha:ki: khelta: h´] gaya:. 

rel boy cor Uma-erg said play-ptc hockey is went 

The boy that Uma said plays hockey has gone. 

Relativization of a subordinate direct object 

17. vah TaopI [jaao Ø [rajaa nao kha []maa nao baunaI hO]] 

vah t�opi: [jo Ø [ra:ja: ne kaha: [uma: ne buni: h´]] 

rel cap that Raja-erg said Uma-erg has knitted 

maoro pasa hO. 

mere pass h´. 

me-poss is 

The cap that Raja said Uma knitted is with me. 

193 

4. SYNTAX

4. SYNTAX 

Relativization of subordinate indirect object 

18. vah laD,ka [ ijasao Ø [maaohna nao kha ik rajaa nao iktaba dI]] Aayaa. 

vah lar�ka:[jiseØ[mohan ne kaha: ki ra:ja: ne kita:b di:]a:ya:. 

rel boy cor Mohan-erg said that Raja-erg book gave 

The boy that Mohan said Raja gave a book to came. 

Relativization of object of a postpositional adverbial phrase 

19. vah kalaoja [ ijasa Ø maoM [AjaIt nao kha [ik ]maa 

vah ka:lej [jis Ø mẽ [aji:t ne kaha: [ki uma: 

rel college cor in Ajit-erg said that 

kama kr rhI hO]]] CaoTa hO. 

ka:m kar rahi: h´]]] chot�a: h´. 

Uma work do-ing is small is 

The college that Ajit said Uma works at is small. 

Relativization of object of comparison in subordinate clause 

20. vah makana [ ijasa Ø sao [AjaIt nao kha [ik maora makana 

vah maka:n [jis Ø se [aji:t ne kaha: [ki mera: maka:n 

rel house cor than Ajit-erg said that 

baD,a hO]]] dUr nahIM hO. 

bar�a: h´]]] du:r nahĩ: h´. 

my office is big is far not is 

The house that Ajit said that my house is bigger than it is not 

far way. 

4.2.3.2. Non-finite Relative Clauses 

Participial/non-finite relative clauses allow the subject and the direct 

object constituent to undergo the process of relativization. However, 

the indirect object etc. cannot undergo relativization. 

Relativization of subject 

21. [ Ø baZ,ta (huAa) ] baccaa 

[Ø bar�hta: (hua:)] bacca: 

grow-pst-ms (part.) child 

the growing child 

194

22. [ Ø pZ,nao ilaKnao vaalaa ] laD,ka 

[Ø par�hne likhne va:la:] lar�ka: 

read-inf-obl write-inf-obl gen boy 

the boy who is studying (Lit. the studying boy) 

Relativization of direct object 

23. []sakI K,rIdI hu[- ] iktaba 

[uski: xari:di: hui:] kita:b 

his buy-pst-fs book 

the book bought by him 

Indirect object 

24. *[ Ø iktaba dI hu[- ] laD,kI 

*[Ø kita:b di: hui:] lar�ki: 

the girl to whom the book is given 

195 

4. SYNTAX 

Any constituent of a subordinate relative clause, except the verbs, 

can be relativized. 

4.2.3.3. Finite Relative Clauses 

In finite relative clause modifiers, the possessor elements of the 

noun phrase can be subjected to further relativization. Also any 

constituent of a relative clause can be subjected to further 

relativization. 

Relativization of possessor 

25. vah Da@Tr [ijasaka maaohna dvaa[- Kata hO] AcCa nahIM hO. 

vah d�a:kt�ar [jiska: mohan dava:i: kha:ta: h´] accha: nahĩ: h´. 

rel doctor cor-poss Mohan medicine eating is good neg is 

The doctor whose (prescribed) medicine Mohan is taking is 

not good. 

Relativization of modifier 

26. yah dUQa ]tnaa gama- nahIM hO ijatnaa (gama-) maOM caahta qaa. 

yeh du:dh utna: garm nahĩ: h´ jitna: (garm) m´~ ca:hta: tha:. 

this milk rel hot neg is cor hot I wanted 

This milk is not as hot as I wanted.

4. SYNTAX 

Relativization of a constituent of a relative clause 

27. vah maoja, [ jaao Ø [mauJao pta qaa [ik Aapnao K,rIda] 

vah mez [jo Ø [mujhe pata: tha: [ki a:pne xari:da:] 

that table cor I know was that you-erg bought 

]tnaa baD,a nahIM hO ijatnaa maora hO. 

utna: bar�a: nahĩ: h´ jitna: mera: h´. 

rel big neg is cor mine is 

The table that I know you bought is not as big as mine. 

The participialization, however, does not allow relativization of any 

constituent of a relative clause. 

The noun phrases in postpositional phrases can be relativized by the 

finite relativization strategy. The constituents within coordinate 

noun phrases can be relativized. 

28. vah laD,ka [ jaao Ø maoro Baa[- ka daost hO] caalaak hO. 

vah lar�ka: [jo Ø mere bha:i: ka: dost h´] ca:la:k h´. 

cor boy rel my brother of friend is clever is 

The boy who is a friend of my brother is clever. 

Elements within coordinate verb phrases and coordinate sentences 

can also be relativized. In (29) an element of the first conjunct of a 

coordinate verb phrase is conjoined. 

29. vah laoK [ jaao Ø maOMnao pZ,a AaOr p~ ilaKa] AcCa hO. 

vah lekh [jo Ø ´~ne par�ha: �r patr likha:] accha: h´. 

cor article rel I-erg read and letter wrote good is 

The article which I read and wrote a letter about is good. 

This sentence can be interpreted as the joining of two actions in 

which the first stimulates the second one. The two actions, thus 

joined, are not independent of each other. In (30) an element of the 

second conjunct of a coordinate verb phrase is relativized. 

30. maOMnao laoK pZ,a AaOr jaao p~ ilaKa vah AcCa hO. 

m´~ne lekh par�ha: ør jo patr likha: vah accha: h´. 

I-erg article read and cor letter wrote rel good is 

I read an article and the wrote a good letter about it. 

196

197 

4. SYNTAX 

This sentence can be interpreted as the joining of two actions in 

which the meaning after doing one thing the second one is done is 

implied. Therefore it appears like a participial construction. The 

preferred version will be (30a). 

30a. laoK pZ,kr jaao p~ maOMnao ilaKa vah AcCa hO. 

lekh par�hkar jo patr m´~ne likha: vah accha: h´. 

article read-cp cor letter I-erg wrote rel good is 

After reading the article, I wrote a good letter about it. 

The relativization of the first or second conjunct elements of a 

coordinate sentence result in ill-formed sentences. 

31. *vah laoK [ jaao maOMnao pZ,a AaOr maaohna nao p~ ilaKa] AcCa hO. 

*vah lekh jo m´~ne par�ha: ør mohan ne patr likha: accha: h´. 

*The essay which I read and Mohan wrote a letter is good. 

31a. *maOMnaO laoK pZ,a AaOr maaohna nao jaao p~ ilaKa vah AcCa hO. 

*m´~ne lekh par�ha: ør mohan ne jo patr likha: vah accha: h´. 

*I read the essay and the letter which Mohan wrote is good. 

The order of pre-sentential and post-sentential positions of relative 

with reference to a correlative clause, also yield well-formed 

sentences. 

32. [ jaao Ø maOMnao pZ,a AaOr p~ ilaKa] vah laoK AcCa hO. 

[jo Ø m´~ne par�ha: ør patr likha:] vah lekh accha: h´. 

which I-erg read and letter wrote rel essay good is 

The essay which I read, and wrote a letter about is good. 

32a. vah laoK AcCa hO [jaao Ø maOMnao pZ,a AaOr p~ ilaKa.] 

vah lekh accha: h´ [jo Ø m´~ne par�ha: ør patr likha:]. 

he write good is which I read and letter write 

That essay is good which I read and wrote a letter about. 

Notice that a conjunct intervening between a relative and a 

correlative clause is less preferred. Therefore, sentence (32a) more 

preferred than (32). The relativized element can be moved within the 

constituents and sometimes to the initial position for the 

consideration of focus.

4. SYNTAX 

Mostly the relative clauses favor the finite relativization strategy. 

The participilization strategy, which is non-finite in nature, is 

subject to various syntactic and semantic constraints as pointed out 

above. 

4.2.4. Adverbial Clauses 

Adverbial clauses are marked by (a) the finite form of the verb, or 

(b) the non-finite form of the verb. Finite adverbial clauses can be 

placed in pre-sentential as well as post-sentential position. The 

unmarked order of a nonfinite adverbial clause is at the pre-verbal or 

post-verbal position. There are time, manner, purpose, cause, 

condition, concession, and degree adverbial clauses. 

4.2.4.1. Adverbial Clauses of Time 

There are three kinds of the adverbial clauses: (a) finite clauses with 

relative clauses like time markers such as yaid yedi ‘if’, (b) participial 

(non-finite) adverbial constructions, and (c) the infinitival 

constructions. 

(a) Finite clauses with relative clause time markers 

Some of the adverbial markers in this category are jaba jab ‘when’, jaba 

sao jab se ‘since’, and jyaaoMhI jyõhi: ‘as soon as’. 

1. jaba vah Aaegaa maOMo BaI Aa}Ðgaa. 

jab vah a:yega: m´~ bhi: a:ũ:ga:. 

when he come-fut I too come-fut 

When he comes, I’ll come too. 

2. jaba maOM jaata hUÐ (tba) vah BaI jaata hO. 

jab m´~ ja:ta: hũ: (tab) vah bhi: ja:ta: h´. 

when I go-ptc am (then) he too go-ptc is 

When I go, (then) he goes too. 

3. jabasao vah yahaM Aayaa (tbasao) hma saaqa saaqa kama krto hOM. 

jabse vah yahã: a:ya: (tabse) ham sa:th-sa:th ka:m karte h´~. 

cor-from he came here rel-from we together work do-ptc are 

Weve worked together since he came here. 

198

199 

4. SYNTAX 

In sentences (2) and (3), time adverbial clauses are introduced by the 

markers jaba jab and jaba sao jab se respectively. Like relative clauses, 

they distinguish themselves from question words which begin with k 

k. The time clause contains a finite verb with tense aspect 

information. The time marker jaba jab denotes a sequence of events 

(2) and simultaneous events (3) respectively. It is important to note 

that the relative clause time markers jaba jab or jaba sao jab se do not 

undergo deletion as do the correlative markers tba tab and tba sao tab 

se. 

(b) Participial (non-finite) constructions 

Four participial constructions, present participle, past participle, 

absolutive and the as soon as participle, also act as time adverbials. 

The present and past participles agree in gender and number with the 

subject of the main clause, whereas the last two do not undergo any 

agreement changes. 

4. maaohna daOD,ta Aayaa. 

mohan dør�ta: a:ya:. 

Mohan run-ptc came 

Mohan came running. 

5. AF,sar nao kusaI- pr baOzkr pUCa 

afsar ne kursi: par b´t�hkar pu:cha: 

officer chair on sit-cp asked 

the officer asked, sitting on the chair 

6. Gar phuÐcakr ]sanao TolaIfaona ikyaa. 

ghar pahũckar usne t�eliphon kiya:. 

home reach-pp she-erg telephone did 

She telephoned after reaching home. 

7. Aato hI ]sanao yah savaala pUCa. 

a:te hi: usne yah sava:l pu:cha:. 

come-emp he-erg this question asked 

As soon as he came, he asked this question. 

A present participle expresses an ongoing action or process. It takes 

the progressive aspect in the subordinate clause.

4. SYNTAX 

8a. maaohna ]sa samaya Aayaa ijasa samaya vah daOD, rha qaa. 

mohan us samay a:ya: jis samay vah dør� raha: tha:. 

Mohan at that time came when he run-prog was 

Mohan came at the time when he was running. 

The participle forms can be reduplicated as in (8b). 

8b. maaohna daOD,ta - daOD,ta Aayaa. 

mohan dør�ta: - dør�ta: a:ya:. 

Mohan run-ptc run-ptc came 

Mohan came running. 

(c) Infinitival construction 

A verbal noun followed by phlao pahle ‘before’, baad maoM ba:d mẽ ‘after’, 

or pr par ‘on’ results in a time adverbial. 

9. ]sako Aanao sao phlao kao[- nahIM Aaegaa. 

uske a:ne se pahle koi: nahĩ: a:yega:. 

he-gen-obl come-inf-obl before none neg come-fut 

No one will come before he comes. 

10. ]sako jaanao ko baad maOM jaa}Ðgaa. 

uske ja:ne ke ba:d m´~ ja:ũ:ga:. 

he-gen-obl go-inf-obl after I go-fut 

I’ll go after his departure. 

11. ]sako Aanao pr saaro KuSa hue. 

uske a:ne par sa:re khuš hue. 

he-gen-obl come-inf-obl on all happy became 

All were happy on his coming. 

4.2.4.2. Manner Clauses 

Manner clauses also employ relative-like and participial 

constructions. They are not expressed by infinitival or gerundive 

constructions. The relative clause-like manner markers jaOsao vaOsao j´se - 

v´se ‘as/which way’ indicates the manner reading. 

200

12. jaOsao maOM khUÐgaa vaOsao hI krao. 

j´se m´~ kahũ:ga: v´se hi: karo. 

as-rel I tell-you the same way-cor emp do 

Do as I tell you. 

201 

4. SYNTAX 

The word order of the relative manner clause and correlative manner 

clause can be altered. 

12a. vaOsao krao jaOsao maOM khUÐgaa. 

v´se karo j´se m´~ kahũ:ga: 

The following participial constructions express manner rather than 

tme. 

13. vah raoto - raoto Aayaa. 

vah rote - rote a:ya:. 

he weep-ptc weep-ptc came 

He came (while) crying. 

14. vah fSa- pr baOzkr raoyaa. 

vah faraš par b´t�hkar roya:. 

he floor on sit-cp wept 

He cried sitting on the floor. 

15. vah Sarart ko saaqa baaolaa. 

vah šara:rat ke sa:th bola:. 

he anger-gen with said 

He said with anger. 

The negativized participial form is formed by adding -e ibanaa -e bina:. 

16. vah hÐsao ibanaa baaolaa. 

vah hãse bina: bola:. 

he laugh-obl without said 

He said without laughing. 

Infinitival constructions also express manner. 

17. ]saka naacanaa mauJao psaMd hO. 

uska: na:cna: mujhe pasand h´. 

(s)he-gen dance-inf me-dat like is 

I like his/her manner of dancing.

4. SYNTAX 

17a. ]sako naacanao ka trIka mauJao psaMd hO. 

uske na:cne ka: tari:ka: mujhe pasand h´. 

(s)he-gen-obl dance-inf-gen manner I-dat like is 

I like his/her manner of dancing. 

4.2.4.3. Purpose Clauses 

Purpose clauses are formed in two ways: (a) infinitival form 

followed by e e or the oblique form plus the postposition ko ilae ke 

liye ‘for’, and (b) the @yaaoMik kyõki ‘because/ as’ clause modifying [sa 

ilae is liye ‘therefore’. 

18. vah naaTk doKnao gayaa. 

vah na:t�ak dekhne gaya:. 

he play see-inf-obl for 

He went to see a play. 

18a. vah naaTk doKnao ko ilae gayaa. 

vah na:t�ak dekhne ke liye gaya:. 

he play see-inf-obl for went 

He went to see a play. 

Notice that in (18) the oblique case marker e is added to the 

infinitive form of the verb, which expresses the meaning for. In 

(18a), the oblique case marker -e -e is added before the postposition 

ko ilae ke liye ‘for’. In the above construction, there is an option 

between the two alternatives. If the verb is not a motion verb the 

oblique form and postposition must be used. 

19. maOMnao ]sao iktaba pZ,nao ko ilae kha. 

m´~ne use kita:b par�hne ke liye kaha:. 

I-erg he-dat book read-inf-obl for said 

I told him to read the book. 

19a. *maOMnao ]sao iktaba pZ,nao kha. 

*m´~ne use kita:b par�hne kaha:. 

202

203 

4. SYNTAX 

The co-referential phrases kyõki because and is liye ‘therefore’ can 

also be used. 

20. @yaaoMik Aaja gamaI- qaI [sailae maOM baaja,ar nahIM gayaa. 

kyõki a:j garmi: thi: isliye m´~ ba:za:r nahĩ: gaya:. 

because today hot was therefore I market neg went 

Because it was hot, I didnt go to market. 

The elements of co-referential phrases @yaaoMik kyõki and [sailae is liye 

can be deleted. The word order undergoes a change as in (20a) and 

(20b) below. 

20a. Aaja gamaI- qaI [sailae maOM baaja,ar nahIM gayaa. 

a:j garmi: thi: isliye m´~ ba:za:r nahĩ: gaya:. 

Today hot was therefore ar nahIM I market neg go-past 

It was hot, therefore, I couldnt go to market. 

20b. @yaaoMik Aaja gamaI- qaI maOM baaja,ar nahIM gayaa. 

kyõki a:j garmi: thi: m´~ ba:za:r nahĩ: gaya:. 

because today hot was I market neg go-past 

Because it was hot, I didnt go to market. 

4.2.4.4. Cause Clauses 

Cause is expressed by using these constructions: (a) finite clauses 

marked by @yaaoMik kyõki ‘because’, (b) participles, and (c) infinitival 

plus sao se from. 

(a) Finite clauses 

21. vah pZ, nahIM sakta @yaaoMik vah AnapZ, hO. 

vah par�h nahĩ: sakta: kyõki vah anpar�h h´. 

he read not able because he illiterate is 

He cannot read because he is illiterate. 

21a. @yaaoMik vah AnapZ, hO vah pZ, nahIM sakta. 

kyõki vah anpar�h h´, vah par�h nahĩ: sakta:. 

Because he is illiterate, he cannot read.

4. SYNTAX 

(b) Participles 

22. calato calato vah qaka AaOr baOz gayaa. 

calte calte vah thaka: �r b´t�h gaya:. 

walk-ptc he tired and sat aux 

Because of walking (constantly), he was tired and sat down. 

23. maOM p`tIxaa krto krto qak gayaa. 

m´~ prati:kša: karte karte thak gaya:. 

I wait do-ptc tired aux 

I got tired of waiting. 

The cause is expressed in (22) and (23) by reduplicated present and 

past participles respectively. Cause can be expressed by other 

participles, too. 

24. AiQak Saraba pIkr vah baImaar huAa. 

adhik šara:b pi:kar vah bi:ma:r hua:. 

more liquor drink-cp he sick was 

Because he drank a lot (of liquor), he was sick. 

25. dvaa[- Kato hI vah zIk huAa. 

dava:i: kha:te hi: vah t�hi:kh hua:. 

medicine eat-ptc emp he alright became 

Immediately upon taking the medicine, he recovered (from 

illness). 

(c) Infinitive plus se with 

26. baccao ko Aanao sao saBaI KuSa hue. 

bacce ke a:ne se sabhi: khuš hue. 

child-obl-gen come-inf-obl with all happy were 

Because of the arrival of the child, all were happy. 

4.2.4.5. Condition Clauses 

Condition clauses are marked by the conjunction agar/yadi ‘if’. 

27. Agar/yaid vah baaja,ar jaaegaa ifr maOM nahIM jaa}Ðgaa. 

agar/yadi vah ba:za:r ja:yega:, phir m´~ nahĩ: ja:ũ:ga:. 

if he market go-fut-ms then I neg go-fut.1s 

If he goes to market, (then) I won’t go. 

204

28. Agar/yaid baairSa haogaI ifr AcCI f,sala haogaI. 

agar/yadi ba:riš hogi:, phir acchi: fasal hogi:. 

if rain fall-fut then good crop be-fut 

If it rains, then the crops will be good. 

The sequence of if - then clause can be reversed. 

27a. ifr maOM baaja,ar nahIM jaa}Ðgaa Agar vah jaaegaa. 

phir m´~ ba:za:r nahĩ: ja:ũ:ga: agar vah ja:yega:. 

again I market neg go-fut if he go-fut 

I will not go to the market if he goes. 

28a. ifr AcCI fsala haogaI Agar baairSa haogaI. 

phir acchi: fasl hogi: agar ba:riš hogi:. 

again good harvest will if rain comes 

The crop will be good if it rains. 

205 

4. SYNTAX 

It is to be noted that the condition marker Agar agar is not deleted, 

whereas its co-referential marker ifr phir can be deleted. The 

conjunction marker vana-a varna: ‘otherwise’ also is used in condition 

clauses. 

29. kla jaldI Aa jaanaa vana-a maOM Akolao jaa}Ðgaa. 

kal jaldi: a: ja:na: varna: m´~ akele: ja:ũ:ga:. 

tomorrow soon come otherwise I alone-obl go-fut 

Come early tomorrow, otherwise I will go alone. 

The same tense reference is marked in both constituents conjoined 

by the markers Agar agar and vanaa- varna:. 

4.2.4.6. Concession Clauses 

A concession clause is marked by subordinate conjunction markers 

such as yaQyaip yadhypi/ halaaMik ha:lã:ki/ caaho ca:he ‘although’, Agar - ifr BaI 

agar - phir bhi: ‘even if’, and @yaaoM nahIM kyõ nahĩ: ‘why not’. 

30. yaQyaip/ halaMik vah bahut AmaIr hO ifr BaI vah kMjaUsa hO. 

yadhypi/ha:lã:ki vah bahut ami:r h´ phir bhi: vah kanju:s h´. 

although he very rich is still he miser is 

Although he is very rich, he is a miser.

4. SYNTAX 

31. caaho Aap ]sakao pITaogao BaI vah yah kama nahIM krogaa. 

ca:he a:p usko pi:t�oge bhi:, vah yah ka:m nahĩ: karega:. 

even if you he-dat beat-fut too he this work not do-fut 

Even if you beat him/her up, he/she won’t do this work. 

31a. caaho Aap ]sakao pITaogao BaI vah ifr BaI yah kama 

ca:he a:p usko pi:t�oge bhi:, vah phir bhi: yah ka:m 

even if you he-dat beat-fut too even then this work 

nahIM krogaa. 

nahĩ: karega:. 

not do-fut 

Even if you’ll beat him/her up, even then he/she won’t do this 

work. 

32. vah @yaaoM na kafI AnauraoQa kro ifr BaI maOM ]sako saaqa 

vah kyõ na ka:phi: anurodh kare phir bhi: m´~ uske sa:th 

he why do much insist do even then I he-gen with 

idllaI nahIM jaa}Ðgaa. 

dilli: nahĩ: ja:ũ:ga:. 

Delhi not go-fut 

Even if he insists, I’ll not go to Delhi with him. 

4.2.4.7. Result Clauses 

In result clauses, the main clause contains a cause marked by an 

oblique infinitive followed by the postposition ko karNa ke ka:ran� / kI 

vajah ki: vajah ‘because of the reason’. This expresses the result of a 

sentence. In a sentence sequence, the cause is usually given in the 

first sentence, followed by another sentence giving the result of it. 

The second sentence usually contains the phrase [sa ilae is liye 

‘therefore’. 

33. baairSa haonao ko karNa / kI vajah sao maOM baaja,ar na jaa saka. 

ba:riš hone ke ka:ran�/ki: vajah m´~ ba:za:r na ja: saka:. 

rain fall-inf-obl reason I market neg go able 

I could not go to market because of the rain. 

34. kla AcCa maaOsama qaa [sailae maOM GaUmanao gayaa. 

kal accha: møsam tha: isliye m´~ ghu:mne gaya:. 

yesterday good weather was therefore I walk-inf-obl went-1s 

The weather was good yesterday, therefore, I went for a walk. 

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4.3. Sentence Construction 

207 

4. SYNTAX 

Here we will discuss the different types of sentence constructions: 

copular, verbal, negation, interrogatives, imperatives, anaphora, 

reflexives, reciprocals, equatives, comparison, superlatives, and 

coordination. 

4.3.1. Copular Sentences 

The verb haonaa hona: ‘to be’ is employed in copular sentences. The 

copula may take a predicate noun, predicate adjective, participle, or 

a predicate adverb as a complement. 

Predicate noun 

1. vah vakIla hO. 

vah vaki:l h´. 

he lawyer is 

He is a lawyer. 

Predicate adjective 

2. sauYamaa laMbaI hO. 

sušma: lambi: h´. 

Sushma tall is 

Sushma is tall. 

Predicate adverbial (participle) 

3. maaohna KD,a hO. 

mohan khar�a: h´. 

Mohan stand is 

Mohan is standing. 

Predicate adverbial 

4. ]sakI Aavaaja, maIzI hO. 

uski: a:va:z mi:t�hi: h´. 

his/her voice sweet is 

His/her voice is sweet. 

The unmarked order of constituents in the examples given above is 

subject - complement - copula.

4. SYNTAX 

There are two types of predicate adjectival copular sentences: (a) 

those which change for gender and number of the nouns they modify 

and (b) those which do not. The adjective laMbaa lamba: ‘tall’ falls into 

the first category, and the adjective safod safed ‘white’ falls into the 

second. 

5. yah laMbaa laD,ka hO. 

yah lamba: lar�ka: h´. 

this tall boy is 

This is a tall boy. 

5a. yao laMbao laD,ko hOM. 

ye lambe lar�ke h´~. 

these tall boys are 

These are tall boys. 

5b. yah laMMbaI laD,kI hO. 

yeh lambi: lar�ki: h´. 

this tall girl is 

This is a tall girl. 

5c. yao laMMbaI laD,ikyaaÐ hOM. 

ye lambi: lar�kiyã: h´~. 

these tall girls are 

These are tall girls. 

6. yah safod fUla hO. 

yeh safed phu:l h´. 

this white flower is 

This is a white flower. 

6a. yao safod fUla hOM. 

ye safed phu:l h´~. 

these white flowers are 

These are white flowers. 

6b. yah safod kmaIja, hO. 

yeh safed kami:z h´. 

this white shirt is 

This is a white shirt. 

208

6c. yao safod kmaIjaoM, hOM. 

ye safed kami:zẽ h´~. 

these white shirts are 

These are white shirts. 

209 

4. SYNTAX 

The copular verb must be retained in both affirmative (positive) as 

well as negative sentences. In the case of co-ordinate structures, it is 

optionally deleted. 

7. maaohna Da^@Tr hO. 

mohan d�a:kt�ar h´. 

Mohan doctor is 

Mohan is a doctor. 

8. saaohna vakIla nahIM hO. 

sohan vaki:l nahĩ: h´. 

Sohan lawyer not is 

Sohan is not a lawyer. 

9. maaohna AaOr AjaIt Da^@Tr hOM. 

mohan aur aji:t d�a:kt�ar h´~. 

Mohan and Ajit doctors are 

Mohan and Ajit are doctors. 

9a. maaohna Da^@Tr hO AaOr AjaIt BaI. 

mohan d�a:kt�ar h´ ør aji:t bhi:. 

Mohan doctor is and Ajit too 

Mohan is a doctor and so is Ajit. 

9b. na maaohna vakIla hO AaOr na AjaIt. 

na mohan vaki:l h´ ør na aji:t. 

neg Mohan lawyer is and neg Ajit 

Neither Mohan nor Ajit is a lawyer. 

The copular verb is used for definition, identity, existence, and role 

functions. It is also used as a second member (explicator) in the 

compound verb sequences. 

10. Aajakla saUya- jaldI caZ,ta hO. 

a:jkal su:rya jaldi: car�hta: h´. 

nowadays sun quick rise-ptc is 

The sun rises early these days.

4. SYNTAX 

11. idna pìt idna halaat sauQar rho hOM. 

din prati din ha:la:t sudhar rahe h´~. 

day after day situation improve-prog are 

The situation is improving day by day. 

12. Aajakla jaldI AMQaora haota hO. 

a:jkal jaldi: andhera: hota: h´. 

nowadays early dark be-ptc is 

It becomes dark early (in the evening) these days. 

13. [-Svar hO. 

i:švar h´. 

God is 

14. Bagavaana Apnaa Apnaa hO. 

bha:gya apna: apna: h´. 

luck self self is 

One is born with his/her own luck. 

15. sa%ya iCpta nahIM. 

satya chipta: nahĩ:. 

truth hidden neg 

The truth (eventually) comes out. Or 

The truth cannot be hidden. 

16. samaya balavaana hO. 

samay balva:n h´. 

time strong is 

Time is strong. 

The copular verb always takes a complement. In sentence (13) the 

complement does not appear at the surface and is understood as 

ivaQyamaana vidhyma:n/ maaOjaUd møju:d ‘exists/omnipresent’ and/or hr sqaana har 

stha:n/ kNa kNa maoM kan� kan� mẽ ‘everywhere’. 

16a. [-Svar ivaQyamaana/maaOjaUd /hr sqaana pr/ kNa kNa maoM hO. 

i:švar vidhyma:n/mauju:d /har stha:n par/kan� kan� mẽ h´. 

God present/every where particles in is 

God exists. Or God is present everywhere. 

210

211 

4. SYNTAX 

In Hindi the copula verb haonaa hona: ‘to be’ is used as a non-stative 

verb and is translated as to become/happen/take/occur. This meaning 

is expressed by using the verb haonaa hona: or hao jaanaa ho ja:na: ‘to 

become’. 

17. dor hu[- /hao ga[-. 

der hui:/ho gai:. 

late be-pst-fs/be aux-fs 

It became late. 

18. baatcaIt hu[-. 

ba:tci:t hui:. 

conversation be-pst-fs 

The conversation took place. 

19. kama huAa. 

ka:m hua:. 

work be-pst-ms 

The work was done. 

4.3.2. Verbal Sentences 

Verbal phrases can be grouped into three categories based on the 

classification of their verbs as simple, conjunct, or compound. The 

first category has only one verbal root as in (1). 

1. maOMnao iktaba pZ,I. 

m´~ne kita:b par�hi:. 

I-erg book read 

I read a book. 

The second category is formed by combining a noun/adjective plus 

the verb krnaa karna: ‘to do’, or haonaa hona: ‘to be’. (i.e. kama krnaa ka:m 

karna: ‘to work’, maohnat krnaa mehnat karna: ‘to work hard’, saaf haonaa 

sa:ph hona: ‘to be clear’ takt haonaa ta:kat hona: ‘to be 

strong/healthy’.) 

2. mauJaoo kama krnaa hO. 

mujhe ka:m karna: h´. 

I-dat work do-inf be 

I have to work.

4. SYNTAX 

3. yah maamalaa saaf hO. 

yeh ma:mla: sa:f h´. 

this matter clear is 

This matter is clear. or It is clear. 

4. ]sanao maohnat kI. 

usne mehnat ki:. 

he-erg hard work did 

He worked hard. 

5. ]samaoM takt hO. 

usmẽ ta:kat h´. 

he-obl-loc strength be 

(S)he is strong/healthy. or (S)he has strength. 

The third category employs a sequence of verbs like pZ, laonaa par�h 

lena: ‘to read’, and ilaK donaa likh dena: ‘to write’. 

6. ]sanao AKbaar pZ, ilayaa. 

usne axba:r par�h liya:. 

he-erg newspaper read took-explicator-ms 

He read the newspaper. 

7. maOMnao icaT\zI ilaK dI. 

m´~ne cit�t�hi: likh di:. 

I-erg letter write gave-explicator-fs 

I wrote the letter. 

The subject of a transitive verb in the past tense is in the oblique 

case, followed by the case sign or the postposition nao ne. 

8. laD,ko nao laoK ilaKa. 

lar�ke ne lekh likha:. 

boy-erg essay-ms wrote-ms 

The boy wrote an essay. 

9. laD,kI nao p~ ilaKa. 

lar�ki: ne patr likha:. 

girl-erg letter-ms wrote-ms 

The girl wrote a letter. 

212

10. laD,kaoM/laD,ikyaaoM nao AKbaar pZ,a. 

lar�kõ/lar�kiyõ ne axba:r par�ha:. 

boys-/girls-erg newspaper read 

The boys/girls read the newspaper. 

11. maOMnao/hmanao iflma doKI. 

m´~ne/hamne film dekhi:. 

I-erg/we-erg film-fs saw-fs 

I/we saw a film. 

12. tUnaoo/tumanaooo/Aapnaoo iktaba pZ,I. 

tu:ne/tumne/a:pne kita:b par�hi:. 

you-erg book-fs read-fs 

You read a book. 

13. tumanaooo/Aapnaoo kusaI- doKI. 

tumne/a:pne kursi: dekhi:. 

you-erg chair saw-fs 

You saw a chair. 

213 

4. SYNTAX 

The plural forms of personal pronouns are used as honorific 

singular/plural subjects as well. 

Psychological predicates such as gaussaa Aanaa gussa: a:na: ‘to be angry 

or irritated’, and laganaa lagna: ‘seem’ always take a dative subject 

using a dative case marker and the postposition kao ko. 

14. laD,ko kao gaussaa Aayaa. 

lar�ke ko gussa: a:ya:. 

boy-obl to anger came 

The boy was angry. 

15. ]sao caaoT lagaI. 

use cot� lagi:. 

he-dat injury struck 

He got injured. 

4.3.2.1. Direct Object 

Verbs are conventionally divided into intransitive and transitive on 

the basis of whether they take a noun phrase as an object. Transitive

4. SYNTAX 

verbs take noun phrases as their object and intransitive verbs do not. 

In certain cases, the objects are understood and they do not appear at 

the surface level. For example, see the use of the transitive verbs khnaa 

kahna: ‘to say’ and pUCnaa pu:chna: ‘to ask’ in sentences (16) and (17) 

below. 

16. maOMnao khI. 

m´~ne kahi:. 

I-erg said-fs 

I said (it) to him/her. 

17. ]sanao pUCa. 

usne pu:cha:. 

he-erg asked-fs 

He asked (it to) him/her. 

In (16), the verb khnaa kahna: is inflected for an implied generic 

feminine object. Similarly, in (17), the verb pUCnaa pu:chna: is 

inflected for an implied generic masculine object. These sentences 

can be completed as follows. 

16a. maOMnao ]sasao ApnaI baat khI. 

m´~ne usse apni: ba:t kahi:. 

I-erg him/her selfs matter-fs told-fs 

I told him/her my story. 

17a. ]sanao halacaala pUCa. 

usne ha:lca:l pu:cha:. 

he/she-erg welfare-ms asked-ms 

He/she asked (him/her) welfare. 

4.3.2.2. Indirect Object 

Whenever direct and indirect objects occur in a sentence, the 

indirect object receives the dative case markings. The order of the 

direct and indirect object in a sentence mainly depends on the 

emphasis given to these constituents in a given sentence. When 

animate indirect objects precede direct objects, they get extra 

emphasis. Notice the following examples of sentences using indirect 

objects in the dative case. 

214

18. maOMnao AjaIt kao iktaba dI. 

m´~ne aji:t ko kita:b di:. 

I-erg Ajit-dat book-fs gave-fs 

I gave Ajit a book. 

18a. maOMnao iktaba AjaIt kao dI. 

m´~ne kita:b aji:t ko di:. 

19. AjaIt nao ApnaI p%naI ko ilae Saala K,rIda. 

aji:t ne apni: patni: ke liye ša:l xari:da:. 

Ajit-erg selfs wife for shawl bought 

Ajit bought his wife a shawl. 

19a. AjaIt nao Saala ApnaI p%naI ko ilae K,rIda. 

aji:t ne ša:l apni: patni: ke liye xari:da:. 

Ajit-erg shawl selfs wife for bought 

Ajit bought a shawl for his wife. 

20. ]maa nao mauJao Kanaa iKlaayaa. 

uma: ne mujhe kha:na: khila:ya:. 

Uma-erg I-obl food feed-fs 

Uma offered the food to me. 

20a. mauJao ]maa nao Kanaa iKlaayaa. 

mujhe uma ne kha:na: khila:ya:. 

I-obl Uma-erg food feed-fs 

Uma offered the food to me. 

4. SYNTAX 

In (18), (19) and (20) the indirect objects receive more emphasis 

than in (18a), (19a) and (20a). 

4.3.2.3. Other Types of Verb Argument 

Other types of verb arguments appear in the form of various 

postpositional phrases. They include locatives, instruments, 

benefactives, and comitatives. 

There are no restrictions regarding the number of arguments 

(subject, direct/indirect object, and optional arguments) put together 

in a sentence. There are, of course, certain semantic restrictions, 

including the selection of their cases (nominative, dative, and 

ergative subjects), imposed by the choice of verbs and tense. 

215

4. SYNTAX 

In Hindi, the verb occurs in the final position. The unmarked word 

order is subject, indirect object, direct object, adverbial (time, 

locative), and verb. The direct object may occur before the indirect 

object depending on the emphasis given to it. Consider sentences 

(21)- (21c) below. 

21. maaohna nao pITr kao AjaIt ko ilae kla Gar pr iktaba dI. 

mohan ne pi:t�ar ko aji:t ke liye kal ghar par kita:b di:. 

Mohan-erg Peter to Ajit for yesterday home at book gave 

Mohan gave Peter a book for Ajit yesterday at home. 

21a. maaohna nao AjaIt ko ilae pITr kao kla Gar pr iktaba dI. 

mohan ne aji:t ke liye pi:t�ar ko kal ghar par kita:b di:. 

21b. maaohna nao pITr kao AjaIt ko ilae Gar pr kla iktaba dI. 

mohan ne pi:t�ar ko aji:t ke liye ghar par kal kita:b di:. 

21c. maaohna nao kla pITr kao AjaIt ko ilae Gar pr iktaba dI. 

mohan ne kal pi:t�ar ko aji:t ke liye ghar par kita:b di:. 

In sentence (21), the direct object gets more emphasis than the 

indirect object. The order of emphasis is reversed in sentence (21a). 

Similarly, the adverbial phrase can also precede the direct or indirect 

object for emphasis. 

4.3.3. Negation 

4.3.3.1. Sentential Negation 

Sentential negation is expressed by the negative particles nahIM nahĩ: 

not, mat mat don’t, and na na no. The negative particle nahIM nahĩ: is 

added before the main verb, which may or may not be followed by 

an auxiliary verb. 

1. vah Aajakla dF,tr nahIM jaata hO. 

vah a:jkal daftar nahĩ: ja:ta: h´. 

he nowadays office neg go-ptc is 

He doesn’t go to the office nowadays. 

216

2. maOMnao yah iktaba nahIM pZ,I (hO). 

m´~ne yeh kita:b nahĩ: par�hi: (h´). 

I-erg this book neg read (have) 

I have not read this book. 

217 

4. SYNTAX 

The particle mat mat ‘don’t’ is used with imperative constructions. It 

is added in the preverbal position. 

3. AKbaar mat pZ,ao. 

axba:r mat par�ho. 

newspaper neg read 

Don’t read the newspaper. 

4. Aaja Gar mat jaa[e. 

a:j ghar mat ja:iye. 

today home neg go-pl 

Please don’t go home today. 

The negative particle mat mat can be replaced by na na ‘no’, but it is 

not used frequently. 

3a. AKbaar na pZ,ao. 

axba:r na par�ho. 

Don’t read the newspaper. 

4a. Aaja Gar na jaa[e. 

a:j ghar na ja:iye. 

Please don’t go home today. 

4.3.3.2. Constituent Negation 

A number of devices are employed to mark constituent negation. 

The main constituents are the stress and the use of a negative 

particle after the negated constituent. Sometimes stress is used to 

negate the constituent. 

5. ]sao kla p%naI sao laD,naa nahIM caaihe qaa. 

use kal patni: se lar�na: nahĩ: ca:hiye tha:. 

he-dat yesterday wife with quarrel neg should was 

He should not have quarreled with his wife yesterday.

4. SYNTAX 

6. ]sao hr raoja, Saraba nahIM pInaI caaihe. 

use har roz šara:b nahĩ: pi:ni: ca:hiye. 

he every day liquor neg drink should 

He should not drink (liquor) daily. 

In sentences (5) and (6), the negated constituents are stressed by 

stressing the adverbs. 

The negative marker follows the negated constituent. 

7. vah Gar nahIM gayaa vah Asptala gayaa. 

vah ghar nahĩ: gaya:, vah aspata:l gaya:. 

he home neg went he hospital went 

He did not go home; he went to the hospital. 

7a. vah Gar nahIM gayaa Asptala gayaa. 

vah ghar nahĩ: gaya:, aspata:l gaya:. 

The negative constituent is also expressed by the use of the negative 

markers isavaa siva: except and ibanaa bina: without added after the main 

verbs as given below. 

8. vah Kanaa Kae ibanaa kalaoja gayaa. 

vah kha:na: kha:ye bina: ka:lej gaya:. 

he food eat without college went 

He went to college without eating. 

9. ]maa ko isavaa saaro samaya pr Aae. 

uma: ke siva: sa:re samay par a:ye. 

Uma gen without all time on came 

All came on time except Uma. 

In sentences (7) and (8), the negative markers cannot be replaced by 

nahIM nahĩ:. 

The indefinite markers kao[- koi: ‘someone’ and kuC kuch ‘something’ 

and the question words khIM BaI kahĩ: bhi: ‘anywhere’ and kBaI BaI kabhi: 

bhi: ‘ever’ are also used with negative constituents. 

218

10. kao[- laD,ka skUla nahIM gayaa. 

koi: lar�ka: sku:l nahĩ: gaya:. 

someone student school neg went 

No child went to school. 

11. [tnao pOsao sao kuC nahIM haogaa. 

itne p´se se kuch nahĩ: hoga:. 

this-obl money with something neg be-fut 

This money is not sufficient. 

12. ]sanao kla sao kao[- kama nahIM ikyaa. 

usne kal se koi: ka:m nahĩ: kiya:. 

he-erg yesterday from any work neg did 

He has done no work since yesterday. 

13. Aimat khIM nahIM gayaa. 

amit kahĩ: nahĩ: gaya:. 

Amit anywhere neg went 

Amit went nowhere. 

14. yah kama kBaI BaI vyaqa- nahIM haogaa. 

yeh ka:m kabhi: bhi: vyarth nahĩ: hoga:. 

this work ever waste neg be-fut 

This work will never go waste. 

Participles are also used along with negated constituents. 

15. Aimat daOD,to - daOD,to nahIM Aayaa. 

amit dør�te - dør�te nahĩ: a:ya:. 

Amit run-ptc neg came 

Amit did not come running. 

219 

4. SYNTAX 

The negative prefixes be- and an-, borrowed from Persian 

(morphological negation) negate the constituent to which they are 

prefixed. 

16. vah baorhma hO. 

vah beraham h´. 

he without-mercy is 

He is merciless.

4. SYNTAX 

17. vah baoidla kama krta hO. 

vah bedil ka:m karta: h´. 

he without-heart work do-ptc is 

He works uninterestingly. 

4.3.3.3. Double/Multiple Negation 

Hindi allows only one negative particle per clause. Double or 

multiple negation markers are not used. 

18. maOM hOdrabaad nahIM gayaa hUÐ. 

m´~ h´dara:ba:d nahĩ: gaya: hũ:. 

I Hyderabad neg went be 

I have not gone to Hyderabad. 

It is, however, possible to use double negation markers for 

emphasis. 

19. maOM maaskao nahIM na gayaa hUÐ. 

m´~ ma:sko nahĩ: na gaya: hũ:. 

I Moscow neg neg went be 

Have I ever gone to Moscow? Or 

I have never gone to Moscow. 

4.3.3.4. Negation and Coordination 

Negation occurs in coordinate structures as it does in simple 

sentences. The negative element is not moved to the co-ordinate 

position unless the identical element is deleted from the second 

negative conjunct. It is only in the na na … na na ‘neither … nor’ 

situation that negative elements are used sentence initially. 

20. na Aimat naaOkrI krta hO AaOr na karaobaar. 

na amit nøkri: karta: h´ ør na karoba:r. 

neg Amit service do-prt is and neg business 

Amit has neither a job nor a business. 

20a. Aimat naaOkrI nahIM krta hO. 

amit nøkri: nahĩ: karta: h´. 

Amit job neg do-pr is 

Amit is not doing a job. 

220

20b. Aimat karaobaar nahIM krta hO. 

amit ka:roba:r nahĩ: karta: h´. 

Amit business neg do-ptc is 

Amit is not doing a business. 

4.3.3.5. Negation and Subordination 

221 

4. SYNTAX 

With predicates expressing opinion (pta haonaa pata: hona: ‘to know’, 

expectation/ intention (caahnaa ca:hna: ‘to want’), or perception (laganaa 

lagna: ‘to seem’ and ivacaar haonaa vica:r hona: ‘to have an opinion/to 

think’), the matrix verb can be negated to express subordinate 

negation. 

21. mauJao pta hO ik vah nahIM Aaegaa. 

mujhe pata: h´ ki vah nahĩ: a:yega:. 

I-obl know is that he neg come-fut 

I know that he will not come. 

22. mauJao lagata hO ik Aaja baairSa nahIM haogaI. 

mujhe lagta: h´ ki a:j ba:riš nahĩ: hogi:. 

I-dat seem-ptc is that today rain neg be-fut 

It seems to me that it won’t rain today. 

23. maOM caahta hUÐ ik vah karaobaar nahIM kro. 

m´~ ca:hta: hũ: ki vah karoba:r nahĩ: kare. 

I want-ptc am that he business neg do-subjunctive 

I don’t want him to do business. 

24. maora ivacaar hO ik ]sao vah naaOkrI nahIM krnaI caaihe. 

mera: vica:r h´ ki use vah nøkri: nahĩ: karni: ca:hiye. 

my opinion is that he-obl this job neg do-inf should 

In my opinion, he should not take this job. 

The negative particle nahIM nahĩ: can occur before the modal verbs pta 

haonaa pata: hona:, laganaa lagna: and caahnaa ca:hna: but not before ivacaar haonaa 

vica:r hona:. Thus, sentences (21-23) can be rephrased as (21a-23a) 

but not as (24a). 

21a. mauJao nahIM pta ik vah Aaegaa (ik nahIM). 

mujhe nahĩ: pata: ki vah a:yega: (ki nahĩ:).

4. SYNTAX 

22a. mauJao nahIM lagata hO ik Aaja baairSa haogaI. 

mujhe nahĩ: lagta: h´ ki a:j ba:riš hogi:. 

23a. maOM nahIM caahta ik vah karaobaar kro. 

m´~ nahĩ: cahta: ki vah ka:roba:r kare. 

24a. *mauJao nahIM ivacaar hO ik 

*mujhe nahĩ: vica:r h´ ki. 

4.3.4. Interrogative 

There are two types of interrogative sentences: yes-no questions and 

information questions using question-words. These questions are 

marked by certain intonation characteristics. 

4.3.4.1. Yes-No Questions 

On the basis of the expected answer, yes-no questions can be put 

into two categories: (a) neutral yes-no questions (where a definite 

answer is not expected) and (b) leading yes-no questions (where 

either an affirmative or a negative answer is expected). 

4.3.4.1.1. Neutral Yes-No Questions 

Neutral yes-no questions are formed by the optional placement of 

the question word @yaa kya: what in the sentence initial position of a 

declarative sentence. Note that the use of the question marker @yaa 

kya: in neutral questions is different from its use in the questionword 

questions. In question-word questions, @yaa kya: usually occurs 

in the second position, and in yes-no questions it occurs only in the 

initial position. 

1. tuma kla idllaI jaaAaogao. 

tum kal dilli: ja:oge. 

you tomorrow Delhi go-fut tomorrow 

You will go to Delhi tomorrow. 

1a. (@yaa) tuma kla idllaI jaaAaogao? 

(kya:) tum kal dilli: ja:oge? 

(Q-word) you tomorrow Delhi go 

Will you go to Delhi tomorrow? 

222

1b. tuma @yaa kla idllaI jaaAaogao? 

tum kya: kal dilli: ja:oge? 

223 

4. SYNTAX 

A declarative sentence can be converted to a neutral yes-no question 

without adding any question marker by raising the intonation at the 

end of the verb. 

A negative declarative sentence is changed to a yes-no question by 

adding the negative morpheme before the verb. 

2. tuma kla idllaI jaaAaogao. 

tum kal dilli: nahĩ: ja:oge. 

you tomorrow Delhi neg go-fut 

You won’t go to Delhi tomorrow. 

2a. (@yaa) tuma kla idllaI nahIM jaaAaogao? 

(kya:) tum kal dilli: nahĩ: ja:oge? 

(Q) you tomorrow Delhi neg go-fut 

Won’t you go to Delhi tomorrow? 

2b. tuma @yaa kla idllaI nahIM jaaAaogao? 

tum kya: kal dilli nahĩ: ja:oge? 

Aren’t you going to Delhi tomorrow? 

A negativized yes-no question invokes multiple answers. Consider 

the answers to questions (3) and (4): 

3. tuma yah if,lma nahIM doKaoogao? 

tum yah film nahĩ: dekhoge? 

you this picture neg watch-fut 

Won’t you watch this film? 

3a. haÐ¸ maOM doKUÐgaa (yah if,lma). 

hã:, m´~ dekhũ:ga: (yeh film). 

yes I watch-1s-fut (this film). 

Yes, I’ll see (this film). 

3b. nahIM¸ maOM doKUÐgaa nahIM (yah if,lma). 

nahĩ:, m´~ dekhũ:ga: nahĩ: (yeh film). 

neg I see-fut neg (this film) 

No, I won’t watch (this film).

4. SYNTAX 

3c. haÐ¸ maOM doKUÐMgaa nahIM. 

hã:, m´~ dekhũ:ga: nahĩ:. 

yes, I watch-1s-fut neg 

Yes, I won’t watch. 

3d. nahIM¸ maOM doKUÐMgaa. 

nahĩ:, m´~ dekhũ:ga:. 

neg I watch-fut 

No, I’ll watch. 

4. Aaja sadI- hO naa? 

a:j sardi: h´ na:? 

today cold is neg-Q 

Isn’t it cold today? 

4a. haÐ¸ Aaja sadI- hO. 

hã:, a:j sardi: h´. 

yes today cold is 

Yes, it is cold today. 

4b. nahIM¸ Aaja sadI- nahIM hO. 

nahĩ:, a:j sardi: nahĩ: h´. 

Neg today cold neg is 

No, it isn’t cold today. 

4c. haÐ¸ Aaja sadI- nahIM hO. 

hã:, a:j sardi: nahĩ: h´. 

yes today cold neg is 

Yes, it isn’t cold today. 

4d. nahI¸M Aaja sadI- nahIM hO. 

nahĩ:, a:j sardi: nahĩ: h´. 

neg today cold neg is 

No, it isn’t cold today. 

In these examples, the (a-b) answers indicate positive-negative and 

the (c-d) indicate agreement-disagreement answering systems. The 

agreement-disagreement answering systems are less frequently used 

than the positive-negative ones. 

224

4.3.4.1.2. Leading Questions 

225 

4. SYNTAX 

Leading questions are formed by adding the repetitive form of the 

verb negative or positive question markers nahIM nahĩ: and haÐ hã: 

respectively at the end of a declarative sentence to serve as tag 

questions. The tag question comprising of the verb + naa na: is 

preceded by a positive proposition and the tag question of the verb + 

haÐ hã: is preceded by the negative proposition. 

The expectation of a positive answer is expressed by an affirmative 

proposition preceding the verb + naa na: as a tag question. 

5. Aaja gamaI- hO, hO naa? 

a:j garmi: h´, h´ na:? 

today hot is is neg-q 

It is hot today, isn’t it? 

6. vah iktaba pZ,ogaa, pZ,ogaa naa? 

vah kita:b par�hega:, par�hega: na:? 

he book read-3s-fut read-3s-fut neg-q 

He will read a letter, won’t he? 

The expectation of a negative answer is expressed by a negative 

proposition preceding the verb + naa na: or the repetition of the verb 

form as a tag question. 

7. Aaja gamaI- nahIM hO, naa? 

a:j garmi: nahĩ: h´, na:? 

today hot neg is neg-q 

It isn’t hot today, is it? 

8. vah p~ nahIM pZ,ogaa, pZ,ogaa? 

vah patr nahĩ: par�hega:, par�hega:? 

he letter neg read-3s-fut read-3s-fut-q 

He won’t read a letter, will he? 

Note that the occurrence of certain negative polarity markers such as 

phlao pahle, qaaoD,o thor�e ‘ever’ in the interrogative sentence also invoke 

a negative answer.

4. SYNTAX 

9. vah phlao/qaaoD,o kama krta hO? 

vah pahle/thor�e ka:m karta: h´? 

he ever work do-ptc.ms is 

Does he ever work? 

Alternative questions are formed by adding the expression ik nahIM ki 

nahĩ: ‘or not’ at the end of an interrogative yes-no question. 

10. tuma p~ ilaKaogao ik nahIM? 

tum patr likhoge ki nahĩ:? 

you letter write-3s or not 

Will you write a letter or not? 

An alternative form of this question will be: 

10a. tuma p~ ilaKaogao ik nahIM ilaKaogao? 

tum patr likhoge ki nahĩ: likhoge? 

you letter write-fut or neg write-fut 

Will you write the letter or not? 

4.3.4.2. Question-Word Questions 

Interrogative sentences with wh- question words are referred to as k- 

k-questions in Hindi because question words begin with the k- k- 

sound. Question words always occur in the second position of 

interrogative sentences. The main question words are @yaa kya: what, 

kaOna køn ‘who’, khaÐ kahã: ‘where’, kOsaa k´sa: how, @yaaoM kyõ ‘why’, iktnaa 

kitna: ‘how much’, kba kab ‘when’ and ikQar kidhar ‘in what 

direction’. The question word is always stressed. 

11. yah @yaa hO? 

yeh kya: h´? 

this what is 

What is this? 

12. maaohna khaÐ hO? 

mohan kahã: h´? 

Mohan where is 

Where is Mohan? 

226

13. tuma @yaaoM Aae? 

tum kyõ a:ye? 

you why come-2pl 

Why did you come? 

14. tuma kba AaAaogao? 

tum kab a:oge? 

you when come-2s-fut 

When will you come? 

15. vah ikQar jaaegaa? 

vah kidhar ja:yega:? 

he where go-3s-fut 

Where will he go? 

227 

4. SYNTAX 

The question words kOsaa kaisa: and iktnaa kitna: agree with the 

following or preceding noun in number and gender. They have the 

following three forms. 


Sg Pl Sg / Pl 

kOsaa k´sa: kOsao k´se kOsaI k´si: how 

iktnaa kitna: iktnao kitne iktnaI kitni: how much 

16. yah laD,ka kOsaa hO? 

yeh lar�ka: k´sa: h´? 

this boy how is 

How is this boy? 

17. yao laD,ko kOsao hOM? 

ye lar�ke k´se h´~? 

these boys how are 

How are these boys? 

18. yah GaD,I kOsaI hO? 

yeh ghar�i: k´si: h´? 

this watch-f how is 

How is this watch?

4. SYNTAX 

19. yao GaiD,yaaÐ kOsaI hOM? 

ye ghar�iyã: k´si: h´~? 

these watches how are 

How are these watches? 

20. yah pula iktnaa laMbaa hO? 

yeh pul kitna: lamba: h´? 

this bridge how much long is 

How long is this bridge? 

21. yao iktnao baccao hOM? 

ye kitne bacce h´~? 

these how many children are 

How many children are there? 

22. vah iktnaI baD,I iktaba hO? 

vah kitni: bar�i: kita:b h´? 

that how big-fs book-f is 

How big is that book? 

23. vao kuisa-yaaÐ iktnaI CaoTI hOM? 

ve kursiyã: kitni: chot�i: h´~? 

those chairs how small are 

How small are those chairs? 

The question words @yaa kya: what and kaOna køn who have the oblique 

forms iksa kis (Sg) and ikna kin (Pl) which are followed by case 

suffixes and postpositions. The oblique forms of postpositions are 

inflected for number as follows. 

Masculine/Feminine 

Sg Pl 

iksao kise iknhoM kinhẽ to what/whom 

iksa kao kis ko ikna kao kin ko to whom 

iksa sao kis se ikna sao kin se by what/whom 

iksa nao kis ne iknahaoMnao kinhõne who 

iksa ko saaqa kis ke sa:th ikna ko saaqa kin ke sa:th with whom 

iksa pr kis par ikna pr kin par on 

iksa ka kis ka: ikna ka kin ka: whose 

228

24. yah iktaba iksao/iksa kao donaI hO? 

yeh kita:b kise/kis ko deni: h´? 

this book who give-inf-f aux 

To whom is this book to be given? Or 

Who is this book to be given to? 

25. iksa laD,koo/laD,kI kao jaanaa hO? 

kis lar�ke/lar�ki: ko jana: h´? 

who-obl boy-dat/girl-dat go-Inf aux 

Which boy/girl has to go? 

26. ikna laD,kaoMoo/laDi,kyaaoM kao Aanaa hO? 

kin lar�kõ/lar�kiyõ ko a:na: h´? 

who.pl-dat boys-dat/girls-dat come-inf is 

Which boys/girls have to come? 

27. vah iksa Sahr/ikna SahraoM sao Aaegaa? 

vah kis šahar/kin šahrõ se a:yega:? 

he which-abl city-abl/cities-abl from come-3s-fut 

Which city/cities will he come from? 

28. yah iksanao /iknhaoMnao saoba Kayaa? 

yeh kisne/kinhõne seb kha:ya:? 

this who-erg-ms/-fs/-p apple ate-ms 

Who ate this apple? 

29. yah iksaka banaa hO? 

yeh kiska: bana: h´? 

this what-of made is 

What is it made of? 

30. yao iksako banao hOM? 

ye kiske bane h´~? 

these which-gen-ms made-mp are 

What are these made of? 

31. yah iksakI banaI hOM? 

ye kiski: bani: h´~? 

these which-gen-fp are 

Which are these made of? 

229 

4. SYNTAX

4. SYNTAX 

32. yah iksaka/iknaka makana hO? 

yeh kiska:/kinka: maka:n h´? 

this who-s-gen-ms/-p-gen-ms house is 

Whose house is this? 

33. yah iksa kI/ikna kI iktaba hO? 

yeh kiski:/kinki: kita:b h´? 

this who-s-gen-fs/-p-gen-fs book is 

Whose book is this? 

34. yao iksako/iknako pdo- hOM? 

ye kiske/kinke parde h´~? 

these who-s-gen-mp/-p-gen-mp curtains are 

Whose curtains are these? 

35. yao iksakI/iknakI kmaIja,oM hOM? 

ye kiski:/kinki: kami:zẽ h´~? 

these who-gen-fp shirts are 

Whose shirts are these? 

When question words are combined with postpositions they create 

adverbials like khaÐ sao kahã: se ‘in which direction’, kOsao k´se/ iksa trh 

kis tarah ‘in what manner’, and khaÐ kahã:/ khaÐ pr kahã: par 

‘wherein’. 

36. vah khaÐ jaaegaa? 

vah kaha~: ja:yega:. 

vah where go-fut 

Where will he go? 

37. vah iksa trh Aaegaa? 

vah kis tarah a:yega:. 

he what manner come-fut 

How will he come? 

38. Aap khaÐ sao jaaeÐgao? 

a:p kahã: se ja:ẽge? 

you-p which direction go-2p-fut 

Where will you go from? Or 

In which direction will you go? 

230

39. Aap kOsao AaeÐgao? 

a:p k´se a:ẽge? 

you how (manner) come-2p-fut 

How will you come? 

40. vah khaÐ (pr) baOza haogaa? 

vah kahã: (par) b´t�ha: hoga:? 

He where (at) sit-PP be-fut 

Where will he be sitting? 

231 

4. SYNTAX 

The question words are reduplicated when the expected answer 

provide a list (of more that one thing, person, event, etc.). 

Reduplication is obligatory with plural nouns. 

41. Aapnao @yaa @yaa doKa? 

a:pne kya: kya: dekha:? 

you-p-erg what what saw-2p-Pa 

What items did you see? 

42. vah khaÐ khaÐ gayaa? 

vah kahã: kahã: gaya:? 

he where where went 

Which places did he visit? 

The masculine plural forms of pronouns are used for honorific 

singular subjects as well. 

Different constituents of the main clause can be questioned as may 

be seen in sentence (43) below. 

43. Amar nao kla SaIlaa kao Apnao Gar ek kmaIja, idKa[-. 

amar ne kal ši:la: ko apne ghar ek kami:z dikha:i:. 

Amar-erg yesterday Shiela to selfs house a shirt showed-fs 

Amar showed a shirt to Shiela at his home yesterday. 

Subject 

43a. iksanao kla SaIlaa kao Apnao Gar ek kmaIja, idKa[-? 

kisne kal ši:la: ko apne ghar ek kami:z dikha:i:? 

Who showed a shirt to Shiela at his home yesterday?

4. SYNTAX 

Direct object 

43b. Amar nao kla SaIlaa kao Apnao Gar @yaa idKayaa? 

amar ne kal ši:la: ko apne ghar kya: dikha:ya:? 

What did Amar show Shiela at his home yesterday? 


43c. Amar nao iksakao kla Apnao Gar ek kmaIja, idKa[-? 

amar ne kisko kal apne ghar ek kami:z dikha:i? 

To whom did Amar show a shirt at his home yesterday? 

Time adverbial 

43d. Amar nao kba SaIlaa kao Apnao Gar ek kmaIja, idKa[-? 

amar ne kab ši:la: ko apne ghar ek kami:z dikha:i:? 

When did Amar show Shiela a shirt at his home? 

Location adverbial 

43e. Amar nao khaÐ kla SaIlaa kao ek kmaIja, idKa[-? 

amar ne kahã: kal ši:la: ko ek kami:z dikha:i:? 

Where did Amar show a new shirt to Shiela? 

It is not possible to use simple questions word for questioning a 

constituent of a verb. Usually the verb phrase @yaa ikyaa kya: kiya: ‘do 

what’ is used for transitive verbs and @yaa huAa kya: hua: ‘what 

happened’ is used for intransitive verbs. 

43f. Amar nao kla Apnao Gar @yaa ikyaa? 

amar ne kal apne ghar kya: kiya:? 

Amar-erg yesterday self-obl-home what did 

What did Amar do at his home yesterday? 

43g. Amar ko Gar kla @yaa huAa? 

amar ke ghar kal kya: hua:? 

Amar-gen home yesterday what happened 

What happened at Amars house yesterday? 

In non-equational copular interrogative sentences, all the elements 

except the verb may be questioned. In examples (44-47) the subject, 

the accompanier, locative, and time adverbial have been questioned. 

The copular verb cannot be deleted as shown in in (44a-47a). 

232

44. kaOna hO? 

køn h´? 

who is-3s 

Who is (there)? 

44a. *kaOna? 

*køn? 

45. tuma iksako saaqa hao? 

tum kiske sa:th ho? 

you who-gen with are-2s 

Who are you with? 

45a. tuma iksako saaqa? 

*tum kiske sa:th? 

46. iktaba khaÐ hO? 

kita:b kahã: h´? 

book-fs where-abl is 

Where is the book? 

46a. *iktaba khaÐ? 

*kita:b kahã:? 

47. CuT\TI kba hO? 

chut�t�i: kab h´? 

holiday when is 

When is the holiday? 

47a. *CuT\TI kba? 

*chut�t�i: kab? 

233 

4. SYNTAX 

In equational copular interrogative sentences, either the subject noun 

phrase or the predicate nominal can be questioned. The 

demonstrative pronoun used as a subject cannot be questioned. 

Consider the following examples. 

48. yah pda- hO. 

yeh parda: h´. 

it curtain is 

It is a curtain.

4. SYNTAX 

48a. yah @yaa hO? 

yeh kya: h´? 

it what is-3s 

What is it? 

48b. *@yaa pda- hO? 

*kya: parda: h´? 

49. yah iktaba hO. 

yeh kita:b h´. 

this book is 

This is a book. 

49a. yah @yaa hO? 

yeh kya: h´? 

this what is-f 

What is this? 

49b. *@yaa iktaba hO? 

*kya: kita:b h´? 

Different constituents of subordinate clauses can be questioned. 

There are two types of subordinate clauses: finite and non-finite. As 

is the case with matrix sentences, all elements of these clauses can 

be questioned. Constituents, which undergo deletion in the process 

of non-finitization, however, cannot be questioned. This supports the 

argument that the question formation rule applies after the rules for 

non-finitization of the subordinate clauses take place. 

50. (@yaa) Aapkao pta hO maaohna nao Amar kao kla 

kya: a:pko pata: h´ mohan ne amar ko kal 

Q you-dat knowledge is Mohan-erg Amar-dat yesterday 

iktaba dIÆ 

kita:b di:? 

book gave-f 

Do you know that Mohan gave a book to Amar yesterday? 

234

Subject 

50a. (@yaa) Aapkao pta hO Amar kao iksanao kla iktaba dI? 

(kya:) a:pko pata: h´ amar ko kisne kal kita:b di:? 

You know who gave a book to Amar yesterday? 

235 

4. SYNTAX 

Direct object 

50b. (@yaa) Aapkao pta hO ik maaohna nao kla Amar kao @yaa idyaa? 

(kya:) a:pko pata: h´ ki mohan ne kal amar ko kya: diya:? 

Do you know what Mohan gave to Amar yesterday? 


50c. (@yaa) Aapkao pta hO ik maaohna nao iksakao kla iktaba dI? 

(kya:)a:pko pata: h´ mohan ne kisko kal kita:b di:? 

You know to whom Mohan gave a book yesterday? 

Time adverbial 

50d. (@yaa) Aapkao pta hO ik maaohna nao kba Amar kao iktaba dI? 

(kya:) a:pko pata: h´ ki mohan ne kab amar ko kita:b di? 

You know when Mohan gave the book to Amar? 

The questioning of the constituent clauses may also involve 

questioning of the matrix clause. 

Note that no constituent of a finite relative clause can be questioned. 

51. rmaoSa sao jaao daost Aaja imalaa vah caalaak hO. 

rameš se jo dost a:j mila: vah ca:la:k h´. 

Ramesh-abl rel friend today met he clever is 

The friend who met Ramesh is clever. 

51a. *rmaoSa sao kaOna daost Aaja imalaa caalaak hO? 

*rameš ka: køn dost a:j mila: ca:la:k h´? 

Constituents of non-finite subordinate clauses which comprise 

infinitival and participial phrases can be questioned. 

52. vah Kanaa Kato hue AK,baar pZ, rha qaa. 

vah kha:na: kha:te hue akhba:r par�h raha: tha:. 

he food eating-part newspaper read-prog was 

He was reading a newspaper while eating his meal.

4. SYNTAX 

Direct object 

52a. vah kyaa Kato hue AK,baar pZ, rha qaa? 

vah kya: kha:te hue akhba:r par�h raha: tha:? 

What was he eating while reading a newspaper? 

53. vah caaya pIto hue baccao kao pZ,a rha qaa. 

vah ca:y pi:te hue bacce ko par�ha: raha: tha:. 

he tea drinking-part child-dat teach-prog was 

He was teaching the child while drinking his tea? 


53a. vah iksa kao caaya pIto hue pZa, rha qaa? 

vah kis ko ca:y pi:te hue par�ha: raha: tha:? 

Who was he teaching while drinking his tea? 

54. vah raja ko saaqa baatoM krto hue jaa rha qaa. 

vah ra:j ke sa:th ba:tẽ karte hue ja: raha: tha:. 

he Raj with talk do-ptc go-prog was 

He was talking to Raj while going. 

Object of a postposition 

54a. vah iksako saaqa baatoM krto hue jaa rha qaa? 

vah kiske sa:th ba:tẽ karte hue ja: raha: tha:? 

Who was he talking to while going? 

The subject of the subordinate clauses undergoes deletion in 

sentences (52a-54a) because it is co-referential to the subject of the 

matrix sentence. All the constituents of gerundive and infinitival 

clause can be questioned. 

55. vah @yaa krnao idllaI gayaa? 

vah kya: karne dilli: gaya:? 

he what do-inf-obl Delhi went 

Why did he go to Delhi? 

56. maasTr nao laD,ko kao p~ ilaKnao ko ilae kha. 

ma:st�ar ne lar�ke ko patr likhne ke liye kaha:. 

teacher-erg student-dat letter write-inf-obl for told 

The teacher asked the student to write a letter? 

236

56a. maasTr nao laD,ko kao @yaa krnao ko ilae kha? 

ma:st�ar ne lar�ke ko kya: karne ke liye kaha:? 

What did the teacher ask his student to do? 

56b. maasTr nao laD,ko kao @yaa ilaKnao ko ilae kha? 

ma:st�ar ne lar�ke ko kya: likhne ke liye kaha:? 

What did the father ask his son to write? 

237 

4. SYNTAX 

Different constituents of a noun phrase can be questioned. A noun 

phrase may be made up of any of the following: (a) demonstrative 

pronoun, (b) quantifier, (c) intensifier, (d) descriptive adjective, (e) 

classifier/specifier, (f) possessive adjective, (g) possessor, (h) 

particle and a noun. Nouns may also modify relative clauses and 

objects of comparison. 

Demonstrative pronoun 

57a. yah CaoTI laD,kI Gar jaaegaI. 

yeh chot�i: lar�ki: ghar ja:yegi:. 

this little girl home go-3s-fut 

This little girl will go home. 

57b. kaOna saI CaoTI laD,kI Gar jaaegaI? 

køn si: chot�i: lar�ki: ghar ja:yegi:? 

Which little girl will go home? 

Quantifier (cardinal number) 

58a. maaohna ko tIna daost kla AaeÐgao. 

mohan ke ti:n dost kal a:yẽge. 

Mohan-gen three friends tomorrow come-3p-fut 

Mohans three friends will come tomorrow. 

58b. maaohna ko tIna daost kla AaeÐgao? 

mohan ke kitne dost kal a:yẽge? 

How many friends of Mohan will come tomorrow? 

Quantifier (ordinal number) 

59a. ]saka tIsara baoTa idllaI maoM hO. 

uska: ti:sra: bet�a: dilli: mẽ h´. 

he-gen third son Delhi in is 

His third son is in Delhi.

4. SYNTAX 

59b. ]saka kaOna saa baoTa idllaI maoM hO? 

uska: køn sa: bet�a: dilli: mẽ h´? 

Which son of his is in Delhi? 

Quantifier (proportional number) 

60a. vah hmaoSaa caaOgaunaa Kca- krta hO. 

vah hameša: c�guna: kharc karta: h´. 

he always four times expenditure do-pr is 

He always incurs four times the expenses of everyone else. 

60b. vah iktnao gaunaa Kca- krta hO? 

vah kitne guna: kharc karta: h´? 

How many times the expenditure of everyone else does he 

incur? 

Descriptive adjective 

61a. ptlaa laD,ka GaaoD,o pr nahIM caZ, sakta. 

patla: lar�ka: ghor�e par nahĩ: car�h sakta:. 

slim boy horse on neg ride can-ptc 

The slim boy cannot ride the horse. 

61b. kaOna saI laD,kI kar nahIM calaa saktI? 

køn si: lar�ki: ka:r nahĩ: cala: sakti:? 

Which girl cannot drive the car? 

Intensifier 

62a. rmaa bahut hI laMbaI laD,kI hO. 

rama: bahut hi: lambi: lar�ki: h´. 

Rama very (intensifier) tall-fs girl is 

Rama is a very tall girl. 

62b. rmaa iktnaI laMbaI laD,kI hO? 

rama: kitni: lambi: lar�ki: h´? 

How tall a girl is Rama? 

Possessive adjective 

63a. maaohna ka kalaoja idllaI maoM hO. 

mohan ka: ka:lej dilli: mẽ h´. 

Mohan-gen college is Delhi-loc is in 

Mohan’s college is in Delhi. 

238

63b. iksaka kalaoja idllaI maoM hO? 

kiska: ka:lej dilli: mẽ h´? 

Whose college is in Delhi? 

Specifier/classifier 

64a. maaohna ka baD,a vaalaa baoTa baImaar hO. 

mohan ka: bar�a: va:la: bet�a: bi:ma:r h´. 

Mohan-gen elder (specifier) son sick is 

Mohan’s elder son is sick. 

64b. maaohna ka kaOna saa baoTa baImaar hO? 

mohan ka: køn sa: bet�a: bi:ma:r h´? 

Which of Mohans sons is sick? 

Particles hI hi: and BaI bhi: cannot be questioned. 

65a. tuma hI jaaAao. 

tum hi: ja:o. 

you-par go-3s-fut 

Only you go. 

65b. *kaOna hI jaaAao. 

*køn hi: ja:o. 

66. vah BaI Aapko saaqa Aaegaa. 

vah bhi: a:pke sa:th a:ega:. 

he-part you-gen with come-3s-fut 

Hell also come with you. 

66a. *kaOna BaI Aapko saaqa Aaegaa. 

*køn bhi: a:pke sa:th a:ega:. 

A comparative phrase can also modify a noun phrase. 

Object of comparison 

67a. maOMnao rjanaI sao laMbaI laD,kI doKI. 

m´~ne rajini se lambi: lar�ki: dekhi:. 

I-erg Rajni-abl than tall-fs girl saw-fs 

I saw a girl taller than Rajni. 

239 

4. SYNTAX

4. SYNTAX 

67b. maOMnao iksasao laMbaI laD,kI doKI. 

m´~ne kis-se lambi: lar�ki: dekhi:? 

I-erg who-abl tall girl saw-fut 

I saw a girl taller than whom? 

There are two types of relative clauses: non-finite and finite. No 

constituent of a finite relative clause can be questioned. Any element 

of a non-finite relative clause, except the subject, can be questioned. 

68. yah baccaaoM kao pOsao donao vaalaa hO. 

yeh baccõ ko p´se dene va:la: h´. 

he children-dat money give-inf aux 

He is going to give money to the children. 

Direct object of a non-finite relative clause 

68a. yah baccaaoM kao @yaa donao vaalaa hO? 

yeh baccõ ko kya: dene va:la: h´? 

What is he going to give to the children? 

Indirect object of a non-finite relative clause 

68b. yah iknakao pOsao donao vaalaa hO? 

yeh kinko p´se dene va:la: h´? 

Who he is going to give money to? 

Elements of a postpositional phrase can also be questioned. A 

postpositional phrase consists of a head noun followed by a 

postposition. The postposition assigns the case to the head noun. The 

noun phrase elements of a postpositional phrase can be questioned. 

The noun phrase, which is followed by a postposition, is in the 

oblique case. 

69. [sa maoja, pr kakja, hO. 

is mez par ka:kaz h´. 

this-obl table on paper is 

There is paper on this table. 

69a. iksa maoja, pr kakja, hO? 

kis mez par ka:kaz h´? 

Which table is the paper on? 

240

69b. kakja, iksa pr hO? 

ka:kaz kis par h´? 

What is the paper (placed) on? 

70. maaohna ko Gar ko pasa dukana hO. 

mohan ke ghar ke pa:s duka:n h´. 

Mohan-poss house near shop is 

There is a shop near Mohans house. 

70a. iksako Gar ko pasa dukana hO? 

kiske ghar ke pa:s duka:n h´? 

Near whose house is there a shop? 

70b. iksako pasa dukana hO? 

kiske pa:s duka:n h´? 

Near which place is a shop? 

241 

4. SYNTAX 

It is only the noun phrase elements of a postpositional phrase which 

can be questioned, not the postpositions. 

Elements of a coordinate structure can be questioned. The 

coordinate structures are formed either by juxtaposition or by the use 

of a conjunction. 

Juxtaposition 

71. SaIlaa icaT\zI ilaKnao ko ilae kakja, klama laa[-. 

ši:la: cit�t�hi: likhne ke liye ka:kaz kalam la:i:. 

Shiela letter write-inf for paper pen brought 

Shiela brought paper and pen for writing a letter. 

71a. SaIlaa kakja, klama @yaa ilaKnao ko ilae laa[-? 

ši:la: ka:kaz kalam kya: likhne ke liye la:i:? 

71b. SaIlaa icaT\zI ilaKnao ko ilae @yaa laa[-? 

ši:la: cit�t�hi: likhne ke liye kya: la:i:? 

Conjunction 

72. maaohna AaOr AjaIt idllaI gae. 

mohan �r aji:t dilli: gae. 

Mohan and Ajit Delhi went 

Mohan and Ajit went to Delhi.

4. SYNTAX 

72a. maaohna AaOr kaOna gae? 

mohan �r k�n gae? 

Mohan and who went? (Mohan went with whom?) 

72b. *kaOna AaOr AjaIt idllaI gae? 

*køn ør aji:t dilli: gae? 

Who and Ajit went to Delhi? 

72c. kaOna kaOna idllaI gae? 

køn køn dilli: gae? 

Who (are the ones who) went to Delhi? 

73. SaaIlaa AaOr maaohna nao Apnaa Apnaa kama samaaPt ikyaa. 

ši:la: ør mohan ne apna: ka:m sama:pt kiya:. 

Shiela and Mohan-erg self’s work finish did 

Shiela and Mohan finished their work. 

73a. SaaIlaa AaOr iksanao Apnaa kama samaaPt ikyaa? 

ši:la: �r kisne apna: apna: ka:m sama:pt kiya:? 

Shiela and who finished their work? 

73b. *iksanao AaOr SaIlaa nao Apnaa kama samaaPt ikyaa? 

*kisne ør ši:la: ne apna: ka:m sama:pt kiya:? 

Who and Shiela finished their work? 

73c. iksa iksa nao kama samaaPt ikyaa? 

kis kis ne ka:m sama:pt kiya:? 

Who (are the ones who) finished their work? 

74. ]sanao icaT\zI ilaKI AaOr iktaba pZ,I. 

usne cit�t�hi: likhi: ør kita:b par�hi:. 

he-erg letter wrote-fs and book read-fs 

He wrote a letter and read a book. 

74a. *]sanao icaT\zI ilaKI AaOr @yaa pZ,I? 

*usne cit�t�hi: likhi: ør kya: par�hi:? 

74b. *]sanao @yaa ilaKI AaOr iktaba pZ,I? 

*usne kya: likhi: ør kita:b par�hi:? 

242

74c. ]sanao icaT\zI ilaKI AaOr @yaa ikyaa? 

usne cit�t�hi: likhi: ør kya: kiya:? 

He wrote a letter and what else did he do? 

74d. ]sanao @yaa @yaa ikyaa? 

usne kya: kya: kiya:? 

What are the things he did? 

75. ]sanao raoTI Ka[- AaOr dUQa ipyaa. 

usne rot�i: kha:i: ør du:dh piya:. 

He-erg bread ate-fs and milk drank-ms 

He ate bread and drank milk. 

75a. ]sanao raoTI Ka[- AaOr @yaa ipyaa? 

usne rot�i: kha:i: ør kya: piya:? 

He ate bread and what did he drink? 

75b. *]sanao @yaa Kayaa AaOr dUQa ipyaa? 

usne kya: kha:ya: ør du:dh piya:? 

243 

4. SYNTAX 

No part of the juxtaposition phrase can be questioned. The 

questioning of the first element of a coordinate noun phrase results 

in the formation of ill-formed sentences as in (73b) and (75b). 

Similarly, in the coordinate verb phrases, the object of the first verb 

phrase cannot be questioned. 

There is no constraint on the number of constituents of a sentence 

that can be questioned at one time. The multiple question-word 

questions are normally used at the end of the narration of a story, 

especially a folk tale, for checking the comprehension of the 

listeners. 

76. maaohna kla Amar ko saaqa baaga doKnao gayaa. 

mohan kal amar ke sa:th ba:g dekhne gaya:. 

Mohan yesterday Amar with garden see-inf-obl went 

Mohan went to see the garden with Amar yesterday. 

76a. maaohna kla @yaa doKnao gayaa Amar ko saaqa? 

mohan kal kya: dekhne gaya: amar ke sa:th? 

What did Mohan go to see with Amar yesterday?

4. SYNTAX 

76b. maaohna kba @yaa doKnao gayaa Amar ko saaqa? 

mohan kab kya: dekhne gaya: amar ke sa:th? 

What did Mohan go to see with Amar and when? 

76c. maaohna iksako saaqa @yaa doKnao kla gayaa? 

mohan kiske sa:th kya: dekhne kal gaya:? 

Who did Mohan go with to see what yesterday? 

76d. maaohna kba iksako saaqa @yaa doKnao gayaa? 

mohan kab kiske sa:th kya: dekhne gaya:? 

When did Mohan go with whom (and) for seeing what? 

Question-words are reduplicated when the expected answer is a 

listing of persons, items, or events. Multi-question-word questions 

are used when information about different things is wanted all at the 

same time in one answer. 

77. kaOna kaOna kba kba ikna ikna ko pasa jaata hO? 

køn køn kab kab kin kin ke pa:s ja:ta: h´? 

who when whom near go-ptc is 

Who (which individual) goes with whom (which individual) 

where/what places (and) when? 

This sentence can be used by an employer seeking information 

regarding his/her employees. Question-words which are not used in 

plural cannot be reduplicated. For example, the question word kyõ 

why cannot be used in its reduplicated form. 

78. *kaOna kaOna kba kba @yaaoM @yaaoM jaata hO? 

*køn køn kab kab kyõ kyõ ja:ta: h´? 

The constituents of both the main and subordinate clauses can be 

questioned at the same time and the question words can be 

reduplicated. 

79. iksakI raya maoM kaOna kaOna khaÐ khaÐ iksa iksa ko pasa jaata hO? 

kiski: ra:y mẽ køn køn kahã: kahã: kis kis ke pa:s ja:ta: h´. 

who-obl opinion in who where who-obl near go-ptc is 

Who thinks that who (which individual) goes (near) to whom 

(which individual) and where (what place)? 

244

245 

4. SYNTAX 

There is a flexibility as far as the placement of the questioned 

constituent is concerned. The movement of the questioned elements 

is related to their focus. Consider the following examples: 

80. rmaoSa kba Aaegaa? 

rameš kab a:yega:? 

Ramesh when come-3s-fut 

When will Ramesh come? 

80a. kba Aaegaa rmaoSa? 

kab a:yega: rameš? 

80b. rmaoSa Aaegaa kba? 

rameš a:yega: kab? 

80c. Aaegaa kba rmaoSa? 

a:yega: kab rameš? 

81. sarlaa khaÐ jaaegaI? 

sarla: kahã: ja:yegi? 

Sarla where go-fs 

Where will Sarla go? 

81a. sarlaa jaaegaI khaÐ? 

sarla: ja:yegi: kahã:? 

81b. khaÐ jaaegaI sarlaa? 

kahã: ja:yegi: sarla:? 

81c. jaaegaI khaÐ sarlaa? 

ja:yegi: kahã: sarla:? 

The question-word in the sentence initial position carries a stronger 

focus than when it is in the second position. In other words, it is 

marked by more stress in the sentence initial position than in other 

positions. Interrogative sentences (80) and (81) are in natural word 

order. In (80a) and (81a), the subject is stressed, in (80b) and (81b) 

the question words are stressed, and in (80c) and (81c) the verb is 

stressed. The interrogative sentences (80c) and (81c) do not 

necessarily invoke an answer.

4. SYNTAX 

Usually the question-word @yaaoM kyõ why occurs in the pre-verbal 

position. It follows the verb within the sentence. The movement of 

this question- word influences the meaning of the sentence. The 

placement of this question word in the post-verbal position is 

possible, but it does not necessarily invoke an answer. 

82. Aapnao ]sao iktaba @yaaoM dI? 

a:pne use kita:b kyõ di:? 

you-erg book he-dat why gave? 

Why did you give him a book? 

82a. iktaba @yaaoM dI? 

kita:b kyõ di:? 

82b. @yaaoM iktaba dI? 

kyõ di: kita:b? 

82c. dI iktaba @yaaoM? 

di: kyõ kita:b? 

In (82a) there is stress on the direct object; in (82b) the stress is on 

the question-word; and in (82c) the stress is on the verb and the 

indirect object. 

4.3.4.3. Echo-Questions 

There are two types of echo-questions: (a) yes-no echo-questions, 

and (b) question-word echo-questions. 

4.3.4.3.1. Yes-No Echo-Questions 

A yes-no echo-question usually repeats one or more elements of the 

statement uttered by the previous speaker. The element/elements 

chosen for clarification is/are retained with a rising intonation and 

other elements are deleted. For example, the response to a statement 

made in (83) can be in different forms (83a-83e) in yes-no echoquestions. 

246

83. maaohna kla baaja,ar jaaegaa. 

mohan kal ba:za:r ja:yega: 

Mohan tomorrow market go-3s-fut 

Mohan will go to market tomorrow. 

83a. maaohna kla baaja,ar jaaegaa? 

mohan kal ba:za:r ja:yega:? 

Will Mohan go to market tomorrow? 

83b. baaja,ar jaaegaa? 

ba:za:r ja:yega:? 

Will (Mohan) go to market? 

83c. maaohna kla jaaegaa? 

mohan kal ja:yega:? 

Will Mohan go tomorrow? 

83d. maaohna jaaegaa? 

mohan ja:yega:? 

Will Mohan go (to the market tomorrow)? 

83e. maaohna? 

mohan? 

(Will) Mohan (go to market tomorrow)? 

4. SYNTAX 

The yes-no echo-questions may be preceded by the term accha: ‘it is 

so’. 

84. vah kla idllaI sao Aaegaa? 

vah kal dilli: se a:yega:. 

he tomorrow Delhi-abl from come-fut 

He will come from Delhi tomorrow. 

84a. AcCa¸ vah kla idllaI sao Aaegaa? 

accha:, vah kal dilli: se a:yega:? 

Is it so that he’ll come from Delhi tomorrow? 

Using the same intonational patterns as in yes-no questions echoing 

a statement, yes-no question echo-questions are formed either by 

asking the previous speaker whether he/she asked the question or by 

replacing the constituent under focus. Yes-no questions are 

prompted by the previous speakers question and they do not merely 

247

4. SYNTAX 

seek clarification of the previous speakers statement. 

85. Aapnao iktaba pZ,I? 

a:pne kita:b par�hi:? 

you-erg book read-fs-pst book 

Did you read the book? 

85a. maOMMnao iktaba pZ,I? 

m´~ne kita:b par�hi:? 

Did I read the book? 

85b. Aap pUC rho hOM ik maOMnao iktaba pZ,I? 

a:p pu:ch rahe h´~ (ki) m´~ne kita:b par�hi:? 

You are asking if I read the book? 

The focused constituent receives stress if the speaker chooses to 

retain unfocused elements. 

4.3.4.3.2. Question-Word Echo-Questions 

A question-word may also be used in echo questions and elements 

of the statement may be repeated depending on the clarification 

sought. 

86. vah p~ ilaK rha hO. 

vah patr likh raha: h´. 

he letter write-pr is 

He is writing a letter. 

86a. @yaa ilaK rha hO? 

kya: likh raha: h´? 

What is he writing? 

86b. @yaa? 

kya:? 

What (is he writing)? 

86c. p~. 

patr 

(He is writing a) letter. 

248

249 

4. SYNTAX 

Question-word echo-questions are uttered with a slightly rising 

intonation at the end of the phrase or sentence in yes-no questions. It 

is not so in question-word questions. The questioner may also use 

the expected answer in his/her question with a rising intonation. 

86d. @yaa ilaK rha hO, p~? 

kya: likh raha: h´, patr? 

What is he writing, a letter? 

86e. haÐ haÐ, p~. 

hã: hã:, patr. 

Yes, a letter. 

In (86d), a pause (indicated by a comma) separates the two rising 

intonation patterns. A statement containing more than one 

constituent permits the use of more than one echo-question. 

87. haÐ, ]sanao kla iktaba pZ,I. 

hã:, usne kal kita:b par�hi:. 

yes he-erg yesterday book read-fs 

Yes, he read a book yesterday. 

87a. iksanao (kla) iktaba pZ,I. 

kisne (kal kita:b) par�hi:? 

Who read (a book yesterday)? 

87b. iksanao @yaa pZ,I? 

kisne kya: par�hi:? 

Who read what? 

87c. iksanao @yaa ikyaa? 

kisne kya: kiya:? 

Who did what? 

Question-word echo-questions follow the same pattern. 

88. Aap @yaa kr rho hOM? 

a:p kya: kar rahe h´~? 

you what are-2s doing 

What are you doing?

4. SYNTAX 

88a. maOM @yaa kr rha hUÐ? 

m´~ kya: kar raha: hũ:? 

I what am-ms doing 

What am I doing? 

All elements in a sentence, including the verb and any possible 

combination thereof, can be questioned. 

89. maOM pUC rha hUÐ iksanao iksaoo AaOr kba kmaIja, dI? 

m´~ pu:ch raha: hũ: kisne kisko ør kab kami:z di:? 

I ask-pr am who-erg who-dat and when shirt gave 

Im asking you who gave a shirt to whom and when? 

89a. iksanao iksaoo AaOr kba kmaIja, dI? 

kisne kise kab kami:z di:? 

Who gave a shirt to whom and when? 

89b. iksanao iksaoo kba @yaa idyaa? 

kisne kise kab kya: diya:? 

Who gave what to whom and when? 

In (89b), the verb is echo-questioned. 

4.3.4.4. Answers 

Not all types of answers can be formally distinguished from other 

declarative statements. Answers to yes-no questions require the use 

of the agreement and disagreement markers haÐ hã ‘yes’ and nahIMM nahĩ: 

‘no’ respectively in the sentence initial position, which may be 

followed with certain honorific markers. Answers to question-word 

questions involve the stating of the constituent required by the 

question. The rest of the elements of the sentence are usually 

deleted. 

90. vah kba Aagara jaaegaa? 

vah kab a:gra: ja:yega:? 

When will he go to Agra? 

90a. prsaaoM jaaegaa. 

parsõ ja:yega:. 

(He) will go day after tomorrow. 

250

90b. prsaaoM. 

parsõ. 

Day after tomorrow. 

251 

4. SYNTAX 

The minimum answers to a yes-no question include haÐ hã: ‘yes’, nahIMM 

nahĩ: ‘no’ Saayad ša:yad ‘perhaps’, maalaUma ma:lu:m/ pta nahIMM pata: nahĩ: ‘it 

is not known’. The short answers may optionally be followed by 

polite or honorific particles or terms. The polite particle jaI ji: can be 

added to both positive and negative short answers. It usually 

precedes the answers. In speech under the influence of Punjabi, it 

follows the affirmative or negative short answers. It is added to 

indicate politeness for any questioner older or younger than the 

respondent. Other formal honorific markers used are ijanaaba jina:b or 

saahba sa:hab ‘sir/madam’ for addressing people of all communities. 

The English honorific terms, sir and madam are also frequently used 

by the educated community. 

91. vah Aaja Aaegaa Aagara sao? 

vah a:j a:yega a:gra: se? 

he come-fut today Agra-abl from 

Will he come from Agra today? 

91a. haÐ /jaI haÐ /haÐ ijanaaba/ haÐ saahba/ haÐ sar/ haÐ maOD,ma 

hã:/ji: hã:/hã: jina:b/hã: sa:hab/hã: sar/ hã: m´d�am 

Yes/ yes sir/madam. 

91b. nahIM / jaI nahIM /nahIM ijanaaba/ nahIM saahba/ nahIM sar/ nahIM maOD,ma 

nahĩ:/ji: nahĩ:/nahĩ: jina:b/nahĩ: sa:hab/nahĩ: sar/ 

nahĩ: m´d�am 

No/no sir/madam. 

91c. Saayad. 

ša:yad. 

Perhaps. 

91d. @yaa maalaUma /@yaa ptaa/ jaI @yaa pta? 

kya: ma:lu:m/kya: pata:/ ji: kya: pata:? 

Who knows?

4. SYNTAX 

91e. pta nahIM /maalaUma nahIM / jaI maalaUma nahIM . 

pata: nahĩ: /ma:lu:m nahĩ:/ ji: ma:lu:m nahĩ:. 

It is not known. 

91f. pta nahIM /maalaUma nahIM. 

pata:/ma:lu:m nahĩ:. 

I don’t know. 

The honorific terms ijanaaba jina:b and saahba sa:hab can also be added in 

the sentence initial position. 

91dd. ijanaaba / saahba @yaa pta? 

jina:b/sa:hab kya: pata:? 

Sir, who knows? 

91ee. ijanaaba / saahba @yaa pta? 

jina:b/sa:hab kya: pata:? 

Sir, it is not known. 

91ff. ijanaaba / saahba pta/maalaUma nahIM. 

jina:b/sa:hab pata:/ma:lu:m nahĩ:. 

Sir, I don’t know. 

The agreement or affirmative response is sometimes indicated 

merely by using the honorific terms ijanaaba jina:b and saahba sa:hab as in 

the following examples: 

92. vah caalaak nahIM hO? 

vah ca:la:k nahĩ: h´? 

he clever neg-Q is 

Isn’t he clever? 

92a. jaI /jaI hO/ haÐ¸ vah caalaak nahIM hO? 

ji:/ ji: h´/ hã:, jina:b/hã: sa:hab h´. 

Yes, he is. 

As shown above, answers to yes-no questions may be yes, or no, or 

other response terms or expressions. The positive and negative 

response particles haÐ hã: yes and nahIM anahĩ: no can be reduplicated for 

252

253 

4. SYNTAX 

emphasis. They may be followed by certain expressions for greater 

emphasis. 

93. Aap maora yah kama kroMgao? 

a:p mera: yeh ka:m karẽge? 

you my this work-ms do fut-q 

Will you do this work for me? 

93a. haÐ haÐ, ja,$r/ AvaSya. 

hã: hã:, zaru:r/avašya. 

yes yes definitely. 

Yes, I’ll do it, definitely. 

93b. haÐ haÐ, @yaaoM nahIM? 

hã: hã:, kyõ nahĩ:? 

yes yes why not 

Yes, why not? 

94. Aap Aagara nahIM AaeÐgao? 

a:p a:gra: nahĩ: a:yẽge? 

you Agra neg come-2p-fut 

Won’t you come to Agra? 

94a. nahIM nahIMM, ibalkula nahIM. 

nahĩ: nahĩ:, bilkul nahĩ: 

no no absolutely not 

No, not at all. 

The expression ibalkula bilkul is followed by the negative marker. It is 

to be noted that affirmative and negative particles only are 

reduplicated, not other response terms and expressions. 

94b. *nahIM (nahIM), Saayad Saayad nahIM. 

*nahĩ: (nahĩ:) ša:yad ša:yad nahĩ:. 

94c. *nahIM (nahIM), @yaa pta @yaa pta. 

*nahĩ: (nahĩ:) kya: pata:, kya: pata: 

Answers to positive and negative leading questions are determined 

by the proposition underlying the question and not by the tag 

question.

4. SYNTAX 

95. Aap yah kama kroMgao, kroMgao naa? 

a:p yah ka:m karẽgẽ, karẽge na:? 

you this work do-fut, do-fut neg-q 

You will do this work, won’t you? 

95a. haÐ¸ k$Ðgaa. 

hã:, karũ:ga:. 

yes do-1s-fut 

Yes, I’ll do it. 

96. Aap yah kama nahIM kroMgao, kroMgao? 

a:p yah ka:m nahĩ: karẽge, karẽge? 

You won’t do this work, will you? 

96a. nahIM (maOM nahIM k$Ðgaa). 

nahĩ: (m´~ nahĩ: karũ:ga). 

No (I will not do it). 

4.3.5. Imperatives 

Imperative sentences are marked for number, gender, person, and 

degree of politeness. There are three types of imperative 

constructions: (a) unmarked or true imperatives, (b) prohibitive 

imperatives and (c) obligative imperatives. 

4.3.5.1. Unmarked or True Imperatives 

The unmarked imperative takes the second person subjects tU tu: 

‘you’ (non honorific intimate singular), tuma tum ‘you’ (nonhonorific/plural), 

and Aap a:p ‘you’ (honorific plural/singular). 

Notice that the honorific plural and the honorific singular forms are 

the same. The singular imperative consists of the verbal stem. 

Whereas the singular non-honorific form remains unchanged, the 

suffix -Aao -o is added to derive the plural non-honorific forms and 

the suffix – [e -iye is added to derive the singular/plural honorific 

forms. If the verb stems end in the vowels [- /i:/ or e /e/, the suffix – [ijae 

-i:jiye is added to the honorific singular and plural forms. The 

stem final vowels [- /i:/ and e /e/ are dropped before the imperative 

suffixes or the plural non-honorific -Aao -o and singular/plural 

honorific suffix – [-ijae -i:jiye are added. 

254

1. 

Sg non hon Pl non-hon Pl/hon 

(tU tu:) (tuma tum) (Aap a:p) 

pZ, pZ,ao piZe, 

par�h read par�ho par�hiye Please read. 

ilaK ilaKao ilaiKe 

likh write likho likhiye Please write. 

laa laaAao laa[e 

la: bring la:o la:iye Please bring. 

Ka KaAao Ka[e 

kha: eat kha:o kha:iye Please eat. 

pI ipAao pIijae 

pi: drink piyo pi:jiye Please drink. 

lao laao laIijae 

le take lo li:jiye Please take. 

255 

4. SYNTAX 

The polite markers jaI ji:, saahba sa:hab, and ijanaaba jina:b can be added 

to the honorific imperative forms. 

1a. Polite pl./hon. sg. 

piZe jaI par�hiye ji:/ saahba sa:hab/ ijanaaba jina:b Please read. 

ilaiKe jaI likhiye ji:/ saahba sa:hab/ ijanaaba jina:b Please write. 

laa[e jaI la:iye ji:/ saahba sa:hab/ ijanaaba jina:b Please bring. 

Ka[e jaI kha:iye ji:/ saahba sa:hab/ ijanaaba jina:b Please eat. 

pIijae jaI pi:jiye ji:/ saahba sa:hab/ ijanaaba jina:b Please drink. 

laIijae jaI li:jiye ji:/ saahba sa:hab/ ijanaaba jina:b Please take. 

With an object, the order will be as follows: 

1b. Aap iktaba piZe. 

a:p kita:b par�hiye. 

you book read-pl 

Please read the book. 

4.3.5.2. Prohibitive Imperatives 

Prohibitive imperatives are formed by adding the negative particle 

mat don’t in the pre verbal position.

4. SYNTAX 

2. iktaba pZ/pZ,ao/ piZ,e. 

kita:b par�h / par�ho / par�hiye. 

Read a book. 

2a. iktaba mat pZ/pZ,ao/ piZ,e. 

kita:b mat par�h / par�ho/ par�hiye. 

Don’t read a book. 

3. p~ ilaK/ilaKaoo/ ilaiKe. 

patr likh/likho/likhiye. 

Write a letter. 

3a. p~ mat ilaK/ilaKaoo/ ilaiKe. 

patr mat likh/likho/likhiye. 

Don’t write a letter. 

Prohibitive imperatives can also be formed by using the verb form 

manaa mana:/ vaija-t haonaa varjit hona: to be prohibitive as in (4-4a). 

4. Saraba pInaa manaa /vaija-t hO. 

šara:b pi:na: mana:/varjit h´. 

liquor drink-Inf prohibited is 

Drinking (of liquor) is prohibited. 

4a. isagaroT pInaa manaa hO. 

sigret� pi:na: mana: h´. 

cigarette smoke-inf prohibited is 

Smoking is prohibited. 

Prohibitive imperatives are also constructed from expressions like 

K,bardar xabarda:r/saavaQaana sa:vadha:n ‘beware’. 

5. K,bardar / saavaQaana dor sao na Aanaa. 

xabarda:r/sa:vadha:n der se na a:na:. 

beware late-abl neg come-inf 

Beware, don’t come late. 

(You better not come late.) 

The expressions K,bardar xabarda:r/ saavaQaana sa:vadha:n are followed by 

conditional clauses. 

256

4.3.5.3. Degrees of Imperatives 

257 

4. SYNTAX 

The unmarked ordinary imperative is stronger than the polite 

imperative. The obligatives of compulsion are stronger than the 

obligatives of prescription and the polite imperatives. Certain 

devices are used to strengthen or weaken the force of the imperative. 

Intonation and tone play an important role in the degree of the 

imperative. A soft tone of persuasion weakens and a hard 

authoritative tone strengthens the degree of the imperative. 

Certain lexical items or phrases, such as kRpyaa krapaya: kindly kRpa 

kripa:/ maohrbaanaI krko meharba:ni: karke ‘after being kind’, and Bagavaana 

saavaQaana Kuda ko ilae bhagva:n/xuda: ke liye ‘for God’s sake’ are added to 

imperative sentences to add politeness. They weaken the imperative. 

6. kRpyaa Gar jaa[e. 

krapaya: ghar ja:yiye. 

kindly home go-pol-fut 

Kindly go home. 

7. kRpa / maohrbaanaI krko pOsao dIijae. 

krapa:/meharba:ni: karke p´se di:jiye. 

kindness do-cp money give-pol-fut 

Kindly give money. 

8. Bagavaana ko ilae samaya barbaad mat kIijae. 

bhagva:n ke liye samay barba:d mat ki:jiye. 

God-abl sake/for time waste neg do-pol-fut 

For Gods sake, don’t waste time. 

The vocative forms may also be used in the sentence initial position 

to strengthen and weaken the degree of imperative. The vocative 

forms are as follows. 


Sg Pl Sg Pl 

Aao o Aao o Aao o Aao o 

Aro are Aro are ArI ari: Aro are

4. SYNTAX 

9. Aro¸ drvaaja,a baMd krao. 

are darva:za: band karo. 

hey door do-2s-fut close-2s-imp 

Hey, close the door. 

9a. Aro¸ maorI baat tao sauinae. 

are, meri: ba:t to suniye. 

O, my talk emp listen-2p-imp 

Hey, listen to me. 

The vocative address forms may be followed by kinship terms like 

Baa[-bha:i: ‘brother’, yaar ya:r/daost dost/ima~ mitr ‘friend’, Pyaaro pya:re ‘dear 

one’ biahna bahin ‘sister’, and maa[- ma:i: ‘mother’. 

10. Aro Baa[-ÀyaarÀdaostÀima~ÀPyaaro dUQa laaAao. 

are bha:i:/ya:r/dost/mitr/pya:re du:dh la:o. 

hey brother/friend/dear one milk bring-2s-imp 

Hey brother/friend/dear one, bring the milk. 

10a. ArI baihna¸ Apnaa kama kr. 

ari: bahan, apna: ka:m kar. 

hey-f sister selfs work do-2s-imp 

Hey sister, do your work. 

10b. ho Baa[- saahba yah AK,baar piZ,e. 

he bha:i: sa:hab yah akhba:r par�hiye. 

oh-hon brother hon this newspaper read-pol 

Oh brother, please read this newspaper. 

The vocatives may also be followed by derogative terms like pagala 

pa:gal ‘mad’, abusive terms like saalao sa:le ‘brother-in-law’, and sausaro 

susre ‘father-in-law’ or other derogative expressions of address. The 

use of such derogative terms and abusive kinship terms strengthen 

the imperative. 

11. Aro saalao¸ @yaa baaolata hOÆ 

are sa:le, kya: bolta: h´? 

hey-mas brother-in-law what say-ptc be 

Hey (my) brother-in-law, what are you saying? 

258

11a. Aao pagala¸ yahaÐ AaAao. 

o pa:gal, yahã: a:o 

hey mad person here come-2s-imp 

O mad one, come here. 

259 

4. SYNTAX 

The use of reduplicated forms of imperatives reinforces the impolite 

force. 

12. jaa jaa¸ sauna ilayaa. 

ja: ja:, sun liya:. 

go go listened 

Go, I have listened. 

Yes-no positive and negative questions in the future tense may also 

convey the force of imperative form. 

13. ³Aap´tsvaIr doMgaoÆ 

(a:p) tasvi:r dẽge? 

you picture give-fut-q 

Would you give the picture? 

13a. Aap doMgao @yaa tsvaIrÆ 

a:p dẽge kya: tasvi:r? 

you give-fut-q picture 

13b. tsvaIr doMgao @yaaÆ 

tasvi:r dẽge kya:? 

Would you give (me) the picture? 

Performative verbs such as inavaodna krnaa nivedan karna: ‘to make a 

request’, and (haaqa jaaoD,kr ha:th jor� kar) pàqa-naa krnaa pra:rthana: karna: 

‘to make a request (with folded hands’) also render imperative force 

in their complement clause. 

14. maOM haqa jaaoD,kr pàqa-naa krta hUÐ mauJapr kRpa krao. 

m´∫ ha:th jor�kar pra:rthana: karta: hũ: mujhpar kripa: karo. 

I hands fold-cp request do-ptc am me-dat on kindness do 

I humbly request you to be kind to me.

4. SYNTAX 

4.3.6. Anaphora 

Here we will discuss (i) the means of expressing anaphora and (ii) 

the domains of anaphora. Anaphora in Hindi may be personal 

pronouns, reflexives, zero pronouns (i.e., null elements PRO or pro) 

or quasi-pronouns. 

In a narrative text or natural discourse, deletion is a prominent 

device in expressing the anaphora, e.g., 

1. ek idna maOMnao ek baccao kao rasto pr raoto doKa¸ 

ek din m´~ne ek bacce ko ra:ste par rote hue dekha:, 

one day I-erg one child-dat road-obl on weep-ptc saw 

pUCa tuma kaOna haoÆ 

pu:cha: tum køn ho? 

asked you who are 

One day I saw a child crying on the road; I asked (him), 

Who are you? 

In the above example, the anaphoric subject and object (the child) 

become accessible by means of deletion or zero anaphora in the 

second sentence. They are recoverable from the first sentence. 

Since the verb agrees with the subject and/or object in gender, 

number, and person, depending on various kinds of constructions, 

the subject and object can be deleted. 

2. maaohna Co bajao Gar phuÐcaa¸ kpD,oo badlao AaOr Aayaa. 

Mohan che baje ghar pahũca:, kapr�e badle ør a:ya:. 

Mohan reached home six-abl hour clothes changed and came 

Mohan reached home at six oclock; (he) changed his clothes 

and he came here. 

Anaphoric elements are frequently in the third person, and they are 

often expressed by personal pronouns. 

3. maaohna AaOr ]sakI p%naI saOr krnao gae¸ ]sakao zaokr lagaI 

mohan ør uski: patni: s´r karne gaye, usko t�hokar lagi: 

Mohan and his wife walk do-inf-obl went he-dat stumbled 

AaOr igar gayaa. 

ør gir gaya: 

260

261 

4. SYNTAX 

and fell 

Mohan and his wife went for a walk. He stumbled and fell 

down. 

Anaphora is expressed by possessive and reflexive pronouns as 

given in (4) and (5). 

4. ]sanao Apnao ima~ sao pOsao ]Qaar ilae. 

usne apne mitr se p´se udha:r liye. 

he-erg refl friend-from money credit took 

He took money from his friend on loan. 

5. Aimat Gar Aayaa AaOr svayaM p%naI kao dvaa[- dI. 

amit ghar a:ya: ør svayam patni: ko dava:i: di: 

Amit home came and self wife-dat medicine gave 

Amit came home and gave medicine to his wife himself. 

Certain other devices like the use of saara sa:ra: all, and the use of 

ordinals like phlaa pahla: ‘first’ and dUsara du:sra: ‘second’, are also 

employed to denote anaphora. 

6. maohna baaja,ar sao saoba laayaa. saaro saD,o hue qao. 

mohan ba:za:r se seb la:ya:. sa:re sar�e hue the. 

Mohan market from apples brought all rotten-ptc were 

Mohan brought apples from the market. All were rotten. 

7. ]maa AaOr SaaoBaa bahnaoM hOM.phlaI caalaak h¸O 

uma: ør šobha: bahnẽ h´.~ pahli: ca:la:kh h´, 

Uma and Shobha: sisters are first clever is 

AaOr dUsarI saIQaI saadI. 

ør du:sri: si:dhi: sadi:. 

and second simple 

Uma and Shobha are sisters. The former is clever and the 

latter is simple. 

The anaphora occurs within the clause with reflexive pronouns. 

Personal pronouns are not employed for this purpose.

4. SYNTAX 

8. vakIla kao Apnao pr pUra Baraosaa hO. 

vaki:l ko apne par pu:ra: bharosa: h´. 

advocate-dat refl-obl on full confidence is 

The advocate has full confidence in himself. 

9. vah ApnaI p%naI ko saaqa idllaI gayaa. 

vah apni: patni: ke sa:th dilli: gaya:. 

he refl-dat wife with Delhi went 

He went to Delhi with his wife. 

Anaphora between coordinate structures is usually forward. It is 

marked by deletion or pronominalization. 

10. maaohna samaya pr phuÐcaa AaOr Ø Apnaa kama ikyaa. 

mohan samay par pahũca: ør Ø apna: ka:m kiya: 

Mohan time on reached and Ø refl work did 

Mohan reached in time and did his work. 

10a. maaohna (i) samaya pr phuÐcaa AaOr Ø ]sanao (i) Apnaa kama ikyaa. 

mohan (i) samay par pahũca: ør Ø usne (i) apna: ka:m kiya: 

Mohan time on reached and Ø he-erg self work did 

Mohan reached (office) in time and did his work. 

It is possible to have an anaphora between superordinate and 

subordinate clauses. Usually, subordinate clauses (except for subject 

complementation, relative clauses and if … then clauses) follow 

superordinate clauses. Deletion indicates anaphora between a 

superordinate and a following subordinate clause. 

11. maaÐ nao baoTo (i) kao Ø (i) p~ ilaKnao ko ilae kha. 

mã: ne bet�e (i) ko Ø (i) patr likhne ke liye kaha: 

mother-erg son-dat Ø letter write-inf-abl for said 

The mother asked her son to write a letter. 

11a. maaÐ nao baoTo (i) kao kha vah (i) p~ ilaKo. 

mã: ne bet�e(i) ko kaha: vah (i) patr likhe. 

mother-erg son-dat said he letter write-subj 

The mother asked her son to write a letter. 

262

Backward deletion is not possible. 

11b. *maaÐ nao kha ik Ø/vah (i) baoTa (i) p~ ilaKo. 

*mã: ne kaha: ki Ø /vah (i) bet�a:(i) patr likhe. 

263 

4. SYNTAX 

Backward as well as forward deletion and pronominalization are 

used to express anaphora. 

12. [jaao Ø iktaba pZ, rhI hO ] vah laD,kI maorI baihna hO. 

[jo Ø kita:b par�h rahi: h´] vah lar�ki: meri: bahan h´. 

rel Ø book read-prog is cor girl my sister is 

The girl who is reading a book is my sister. 

12a. [jaao laD,kI iktaba pZ, rhI hO ] vah Ø maorI baihna hO. 

[jo lar�ki: kita:b par�h rahi: h´] vah Ø meri: bahan h´. 

rel girl book read-prog is cor Ø my sister is 

The girl who is reading a book is my sister. 

Anaphora between different sentences also uses the strategy of 

deletion and pronominalization. No other strategy is employed. 

4.3.7. Reflexives 

A reflexive pronoun occupies the same position within a clause as 

any other type of a pronoun. The only restriction is that the 

antecedent of a reflexive pronoun must be the subject of its clause. 

There is no other change except the selection of a dative case marker 

or a postposition in its use as an indirect object. Emphatic possessive 

pronouns do not require a co-referential antecedent. 

1. vah laD,kI ]sakI ApnaI baoTI hO. 

vah lar�ki: uski: apni: bet�i: h´. 

that girl his emp/*refl 

That girl is his/her own. 

Emphatic pronouns are sometimes completely homophonous with 

possessive pronouns as in (2).

4. SYNTAX 

2. dulhna Apnao dUlho kao psaMd hO. 

dulhan apne du:lhe ko pasand h´. 

bride refl-obl bridegroom-dat like is 

The bride is liked by her bridegroom. 

Sentence (2) is not passive. The conjunct verb psaMd haonaa pasand hona: 

to like takes a dative subject. Sentence (2), using the emphatic 

pronoun, can be interpreted as follows: 

2a. dulhna ]sako Apnao dUlho kao psaMd hO. 

dulhan uske apne du:lhe ko pasand h´. 

bride her refl-obl bridegroom-dat like is 

The bride is liked by her own bridegroom. 

Reflexivity is expressed by the use of agentive reflexive pronouns. 

This term is used to distinguish between the possessive reflexive 

Apnaa apna: and non-possessive reflexive Apnao Aap apne a:p ‘self’. The 

reflexive Apnao Aap apne a:p represents the main reflexive pronoun, 

which when followed by a postposition, has the oblique form Apnao 

apne. It also functions as an emphatic pronoun as in (1). The 

emphatic form is also derived by adding the emphatic suffix -hIo -hi: 

to it. The result is Aap hIo a:p hi:. The reduplicated form Apnao Aap apne 

a:p also occurs as a reflexive. 

3. Aimat Aap/ Apnao Aap/ Aap hI yahaÐ Aayaa. 

amit a:p/apne a:p/a:p hi: yahã: a:ya:. 

Amit self -emp here came 

Amit came here by himself. 

4. maOM Apnao Aap Kanaa banaata hUÐ. 

m´~ apne a:p kha:na: bana:ta: hũ:. 

I am refl food cook-pr am 

I cook my meals myself. 

5. hma Apnao Aap kpD,o Qaaoto hOM. 

ham apne a:p kapr�e dhote h´~. 

we refl clothes wash-ptc are 

We wash our clothes ourselves. 

6. saumana Apnao Aap kpD,o [s~I krtI hO. 

suman apne a:p kapr�e istri: karti: h´. 

264

Suman refl clothes iron do-ptc is 

Suman irons the clothes herself. 

265 

4. SYNTAX 

There are no separate pronominal reflexive pronouns for each 

pronoun. The person information is obtained from the antecedent 

subject. 

7. Aimat nao Apnao ilae / Baa[- ko ilae jaUto KrIdo. 

amit ne apne liye/bha:i: ke liye ju:te: khari:de:. 

Amit-erg refl-obl for/brother for shoes bought 

Amit bought a pair of shoes for himself/his brother. 

Sentence (7) shows that a non co-referential object does not take a 

reflexive form, but selects a non-reflexive form. The reflexivization 

is also controlled by dative and ergative subjects. 

8. ]maa kao Apnao Aap kama krnaa psaMd hO. 

uma: ko apne a:p ka:m karna: pasand h´. 

Uma-dat refl work do-inf like is 

Uma likes to do (her) work herself. 

9. Aimat nao Apnao Aap idna Bar Aarama ikyaa. 

amit ne apne a:p din bhar a:ra:m kiya:. 

Amit-erg refl day-whole rest did 

Amit rested the whole day. 

Examples (8-9) can be interpreted as emphatic reflexives as well. 

Reflexivization can allow backward movement as well. 

10. Apnao Aap Aimat nao Aarama ikyaa. 

apne a:p amit ne a:ra:m kiya:. 

refl Amit-erg rest did 

Amit rested himself. 

In possessive structures, the possible reflexive form Apnaa apna: ‘self’ 

is used in place of possessive pronouns such as the English my and 

your. When the possessive reflexive is used, the possessor is the 

same as the agent of the action or the subject. Apnaa apna: agrees with 

the following head NP in number and gender. Following are its 

forms:

4. SYNTAX 


Sg Pl Sg Pl 

Apnaa apna: Apnao apne ApnaI apni: ApnaI apni: 

11. maOM Apnaa /*maora kmara saaf kr rha hUÐ. 

m´~ apna:/*mera: kamra: sa:f kar raha: hũ:. 

I-m sefl/*my room clean do-prog am 

I am cleaning my room. 

12. maOM Apnao /*maoro pOsao igana rha hUÐ. 

m´~ apne/*mere p´se gin raha: hũ:. 

I refl /*my money count-prog am 

I am counting my money. 

13. Aap ApnaI /*AapkI iktaba pZ, rho hOM. 

a:p apni:/*a:p ki: kita:b par�h rahe h´~. 

you refl/*yours book read-prog are 

You are reading your book. 

14. vao ApnaI /*]nakI kmaIja,oM Qaao rho hOMOM. 

ve apni:/*unki: kami:zẽ dho rahe h´~. 

he refl/*his shirts wash-prog are 

He is washing his shirts. 

15. vah Apnaa /*]saka laaBa jaanata hOMOM. 

vah apna:/*uska: la:bh ja:nta: h´. 

he refl/*his profit know-ptc is 

He is aware of his benefit. 

16. vao ApnaI /* ]nakI iksmat pr rao rho hOM. 

ve apni:/*unki: kismat par ro rahe h´~. 

they refl/*selfs luck on cry-prog are 

They repent on their own work. 

The use of non-reflexive pronouns yield well-formed sentences 

provided the subject and possessive pronoun are not co-referential. 

17. vah (i) ]sakI (j) kmaIja, saI rha hO. 

vah (i) uski: (j) kami:z si: raha: h´. 

266

he his shirt stitch-prog is 

He (i) is stitching his (j) shirt. 

18. vah (i) ]nako (j) baccao pZ,a rha hO. 

vah (i) unke (j) bacce par�ha: raha: h´. 

he their children teach-prog is 

He(i) is teaching their (j) children. 

267 

4. SYNTAX 

Similar to nominative and ergative subjects, the dative subject also 

controls the possessive reflexive Apnaa apna:. The possessive 

structure also permits reduplicated reflexives. 

19. vao Apnaa Apnaa kama kr rho hOM. 

ve apna: apna: ka:m kar rahe h´~. 

they refl work do-prog are 

They are doing their respective jobs. 

The scope of reflexivity is usually restricted to the clause in which it 

is used. 

20. maaohna nao kha ik vah /*Apnao Aap samaya pr Aaegaa. 

mohan ne kaha: ki vah/*apne a:p samay par a:yega:. 

Mohan-erg said that he/*refl time at come-fut 

Mohan (i) said that he (i) would come on time. 

21. maaohna nao pUCa ik ]sakI/*ApnaI p%naI kba AaegaI. 

mohan ne pu:cha: ki uski:/*apni: patni: kab a:yegi:. 

Mohan-erg asked that his/*refl wife when come-fut 

Mohan (i) asked when his (i) wife would come. 

Sentences (20) and (21) show that reflexivization does not go down 

into subordinate clauses. Notice that reflexivization does not always 

meet clausemate constraint, as shown in (22). 

22. Aimat maaohna kao Apnaa Sa~u maanata hO. 

amit mohan ko apna: šatru: ma:nta: h´. 

Amit Mohan-dat refl enemy consider-ptc is 

Amit (i) considers Mohan (j) his (i,j) enemy.

4. SYNTAX 

Sentence (22) is ambiguous because the reflexive pronoun is coreferential 

with the subject of the subordinate as well as with the 

subject of the subordinate clause. It has two readings. 

22a. Aimat (i) maanata hO [ik maaohna Aimat (j) ka Sa~u hO]. 

amit (i) ma:nta: h´ [ki mohan amit (i) ka: šatru: h´]. 

Amit consider-ptc is that Mohan Amit of enemy is 

Amit considers Mohan Amits enemy. 

22b. Aimat maanata hO [ik maaohna (i) maaohna (j) ka Sa~u hO]. 

amit ma:nta: h´ [ki mohan (i) mohan (i) ka: šatru: h´. 

Amit consier-prog that Mohan Mohans enemy is 

Amit considers Mohan Mohans enemy. 

Here, the reflexive pronoun cannot occur in (22a), but it can occur in 

sentence (22b) due to its clause boundaries. It shows that the finite 

subordinate clause becomes finite and is raised to the object position 

of the matrix sentence. 

Reflexive relations occur within nominalized clauses. 

23. ]saka svayaM kao maarnaa zIk nahIM qaa. 

uska: svayam ko ma:rna: t�hi:kh nahĩ: tha:. 

his self kill-inf proper neg was 

His killing himself was not proper. 

Reflexive relations cannot exist within an ordinary noun phrase. It is 

possible to have reflexive antecedents under two conditions: (i) 

when the logical antecedent is deleted at the surface level and (ii) 

when the antecedent is either generic or contextually implied. 

(i) Deletion of an underlying antecedent 

24. tuma Apnaa kmara saaf, krao. 

tum apna: kamra: sa:f karo. 

you refl room clean do 

Clean your room. 

24a. Apnaa kmara saaf, krao. 

apna: kamra: sa:f karo. 

refl room clean do 

Clean your room. 

268

(ii) Generic/implied antecedent 

25. Apnaa samaya naYT krnaa zIk nahIM hOOo. 

apna: samay našt� karna: t�hi:k nahĩ: h´. 

refl time waste do-inf good neg is 

It is not proper (for someone) to waste ones time. 

Notice that in (25) the generic antecedent someone is implied. 

4.3.8. Reciprocals 

269 

4. SYNTAX 

The primary way of expressing a reciprocal relationship is the 

expression ek dUsaro kao ek du:sre ko ‘to one another’. It is the 

combination of the cardinal ek ek ‘one’ and the oblique case form of 

the ordinal dUsara du:sra: followed by kaoo ko. Reciprocals can also be 

formed with Aapsa maoM a:pas mẽ ‘mutual’. The scope of reciprocity is 

restricted to the clause. 

1. hmanao ek dUsaro ko saaqa baat kI. 

hamne ek du:sre ke sa:th ba:t ki:. 

we-erg one another-obl with talk did 

We talked to each other. 

2. ]nhaoMnao ek dUsaro kI bahut sahayata kI. 

unhõne ek du:sre ki: bahut saha:yta: ki:. 

they-erg one another-obl very help did 

They helped each other very much. 

In these sentences, the scope of the reciprocal expression does not 

extend to the matrix subject. 

Reciprocals usually require an antecedent subject. They may be used 

as a direct object, an indirect object, an adverb, or a possessive 

adjective in different types of constructions. 

Direct object 

3. vao ek dUsaro sao k[- baar imalao. 

ve ek du:sre se kai: ba:r mile. 

they one another-obl many times lot-abl met 

They met each other many times.

4. SYNTAX 


4. ]nhaoMnao ek dUsaro kao ]phar ide. 

unhõne ek du:sre ko upha:r diye. 

they-erg one another-obl presents gave 

They gave presents to each other. 

Adverb 

5. vao ek dUsaro pr ja,aor sao icallaa rho hOM. 

ve ek du:sre par zor se cilla: rahe h´~. 

they one another-obl with shout-prog are 

They are shouting at each other. 

Possessive adjective 

6. hma ek dUsaro ko Gar nahIM jaato. 

ham ek du:sre ke ghar nahĩ: ja:te. 

we one another-poss home neg go-ptc 

We don’t visit each others houses. 

7. vao Aapsa maoM baat nahIM krto ³hOM´. 

ve a:pas mẽ ba:t nahĩ: karte (h´~). 

they among themselves talk neg do-pre (are) 

They do not talk to each other. 

The same range of reciprocals occur in nominalized clauses. 

8. ]naka ek dUsaro ko Gar na jaanaa zIk nahIM hO. 

unka: ek du:sre ke ghar na ja:na: t�hi:k nahĩ: h´. 

their one another-gen house not go-inf good neg is 

Their not visiting each others homes is not right. 

9. ]nakI ek dUsaro kI TaoipyaaÐ barabar nahIM hOM. 

unki: ek du:sre ki: t�opiyã: bara:bar nahĩ: h´~. 

their one another-poss caps equal/fit neg are 

Each others caps do not fit them. 

It is possible to have reciprocal structures without antecedent, if the 

antecedent is understood either syntactically, as in the case of 

imperative constructions, or contextually. 

270

10. ek dUsaro ko saaqa baatoM mat krao. 

ek du:sre ke sa:th ba:tẽ mat karo. 

one another-obl with talk don’t do 

Don’t talk to each other. 

271 

4. SYNTAX 

11. Aimat ko dao baoTo hOM. vao ek dUsaro ko saaqa hmaoSaa laD,to hOM. 

amit ke do bet�e h´~. ve ek du:sre ke sa:th hameša: lar�te h´~. 

Amit-gen two sons are they one-another-gen with always 

fight-pr 

Amit has two sons. (They) always quarrel with each other. 

4.3.9. Equatives 

Like comparatives, there are two types of equatives: (i) syntactic and 

(ii) phrasal. The former type is composed of two clauses called as 

[tnaa itna: ‘this much’ and ]tnaa utna: ‘that much’ clauses. The main 

difference between these clauses and the comparative clause is that 

in equative clauses, an equative adjective or adverb is used with the 

subject and the standard of comparison. A comparative sentence can 

be transformed into an equative sentence by the deletion of the 

negative particle. 

1. Ajaya ]tnaa caalaak hO ijatnaa ]saka Baa[- ³hO´. 

ajay utna: ca:la:k h´ jitna: uska: bha:i: (h´). 

Ajay that much-cor clever as much-rel his brother 

Ajay is as clever as his brother. 

Equative structures can also be formed by using the clause jaOsaa j´sa: 

as/which way and vaOsaa v´sa: like/that way. 

2. jaOsaa Ajaya caalaak hO¸ ]tnaa ]saka Baa[- ³BaI´hO. 

j´sa: ajay ca:la:k h´, utna: uska: bha:i: (bhi:) h´. 

as-rel Ajay clever is that much his brother (also) is 

Ajay is as clever as his brother. 

Phrasal type equatives are formed using adjectives such as barabar 

bara:bar/samaana sama:n ‘equal’, and jaOsaa j´sa: ‘like’. The forms agree 

with the standard of comparison in number and gender.

4. SYNTAX 

3. ivajaya Apnao iptajaI ko barabar/ samaana laMbaa hOO. 

vijay apne pita:ji: ke bara:bar/sama:n lamba: h´. 

Vijay selfs father-gen like tall is 

Vijay is as tall as his father. 

4. yao dao Baa[- ApnaI maaÐ jaOsao saIQao hOMO. 

ye do bha:i: apni: mã: j´se si:dhe h´~. 

these two brothers selfs mother like simple are 

These two brothers are as simple as their mother. 

5. yah laD,kI ApnaI baihna jaOsaI sauMdr hO. 

yeh lar�ki: apni: bahan j´si: sundar h´. 

this girl selfs sister like beautiful is 

This girl is as beautiful as her sister. 

6. yao dao baihnaoM ApnaI maaÐ kI trh sauMdr hOMO. 

ye do bahnẽ apni: mã: ki: tarah sundar h´~. 

these two sisters selfs mother like beautiful is 

These two sisters are as beautiful as their mother. 

7. ivajaya baccao ko samaana hOO. 

vijay bacce ke sama:n h´. 

Vijay child-gen equal is 

Vijay is like a child. 

8. ]maa Anau ko barabar laMbaI hOO. 

uma: anu ke bara:bar lambi: h´. 

Uma Anu-gen equal tall is 

Uma is as tall as Anu. 

Notice that a copular/equational sentence employs only the plural 

adjectival forms of ek jaOsao ek j´se/ek jaOsaI ek jaisi: that agree with the 

number and gender of the subject of comparison. 

9. Ajaya AaOr ivajaya ek jaOsao hI hOM. 

ajay ør vijay ek j´se hi: h´~. 

Ajay and Vijay alike emp are 

Ajay and Vijay are alike. 

272

10. ]maa AaOr Anau ek jaOsaI hOM. 

uma: ør anu ek j´si: h´~. 

Uma and Anu alike are 

Uma and Anu are alike. 

273 

4. SYNTAX 

Equative adjectives may be modified by adding the particle –hI -hi: 

to these forms: jaOsao hI j´se hi:, jaOsaI hI j´si: hi: ‘alike’. The particle –hI - 

hi: is also added to singular forms for emphasis as well. 

11. ivajaya Ajaya jaOsaa hI hO. 

vijay ajay j´sa: hi: h´. 

Vijay Ajay like emp is 

Vijay is like Ajay. 

12. ]maa Anau jaOsaI hI hO. 

uma: anu j´si: hi: h´. 

Uma Anu alike emp is 

Uma is like Anu. 

A number of fixed adjectival phrases are used in Hindi. 

13. fUla saa/ jaOsaa kaomala 

phu:l sa:/j´sa: komal 

flower like delicate 

as delicate as a flower 

14. p%qar saa idla 

patthar sa: dil 

stone like heart 

a stone-hearted (person) 

It is possible to delete the identical elements in equative structures. 

Deletion is always forward and not backward. 

15. ]maa ]tnaI laMbaI hO ijatnaI ³laMbaI´ Anau ³hO´. 

uma: utni: lambi: h´ jitni: (lambi:) anu (h´). 

Uma cor tall is rel (tall) Uma (is) 

Uma is as tall as Anu.

4. SYNTAX 

The bracketed elements can be deleted to yield (15a). 

15a. ]maa ]tnaI laMbaI hO ijatnaI Anau. 

uma utni: lambi: h´ jitni: anu. 

Uma is as tall as Anu. 

The backward deletion generates ungrammatical sentences, as (15b). 

15b. *]maa ]tnaI Ø Ø ijatnaI laMbaI hO. 

*uma: utni: Ø Ø jitni: lambi: anu h´. 

Correlative equatives are formed by syntactic strategy only. They 

are formed by using the correlative marker ]tnaa utna:. 

4.3.10. Comparison 

Comparison is usually expressed by sentential, phrasal, and 

morphological strategies. Two types of comparative structures are 

very common, phrasal comparative structures and non-phrasal ones. 

Both use postpositions followed by the standards of comparison. 

Sentential comparison is carried out by the use of two finite clauses 

introduced by the relative marker ]tnaa utna: ‘as much as’ and the 

correlative marker ijatnaa jitna: ‘that much’. 

1. vah ]tnaa saIQaa nahIM hOO [ijatnaa saIQaa ]saka Baa[- hO]. 

vah utna: si:dha: nahĩ: h´[jitna: si:dha: uska: bha:i: h´] 

he is not that-cor simple as much as-rel simple his brother is 

He is not as simple as his brother. 

The relative clause can be placed at the sentence initial position as 

well. 

1a. [ijatnaa saIQaa ]saka Baa[- hO] vah ]tnaa saIQaa nahIM hOO. 

[jitna: si:dha: uska: bha:i: h´] vah utna: si:dha: nahĩ: h´ 

2. vah ijatnaa pirEama krta hO ]tnaa pOsaa nahIM kmaata. 

vah jitna: parišram karta: h´ utna: p´sa: nahĩ: kama:ta: 

he as much hard work do-ptc is that much money earn-ptc neg 

is 

He doesn’t earn as much as he works. 

274

The relative clause can follow the correlative clause. 

275 

4. SYNTAX 

2a. vah ]tnaa pOsaa nahIM kmaata,¸ ijatnaa pirEama krta hO. 

vah utna: p´sa: nahĩ: kama:ta:, jitna: parišram karta: h´ 

Most of the morphological markers of comparison are borrowed 

from Perso-Arabic sources. They are not very productive in Hindi. 

3. ]saka vahaÐ jaanaa baohtr rhogaa. 

uska: vahã: ja:na: behtar rahega: 

his there go-inf better remain-fut 

It is better for him to go there. 

4. yah ]sako ilae badtrIna baat hO. 

yah uske liye badtari:n ba:t h´. 

this is he-for worst matter is 

This is the worst thing for him. 

Phrasal comparison is expressed by a postposition associated with 

the standard of comparison. The postposition sao se is added to the 

standard of comparison. 

5. Aimat Anau sao laMbaa hO. 

amit anu: se lamba: h´. 

Amit Anu than tall is 

Amit is taller than Anu. 

6. Anau ]maa sao gaaorI hO. 

anu uma: se gori: h´. 

Anu Uma than fair-complexioned is 

Anu is more fair-complexioned than Anu. 

The phrasal comparison is also expressed by the use of the phrase ko 

maukabalao maoM ke muka:ble mẽ ‘in comparison with’ following the standard 

of comparison. 

7. ivajaya ko maukabalao maoM raja pZ,nao maoM kmaja,aor hO. 

vjay ke muka:ble mẽ ra:j par�hne mẽ kamzor h´. 

Vijay-gen comarison in Raj studies-obl in weak is 

Raj is weak in his studies in comparison to Vijay.

4. SYNTAX 

8. vah poD, [sa poD, ko maukabalao maoM laMbaa nahIM hOO. 

vah per� is per� ke muka:ble mẽ lamba: nahĩ: h´. 

that tree this tree-gen comparison in tall neg is 

That tree is not taller than this tree. 

9. ]sa laD,kI ko maukabalao maoM yah laD,kI bauiwmaana hOO. 

us lar�ki: ke muka:ble mẽ yah lar�ki: buddhima:n h´. 

that girl-gen comparison-obl in this girl wise is 

This girl is wiser than that girl. 

Adjectives used in a comparison can be modified by the adverb of 

degree AiQak adhik more. 

10. yah Gar ]sa Gar sao AiQak baD,a hOO. 

yeh ghar us ghar se adhik bar�a: h´. 

this house that-obl house comparison more big is 

This house is bigger than that one. 

11. vah pustk [sa pustk sao AiQak AcCI hOO. 

vah pustak is pustak se adhik acchi: h´. 

that book this book comparison more good is 

That book is better than this one. 

When two sentences are joined, the identical elements in the second 

conjunct are usually deleted. Whereas forward deletion is possible, 

backward deletion is not. 

12. Aimat ]tnaa caalaak nahIM hO ijatnaa ³caalaak´ ]saka Baa[- hOOO. 

amit utna: ca:la:k nahĩ: h´ jitna: (ca:la:k) uska: bha:i: h´. 

Amit that much clever neg is as much (clever) his brother is 

Amit is not as clever as his brother. 

12a. *Aimat ]tnaa nahIM hO ijatnaa ]saka Baa[- caalaak hOOO. 

*amit utna: nahĩ: h´ jitna: uska: bha:i: ca:la:k h´ 

The deletion of the first occurrence of caalaak ca:la:k in sentence (12a) 

results in the sentence being grammatically incorrect. The relative 

correlative markers ijatnaa jitna: ]tnaa utna: cannot be deleted under 

any circumstance. 

276

4.3.11. Superlatives 

277 

4. SYNTAX 

Superlatives are usually expressed by substituting saba sao AiQak sab se 

adhik ‘most’, savaao-tma sarvotam ‘best’, or hr ek maoM sao har ek mẽ se ‘out of 

all’ for the standard of comparison. Superlative constructions are 

also formed by the use of kao[- dUsara koi: du:sra: ‘anyone else’ plus the 

negative particle. 

1. Aimat kxaa maoM saba sao AiQak bauiwmaana hOOO. 

amit kakša: mẽ sab se adhik buddhima:n h´. 

Amit class in out of all more wise is 

Amit is wisest of all in his class. 

2. ]maa saba sao AiQak toja, daOD,tI hOOO. 

uma: sab se adhik tez dør�ti: h´. 

Uma out of all more fast run-pr is 

Uma runs faster than everyone else. 

3. ivajaya sao catur AaOr kao[- dUsara nahIM hOOO. 

vijay se catur ør koi: du:sra: nahĩ: h´. 

Vijay than clever anyone else neg is 

No one else is more clever than Vijay. 

Superlative constructions are also formed by substituting an 

adjective of comparison for saba sao AiQak sab se adhik.. It also serves as 

the standard of comparison. 

4. vah baD,I sao baD,I samasyaa AasanaI sao hla krta hOOO. 

vah bar�i: se bar�i: samasya: a:sa:ni: se hal karta: h´. 

he big-f more big-f problem easy with solve do-ptc is 

He solves the biggest problems easily. 

5. hmaaro pasa AcCo sao AcCa kpD,a yahI hOOO. 

hama:re pa:s acche se accha: kapr�a: yahi: h´. 

we-obl with good-obl than good cloth this is 

This is the best cloth we have. 

Notice that in these constructions, the first part of the phrase is put in 

the oblique case as it is followed by sao se.

4. SYNTAX 

4.3.12. Coordination 

Sentence coordination is marked mainly by the use of the 

conjunction morphemes AaOr ør ‘and’ yaa ya: ‘or’, and magar magar/pr 

par/ikMtu kintu ‘but’. 

1. maOM idllaI gayaa AaOr maora Baa[- Aagara ³gayaa´. 

m´~ dilli: gaya: aur mera: bha:i: agra: (gaya:). 

I Delhi went and my brother Agra went 

I went to Delhi and my brother went to Agra. 

2. saaohna maaohna ko Gar gayaa magar/ pr/ ikMtu maaohna 

sohan mohan ke ghar gaya: magar/par/kintu mohan 

Sohan Mohan gen home went but Mohan 

Gar pr nahIM qaa. 

ghar par nahĩ: tha:. 

home at neg was 

Sohan went to Mohans home, but Mohan was not there. 

The conjunction morpheme AaOr ør ‘and’ can be followed by another 

particle, BaI bhi: ‘also’. 

3. maaohna kla banaarsa jaaegaa AaOr saaohna BaI ³jaaegaa´. 

mohan kal bana:ras ja:yega: ør sohan bhi: (ja:yega:). 

Mohan tomorrow Banaras go-fut and Sohan also go-fut 

Mohan will go to Banaras tomorrow and Mohan will also go. 

The conjunction compound morphemes yaa ya: -yaa -ya: ‘either – or’ 

are also used in sentence conjunctions. 

4. yaa Aaja vaYaa- haogaI yaa ihmapat haogaa. 

ya: a:j varša: hogi: ya: himpa:t hoga:. 

either today rain fall-fut or snowfall be-fut 

Either it rains today or it will snow. 

Notice that the word order of the constituent sentences undergo a 

change when conjoined by the use of the conjunction morphemes yaa 

- yaa ya: - ya:. Sentence (4) is obtained by conjoining (4a) and (4b). 

278

4a. Aaja vaYaa- haogaI. 

a:j varša: hogi:. 

It will rain today. 

4b. Aaja ihmapat haogaa. 

a:j himpa:t hoga:. 

It will snow today. 

4. SYNTAX 

And coordination is commonly expressed by the conjunction marker 

AaOr ør. It can join two or more sentences or phrases. This conjunction 

morpheme occurs before the last conjunct. 

5. SaIlaa iktaba pZ, rhI hO AaOr ]maa icaT\zI ilaK rhI hO. 

ši:la: kita:b par�h rahi: h´ ør uma: cit�t�hi: likh rahi: h´. 

Shiela book read-prog is and Uma letter write write-prog is 

Shiela is reading a book and Uma is writing a letter. 

6. Amar Kola rha hO¸ maaohna gaanao sauna rha hOO AaOr 

amar khel raha: h´, mohan ga:ne sun raha: h´, ør 

Amar play-prog is Mohan songs listen-prog is and 

Saama TI vaI doK rha hO. 

ša:m t�i:vi: dekh raha: h´. 

Sham TV see-prog is 

Amar is playing, Mohan is listening to songs, and Sham is 

watching television. 

5a. *AaOr SaIlaa iktaba pZ, rhI hO ]maa p~ ilaK rhI hO. 

*ør ši:la: kita:b par�h rahi: h´, uma: patr likh rahi: h´. 

6a. *Amar Kola rha hO AaOr maaohna gaanao sauna rha hO¸ Saama TI vaI doK rha hOO. 

*amar khel raha: h´ ør mohan ga:ne sun raha: h´, ša:m t�i:vi: 

dekh raha: h´. 

The misplacement of the coordination conjunction morpheme AaOr ør 

renders the sentences (5a) and (6a) ungrammatical. 

Coordination does not merely involve juxtaposition of two or more 

independent sentences. There are various syntactic and semantic 

constraints on the construction of coordinate structures. In general, 

coordinate sentences express contrast, cumulative effect, cause and 

effect, sequential action, and contingency. Again, the order of the 

279

4. SYNTAX 

conjuncts is interchangeable if a coordinate sentence expresses 

contrast or cumulative effect. Consider the following examples of 

various types of coordinate structures as listed above. 

Contrast 

7. yah laD,ka maaoTa hO AaOr vah laD,ka dubalaa. 

yeh lar�ka: mot�a: h´ ør vah lar�ka: dubla:. 

this boy fat is and that boy slim 

This boy is fat and that boy is slim. 

7a. vah laD,ka dubalaa hO AaOr yaah laD,ka maaoTa. 

vah lar�ka: dubla: h´ ør yah lar�ka: mot�a:. 

That boy is slim and this boy is fat. 

Cumulative effect 

8. vah raoja, vyaayaama krta hO AaOr saOr krta hO. 

vah roz vya:ya:m karta: h´ aur s´r karta: h´. 

he daily exercise do-ptc is and walk do-ptc is 

He exercises daily and goes for a walk (daily). 

8a. vah raoja, vyaayaama krta hO AaOr saOr BaI. 

vah roz vya:ya:m karta: h´ ør s´r bhi:. 

he daily exercise do-ptc is and walk also 

He exercises daily and goes for a walk, too. 

9. vah dvaa[- Kata hO AaOr Aarama krta hO. 

vah dava:i: kha:ta: h´ ør a:ra:m karta: h´. 

he medicine eat-ptc is and rest do-ptc is 

He is taking medicine and relaxing. 

9a. vah Aarama krta hO AaOr dvaa[- Kata hO. 

vah a:ra:m karta: h´ ør dava:i: kha:ta: h´. 

He is relaxing and taking medicine. 

Cause and effect 

10. ]sanao dvaa[- Ka[- AaOr vah svasqa huAa. 

usne dava:i: kha:i: ør vah svasth hua:. 

he-erg medicine ate and he healthy became 

He took medicine and recovered from the illness. 

280

10a. *vah svasqa huAa AaOr ]sanao dvaa[- Ka[-. 

*vah svasth hua: ør usne dava:i: kha:i:. 

11. caaor kao gaaolaI lagaI AaOr vah Aaht huAa. 

cor ko goli: lagi: ør vah a:hat hua:. 

thief-dat bullet struck and he injured was 

The thief was hit by a bullet and he was injured. 

11a. *caaor Aaht huAa AaOr ]sakao gaaolaI lagaI. 

*cor a:hat hua: aur usko goli: lagi:. 

Sequential action 

12. vah Aayaa AaOr hmaoM Gar Aanao ko ilae nyaaota idyaa. 

vah a:ya: ør hamẽ ghar a:ne ke liye nyota: diya:. 

he came and we-obl home come-inf-obl invitation gave 

He came and invited us to visit his home. 

12a. *]sanao hmaoM Gar Aanao ko ilae nyaaota idyaa AaOr Aayaa. 

*usne hamẽ ghar a:ne ke liye nyota: diya: ør a:ya:. 

13. maaohna Gar Aayaa AaOr ]sanao drvaaja,o ka talaa Kaolaa. 

mohan ghar a:ya: ør usne darva:ze ka: tala: khola:. 

Mohan home came and he-erg door-gen lock opened 

Mohan came home and unlocked the door. 

13a. *maaohna nao drvaaja,o ka talaa Kaolaa AaOr Gar Aayaa. 

*mohan ne darva:ze ka: ta:la: khola: ør ghar a:ya:. 

14. tuma ek AcCI laD,kI Z,UÐZ,ao AaOr ivavaah krao. 

tum ek acchi: lar�ki: d�hũ:d�ho ør viva:h karo. 

you-fem one good girl search and marriage perform 

You find a good girl and get married. 

14a. tuma ivavaah krao AaOr ek AcCI laD,kI Z,UÐZ,ao. 

*tum viva:h karo ør ek acchi: lar�ki: d�hũ:d�ho. 

281 

4. SYNTAX 

Notice that sentences (7), (8), and (9) permit the reverse order of 

(7a), (8a), and (9a) respectively. In sentences (10), (11), (12), (13) 

and (14), the reverse order of the conjuncts results in ungrammatical 

sentences as shown above because of the constraints on cause and

4. SYNTAX 

effect, sequential action, and contingency the conjoined structures 

are marked for. The coordinate sentences (10-14) can be 

paraphrased to indicate that they are related with the subordination 

process as well. Consider the following sentences. 

10b. vah dvaa Kakr svasqa huAa. 

vah dava: kha:kar swasth hua:. 

he medicine take-cp healthy became 

He recovered (from illness) after taking the medicine. 

11b. caaor gaaolaI laganao sao Aaht huAa. 

cor goli: lagne se a:hat hua:. 

thief bullet hit-inf-obl with injured became 

The thief was injured by a bullet. 

12b. ]sanao Aakr hmaoM Gar Aanao ka nyaaota idyaa. 

usne a:kar hamẽ ghar a:ne ka: nyota: diya:. 

he-erg come-cp us-dat home go-inf-gen invitation gave 

On arrival, he invited us to his home. 

13b. maaohna nao Gar Aakr drvaaja,o ka talaa Kaolaa. 

mohan ne a:kar darva:ze ka: ta:la: khola:. 

Mohan-erg came-cp door-gen lock opened 

On arrival, Mohan unlocked the door. 

14b. ek AcCI laD,kI Z,UÐZ,kr tuma ivavaah krao. 

ek acchi: lar�ki: d�hũ:d�hkar tum viva:h karo. 

a good girl find-cp you marriage do-imp 

Find a good girl and get married. 

In the above sentences, cause and effect, sequential action, and 

contingency are expressed without using conjunction morphemes. 

The paraphrases indicate that the first conjuncts of the sentences 

represent the adverbial complements of the second conjuncts. 

Besides conjoining sentences, the coordinating conjunction marker 

ør can be used to coordinate nouns (subjects, direct and indirect 

objects), verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. 

282

Coordinate nominal subjects 

15. laD,ka AaOr laD,kI Kola rho hOM. 

lar�ka: ør lar�ki: khel rahe h´~. 

boy and girl play-prog are 

A boy and a girl are playing. 

Coordinate verbs 

16. SaIlaa nao kpD,o Qaaoe AaOr Kanaa pkayaa. 

ši:la: ne kapr�e dhoye ør kha:na: paka:ya:. 

Shiela-erg clothes washed and food cooked 

Shiela washed clothes and cooked meals. 

Coordinate adjectives 

17. SaIlaa laMbaI AaOr gaaorI hO. 

ši:la: lambi: aur gori: h´. 

Shiela tall and fair complexioned is 

Shiela is tall and fair-complexioned. 

283 

4. SYNTAX 

Coordinate adverbials 

18. maOM kla AaOr prsaaoM Gar nahIM jaa}Ðgaa. 

m´~ kal ør parsõ ghar nahĩ: ja:ũ:ga:. 

I tomorrow and day after tomorrow home neg go-fut 

I will not go home tomorrow nor the day after tomorrow. 

The coordination of two noun phrases yields a plural noun phrase 

and therefore, verb agreement is affected. In the case of coordinate 

subjects, the verb takes a masculine plural concord, whereas, in the 

case of coordinate objects, the verb agrees with the nearest object. 

19. maaohna AaOr SaIlaa baaja,ar gae. 

mohan ør ši:la: ba:za:r gaye. 

Mohan and Shiela market went-mp 

Mohan and Shiela went to the market. 

20. maOMnao saoba AaOr K,aobaainayaaÐ K,rIdIM. 

m´~ne seb ør xoba:niyã: xari:di: 

I-erg apples-mp and apricots-fp bought-fs 

I bought apples and apricots.

4. SYNTAX 

But coordination is expressed by the conjunction marker pr par/magar 

magar/ikMtu kintu ‘but’. This marker is placed in the beginning of the 

second conjunct. 

21. maaohna AQyaapk hO¸ magar vah pZ,ata nahIM. 

mohan adhya:pak h´, magar vah par�ha:ta: nahĩ:. 

Mohan is a teacher, but he teaches neg 

Mohan is a teacher, but he does not teach. 

22. ]maa AnapZ, hO¸ pr vah baD,I bauiwmaana hO. 

uma: anpar�h h´, par vah bar�i: budhima:n h´. 

Uma is illiterate, but she very wise is 

Uma is illiterate, but she is very wise. 

In sentence coordination, as mentioned earlier, the conjunct marker 

AaOr ør occurs before the second or the last conjunct. The conjunct 

marker pr par precedes the second or subsequent coordinated 

sentences. Among the disjunctive markers, yaa ya: can precede the 

first as well as subsequent disjuncts. 

23. yaa vah idllaI jaaegaa¸ yaa Aagara. 

ya: vah dilli: ja:yega:, ya: a:gra:. 

either he Delhi go-fut or Agra 

Either he will go to Delhi or Agra. 

But coordination is usually used with adjectives and adverbials. 

24. maIra bauiwmaana hO pr saust hO. 

mi:ra: budhima:n h´ par sust h´. 

Mira is intelligent but lazy is 

Mira is intelligent but lazy. 

25. vah saOr krta hO pr kovala Saama kao. 

vah s´r karta: h´ par keval ša:m ko. 

she walk do-ptc is but only evening-loc at 

He goes for a walk, but only in the evenings. 

But coordination of nouns and verbs may involve a negative particle 

preceding or following the adversative conjuncts. 

284

26. Amar caalaak laD,ka hO pr saaohna nahIM hO. 

amar ca:la:k lar�ka: h´ par sohan nahĩ: h´. 

Amar clever boy is but Sohan neg is 

Amar is a clever boy but Sohan is not. 

285 

4. SYNTAX 

27. hmanao ]sakI sauMdrta ko baaro maoM saunaa hO pr 

hamne uski: sundarta: ke ba:re mẽ suna: h´ par 

we-erg his beauty about heard but 

kBaI doKa nahIM hO. 

kabhi: dekha: nahĩ: h´. 

but never use him saw neg is 

We have heard about her beauty, but have never seen her. 

28. vah p~ nahIM ilaKogaa pr TolaIf,aona ja,$r krogaa. 

vah patr nahĩ: likhega: par t�eliphon zaru:r karega:. 

He letter neg write-fut but telephone certainly do-fut 

He will not write a letter but hell certainly call. 

Or coordination uses the disjunctive markers ya: or and varnaa varna:/ 

Aiptu apitu ‘or’ to conjoin nouns, adjectives, adverbs, and verbs. 

29. maaohna yaa saaohna kpD,o isaegaa. 

mohan ya: sohan kapr�e siyega:. 

Mohan or Sohan clothes stitch-fut 

Mohan or Sohan will stitch the clothes. 

30. ]maa Aaja baaja,ar jaaegaI yaa kla. 

uma: a:j ba:za:r ja:yegi: ya: kal. 

Uma today market go-fut or tomorrow 

Uma will go to the market today or tomorrow. 

31. kmaIja, ko ilae naIlaa yaa laala kpD,a K,rIide. 

kami:z ke liye ni:la: ya: la:l kapr�a: xari:diye. 

shirt for blue or red cloth buy 

Buy blue or red cloth for the shirt. 

32. ³Aap´ saoba KaeÐgao yaa kolaaÆ 

(a:p) seb kha:yẽge ya: kela:? 

(you-p) apple eat-fut or banana 

Would you like to take an apple or a banana?

4. SYNTAX 

4.3.12.1. Coordination and Accompaniment 

Accompaniment is expressed by the postposition saaqa sa:th with or in 

the company of. It can also be expressed by the conjunction 

morpheme AaOr ør and. 

33. saaohna AaOr maaohna Aae. 

sohan ør mohan a:ye. 

Sohan and Mohan came 

Sohan and Mohan came. 

33a. saaohna maaohna ko saaqa Aayaa. 

sohan mohan ke sa:th a:ya: 

Sohan Mohan with came 

Sohan came with Mohan. 

Sentence (33) is an example of coordination, whereas sentence (33a) 

denotes accompaniment. Notice that the accompaniment uses a 

singular verb as in (33a). A single unit cannot be formed using 

accompaniment, but can be formed by using coordination. The term 

daonaaoM donõ ‘both’ can, therefore, be used with coordination, but not 

with accompaniment. 

33b. saaohna AaOr maaohna daonaaoM Aae. 

sohan ør mohan donõ a:ye. 

Sohan and Mohan both came 

Sohan and Mohan both came. 

33c. *saaohna maaohna ko saaqa Aayaa daonaaoM. 

*sohan mohan ke sa:th a:ya: donõ. 

The unity of the conjoined phrase cannot be distorted, and this unity 

is expressed only by coordination and not by accompaniment. 

33d. baoTa ipta ko saaqa Aayaa. 

bet�a: pita: ke sa:th a:ya:. 

son father-obl with came 

The son came with the father. 

286

33e. baoTa AaOr ipta Gar Aae. 

bet�a: ør pita: ghar a:ye. 

The son and father came home. 

33f. *baoTa Gar AaOr ipta Aae. 

*bet�a: ghar ør pita: a:ye. 

33g. *baoTa AaOr Gar ipta Aae. 

*beta: ør ghar pita: a:ye. 

287 

4. SYNTAX 

This explains the ungrammaticalness of sentences (33f) and (33g). 

The commutative postposition ko saaqa ke sa:th follows the noun of 

accompaniment. It is possible to form coordinate sentences using the 

co-ordinate conjunction AaOr ør the comitative postposition saaqa sa:th 

in one of the conjuncts. 

34. AjaIt AaOr maaohna Amar ko saaqa jaaeÐgao. 

aji:t ør mohan amar ke sa:th ja:yẽge. 

Ajit and Mohan Amar-obl with go-fut 

Ajit and Mohan will accompany Amar. 

34a. Am,ar ko saaqa AjaIt AaOr maaohna jaaeÐgao. 

amar ke sa:th aji:t ør mohan ja:yẽge. 

Ajit and Mohan will accompany Amar. 

4.3.12.2. Structural Constraints 

There are various structural constraints in coordination. In general, 

members in the same class can be conjoined but not those that 

belong to different classes. 

Adjective and noun 

35. *vah sauMdr AaOr laD,kI hO. 

*vah sundar �r lar�ki: h´. 

she is beautiful and girl. 

35a. vah sauMdr AaOr bauiwmaana laD,kI hO. 

vah sundar ør budhima:n lar�ki: h´. 

she beautiful and intelligent girl is 

She is a beautiful and an intelligent girl.

4. SYNTAX 

Adjective and adverb 

36. *yah kpD,a AcCa AaOr kla hO. 

*yeh kapr�a: accha: ør kal h´. 

this cloth good and yesterday is 

36a. yah kpD,a AcCa AaOr sasta hO. 

yeh kapr�a: accha: ør sasta: h´. 

this cloth good and inexpensive is 

This cloth is good and inexpensive. 

As exemplified above in sentences (35) and (36), it is not possible to 

conjoin adjectives and nouns, nor adjectives and adverbs. Other 

types of constraints are indicated below. 

Present and past participles and adjectives can be conjoined using 

coordinate conjunction morphemes. 

37. Aimat pZ,a-ilaKa AaOr SarIf laD,ka hO. 

Amit par�ha: - likha: ør šari:ph lar�ka: h´. 

Amit educated and gentle boy is 

Amit is an educated and a gentle boy. 

Similarly, it is possible to conjoin the conjuncts with adverbial 

construction and an adjective phrase. 

38. maora ima~ Sahr maoM rhta hO AaOr bahut caalaak hO. 

mera: mitr šahar mẽ rahta: h´ ør bahut ca:la:k h´. 

my friend city in live-ptc is and very clever is 

My friend lives in the city and is clever. 

A relative clause and an adjective phrase cannot be conjoined. 

38a. *jaao Sahr maoM rhta hO AaOr bahut caalaak ima~ hO. 

*jo šahar mẽ rahta: h´ aur bahut ca:la:k mitr h´. 

who city-abl is live-pr is and clever friend tomorrow 

Nouns and nominalized constructions can be conjoined, provided 

the semantic and pragmatic conditions are met. 

39. ]sao ]pnyaasa pZ,naa AaOr naaTk doKnaa psaMd hO. 

use upanya:s par�hna: ør na:t�ak dekhna: pasand h´. 

288

he-dat novel read-inf and play watch-inf like is 

He likes to read novels and watch plays. 

40. maOMnao ]sao AaOr ]sako Gar kao sapnao maoM doKa. 

m´~ne use ør uske ghar ko sapne mẽ dekha:. 

I-erg he-obl and his house-dat dream-obl in saw 

I saw him and his house in the dream. 

289 

4. SYNTAX 

It is possible to coordinate related adverbials in a coordinated 

structure. 

41. vah hÐsato - hÐsato AaOr jaldI hr ek kama krta hO. 

vah hãste - hãste ør jaldi: har ek ka:m karta: h´. 

he laugh-ptc and quickly every work do-ptc is 

He gives his opinion smilingly and quickly. 

Time adverbials and manner adverbials cannot be conjoined. 

42. *vah kla raoyaa AaOr ja,aor-ja,aor sao. 

*vah kal roya: ør zor - zor se 

he yesterday wept and loudly 

Active and passive verbs can be coordinated provided they are 

appropriate in a pragmatic situation. In Hindi, passive constructions 

can mean capability as well. 

43. Anau nao saoba KrIdo AaOr ]sasao Kae nahIM gae. 

anu ne seb xari:de aur usse kha:ye nahĩ: gaye. 

Anu-erg apples bought and she-pass eat-pass neg aux-pass 

Anu bought apples and she was not able to eat. 

44. maOMnao yah kama ikyaa AaOr ]sasao nahIM ikyaa gayaa. 

m´~ne yeh ka:m kiya: ør usse nahĩ: kiya: gaya:. 

I-erg this work did and he-pass neg do-pa went-pass 

I did this work and it could not be done by him. 

Simple verbs can be conjoined with infinitives in a coordinate 

structure. 

45. maOMnao yah naavala pZ,a AaOr [saoo pZ,naa Aasaana hO nahIM. 

m´~ne yeh na:val par�ha: ør ise par�hna: a:sa:n h´ nahĩ:.

4. SYNTAX 

I-erg this novel read and this-obl read-inf easy neg is 

I read this novel and it is not easy to read. 

It is also possible to conjoin different types of verbs. 

46. maora hÐsanaa AaOr hÐsaanaa iksaI kao psaMd nahIM Aayaa. 

mera: hãsna: ør hãsa:na: kisi: ko pasand nahĩ: a:ya:. 

my laugh-inf and laugh-caus anyone-dat like neg came 

My laughing and making others laugh was not liked by 

anyone. 

47. gaussaa Aanaa AaOr gaussaa p`kT krnaa AcCa nahIM. 

gussa: a:na: ør gussa: prakat� karna: accha: nahĩ:. 

anger come-inf and anger express do-inf good neg 

It is not good to be angry nor to express ones anger. 

When two sentences are conjoined, any number of elements, 

including verbs, can be deleted under identity. The deletion can be 

both forward as well as backward. However, backward deletion is 

less frequent than forward deletion. 

48. Aimat nao iktaba KrIdI AaOr rjat nao kmaIja,. 

amit ne kita:b xari:di: ør rajat ne kami:z. 

Amit-erg book bought and Rajat-erg shirt 

Amit bought a book and Rajat a shirt. 

48a. Aimat nao iktaba Ø AaOr rjat nao kmaIja, KrIdI. 

amit-ne kita:b Ø ør rajat ne kami:z xari:di:. 

Amit-erg book Ø and Rajat-erg shirt bought 

Amit bought a book and Rajat bought a shirt. 

The coordinating morpheme AaOr ør conjoins sentences and parts of 

sentences of similar syntactic and semantic structure. Due to such 

constraints, the following pairs of sentences cannot be conjoined by 

merely deleting the identical elements. 

49a. mauJao caaya psaMd hO. 

mujhe ca:y pasand h´. 

I-obl tea like is 

I like tea. 

290

49b. mauJao kama krnaa psaMd hO. 

mujhe ka:m karna: pasand h´. 

I-obl work do-inf like is 

I like to do work. 

49c. *mauJao caaya AaOr kama krnaa psaMd hO. 

*mujhe ca:y ør ka:m karna: pasand h´. 

50a. Aimat AvaSya Aaegaa. 

amit avašy a:yega: 

Amit definitely come-fut 

Amit will definitely come. 

50b. Aimat maaohna ko saaqa Aaegaa. 

amit mohan ke sa:th a:yega:. 

Amit Mohan with come-fut 

Amit will come with Mohan. 

50c. *Aimat AvaSya Aaegaa AaOr maaohna ko saaqa. 

*amit avašy a:yega: aur mohan ke sa:th 

51a. SaIlaa baImaar hO. 

ši:la: bi:ma:r h´. 

Shiela sick is 

Shiela is sick. 

51b. SaIlaa Gar pr hO. 

ši:la: ghar par h´. 

Shiela home at is 

Shiela is at home. 

51c. *SaIlaa baImaar hO AaOr Gar pr. 

*ši:la: bi:ma:r h´ ør ghar par. 

291 

4. SYNTAX

4. SYNTAX 

All major sentence constituents, including nouns, adjectives, and 

adverbs, can be omitted under identity. 

Omission of subject/object 

52. Aimat nao iktaba KrIdI AaOr Ø pZ,I. 

amit-ne kita:b xari:di: �r Ø par�hi:. 

Amit-erg book bought and Ø read 

Amit brought a book and read. 

Omission of adjective/verb 

53. ]sako pasa naIlaI kmaIja, hO AaOr maoro pasa Ø TaopI. 

uske pa:s ni:li: kami:z h´ ør mere pass Ø t�opi:. 

he-obl blue shirt is and I-poss-obl Ø cap 

He has a blue shirt and I have a blue cap. 

Omission of adverb/verb 

54. saaohna kla Apnao Gar gayaa AaOr maaohna Ø Sahr Ø. 

sohan kal apne ghar gaya: ør mohan Ø šahar Ø 

Sohan yesterday own village went and Mohan city 

Sohan went to his village yesterday and Amar went to the city. 

292

5. Lexicon 

293 

5. LEXICON 

Here we list useful classified English-Hindi vocabulary for quick 

reference. The vocabulary is listed under different sections: (1) 

animals, birds, and insects; (2) flowers, fruits, and vegetables; (3) 

jewels, metals, and minerals; (4) miscellaneous items; (5) body 

parts; (6) occupations; (7) kinship terms; (8) adjectives; (9) verbs; 

(10) adverbs; (11) conjunctions; and (12) pronouns. 

5.1. Animals, Birds, and Insects 

animal jaanavar ja:nvar / pašu 

ant caIMTI cĩ:t�i: 

bear BaalaU bha:lu: 

bedbug KTmala khat�mal 

bird icaiD,yaa / pxaI cir�iya: / pakši: 

buffalo BaoOMsa bhε~s 

bullock baOla bεl 

butterfly ittlaI titli: 

camel }ÐT ũ:t� 

cat iballaI billi: 

cock / rooster maugaa- murga: 

cockroach itlacaT\Ta tilcat�t�a: 

cow gaaya ga:y 

crow kaOAa køa: 

cuckoo kaoyala ko:yal 

deer ihrNa hiran� 

dog ku

5. LEXICON 

jackal gaIdD, gi:dar� 

kite caIla ci:l 

leopard toMduAa tendua: 

lion Saor šer 

lizard iCpklaI chipkali:� 

mare GaaoD,I ghor�i: 

monkey baMdr bandar 

mule Kccar khaccar 

owl ]llaU ullu: 

peacock maaor mo:r 

pig sauAr suar 

pigeon kbaUtr kabu:tar 

rat caUha cu:ha: 

scorpion ibacCU bicchu: 

sheep BaoD, bhe:r� 

snake saaÐp sã:p 

sparrow gaaOiryaa gørεya: 

squirrel igalahrI gilhari: 

swan hMsa hans 

tiger baaGa ba:gh 

wolf BaoiD,yaa bher�iya: 

worm kID,a ki:r�a: 

5.2. Flowers, Fruits, and Vegetables 

almond baadama ba:da:m 

apple saoba se:b 

apricot K,aobaanaI xo:ba:ni: 

banana kolaa ke:la: 

beet root caukMdr cukandar 

betel leaf pana pa:n 

betel nut sauparI supa:ri: 

bitter gourd krolaa kare:la: 

black plum AalaU bauKara a:lu: buxa:ra: 

brinjal / eggplant baOMgana bε~gan 

cabbage baMdgaaobaI bandgo:bi: 

carrot gaajar ga:jar 

cashew nut kajaU ka:ju: 

cauliflower fUlagaaobaI phu:lgo:bi: 

coconut naairyala na:riyal 

294

coriander Qainayaa dhaniya: 

cucumber (small) KIra khi:ra: 

custard apple SarIfa šari:pha: 

date KjaUr khaju:r 

fig AMjaIr anji:r 

garlic lahsauna lahsun 

ginger Adrk adrak 

gourd laaOkI løki: 

grape AMgaUr angu:r 

green chilie hrI imaca- hari: mirc 

groundnut maUÐgaflaI mu~:gphali: 

guava Ama$d amru:d 

jackfruit kThla kat�hal 

jasmine camaolaI came:li: 

lady’s finger ibaMDI bind�i: 

lemon naIbaU ni:bu: 

lichee laIcaI li:ci: 

lotus kmala kamal 

mango Aama a:m 

marigold gaoMda gẽda: 

(musk)melon KrbaUj,aa kharbu:za: 

mint pudInaa pudi:na: 

mulberry SahtUt šahtu:t 

onion Pyaaj,a pya:z 

orange naarÐgaI na:rangi: 

papaya ppIta papi:ta: 

pea maTr mat�ar 

peanut maUÐgaflaI mũ:gphali: 

pear naaSapatI na:špa:ti: 

pineapple Anaanaasa ananna:s 

pistachio nut ipsta pista: 

plum AalaU bauKara a:lu: buxa:ra: 

pumpkin kd\dU kaddu: 

pomegranate Anaar ana:r 

potato AalaU a:lu: 

raisin (small) ikSaimaSa kišmiš 

raisin (large) maunaka munakka: 

radish maUlaI mu:li: 

raspberry rsabarI rasbhari: 

spinach palak pa:lak 

sugar cane gannaa ganna: 

295 

5. LEXICON

5. LEXICON 

sweet lime maaOsamaI møsami: 

sweet potato SakrkMd šakarkand 

tomato TmaaTr t�ama:t�ar 

turnip Salagama šalgam 

walnut AKraoT akhro:t� 

watermelon trbaUja,a tarbu:za: 

5.3. Jewels, Metals, and Minerals 

aluminum AlamaUinayama almu:niyam 

brass pItla pi:tal 

bronze kaMsaa kã:sa: 

copper taÐbaa tã:ba: 

diamond hIra hi:ra: 

emerald pnnaa panna: 

gem maiNa / r%na man�i / ratn 

glass kaÐca kã:c 

gold saaonaa so:na: 

iron laaoha lo:ha: 

jewel javaahr java:har 

mercury para pa:ra: 

nickel inakla nikal 

pearl maaotI mo:ti: 

sapphire naIlama ni:lam 

silver caaÐdI cã:di: 

steel [spat ispa:t 

sulfur gaMQak gandhak 

tin TIna t�i:n 

topaz pUKraja pukhra:j 

zinc jasta jasta: 

5.4. Miscellaneous Items 

accident duGa-Tnaa durghat�na: 

acquaintance pircaya paricay 

admiration p`SaMsaa / tarIf, prašansa: / ta:ri:f 

age AayaU / ]ma` a:yu:/umar 

air hvaa hava: 

answer ]%tr uttar / java:b 

application pàqa-naa p~ pra:rthana: patr 

area [laaka ila:ka: 

296

ashes raK ra:kh 

autumn ptJaD, patjhar� 

baking pan tvaa tava: 

bark (of tree) iClka chilka: 

barley jaaO jø 

basket TaokrI t�o:kri: 

bath snaana sna:n 

behavior bat-ava barta:v 

bell GaMTa ghant�a: 

birthday janma idna janm-din 

boat naava na:v 

bread raoTI rot�i: 

bridge pula pul 

center koMd` kendr 

charcoal kaoyalaa koyla: 

child baccaa bacca: 

church igarjaa girja: 

city Sahr šahar 

class dja-a darja: 

cleanliness safa[- safa:i: 

cloud baadla ba:dal 

cold sadI- / ja,ukama sardi: / zuka:m 

comfort Aarama a:ra:m 

committee kmaoTI kamet�i: 

community samaaja sama:j 

complaint iSakayat šika:yat 

cooked rice Baat bha:t 

corn ma@kI makki: 

cough KaÐsaI khã:si: 

country doSa deš 

court of law Adalat ada:lat 

cup Pyaalaa pya:la: 

dance naaca na:c 

day idna din 

difficulty mauiSkla muškil 

dispensary icaik%saalaya cikitsa:lay 

district ija,laa zila: 

dust QaUla dhu:l 

earth pRqvaI prathvi: 

earthen oven caUlha cuhla: 

education iSaxaa / talaIma šikša: / ta:li:m 

297 

5. LEXICON

5. LEXICON 

egg AMD,a ãd�a: 

entertainment manaaorMjana manoranjan 

enquiry pUCtaC pu:chta:ch 

evening Saama ša:m 

exhibition p`dSa-naI / naumaa[Sa pradaršani: / numa:iš 

fare ikrayaa / BaaD,a kira:ya: / bha:r�a: 

fatigue qakana thaka:n 

favor kRpa kripa: 

fear Dr d�ar 

feast davat da:vat 

feather pMK pankh 

fever jvar / bauKar jvar / buxa:r 

frying pan kD,a[- kar�a:i: 

fire Aaga a:g 

flag JaMDa jhãd�a: 

fog kuhra/QaÐuMQa kuhra: / dhũdh 

foreigner ivadoSaI videši: 

forest jaMgala / vana jangal / van 

fountain fvvaara favva:ra: 

fun maja,ak / tmaaSaa maza:k / tama:ša: 

gift ]phar upha:r 

grass Gaasa gha:s 

harbor baMdrgaah bandarga:h 

health svaasqya swasthy 

heat gamaI- garmi: 

help madd / sahayata madad / saha:yita: 

hobby SaaOk šøk 

holiday Cu+I chut�t�i: 

horn saIMga sĩ:g 

hospital Asptala aspata:l 

hunger BaUK bhu:kh 

ice baf- barf 

information saUcanaa su:cna: 

intoxication naSaa naša: 

introduction pircaya paricay 

island TapU / WIp t�a:pu: / dvi:p 

joke maja,ak maza:k 

journey yaa~a safr ya:tra: / safar 

kidney beans rajamaah ra:jma:h 

kindness kRpa / maohrbaanaI meharba:ni: / kripa: 

ladle klaCI kalchi: 

298

lane galaI gali: 

language BaaYaa / ja,baana bha:ša: / zaba:n 

leaf p

5. LEXICON 

police station qaanaa tha:na: 

praise p`SaMsaa / tarIf prašansa: / ta:ri:f 

prayer pàqa-naa / duAa pra:rthana: / dua: 

present ]phar upha:r 

price kImat ki:mat 

procession jalaUsa jalu:s 

program kaya-k`ma ka:ryakram 

port baMdrgaah bandarga:h 

quarrel JagaD,a jhagr�a: 

question p`Sna / savaala prašan / sava:l 

rain vaYaa- / baairSa varša: / ba:riš 

rainy season barsaat barsa:t 

regret Kod / Afsaaosa khed / afsos 

religion Qama- dharm 

rent ikrayaa kira:ya: 

repair marmmat marmmat 

reply ]

spoon cammaca cammac 

spring vasaMt / bahar vasant / baha:r 

star tara tara: 

stick saaoTI so:t�i: 

stone p%qar patthar 

storm AaÐQaI ã:dhi: 

sugar caInaI ci:ni: 

summer gamaI- garmi: 

sun saUya- / saUrja su:ry / su:raj 

sunshine QaUp dhu:p 

tail duma dum 

temple maMidr mandir 

tent tmbaU tambu: 

thanks Qanyavaad / Sauik`yaa dhanyava:d / šukriya: 

thief caaor cor 

thirst Pyaasa pya:s 

time samaya samay 

tobacco tmbaakU tamba:ku: 

town nagar nagar / šahar 

translation Anauvaad anuva:d 

travel yaa~a ya:tra: / safar 

traveler yaa~I / mausaaifr ya:tri: / musa:fir 

treatment [laaja ila:j 

trouble kYT / tklaIf kašt / takli:f 

truth saca sac 

valley vaadI va:di: 

value maUlya / kImat mu:ly / ki:mat 

vessel bat-na bartan 

village gaàma / gaaÐva gra:m / ga:ũ 

visitor dSa-k daršak 

vomit ]lTI ult�i: 

wash Qaulaa[- dhula:i: 

water panaI pa:ni: 

waterfall Jarnaa jharna: 

week saPtah / hFta sapta:h / hafta: 

wealth samapit / daOlat sampati / dølat 

weight Baar / vaja,na bha:r / vazan 

west piScama pašcim 

wheat gaohUÐ gehũ: 

wind hvaa hava: 

winter sadI- / jaaD,a sardi: / ja:r�a: 

301 

5. LEXICON

5. LEXICON 

woman AaOrt ørat 

world saMsaar sansa:r / duniya: 

worship pUjaa pu:ja: 

wood lakD,I lakr�i: 

year saala sal 

zoo icaiD,yaaGar cir�iya:ghar 

5.5. Body Parts 

arm baaÐh bã:h 

armpit bagala bagal 

beard daZ,I da:r�hi: 

body SarIr šari:r 

bone hD\D,I had�d�i: 

brain idmaaga / maistSak dima:g / mastišk 

breast stna stan 

cheek gaala ga:l 

chest CaatI cha:ti: 

chin zaoD,I t�hor�i: 

ear kana ka:n 

elbow kaohnaI kohni: 

eye AaÐK ã:kh 

eyeball putlaI putli: 

eyebrow BaaOM bhø) 

eyelid plak palak 

face caohra cehra: 

finger ]ÐgalaI ũgli: 

fist mauT\zI mut�t�hi: 

flesh maaÐsa / gaaoSt mã:s / go:sht 

foot pOr pεr 

forehead maaqaa ma:tha: 

gum jabaD,a jabr�a: 

hand haqa ha:th 

(left) hand baayaaÐ haqa ba:yã: ha:th 

(right) hand dayaaMÐ haqa da:yã: ha:th 

hair baala ba:l 

head isar sir 

heart )dya / idla hriday / dil 

heel eD,I er�i: 

intestines AntiDyaaÐ antar�iyã: 

302

knee GauTnaa ghut�na: 

leg TaMÐga t�ã:g 

lips AaoMz õt�h 

liver klaojaI kale:ji: 

lung fofD,a phe:phr�a: 

mouth mauMÐh mũh 

mustaches maUC mu:ch 

nail naaKUna na:khu:n 

navel naaBaI na:bhi: 

neck gad-na gardan 

nose naak na:k 

palate talaU ta:lu: 

palm hqaolaI hathe:li: 

rib psalaI pasli: 

shoulder kMQaa kandha: 

skin cama- carm 

sole of foot tlavaa talva: 

stomach poT pet� 

teeth daÐt dã:t 

thigh jaaÐGa jã:gh 

throat galaa gala: 

thumb AÐgaUza ãgu:t�ha: 

tongue jaIba / ja,baana ji:b / zaba:n 

vein nasa nas 

waist kmar kamar 

wrist klaa[- kala:i: 

5.6. Occupations 

303 

5. LEXICON 

accountant laoKakar le:kha:ka:r 

advocate vakIla vaki:l 

actor AiBanaota abhine:ta: 

actress AiBanao~I abhine:tri: 

artist klaakar / Adakar kala:ka:r / ada:ka:r 

artisan karIgar ka:ri:gar 

barber naa[- na:i: 

blacksmith lauhar luha:r 

boatman mallaah malla:h 

carpenter baZ,[- bar�hai: 

cartman gaaD,Ivaana ga:r�i:va:n 

clerk ilaipk lipik / klark

5. LEXICON 

cobbler maaocaI mo:chi: 

confectioner hlavaa[- halwa:i: 

contractor zokodar t�he:keda:r 

cook rsaao[yaa raso:iya: 

craftsman karIgar ka:ri:gar 

dentist dMt icaik%sak dant-chikitsak 

doctor Da@Tr d�a:kt�ar 

driver D,/a[var d�rεvar 

editor sampadk sampa:dak 

employee kma-caarI karamca:ri: 

engineer [MjaIinayar inji:niyar 

farmer iksaana kisa:n 

gatekeeper drbaana darba:n 

gardener maalaI ma:li: 

goldsmith saunaar suna:r 

grocer pMsaarI pansa:ri: 

hawker forIvaalaa phe:ri:va:la: 

journalist p~kar patraka:r 

judge nyaayaaQaISa nya:ya:dhi:š: 

laborer maja,dUr mazdu:r 

lawyer vakIla vaki:l 

maidservant naaOkranaI nøkara:ni: 

mason raja ra:j 

merchant vyaaparI vya:pa:ri: 

minister maM~I mantri: 

musician gaayak / gaaiyaka ga:yak / ga:yika: 

nurse nasa- nars 

officer AiQakarI adhika:ri: 

optician eonaksaaja, εnaksa:z 

peon caprasaI capra:si: 

photographer faoTaogaàfr pho:t�o:gra:phar 

poet kiva kavi 

police sub-inspector qaanaodar tha:ne:da:r 

postman Daikyaa d�a:kiya: 

prime minister p`Qaana maM~I pradha:n mantri: 

printer maudk- mudrak 

porter kulaI kuli: 

proprietor maailak ma:lik 

publisher p`kaSak praka:šak 

salesman ivakòta vikre:ta: 

scientist vaO&ainak vεgya:nik 

304

305 

5. LEXICON 

sculptor iSalpI šilpi: 

servant naaOOkr nøkar 

shopkeeper dukanadar duka:nda:r 

singer gaayak /gaaiyaka ga:yak / ga:yika: 

soldier isapahI sipa:hi: 

student ivaVaqaI- vidya:rthi: 

supervisor pirvaoxak paryave:kšak: 

sweet-seller hlavaa[- halva:i: 

tailor dja,I- darzi: 

teacher AVapk / iSaxak adhya:pak / šikšak 

translator Anauvaadk anuva:dak 

washerman QaaobaI dho:bi: 

watchmaker GaD,Isaaja, ghar�i:sa:z: 

watchman caaOkIdar cøki:da:r 

writer laoKk le:khak 

(petition) writer Aja,I- navaIsa arzi: navi:s 

5.7. Kinship Terms 

adopted son d

5. LEXICON 

father’s sister’s daughter fuforI bahna phupheri: bahan 

husband pit pa:ti 

husband’s brother dovar de:var: 

husband’s brother’s wife dovaranaI dev:ra:ni: 

husband’s father sasaur sasur 

husband’s mother saasa sa:s 

husband’s sister nanad nanad 

mother maata / maaÐ ma:ta: / mã: 

mother’s brother maamaa ma:ma: 

mother’s sister maasaI ma:si: 

mother’s sister’s husband maaOsaa mø:sa: 

mother’s father’s brother cacaora naanaa cacera: na:na: 

mother’s father’s brother’s wife cacaorI naanaI caceri: na:ni: 

mother’s father naanaa na:na: 

mother’s mother naanaI na:ni: 

father’s father’s father pD,dada par� da:da: 

father’s father’s mother pD,dadI par� da:di: 

mother’s father’s father pD,naanaa par� na:na: 

mother’s brother’s son mamaora Baa[- mam:era: bha:i: 

mother’s brother’s daughter mamaorI bahna mam:eri: bahan: 

mother’s sister’s daughter maaOsaorI bahna møs:eri: bahan 

mother’s sister’s son maaOsaora Baa[- møsera: bha:i: 

sister bahna bahan 

sister, elder baD,I bahna bar�i: bahan 

sister, younger CaoTI bahna chot�i: ba:han 

son baoTa / pu~ be:t�a: / putr 

sister’s son BaaMÐjaa bhã:ja: 

sister’s daughter BaaMÐjaI bhã:ji: 

sister’s husband jaIjaa / bahnaao[- ji:ja: / bahno:i: 

son’s son paota pota: 

son’s daughter paotI poti: 

wife p%naI pat:ni: / bi:vi: 

wife’s brother saalaa sa:la: 

wife’s father sasaur sasur 

wife’s mother saasa sa:s 

wife’s sister saalaI sa:li: 

son’s wife bahU ba:hu: 

stepfather saaOtolaa baap søtela: ba:p 

stepmother saaOtolaI maaÐ søteli: mã: 

stepbrother saaOtolaa Baa[- søtela: bha:i: 

306

stepsister saaOtlaI bahna søteli: bahan 

5.8. Adjectives 

accurate sahI / zIk sahi: / t�hi:k 

airy hvadar hava:da:r 

ancient AtIk / puranaa ati:k / pura:na: 

bad baura / K,raba bura: / xara:b 

beautiful sauMdr / K,UbasaUrt sundar / khu:bsu:rat 

big baD,a / ivaSaala bar�a: / visha:l 

bitter kD,vaa kar�va: 

black kalaa ka:la: 

blue naIlaa ni:la: 

broad caaOD,a cør�a: 

brown BaUra bhu:ra: 

cheap sasta saasta: 

clean saaf sa:f 

clear spYT spašt� 

clever haoiSayaar ho:šiya:r / catur 

closed baMd band 

coarse maaoTa mo:t�a: 

cold zMD,a t�hãd�a: 

complete pUra pu:ra: 

correct sahI sahi: 

costly mahÐgaa mahãga: 

cunning caalaak ca:la:k 

dear Pyaara pya:ra: 

defective K,raba xara:b 

dense Ganaa ghana: 

difficult kizna / mauiSkla kat�hin / muškil 

direct saIQaa si:dha: 

dirty gaMda gãda: 

dry saUKa su:kha: 

each hr ek / p`%yaok har ek / pratyek 

easy Aasaana a:sa:n 

educated pZ,a ilaKa par�ha:-likha: 

elder jyaoYT / baD,a jye: št� / bar�a: 

empty K,alaI xa:li: 

entire saara sa:ra: 

every p`%yak pratye:k 

307 

5. LEXICON

5. LEXICON 

fast toja / tIva`, te:z / ti:vr 

fat maaoTa mo:t�a: 

few kma / kuC kam / kuch 

filthy gaMda gãda: 

fine baarIk / zIk ba:ri:k / t�hi:k 

final Aintma / AaK,rI antim / a:xiri: 

foolish maUK- mu:rkh / be:vaku:f 

foreign ivadoSaI vide:ši 

free svatM~ / Aaja,ad svatantr / a:za:d 

fresh taja,a ta:za: 

golden saunahlaa / saunahrI sunhala: / sunhari: 

good AcCa acchha: 

greasy icaknaa cikna: 

great baD,a / mahana bar�a: / maha:n 

green hra hara: 

handsome sauMdr / K,UbasaUrt sũdar / khu:bsu:rat 

hard sa#t / maauiSkla saxt: / muškil 

heavy BaarI bha:ri: 

high }Ðcaa ũ:ca: 

hot garma garam 

important AavaSyak / ja,$rI xa:však / zaru:ri: 

incomplete AQaUra adhu:ra: 

independent svatM~ / Aaja,ad savatantr / a:za:d 

inferior GaiTyaa ghat�iya: 

intelligent haoiSayaar / danaa hošiya:r / da:na: 

large baD,a bar�a: 

last Aintma / AaK,rI antim / a:xiri: 

left baayaaÐM ba:ya~: 

lengthy laMbaa lamba: 

less kma kam 

light hlka halka: 

little ja,ra / qaaoD,a zara: / thor�a: 

lonely Akolaa ake:la: 

long laMbaa lamba: 

loose Z,Ilaa d�hi:la: 

low naIcaa ni:ca: 

many k[- / Anaok kai: / ane:k 

modern AaQauinak a:dhunik 

more AaOr /AiQak �r / adhik 

much bahut /AiQak / j,yaada bahut / adhik / zya:da 

308

new nayaa naya: 

old puranaa pura:na: 

open Kulaa khula: 

opposite ]lTa ult�a: 

orange naarMgaI na:rangi: 

peculiar AjaIba / ivaica~ aji:b / vicitr 

permanent p@ka / sqaa[- pakka: / stha:i: 

pink gaulaabaI gula:bi: 

poor garIba gari:b 

proper ]icat ucit 

pungent tIKa ti:kha: 

pure Saud\Qa šuddh 

raw kccaa kacca: 

red laala la:l 

remaining baakI ba:ki: 

rich AmaIr ami:r 

right sahI / zIk sahi: / t�hi:k 

ripe p@ka pakka: 

robust tgaD,a tagr�a: 

round gaaola go:l 

salty namakIna namki:n 

several k[- / Anaok kai: / ane:k 

sharp toja, te:z 

short CaoTa cho:t�a: 

simple saIQaa / Aasaana si:dha: / a:sa:n 

single Akolaa ake:la 

slow QaImaa dhi:ma: 

small CaoTa chot�a: 

smart haoiSayaar ho:šiya:r 

smooth icaknaa cikna: 

soft maulaayama / nama- mula:yam / naram 

sour K+a khat�t�a: 

special ivaSaoYa / K,asa višeš / xa:s 

spicy caTpTa cat�pat�a: 

stale baasaI ba:si: 

stopped baMd band 

straight saIQaa si:dha: 

strange AjaIba / ivaica~ aji:b / vicitr 

strong tgaD,a / maja,baUt tagr�a: / mazbu:t 

stupid maUK- / baovakUf, mu:rkh / bevaku:f 

suitable ]icat ucit 

309 

5. LEXICON

5. LEXICON 

sweet maIza mi:t�ha: 

tall laMbaa lamba: 

tasteless fIka phi:ka: 

temporary Asqaa[- astha:i: 

tender kaomala ko:mal 

thick maaoTa mo:t�a: 

thin ptlaa patla: 

total kula kul 

true sahI / saccaa sahi: / sacca: 

unripe kccaa kacca: 

vacant K,alaI xa:li: 

violet baOMganaI bε~gani: 

warm gaunagaunaa gunguna: 

weak kmaja,aor kamzor 

wet gaIlaa gi:la: 

wide caaOD,a cør�a: 

white saf,od / Svaot safe:d / švet 

whole saara sa:ra: 

wounded Aaht / Gaayala a:hat / gha:yal 

wrong galat galat 

yellow pIlaa pi:la: 

young(er) CaoTa cho:t�a: 

5.9. Verbs 

to accept svaaIkar krnaa svi:ka:r karna: 

to admit maananaa / daiK,la krnaa ma:nna: / da:xil karna: 

to (be) alive jaInaa ji:na: 

to ask for maaÐganaa mã:gna: 

to bathe naahnaa naha:na: 

to be haonaa ho:na: 

to bear sahnaa sahna: 

to beat pITnaa pi:t�na: 

to become bananaa banna: 

to bite kaTnaa ka:t�na: 

to boil ]vaalanaa uba:lna: 

to (be) born pOda haonaa p´da: ho:na: 

to break taoD,naa to:r�na 

to bring laanaa la:na: 

to bring up paalanaa pa:lna 

to (be) broken TUTnaa t�u:t�na: 

310

311 

5. LEXICON 

to build banaanaa / inama-aNa krnaa bana:na: / nirma:n� karna: 

to burn jalaanaa jala:na: 

to buy K,rIdnaa xari:dna: 

to call baulaanaa bula:na: 

to catch pkD,naa pakar�na: 

to celebrate manaanaa mana:na: 

to chew cabaanaa caba:na: 

to cleanse saaf krnaa sa:f karna: 

to climb caZ,naa car�hna: 

to come Aanaa a:na: 

to come out inaklanaa nikalna: 

to conceal iCpanaa chipa:na: 

to conquer jaItnaa ji:tna: 

to cook pkaanaa / Kanaa banaanaa paka:na: / kha:na: bana:na: 

to cool zMD,a krnaa t�hãd�a: karna: 

to cough KaÐsanaa khã:sna 

to count igananaa ginna: 

to cover Z,knaa d�hakna: 

to cry raonaa ro:na: 

to cry out icallaanaa cilla:na: 

to cut kaTnaa ka:t�na: 

to decorate sajaanaa saja:na: 

to defeat hranaa hara:na 

to deposit jamaa krnaa jama: karna: 

to desire caahnaa ca:hna: 

to die marnaa marna: 

to distribute baaÐTnaa bã:t�na: 

to divide Baaga krnaa / baaÐTnaa bha:g karna: / bã:t�na: 

to do krnaa karna: 

to drag GasaITnaa ghasi:t�na: 

to draw KIMcanaa khĩ:cna: 

to drink pInaa pi:na: 

to drive calaanaa cala:na: 

to drive away inaklanaa nika:lna: 

to earn kmaanaa kama:na: 

to eat Kanaa kha:na: 

to endure sahnaa / bardaSt krnaa sahna: / barda:št karna: 

to enquire pUCtaC krnaa pu:chta:ch karna: 

to entrust saaOMpnaa sø~pna: 

to envy [-Yaa- krnaa i:rša: karna: 

to escape bacanaa bacna:

5. LEXICON 

to examine jaaÐcanaa jã:cna: 

to expect p`tIxaa krnaa prati:kša: 

to expel inakalanaa nika:lna: 

to fall igarnaa girna: 

to fight laD,naa lar�na: 

to flee Baaganaa bha:gna: 

to flow bahnaa bahna: 

to fly ]D,naa / ]D,anaa ur�na: (int) / ur�a:na: (tr) 

to fry tlanaa talna: 

to forget BaUlanaa bhu:lna: 

to get panaa pa:na: 

to get down ]trnaa utarna: 

to get out inaklanaa nikalna: 

to get up ]znaa ut�hna: 

to give donaa de:na: 

to grind pIsanaa pi:sna: 

to grow ]%padna krnaa / baZ,naa utpa:dan karna: / bar�hna: 

to halt zhrnaa / Éknaa t�haharna: / rukna: 

to happen haonaa ho:na: 

to hear saunanaa sunna: 

to heat gama- krnaa garm karna: 

to help madd / sahayata krnaa madad / saha:yta: karna: 

to hide iCpanaa chipa:na: 

to hold pkD,naa samhalanaa pakar�na: / samha:lna: 

to increase baZ,anaa bar�ha:na: 

to inform batanaa / saUicat krnaa bata:na: / su:cit karna: 

to join imalanaa milna: 

to jump kUdnaa ku:dna: 

to keep rKnaa rakhna: 

to kill maarnaa ma:rna: 

to kiss caUmanaa cu:mna: 

to knead gaÐUMdnaa gũ:dna: 

to know jaananaa ja:nna: 

to laugh hÐsanaa hãsna: 

to learn saIKnaa si:khna: 

to leave CaoD,naa chor�na: 

to lie JaUz baaolanaa jhu:t�h bo:lna: 

to lie down laoTnaa le:t�na: 

to lift ]zanaa ut�ha:na 

to like caahnaa / psaMd krnaa ca:hna: / pasand karna: 

312

to listen saunanaa sunna: 

to live jaInaa / rhnaa ji:na: / rahna: 

to look doKnaa de:khna: 

to lose Kaonaa kho:na: 

to make banaanaa / tOyaar krnaa bana:na: / tεya:r� karna: 

to meet imalanaa milna: 

to mix imalaanaa mila:na: 

to occur haonaa ho:na: 

to open Kaolanaa kho:lna: 

to (be) perturbed gabaD,anaa ghabr�a:na: 

to place rKnaa rakhna: 

to play Kolanaa khe:lna: 

to pluck taoD,naa tor�na: 

to plunder laUTnaa lu:t�na: 

to possess rKnaa rakhna: 

to prepare banaanaa bana:na: / tεyar karna: 

to print Capnaa cha:pna: 

to protect bacaanaa baca:na: / rakša: karna: 

to pull KIMcanaa khĩ:cna: 

to purchase K,rIdnaa xari:dna 

to put on phnanaa pahanna: 

to quarrel JagaD,naa jhagar�na: 

to raise ]zanaa ut�ha:na: 

to reach phuÐcanaa pahũcna: 

to read pZ,naa par�hna: 

to reap kaTnaa ka:t�na: 

to receive panaa pa:na: 

to recognize phcaananaa pahca:nna: 

to refund laaOTanaa / vaaipsa krnaa løt�a:na: / va:pas karna: 

to release CaoD,naa chor�na: 

to relax Aarama krnaa a:ra:m karna: 

to remit Ada krnaa ada: karna: 

to reside rhnaa / inavaasa krnaa rahna: / niva:s karna: 

to return laaOTnaa løt�na: / løt�a:na: 

to resolve GaUmanaa ghu:mna: 

to rise ]znaa / jaaganaa ut�hna: / ja:gna: 

to roast baunanaa bunna: 

to run daOD,naa dør�na: 

to save bacaanaa baca:na: 

to say khnaa kahna: 

313 

5. LEXICON

5. LEXICON 

to search Z,UÐZnaa / Kaojanaa d�hũ:d�hna: / khojna: 

to see doKnaa de:khna 

to sell baocanaa be:cna: 

to send Baojanaa bhe:jna: 

to set (as sun) DUbanaa d�u:bna: 

to settle down basana basna: 

to shine camaknaa camakna: 

to shiver kaÐpnaa kã:pna: 

to sink DUbanaa d�u:bna: 

to sing gaanaa ga:na: 

to sit baOznaa bε:t�hna: 

to sleep saaonaa sona: 

to smile mauskranaa muskara:na: 

to speak baaolanaa bo:lna: / bha:šan� de:na: 

to spend ibatanaa / Kca- krnaa bita:na: / kharc karna: 

to start inaklanaa / AarMBa krnaa nikalna: / a:rambh karna: 

to stay zhrnaa t�hahrna: 

to steal cauranaa cura:na: 

to stir ihlaanaa hila:na: 

to stitch saInaa si:na: 

to stop Éknaa rukna: 

to stroll Thlanaa t�ahalna: 

to study pZ,naa par�hna: 

to support samBaalanaa / sahara donaa sambha:lna: / saha:ra: dena: 

to suppress dbaanaa daba:na: 

to swim tOrna t´rna: 

to take laonaa le:na: 

to take out inakalanaa nika:lna: 

to teach isaKanaa / pZ,anaa sikha:na: / par�ha:na: 

to tear off faD,naa pha:r�na: 

to tell batanaa / khnaa bata:na: / kahna: 

to test jaaÐcanaa jã:cna: 

to think saaocanaa socna: 

to throw fOMknaa phẽ:kna: 

to tolerate sahnaa sahna: 

to touch CUnaa chu:na: 

to travel yaa~a krnaa ya:tra: / safar karna: 

to tremble kaÐpnaa kã:pna: 

to twinkle camaknaa camakna: 

to understand samaJanaa samajhna: 

314

315 

5. LEXICON 

to violate taoD,naa tor�na: 

to wait p`tIxaa krnaa prati:kša: karna: 

to wake up jaaganaa ja:gna: 

to walk calanaa calna: 

to wander GaUmanaa ghu:mna: 

to wash Qaaonaa dho:na: 

to wear phnanaa pahanna: 

to weep raonaa ro:na: 

to weigh taolanaa to:lna: 

to welcome svaagat krnaa sva:gat karna: 

to win jaItnaa ji:tna: 

to wish caahnaa ca:hna: / iccha: karna: 

to work kama krnaa ka:m karna: 

to worship pUjaa krnaa pu:ja: karna: / iba:dat karna: 

to write ilaKnaa likhna: 

5.10. Adverbs 

above }pr u:par 

abundantly K,Uba xu:b 

after baad / pICo ba:d / pi:che: 

after all AaiKr a:xir 

afterwards baad maoM ba:d: mẽ 

ahead Aagao a:ge: 

alone Akolao ake:le: 

also BaI bhi: 

always hmaoSaa / sada hameša: / sada: 

among baIca bi:c 

anytime kBaI BaI kabhi: bhi: 

anywhere khIM kahĩ: 

at last AaiKr / AMt maoM a:xir / ant mẽ 

away dUr du:r 

because @yaaoMik kyõ:ki 

before phlao / Aagao pahle: / a:ge: 

behind pICo pi:che: 

below naIcao ni:ce: 

between baIca / maQya bi:c / madhy 

certainly AvaSya / ja,$r avašy / zaru:r 

constantly barabar bara:bar 

continuously lagaatar laga:ta:r 

day after tomorrow prsaaoM parsõ:

5. LEXICON 

distant dUr du:r 

down naIcao ni:ce: 

ever hmaoSaa hame:ša: 

everywhere hr jagah har jagah 

far off bahut dUr bahut du:r 

generally pàya: / A@sar pra:yah / aksar 

here yahaÐ yahã: 

how kOsao kεse: 

immediately turMt / faOrna turant / føran 

in front of ko Aagao ke a:ge 

in the presence of ko saamanao ke sa:mne 

just now ABaI abhi: 

near pasa / samaIp pa:s / sami:p 

no na / nahIM na / nahĩ: 

not nahIM nahĩ: 

now Aba ab 

nowadays Aajakla a:jkal 

often paya: / A@sar pra:yah / aksar 

of course baoSak be:šak 

only kovala / isaf- ke:val / sirf 

out baahr ba:har 

outside baahr ba:har 

perhaps Saayad ša:yad 

probably Saayad ša:yad 

quickly jaldI jaldi: 

quite ibalkula bilkul 

silently caupcaap cupca:p 

slowly QaIro dhi:re: 

sometimes kBaI kBaI kabhi:-kabhi: 

somewhere khIM kahĩ: 

suddenly Acaanak aca:nak / eka:ek 

today Aaja a:j 

tomorrow kla kal 

(in) that direction ]Qar udhar 

then tba tab 

(in) this direction [Qar idhar 

thus yaaoM yõ: 

under naIcao ni:ce 

undoubtedly baoSak be:šak 

unexpectedly Acaanak aca:nak 

upward }pr u:par 

316

very bahut bahut 

well K,Uba xu:b 

(at) which direction ikQar kidhar 

when (interrogative) kba kab 

when (relative) jaba jab 

where (interrogative) khaÐ kahã: 

where (relative) jahaÐ jahã: 

whether caaho ca:he 

wholly ibalkula bilkul 

yesterday kla kal 

5.11. Conjunctions 

317 

5. LEXICON 

although yaVip / halaaMik yadyapi / ha:lã:ki 

again ifr phir 

and AaOr / tqaa ør / tatha: 

but laoikna / ikMtu / prMtu / bailk lekin / kintu / parantu / balki 

hence [sailae isliye 

or yaa ya: 

since caUMik cũ:ki 

so [sailae isliye: 

so that taik ta:ki 

that ik ki 

though yaVip / halaaÐMik yadyapi / ha:lã:ki 

5.12. Pronouns 

any / anybody kao[- ko:i: / kisi: 

he vah yah ]sa [sa vah / yah / us / is 

I maOM / mauJa mε∫ / mujh 

it yah / [sa yah / is 

my maora me:ra: 

one’s own Apnaa apna: 

our hmaara hama:ra: 

she vah yah ]sa [sa vah / yah / us / is 

some kuC kuch 

somebody kao[- ko:i: / kisi: 

something kuC kuch 

these yao / [na ye / in 

they vao / ]na ve / un 

this yah / [sa yah / is

5. LEXICON 

those vao / ]na ve / un 

thou tU / tuJa tu: / tujh 

thy tora te:ra: 

you (familiar) tuma tum 

you (polite) Aap a:p 

your (faniliar) tumhara tumha:ra: 

your (polite) Aapka a:pka: 

we hma ham 

what @yaa kya: 

who (interrogative) kaOna / iksa / ikna køn / kis / kin 

who (relative) jaao / ijasa / ijana jo / jis / jin 

318

Modern Hindi Grammar - IILS

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