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A Complete Grammar of Esperanto 1 

A Complete Grammar of Esperanto 

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Title: A Complete Grammar of Esperanto 

Author: Ivy Kellerman 

Release Date: March, 2005 [EBook #7787] [Yes, we are more than one year ahead of schedule] [This file was 

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Edition: 10 

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*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 

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Produced by William W. Patterson, Carlo Traverso, Charles Franks and the Online Distributed Proofreading 

Team. We thank the Case Western Reserve University Library Preservation Department that has given us the 

image files with which the present e−book has been prepared. 

TRANSCRIBER'S NOTE: 

The Esperanto alphabet contains 28 characters. These are the characters of English, but with "q", "w", "x", and 

"y" removed, and six diacritical letters added. The diacritical letters are "c", "g", "h", "j" and "s" with 

circumflexes (or "hats", as Esperantists fondly call them), and "u" with a breve. Zamenhof himself suggested 

that where the diacritical letters caused difficulty, one could instead use "ch", "gh", "hh", "jh", "sh" and "u". A 

plain ASCII file is one such place; there are no ASCII codes for Esperanto's special letters. 

However, there are two problems with Zamenhof's "h−method". There is no difference between "u" and "u" 

with a breve, and there is no way to determine (without prior knowledge of the word(s) involved, and 

sometimes a bit of context) whether an "h" following one of those other five letters is really the second half of


a diacritical pair, or just an "h" that happened to find itself next to one of them. Consequently other, 

unambiguous, methods have been used over the years. One is the "x−method", which uses the digraphs "cx", 

"gx", "hx", "jx", "sx" and "ux" to represent the special letters. There is no ambiguity because the letter "x" is 

not an Esperanto letter, and each diacritical letter has a unique transliteration. This is the method used in this 

Project Gutenberg e−text. 

A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO 

THE INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE 

WITH GRADED EXERCISES FOR READING AND TRANSLATION TOGETHER WITH FULL 

VOCABULARIES 

BY IVY KELLERMAN, A.M., Ph.D. 

MEMBER OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE AND CHAIRMAN OF EXAMINATIONS FOR THE 

ESPERANTO ASSOCIATION OF NORTH AMERICA, MEMBER OF THE INTERNATIONAL "LINGVA 

KOMITATO" 

* * * * * 

TO 

DR. L. L. ZAMENHOF 

THE AUTHOR OF ESPERANTO 

* * * * * 

PREFACE. 

This volume has been prepared to meet a twofold need. An adequate presentation of the International 

Language has become an imperative necessity. Such presentation, including full and accurate grammatical 

explanations, suitably graded reading lessons, and similarly graded material for translation from English, has 

not heretofore been accessible within the compass of a single volume, or in fact within the compass of any 

two or three volumes. 

The combination of grammar and reader here offered is therefore unique. It is to furnish not merely an 

introduction to Esperanto, or a superficial acquaintance with it, but a genuine understanding of the language 

and mastery of its use without recourse to additional textbooks, readers, etc. In other words, this one volume 

affords as complete a knowledge of Esperanto as several years' study of a grammar and various readers will 

accomplish for any national language. Inflection, word−formation and syntax are presented clearly and 

concisely, yet with a degree of completeness and in a systematic order that constitute a new feature. Other 

points worthy of note are the following: 

The reasons for syntactical usages are given, instead of mere statements that such usages exist. For example, 

clauses of purpose and of result are really explained, instead of being dismissed with the unsatisfactory 

remark that "the imperative follows 'por ke,'" or the "use of 'tiel ... ke' and 'tia ... ke' must be distinguished 

from that of 'tiel ... kiel' and 'tia ... kia,'" etc., with but little intimation of when and why "por ke", "tiel ... ke" 

and "tia ... ke" are likely to occur. 

Affixes are not mentioned until some familiarity with the general character of the language is assured, as well


as the possession of a fair vocabulary. They are introduced gradually, with adequate explanation and 

illustration. Of importance in connection with word−formation is an element distinctly new−−the explanation 

and classification of compound words. Such words, like affixes, are withheld until the use of simple words is 

familiar. 

Another new feature is the gradual introduction of correlative words in their logical order, and in their proper 

grammatical categories, before they are called "correlatives," or tabulated. The tabulation finally presented is 

a real classification, with regard to the meaning and grammatical character of the words, not merely an 

arbitrary alphabetical arrangement. The use of primary adverbs precedes the explanation of adverb derivation; 

prepositions, especially "de", "da", "je", etc., receive careful attention, also the verb system, and the 

differentiation of words whose English equivalents are ambiguous. 

A general characteristic of obvious advantage is that almost without exception new forms and constructions 

are illustrated by means of words or roots already familiar. Likewise, the new words or roots of each lesson 

recur at least once in the next lesson, and usually in some lesson thereafter as well. Each reading exercise 

gives not only a thorough application of the grammatical principles of the lesson, but a review of those in the 

preceding lesson, and no use is made of words or constructions not yet explained. The comparative ease of the 

language, and the lack of necessity for reciting paradigms, permit the reading exercises to be long enough for 

the student to feel that he has really mastered something. These exercises are further unique, in that each after 

the fifth is a coherent narrative, and nearly every one is a story of genuine interest in itself. These stories, if 

bound separately, would alone constitute a reader equivalent to those used in first and second year work in 

national languages. (For list of titles, see Table of Contents.) 

The second element of the twofold need which this volume meets is the necessity for a presentation of 

Esperanto, not as a thing apart, but in that form which will make it most serviceable as an introduction to 

national tongues. A stepping−stone to both ancient and modern languages, Esperanto may render invaluable 

aid, and pave the way for surmounting the many difficulties confronting both student and teacher. Through 

Esperanto, the labor in the acquirement of these languages may be reduced in the same proportion in which 

the pleasure and thoroughness of such acquirement are increased. For this reason, the grammatical 

constructions of Esperanto are here explained as consistently as possible in accordance with the usage of 

national languages, especially those in the school curriculum, and precise names are assigned to them. Such 

matters as "contrary to fact conditions", "indirect quotations", "clauses of purpose" and "of result", 

"accusatives of time" and "measure", "expressions of separation", "reference", etc., thus become familiar to 

the student, long before he meets them in the more difficult garb of a national tongue, whose exceptions seem 

to outnumber its rules, and whose idioms prove more puzzling than its exceptions, unless approached by the 

smooth and gradual ascent of the International Language, Esperanto. 

Ivy Kellerman. 

Washington, D. C., August 3, 1910. 

* * * * * 

TABLE OF CONTENTS. 

LESSON I. Alphabet.−−Vowels.−−Consonants.−−Names of the Letters.−− Diphthongs.−−Combinations of 

Consonants.−−Syllables.−−Accent. II. Nouns.−−The Article.−−Adjectives.−−Attributive Adjectives.−− 

Present Tense of the Verb III. The Plural Number.−−Predicate Adjective and Noun IV. Transitive 

Verbs.−−The Accusative Case.−−The Conjunction "Kaj".−−The Negative "Ne". V. The Complementary 

Infinitive.−−Interrogation.−−The Conjunction "Nek". VI. Personal Pronouns.−−Agreement with 

Pronouns.−−Conjugation of the Verb. VII. The Past Tense.−−Prepositions.−−Accusative Case of Personal 

Pronouns. VIII. Reflexive Pronouns.−−Reflexive Verbs. IX. Limitation of the Third Personal


Pronoun.−−Possessive Adjectives.−−Pronominal Use of Possessive Adjectives.−−"La Kato kaj la Pasero". X. 

The Accusative of Direction.−−The Article for the Possessive Adjective.−−Apposition.−−"La Arabo kaj la 

Kamelo". XI. Possessive Case of Nouns.−−Impersonal Verbs.−−Verbs Preceding their 

Subjects.−−Coordinating Conjunctions.−−"La Arabo en la Dezerto". XII. Indirect Statements.−−The 

Indefinite Personal Pronoun "Oni".−−The Future Tense.−−"La Ventoflago". XIII. The Demonstrative 

"Pronoun Tiu".−−Tenses in Indirect Quotations.−−Formation of Feminine Nouns.−−"En la Parko". XIV. The 

Demonstrative Pronoun "Cxi tiu".−−Possessive Form of the Demonstrative Pronoun.−−The Suffix 

"−Il−".−−The Expression of Means or Instrumentality.−−"La Mangxo". XV. The Demonstrative 

Adjective.−−Adverbs Defined and Classified.−−Formation of Opposites.−−"La Ruza Juna Viro". XVI. The 

Demonstrative Adverb of Place.−−Accompaniment.−−The Adverb "For".−−The Meaning of 

"Povi".−−"Malamikoj en la Dezerto". XVII. The Demonstrative Temporal Adverb.−−Comparison of 

Adjectives.−−Manner and Characteristic.−−"Diri", "Paroli" and "Rakonti".−−"Frederiko Granda kaj la Juna 

Servisto". XVIII. The Demonstrative Adverb of Motive or Reason.−−Derivation of Adverbs.−−Comparison 

of Words Expressing Quantity.−− Comparisons Containing "Ol".−−Causal Clauses.−−"Pri la Sezonoj". XIX. 

"Ju" and "Des" in Comparisons.−−The Preposition "Inter".−− The Preposition "Pro".−−Prepositions with 

Adverbs and Other Prepositions.−−"La Auxtuno kaj la Vintro". XX. The Demonstrative Adverb of Manner 

and Degree.−−Prepositions Expressing Time−Relations.−−"En Septembro". XXI. The Accusative of 

Time.−−Adverbs and the Accusative of Time.−−The Preposition "Por".−−"La Sezonoj kaj la Mondo". XXII. 

Clauses Expressing Duration of Time.−−Clauses Expressing Anticipation.−−The Infinitive with "Anstataux", 

"Por", "Antaux ol".−−The Expression of a Part of the Whole.−− "Diogeno kaj Aleksandro Granda". XXIII. 

Adverbs Expressing a Part of the Whole.−−The Demonstrative Adverb of Quantity.−−Result Clauses.−−"En 

la Butiko". XXIV. The Interrogative Pronoun.−−The Present Active Participle.−−Compound Tenses.−−The 

Progressive Present Tense.−−The Suffix "−Ej−".−−"En Nia Domo". XXV. The Interrogative Adjective.−−The 

Imperfect Tense.−− Salutations and Exclamations.−−Word Formation.−−"Koni" and "Scii".−−"La Nepo 

Vizitas la Avinon". XXVI. The Interrogative Adverb of Place.−−The Past Active Participle.−−Adverb 

Derivation from Prepositions.−−Adverbs Expressing Direction of Motion.−−The Suffix "−Eg−".−−"La 

Pluvego". XXVII. The Interrogative Temporal Adverb.−−The Perfect Tense.−−The Preposition "Cxe".−−The 

Suffix "−Ar−".−−"Tempo" and "Fojo".−− The Orthography of Proper Names.−−"Roberto Bruce kaj la 

Araneo". XXVIII. The Interrogative Adverb of Motive or Reason.−− The Infinitive as Subject.−−Present 

Action with Past Inception.−−The Suffix "−Ul−".−−"Logxi" and "Vivi".−−"Pri la Avo kaj la Avino". XXIX. 

The Interrogative Adverb of Manner and Degree.−−The Pluperfect Tense.−−Cardinal Numbers.−−The 

Accusative of Measure.−−"Nia Familio". XXX. The Interrogative Adverb of Quantity.−−Modifiers of 

Impersonally Used Verbs.−−Formation of Cardinal Numerals.−−The Suffix "−An−".−−"Leciono Pri 

Aritmetiko". XXXI. The Relative Pronoun.−−The Future Perfect Tense.−−Ordinal Numerals.−−"Alfredo 

Granda kaj la Libro". XXXII. "Kia" as a Relative Adjective.−−"Kie" as a Relative Adverb.−−The Future 

Active Participle.−−The Periphrastic Future Tenses.−−The Suffix "−Ind−".−−"Alfredo Granda kaj la Kukoj". 

XXXIII. "Kiam" as a Relative Adverb.−−"Kiel" as a Relative Adverb.−−Numeral Nouns and 

Adverbs.−−Word Derivation from Prepositions.−−"La Invito". XXXIV. Prepositions as Prefixes.−−The 

Suffix "−Ebl−".−−Expression of the Highest Degree Possible.−−Titles and Terms of Address.−−"Cxe la 

Festo". XXXV. "Kiom" as a Relative Adverb.−−The Present Passive Participle.−−Fractions.−−Descriptive 

Compounds.−−"La Hxinoj". XXXVI. The Present Passive Tense.−−The Use of "De" to Express 

Agency.−−The General Meaning of "De".−−Word Derivation from Primary Adverbs.−−The Suffix 

"−Ist−".−−"Antikva Respubliko". XXXVII. The Distributive Pronoun.−−The Preposition "Po".−− Dependent 

Compounds.−−"La Cxapelo sur la Stango". XXXVIII. The Distributive Adjective.−−The Imperfect Passive 

Tense.−− Compound Tenses of Impersonal Verbs.−−Reciprocal Expressions.−−The Suffix 

"−Uj−".−−"Vilhelmo Tell kaj la Pomo". XXXIX. The Distributive Adverb of Place.−−The Future Passive 

Tense.−−Possessive Compounds.−−The Time of Day.−−The Suffix "−Obl−".−−"En la Stacidomo". XL. The 

Distributive Temporal Adverb.−−The Distributive Adverb "Cxial".−−The Past Passive Participle.−−The 

Perfect Passive Tense.−−The Preposition "Laux".−−The Suffix "−Em−".−−"La Perdita Infano". XLI. The 

Distributive Adverb "Cxiel".−−The Distributive Adverb "Cxiom".−−The Pluperfect Passive Tense.−−The 

Future Perfect Passive Tense.−−The Expression of Material.−−The Suffix "−Et−".−−"La Donaco". XLII. The 

Future Passive Participle.−−The Passive Periphrastic Future Tenses.−−The Generic Article.−−The Suffix


"−Ec−".−−"Sur la Vaporsxipo". XLIII. The Indefinite Pronoun.−−Participial Nouns.−−The Prefix 

"Ek−".−−The Suffix "−Id−".−−"La Nesto sur la Tendo". XLIV. The Indefinite Adjective.−−The Indefinite 

Adverb of Place.−− Predicate Nominatives.−−"La Cxevalo kaj la Sonorilo". XLV. The Indefinite Temporal 

Adverb.−−The Indefinite Adverb "Ial".−−Causative Verbs.−−Emphasis by Means of "Ja".−− "Cxe la Malnova 

Ponto". XLVI. The Indefinite Adverb "Iel".−−The Indefinite Adverb "Iom".−− The Suffix "−Ad−".−−The 

Use of "Mem".−−"Arhximedo kaj la Kronoj". XLVII. The Negative Pronoun.−−The Adverbial 

Participle.−−The Prefix "Re−".−−"La Filozofo Arhximedo". XLVIII. The Negative Adjective.−−The 

Negative Adverb of Place.−−The Negative Temporal Adverb.−−The Suffix "−Ajx−".−−The Adverb 

"Jen".−−"Du Artkonkursoj". XLIX. The Negative Adverbs "Nenial", "Neniel", "Neniom".−−The Suffix 

"−Igx−".−−"La Krepusko". L. The Pronouns ending in "−O".−−Correlative Words.−−The Use of 

"Ajn".−−The Suffix "−Ing−".−−"La Gordia Ligajxo". LI. The Pronoun "Ambaux".−−Formations with "−Ig−" 

and "−Igx−".−− Factual Conditions.−−"La Monahxoj kaj la Azeno". LII. The Conditional 

Mood.−−Compound Tenses of the Conditional Mood.−−Less Vivid Conditions.−−Independent Use of the 

Conditional Mood.−−The Prefix "Dis−".−−"Pri la Gravitado". LIII. Conditions Contrary to Fact.−−The Verb 

"Devi".−−The Preposition "Sen".−−"La Filozofo Sokrato". LIV. Summary of Conditions.−−Clauses of 

Imaginative Comparison.−−The Use of "Al" to Express Reference.−−The Suffix "−Estr−".−−"La Ostracismo 

de Aristejdo". LV. The Imperative Mood.−−Resolve and Exhortation.−−Commands and Prohibitions.−−Less 

Peremptory Uses of the Imperative.−−The Use of "Mosxto".−−"La Glavo de Damoklo". LVI. The Imperative 

in Subordinate Clauses.−−The Preposition "Je".−−The Suffix "−Op−".−−"La Marsxado de la Dekmil Grekoj". 

LVII. Clauses Expressing Purpose.−−Further Uses of the Accusative.−−Synopsis of the Conjugation of the 

Verb.−−The Suffix "−Um−".−−"La Reirado de la Dekmilo". LVIII. Permission and Possibility.−−The Prefix 

"Ge−".−−The Suffix "−Acx−".−−Interjections.−−"Aleksandro Granda". LIX. The Position of Unemphatic 

Pronouns.−−Some Intransitive Verbs.−−The Suffix "−Er−".−−The Prefixes "Bo−" and 

"Duon−".−−Correspondence.−−"Kelkaj Leteroj". LX. Some Transitive Verbs.−−Elision.−−The Prefix 

"Eks−".−−The Prefix "Pra−".−−The Suffixes "−Cxj−" and "−Nj−".−−Weights and Measures.−−The 

International Money System.−−Abbreviations.−− "Pri La Kamero". 

ESPERANTO−ENGLISH VOCABULARY. 

ENGLISH−ESPERANTO VOCABULARY. 

INDEX. 

* * * * * 

A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO. 

* * * * * 

LESSON I. 

ALPHABET. 

1. The Esperanto alphabet contains the following letters: a, b, c, cx, d, e, f, g, gx, h, hx, i, j, jx, k, l, m, n, o, p, 

r, s, sx, t, u, ux, v, z. 

VOWELS. 

2. The vowels of the alphabet are pronounced as follows: 

"a" as in "far".


"e" as in "fiance", like "a" in "fate". 

[Footnote: This "long a" sound in English frequently ends with a vanish,−−a brief terminal sound of "short i" 

which makes the vowel slightly diphthongal, as in "day", "aye". Such a vanish must not be given to any of the 

Esperanto vowels.] 

"i" as in "machine". 

"o" as in "toll", "for". 

"u" as in "rude", "rural". 

CONSONANTS. 

3. The consonants "b", "d", "f", "h", "k", "l", "m", "n", "p", "t", "v", "z", are pronounced as in English, and the 

remaining eleven as follows: 

"c" like "ts" in "hats", "tsetse". 

"cx" like "ch" in "chin", "much". 

"g" like "g" in "go", "big". 

"gx" like "g" in "gem", "j" in "jar". 

"hx" is produced by expelling the breath forcibly, with the throat only partially open. 

[Footnote: As in pronouncing German and Scotch "ch", Spanish "j", Irish "gh", Russian "x", Classical Greek 

Greek: "chi" etc. There are only a few words containing this consonant.] 

"j" like "y" in "yes", "beyond". 

"jx" like "z" in "azure", "s" in "visual". 

"r" is slightly trilled or rolled. 

"s" like "s" in "see", "basis". 

"sx" like "sh" in "shine", "rash", "ch" in machine". 

"ux" like "w" or consonantal "u". See Diphthongs, 5. 

NAMES OF THE LETTERS. 

4. The vowels are named by their sounds, as given in (2). The names of the consonants are "bo", "co", "cxo", 

"do", "fo", "go", "gxo", "ho", "hxo", "jo", "jxo", "ko", "lo", "mo", "no", "po", "ro", "so", "sxo", "to", "uxo", 

"vo", "zo". These are used in speaking of the letters, in pronouncing them in abbreviations, as "ko to po" for 

"k. t. p." (= etc.), and in spelling words, as "bo, i, ro, do, o, birdo". 

DIPHTHONGS. 

5. Diphthongs are combinations of two vowels uttered as a single sound, by one breath−impulse. The


diphthongs in Esperanto contain an i or u sound as the second element, but in order to avoid confusion with 

combinations of vowels not forming diphthongs (as in "naiva", like English "naive", etc.), they are written 

with "j" and "ux" instead. Their pronunciation is as follows: 

"aj" like "ai" in "aisle". 

"ej" like "ei" in "vein", "ey" in "they". 

"oj" like "oi" in "coin", "oy" in "boy". 

"uj" like "ui" in "ruin", "u(e)y" in "gluey". 

"eux" like "ayw" in "wayward", or like E(h)oo" pronounced together. 

"aux" like "ou" in "out", "ow" in "owl". 

COMBINATIONS OF CONSONANTS. 

6. Each consonant, in a combination of two or more consonants, is pronounced with its full value, whether 

within a word or at its beginning. There are no silent letters. 

a. Thus, both consonants are clearly sounded in the groups "kn", "kv", "gv", "sv", in such words as "knabo", 

"kvin", "gvidi", "sviso". 

b. The combination "kz", as in "ekzisti", "ekzameno", must not be modified to the "gs" or "ks" represented by 

"x" in "exist", "execute". 

c. The combination "sc", as in "escepte", "scias", is equivalent to the combination "sts" in "laST Said", "firST 

Song", pronounced together rapidly. The "s" in a word beginning with "sc" may be sounded with the end of 

the preceding word, if that word ends in a vowel, as "mis−cias" for "mi scias". 

d. The "n" and "g" are pronounced separately in the combination "ng", in such words as "lingvo", "angulo", 

producing the sound of "ng" heard in "linger", not that in "singer". 

e. Each of two similar letters is clearly sounded, as "interrilato", "ellasi", like "inter−relate", "well−laid". 

SYLLABLES. 

7. Each word contains as many syllables as it has vowels and diphthongs. The division of syllables within a 

word is as follows: 

a. A single consonant goes with the following vowel, as "pa−no", "be−la", "a−e−ro". 

b. A consonant followed by "l" or "r" (which are liquids) goes with the "l" or "r", as in "ta−blo", "a−kra", 

"a−gra−bla". 

c. Otherwise, the syllable division is made before the last consonant of the group, as "sus−pek−ti", "sank−ta", 

"deks−tra". 

d. Prefixes are separated from the words to which they are attached, as "dis−meti", "mal−akra", and 

compound words are divided into their component parts, as "cxef−urbo", "sun−ombrelo".


ACCENT. 

8. Words of more than one syllable are accented upon the syllable before the last, as "TA−blo", 

"a−GRA−bla", "sus−PEK−ti". 

WORDS FOR PRACTICE. 

9. (To be pronounced aloud, and correctly accented) Afero, trairi, najbaro, aero, hodiaux, pacienco, centono, 

cxielo, ecx, samideano, treege, obei, obeu, Euxropo, gvidi, gxojo, cxiujn, justa, gxuste, jugxi, jxauxdo, lingvo, 

knabo, largxa, pagi, kvieteco, ekzemplo, ellerni, fojo, krajono, forrajdi, kuirejo, cxevalejo, sankteco, scio, 

nescio, edzo, meze, duobla, sxipo, sxargxi, posxo, svingi, sklavo, palaj, sxafajxo, atmosfero, monahxo, 

geometrio, lauxdi, vasta, eksplodi, sencxesa, sensencajxo, malluma, arbaranoj, mangxo, fresxa, auxskulti, 

dauxri. 

LESSON II. 

NOUNS. 

10. Words which are the names of persons or things are called nouns. The ending, or final letter, of nouns in 

Esperanto is "o": 

knabo = boy. pomo = apple. cxevalo = horse. tablo = table. 

THE ARTICLE. 

11. The definite article is "la", the, as "la knabo", the boy, "la cxevalo", the horse, "la tablo", the table, "la 

pomo", the apple. In English there is an indefinite article "a, an" for the singular, but none for the plural. 

Esperanto has no indefinite article for either singular or plural. Therefore "knabo" may mean "boy", or "a 

boy", "pomo" may mean "apple" or "an apple". 

ADJECTIVES 

12. A word used with a noun (expressed or understood) to express a quality or characteristic is called an 

adjective. The ending of adjectives in Esperanto is "a": 

bela = beautiful. granda = large. flava = yellow. forta = strong. 

ATTRIBUTIVE ADJECTIVES. 

13. An adjective is said to modify a noun whose quality it expresses. When directly preceding or following its 

noun, it is called an attributive adjective: 

la granda cxevalo = the large horse. bela birdo = a beautiful bird. floro flava = a yellow flower. forta knabo = 

a strong boy. 

PRESENT TENSE OF THE VERB. 

14. Words which express action or condition are called verbs. When representing an act or condition as a fact, 

and dealing with the present time, they are said to be in the present tense. The ending of all Esperanto verbs in 

the present tense is "−as": 

kuras = runs, is running. brilas = shines, is shining. flugas = flies, is flying. dormas = sleeps, is sleeping.


15. The person or thing whose action or condition the verb expresses is called the subject of the verb: 

La suno brilas, the sun shines (is shining), subject: suno. Knabo kuras, a boy runs (is running), subject: knabo. 

VOCABULARY. 

(To be memorized in this and in all following lessons.) 

bela = beautiful. kaj = and. birdo = bird. kantas = sings, is singing. blanka = white. knabo = boy. bona = good. 

kuras = runs, is running. brilas = shines, is shining. la = the. cxevalo = horse. luno = moon. dormas = sleeps, is 

sleeping. marsxas = walks, is walking. flava = yellow. pomo = apple. floro = flower. suno = sun. flugas = 

flies, is flying. tablo = table. forta = strong, violo = violet. granda = large. viro = man. 

READING LESSON. 

1. Bona viro. 2. La granda tablo. 3. Blanka floro. 4. Flava birdo. 5. La bela birdo kantas. 6. Forta knabo kuras. 

7. La bona viro marsxas. 8. La bela cxevalo kuras. 9. La suno brilas. 10. Birdo flugas kaj knabo kuras. 11. 

Cxevalo blanka marsxas. 12. La bela luno brilas. 13. La knabo kantas kaj la viro dormas. 14. Bela granda 

pomo. 15. La bona knabo kantas. 16. La granda cxevalo dormas. 17. La suno brilas kaj la luno brilas. 18. 

Granda forta tablo. 19. Violo flava. 20. La bona flava pomo. 

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. 

1. A beautiful flower. 2. A good large table. 3. A yellow violet and a white violet. 4. The moon is−shining 

(shines). 5. The good boy is−walking (walks). 6. The beautiful yellow bird is−flying (flies). 7. The strong man 

is−sleeping (sleeps). 8. The white bird is−singing (sings). 9. A strong horse runs, and a man walks. 10. The 

sun shines, and the boy is−singing (sings). 11. The large yellow apple. 12. An apple large and good. 

LESSON III. 

THE PLURAL NUMBER. 

16. The plural number of nouns, that is, the form which indicates more than one person or thing, is made by 

adding "−j" to the noun, as "viroj", men, from "viro", man; "tabloj", tables, from "tablo", table. 

[Footnote: "−oj" is pronounced like "oy" in "boy". See 5.] 

17. An adjective modifying a plural noun agrees with it in number, being given the plural form by the addition 

of the ending −j. An adjective modifying two or more nouns used together is of course given the plural form: 

bonaj viroj, good men. grandaj cxevaloj, large horses. belaj birdo kaj floro (bela birdo kaj bela floro), 

beautiful bird and (beautiful) flower. 

[Footnote: "−aj" is pronounced like "ai" in "aisle". See 5.] 

18. The article is invariable, that is, does not change in form when used with plural nouns, as "la viro", the 

man, "la viroj", the men. The verb is also invariable in form: 

La viroj marsxas, the men walk, the men are walking. La suno kaj la luno brilas, the sun and the moon are 

shining. La viro estas, the man is. La viroj estas, the men are. 

PREDICATE ADJECTIVE AND NOUN.


19. When the adjective is a part of that which is told or predicated of the subject of the verb, as when used 

with the verbs "to be," "to seem," etc., it is called a "predicate adjective": 

La birdo estas bela, the bird is beautiful. La knabo sxajnas bona, the boy seems good. La viroj estas fortaj, the 

men are strong. 

20. A noun may also be used as part of the predicate, and is then called a "predicate noun": 

Violoj estas floroj, violets are flowers. La kolombo estas birdo, the dove is a bird. 

21. Predicate nouns and adjectives agree in number with the word or words with which they are in predicate 

relation: 

Rozoj estas belaj, roses are beautiful. La knabo kaj la viro sxajnas fortaj, the boy and the man seem strong. 

VOCABULARY 

alta = high, tall. kolombo = dove. arbo = tree. kusxas = lies, is lying, lie. cxambro = room. longa = long. domo 

= house. rozo = rose. en = in. rugxa = red. estas = is, are. segxo = chair. folio = leaf. sidas = sits, sit, is sitting. 

fresxa = fresh. sur = on. gxardeno = garden. sxajnas = seems, seem. kampo = field. verda = green. 


1. La alta viro estas en la gxardeno. 2. Blanka cxevalo estas en la kampo. 3. Belaj birdoj sidas sur la verda 

arbo. 4. La bonaj knaboj estas en la domo. 5. La cxambroj en la bela domo estas grandaj. 6. Fresxaj floroj 

kusxas sur la tablo. 7. La violoj en la kampo estas belaj. 8. La luno kaj la suno sxajnas grandaj. 9. La 

kolomboj estas belaj birdoj. 10. La knaboj sxajnas fortaj. 11. Rugxaj pomoj estas sur la tablo en la cxambro. 

12. La fortaj viroj sidas sur segxoj en la longa cxambro. 13. La arboj estas altaj kaj verdaj. 14. La kolomboj 

sur la arboj kantas. 15. Fortaj cxevaloj marsxas kaj kuras en la verdaj kampoj. 16. La knaboj dormas en la 

granda domo. 17. Rugxaj, flavaj, kaj verdaj folioj estas en la gxardeno. 18. Longa tablo estas en la domo. 19. 

Belaj birdoj flugas kaj kantas en la kampo. 20. Fresxaj rozoj sxajnas belaj. 21. La folioj estas verdaj kaj 

rugxaj. 


1. The trees in the garden are tall and green. 2. The rooms in the house are long. 3. The flowers on the table 

are red, yellow and white. 4. The leaves are long and green. 5. The men are−sitting (sit) on chairs in the 

garden. 6. In the garden are yellow roses. 7. The birds in the field are doves. 8. The boys in the room in the 

house seem tall. 9. Fresh violets are beautiful flowers. 10. The horses in the green fields seem strong. 11. 

Doves are−singing (sing) in the garden. 12. The men in the large house sleep. 13. The house is long and high, 

and the rooms in the house are large. 14. Red and yellow apples lie on the big table. 15. Green leaves are on 

the trees in the large garden. 

LESSON IV. 

TRANSITIVE VERBS. 

22. The verbs so far given have been "intransitive verbs", expressing a state or an action limited to the subject, 

and not immediately affecting any other person or thing, as "la knabo kuras", the boy runs. On the other hand 

a "transitive verb" expresses an act of the subject upon some person or thing; as, "la knabo trovas −− −−", the 

boy finds −− −−.


THE ACCUSATIVE CASE. 

23. The person or thing acted upon is called the "direct object" of a transitive verb, and is given the ending 

"−n". This is called the accusative ending; and the word to which it is attached is said to be in the "accusative 

case": 

La viro havas segxon, the man has a chair. La knabo trovas florojn, the boy finds flowers. 

[Footnote: The ending "−n" follows the ending "−j", if the word to be put in the accusative case is in the plural 

number.] 

24. An attributive adjective modifying a noun in the accusative case is made to agree in case, by addition of 

the same accusative ending "−n". This prevents any doubt as to which of two or more nouns in a sentence is 

modified by the adjective, and permits of variation in the order of the words: 

La knabo trovas belan floron, the boy finds a beautiful flower. Florojn belajn la viro havas, the man has 

beautiful flowers. La viro havas grandan segxon, the man has a large chair. Rugxan rozon la knabo havas, the 

boy has a red rose. 

25. A predicate adjective or noun (19) is never in the accusative case, nor is the accusative ending ever 

attached to the article, which is invariable as stated in 18. 

THE CONJUNCTION "KAJ". 

26. In the expression "both ... and ...", the conjunction "kaj" is used for both words, being merely repeated: 

La viro kaj marsxas kaj kuras, the man both walks and runs. La cxevalo estas kaj granda kaj forta, the horse is 

both large and strong. La knabo havas kaj rozojn kaj violojn, the boy has both roses and violets. Kaj la knabo 

kaj la viro estas altaj, both the boy and the man are tall. 

THE NEGATIVE "NE". 

27. The negative word meaning "not" when forming part of a sentence, and "no" when used as an answer to a 

question, is "ne". When used as a sentence−negative, it usually immediately precedes the verb. For emphatic 

negation of some other word than the verb, "ne" may precede that word: 

Violoj ne estas rugxaj, violets are not red. La viroj ne sidas sur segxoj, the men are−not−sitting on chairs. La 

kolombo kantas, ne flugas, the dove is−singing, not flying. La domo estas blanka, ne verda, the house is 

white, not green. 

VOCABULARY 

apud = near, in the vicinity of. koloro = color. benko = bench. largxa = wide, broad. brancxo = branch. 

mangxas = eat, eats. diversa = various. mola = soft. felicxa = happy. nigra = black. frukto = fruit. ne = not, no. 

havas = have, has. rompas = break, breaks. herbo = grass. sed = but. ili = they. trovas = find, finds. kolektas = 

gather, collect. vidas = see, sees. 


1. La knaboj ne estas en la cxambro en la blanka domo. 2. Ili estas en la granda gxardeno. 3. La gxardeno 

sxajnas kaj longa kaj largxa. 4. La felicxaj knaboj vidas la belan gxardenon. 5. Ili vidas florojn apud alta arbo. 

6. La floroj havas diversajn kolorojn. 7. La knaboj kolektas kaj rugxajn kaj flavajn florojn. 8. Sed ili ne trovas


fruktojn en la gxardeno. 9. Florojn blankajn ili ne vidas. 10. La alta arbo havas verdajn foliojn sur la brancxoj. 

11. La knaboj rompas brancxon, kaj kolektas la fruktojn. 12. Ili vidas florojn sur la brancxoj, sed la florojn ili 

ne kolektas. 13. La knaboj ne sidas sur benkoj en la gxardeno, sed kusxas sur la mola herbo. 14. La kolomboj 

sidas sur la arboj, kaj ili estas felicxaj. 15. La knaboj vidas la belajn birdojn. 16. Fortaj nigraj cxevaloj 

mangxas la herbon en la kampo. 17. La knaboj vidas la cxevalojn, sed la cxevaloj ne vidas la knabojn. 18. La 

cxevaloj ne dormas, ili mangxas. 19. La fresxa herbo estas verda kaj mola. 20. Felicxaj estas kaj la knaboj kaj 

la cxevaloj. 21. La pomo estas bona frukto. 


1. Green leaves are on the trees. 2. The boys break branches and gather the apples. 3. They are near the tall 

tree in the garden. 4. They find leaves on the tree, but they do not see the fruit. 5. The house is long, broad and 

high. 6. The rooms in the house are both long and wide. 7. The men have strong black horses. 8. The horses 

eat the fresh green grass in the field. 9. The men sit on benches in the garden. 10. The boys do not sleep, but 

they lie on the soft grass. 11. They see both the birds and the flowers, and they seem happy. 12. The flowers 

have various colors, but the grass is green. 13. The doves are not sitting on the tree, they are flying near the 

trees. 14. Beautiful red roses are lying on the table in the house. 15. The large red apples are near the yellow 

roses. 

LESSON V. 

THE COMPLEMENTARY INFINITIVE. 

28. The infinitive is a form of the verb which expresses merely the general idea of the action or condition 

indicated, and has some of the characteristics of a noun. The ending of the infinitive is "−i", as "kuri", to run, 

"esti", to be, "havi", to have. 

29. An infinitive used to complete the meaning of another verb, serving as a direct object to a transitive verb, 

is called a "complementary infinitive". If the complementary infinitive is from a transitive verb, it may itself 

have a direct object: 

La knabo volas kuri, the boy wishes to run. Birdoj sxatas kanti, birds like to sing. La knabo volas havi 

cxevalon, the boy wishes to have a horse. Ili volas trovi florojn, they wish to find flowers. 

INTERROGATION. 

30. An interrogative sentence is one which asks a question. Unless some directly interrogative word (as 

"who," "when," "why," etc.) is used, the sentence is rendered interrogative by use of the word "cxu". This 

interrogative particle is placed at the beginning of a sentence, the words of which are left in the same order as 

for a statement. Since there is no inversion of order, there is no necessity for a word like English "do" or 

"does," to introduce the verb: 

Cxu la knabo estas bona? Is the boy good? Cxu ili havas florojn? Have they flowers? Cxu la kolomboj kantas? 

Do the doves sing? (Are the doves singing?) 

THE CONJUNCTION "NEK". 

31. In the expression "neither ... nor ...", the conjunction "nek" is used for both words. Since an adjective 

modifier of two or more words connected by "nek" must necessarily modify them separately, the adjective 

remains in the singular number: 

Ili nek marsxas nek kuras, they neither walk nor run. La viro havas nek domon nek gxardenon, the man has


neither a house nor a garden. Nek la rozo nek la violo estas verda, neither the rose nor the violet is green. 

VOCABULARY 

(Verbs will hereafter be quoted in the infinitive form.) 

bruna = brown. matura = ripe. cxerizo = cherry. Mario = Mary. cxu = (30). nek = neither, nor. dolcxa = sweet. 

persiko = peach. gusto = taste. jes = yes. gxi = it. preferi = to prefer. Gertrude = Gertrude. sxati = to like. 

knabino = girl. voli = to wish. 


1. Cxu persiko estas rugxa? 2. Jes, gxi estas kaj rugxa kaj dolcxa. 3. Cxu cxerizoj estas brunaj? 4. Ne, ili estas 

nek brunaj nek nigraj, sed flavaj. 5. Cxu la pomo estas frukto? Jes, gxi estas bona frukto. 6. Cxu la viro kaj la 

knabo havas pomojn? 7. Ne, ili havas nek pomojn nek persikojn. 8. Cxu Mario havas la maturan frukton? 9. 

Mario kaj Gertrudo havas la frukton. 10. Ili estas en la domo, kaj mangxas la maturan frukton. 11. La persikoj 

havas dolcxan guston. 12. La knabinoj volas havi florojn, sed la knaboj preferas kolekti diversajn fruktojn. 13. 

Ili volas trovi maturajn cxerizojn kaj flavajn persikojn. 14. La cxerizoj havas belan rugxan koloron. 15. La 

persikoj sxajnas molaj kaj bonaj. 16. Mario rompas brancxon, kaj vidas cxerizojn sur la brancxoj. 17. 

Gertrudo estas felicxa, kaj volas havi la belan frukton. 18. Gertrudo estas alta, bela knabino. 19. Mario sxatas 

cxerizojn. 20. La knaboj kaj knabinoj sidas sur la verda herbo, kaj mangxas la cxerizojn. 21. Ili ne volas 

mangxi pomojn, ili preferas la dolcxajn cxerizojn. 22. La folioj apud la cxerizoj estas nek largxaj nek longaj. 


1. Have the girls beautiful flowers? 2. No, they have fresh fruit. 3. The boys do not wish to gather flowers. 4. 

They prefer to break the branches, and find the sweet cherries. 5. Gertrude wishes to eat apples, but Mary has 

neither apples nor peaches. 6. Do the girls like to sit in the house and eat fruit? 7. Yes, they like to sit in the 

house, but they prefer to walk in the field. 8. Are ripe peaches brown? 9. No, they are red and yellow. 10. Has 

the peach a sweet taste? 11. Do the girls see the beautiful black horses in the fields? 12. Yes, they see the 

horses, but the horses seem not to see the girls. 13. Mary sits on the soft green grass, and eats ripe fruit. 

LESSON VI. 

PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

32. Words which stand in the place of nouns, as "you," "he," "who," "which," are called "pronouns". Pronouns 

referring to the person speaking ("I", "we"), the person addressed ("you", "thou"), or the person or thing 

spoken of ("he", "she", "it", "they"), are called "personal pronouns". They are considered singular or plural, 

according to whether they refer to one or more persons. Since the meaning of such pronouns indicates the 

number, no plural ending is ever attached to them. The personal pronouns are: 

Singular. Plural. 

First person: mi, I (me). ni, we (us). 

Second person: vi, you. vi, you. 

li, he (him). Third person: sxi, she (her). ili, they (them). gxi, it. 

[Footnote: There is another pronoun "ci" (thou), for the second person singular, used in solemn style, as in the 

Bible, in poetry, and also for intimate or familiar address when desired, like German "du", French "tu", etc.]


AGREEMENT WITH PRONOUNS. 

33. Nouns in predicate relation with pronouns, or adjectives modifying such pronouns, are made to agree with 

them in number: 

Ni estas bonaj kaj felicxaj, we are good and happy. Rozoj estas floroj, ill ne estas fruktoj, roses are flowers, 

they are not fruits. Gertrudo, vi estas bona, Gertrude, you are good. Knabinoj, cxu vi estas felicxaj? Girls, are 

you happy? 

CONJUGATION OF THE VERB. 

34. Any pronoun may serve as the subject of a verb. The combination of the verb with each of the personal 

pronouns in succession for its subject, is called the "conjugation" of the verb. Following is the conjugation of 

the present tense of "esti", and of "vidi": 

mi estas = I am. mi vidas = I see. vi estas = you are. vi vidas = you see. li (sxi, gxi) estas = li (sxi, gxi) vidas : 

he (she, it) is. he (she, it) sees. ni estas = we are. ni vidas = we see. vi estas = you (plural) are. vi vidas = you 

(plural) see. ili estas = they are. ili vidas = they see. 

VOCABULARY 

al = to, toward. hodiaux = today. Arturo = Arthur. kudri = to sew. aux = or (aux ... aux ..., either ... or ...) 

Roberto = Robert. cxar = because. skui = to shake. doni = to give. stari = to stand. fali = to fall. sub = under, 

beneath. fenestro = window. virino = woman. 


1. Knaboj, cxu vi volas sidi en la domo, aux en la gxardeno? 2. Ni preferas sidi hodiaux en la gxardeno, sub la 

granda arbo. 3. Cxu vi havas pomojn, aux cxerizojn? 4. Ni havas nek pomojn nek cxerizojn, sed ni havas 

dolcxajn persikojn. 5. Arturo donas al vi la maturajn persikojn, cxar li sxatas kolekti frukton. 6. Arturo, cxu vi 

rompas la brancxojn? 7. Ne, sed mi skuas brancxon, kaj la persikoj falas. 8. Mi staras sub la arbo, kaj kolektas 

la dolcxan frukton. 9. La frukton mi donas al Mario kaj Gertrudo. 10. Mi volas doni persikon al Heleno, sed 

hodiaux sxi estas en la domo. 11. Sxi sidas apud la fenestro kaj kudras. 12. Sxi preferas kudri, kaj volas nek 

marsxi nek sidi en la gxardeno. 13. Kaj sxi kaj la virino apud sxi volas kudri hodiaux. 14. Ili estas felicxaj, 

cxar ili vidas la birdojn en la arbo apud la fenestro. 15. La birdoj estas kolomboj, kaj sidas sur la arbo. 16. Sub 

la arboj en la kampo staras cxevaloj, kaj ili mangxas la verdan molan herbon. 17. Ni donas pomojn al ili, cxar 

ili sxatas pomojn. 18. Ni estas felicxaj, cxar ni havas belajn persikojn maturajn kaj bonajn. 19. Roberto, vi 

estas alta, sed vi, knabinoj, ne estas altaj. 


1. Does Arthur break the branch and gather the apples? 2. No, he shakes the branch, and the apples fall. 3. 

They are ripe and sweet. 4. Robert, do you wish to stand beneath the tree? 5. No, I do not wish to stand under 

it, but near it. 6. I wish to give both the peaches and the apples to the woman. 7. She is sitting in the house, 

near the window. 8. Mary is sitting in (on) a chair near her. 9. Both Mary and the woman are sewing. 10. They 

prefer to sew, and do not wish to walk in the garden to−day. 11. They are happy because they like to sew. 12. 

They do not wish to gather flowers, or walk, or see the birds. 13. They have neither apples nor peaches, but 

they do not wish to eat. 14. They give the fruit to the boys and girls. 

LESSON VII. 

THE PAST TENSE.


35. The past tense of the verb expresses an action which took place in past time, or a condition which existed 

in past time. The ending of this tense is "−is", as "kuris", ran, "flugis", flew, "brilis", shone. The conjugation 

of "esti" and also of "vidi" in the past tense is as follows: 

mi estis = I was. mi vidis = I saw. vi estis = you were. vi vidis = you saw. li (sxi, gxi) estis = li (sxi, gxi) vidis 

: he (she, it) was. he (she, it) saw. ni estis = we were. ni vidis = we saw. vi estis = you (plural) were. vi vidis = 

you (plural) saw. ili estis = they were. ili vidis = they saw. 

PREPOSITIONS. 

36. A preposition is a word like "in," "on," placed before a noun or pronoun to indicate some relation between 

this and another word. The preposition is said to "govern" the noun or pronoun, which is called its 

"complement". In English, the complement of a preposition seems to be put in the accusative case if it is a 

pronoun, but to remain unchanged in form if it is a noun. In Esperanto the preposition does not affect the form 

of the word governed, which remains in the nominative case: 

La arbo estas en la gxardeno, the tree is in the garden. Bonaj pomoj estas sur gxi, good apples are on it. Mi 

donis cxerizojn al li, I gave cherries to him. La knabo estas apud mi, the boy is near me. Sub la arbo staris 

cxevalo, under the tree stood a horse. 

ACCUSATIVE CASE OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

37. For use as the object of a verb, any pronoun may be put in the accusative case by addition of the 

accusative ending "−n" (23): 

La viro vidis vin kaj min, the man saw you and me. Li vidis ilin kaj nin, he saw them and us. Mi vidis nek lin 

nek sxin, I saw neither him nor her. Ni volas havi gxin, we wish to have it. 

VOCABULARY 

agrabla = pleasant, agreeable. luma = light (not dark). bildo = picture. muro = wall. blua = blue. nun = now. 

danki = to thank. planko = floor. de = from. pordo = door. diri = to say. rigardi = to look (at). infano = child. 

tapisxo = carpet. interesa = interesting. tra = through. 


1. Hodiaux la knaboj kaj knabinoj estas en la granda domo. 2. Ili staras apud la tablo, en agrabla luma 

cxambro. 3. Gxi havas altajn largxajn fenestrojn. 4. Sub la tablo kaj segxoj, mola tapisxo kusxas sur la planko. 

5. La tapisxo havas belajn kolorojn, rugxan, bluan, flavan, kaj verdan. 6. Virino marsxis tra la pordo, kaj staris 

apud la tablo. 7. Sxi havis interesajn bildojn, kaj donis ilin al la knaboj kaj la knabinoj. 8. Sxi diris "Cxu vi 

volas rigardi la bildojn?" 9. "Jes, ni dankas vin," diris la infanoj, kaj sxi donis al ili la bildojn. 10. Granda 

bildo falis de la tablo, sed Arturo nun havas gxin. 11. Li donas gxin al Mario, sxi dankas lin, kaj donas gxin al 

Roberto. 12. Ili volis doni gxin al Gertrudo, sed sxi diris "Ne, mi dankas vin, mi ne sxatas rigardi bildojn." 13. 

Sxi marsxis de la tablo al la fenestro kaj diris "Mi preferas kudri." 14. Sxi volis sidi en granda segxo apud la 

fenestro. 15. La virino rigardis sxin kaj diris "Mi donis la bildojn al vi, knaboj kaj knabinoj," cxar ili estas 

interesaj bildoj. 16. Gertrudo diris "Vi estas bona al ni, sed mi volas sidi apud la pordo aux la fenestro. 17. Mi 

kolektis dolcxajn violojn en la gxardeno, kaj nun mi volas rigardi la dolcxajn florojn, kaj kudri." 


1. Do the boys and girls wish to be good? 2. They gathered fresh flowers and gave them to the woman. 3. The 

happy children were in the garden, but now they are in the house. 4. The rooms in the house are light, because


they have large wide windows. 5. The doors in the room are wide and high. 6. The carpets on the floor seem 

soft, and have various beautiful colors. 7. A large strong table stands near the door. 8. We can sit near the 

table and look through the windows. 9. Gertrude is−looking−at the various pictures. 10. She looks−at them, 

and seems to be happy. 11. She gave a picture to me and I thanked her. 12. Helen walked near the table and 

shook it. 13. Arthur did not see the pictures because they were lying on the floor. 14. He looked−at the 

pictures on the wall, but they are neither interesting nor beautiful. 15. Robert looked through the window, and 

saw us in the pleasant garden. 

LESSON VIII. 

REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS. 

38. A pronoun which refers to the same person or thing as the subject of the verb in the sentence, but is used 

in some other relation than subject of that verb, is said to be used "reflexively", or to be a "reflexive pronoun". 

39. The first and second personal pronouns, "mi", "ni", and "vi", ("ci") are used for the reflexive pronouns of 

the first and second persons. There can be no ambiguity, since words such as "me, myself, us, ourselves," can 

refer to no one else than the person or persons speaking; while words such as "you, yourself, yourselves (thee, 

thyself)," can refer to no one else than the person or persons addressed: 

Mi vidas min, I see myself. Mi diris al mi, I said to myself. Ni havas tapisxon sub ni, we have a carpet under 

us. Ni amuzis nin, we amused ourselves. (Ci trovas domon apud ci, thou findest a house near thee.) Vi diras al 

vi, you say to yourself (yourselves). Vi amuzas vin, you amuse yourself (yourselves). 

40. When the verb is in the third person, a pronoun of the third person, used otherwise than as the subject, 

might or might not refer to the subject of that verb. For example, "He sees a bird near him," may mean that the 

subject sees a bird near himself, or near another person. If such a pronoun of the third person is intended to 

refer to the subject of the verb, Esperanto uses a special reflexive pronoun "si" (accusative "sin"), which 

means "him(self)", "her(self)", "it(self)", "them(selves)", according to the gender and number of the verb: 

Li amuzas sin, he amuses himself. Arturo vidis birdon apud si, Arthur saw a bird near him(self). Sxi trovas 

floron apud si, she finds a flower near her(self). Mario trovis sin sur blua tapisxo, Mary found herself on a 

blue carpet. La tapisxo havas diversajn kolorojn en si, the carpet has various colors in it(self). La birdo kasxas 

sin sub la folioj, the bird hides itself under the leaves. Ili amuzas sin, they amuse themselves. La viroj havas 

segxojn apud si, the men have chairs near them(selves). La virinoj trovas florojn apud si, the women find 

flowers near them(selves). La arboj havas cxerizojn sur si, the trees have cherries on them(selves). Sub si la 

infanoj trovis molan tapisxon, under them(selves) the children found a soft carpet. 

[Footnote: From the very fact that "si" always refers to the subject of the verb, it is evident that "si" can never 

itself be used as subject or part of the subject of the verb.] 

REFLEXIVE VERBS. 

41. A verb having a reflexive pronoun for its direct object is sometimes called a "reflexive verb", from the fact 

that some languages have had or still have a special reflexive or middle form of the verb, to express an act of 

the subject on or for itself, or they have certain verbs whose use is chiefly or exclusively reflexive. The 

conjugation of a verb reflexively is therefore as follows: 

mi amuzas min (mi min amuzas), I amuse myself. vi amuzas vin (vi vin amuzas), you amuse yourself. li (sxi, 

gxi) amuzas sin (sin amuzas), he (she, it) amuses him (her, it)self. ni amuzas nin (ni nin amuzas), we amuse 

ourselves. vi amuzas vin (vi vin amuzas), you amuse yourselves. ili amuzas sin (ili sin amuzas), they amuse 

themselves.


[Footnote: As Greek "etraponto", they turned themselves; Latin "exerceor", I exercise myself, "vescor", I eat 

(I feed myself); German "ich huete mich", I beware (I guard myself); Spanish "me alegro", or "alegrome", I 

rejoice (I gladden myself); French "il s'arrete", he halts (he stops himself).] 

VOCABULARY 

Alfredo = Alfred. komenci = to begin. amuzi = to amuse. lauxdi = to praise. antaux = before, in front of. legi = 

to read. aparteni = to belong. libro = book. griza = gray. perdi = to lose. iri = to go. skatolo = small box or 

case. Johano = John. strato = street. kasxi = to hide, to conceal. si = himself, etc. (40). 


1. Johano kaj Alfredo amuzis sin en la gxardeno. 2. Johano kasxis sin, kaj Alfredo trovis Johanon. 3. Alfredo 

sin kasxis en alta arbo, kaj Johano trovis Alberton. 4. Mario kaj Gertrudo sin kasxis apud la floroj, kaj la 

knaboj trovis la knabinojn. 5. La knabinoj ne volas perdi sin en la agrabla kampo. 6. Johano komencis amuzi 

sin en luma cxambro en la domo. 7. La muro havas interesajn bildojn sur si. 8. Tra la fenestro antaux si 

Johano rigardas la virojn kaj la virinojn sur la strato. 9. Li havas molan grizan tapisxon sub si, kaj ne volas 

segxon. 10. Li kaj Alfredo volis iri al la strato kaj amuzi sin. 11. Ili marsxis al la pordo, kaj trovis rugxan 

skatolon antaux si. 12. En la skatolo estis libro, kaj Johano diris al si "La libro ne apartenas al mi." 13. Li diris 

al Alfredo "Cxar ni trovis gxin, mi volas legi la libron." 14. Virino antaux pordo komencis rigardi la knabojn, 

kaj ili diris al sxi "Cxu la libro apartenas al vi? Ni trovis gxin en skatolo." 15. La virino diris "Jes, ni perdis 

gxin, kaj mi dankas vin, cxar vi donas al mi la skatolon kaj la libron." 16. Sxi iris al la strato, kaj la knaboj iris 

al la domo. 


1. The book in the gray box does not belong to me. 2. I found it in front of me, near the door. 3. You began to 

praise yourselves, but I do not praise myself. 4. They hid themselves, and I stood near them. 5. The birds sit 

on the tree, because it has ripe cherries on it. 6. Alfred amused himself on the street, but we like to amuse 

ourselves in the house. 7. The trees have good fruit on them. 8. She found herself in a beautiful light room. 9. 

The carpet on the floor had various colors in it, and the high wall had pictures on it. 10. The pictures had boys 

and girls in them. 11. The book belongs to her, but it fell from the box. 12. The table has red and blue and 

yellow flowers on it. 13. Did you see the doves near the flowers in front of (before) you? 14. The birds saw 

the fruit on the tree in front of them, and flew to the branches. 15. I sat on the bench in the garden, and began 

to read an interesting book. 16. They hid themselves in the leaves and began to sing. 17. The child is in a 

pleasant room. 

LESSON IX. 

LIMITATION OF THE THIRD PERSONAL PRONOUN. 

42. Since there is a special reflexive pronoun of the third person, the third personal pronouns, "li", "sxi", 

"gxi", "ili", when used otherwise than as subjects, never refer to the subject of the verb, but always to some 

other person or thing: 

La knabo lauxdas lin, the boy praises him (another person). Sxi donas pomojn al sxi, she gives apples to her 

(to another person). La birdo vidis gxin, the bird saw it (something else than the bird). La knaboj kasxis ilin, 

the boys hid them (other persons or things). Ili trovis ilin apud si, they found them (other persons or things) 

near them(selves). La birdoj flugis al ili, the birds flew to them. 

POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES.


43. Words like "my," "his," "your," which indicate ownership or some possessive relation, are called 

"possessive adjectives". Possessive adjectives are formed from the personal pronouns by adding the adjective 

ending "−a", as "mia", my, "via", your ("cia", thy), "lia", his, "sxia", her, "gxia", its, "nia", our, "via", your 

(plural), "ilia", their. The limitation in the use of the third personal pronouns ("42") is also true of the 

adjectives derived from them: 

Mia domo kaj miaj gxardenoj estas grandaj, my house and my gardens are large. Johano sidas sur via segxo, 

John is sitting in your chair. Li havas lian cxevalon, he has his (another person's) horse. Cxu vi legis sxiajn 

librojn? Did you read her books? 

[Footnote: Sometimes these words are called possessive pronouns, although really they are not pronouns at 

all, but pronominal adjectives with a possessive meaning.] 

44. Reflexive possessive adjectives, like the reflexive pronoun, refer to the subject of the verb in the sentence. 

For the first and second persons, they are the same as the personal possessive adjectives. The reflexive 

possessive adjective of the third person is "sia", his, her, its, their, formed by adding the ending "−a" to the 

reflexive pronoun "si": 

Mi havas miajn librojn sur mia tablo, I have my books on my table. Johano perdis siajn librojn, John lost his 

(John's) books. Mario estas en sia cxambro, Mary is in her room. La birdoj flugis al sia arbo, the birds flew to 

their tree. 

PRONOMINAL USE OF POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES. 

45. Possessive adjectives may be used predicatively, as "the book is mine," or may modify some word or 

words not expressed, as "mine are large." Instead of having special forms, like English "mine", "yours", 

"hers", etc., Esperanto uses the regular possessive adjectives preceded by the article: 

La granda libro estas la mia, the large book is mine. La via estas granda, la miaj estas belaj, yours is large, 

mine are beautiful. Ili havas la sian, sed ne la lian, they have theirs, but not his. La iliaj sxajnas esti bonaj, 

theirs seem to be good. 

VOCABULARY 

diro = saying, remark. mangxo = meal. gxis = as far as, up to, down to. nesto = nest. hieraux = yesterday. 

pasero = sparrow. juna = young. patro = father. kapti = to catch, to seize. post, after, behind. kato = cat. 

surprizi = to surprise. kolera = angry. teni = to hold, to keep. lavi = to wash. vizagxo = face. 


1. Hieraux mi perdis mian grizan katon. 2. Ilia kato kaptis nian birdon. 3. Via kolera diro surprizis mian 

patron. 4. Cxu la granda kampo apartenas al sxia patro? 5. Ne, gxi ne estas la lia. 6. La lia estas bela, sed mi 

preferas la mian. 7. Cxu vi sxatas vian libron aux la ilian? 8. Li havas nek siajn cxevalojn nek la iliajn. 9. La 

knabinoj sxajnas esti koleraj. 10. Ili komencis legi siajn librojn. 11. La viro kaptis kaj tenis siajn cxevalojn, 

sed li ne trovis iliajn cxevalojn. 12. Sxia libro kusxas sur la planko, post sxia segxo. 13. Sxi ne trovis ilian 

libron, sed la junaj infanoj trovis la nian. 

LA KATO KAJ LA PASERO. 

Griza kato iris de la domo gxis la strato. Gxi vidis paseron antaux si, kaj volis mangxi gxin. La kato staris post 

granda arbo, kaj kaptis la paseron. La pasero diris "Bona kato lavas sin antaux sia mangxo, sed vi ne lavis vian 

vizagxon." La interesa diro surprizis la katon. La kato ne tenis la paseron, sed komencis lavi sian vizagxon. La


pasero flugis de la kato gxis la arbo. La kolera kato diris "Mi perdis mian mangxon, cxar mi komencis lavi 

min antaux la mangxo!" Nun la katoj ne lavas sin antaux la mangxoj. Ili havas siajn mangxojn, kaj post la 

mangxoj ili lavas la vizagxojn. La paseroj ne surprizas ilin nun, sed ili tenas la paserojn. La katoj estas 

felicxaj, sed la paseroj ne estas felicxaj. La junaj paseroj volas flugi al la nestoj en la arboj. 


1. The boys are not in their (own) house, but they are in his. 2 Is the large beautiful house yours? 3. The 

woman walked through the door of their house, as far as her room. 4. The room has interesting pictures on its 

walls. 5. We praised their flowers yesterday, and they gave them to us. 6. Their books are in their (the books') 

box. 7. They are on their (the boys') table. 8. The gray cat was angry because it did not hold the bird. 9. The 

sparrow surprised it, and it commenced to wash its face. 10. The sparrow wished to fly as far as the tall tree, 

but the cat held it. 11. The sparrow said "A good cat washes its face, but you are not a good cat." 12. The 

sparrow was angry because the cat seized it and held it. 13. The bird did not lose its meal, but the angry cat 

lost its meal. 14. Do you see his cat or hers? 15. I see both his and hers, but ours is not in our garden. 16. My 

father is a tall strong man. 17. I like to look at him. 18. The children saw the young birds in the nest. 

LESSON X. 

THE ACCUSATIVE OF DIRECTION. 

46. When the verb in a sentence expresses motion, the word indicating the place, person or thing toward 

which the motion is directed is given the accusative ending. This is also true if the word is the complement of 

any preposition which does not itself sufficiently indicate motion in a certain direction. (The prepositions "al", 

to, toward, "gxis", as far as, "tra", through, express motion in the direction of their complements, and could 

not well be used except in a sentence whose verb expresses motion. Consequently the accusative is not used 

after any of these three): 

Li iris gxardenon, he went to the garden ("gardenward"). La viro iros Bostonon, the man will go to Boston 

("Bostonward"). 

[Footnote: Cf. English "he went home," "he went homeward," etc.] 

Li estis en la gxardeno, kaj kuris en la domon, he was in the garden and ran into the house. Gxi ne estas sur la 

tablo, gxi falis sur la plankon, it is not on the table, it fell upon the floor. Ili falis sub la tablon gxis la planko, 

they fell under the table as far as the floor (direction expressed by whole prepositional phrase). Mi iris tra la 

domo en mian cxambron, I went through the house into my room. 

THE ARTICLE FOR THE POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVE. 

47. In many sentences where the possessor is already sufficiently indicated, English nevertheless uses a 

possessive adjective, as in "I wash my face," "he shakes his head," but on the other hand omits it entirely with 

certain words indicating relationship, as in "Brother gave it to me," etc. In both cases Esperanto uses the 

article instead of the possessive adjective, unless the fact of possession is to be emphasized: 

Mi lavas la vizagxon, I wash my face. Li skuas la kapon, he shakes his head. La patro estas alta, Father is tall. 

Mi donis gxin al la patro, I gave it to Father. 

APPOSITION. 

48. English often uses the preposition "of" between two words where no idea of possession really exists, as 

"the city of Boston." Since nouns used in apposition refer to the same thing, and are in the same grammatical


construction, Esperanto does not use a preposition: 

La urbo Bostono estas granda, the city (of) Boston is large. Mia amiko Johano estas alta, my friend John is 

tall. Cxu vi ne konas min, vian amikon? do you not know me, your friend? 

VOCABULARY 

arabo = arab. meti = to put, to place. baldaux = soon. nazo = nose. Bostono = Boston. nur = only, merely. frato 

= brother. pusxi = to push. kamelo = camel. trans = across. kapo = head. tuta = whole, entire, all. kolo = neck. 

urbo = city. korpo = body. varma = warm. 

LA ARABO KAJ LA KAMELO. 

Arabo sidis en sia domo en la urbo. Apud domo trans la strato li vidis kamelon. La kamelo iris trans la straton 

gxis la pordo, kaj diris al la arabo, "Frato, mi ne estas varma, mi volas meti nur la nazon en vian varman 

domon." La arabo skuis la kapon, sed la kamelo metis la nazon tra la pordo en la cxambron. La kamelo 

komencis pusxi sian tutan vizagxon en la domon. Baldaux li havis la kapon gxis la kolo en la domo. Post la 

kapo iris la kolo en gxin, kaj baldaux la tuta korpo estis en la domo. La arabo estis kolera, cxar li ne volis havi 

tutan kamelon en sia domo. Li kuris al la kamelo, kaptis lin, tenis lin, kaj diris, "Frato, vi volis meti nur la 

nazon en mian domon. La cxambro ne estas granda sed gxi estas la mia, kaj mi preferas sidi en gxi." "Via diro 

estas bona," diris la kamelo, "via domo ne estas granda, sed gxi estas varma, kaj mi sxatas stari en gxi. Mi 

preferas stari kaj kusxi en gxi, kaj mi donos al vi mian arbon trans la strato. Cxu vi ne volas iri sub la arbon?" 

Kaj la kamelo pusxis la arabon de lia domo en la straton de la urbo. La kamelo nun trovis sin en varma 

cxambro, sed la juna arabo staris trans la strato kaj ne estis varma. 


1. The cat ran across the street. 2. Across the street it found a sparrow. 3. It caught the bird, but began to wash 

its face, and the sparrow flew to the nest. 4. I went into the garden as far as the large tree. 5. I did not hold my 

book, and it fell upon the floor. 6. It began to fall under the table, but I seized it. 7. My brother pushed the 

books into their box, and put it on the table. 8. We went to the city of Boston yesterday and into a beautiful 

house. 9. The arab shook his head and said, "No." 10. But the camel commenced to go through the door. 11. 

His remark did not seem to surprise the camel. 12. The camel pushed its head and neck, and soon its whole 

body into the warm house. 13. It wished to put merely its nose into it. 14. The arab was angry, because it 

pushed itself into his house. 15. He said, "Brother, the house is mine, and I do not wish to have you in it." 16. 

But soon after the remark, the whole camel was in the house. 17. He pushed the young arab into the street. 18. 

He went across the street and stood upon the grass under a tree. 

LESSON XI. 

POSSESSIVE CASE OF NOUNS. 

49. The preposition "de" is used to express possession or connection: 

La muroj de la domo, the walls of the house. La koloroj de la floroj, the colors of the flowers. La libro de la 

knabo, the book of the boy (the boy's book). Brancxo de la arbo, a branch of the tree. La gxardeno de la viroj, 

the garden of the men (the men's garden). 

IMPERSONAL VERBS. 

50. Verbs with an impersonal or indeterminate subject, as "it rains," "it is snowing," are called impersonal, 

because there is no actual subject, the word "it" serving merely as an introductory particle. No such particle is


used with impersonal verbs in Esperanto: 

Pluvas, it rains, it is raining. Negxis hieraux, it snowed yesterday. 

VERBS PRECEDING THEIR SUBJECTS. 

51. When the verb in a sentence precedes its subject, English often uses an introductory particle, such as 

"there," "it." In Esperanto no such particles are needed: 

Estas floroj sur la tablo, there are flowers on the table. Estis Johano, ne Alfredo, en la gxardeno, it was John, 

not Alfred, in the garden. Estas domo en la kampo, there is a house in the field. Estis mi, it was I. 

COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS. 

52. Words like "aux", "kaj", "nek", "sed", which join words, word−groups, or sentences together are 

conjunctions. All the conjunctions given so far connect words, phrases, or sentences of similar rank or kind. 

These are called coordinating conjunctions, and the words, phrases, or sentences connected by them are said 

to be coordinate: 

Cxu vi marsxas aux kuras? ("Aux" connects the verbs.) 

Sxi iris, kaj ni estis felicxaj. ("Kaj" connects the sentences.) 

Nek vi nek mi vidis gxin. (The second "nek" connects the pronouns, the first being introductory and 

adverbial.) 

Aux li aux sxi perdis la libron. (The second "aux" connects the pronouns, the first being introductory and 

adverbial.) 

Gxi falis sur la segxon, sed ne sur la plankon. ("Sed" connects the phrases.) 

Li ne sxatis gxin. Tamen li tenis gxin. ("Tamen" connects the sentences.) 

[Footnote: A phrase is a word−group forming an expression, but not containing a verb, as "through the 

house," "of the man," "before me," etc.] 

[Footnote: Coordinating conjunctions may be further classified according to their meaning: "Aux" is 

disjunctive, connecting alternates, and expressing separation. "Kaj" is copulative, expressing union. "Nek" is 

disjunctive, expressing separation and also negation. "Sed" is adversative, expressing opposition, contrast, or 

modification of a previous statement. "Tamen" is adversative, affirming something in spite of a previous 

objection or concession. "Do," "so, then, consequently," is argumentative, expressing a logical inference or 

result in a somewhat conversational manner.] 

VOCABULARY 

akvo = water. porti = to carry. amiko = friend. ricxa = rich, wealthy. ankaux = also. sablo = sand. bezoni = to 

need. sako = sack, bag. dezerto = desert. seka = dry. fidela = faithful. tamen = nevertheless. mono = money. 

trinki = to drink. negxi = to snow. veni = to come. pluvi = to rain. vojo = road, way. 

LA ARABO EN LA DEZERTO. 

Arabo iris trans grandan sekan dezerton. Kamelo, lia fidela amiko, portis lin. La kamelo ankaux portis belajn


tapisxojn, cxar la arabo estis ricxa viro. La arabo havis ne nur tapisxojn, sed ankaux sakojn. En la sakoj estis 

akvo, cxar en la dezerto nek pluvas nek negxas. La viro trinkis akvon, kaj ankaux donis akvon al sia kamelo. 

La kamelo marsxis kaj marsxis, sed ne venis al la domo de la arabo, cxar ili perdis la vojon. La suno brilis, kaj 

la sablo de la dezerto sxajnis varma. La arabo ne trovis la vojon, kaj baldaux li ne havis akvon. Tamen la 

kamelo marsxis kaj marsxis, kaj baldaux la arabo vidis sakon antaux si, sur la seka sablo. Li estis felicxa kaj 

diris al si "Cxu estas akvo en gxi? Mi volas trinki, kaj volas doni akvon al mia fidela kamelo." Li ankaux volis 

lavi la tutan vizagxon en la akvo, cxar li estis varma. Post sia diro li kaptis la sakon, kaj komencis rigardi en 

gxin. Li metis la nazon en gxin, sed ne trovis akvon en la sako. Nek li nek lia fidela kamelo havis akvon, cxar 

estis nur mono en la sako. La arabo estis kolera, cxar li ne volis monon, li bezonis akvon. Li havis monon en 

sia domo en la urbo, kaj volis trovi akvon. Cxu li tamen metis la sakon trans la kolon de sia kamelo? Ne, li ne 

volis meti gxin sur sian kamelon, cxar li estis kolera. Li ne tenis la sakon, sed gxi falis sur la sablon, kaj 

kusxis apud li. La sako nun kusxas sur la sablo de la granda dezerto, kaj la mono estas en gxi. 


1. Today it is raining, but yesterday it was snowing. 2. Did your friend John carry his chair into the house? 3. I 

saw your good friends on the way to the city. 4. Is the large sack behind the door theirs? 5. Neither she nor her 

brother saw the whole city. 6. They went to the city of Boston and lost their way. 7. There are interesting 

houses across the street. 8. The body of a camel is large, and its neck is long. 9. The camel pushed its head 

into the house of the arab, and he was angry. 10. On the sand in the desert there lies a sack. 11. In the sack 

there is money. 12. The arab was warm, and wished to drink water. 13. He also wished to give water to the 

faithful camel. 14. Nevertheless, he found only money in the sack. 15. He was angry, and did not keep the 

sack. 16. Yesterday he wished to find money, but today he prefers water. 17. Nevertheless there is only sand 

in the desert. 18. He wished to come from the dry desert to the house of a faithful friend. 19. Both he and his 

friends are rich. 20. They went to his house yesterday, and came to theirs today. 21. They do not need money. 

LESSON XII. 

INDIRECT STATEMENTS. 

53. A statement made indirectly by means of a clause dependent upon a verb meaning "say," "think," "know," 

"believe," or a similar expression, as in "I know that he came," "I hear that he is good," is called an "indirect 

statement." (The "direct" statement is "he came," "he is good.") An indirect statement is joined to the main 

verb or sentence by the subordinating conjunction "ke," that. 

Johano diras ke vi venis hieraux, John says that you came yesterday. Sxi opinias ke estas mono en la sako, she 

thinks that there is money in the bag. 

[Footnote: A clause is a group of words including a verb, which is dependent upon or subordinate to a main 

verb or sentence, as "−−that he came," "−−when he went," "−−that he is good," etc.] 

[Footnote: In English the subordinating conjunction may sometimes be omitted, either "I think that he is 

good," or "I think he is good," being usually permissible. But in Esperanto there is no variation, and the 

conjunction "ke" is never omitted.] 

THE INDEFINITE PERSONAL PRONOUN "ONI". 

54. When an indefinite personal pronoun is desired, as in the expressions "one knows," "they say," "people 

say," "you can see," etc., the indefinite personal pronoun "oni" is used. This pronoun may also be used in 

translating such expressions as "it is said," "I am told," etc.: 

Oni diras ke li estas ricxa, they say (one says) that he is rich. Oni vidas ke ili estas amikoj, one sees that they


are friends. Mi opinias ke oni sxatas lin, I think that people like him (that he is liked). Oni diris al mi ke estas 

sablo en la dezerto, I was told (people said to me) that there is sand in the desert. Oni opinias ke sxi estas 

felicxa, it is thought (one thinks) that she is happy. Cxu oni vidis nin en la gxardeno? Were we seen (did 

people see us) in the garden? Oni sxatas agrablajn infanojn, people like agreeable children (agreeable children 

are liked). 

THE FUTURE TENSE. 

55. The future tense of the verb expresses an act or state as about to take place, or as one that will take place in 

future time. The ending of this tense is "−os," as "kuros," will run, "flugos," will fly, "brilos," will shine. The 

conjugation of "esti" and also of "vidi" in the future tense is as follows: 

mi estos = I shall be. mi vidos = I shall see. vi estos = you will be. vi vidos = you will see. li (sxi, gxi) estos = 

li (sxi, gxi) vidos : he (she, it) will be. he (she, it) will see. ni estos = we shall be. ni vidos = we shall see. vi 

estos = you (plural) will be. vi vidos = you (plural) will see. ili estos = they will be. ili vidos = they will see. 

VOCABULARY 

auxdi = to hear. oni = (see 54). blovi = to blow. opinii = to think, to opine. greno = grain (wheat, corn, etc.). 

orienta = east, eastern. ke = that (conjunction). pluvo = rain. kontraux = against. suda = south, southern. 

montri = to show, to point out. velki = to wilt, to wither. norda = north, northern. vento = wind. nova = new. 

ventoflago = weathercock. okcidenta = west, western. vetero = weather. 

LA VENTOFLAGO. 

Estis varma vetero, la suno brilis, kaj suda vento blovis. Tamen la nova ventoflago sur la domo diris al si, "La 

sudan venton mi ne sxatas. Mi preferas orientan venton." La vento orienta auxdis la diron kaj gxi venis 

kontraux la ventoflagon. Pluvis kaj pluvis, kaj oni estis kolera kontraux la ventoflago, cxar gxi montras 

orientan venton. Gxi diris, "Pluvas nun, sed la greno en la kampoj bezonos sekan veteron. Oni estos kolera 

kontraux mi, cxar mi montras orientan venton." La okcidenta vento auxdis la ventoflagon, kaj baldaux venis. 

Gxi ne estis forta, sed gxi estis seka kaj agrabla vento, kaj ne portis pluvon. La viroj, virinoj, kaj junaj infanoj 

volis trinki, sed ili ne havis akvon. La greno kaj la floroj velkis, kaj la frukto ankaux falis. La nova ventoflago 

diris, "Oni estos kolera kontraux mi, cxar ne pluvas. Oni opinios ke, cxar mi montras okcidentan venton, la 

frukto falas, kaj la greno kaj floroj velkas. Mi sxatas montri nek okcidentan nek orientan venton!" Norda 

vento auxdis kaj venis al la ventoflago. La vetero ne estis agrabla, kaj la virinoj kaj la junaj infanoj ne estis 

varmaj. Negxis, kaj oni estis kolera. Oni diris "La greno kaj la frukto bezonas varman veteron, sed hodiaux 

negxas. Ni preferas la sudan venton. Ni havis gxin, antaux la orienta, la okcidenta, kaj la norda ventoj. La 

ventoflago ne estas fidela amiko al ni. Gxi ne montras bonajn ventojn, kaj ni volas rompi gxin!" Oni kuris al 

la domo, kaptis la novan ventoflagon, kaj ankaux rompis gxin. Gxi falis, kaj kusxis sur la vojo antaux la 

domo. 


1. One can see that the weathercock points−out the winds. 2. They say that the west wind will be a dry wind. 

3. The weathercock now shows that an agreeable south wind blows. 4. People will be angry with (against) the 

weathercock, because it points−out a north wind. 5. A north wind is not warm, and the grain and fruit will 

need a warm wind. 6. It snowed, and the young children were not warm, because the north wind blew. 7. 

People will like a south wind, but an east wind will carry rain. 8. Can one find money in the desert? 9. Do you 

think (that) he is in the house? 10. He is said to be (they say that he is) on the street. 11. It is thought (people 

think) that the camel is a faithful friend. 12. I am told (people tell me) that the camel has a large body, and a 

long neck. 13. One can see that it is not beautiful. 14. People do not like to drink warm water. 15. 

Nevertheless we shall drink warm water in the city. 16. It was beautiful weather yesterday, but today we shall


have good weather also. 17. I think that a warm wind will blow soon. 18. My friend has a beautiful new 

house. 

LESSON XIII. 

THE DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUN "TIU". 

56. The demonstrative pronoun "tiu", that, is used to indicate a person or a definitely specified thing. The 

plural is "tiuj", those: 

Tiu estas la via, kaj mi volas tiun, that is yours, and I wish that one. Tiuj estos koleraj kontraux vi, those will 

be angry with you. Li auxdis tiujn, he heard those (persons, or things). 

57. The demonstrative pronoun "tiu" is also used as a "pronominal adjective", in agreement with a noun: 

Tiu vento estos varma, that wind will be warm. Mi vidas tiun ventoflagon, I see that weathercock. Tiuj infanoj 

estas junaj, those children are young. Mi trovos tiujn librojn, I shall find those books. 

TENSES IN INDIRECT QUOTATIONS. 

58. The verb in an indirect statement (53) or an indirect question remains in the same tense in which it would 

be if the statement or question were direct. (In English this is true only if the introductory verb is present or 

future, since after an introductory past tense the tense of the indirect quotation is changed, and "am, is, are, 

have, will" become "was, were, had, would," etc.) 

Mi diras ke li estas bona, I say that he is good. " diris " " " " , I said that he was good. " diros " " " " , I shall 

say that he is good. Li miras cxu mi auxdas, he wonders whether I hear. " miris " " " , he wondered whether I 

heard. " miros " " " , he will wonder whether I hear. Mi opiniis ke gxi estas bona, I thought that it was good (I 

thought "it is good"). Oni miris cxu li venos, they wondered whether he would come (they wondered "will he 

come?"). 

[Footnote: An indirect question is introduced by "cxu", whether, after verbs meaning "ask," "wonder," 

"know," etc.: "Mi miras cxu li venis", I wonder whether he came. "Oni demandas cxu li estas ricxa", people 

ask whether he is rich.] 

FORMATION OF FEMININE NOUNS. 

59. Feminine nouns corresponding to distinctly masculine nouns such as "frato", "knabo", "viro", may be 

formed from these by inserting the suffix "−in−" just before the noun−ending "−o": 

fratino = sister patrino = mother (from frato, brother). (from patro, father). knabino = girl virino = woman 

(from knabo, boy). (from viro, man). 

[Footnote: Cf. English names similarly formed from masculine names, as "Pauline, Josephine, Ernestine, 

Geraldine," etc., also German "Koenigin", queen, from "Koenig", king; "Loewin", lioness, from "Loewe", 

lion, etc.] 

VOCABULARY 

almenaux = at least. paroli = to talk, to speak. cxapelo = hat. parko = park. cxielo = sky, heaven. preskaux = 

almost. filo = son. pri = concerning, about. konstrui = to build. promeni = to take a walk. miri = to wonder. 

super = above. morgaux = tomorrow. timi = to fear, to be afraid (of). nubo = cloud. tiu = that (56). ombrelo =


umbrella. zorga = careful. 

EN LA PARKO. 

Miaj junaj amiko kaj amikino, kaj ankaux ilia patrino, iris hieraux al la parko. La infanoj diris al la patrino ke 

la parko estas agrabla, kaj ke ili volas promeni en gxi. La knabino parolis al sia frato pri la belaj floroj. Sxi 

diris al li ke la floroj velkas, kaj ke la herbo en preskaux la tuta parko bezonas pluvon. La knabo diris hodiaux 

al mi ke hieraux li kaj lia fratino auxdis la birdojn en la arboj super siaj kapoj. Li diris ke li miris pri tiuj 

birdoj, tamen li opinias ke la birdoj baldaux konstruos siajn nestojn en tiuj arboj. La infanoj promenis, kaj 

baldaux ili vidis ke grizaj nuboj venas sur la cxielon, kaj mia juna amikino timis ke pluvos. Sxi parolis al la 

patrino pri la nuboj kaj la pluvo, montris al sxi la grizajn nubojn, kaj diris ke si volas iri al la domo. Ili 

komencis marsxi al la strato, kaj preskaux kuris, cxar ili ne havis ombrelon. Tra la fenestroj de la domoj oni 

rigardis ilin, kaj la knabo miris cxu li kaj liaj patrino kaj fratino amuzas tiujn virojn kaj virinojn. Tamen la 

patrino diris ke sxi ne timas ke sxi amuzos tiujn, sed ke sxi timas la pluvon. Sxi kaj la filino volas esti zorgaj 

pri almenaux la novaj cxapeloj. La filo diris al sxi ke li ankaux estas zorga, sed ke li opinias ke ne pluvos. 

Baldaux la patro venis al ili, kaj portis ombrelojn, cxar li ankaux timis la pluvon. Li miris cxu la infanoj kaj 

ilia patrino havas ombrelojn. Baldaux pluvis, sed ili estis sekaj, cxar ili havis la ombrelojn. Morgaux ili ne 

promenos en la parko, sed iros al la urbo. 


1. The east wind is dry and the south wind will be too warm. 2. A west wind blew against the weathercock, 

but the grain needed a south wind. 3 A north wind is blowing and I think that it will soon snow. 4. It (51) will 

be beautiful weather tomorrow, because a pleasant wind is now blowing. 5. The flowers will wither because 

those children gathered them. 6. They are talking about that park, but I do not wish to take−a−walk, because 

there are clouds in (on) the sky. 7. At least we shall take an umbrella, and my brother will hold it over our 

heads. 8. My sister said "Mother and I are−afraid that it will rain." 9. My young sister will be careful about 

that new umbrella. 10. I wonder whether she will take−a−walk tomorrow. 11. That park is pleasant and the 

grass is soft and green. 12. The birds are building their nests now, in those branches above our heads. 13. The 

sky above us is blue, and a west wind is beginning to blow. 14. I can see that weathercock, on that large house 

near the park. 15. Mother says that my sister will have a new hat tomorrow. 16. She will be careful of (about) 

that hat. 17. My father's friend is very careful of his son. 18. One sees that he is not a strong boy. 

LESSON XIV. 

THE DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUN "CXI TIU". 

60. The demonstrative pronoun (and pronominal adjective) meaning "this" is formed by using with "tiu" (56) 

the word "cxi", which expresses the general idea of nearness or proximity. (Consequently the literal meaning 

of "cxi tiu" is "that one nearby", "that one here".) The word "cxi" may either precede or follow the pronoun: 

Cxi tiu estas la mia, this is mine. Mi vidis cxi tiun, I saw this one. Cxu vi volas tiujn cxi? Do you wish these? 

Cxi tiu knabino estas mia fratino, this girl is my sister. Mi vidis cxi tiujn cxapelojn, I saw these hats. Cxi tiuj 

amikoj promenos, these friends will take a walk. 

61. The words "tiu" and "cxi tiu" may be used to distinguish between persons or things "previously" 

mentioned and "just" mentioned: 

Gertrude kaj Mario estas en la parko. Tiu rigardas la florojn, cxi tiu kolektas ilin. 

Gertrude and Mary are in the park. The former (that one) looks at the flowers, the latter (this one) gathers 

them.


POSSESSIVE FORM OF THE DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUN. 

62. To express possession, the demonstrative pronouns "tiu" and "cxi tiu" have the special possessive or 

genitive forms "ties", that one's, and "cxi ties", this one's. The use of "ties" and "cxi ties" to mean "the former" 

and "the latter" is similar to the use of "tiu" and "cxi tiu" shown in 61: 

Mi iris al ties domo, I went to that one's house. Cxi ties filoj estas junaj, this person's (this one's) sons are 

young. Mi sxatas ties koloron, sed preferas cxi tiun floron, I like that one's color, but prefer this flower. La 

patro kaj lia amiko parolas pri siaj domoj. Ties estas nova, sed cxi ties sxajnas bela. Father and his friend are 

talking about their houses. The former's is new, but the latter's seems beautiful. 

THE SUFFIX "−IL−". 

63. Names of instruments, tools or utensils may be formed by adding the suffix "−il−" (followed by the 

ending "−o") to roots whose meaning permits: 

flugilo, wing (from flugi, to fly). kaptilo, snare, trap (from kapti, to catch). kudrilo, needle (from kudri, to 

sew). montrilo, indicator, (clock) hand (from montri, to point out, show). tenilo, handle (from teni, to hold). 

[Footnote: The root of a word is that part of it which contains the essential meaning, and to which the verb 

endings "−i", "−as", "−is", "−os", the noun ending "−o", the adjective ending "−a", etc., are attached, when no 

suffix intervenes. Thus, "vir−" is the root of "viro" and of "virino"; "kur−" is the root of "kuri", etc.] 

THE EXPRESSION OF MEANS OR INSTRUMENTALITY. 

64. The means or instrumentality through which an act is accomplished is expressed by use of the preposition 

"per": 

Oni kudras per kudrilo, one sews by means of (with) a needle. La birdoj flugas per flugiloj, the birds fly by 

(with) wings. Li amuzas sin per tiuj bildoj, he amuses himself with (by) those pictures. Mi trovis gxin per via 

helpo, I found it by (through) your help. 

VOCABULARY 

busxo = mouth. per = by means of (64). dekstra = right (not left). supo = soup. cxi (see 60). telero = plate. 

forko = fork. terpomo = potato. helpo = help. ties = that one's (62). kafo = coffee. trancxi = to cut. kulero = 

spoon. tre = very, exceedingly. mano = hand. viando = meat. 

LA MANGXO. 

Hieraux mi miris cxu mi havos bonan mangxon en la domo de mia amiko. Sed mi opiniis ke mi havos tre 

bonan mangxon, cxar mia amiko sxatas doni bonajn mangxojn al siaj amikoj. Oni metis tre bonan supon 

antaux mi, kaj mi mangxis tiun per granda kulero. Post la supo mi havis viandon. Cxi tiun mi tenis per forko, 

kaj trancxis per akra trancxilo. La forko, trancxilo kaj kulero estas mangxiloj. Mi havis ne nur viandon, sed 

ankaux novajn terpomojn. Mi trancxis tiujn cxi per la trancxilo, sed mi metis ilin en la busxon per forko. Mi 

tenis la forkon en la dekstra mano, kaj metis la trancxilon trans mian teleron. Oni bezonas akran trancxilon, 

sed oni ne bezonas tre akran forkon. Post la viando kaj la terpomoj, oni donis al mi fresxajn maturajn 

cxerizojn. Ili kusxis sur granda telero, kaj havis belan koloron. Ilia gusto estis ankaux bona. Mi preskaux ne 

diris ke mi ankaux havis kafon. Mi parolos morgaux al mia amiko pri lia kafo, kaj lauxdos gxin. Post la 

mangxo, najbaro de mia amiko venis en cxi ties domon, kaj ili parolis al mi pri siaj novaj domoj. Per la helpo 

de sia patro, mia amiko konstruos grandan domon. Lia najbaro volas konstrui belan sed ne tre grandan domon. 

Ties nova domo estos bela, sed mi opinias ke mi preferos cxi ties domon. Mia amiko volis doni almenaux


kafon al sia najbaro, sed li diris ke li ne volas trinki kafon. Tamen li volis persikon. Li tenis tiun en la mano, 

kaj mangxis tiun. 


1. The birds have very strong wings on their bodies, but they do not have hands. 2. They will build their nests, 

and sing about the young birds. 3. Those children were talking to me yesterday about their cat. 4. They said 

that it likes to catch and eat sparrows. 5. Tomorrow it will hide (itself) behind a tree, and will catch a young 

sparrow. 6. The children will gather peaches in that−person's garden, and will put them upon a plate. 7. They 

will shake the whole tree by means of a branch. 8. The sweet fruit above them will fall upon the soft green 

grass. 9. The children wondered whether the cherries were ripe. 10. They seem almost ripe, and tomorrow the 

children will pick (gather) them, with the help of their father. 11. It is said (54) that the grain in that−man's 

field very [much] needs rain. 12. People also think that the flowers will wither, for (because) it did not rain 

yesterday or today. 13. My careful young friend will carry an umbrella in his hand tomorrow, because he fears 

the rain. 14. He sees those gray clouds in (on) the sky. 15. He holds the umbrella by its handle. 16. The 

weathercock is an indicator concerning the weather. 17. One eats meat with a fork, and soup with a spoon. 18. 

One holds the spoon in the right hand. 19. A knife is sharp, but one does not need a sharp fork. 20. We shall 

have a very good meal, and also very good coffee. 

LESSON XV. 

THE DEMONSTRATIVE ADJECTIVE. 

65. The demonstrative adjective related to the demonstrative pronoun "tiu" (56) is "tia", that kind of, that sort 

of, such: 

Tia floro estas bela, that kind of a flower is beautiful. Mi sxatas tian viandon, I like that sort of meat. Tiaj 

najbaroj estas agrablaj, such (that kind of) neighbors are pleasant. Mi volas auxdi tiajn birdojn, I wish to hear 

such birds. 

ADVERBS DEFINED AND CLASSIFIED. 

66. An adverb is a word which modifies the meaning of a verb, adjective, another adverb, or phrase. It may 

express manner, time, degree, negation, etc. Adverbs are either primary, as "now," "almost," or derived, as 

"glad−ly," "sweet−ly," The Esperanto primary adverbs given in this and in preceding lessons may be 

classified as follows: 

(a) Temporal Adverbs (expressing time). 

baldaux = soon. morgaux = tomorrow. hieraux = yesterday. nun = now. hodiaux = today. tuj = immediately. 

(b) Adverbs of Degree. 

almenaux = at least. preskaux = almost. nur = merely. tre = very, much. 

(c) Adverbs Expressing Other Ideas. 

addition: ankaux = also. emphasis: ecx = even. interrogation: cxu, (30). affirmation: jes = yes. proximity: cxi, 

(60). negation: ne = not, no, (27). 

a. An adverb usually precedes, but may also follow, the word or words which it modifies. It must be so placed 

as to leave no doubt about which of two words or word−groups it is intended to modify. Thus, "mi preskaux


volis havi tiun" clearly means "I almost wished to have that"; but "mi volis preskaux havi tiun" might mean 

either "I almost wished to have that," or more probably "I wished almost to have that." An example of 

permissible variation in the position of adverbs is shown in questions to which an affirmative answer is 

expected. Such questions may be put in the form of a statement, followed by "cxu ne" (instead of having 

"cxu" introduce the sentence, with "ne" in its normal position): 

Li venos, cxu ne? He will come, will he not? La vetero estas bela, cxu ne? The weather is beautiful, is it not? 

Vi auxdis tiun diron, cxu ne? You heard that remark, did you not? 

FORMATION OF OPPOSITES. 

67. If the meaning of a word is such that it can have a direct opposite, such opposite may be formed from it by 

use of the prefix "mal−": 

malalta = low, short (from "alta", high, tall). malamiko = enemy (from "amiko", friend). maldekstra = left 

(from "dekstra", right). malhelpi = to hinder (from "helpi", to help). maljuna = aged, old (from "juna", young). 

malnova = old, not new (from "nova", new). 

[Footnote: Cf. English "malcontent", "discontented," "maladroit", "clumsy."] 

VOCABULARY 

dum = during. povi = to be able. ecx = even. preni = to take. gardi = to guard. propono = proposal. helpi = to 

help, to aid. respondi = to answer. honti = to be ashamed. ruza = sly, cunning. kara = dear. sxteli = to steal. 

kontenta = satisfied. tia = that kind of (65). kuragxa = courageous. tuj = immediately. nokto = night. vocxo = 

voice. 

LA RUZA JUNA VIRO. 

Ruza juna viro kaj bona maljuna viro iris trans dezerton. Tiu havis nigran cxevalon, cxi tiu havis blankan 

cxevalon. "Vi gardos niajn cxevalojn dum la nokto, cxu ne?" diris la juna viro per dolcxa vocxo al sia amiko, 

"Cxar dum la nokto oni ne povos vidi mian nigran cxevalon, sed malamikoj povos tuj vidi vian blankan 

cxevalon. Oni povos sxteli tian cxevalon, cxar vi estas maljuna kaj malforta, kaj ne povos malhelpi 

malamikojn." Tia propono ne sxajnis agrabla al la maljuna viro. Li ne estis kontenta, tamen li ne volis perdi 

sian cxevalon, cxar li estis malricxa. Li diris al si ke li donos sian blankan cxevalon al la juna viro, kaj prenos 

ties nigran cxevalon. Tuj li diris al cxi tiu "Sed per via helpo mi ne perdos mian cxevalon: mi donos la mian al 

vi, kaj prenos vian cxevalon. La via estas malbela, sed gxi estas almenaux nigra; vi donos gxin al mi, cxu ne?" 

"Jes," respondis la ruza juna viro, kaj li donis sian nigran cxevalon al tiu, kaj prenis la blankan cxevalon. 

"Nun," diris la maljuna viro, "Vi estas kuragxa kaj forta, kaj vi gardos la cxevalojn, cxu ne? Vi povos 

malhelpi malamikojn per tiu granda akra trancxilo, kaj oni ne povos sxteli vian blankan cxevalon." La ruza 

juna viro ne hontis. Li respondis "Mia kara amiko, mi nun dormos, cxar oni ne sxtelos blankan cxevalon. Mi 

povos vidi tian cxevalon dum la nokto, kaj malhelpi malamikojn. Sed tiu cxevalo via ("that horse of yours") 

havas la koloron de la nokto, kaj ecx nun oni povas sxteli gxin." La malkontenta maljuna viro diris per kolera 

vocxo "Cxu vi ne hontas pri tia propono?" Tamen la ruza juna viro tuj komencis dormi, kaj la maljuna viro 

gardis la cxevalojn dum la tuta nokto. 

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. (Words to be formed with the prefix "mal−" are quoted.) 

1. Does one eat potatoes and meat with a fork or a spoon? 2. One puts soup into the mouth by means of a 

spoon. 3. One cuts fruit with a knife, and puts the fruit upon a plate. 4. The coffee was "cold", and I was much 

"dissatisfied". 5. My knife was "dull", nevertheless I almost immediately cut my (the) "left" hand. 6. I was 

ashamed, but I think that the handle of that knife was very "short". 7. The grass is "wet" today, and I fear that


we shall not be able to take a walk, even in that "small" park. 8. I "dislike" to go−walking upon the "hard" 

streets. 9. The courageous young man and his "aged" friend talked about their "enemies". 10. They wished to 

be careful about their horses. 11. The young man was very sly, and wished to sleep during the night. 12. He 

said that one can steal a black horse during the "dark" night. 13. He said that either (aux) he or the "old" man 

would guard the horses. 14. The "old" man answered that he would give to him his [own] white horse. 15. He 

took that one's black horse. 16. He was ashamed, and was very angry at his "faithless" friend. 17. But he 

"stayed−awake", and guarded the horses. 

LESSON XVI. 

THE DEMONSTRATIVE ADVERB OF PLACE. 

68. The demonstrative adverbs of place related to the pronouns "tiu" and "cxi tiu" are "tie", there, in (at) that 

place, and "cxi tie", here, in (at) this place: 

La telero estas tie, the plate is there (in that place). La libroj kusxas cxi tie, the books lie here (in this place). 

Mi trovis vin tie kaj lin tie cxi, I found you there and him here. Tie la vetero sxajnas tre agrabla, there the 

weather seems very pleasant. 

69. If the verb in the sentence expresses motion toward the place indicated by "tie" or "cxi tie", the ending 

"−n" is added to the adverb (46), forming "tien", thither, there, and "cxi tien", hither, here: 

Li iros tien, he will go there (thither). Mi venis cxi tien, I came here (hither). Ni estis tie, kaj venis cxi tien, we 

were there and came here (hither). 

ACCOMPANIMENT. 

70. Accompaniment or association is expressed by the preposition "kun", with, along with: 

La viro venis kun sia amiko, the man came with his friend. Mi promenos kun vi, I shall go walking with you. 

La knabo kun tiu viro estas lia frato, the boy with that man is his brother. 

[Footnote: "Kun" must not be confused with "per" (64), which expresses instrumentality, although per may 

often be translated by English "with." The English preposition "with" may be said to have three rather clearly 

defined different meanings. In the linguistic history of this word, the original meaning was "against," still 

shown in "fight with, strive with, contend with, withstand", etc. (Cf. German "widerstreiten", to strive with, 

"widerhalten", to resist, etc.) Gradually this word "with" usurped the meaning of the original preposition 

"mid," expressing association or accompaniment (cf. German "mit", with, which it crowded out of the 

language except in one unimportant compound). The word "by" was also encroaching upon "mid" from 

another direction, and so "mid's" successor "with" came to be interchangeable with "by" in expressing 

instrumentality. Thus, English "with" indicates opposition, accompaniment, or instrumentality, for which 

three senses Esperanto has the three prepositions "kontraux", "kun", and "per", respectively.] 

THE ADVERB "FOR". 

71. The adverb "for", away, may be used independently, as "Li iris for de mi", he went away from me, but it is 

more frequently used as a prefix to give a sense of departure, loss or somewhat forcible removal: 

foriri = to go away, to depart. forkuri = to run away, to escape. forlasi = to leave alone, to abandon, to desert. 

formangxi = to eat away, to eat up. forpreni = to take away, to remove. fortrinki = to drink away, to drink up. 

[Footnote: Cf. the prefix "for−" in English "forfend," to keep away, to avert, "forbid," to exclude from, to


command against, "forbear," to refrain from, etc.] 

THE MEANING OF "POVI". 

72. The verb "povi", to be able, is used to translate English "can", which is defective, that is, does not occur in 

all of the forms a verb may have: 

Mi povas paroli, I am able to talk, I can talk. Mi povis paroli, I was able to talk, I could talk. Mi povos paroli, 

I shall be able to talk, −−−−−−. Mi volas povi paroli, I wish to be able to talk, −−−−−−. 

VOCABULARY 

el = out of, out. peli = to drive, to chase. cxirkaux = around, roundabout. posxo = pocket. for = away (71). 

rajdi = to ride. frua = early. rapidi = to hasten. glavo = sword. resti = to remain, to stay. horo = hour. sagxa = 

wise. kun = with (70). tie = there (68). lasi = to leave. voki = to call. 

MALAMIKOJ EN LA DEZERTO. 

Juna viro kaj lia sagxa patro volis iri trans la dezerton, kun siaj amikoj. La amikoj estis fortaj, kaj la juna viro 

estis tre kuragxa. Ili restis en malgranda urbo dum la nokto, kaj forrajdis kun tiuj amikoj. La patro kaj la filo 

opiniis ke la amikoj kun ili povos helpi per siaj akraj glavoj. Ili opiniis ke ili povos forpeli la malamikojn. Ecx 

en la dezerto oni trovas malamikojn. Tiaj malamikoj forprenas la monon de bonaj viroj. La juna viro estis 

kontenta, cxar li estis kun la amikoj. La maljuna viro estis kontenta cxar li estis kun sia filo. Baldaux la nokto 

venis. Estis tre malluma tie en la dezerto, kaj ili preskaux ne povis vidi. Dum la fruaj horoj de la nokto la patro 

auxdis vocxojn, kaj preskaux tuj li vidis la malamikojn. La ruzaj malbonaj viroj rapidis tien, kaj vokis la 

maljunan viron. La malkuragxaj amikoj de la patro kaj filo nek restis tie, nek helpis forpeli la malamikojn. Ili 

tuj forkuris. La malamikoj staris cxirkaux la patro, kaj forpusxis lin de lia cxevalo. La filo volis malhelpi ilin, 

sed li ne povis. Li povis nur resti kun la patro, kaj gardi lin tie kontraux la glavoj de la malamikoj. Baldaux la 

malamikoj komencis forpreni la monon el la posxoj de la sagxa maljuna viro. La kolera filo diris per 

maldolcxa ("bitter") vocxo "Cxu vi ne hontas? Cxu vi lasos al ni nek la cxevalojn nek nian monon?" Sed la 

malamikoj respondis "Ne, ni lasos al vi nek la cxevalojn nek la monon. Ni ne estas malsagxaj." Post tiu diro 

ili tuj forrapidis, kaj prenis kun si la cxevalojn. 


1. The foolish friends of the young man and his aged father did not stay with them. 2. They did not help them 

with their swords, but ran away at once ("tuj"), and were not ashamed. 3. The old man heard disagreeable 

voices behind him, and soon he saw the enemy. 4. The enemy called them, and hastened there (69). 5. Those 

sly bad men took the money out of the pockets of the courageous young man. 6. They stood around him, and 

also around his father. 7. The father and son could not even guard their horses. 8. The enemy did not leave (to) 

these their horses, but took both the horses and the money. 9. Soon the enemy rode away, during the late hours 

of the night. 10. The father and son were angry and dissatisfied. 11. They said "We fear and dislike such 

men." 12. The father said "By the help of our neighbors we can ("povos") find those bad men, and drive them 

away, out of the desert." 13. The son replied, "Dear Father, such a proposal seems good, and I will help with 

my long sharp sword. 14. But we are now in the desert, and the road to the city is long. 15. We cannot ride 

thither, but we can walk thither. 16. Can you not hasten, with ("per") my help?" 17. The wise old man 

answered, "Yes, my son, with such help I can walk thither." 

LESSON XVII. 

THE DEMONSTRATIVE TEMPORAL ADVERB.


73. The demonstrative temporal adverb related to the demonstrative pronoun "tiu" is "tiam", then, at that time: 

Tiam li rajdos al la urbo, then he will ride to the city. Nun ili estas sagxaj, sed tiam ili estis malsagxaj, now 

they are wise, but at that time they were foolish. 

COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 

74. An adjective may have three degrees, "positive", "comparative" and "superlative." English has various 

ways of forming the comparative and superlative degrees (as by the suffixes "−er, −est," the adverbs "more, 

most," and irregular methods as in "good, better, best," etc.). Esperanto has only one method, using the 

adverbs "pli", more, and "plej", most: 

POSITIVE. COMPARATIVE. SUPERLATIVE. −−−−−−−−−−−−−−− −−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−− 

−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−− bela, beautiful pli bela, more beautiful plej bela, most beautiful bona, 

good pli bona, better plej bona, best malbona, bad pli malbona, worse plej malbona, worst sagxa, wise pli 

sagxa, wiser plej sagxa, wisest 

75. The preposition "el" is used with words expressing the group or class out of which a superlative is selected 

and mentioned: 

Li estas la plej juna el tiuj, he is the youngest of (out of) those. Vi estas la plej felicxa el ni, you are the 

happiest of us. Tiu estis la plej ruza el la viroj, that one was the craftiest of the men. 

MANNER AND CHARACTERISTIC. 

76. The actions or feelings which accompany an act or state, or the characteristic which permanently 

accompanies a person or thing, may be expressed by a substantive with the preposition "kun": 

Li prenis gxin kun la plej granda zorgo, he took it with the greatest care. Mi auxdis lin kun intereso kaj 

plezuro, I heard him with interest and pleasure. Sxi estas virino kun bona gusto, she is a woman with (of) 

good taste. Mi havas cxevalon kun forta korpo, I have a horse with a strong body. 

[Footnote: Sometimes the manner of an action may be expressed by the instrument of it, expressed by the 

preposition "per" with a substantive modified by an adjective: "Li kantis per dolcxa vocxo", he sang with (by 

means of) a sweet voice. "Vi pusxis min per forta mano", you pushed me with a strong hand.] 

"DIRI", "PAROLI" AND "RAKONTI". 

77. The verbs "diri", to say, "paroli", to talk, to speak, and "rakonti", to relate, having in common the general 

idea of speech or expression, must not be confused in use: 

Mi diris al vi ke pluvas, I said to (told) you that it was raining. Mi diris gxin al vi, I said it to you (I told you). 

Mi parolis al vi pri gxi, I talked (spoke) to you about it. Mi rakontis gxin al vi, I related (told) it to you. 

VOCABULARY 

ami = to love. pli = more (74). ekster = outside (of). plumo = pen. Frederiko = Frederick. rakonti = to relate 

(77). gratuli = to congratulate. regxo = king. intereso = interest. servisto = servant. letero = letter. skribi = to 

write. plej = most (74). tiam = then (73). plezuro = pleasure. zorgo = care. 

FREDERIKO GRANDA KAJ LA JUNA SERVISTO.


Hieraux mi legis interesan libron pri Frederiko Granda ("the Great"). En gxi oni rakontas ke la regxo kun 

plezuro legis aux skribis per sia plumo, dum malfruaj horoj de la nokto. Agrabla juna knabo, la plej juna el la 

servistoj, tiam restis ekster la pordo. Cxar la regxo legis plej interesan novan libron, li ne opiniis ke la horo 

estas malfrua. Li vokis sian malgrandan serviston, sed la knabo, nek venis nek respondis. La regxo iris tien, 

kaj trovis la knabon ekster la pordo. Li vidis ke la knabo dormas sur malalta segxo. Tiam Frederiko Granda ne 

estis kolera, sed hontis cxar li vokis la infanon. La regxo Frederiko vidis leteron en la posxo de la knabo. Tuj 

li prenis la leteron el lia posxo, kaj rigardis gxin. Gxi estis letero al la servisto, de lia patrino. Sxi ne estis ricxa 

virino, sxi sxajnis esti tre malricxa. En cxi tiu letero la patrino diris per la plumo ke sxi amas la filon. Sxi 

dankis lin cxar li skribis al sxi longan leteron. Sxi ankaux dankis lin cxar li donis al sxi monon. La regxo volis 

esti tre bona al tia filo. Kun la plej granda zorgo li metis monon el sia posxo kun la letero kaj tiam lasis la 

leteron en ties posxo. Tiam li formarsxis al sia cxambro, kaj vokis la malgrandan serviston. La knabo tuj 

auxdis, kaj rapidis tra la pordo. Li kuris trans la cxambron, kaj staris antaux la regxo. "Cxu vi dormis?" diris 

Frederiko Granda. "Jes, mi timas ke mi preskaux dormis," respondis la knabo, "kaj mi tre hontas." Tiam li 

metis la manon en la posxon, kaj trovis la monon. Li sxajnis pli malfelicxa kaj diris kun granda timo 

"Malamiko metis cxi tiun monon en mian posxon! Oni opinios ke mi sxtelis gxin! Oni malamos min, kaj 

forpelos min!" Frederiko respondis, "Ne, mi donis gxin al vi, cxar mi amas bonajn knabojn. Mi gratulas vian 

patrinon, cxar sxi havas tian filon." 


1. An interesting story is related (54) about Frederick the Great. 2. His youngest servant stayed outside of the 

door. 3. The king called him, and he hastened thither and stood before him. 4. Yesterday he did not hear the 

king. 5. The king called him, but he did not answer. 6. The king thought that the boy had gone away with the 

older servants, and he was angry. 7. He left his book on the table, and went to the door. 8. Then he saw that 

the little boy was sleeping there. 9. He looked at him with greater interest, and saw a letter in his pocket. 10. 

The letter was from the boy's mother. 11. He had written a letter to her, with his pen, and had given (to) her 

money, because she was poor. 12. He wrote longer letters with pleasure, because he was a most faithful son. 

13. The king congratulated the mother of the boy, concerning such a son. 14. (The) king Frederick wished to 

be kinder ("pli bona") to the boy. 15. He placed his book upon the table, near his sword, and talked to the little 

servant. 16. Then the older servants came, and stood around the king. 17. They walked with great care, and 

the younger servant did not hear them. 18. They loved the little boy, and wished to help him. 

LESSON XVIII. 

THE DEMONSTRATIVE ADVERB OF MOTIVE OR REASON. 

78. The demonstrative adverb of motive or reason, related to the demonstrative pronoun "tiu", is "tial", 

therefore, for that reason, so: 

Tial la servisto foriris, therefore the servant went away. Tial mi gratulis lin, for that reason I congratulated 

him. Tial oni forpelis lin, so they drove him away. 

DERIVATION OF ADVERBS. 

79. Adverbs may be derived from roots whose meaning permits, by addition of the adverb−ending "−e", as 

"felicxe", happily, "kolere", angrily. The comparison of adverbs is similar to that of adjectives: 

POSITIVE. COMPARATIVE. SUPERLATIVE. −−−−−−−−−−−−− −−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−− 

−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−− sagxe, wisely pli sagxe, more wisely plej sagxe, most wisely bone, well pli 

bone, better plej bone, best malbone, badly pli malbone, worse plej malbone, worst ruze, slyly pli ruze, more 

slyly plej ruze, most slyly


"MALPLI" AND "MALPLEJ". 

80. The opposites (67) of "pli" and "plej" are "malpli", less, and "malplej", least. Their use is similar to that of 

"pli" and "plej". (These adverbs may also modify verbs): 

Li estas malpli kuragxa, he is less courageous. Tiuj estis malplej akraj, those were least sharp. La vento blovis 

malpli forte, the wind blew less strongly. Li skribis malplej zorge, he wrote least carefully. Mi malpli timas 

ilin, I fear them less. Vi malplej bezonos helpon, you will need help least. 

COMPARISON OF WORDS EXPRESSING QUANTITY. 

81. Since in their precise sense the words "pli", "malpli", "plej", "malplej", express degree, a quantitative 

meaning is given by "multe", "much", in the desired degree of comparison: 

multe, much pli multe, more (in amount) plej multe, most 

malpli multe, less " malplej multe, least 

malmulte, little pli malmulte, less " plej malmulte, least 

COMPARISONS CONTAINING "OL". 

82. In a comparison made by the use of "pli" or "malpli", the case used after "ol", than, must indicate clearly 

the sense intended: 

Mi amas ilin pli multe ol sxin, I love them more than (I love) her. Mi amas ilin pli multe ol sxi, I love them 

more than she (loves them). Vi helpis la viron malpli multe ol la knabo, you helped the man less than the boy 

(helped him). Vi helpis la viron malpli multe ol la knabon, you helped the man less than (you helped) the boy. 

CAUSAL CLAUSES. 

83. A clause giving a cause or reason is introduced by "cxar", because, for, or by the combination "tial ke", for 

this reason that, because, for: 

Mi venis frue, cxar mi volis vidi vin, I came early, for I wished to see you. La floroj velkis tial, ke ne pluvis, 

the flowers wilted for this reason, that it did not rain. 

VOCABULARY 

anstataux = instead of. multa = much (multaj, many). aprilo = April. ofta = frequent (ofte, often). auxgusto = 

August. ol = than (82). jaro = year. printempo = spring (season). junio = June. tago = day. julio = July. sezono 

= season. majo = May. somero = summer. marto = March. tial = therefore (78). monato = month. vintro = 

winter. 

PRI LA SEZONOJ. 

La vintro estas la malplej agrabla sezono el la tuta jaro. Negxas tre multe, kaj tial oni nur malofte promenas, 

cxar la stratoj estas tro malsekaj. Oni marsxas kun granda zorgo, kaj malrapide ("slowly"), tial ke oni ne volas 

fali kaj preskaux rompi la kolon. Oni zorge gardas sin tiam kontraux la malvarmaj nordaj ventoj. La manojn 

oni metas en la posxojn, sed la vizagxon oni ne povas bone gardi. Mi ne sxatas resti ekster la domo dum tia 

vetero. Mi multe preferas sidi en varma luma cxambro, kaj skribi leterojn per bona plumo. La monatoj de la 

printempo estas marto, aprilo kaj majo. La bela printempo sxajnas pli agrabla ol la vintro. Gxiaj tagoj estas pli


longaj kaj pli varmaj, gxiaj ventoj blovas malpli forte. En cxi tiu sezono la kampoj kaj arboj frue komencas 

montri plej belajn kolorojn. La birdoj konstruas siajn nestojn, kaj dolcxe kantas. Oni povas promeni sur la 

mola herbo, anstataux sur malsekaj malagrablaj stratoj. Pluvas pli multe en aprilo, tamen post la pluvo la 

herbo sxajnas pli verda, kaj la nuboj baldaux forflugas de la blua cxielo. Dum majo oni trovas violojn, kaj en 

junio oni vidas tre multajn rozojn. Sed la plej agrabla el la sezonoj estas la somero. Anstataux malvarmaj 

ventoj la somero havas la plej belan veteron, kun suda aux okcidenta ventoj. La longaj tagoj estas varmaj, sed 

la noktoj estas tute agrablaj. Tiam oni havas pli bonajn fruktojn ol dum la printempo. La monatoj de la somero 

estas junio, julio kaj auxgusto. Mi plej sxatas junion. Cxu vi sxatas gxin pli multe ol mi? Cxu vi sxatas 

auxguston pli multe ol julion? 


1. I read a most interesting book about Frederick the Great. 2. It relates that he often stayed−awake and read 

with great interest during the later hours of the night. 3. His youngest servant was a small boy. 4. The king 

loved this boy more than [he loved] the older servants. 5. The winter is a less pleasant season than the spring, 

but the summer is more pleasant than that [season]. 6. During March the east winds blow most strongly, and 

shake the trees very much. 7. In April one needs his umbrella, for (the reason that) there are often clouds in 

the sky and it rains a great deal (very much). 8. The streets are very wet, but the water does not seem to wash 

them. 9. In May one begins to find sweet violets, and the birds in the trees above our heads sing very sweetly. 

10. In June the most beautiful roses are seen (54). 11. July and August are the warmest months of the whole 

year. 12. The days are longer than the nights, and the weathercock shows west and south winds, instead of 

those disagreeable north and east winds. 13. One stays outside [of] the house then with greater pleasure, and 

goes walking in the parks. 14. I think that I like the summer better than you [do]. 15. Therefore I praise the 

summer more than you [do]. 16. However, I praise you more than [I praise] your younger brother. 17. He is 

less wise than you. 

LESSON XIX. 

"JU" AND "DES" IN COMPARISONS. 

84. In clauses expressing a comparison between two objects, acts or states, the adverbial use of English "the ... 

the ..." (meaning "by how much ... by that much ...") is rendered by the adverbs "ju" and "des", respectively: 

Ju pli bona li estas, des pli felicxa li estos, the better he is, the happier he will be. Ju pli ofte mi rigardas, des 

pli mi volas rigardi, the oftener I look, the more I wish to look. Ju pli bele la luno brilas, des pli oni sxatas la 

nokton, the more beautifully the moon shines, the more one likes the night. Ju malpli pluvas, des pli la floroj 

velkas, the less it rains, the more the flowers wither. Ju malpli multe vi helpas, des malpli multe mi lauxdos 

vin, the less you help, the less I shall praise you. Cxar vi helpis, mi des pli multe lauxdos vin, because you 

helped, I shall praise you the (that much) more. 

[Footnote: Cf. Shakespeare, As You Like It, V, II, 49, "By so much the more shall I tomorrow be at the height 

of heart−heaviness, by how much I shall think my brother happy in having what he wishes for."] 

THE PREPOSITION "INTER". 

85. In English, the preposition "between" is used in reference to two persons or things, and "among" in 

reference to three or more. As the difference in meaning is not essential, Esperanto has but the one preposition 

inter to express both "between" and "among": 

Li sidas inter vi kaj mi, he is sitting between you and me. Li sidas inter siaj amikoj, he is sitting among his 

friends. La monato majo estas inter aprilo kaj junio, the month of May is between April and June. Inter tiuj 

libroj estas tre interesa libro, among those books there is a very interesting book.


THE PREPOSITION "PRO". 

86. Cause or reason may be expressed not only by an adverb (78) or a clause (83), but also by use of the 

preposition "pro", because of, on account of, for the sake of, for. It directs the thought away from the 

complement toward the action, feeling or state caused by it, or done in its interest or behalf: 

La floroj velkas pro la seka vetero, the flowers wilt because of the dry weather. Mi skribis la leteron pro vi, I 

wrote the letter for you (for your sake). Pro tiuj nuboj mi timas ke pluvos, on account of those clouds I fear 

that it will rain. Oni sxatas cxerizojn pro la dolcxa gusto, people like cherries because of the sweet taste. 

PREPOSITIONS WITH ADVERBS AND OTHER PREPOSITIONS. 

87. Prepositions may be used with adverbs or with prepositional phrases when the meaning permits: 

La kato kuris el sub la tablo, the cat ran out−from under the table. Li venos el tie, he will come out of there. 

De nun li estos zorga, from now he will be careful. Li staris dekstre de la vojo, he stood on the right of the 

road. Mi iros for de cxi tie, I shall go away from here. 

VOCABULARY 

auxtuno = autumn, fall. negxo = snow. decembro = December. novembro = November. des = (see 84). nuda = 

bare, naked. februaro = February. oktobro = October. glacio = ice. pro = because of (86). inter = between, 

among (85). rikolti = to harvest. januaro = January. rivero = river. ju = (see 84). septembro = September. kovri 

= to cover. tero = ground, earth. 

LA AUXTUNO KAJ LA VINTRO. 

La sezonoj de la jaro estas la vintro, la printempo, la somero, kaj la auxtuno. La auxtuno estas inter la somero 

kaj la vintro. Gxiaj monatoj estas septembro, oktobro kaj novembro. En septembro oni povas kolekti maturajn 

fruktojn. Tiam ankaux oni rikoltas la flavan grenon de la kampoj. Dum cxi tiu monato kaj dum oktobro la 

folioj sur la brancxoj komencas esti rugxaj kaj flavaj, anstataux verdaj. La herbo velkas, kaj bruna tapisxo 

sxajnas kovri la teron. Baldaux la folioj falas al la tero, kaj en novembro la arboj estas tute nudaj. Pli aux 

malpli frue negxas. La glacio ofte kovras la akvon en la riveroj, kaj restas sur la stratoj kaj la vojoj. La mola 

blanka negxo kovras la teron, kaj kusxas sur la brancxoj de la arboj. Tiam, pro la fortaj ventoj, gxi falas de la 

brancxoj al la tero. La birdoj frue lasas tian veteron, kaj flugas de cxi tie al pli sudaj kampoj kaj arboj. Ili ne 

povas resti, pro la malvarmaj tagoj kaj noktoj. Ili malsxatas la negxon kaj la glacion pli multe ol ni. Ju pli 

multe negxas; des pli malofte ni volas promeni. Ni preferas resti en la domo, anstataux ekster gxi. Ju pli ni 

rigardas la nudajn brancxojn de la arboj, des pli malagrabla sxajnas la vintro. Tamen la junaj infanoj tre sxatas 

tian veteron, kaj ju pli negxas, kaj ju pli forte la norda vento blovas, des malpli ili estas kontentaj en la domo. 

Ili volas kuri sur la negxo, cxirkaux la arboj kaj inter ili, kun siaj junaj amikoj. Ili povas bone amuzi sin per la 

negxo. La monatoj de la vintro estas decembro, januaro kaj februaro. Gxi estas la plej malvarma sezono. 


1. September, October and November are the months of autumn. 2. In these months, people harvest the yellow 

grain and gather various fruits. 3. The leaves on the trees around us begin to have red and yellow colors. 4. 

They begin to fall from the branches and lie upon the ground. 5. The more strongly the cold north wind blows 

through the branches, the sooner the leaves fall from there. 6. They lie under the bare trees, with the brown 

grass. 7. The sooner it snows, the sooner the ground will seem to have a white carpet. 8. The snow will 

completely ("tute") cover the grass during the months of the winter. 9. These months are December, January 

and February. 10. From that time ("de tiam") the ice and snow will cover the roads, and altogether ("tute") 

hide them. 11. There will often be ice on the water of the river. 12. We like this season of the year more than


March, April and May. 13. We like it even more than the summer. 14. The months of the latter (62) are June, 

July and August. 15. The summer is the warmest season of the entire year. 16. Therefore we often say that the 

summer is the pleasantest season. 17. Because of its many pleasures, the summer is dear to me. 18. It is 

between the spring and the autumn. 

LESSON XX. 

THE DEMONSTRATIVE ADVERB OF MANNER AND DEGREE. 

88. The demonstrative adverb of manner and degree, related to the demonstrative pronoun "tiu", is "tiel", in 

that (this) manner, in such a way, thus, so. Like English "thus," "so," "tiel" may modify adjectives and other 

adverbs, by indicating degree: 

Cxu oni tiel helpas amikon? Does one help a friend in that (this) way? Mi gxin skribis tiel, I wrote it thus (in 

such a way). La vetero estas tiel bela, the weather is so beautiful. Tiel mallonge li parolis, thus briefly he 

spoke. Mi trovis tiel belan floron, I found such a beautiful flower. Li prenis tiel multe, he took that much (so 

much). 

PREPOSITIONS EXPRESSING TIME−RELATIONS. 

89. The relations which prepositions express may be of various kinds. As in English, a certain number of 

prepositions primarily expressing place may also express time−relations. Such prepositions are "antaux", 

"cxirkaux", "de", "en", "gxis", "inter", "post", and "je" (whose use in other than time−relations will be 

explained later): 

Mi foriros cxirkaux junio, I shall depart about June. De tiu horo mi estis via amiko, from that hour I was your 

friend. Li ne parolis al mi de tiu semajno, he did not speak to me since from) that week. En la tuta monato ne 

negxis, it did not snow in (at any time within) the entire month. Mi dormis gxis malfrua horo, I slept until (up 

to) a late hour. Gxis nun li ne vidis vin, until now he did not see you. Inter marto kaj junio mi iros tien, 

between March and June I shall go there. Je malfrua horo li foriris, at a late hour he went away. Mi iros tien je 

dimancxo, I shall go there on Sunday. Je tiu horo li vokis min, at that hour he called me. Sxi ne restis tie post 

julio, she did not stay there after July. Post ne longe mi vokos vin, soon (after not long) I shall call you. 

90. When a definite date or point in time is expressed, "antaux" means "before." When used with an 

expression of an "amount" of time, it is to be translated by "ago" following the expression (not by "before" 

preceding it): 

Antaux dimancxo mi foriros, before Sunday I shall go away. Mi vidis lin antaux tiu horo, I saw him before 

that hour. Li skribos gxin antaux la nova jaro, he will write it before New Year. Antaux multaj jaroj mi trovis 

gxin, many years ago I found it. Mi rompis gxin antaux longa tempo, I broke it a long time ago. Antaux tre 

longe vi legis tiun libron, you read that book very long ago. Li venis antaux ne longe, he came recently (not 

long ago). Antaux malmultaj jaroj li forkuris, a few years ago he escaped. 

[Footnote: As already shown, "kun" expresses accompaniment, "per" expresses instrumentality, "pro" 

expresses cause, "kontraux" expresses opposition, "anstataux" expresses substitution, "sur", "apud", "sub", 

etc., express place, "dum" expresses time, etc.] 

VOCABULARY 

dimancxo = Sunday. mateno = morning. energia = energetic. promeno = walk, promenade. frosto = frost. 

rakonto = story, narrative. je = at, on (89). ripozi = to rest, to repose. kota = muddy. semajno = week. labori = 

to work, to labor. tempo = time. laca = tired, weary. tiel = thus, so (88) lundo = Monday. tro = too, too much.


mardo = Tuesday. vespero = evening. 

EN SEPTEMBRO. 

Antaux multaj jaroj ni preferis resti en nia malgranda domo trans la rivero, dum la tuta auxtuno. Sed nun ni 

restas tie nur gxis oktobro. De auxgusto gxis oktobro la vetero estas tre agrabla tie, sed baldaux post tiu 

monato la fortaj ventoj blovas, kaj la folioj komencas fali. La frosto kovras la teron, kaj baldaux negxas tre 

ofte. Ju pli nudaj estas la arboj, des pli malbelaj ili sxajnas. La vetero antaux novembro ne estas tro malvarma, 

sed post tiu monato ni opinias ke la urbo estas pli agrabla ol domo inter kampoj kaj arboj, trans largxa rivero. 

La frosto, negxo kaj glacio kovras la teron en decembro, januaro kaj februaro. Sed la monato septembro 

sxajnas tre agrabla, pro siaj multaj plezuroj. La viroj laboras energie en la kampoj, de la mateno gxis la 

vespero. Ili rikoltas la flavan grenon, kaj kolektas la fruktojn. Sed je dimancxo oni ne laboras tiel energie, sed 

dormas gxis malfrua horo, tial ke je tiu tago oni ripozas. Je lundo oni komencas labori tre frue, kaj je mardo 

oni ankaux laboras energie. En septembro la vojoj ne estas tro kotaj, kaj longaj promenoj estas ofte agrablaj. 

Ju pli ofte mi promenas kun miaj amikoj, des pli multe mi sxatas tiajn promenojn. Sed hieraux mi estis tre 

laca post la promeno, tial mi ripozis sur granda mola segxo. Antaux ne longe la patro promenis kun mi, sed ni 

ne estis tiel lacaj je tiu tago. Sxajnas ke ju pli ofte ni promenas, des malpli lacaj ni estas post la promenoj. Post 

ne longe mi estos pli forta. 


1. Many years ago we had a small house across the river. 2. We did not remain there during the entire year, 

but only in the warmer months of the summer. 3. Often we stayed until September or even until October. 4. 

My younger brothers and sisters amused themselves very well there from (the) morning until (the) evening. 5. 

They amused themselves among the flowers and trees, or went from there into the large fields. 6. Here the 

men work energetically, and harvest the ripe yellow grain. 7. Only on Sunday do they rest, because on that 

day one does not work. 8. Between August and November the men work more than in the winter. 9. In 

December and after that month they rest, for (83) from that time the frost, ice and snow cover the ground. 10. 

Because of the snow on the ground, long walks are not pleasant in the winter. 11. Recently (90) we went 

walking in the park across the river, but we were so tired after that walk! 12. The longer the walk is, the 

sooner one wishes to rest. 13. On Monday it rained, so (78) we read stories and wrote letters, in a pleasant 

light room in our house. 14. Before evening, however, the sun shone, and the streets were not so muddy. 15. 

On Tuesday these streets were almost dry, and soon the roads near the river and between the fields will also 

be dry. 16. A few years ago those roads were very good. 

LESSON XXI. 

THE ACCUSATIVE OF TIME. 

91. Duration of time and a date or point in time may be expressed not only by use of the prepositions "dum", 

during, and "je", at, on, but also (as in English) without the use of any preposition. When no preposition is 

used, the word or words indicating time are put in the accusative case: 

Li restis tie la tutan semajnon (dum la tuta semajno), he stayed there the whole week (during the whole week). 

Sxi estis felicxa longan tempon (dum longa tempo), she was happy a long time (during a long time; for a long 

time). Ni rajdos tagon kaj nokton (dum tago kaj nokto), we shall ride a day and a night (during a day and a 

night; for a day and a night). Mi venis dimancxon (je dimancxo), I came Sunday (on Sunday). Tiun horon (je 

tiu horo), li forkuris, that hour (at that hour) he escaped. 

92. Although generally preferable, an accusative construction must be carefully placed, or avoided altogether, 

if confusion with other accusatives (expressing direction of motion, direct object, etc.) might result:


Mi volas iri Bostonon je lundo, I wish to go to Boston on Monday. Mi volas iri al Bostono lundon, I wish to 

go to Boston Monday. Lundon mi volas iri Bostonon, Monday I wish to go to Boston. 

ADVERBS AND THE ACCUSATIVE OF TIME. 

93. An accusative of time, as well as a temporal adverb, may further define or be defined by another 

expression of time: 

Li venis longan tempon antaux tiu horo, he came a long time before that hour. Jaron post jaro ili restis tie, year 

after year they stayed there. hodiaux matene, this morning. hodiaux vespere, this evening. hodiaux nokte, 

tonight. hieraux vespere, last evening. hieraux nokte, last night. dimancxon matene, Sunday morning. lundon 

vespere, Monday evening. mardon nokte, Tuesday night. 

94. An accusative of time does not necessarily imply that the act or state mentioned occurs oftener than the 

instance cited. An adverb from the same root usually gives an idea of frequency or repetition: 

Li iros al ilia domo dimancxon, he will go to their house Sunday. Li iras al ilia domo dimancxe, he goes to 

their house Sundays. Li laboris tagon kaj nokton, he worked a day and a night. Li laboras tage kaj nokte, he 

works day and night (by day and by night). 

THE PREPOSITION "POR". 

95. The object or purpose with reference to which an act is performed or a condition exists is expressed by the 

preposition "por", for. It directs the thought toward its complement, contrasting thus with "pro" (86): 

Mi havas libron por vi, I have a book for you. Mi ne havas la tempon por tiel longa promeno, I have not the 

time for so long a (such a long) walk. Ili faris gxin por via plezuro, they did it for your pleasure. 

VOCABULARY 

brila = brilliant. merkredo = Wednesday. Dio = God. mezo = middle. dividi = to divide. mondo = world. fari = 

to make. paci = to be at peace. forgesi = to forget. por = for (95). gxojo = joy. plori = to weep. konstanta = 

constant. preta = ready. kvieta = quiet, calm. ridi = to laugh. lando = land, country. riprocxi = to reproach. 

LA SEZONOJ KAJ LA MONDO. 

Antaux tre longa tempo Dio faris la mondon. Li vidis ke la floroj havas belajn kolorojn, ke la arboj estas altaj 

kaj verdaj. Tiam li vokis la sezonojn kaj diris "Belan mondon mi faris por vi. Cxu vi gardos gxin tage kaj 

nokte, kaj estos tre zorgaj pri gxi?" La sezonoj respondis "Jes," kaj ridis pro gxojo. Mallongan tempon ili 

sxajnis esti tre felicxaj inter la arboj kaj floroj de la nova mondo. Sed ne multajn semajnojn ili tiel zorge 

gardis la mondon. Ili komencis malpaci ("quarrel") inter si, de la mateno gxis la vespero, kaj ofte forgesis la 

arbojn kaj florojn. Ju pli ili malpacis, des malpli zorge ili gardis la mondon. La malkonstanta printempo ne 

sxatis la kvietan vintron, kaj ploris pri la malvarma negxo. La varma brila somero diris ke la auxtuno estas tro 

malbrila. La laca auxtuno volis ripozi, kaj riprocxis la malkonstantan printempon pri cxi ties kota vetero. Pli 

kaj pli multe ili malpacis, kaj post ne longe ili tute ne restis amikoj. Tiam la auxtuno diris "Mi ne povas pli 

longan tempon labori kun vi pro la mondo. Niaj gustoj estas tro diversaj. Tial hodiaux matene ni dividos la 

mondon inter ni." La vintro respondis "Bone! Mi estas preta," kaj la somero kaj la printempo ridis pro gxojo. 

Tiun tagon ili dividis la mondon inter si. La vintro konstruis sian domon en la plej nordaj kaj sudaj landoj. Tie 

la frosto, negxo kaj glacio kovras la tutan landon, dum la tuta jaro. La brila energia somero prenis por si la 

mezon de la mondo. Tial la vetero tie estas plej varma kaj brila. La auxtuno kaj la printempo prenis por si la 

landojn inter la vintro kaj la somero. Tial la vetero estas nek tro varma nek tro malvarma en cxi tiuj landoj. 

Tiam la sezonoj rakontis al Dio ke ili tiel dividis la mondon inter si.



1. Tuesday my brother heard an interesting story, and Wednesday evening after a pleasant walk he related it to 

me. 2. The story is, that many years ago God made the beautiful new world, and gave it to the seasons. 3. 

They laughed for joy, and said that they would guard it well. 4. They were ready for pleasure, and also were 

willing ("volis") to work energetically for−the−sake−of the new young world. 5. Almost a year they were 

happy, but these seasons were too diverse, and could not long remain friends. 6. The brilliant summer wept 

and reproached the tired autumn. 7. The autumn preferred to rest, and disliked the muddy weather of the 

inconstant spring. 8. The quiet winter concealed itself beneath the frost and soft white snow, and wished to 

sleep. 9. The longer they kept the world among them, the more they quarreled. 10. Soon the autumn made the 

proposition, "We will divide the world." 11. Immediately that morning the seasons divided the world among 

themselves. 12. The northern and southern lands now belong to the winter, and the middle of the world 

belongs to the summer. 13. The spring and autumn took for themselves those lands between the winter and 

summer. 

LESSON XXII. 

CLAUSES EXPRESSING DURATION OF TIME. 

96. The time during which an act takes place or a condition exists may be expressed not only by an adverb or 

accusative of time (91), or by use of the preposition "dum", but also by a clause introduced by "dum": 

Li venis dum vi forestis, he came while (during−the−time−that) you were away. Dum la sezonoj malpacis, ili 

forgesis pri la mondo, while the seasons quarreled, they forgot about the world. Ni ridas pro gxojo dum 

negxas, we laugh for joy while it is snowing. 

CLAUSES EXPRESSING ANTICIPATION. 

97. A clause expressing an action or condition as preceding or anticipating that of the main verb is introduced 

by "antaux ol": 

Mi foriros antaux ol vi venos, I shall depart before you (will) come. Antaux ol vi riprocxis lin, li ne ploris, 

before you reproached him, he did not weep. Vi ploris antaux ol vi ridis, you wept before (sooner than) you 

laughed. 

THE INFINITIVE WITH "ANSTATAUX", "POR", "ANTAUX OL". 

98. An infinitive may be substantively used with "anstataux" to express substitution, with "por" to express 

purpose (Cf. Old English "But what went ye out for to see," Matt. xi, 8), and with "antaux ol" to express 

anticipation. It is usually translated by the English infinitive in "−ing": 

Anstataux resti li foriris, instead of staying he went away. Vi malhelpas anstataux helpi min, you hinder 

instead of helping me. Ni venis por helpi vin, we came to help (in order to help) you. Mi estas preta por iri 

merkredon, I am ready to go (for going) Wednesday. Li havos tro multe por fari, he will have too much to do. 

Mi laboros antaux ol ripozi, I shall work before resting. Antaux ol foriri, li dankis min, before going away, he 

thanked me. Dio faris la mondon antaux ol doni gxin al la sezonoj, God made the world before giving it to the 

seasons. 

[Footnote: "Substantive" is the general name for nouns and pronouns, that is, for words which indicate 

persons, things, etc., and may be used as subject or object of a verb, complement of a preposition, etc.] 

[Footnote: The infinitive may be used with "antaux ol" if its subject is the same as the subject of the main


verb. Otherwise the construction explained in (97) must be used.] 

THE EXPRESSION OF A PART OF THE WHOLE. 

99. After nouns indicating a quantity or portion of some indefinite whole, the substantive expressing that 

indefinite whole is preceded by the preposition "da", of: 

Estas skatolo da cxerizoj tie, there is a box of cherries there. Mi trovis grandan sakon da mono, I found a large 

bag of money. Li havas teleron da viando, he has a plate of meat. Post horoj da gxojo ofte venas horoj da 

malgxojo, after hours of joy there often come hours of sorrow. 

100. The preposition "da" must not be used if a quantity or portion of a "definite" or "limited" whole is 

expressed. If the word indicating the whole is limited by "la", it is thereby made definite: 

Telero de la maturaj pomoj, a plate of the ripe apples. Sako de la bona kafo, a sack of the good coffee. 

VOCABULARY 

Aleksandro = Alexander. koni = to be acquainted with. barelo = barrel. lauxta = loud. bruo = noise. lito = bed. 

da = of (99). logxi = to dwell, to reside. demandi = to inquire, to ask. nombro = number (quantity). Diogeno = 

Diogenes. pura = clean. greka = Greek. suficxa = sufficient, enough. kelkaj = several, some. veki = to wake. 

kvankam = although. viziti = to visit. cxifono = rag. vesto = garment, clothes. 

DIOGENO KAJ ALEKSANDRO GRANDA. 

Antaux multaj jaroj sagxa greka viro, Diogeno, logxis en granda urbo. Li opiniis ke ju pli malmulte oni 

bezonas, des pli felicxa oni estas. Por montri al la mondo ke li ne bezonas multe, kaj ke tial li havas suficxe 

por esti felicxa, li logxis en granda malnova barelo, anstataux havi domon. Anstataux kusxi nokte sur lito aux 

almenaux sur mola tapisxo, li ecx dormis en tiu barelo. Oni multe parolis pri Diogeno en la urbo, ne nur cxar 

li tiel logxis, sed ankaux pro liaj sagxaj diroj. Post kelke da tempo ("some time") la regxo Aleksandro Granda 

venis tien por viziti la urbon. Dum li estis tie li auxdis pri Diogeno, kaj demandis pri li. "Cxu li logxas en la 

urbo?" Aleksandro diris. "Kvankam vi ne konas lin, mi opinias ke mi volas vidi tian viron." Oni respondis 

"Diogeno estas sagxa viro, sed anstataux logxi en domo, li preferas sidi la tutan tempon en malnova barelo. 

Anstataux porti ("wearing") purajn vestojn, li portas nur malpurajn cxifonojn, cxar li opinias ke ju pli 

malmulte li bezonas, des pli felicxa li estos." Aleksandro diris "Antaux ol foriri de via lando mi vizitos tiun 

viron." Antaux ol li foriris de la urbo, Aleksandro iris kun nombro da amikoj por viziti Diogenon, kaj trovis 

lin en lia barelo. "Cxu tiu viro volas paroli al mi?" demandis Diogeno per lauxta vocxo. Aleksandro Granda 

respondis "Mi estas la regxo Aleksandro, kaj mi volas koni vin. Mi vidas ke kvankam vi estas sagxa vi estas 

tre malricxa. Cxu vi ne volas kelkajn novajn vestojn anstataux tiuj malpuraj cxifonoj?" Diogeno tuj diris 

"Antaux ol vi venis kaj staris inter mi kaj la suno, cxi tiu tre varme brilis sur min. Cxu vi venis por fari bruon 

kaj por veki min?" Aleksandro ridis kaj diris "Mi vidas ke vi havas suficxe por esti felicxa. Tial mi estas preta 

por foriri." 


1. Diogenes was a wise man who dwelt in a Greek city, many years ago. 2. In order to show to the inconstant 

world that one does not need much in order to be happy, he did not have even a house or a bed. 3. He stayed 

day and night in a big barrel, instead of residing in a house. 4. He preferred to wear old rags, instead of good 

clean clothes. 5. He said "The less one needs, the happier he will be." 6. While Alexander the Great was 

visiting that city, people talked to him about Diogenes. 7. They asked "Are you acquainted−with that wise 

man?" 8. Soon the king went with a number of his friends to that−man's big barrel, in the middle of the city. 9. 

Diogenes was asleep, but the noise of the loud voices waked him, and he said angrily "You are standing


between me and the sun! Will you not go away at once?" 10. Although several of the men laughed, Alexander 

said "We did not come to quarrel with you. 11. I see that you have enough to be happy, so instead of talking 

and making a noise we shall leave (go away from) you at once." 12. Before Diogenes could answer, 

Alexander had quietly walked away. 

LESSON XXIII. 

ADVERBS EXPRESSING A PART OF THE WHOLE. 

101. After adverbs used to indicate a quantity or portion of some indefinite whole, as well as after nouns of 

such meaning (99), the substantive expressing the indefinite whole is preceded by the preposition "da": 

Multe da bruo, much (a quantity of) noise. Tiel malmulte da tempo, so little (such a small quantity of) time. 

Kelke da pomoj, some (an indefinite number of) apples. 

102. Verbs may be modified by an adverb and prepositional phrase containing "da": 

Li trinkis malmulte da akvo, he drank little (not much) water. Estas multe da sablo en la dezerto, there is much 

sand in the desert. Ju pli negxas, des pli multe da negxo kusxas sur la vojoj, the more it snows, the more snow 

lies on the roads. 

[Footnote: A prepositional phrase containing "da", whether following a noun or an adverb, is sometimes 

called a "partitive" construction.] 

103. It is evident from the above examples that an adverb followed by "da" has a somewhat collective sense, 

indicating a general sum, mass, or portion of the whole, without distinction of particulars. An "adjective" of 

quantitative meaning, on the other hand, usually indicates consideration of the individuals composing the sum 

or mass named: 

En urbo oni havas multe da bruo, in a city one has much noise. Ni auxdis multajn bruojn, we heard many 

(different) noises. Tie oni havas multe da plezuro, there one has much pleasure. Oni havas multajn plezurojn 

tie, people have many (different) pleasures there. 

THE DEMONSTRATIVE ADVERB OF QUANTITY. 

104. The demonstrative adverb of quantity related to the demonstrative pronoun "tiu" is "tiom", that (this) 

much, that many, that quantity, so much, etc.:−− 

Mi donis tiom da mono al vi, I gave that much (that amount of) money to you. Mi acxetis tiom da viando, I 

bought that much meat. Tiom de la libroj mi legis, that many of the books I read. 

RESULT CLAUSES. 

105. A clause of result (also called a consecutive clause) expresses an action or condition as due to, or 

resulting from, something indicated in the main sentence, as "he is so strong that he can do it," "I had so much 

pleasure that I laughed heartily." In Esperanto a result clause is introduced by "ke", preceded (directly or in 

the main sentence) by an adverb or adjective of manner, degree, or quantity: 

Diogeno estis tiel sagxa greka viro ke Aleksandro lauxdis lin, Diogenes was such a wise Greek man that 

Alexander praised him. Mi havis tiom da plezuro ke mi tre ridis, I had so much pleasure that I laughed very 

much. Gxi estas tia vilagxo ke mi sxatas logxi tie, it is such (that sort of) a village that I like to live there.


VOCABULARY 

acxeti = to buy. kontuzo = bruise. asparago = asparagus. lakto = milk. brasiko = cabbage. legomo = vegetable. 

butiko = store, shop. ovo = egg. frago = strawberry. pizo = pea. funto = pound. sabato = Saturday. glaso = 

glass, tumbler. tiom = that much (104). jxauxdo = Thursday. vendredo = Friday. kremo = cream. vilagxo = 

village. 

EN LA BUTIKO. 

Hodiaux matene mi iris kun la patrino al la plej granda butiko en nia vilagxo. Tie sxi acxetis tiom da legomoj 

kaj fruktoj ke ni tute ne povis porti ilin. Tial juna knabo venis kun ni, kaj portis kelke da ili por ni. La patrino 

ne acxetis tiel multe je vendredo, sed hodiaux estas sabato, kaj sxi volis acxeti legomojn por dimancxo, cxar 

dimancxe oni ne povas iri en la butikojn. Tial sabate oni kutime acxetas suficxe por la mangxoj de sabato kaj 

dimancxo. Meze de la butiko staras multe da bareloj. En cxi tiuj oni trovas grandan nombron da fresxaj puraj 

legomoj. La patrino acxetis tiel multe da asparago kaj novaj pizoj, kaj tiel grandan sakon da terpomoj, ke la 

tablo restis preskaux nuda. Mi vidis brasikon tie, sed tiun legomon mi malsxatas, kvankam oni diras ke gxi 

estas tre bona legomo. Antaux ol foriri de la butiko la patrino acxetis kelke da ovoj, kaj rigardis la fruktojn en 

bareloj apud la pordo. Ili sxajnis tiel bonaj ke sxi acxetis kelkajn maturajn pomojn kaj skatolon da fragoj. 

Dum oni donis al sxi la fruktojn, mi acxetis kelkajn funtojn da sukero. Tiam ni estis pretaj por foriri el la 

butiko. Sur la vojo ni auxdis tiel grandan bruon ke mi lasis la patrinon kaj kuris trans la straton. Mi trovis tie 

infanon,la filon de nia najbaro. Li faris la bruon, cxar li falis de la arbo antaux sia domo, kaj tre lauxte ploris. 

Li diris al mi ke li havas multajn kontuzojn sur la kapo. Cxar mi bone konas la infanon, mi demandis "Cxu vi 

volas grandan rugxan pomon? Mi havas tian pomon por vi." Li tuj kaptis la pomon, kaj mi foriris. Tiam la 

patrino kaj mi iris al la domo. 


1. I shall go to the village today with my younger sister. 2. We wish to buy some eggs, vegetables and fruit for 

Mother. 3. Mother prefers to remain in the house, because it is raining. 4. It rained on Thursday and Friday, 

but today it is not raining very much. 5. The air is warm and pleasant, and we shall carry umbrellas with us. 6. 

We shall buy some new peas, a box of strawberries and several pounds of sugar. 7. Thus we shall have 

enough for the meals of Saturday and Sunday. 8. I wonder whether we shall see such asparagus and such 

cabbage on the tables or in the barrels. 9. Although I do not often eat such vegetables, Father and Mother are 

very fond of ("multe sxatas") both cabbage and asparagus. 10. We shall also buy enough milk for several 

glasses of milk, and we shall need much cream for the strawberries. 11. It seems that we shall buy such a 

number of vegetables that we cannot carry them. 12. While we were standing near the door, ready to go 

toward the village (46), we heard a loud voice. 13. A child was standing in the street, and crying. 14. He 

wished to go with his mother to visit some friends. 15. I suppose that a noise on the street waked him, and he 

did not wish to remain in his bed. 

LESSON XXIV. 

THE INTERROGATIVE PRONOUN. 

106. The interrogative pronoun (and pronominal adjective) is "kiu", who, which. Since the use of this pronoun 

indicates a question, the sentence containing it does not need the interrogative adverb "cxu" (30): 

Kiu vokas vin? Who calls you? Kiun vi vokas? Whom do you call? Kiuj el vi vokis nin? Which (ones) of you 

called us? Kiujn li helpis? Whom (which ones) did he help? Kiun tagon vi venos? What day will you come? 

Kiujn legomojn vi preferas? What vegetables do you prefer? Mi miras kiun libron vi acxetis? I wonder which 

book you bought?


107. The interrogative pronoun "kiu" has a possessive or genitive form "kies", whose: 

En kies domo vi logxas? In whose house do you reside? Kies amikojn vi vizitis? Whose friends did you visit? 

THE PRESENT ACTIVE PARTICIPLE. 

108. A participle is a "verbal adjective", as in "a "crying" child." It agrees like other adjectives with the word 

modified (19, 24). The participle from a transitive verb (22) may take a direct object, and a participle 

expressing motion may be followed by an accusative indicating direction of motion (46). The present active 

participle, expressing what the word modified "is doing", ends in "−anta," as "vidanta", seeing, "iranta", 

going: 

La ploranta infano volas dormi. The crying child wishes to sleep. Mi vidas la falantajn foliojn, I see the falling 

leaves. Kiu estas la virino acxetanta ovojn? Who is the woman buying eggs? Mi parolis al la viroj irantaj 

vilagxon. I talked to the men (who were) going toward the village. 

COMPOUND TENSES. 

109. A participle may be used predicatively with a form of "esti", as "Mi estas demandanta", I am asking, "La 

viro estas acxetanta", the man is buying. Such combinations are called "compound tenses", in contrast to the 

"simple" or "aoristic" tenses. 

[Footnote: An aoristic tense consists of but one word (ending in "−as", "−os", etc.) and expresses an act or 

state as a whole, without specifying whether it is finished, still in progress, or yet begun.] 

Compound tenses occur less often in Esperanto than in English, and an aoristic Esperanto tense may often be 

translated by an English compound tense, as "La birdoj flugas", the birds are flying. When used to form a 

compound tense, the verb "esti" is called the "auxiliary verb". No other verb is ever used as an auxiliary (a 

simpler method than in English, which uses "be", "have", "do", "will", "shall", "would", etc.). 

THE PROGRESSIVE PRESENT TENSE. 

110. The compound tense formed by using the present active participle with the present tense of "esti" is 

called the "progressive present tense". It differs from the aoristic present by expressing an action as definitely 

in progress, or a condition as continuously existing, at the moment of speaking. The conjugation of "vidi" in 

this tense is as follows: 

mi estas vidanta, I am seeing. vi estas vidanta, you are seeing. li (sxi, gxi) estas vidanta, he (she, it) is seeing. 

ni estas vidantaj, we are seeing. vi estas vidantaj, you (plural) are seeing. ili estas vidantaj, they are seeing. 

THE SUFFIX "−EJ−". 

111. Words expressing the place where the action indicated by the root occurs, or where the object indicated 

by the root may be found, are formed by inserting the suffix "−ej−" before the noun−ending: 

cxevalejo, stable (from "cxevalo", horse). dormejo, dormitory (from "dormi", to sleep). herbejo, meadow 

(from "herbo", grass). logxejo, lodging−place, dwelling (from "logxi", to dwell, to lodge). 

[Footnote: Similar formations are made in English with the suffix "−y", as "bakery", "bindery", "grocery", etc. 

This suffix is equivalent to the "−ei" in German "Baeckerei", bakery, "Druckerei", printing−office, etc., and to 

the "−ie" in French "patisserie", pastry−shop, "imprimerie", printing−shop, etc.]


VOCABULARY 

alia = other, another. kuiri = to cook. baki = to bake. kurteno = curtain. dika = thick. kutimo = custom. facila = 

easy. leciono = lesson. familio = family. lerni = to learn. kanapo = sofa. pano = bread. kies = whose (107). 

persono = person. kiu = who (106). salono = parlor. 

EN NIA DOMO. 

Oni ofte miras kies domo en nia vilagxo estas plej bela, kaj kiu domo estas la plej agrabla logxejo. Nia domo 

ne estas tre granda, sed gxi estas nova kaj ni multe sxatas gxin. Gxia salono estas granda, kun belaj puraj 

kurtenoj kovrantaj la fenestrojn, kaj mola dika tapisxo kovranta la plankon. Cxi tie estas kelkaj segxoj, 

malgranda tablo, kaj longa kanapo. Personoj vizitantaj nin kutime sidas en cxi tiu cxambro, kaj dum ni estas 

sidantaj tie ni nur parolas, anstataux skribi aux legi. Alia cxambro en la domo estas tre luma kaj agrabla, sed 

malpli granda. Cxi tie staras tablo suficxe granda por nia tuta familio, kaj en tiu cxambro oni mangxas. Ofte ni 

restas tie longan tempon post la mangxo, cxar la patro rakontas interesajn rakontojn al ni, kaj ni multe ridas, 

kaj demandas pri tiuj rakontoj, kaj tiel bone amuzas nin ke mi preskaux forgesas pri miaj lecionoj. Tamen mi 

havas multe da lecionoj por lerni, kaj ili tute ne estas facilaj. Je tre frua horo matene mi iras al la lernejo, kun 

miaj fratoj kaj fratinoj. Nur sabate kaj dimancxe ni ne iras tien. La lernejo estas malnova kaj malgranda, sed 

oni estas nun konstruanta novan pli grandan lernejon apud nia domo. Dum la infanoj estas lernantaj siajn 

lecionojn tie, la patrino kutime iras al la bakejon, por acxeti suficxe da pano, por la mangxoj de la tago. Ofte 

sxi iras ankaux al aliaj butikoj. Jxauxdon sxi acxetis kelke da novaj pizoj, kaj da asparago. Vendredon sxi 

acxetis kelkajn funtojn da sukero, skatolon da fragoj, kaj suficxe da kremo kaj lakto. Hodiaux sxi estas 

acxetanta brasikon kaj sakon da terpomoj. Sxi volas kuiri tre bonan mangxon, tamen sxi havas tro multe por 

fari en la kuirejo, cxar sxi ne havas servistinon. 


1. Who is the woman sitting on the sofa in the parlor? 2. I can not easily see her, but I hear her voice. 3. I 

wonder whose voice that is. 4. However, I think that it is the voice of a friend of Mother's. 5. Now I can see 

her, although she does not see me. 6. I am well acquainted with her. 7. She is a friend of our whole family, 

and is visiting a neighbor of ours ("najbaron nian") in this city. 8. My sister is sitting on the sofa in another 

room, and learning her lessons. 9. Soon she will go to school. 10. Whose book is she reading? 11. That thick 

book is mine, but the other books on the table near her are hers. 12. She prefers to sit in the sewing−room 

(111) to read or write (98), because the curtains in front of the windows are not too thick, and so (78) that 

room is very light and pleasant. 13. She also likes to look at the falling snow, and the men and women 

walking on the muddy streets. 14. On account of the cold weather, people are wearing thick clothes. 15. The 

men and boys are keeping their hands in their pockets while they walk. 16. The girls walking toward the 

school are friends of my sister's. 17. In that school they learn to cook. Soon they will be able to bake bread, 

and even to cook a whole meal. 18. I think such a custom is very good. 19. Many persons can not cook well 

enough ("suficxe bone"). 

LESSON XXV. 

THE INTERROGATIVE ADJECTIVE. 

112. The interrogative adjective related to the interrogative pronoun "kiu", is "kia", what kind of, what sort of: 

Kiajn vestojn li portis? What sort of clothes did he wear? Kian panon vi preferas? What kind of bread do you 

prefer? Mi miras kia persono li estas. I wonder what sort of a person he is. Kia vetero estas? What sort of 

weather is it? Kia plezuro! What a pleasure! 

THE IMPERFECT TENSE.


113. The compound tense formed by using the present active participle with the past tense of "esti" represents 

an act or condition as in progress in past time, but not perfected, and is called the "imperfect tense". The 

conjugation of "vidi" in this tense is as follows: 

mi estis vidanta. I was seeing. vi estis vidanta. you were seeing. li (sxi, gxi) estis vidanta. he (she, it) was 

seeing. ni estis vidantaj. we were seeing. vi estis vidantaj. you were seeing. ili estis vidantaj. they were seeing. 

THE PROGRESSIVE FUTURE TENSE. 

114. The compound tense formed by using the present active participle with the future tense of "esti" 

represents an act or condition as in progress−−or a condition as existing continuously−−at a future time, and is 

called the "progressive future" tense. The conjugation of "vidi" in this tense is as follows: 

mi estos vidanta. I shall be seeing. vi estos vidanta. you will be seeing. li (sxi, gxi) estos vidanta. he (she, it) 

will be seeing. ni estos vidantaj. we shall be seeing. vi estos vidantaj. you will be seeing. ili estos vidantaj. 

they will be seeing. 

SALUTATIONS AND EXCLAMATIONS. 

exclamation may be regarded as the direct object of a verb which is not expressed; these words are put in the 

accusative 

Bonan matenon! Good morning! (I wish you "good morning.") Bonan nokton! Good night! (I wish you a 

"good night.") Multajn salutojn al via patro! (I send) many greetings to your father! Dankon! Thanks! (I give 

to you "thanks.") Cxielon! Heavens! (I invoke the "heavens.") 

WORD FORMATION. 

116. The majority of roots have such a meaning that at least two kinds of words, and often three or four, may 

be formed from them by use of the general endings for verbs, nouns, adjectives and adverbs. (Each root will 

hereafter be quoted but once in the vocabularies, with a hyphen separating it from the ending with which it 

appears first in the reading lesson, or with which it is most frequently used.) Following are examples of word 

formation from roots already familiar: 

VERB. NOUN. ADJECTIVE. ADVERB. 

brili brilo brila brile to shine shine, brilliance shining, brilliant brilliantly 

flori floro flora flore to bloom flower, blossom floral florally 

gxoji gxojo gxoja gxoje to rejoice joy, gladness joyful, glad gladly 

kontuzi kontuzo to bruise bruise, contusion 

tuto tuta tute whole entire, whole, all entirely 

"KONI" AND "SCII". 

117. The verb "koni", which means "to know" in the sense of "to be acquainted with" is used in speaking of 

persons, languages, places, etc. "Koni" always has a direct object. It is never followed by "ke", "cxu", "kiu", 

or any other interrogative word. "Scii" means "to know" in the sense of "to be aware," "to have knowledge." It 

is not used in speaking of persons.


[Footnote: "Koni" is equivalent to German "koennen", French "connaitre", Spanish "conocer", while "scii" is 

equivalent to German "wissen", French "savoir", Spanish "saber".] 

Cxu vi konas tiun personon? Do you know that person? Mi scias ke li estas nia najbaro. I know that he is our 

neighbor. Mi bone konas Bostonon. I am well acquainted with Boston. Mi ne scias cxu li konas ilin. I do not 

know whether he knows them. 

VOCABULARY 

av−o = grandfather. kia = what kind of (112). buked−o = bouquet. lingv−o = language. ekzamen−o = 

examination. nep−o = grandson. ferm−i = to close. nu! Well! frap−i = to strike, to knock. paper−o = paper. 

geometri−o = geometry. salut−i = to greet. german−a = German. sci−i = to know (117). hejm−o = home. 

stud−i = to study. 

LA NEPO VIZITAS LA AVINON. 

Hieraux matene mi vizitis la avinon. Sxia hejmo estas apud la granda nova bakejo. Mi vidis sxin tra la 

fenestro, cxar la kurtenoj kovrantaj gxin estas tre maldikaj. Sxi estis sidanta sur la kanapo, kaj skribanta per 

plumo sur granda papero. Antaux ol frapi sur la pordo mi vokis sxin kaj diris "Bonan matenon, kara avino!" 

Tuj sxi demandis "Kiu estas tie? Kies vocxon mi auxdas?" Mi respondis "Estas via nepo. Cxu vi ne konas 

mian vocxon?" Antaux ol sxi povis veni al la pordo mi estis malfermanta gxin. Mi iris en la salonon kaj donis 

al la avino bukedon da floroj. "La patrino donas cxi tiujn al vi, kun siaj plej bonaj salutoj," mi diris. La avino 

respondis "Nu, kia plezuro! Multan dankon al sxi pro la bela bukedo, kaj ankaux al vi, cxar vi portis gxin cxi 

tien por mi!" Dum sxi estis metanta la florojn en glason da akvo la avino diris "Nu, kiajn lecionojn vi havis 

hodiaux en la lernejo?" Mi respondis ke mi bone konis la lecionojn, cxar mi zorge studis ilin. "Ni estas 

lernantaj la germanan lingvon," mi diris, "kaj ju pli longe ni studas gxin, des pli multe mi gxin sxatas, 

kvankam gxi estas tre malfacila." Mi rakontis ankaux pri la lecionoj de geometrio, kaj aliaj lecionoj, sed diris 

ke la ekzamenoj estos baldaux komencantaj. "Je tiu tempo," mi diris, "mi estos skribanta la respondojn al la 

ekzamenoj, preskaux la tutan semajnon." La avino demandis kun intereso "Cxu la demandoj de la ekzamenoj 

estos malfacilaj?" Mi respondis "Mi ne scias, sed mi timas ke ni estos tre lacaj post tiom da laboro." Post 

kelke da aliaj demandoj kaj respondoj, mi opiniis ke estas la horo por foriri. Dum mi estis foriranta, la avino 

diris "Multajn salutojn al la tuta familio!" Mi dankis sxin, diris "Bonan tagon!" kaj tiam foriris. 


1. What sort of noise do I hear outside the door? 2. Are some of my friends knocking? 3. We were talking 

yesterday about the examinations in our school, and these boys came home to study with me. 4. I shall go to 

the door to open it and to greet my friends. 5. Good morning! Did you come to study geometry, or the German 

language? 6. Which of these is usually more difficult, and in which will the examination be the longer? 7. 

Well, we brought our German books, because we prefer to study these. 8. We wish to know this language 

thoroughly. 9. We shall go into the writing−room (111), for (83) some friends of my grandmother are in the 

parlor. 10. We can hear their voices here, and we can not study very well while they are talking. 11. They 

were carrying many flowers, and gave a beautiful bouquet to my grandmother. 12. She said "Many thanks for 

(86) the sweet violets! In whose garden did they bloom?" 13. Her friend's granddaughter is a friend of my 

youngest sister. 14. Well, shall we begin to study? Have you enough paper, and have you a good pen? 15. I 

shall close this other door, because they are baking bread in the kitchen, and cooking meat. 16. We shall be 

hearing the voices of so many persons that I know that we can not study. 

LESSON XXVI. 

THE INTERROGATIVE ADVERB OF PLACE.


118. The interrogative adverb of place, related to the interrogative pronoun "kiu" is "kie", where, in (at) what 

place. If the verb in the sentence expresses motion toward the place indicated by "kie", the ending "−n" is 

added, forming "kien", whither (where): 

Kie li estis kaj kien oni forpelis lin? Where was he and whither did they drive him (away)? Li miros kie lia 

nepo estas. He will wonder where his grandson is. Mi ne scias kien li kuris. I do not know where (whither) he 

ran. 

THE PAST ACTIVE PARTICIPLE. 

119. The past active participle, (for the characteristics of a participle see 108) expressing what the word 

modified "did" or "has done", ends in "−inta", as "vidinta", having seen, "irinta", gone, having gone: 

La falintaj folioj estas brunaj. The fallen leaves are brown. Kiu estas la viro salutinta nin? Who is the man 

having greeted (who greeted) us? Oni forgesas la foririntajn personojn. One forgets the departed persons (the 

persons who have gone away). 

ADVERB DERIVATION FROM PREPOSITIONS. 

120. Adverbs may be derived from prepositions whose sense permits, by use of the adverb ending "−e": 

Antauxe li studis la geometrion, previously he studied geometry. Poste li studis la germanan, afterwards he 

studied German. Li marsxis antauxe, ne malantauxe, he walked in front, not behind. Dume la viroj staris 

cxirkauxe, meanwhile the men stood roundabout. Ili venis kune kaj sidis apude, they came together and sat 

near by. 

ADVERBS EXPRESSING DIRECTION OF MOTION. 

121. An adverb expressing place or direction is given the ending "−n" when used with a verb expressing 

motion toward that place or direction (69, 118, etc.): 

Cxu li rajdis norden aux suden? Did he ride north or south(ward)? Ni kuris antauxen, ne malantauxen, we ran 

forward, not back. La bukedo falis eksteren kaj suben, the bouquet fell out and underneath. Li estis marsxanta 

hejmen, he was walking home (homeward). 

[Footnote: The adverb may precede the verb and be united with it by simple juxtaposition, if the resulting 

word is not too long: "Li hejmeniris", he went home (he "home−went"). "Ni antauxeniros", we shall advance 

(go forward). "La bukedo subenfalis", the bouquet fell underneath.] 

THE SUFFIX "−EG−". 

122. The suffix "−eg−" may be added to a root to augment or intensify its meaning, thus forming an 

"augmentative" of the root: 

barelego, hogshead (from "barelo", barrel). bonega, excellent (from "bona", good). malbonege, wickedly, 

wretchedly (from "malbone", badly, poorly). domego, mansion (from "domo", house). ploregi, to sob, to wail 

(from "plori", to weep). treege, exceedingly (from "tre", very). 

VOCABULARY 

aer−o = air. pez−a = heavy. danc−i = to dance. polv−o = dust. fulm−o = lightning. sekv−i = to follow. gut−o = 

drop (of water, etc.). sercx−i = to hunt for, to search. kie = where (118). silent−a = still, silent. okaz−i = to


happen, to occur. subit−a = sudden. okul−o = eye. tegment−o = roof. pec−o = piece. tondr−o = thunder. 

LA PLUVEGO. 

Nu, kia pluvego okazis hieraux vespere! Post kvieta varmega mateno, subite multaj nuboj kovris la cxielon. 

La aero sxajnis peza, kaj estis tute silenta kelkan tempon. Tiam forte blovanta vento frapegis la arbojn, kaj 

komencis fortege skui la brancxojn. Multege da polvo kaj malgrandaj pecoj da papero dancis kaj flugis 

cxirkauxen en la aero, kaj ankaux cxielen. Falis tiam kelkaj grandaj gutoj da pluvo, kaj ni sciis ke la pluvego 

estas venanta. Ni malfermis niajn ombrelojn, kaj kuris antauxen, por iri hejmen antaux ol falos multe da 

pluvo. La fulmo tiel ofte brilis ke ni fermis la okulojn pro gxi, kaj treege gxin timis. Preskaux tuj la tondro 

sekvis gxin. Tondris tiom kaj tiel lauxtege ke la bruo sxajnis frapi kontraux niajn kapojn. Tiam komencis 

subite pluvegi, sed je tiu tempo ni estis preskaux sub la tegmento de nia domo. Dume la vento pli kaj pli 

blovegis, kaj ju pli forte gxi blovis, des pli peze la gutoj da pluvo falis teren, kun multege da bruo. Mi opinias 

ke mi malofte antauxe vidis tian pluvegon. La sekvintan tagon mi promenis tre frue, kaj vidis ke la pordego al 

la gxardeno de mia avo estas kusxanta sur la tero. Apude mi vidis ventoflagon falintan de la tegmento de tiu 

granda cxevalejo. Velkintaj floroj kusxis sur la tero cxirkaux mi, kaj inter ili estis brancxoj falintaj de la arboj, 

cxar la grandega forto de la vento forrompis ecx cxi tiujn. Sur malgranda brancxo restis nesto, sed kie estis la 

birdoj! Mi sercxis la junajn birdojn sed tute ne povis trovi ilin, tial mi opinias ke ili forflugis antaux ol la 

ventoj forrompis de la arbo ilian malgrandan hejmon. Mi ne scias kien ili flugis, sed mi opinias ke ili flugis 

suden al la arboj en tiu granda kampo trans la rivero. 


1. While we were walking home (121) from school yesterday, it rained very suddenly. 2. What a storm it was! 

3. We were talking about the lessons in geometry, and were looking at these books about the German 

language. 4. So we did not see the clouds in (on) the sky. 5. Well, we forgot about examinations and began to 

wonder where to go. 6. We did not know whether we had enough time to run even to Grandfather's house 

before it would rain. 7. Many papers fell out of our books, and the wind caught them. 8. The wind chased 

them away from us, and they seemed to dance around in the air. 9. However, we easily caught and gathered 

them, and then we ran forward. 10. Suddenly it thundered very loudly, and we saw the brilliant lightning in 

the sky. 11. We almost closed our eyes for the lightning. 12. Big drops of rain fell heavily and struck the dust 

violently. 13. The air was heavy and still then, and the storm immediately followed the few drops of rain. 14. 

We hastened across the street, and ran faster and faster. 15. We were exhausted (122) and our clothes were 

exceedingly wet before we were in the house. 16. The rain was dropping from the roof, but we ran through it, 

and knocked on the door. 17. We rested some time here, before going home. 

LESSON XXVII. 

THE INTERROGATIVE TEMPORAL ADVERB 

123. The interrogative temporal adverb, related to the interrogative pronoun "kiu", is "kiam", when, at what 

time? 

Kiam li sercxos min? When will he look for me? Oni miras kiam li venos, they wonder when he is coming 

(will come). Kiam falis tiuj gutoj da pluvo? When did those drops of rain fall? 

THE PERFECT TENSE. 

124. The compound tense formed by using the past active participle with the present tense of "esti" is called 

the "perfect tense". It differs from the aoristic past tense (35) and from the imperfect (113) by expressing an 

act or condition as definitely completed or perfected. The conjugation of "vidi" in the perfect tense is as 

follows:


mi estas vidinta, I have seen (I am having−seen). vi estas vidinta, you have seen (you are having−seen). li (sxi, 

gxi) estas vidinta, he (she, it) has seen (is having−seen). ni estas vidintaj, we have seen (we are having−seen). 

vi estas vidintaj, you have seen (you are having−seen). ili estas vidintaj, they have seen (they are 

having−seen). 

THE PREPOSITION "CXE". 

125. The general situation of a person, object or action is expressed by the use of the preposition "cxe", at, at 

the house of, in the region or land of, among, with, etc.: 

Li staris silente cxe la pordego, he stood silently at the gate. Li logxas cxe mia avo, he lives (dwells) at my 

grandfather's. Ili estas cxe la lernejo, they are at the school. Li restos cxe amikoj, he will stay with (at the 

house of) friends. Li vizitos cxe ni morgaux, he will visit at−our−house tomorrow. 

THE SUFFIX "−AR−". 

126. Words expressing a collection, group or assemblage of similar persons or things, as "forest" (collection 

of trees), "army" (assemblage of soldiers), etc., may be formed by the use of the suffix "−ar−". This suffix 

may itself be used as a root to form "aro", "group, flock", etc., "are", in a group, by throngs, etc. Words 

formed with the suffix "−ar−" are called collectives: 

arbaro, forest (from arbo, tree). cxevalaro, herd of horses (from cxevalo, horse). kamparo, country (from 

kampo, field). libraro, collection of books, library (from libro, book). amikaro, circle of friends (from amiko, 

friend). 

"TEMPO" AND "FOJO". 

127. The general word for "time" in the sense of duration, or suitability (as "the proper time"), is "tempo". The 

word "fojo", time, occasion, refers to the performance or occurrence of an act or event, in repetition or series: 

Mi ne havas multe da tempo, I have not much time. Li venis multajn fojojn, kaj la lastan fojon li restis longan 

tempon, he came many times, and the last time he remained a long time. Kelkajn fojojn lauxte tondris, several 

times it thundered loudly. Multe da fojoj ni fermis la okulojn pro la fulmo, many times we closed our eyes on 

account of the lightning. 

THE ORTHOGRAPHY OF PROPER NOUNS. 

128. Proper nouns, that is, nouns which are names of persons, cities, countries, etc., are given Esperanto 

spelling if they are names of continents, countries, large or very well−known cities, or if they are first 

(Christian) names of persons, as "Azio", Asia, "Skotlando", Scotland, "Bostono", Boston, "Johano", John, 

"Mario", Mary. Surnames and names of places which are small or not well known are more often quoted in 

the national spelling. The pronunciation may be indicated in parentheses, as "Mt. Vernon" ("Mauxnt 

Vernon"), "Roberto Bruce" ("Brus"), "Martinique" ("Martinik'"), etc. 

VOCABULARY 

arane−o = spider. ramp−i = to crawl. Azi−o = Asia. rekt−a = direct, straight. cxe = at (125). rimark−i = to 

notice. fin−o = end, ending. send−i = to send. foj−o = time, instance (127). Skotland−o = Scotland. kiam = 

when (123). soldat−o = soldier. pacienc−o = patience. sukces−i = to succeed. pied−o = foot. supr−e = above. 

plafon−o = ceiling. venk−i = to conquer. 

ROBERTO BRUCE KAJ LA ARANEO.


Oni rakontas la sekvantan interesan rakonton pri Roberto Bruce, regxo antaux multaj jaroj en Skotlando. 

Okazis ke li estis rigardanta la soldataron de siaj malamikoj, de la fenestro de granda cxevalejo. Por povi 

rigardi plej facile, kaj ankaux por sin kasxi, li forsendis siajn soldatojn kaj restis la tutan tagon sub tiu 

tegmento. Kvankam la cxevalejo estis granda gxi estis malnova, kaj li opiniis ke la malamikoj ne sercxos lin 

tie. Je la fino de la tago li subite rimarkis araneon sur la muro apud si. La araneo estis rampanta supren, sed 

baldaux gxi falis en la polvon cxe liaj piedoj. Tuj la falinta araneo komencis alian fojon supren rampi. Alian 

fojon gxi falis teren, sed post ne longe gxi komencis rampi alian fojon. "Kia pacienco!" diris la regxo al si. 

"Mi ne sciis ke la araneo havas tiel multe da pacienco! Sed kien gxi nun estas falinta?" Li rigardis cxirkauxen 

kaj fine ("finally") li vidis la falintan araneon. Kun granda surprizo li rimarkis ke gxi estas komencanta supren 

rampi. Multajn fojojn gxi supren rampis, kaj tiom da fojoj gxi falis malsupren. Fine, tamen, gxi sukcese 

rampis gxis la plafono. La regxo malfermis la busxon pro surprizo, kaj diris al si "Kiam antauxe mi vidis tiom 

da pacienco! Mi opinias ke la fina sukceso de tiu malgranda araneo donas al mi bonegan lecionon. Mi estas 

ofte malsukcesinta, sed malpli ofte ol tiu araneo sur la muro. Mi estas perdinta multe da soldatoj, kaj la 

malamikoj estas venkintaj multajn fojojn, cxar ili havas multe pli grandan nombron da soldatoj. Tamen, mi 

estos pacienca, cxar oni ne scias kiam li fine sukcesos." La sekvintan tagon, la regxo Roberto Bruce komencis 

treege labori kontraux siaj malamikoj. Post mallonga tempo li bone sukcesis, kaj tute venkis la malamikoj en 

granda venko cxe Bannockburn (Banokb'rn). 


1. Although the enemies of Robert Bruce conquered him many times, he finally conquered them in Scotland, 

because he was patient and very courageous. 2. He was sitting in a large stable, to hide (himself), and also in 

order to (98) look directly from its roof (at) the soldiery (126) of the enemy. 3. At the end of the day he 

noticed a spider crawling up (ward) on the wall. 4. The spider fell suddenly into the dust and lay at the king's 

feet, but soon began to crawl up. 5. "Where does it wish to go?" said the king to himself. 6. "What patience it 

shows! It has crawled up and fallen down a great many times." 7. Finally however the spider succeeded, and 

crawled up to the ceiling. 8. The king said that he had learned a lesson from the patient spider. 9. He said 

"Although the enemy have conquered many times, because they have a larger number of soldiers, I shall 

finally succeed against them." 10. Soon it happened that the wind blew violently, and a rainstorm occurred. 

11. The blast shook the foliage (126) on the trees, and broke away many small branches. 12. A group of 

soldiers ran right ("rekte") toward the stable, and Robert Bruce was much afraid that they would find him. 13. 

But they merely stole the horses there, and rode away. 

LESSON XXVIII. 

THE INTERROGATIVE ADVERB OF MOTIVE OR REASON. 

129. The interrogative adverb of motive or reason related to the interrogative pronoun "kiu" is "kial", why, 

wherefore, for what reason: 

Kial la araneo supren rampis? why did the spider crawl up? Mi demandos kial li rimarkis gxin, I will ask why 

he noticed it. 

THE INFINITIVE AS SUBJECT. 

130. The infinitive may be used as the subject of a verb. 

[Footnote: Cf. the complementary infinitive (28), equivalent to the object of a verb, and the use of the 

infinitive after the prepositions "por", "anstataux", "antaux ol" (98).] 

Any modifier of the infinitive is necessarily adverbial. An indefinite personal object (or pronominal 

complement of a preposition) after an infinitive used as subject is expressed by the reflexive pronoun "si":


Promeni estas granda plezuro, to go walking is a great pleasure. Promeni estas agrable, to go walking is 

pleasant. Cxu estas facile rigardi la plafonon? Is it easy to look at the ceiling? Estas bone sin helpi, it is well to 

help oneself. Paroli al si estas malsagxe, to talk to oneself is silly. 

PRESENT ACTION WITH PAST INCEPTION. 

131. A present act or state which began in the past is expressed by the present tense (instead of by the past as 

in English): 

Mi estas cxi tie de lundo, I have been (I am) here since Monday. De Marto mi studas tiun lingvon, since 

March I have been (I am) studying that language. Ili estas amikoj de tiu tago, they have been (they are) friends 

from that day. Ni logxas tie de antaux kelkaj monatoj, we have been living (we are living) here since some 

months ago. 

[Footnote: Cf. German "er ist schon lange hier", he has already been here a long time, French "je suis ici 

depuis deux ans", I have been here two years, etc.] 

THE SUFFIX "−UL−". 

132. The suffix "−ul−" is used to form nouns indicating a person characterized by or possessing the 

distinguishing trait, character or quality in the root: 

junulo, a youth, a young man (from "juna", young). belulino, a beauty, a belle (from "bela", beautiful). 

maljunulo, an old man (from "maljuna", old). sagxulo, a sage, a wise man (from "saga", wise). malricxulino, a 

poor woman (from "malricxa", poor). 

[Footnote: Cf. the English adjectives "quer−ul−ous", "cred−ul−ous", "garr−ul−ous", etc., and the Latin nouns 

"fam−ul−us", a servant, "fig−ul−us", a potter, and "leg−ul−us", a gatherer.] 

"LOGXI" AND "VIVI". 

133. The verb "logxi", "to reside, to dwell, to lodge", must not be confused with "vivi", which means "to live" 

in the sense of "to be alive": 

Li logxas apude, he lives near by. Li vivis longan tempon, he lived a long time. Vivi felicxe estas pli bone ol 

logxi ricxe, to live happily is better than to live (lodge) richly. 

VOCABULARY 

afabl−a = amiable, affable. kial = why (129). afer−o = thing, matter, affair. mejl−o = mile. balanc−i = to 

balance, to nod. okulhar−o = eyelash. barb−o = beard. okulvitr−oj = spectacles. batal−o = battle. pens−i = to 

think, to ponder. brov−o = eyebrow. vang−o = cheek. bukl−o = curl (of hair). verand−o = porch, veranda. 

har−o = hair. viv−i = to live (133). 

PRI LA AVO KAJ LA AVINO. 

Mia avo estas tre afabla persono. Li estas maljunulo kun blankaj haroj kaj blanka barbo. Li havas bluajn 

okulojn, kaj la brovoj super ili estas ecx pli blankaj ol liaj haroj. Kvankam li logxas en nia vilagxo de antaux 

kelkaj jaroj, li antauxe logxis en Skotlando. Antaux multaj jaroj li estis soldato, kaj li ofte parolas al mi pri la 

bataloj kaj venkoj de tiu tempo. Sidi kviete sur la verando kaj rakonti tiajn rakontojn al la nepo sxajne donas 

al li multe da plezuro. Multajn fojojn je la fino de la tago li sidas tie, kaj parolas pri tiaj aferoj gxis malfrua 

horo de la vespero. Sidi cxe liaj piedoj kaj auxdi liajn rakontojn estas tre interese al mi. Komence, dum mi


estas cxe li, mi kutime demandas "Cxu oni sukcesis en tiu batalo?" Tuj li balancas la kapon kaj komencas 

pacience rakonti pri la venkoj kaj malvenkoj ("defeats"). Li malofte respondas "Mi ne scias," al miaj 

demandoj "Kiam," kaj "Kial." Kelkajn fojojn li diras "Mi havas tiun opinion, sed mi ne bone scias pri la tuta 

afero, kaj mi miras cxu aliaj personoj scias pli bone." Cxar li estas multe studinta kaj pensinta, liaj opinioj 

estas treege interesaj. Li gxojas tial ke mi demandas pri aferoj okazintaj ("things that have happened"), cxar 

tiaj demandoj montras ke mi ankaux pensas pri ili. Mia avino estas malgranda, kun belaj bukloj da tute 

blankaj haroj. Sxi havas belajn brunajn okulojn, kun longaj nigraj okulharoj. Oni diras ke antaux multaj jaroj 

sxi estis belulino. Ecx nun estas plezure rigardi sxin, kaj vidi sxiajn rugxajn vangojn. De antaux kelkaj jaroj 

sxi portas okulvitrojn por legi aux skribi aux kudri, kaj sxi bezonas ripozon post malmulte da laboro. Promeno 

de ecx mejlo estas tro longa nun por la avino. Oni diras ke sxi ne vivos tre longan tempon, kaj tia penso donas 

malgxojon al ni, cxar ni treege amas la afablan paciencan avinon. 


1. Our grandfather is an old man, and they say that he will not live much longer. 2. He is not very strong, and 

can not take ("fari") long walks. 3. The mile between his house and ours now seems long to him. 4. He prefers 

to sit quietly in the house or on the veranda, and think, nearly all day long (the whole day). 5. He is very 

amiable, and can tell exceedingly interesting stories, about the victories and defeats which happened (119) 

many years ago. 6. Such things are wicked I think, and I am very glad that (83) such battles do not happen 

now. 7. Grandfather has a long white beard and much white hair. 8. It is very interesting to hear his stories, 

and also to look directly at him while he is telling them. 9. He tells such stories with great pleasure. 10. 

Although he has lived with (125) us since February (131), he does not know (117) a great many of the 

neighbors, or of the other persons living (133) near. 11. Grandmother has blue eyes, red cheeks, and soft white 

curls. 12. She speaks slowly, with a sweet voice, and is very patient. 13. Today she said to me "Good 

morning, my dear (132), I have lost my spectacles. Will you look−for them for me?" I nodded (the head) and 

soon found the spectacles. 

LESSON XXIX. 

THE INTERROGATIVE ADVERB OF MANNER AND DEGREE. 

134. The interrogative adverb of manner or degree, related to the interrogative pronoun "kiu", is "kiel", how, 

in what way, to what degree: 

Kiel oni vivas en tia aero? How do people live in such air? Kiel afabla sxi estas! How amiable she is! Mi 

miras kiel la batalo okazis, I wonder how the battle happened. Kiel longe li pensis pri gxi? How long did he 

think about it? 

THE PLUPERFECT TENSE. 

135. The compound tense formed by combining the past active participle with the past tense of "esti" 

represents an act or condition as having been completed at some time in the past, and is called the "pluperfect 

tense". The conjugation of "vidi" in this tense is as follows: 

mi estis vidinta, I had seen (I was having−seen). vi estis vidinta, you had seen (you were having−seen). li (sxi, 

gxi) estis vidinta, he (she, it) had seen (was having−seen). ni estis vidintaj, we had seen (we were 

having−seen). vi estis vidintaj, you had seen (you were having−seen). ili estis vidintaj, they had seen (they 

were having−seen). 

CARDINAL NUMERALS. 

136. Cardinals are numeral adjectives which answer the question "How many?" The cardinals from one to


twelve are as follows: 

unu = one. sep = seven. du = two. ok = eight. tri = three. naux = nine. kvar = four. dek = ten. kvin = five. dek 

unu = eleven. ses = six. dek du = twelve. 

137. With the exception of "unu", none of the cardinals may receive the plural ending "−j" or the accusative 

ending "−n". That is, they are invariable in form. "Unuj" may be used to mean "some" in contrast to "aliaj", 

others: 

Unuj marsxis, aliaj kuris, some walked, others ran. Mi prenis unujn kaj lasis la aliajn, I took some and left the 

others. 

138. The preposition "el" is used after numeral adjectives expressing a number "out of" some larger number or 

quantity: 

Ses el la knaboj venis, six of the boys came. Ok el tiuj libroj estas la miaj, eight of those books are mine. El 

tiuj cxapeloj mi sxatas nur unu, of those hats I like only one. 

[Footnote: The cardinal "unu" must not be used in the sense of the English pronominal "one," as in "I am 

searching for a book, but not the one on the table", which should be translated "Mi sercxas libron, sed ne tiun 

sur la tablo."] 

THE ACCUSATIVE OF MEASURE. 

139. A substantive in the accusative case may be used, instead of a prepositional phrase or an adverb, not only 

to express measure (duration) of time (91), but also to express measure of weight, price, length, etc.: 

Li marsxis dek unu mejlojn, he walked eleven miles. La parko estas largxa tri mejlojn, kaj longa kvar mejlojn, 

the park is three miles wide and four miles long. La tablo pezas dek du funtojn, the table weighs (is heavy) 

twelve pounds. 

NIA FAMILIO. 

Mi rakontos al vi kian familion ni havas. Ni estas ses personoj kaj ni logxas en cxi tiu domo de antaux 

preskaux kvar jaroj. Antaux ol veni cxi tien al la urbo, ni estis logxintaj tri jarojn en kvieta vilagxo en la 

kamparo. Mia patro estas alta, kun grizaj haroj kaj griza barbo. Kvankam li ne estas ricxulo, li tamen havas 

suficxe da mono por vivi kontente kaj felicxe. Li sxatas marsxi, kaj ofte li estas marsxinta kvin aux ses 

mejlojn por unu promeno. Unu fojon mi demandis "Kiel vi povas marsxi tiel multe?" Li respondis "Dum mi 

estis junulo mi estis soldato, kaj tiam mi estis tre multe marsxanta. Tial mi ne forgesas la plezurojn de longaj 

promenoj." La patrino estas malpli alta ol mi, kaj kiel bluajn okulojn sxi havas, sub nigraj okulharoj kaj nigraj 

brovoj! Sxiaj haroj estas nigraj kaj buklaj, kaj sxiaj vangoj estas rugxaj. Sxi havas dolcxan vocxon, kaj estas 

plezuro auxdi sxiajn kantojn. Por legi aux skribi sxi kutime portas okulvitrojn. Mi havas du fratojn kaj unu 

fratinon. La fratino havas dek unu jarojn. 

[Footnote: Like French and some other languages, Esperanto commonly uses the verb "to have" rather than 

the verb "to be", in expressing age: Li havas sep jarojn, he is seven years old (he has seven years). Mi havis 

dek jarojn tiam, I was ten years old (I had ten years) then.] 

Unu el la fratoj havas ok jarojn, la alia havas dek du jarojn. Ili povas bonege kuri, rajdi, kaj fari aliajn 

interesajn aferojn. Ili lernis siajn lecionojn en la lernejo tiel bone ke ses fojojn en unu monato oni lauxdis ilin. 

Ni multe gxojis pri tiom da lauxdo por la fratoj. La fratino estas malpli forta, tamen sxi ofte promenas kun ni 

ecx du aux tri mejlojn. La avino ankaux logxas cxe ni de antaux sep aux ok jaroj. Unu el ni kutime restas cxe


la hejmo kun sxi, dum la aliaj promenas, cxar sxi ne estas suficxe forta por marsxi ecx unu mejlon. Mi ofte 

miras kial sxi preferas sidi sur la verando, kaj mi demandas al sxi "Cxu vi estas tro laca por marsxi?" Sxi 

kutime balancas la kapon kaj diras "Jes, mia nepo, mi estas tro laca." 


1. Three and four make seven. 2. Two and six make eight. Five and six make eleven. 3. Seven and five make 

twelve. 4. I have been studying geometry since five months ago, and German since January. 5. I have read 

three German books, but I shall not be able to talk in this language until after August. 6. To learn how to 

speak such a language is a difficult matter. 7. Nine of the children in our school are now studying German 

with me. 8. Some learn it easily, others do not like it. 9. Three of the boys and two of the girls in that school 

are German. 10. They had resided four years in a large city, but I think (that) they live more contentedly in our 

quiet village. 11. They can not talk with us very well, but merely nod their heads when we talk to them. 12. I 

had not seen them before they came to school, although they are neighbors of ours. 13. They are amiable 

children, with blue eyes, red cheeks, and yellow hair. 14. They can ride very well, and often ride eight or ten 

miles in one day. 15. They usually ride in a park three miles wide and four miles long, where there is but little 

("nur malmulte da") dust. 

LESSON XXX. 

THE INTERROGATIVE ADVERB OF QUANTITY. 

140. The interrogative adverb of quantity related to the interrogative pronoun "kiu" is "kiom", how much, how 

many: 

Kiom da tempo vi ripozis? How much time did you rest? Kiom da sukero kaj kiom da fragoj vi acxetis? How 

much sugar and how many strawberries did you buy? Ni miras kiom da mono li havos, we wonder how much 

money he will have. Kiom de la leciono vi lernis? How much of the lesson did you learn? 

MODIFIERS OF IMPERSONALLY USED VERBS. 

141. Any modifier of an impersonal verb (50) or of a verb used impersonally, that is, with an infinitive or 

clause for its subject, or without any definitely expressed or personal subject (as in "it is cold," "it seems too 

early"), must necessarily be adverbial: 

Estas varme en la domo, it is warm in the house. Estos malvarme morgaux, it will be cold tomorrow. Estas 

bone ke li venis, it is well that he came. Estas amuze ke ni forgesis lin, it is amusing that we forgot him. Ke vi 

venis estis tre sagxe, that you came was very wise. Estos pli agrable en la salono, it will be pleasanter in the 

parlor. 

FORMATION OF CARDINAL NUMERALS. 

142. The cardinal numerals for the tens, hundreds and thousands are formed by prefixing "du", "tri", "kvar", 

etc., to "dek", ten, "cent", hundred, and "mil", thousand, respectively. 

Tens. −−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−− dudek, twenty. sesdek, sixty. tridek, 

thirty. sepdek, seventy. kvardek, forty. okdek, eighty. kvindek, fifty. nauxdek, ninety. 

Hundreds. Thousands. −−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−− −−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−− ducent, 

two hundred. trimil, three thousand. kvincent, five hundred. kvarmil, four thousand. sepcent, seven hundred, 

etc. sesmil, six thousand, etc.


143. The cardinals between ten and twenty, twenty and thirty, etc., are formed by placing "unu, du, tri", etc., 

after "dek, dudek, tridek", etc. (Cf. "dek unu", eleven, "dek du", twelve, 136): 

dek kvar = fourteen. tridek kvin = thirty−five. dek naux = nineteen. sepdek ok = seventy−eight. dudek tri = 

twenty−three. nauxdek ses = ninety−six, etc. 

144. Cardinals containing more than two figures begin with the largest number and descend regularly, as in 

English: 

cent tridek kvin, one hundred and thirty−five. kvarcent nauxdek sep, four hundred and ninety−seven. sescent 

du, six hundred and two. mil okdek, one thousand and eighty. mil naucent dek du, one thousand nine hundred 

and twelve (nineteen hundred and twelve). 

THE SUFFIX "−AN−". 

145. The suffix "−an−" is used to form words indicating an inhabitant or resident of the place denoted by the 

root, or a member or adherent of the party, organization, etc., denoted by the root. The suffix "−an−" may 

itself be used as a root, forming "ano", member, etc. 

bostonano = Bostonian. domano = inmate of a house. kamparano = countryman, peasant. vilagxano = villager. 

[Footnote: Cf. English "urb−an", "suburb−an", "Rom−an", "republic−an", "Mohammed−an", etc.] 

VOCABULARY 

aritmetik−o = arithmetic. memor−i = to remember. cent = hundred (142). mil = thousand (142). erar−o = 

error, mistake. minut−o = minute. grad−o = grade, degree. ricev−i = to receive. kalkul−i = to calculate, to 

reckon. sekund−o = second. kiom = how much (140). superjar−o = leap−year. 

LECIONO PRI ARITMETIKO. 

Estas malvarme hodiaux, kaj tute ne agrable ekster la domo. La urbanoj ne estas promenantaj en la parko, cxar 

ili preferas resti en la domoj. Mi ankaux restis en la domo, kaj parolis al mia juna frato. Mi helpis lin pri la 

leciono en aritmetiko, tial ke li baldaux havos ekzamenojn, kaj li volas esti preta por skribi tre bonajn 

respondojn. Mi demandis al li "Kiom faras dek tri kaj dek kvar?" Li respondis ke tiuj faras dudek sep. Tiam 

mi demandis kiom faras dudek unu kaj tridek kvar. Li kalkulis kvin aux ses sekundojn, per mallauxta vocxo, 

kaj diris "Ili faras kvindek kvin." Mi demandis kiom faras ducent tri kaj sepcent ok, kaj li respondis ke ili faras 

nauxcent dek unu. Li tute ne faris erarojn al mi, kaj fine mi diris al li ke li povas bonege kalkuli. Mi opinias ke 

li ricevos bonan gradon en la ekzamenoj. Post kelkaj minutoj ni komencis paroli pri aliaj aferoj. Mi demandis 

"Kiom da tagoj en la monato septembro?" La frato respondis "Septembro, novembro, aprilo kaj junio havas 

tridek tagojn. Kvankam tiuj monatoj havas tiom da tagoj, la aliaj monatoj havas tridek unu tagojn. Sed la 

monato februaro havas nur dudek ok tagojn." Estas interese lerni pri cxi tiu monato februaro. Dum tri jaroj gxi 

havas dudek ok tagojn, sed en la sekvanta jaro gxi havas dudek naux tagojn. La jaro havanta tian februaron 

estas la "superjaro." Mi rakontis tiun interesan aferon al la frato, kaj li diris ke li bone memoros gxin. Li diris 

ke li ne antauxe sciis pri la superjaro. Li ne sciis ke la superjaro havas tricent sesdek ses tagojn, kvankam la 

aliaj jaroj havas nur tricent sesdek kvin tagojn. Li diris ke li ankaux memoros pri la nombro da tagoj en la 

superjaro, kaj ke li rakontos la aferon al la aliaj knaboj. 


1. (To be written out in full): 14, 18, 42, 86, 79, 236, 431, 687, 788, 1240, 1885, 9872, 4500, 1912. 2. There 

are twelve months in a year, and in most of the months of the year there are thirty−one days. 3. There are only


thirty days in the months April, June, September and November. 4. There are seven days in a week, and 

twenty−four hours in a day. 5. Twelve of these hours make the day, and the others make the night. 6. There 

are sixty minutes in one hour, and sixty seconds in one minute. 7. There are four weeks and also two or three 

days in one month. 8. In the year there are fifty−two weeks. 9. How many weeks are there in ten years? 10. At 

least one year in ten years is a leap−year. 11. In a leap−year there are three hundred and sixty−six days, 

instead of three hundred and sixty−five. 12. Wise men calculated about this matter, many years ago. 13. It is 

well for us that they liked to study arithmetic. 15. I have often received good grades in this study. 16. I 

remember it easily, and seldom make mistakes. 

LESSON XXXI. 

THE RELATIVE PRONOUN. 

146. A connecting pronoun referring to something which precedes (or follows) is called a "relative pronoun". 

The person or thing to which it refers is called its "antecedent." The relative pronoun, identical in form with 

the interrogative pronoun (106), as in English, is "kiu", which, who. 

[Footnote: Sometimes English uses "that" for a relative pronoun, as "I saw the book that you have." This must 

always be translated by "kiu". Likewise, English sometimes omits the relative pronoun, as "I saw the book 

you have." The relative pronoun is never thus omitted in Esperanto.] 

The relative pronoun agrees in number with its antecedent. Whether it is in the accusative case or not depends 

upon its relation to its own verb or to other words in its own clause (called the relative clause): 

La junuloj, kiuj venis, estas afablaj, the youths who came are amiable. La personoj, kiujn li vidos, estas 

amikoj miaj, the persons (whom) he will see are friends of mine. Mi kalkulis la gradon, kiun li ricevos, I 

calculated the grade (which) he will receive. Mi memoras tiun aferon, pri kiu vi parolas, I remember that 

matter about which you speak. 

147. Like English "whose" the genitive form "kies" of the interrogative pronoun (107) is also used as a 

relative, referring to a substantive (singular or plural) for its antecedent: 

Li estas la viro, kies libron vi trovis, he is the man whose book you found. Mi konas la infanojn, kies patro 

estas amiko via, I know the children whose father is a friend of yours. 

THE FUTURE PERFECT TENSE. 

148. The compound tense formed by combining the past participle with the future tense of the auxiliary verb 

"esti" represents an act or condition as having been already completed or perfected at a future time, and is 

called the "future perfect tense." The conjugation of "vidi" in this tense is as follows: 

mi estos vidinta, I shall have seen (I shall be having−seen). vi estos vidinta, you will have seen (you will be 

having−seen). li (sxi, gxi) estos vidinta, he (she, it) will have seen (will be having−seen). ni estos vidintaj, we 

shall have seen (shall be having−seen). vi estos vidintaj, you will have seen (will be having−seen). ili estos 

vidintaj, they will have seen (will be having−seen). 

ORDINAL NUMERALS. 

149. Ordinal numerals are adjectives which answer the question "Which in order?" as "first", "third", etc. 

They are formed by adding the adjectival suffix "−a" to the cardinals. The various parts of an ordinal must be 

connected by hyphens, since it is to the entire cardinal, and not any part of it, that the adjective ending "−a" is 

attached:


unua = first. kvardek−sesa = forty−sixth. dua = second. cent−okdek−kvina : tria = third. hundred and 

eighty−fifth. oka = eighth. mil−okcent−kvara : dek−unua = eleventh. one thousand eight hundred and 

dek−nauxa = nineteenth. fourth. dudek−sepa = twenty−seventh. sesmil−sepa : six thousand and seventh. 

[Footnote: Ordinal numerals may be abbreviated thus: "la", "1st", "2a", "2nd", "3a", "3rd", "5a", "5th", 

"1912a", "1912th", "233a", "233rd", etc. If the ordinal number is used in an accusative construction, the 

abbreviation is given the accusative ending, as "lan", "2an", "3an", "1912an", etc.] 

VOCABULARY 

angl−a = English. neces−a = necessary. dezir−i = to desire. paf−i = to shoot. dolar−o = dollar. pafark−o = bow 

(for shooting). gajn−i = to win, to gain. part−o = part, share. kost−i = to cost. pen−i = to strive, to try. last−a = 

last. traduk−i = to translate. latin−a = Latin. sag−o = arrow. mar−o = sea. sam−a = same. 

ALFREDO GRANDA KAJ LA LIBRO. 

Antaux pli multe ol mil jaroj vivis Alfredo Granda, unu el la plej interesaj personoj pri kiuj ni estas auxdintaj. 

Li estis la unua angla regxo, kiu deziris legi librojn. Li estis ankaux la lasta, kiu povis legi ilin, gxis post 

multaj jaroj. Unu tagon, dum li estis malgranda knabo kun flavaj buklaj haroj, lia patrino, tre sagxa regxino, 

montris al li kaj al liaj fratoj belegan libron. Sxi diris ke la libro kostis multe da mono en lando trans la maro, 

kaj ke gxi nun apartenas al sxi. Si diris "Miaj filoj, mi donos cxi tiun libron al tiu el vi, kiu lernos legi gxin. 

Kiu el vi estos la unua, kiu povos legi? Tiu ricevos la libron." Nu, Alfredo komencis studi, kaj post ne longe li 

gajnis la belegan libron. Liaj fratoj ecx ne penis gajni gxin. Tiam oni tre malmulte pensis pri libroj. La regxoj 

kaj iliaj filoj nur malofte povis legi, kaj treege malofte povis skribi. Oni lauxdis nur personojn, kiuj bone 

rajdis kaj batalis per sagoj kaj pafarkoj. Sed oni opiniis ke tute ne estis necese scii pri la aferoj, kiujn la libroj 

rakontas. Tial Alfredo ne ricevis lauxdon pro sia deziro por legi. La sesan aux sepan jaron post sia ricevo de la 

libro, Alfredo volis lerni la latinan lingvon, cxar tiam oni skribis latine ("in Latin") la librojn, kiuj estis plej 

bonaj. Oni sercxis gxis la finoj de la lando, kaj iris multajn mejlojn, sed preskaux ne povis trovi personon, kiu 

ecx estis auxdinta pri tia lingvo. Fine oni trovis personon por helpi Alfredon, kiu tiam lernis la latinan lingvon. 

Tiu sama Alfredo estis regxo multajn jarojn, kaj estis unu el la plej bonaj regxoj, kiujn la angla lando estas 

havinta. Alfredo skribis librojn en la latina lingvo, kaj ankaux tradukis latinajn librojn en la anglan lingvon. 


1. (To be written out in full): 37th, 59th, 73rd, 92nd, 846th, 119th, 1274th, 1910th, 14235th. 2. Before my 

friend will have finished that mansion (122), it will have cost twenty thousand dollars. 3. Before coming to 

visit you, I shall have ridden twelve miles on my horse. 4. The grade which you will have received in 

arithmetic soon after the first of March will be excellent. 5. You do not make mistakes very often in the 

lessons. 6. I shall try after a few minutes to translate that Latin book, for ("cxar") it seems interesting. 7. It is 

necessary to study Latin, for I desire to read the stories which are in my Latin book. 8. The one thousand nine 

hundred and fourth year was a leap−year. 9. The fourth year after that year was also a leap−year. 10. The 

1912th year will be a leap−year. There are three hundred and sixty−six days in such a year. 12. Alfred won the 

book which his mother had bought. 13. Such a book now costs four or five hundred dollars. 14. Alfred the 

Great was the last king until many years afterward (until after many years) who could read or write. 15. He 

was the first king in that land who even wished to be able to read books. 16. We often talk about this same 

King Alfred, and say that he was the father of the English language. 17. People say so ("diras tiel") because he 

translated Latin books into the language of his land, and because he also wrote books in that language. 

LESSON XXXII. 

"KIA" AS A RELATIVE ADJECTIVE.


150. The interrogative adjective "kia" (112) is also used as a relative adjective, referring back to "tia," or to 

some equivalent phrase or word indicating quality, such as "sama", etc. In this use it may often be translated 

"as", or "which": 

Mi havas tian libron, kian mi volas, I have such a (that kind of) book as (which kind) I wish. Tiaj amikoj, 

kiajn vi havas, estas afablaj, such friends as (of which kind) you have are amiable. Li deziras tian cxapelon, 

kia kostas ses dolarojn, he desires that kind of hat which (kind) costs six dollars. Mi havas la saman deziron, 

kian vi, I have the same desire as you (same kind which you have). 

"KIE" AS A RELATIVE ADVERB. 

151. The interrogative adverb "kie", "kien" (118) is also used as a relative adverb of place with "tie", "tien", or 

some other expression of place for its antecedent. 

[Footnote: Any interrogative adverb may also be used to introduce an indirect question, thus serving as a 

subordinating conjunction (cf. "cxu").] 

"Kien" is used when the verb in the relative clause expresses motion toward the place indicated, whether or 

not its antecedent has this ending. Similarly, "kie" may refer to "tie" or to "tien": 

Mi iros tien, kie vi estas, I shall go there where you are. Mi estis tie, kien vi iros, I was there (at that place) 

where you will go. Mi iros tien, kien vi iris, I shall go to that place to which you went (I shall go where you 

went). Mi trovis lin en la urbo, kie li logxas, I found him in the city where he lives. Cxu vi venos cxi tien, kie 

ni estas? Are you coming here where we are? 

THE FUTURE ACTIVE PARTICIPLE. 

152. The future active participle, expressing what the word modified will do or is about to do, ends in "−onta," 

as "vidonta", about to see, "ironta", about to go: 

La forironta viro vokis sian serviston, the man going to depart (the about−to−depart man) called his servant. 

La virino salutonta vin estas tre afabla, the woman about to greet you is very affable. La venonta monato estas 

marto, the coming month is March. La venontan semajnon mi foriros, the coming (next) week I shall depart. 

THE PERIPHRASTIC FUTURE TENSES. 

153. The compound tenses formed by combining the future active participle with each of the three aoristic 

tenses of "esti" represent an act or state as about to occur in the present, past, or future, respectively, and are 

called "periphrastic future tenses." Except when great accuracy is desired, these tenses are not often used. A 

synopsis of "vidi" in the first person singular and plural of these tenses is as follows: 

Present Periphrastic Future. 

mi estas vidonta, ni estas vidontaj, I am about to (going we are about to (going to) see. to) see. 

Past Periphrastic Future. 

mi estis vidonta, ni estis vidontaj, I was about to (going we were about to (going to) see. to) see. 

Future Periphrastic Future. 

mi estos vidonta, ni estos vidontaj, I shall be about to (going we shall be about to (going to) see. to) see.


THE SUFFIX "−IND−". 

154. The suffix "−ind−" is used to form words expressing "worthy of, deserving of," that which is indicated in 

the root. It may also be used as a root, to form "inda", worthy, "malinda", unworthy, "indo", worth, merit, etc.: 

dezirinda = desirable. rimarkinda = noteworthy, remarkable. lauxdinda = praiseworthy. ridinde = ridiculously, 

laughably. mallauxdinda = blameworthy. tradukinda = worth translating. 

VOCABULARY 

ankoraux = still, yet. flar−i = to smell. atak−i = to attack. gast−o = guest. bat−i = to beat. ho! = Oh! cert−a = 

sure, certain. kri−i = to exclaim, to cry. defend−i = to defend. kruel−a = cruel. difekt−i = to spoil. kuk−o = 

cake. edz−o = husband. lign−o = wood. fajr−o = fire. suspekt−i = to suspect. 

[Footnote: The adverb "ankoraux" expresses the ideas "until and during the present time", "in the future as 

now and before", "in constant or uniform succession", "in an increasing or additional degree", given 

sometimes by English "yet", sometimes by "still": Mi estas ankoraux sidanta cxi tie, "I am still sitting here." 

Li ankoraux ne venis, "still he has not come (he has not come yet)." Li ankoraux restos tie, "he will still stay 

there." Ankoraux ili venas, "still they come." Li estos ankoraux pli ruza, "he will be still (yet) more crafty."] 

ALFREDO GRANDA KAJ LA KUKOJ. 

Unu fojon antaux pli multe ol mil jaroj, soldatoj venis de trans la maro por ataki la anglan regxon Alfredon 

Grandan. Ili nek konis nek malamis lin, sed ili sciis ke li estas persono kies landon ili deziras gajni. Cxi tiuj 

malamikoj estis venintaj tiel subite ke Alfredo ne estis preta por defendi sian landon kontraux ili. Tial li 

forkuris kelkajn mejlojn de la urbo, kaj sin kasxis en granda arbaro malantaux vilagxo. Anstataux porti 

regxajn vestojn li acxetis tiajn cxifonojn kiajn kamparanoj kaj malricxuloj portas. Li logxis cxe malricxa sed 

lauxdinda kamparano, kiu ne konis la regxon, kaj tute ne suspektis kia persono lia gasto estas. Unu 

memorindan tagon Alfredo estis sidanta apud la fajro, kaj estis rigardanta siajn sagojn kaj pafarkon dum li 

pensis malgxoje pri sia lando. La edzino de la arbarano demandis "Cxu vi ankoraux sidos tie dekkvin aux 

dudek minutojn?" "Jes," respondis la regxo. Sxi diris "Nu, estos necese fari pli varmegan fajron por tiaj kukoj 

kiajn mi nun estas bakonta. Cxu vi gardos tiujn kukojn kiuj nun estas super la fajro, dum mi kolektos pli multe 

da ligno?" Alfredo respondis "Certe mi gardos ilin kontraux la fajro." La virino sercxonta lignon foriris en 

alian parton de la arbaro, kie estis multe da ligno, kaj la regxo penis zorgi pri la kukoj. Sed baldaux li forgesis 

ilin, kaj la fajro ilin difektis. Kiam la virino venis kaj flaris la kukojn sxi kriis "ho, vi riprocxinda viro! 

Kvankam vi ankoraux sidas tie, vi ne pensas pri la kukoj, kaj la fajro estas difektinta ilin!" Sxi estis kruele 

batonta la regxon, kiam li diris al sxi kiu li estas, kaj kial li forgesis la kukojn. Tiam sxi tre hontis, kaj 

anstataux mallauxdi lin sxi volis esti ankoraux pli bona al li. 


1. Alfred the Great was a praiseworthy king who lived more than a thousand years ago. 2. People still talk 

about him because he not only translated many Latin books into the English language, but also wrote in 

English. 3. He wished to help the peasants still more. 4. But enemies often attacked him, and finally they 

conquered his soldiers. 5. Then they hastened to where (151) Alfred was. 6. They were about to attack him, 

when he rode away secretly ("kasxe") into a large forest. 7. There he dwelt some time in the house of a poor 

forester. 8. He wore such rags as a peasant usually wears, and did not tell the forester who he was. 9. One day 

he was sitting near the fire and wondering, "Will the enemy have conquered my soldiers next week?" 10. The 

forester's wife said, "Will you sit there yet a while and take−care of those cakes? I am about to gather more 

wood." 11. He replied, "Certainly, I will try to help you." 12. But when after a few minutes the woman 

smelled the cakes, she knew that the fire had spoiled them. 13. She exclaimed "Oh, what a blame−worthy 

man!" 14. She commenced to beat the king cruelly, but he did not defend himself. 15. Instead (120), he told


her who he was. 

LESSON XXXIII. 

"KIAM" AS A RELATIVE ADVERB. 

155. The interrogative temporal adverb "kiam" (123) is also used as a relative temporal adverb, with "tiam" or 

an equivalent word or phrase for its antecedent. (It may not be omitted as in English "at the time he came"): 

Mi suspektis lin je la tempo kiam li venis, I suspected him at the time when he came (the time that he came). 

Li defendis sin tiam, kiam oni atakis lin, he defended himself then, when he was attacked. Mi ankoraux sidos 

tie gxis kiam vi venos, I shall still sit there until when you come (until you come). Post kiam li tiel lauxte 

kriis, li komencis plori, after he shouted so loudly, he began to cry. 

"KIEL" AS A RELATIVE ADVERB. 

156. The interrogative adverb "kiel" (134) is also used as a relative adverb of manner and degree, with "tiel", 

or "same", or an equivalent adverb or phrase for its antecedent. It may often be translated "as": 

Mi defendis min tiel, kiel li defendis sin, I defended myself in that way in which (way) he defended himself. 

Vi ne estas tiel kruela kiel li, you are not so cruel as he (is). Ili batis lin same kiel vi, they beat him in the same 

way as you (did). Ili batis lin same kiel vin, they beat him the same as (they did) you. Kiel mi diris al li, mi 

estas felicxa, as I told him, I am happy (antecedent not expressed). Li parolis tiel mallauxte kiel antauxe, he 

spoke as softly as before. Sxi estas tiel bona kiel sxi estas bela, she is as good as she is fair. 

NUMERAL NOUNS AND ADVERBS. 

157. Nouns may be formed from the cardinals by addition of the ending "−o." After such nouns the 

preposition "da" or "de" is used: 

dekduo = a dozen. milo = a thousand. dudeko = a score. unuo = a unit. deko = a ten, half a score. kvaro = a 

four, a quartette. cento = a hundred. trio = a three, a trio. 

[Footnote: The prepositions "da" and "de" follow nouns (99, 100) or adverbs (101), while "el" follows 

adjectives in the superlative degree (75), cardinal numerals (138), and the pronouns tiu, kiu (106), etc.: 

"dekduo da ovoj", a dozen (of) eggs. "dekduo de la ovoj", a dozen of the eggs. "dek du el tiuj ovoj", twelve of 

those eggs. "kiu el la ovoj?" which one of the eggs? "tiu el la ovoj", that one of the eggs. "la plej fresxa el la 

ovoj", the freshest of the eggs.] 

158. Adverbs may be formed from the cardinals by addition of the ending "−e": 

unue = firstly, at first. deke = tenthly. due = secondly, in the second place. sesdeke = sixtiethly. kvine = 

fifthly, in the fifth place. okdek−kvare = eighty−fourthly. 

WORD DERIVATION FROM PREPOSITIONS. 

159. Adjectives, verbs and nouns, as well as adverbs (120), may be derived from prepositions by addition of 

the formative endings (116), with sometimes a special suffix also: 

anstatauxi = to replace, to take the place of. anstatauxulo = a substitute. antauxa = previous, preceding. apuda 

= near, contiguous, adjacent. cxirkauxi = to surround, to encircle. cxirkauxo = a circuit, a circumference. 

kontrauxa = adverse, opposite, contrary. kontrauxulo = adversary, opponent. kunulo = comrade, companion.


superi = to surpass, to exceed, to be above. superege = surpassingly, exceedingly. 

VOCABULARY 

adiaux = farewell, goodbye. kuz−o = cousin. akcept−i = to accept, to receive. malgraux = notwithstanding. 

elekt−i = to choose, to select. par−o = pair. fest−i = to celebrate, to entertain. pend−i = to hang. gant−o = 

glove. prez−o = price. gxentil−a = courteous. renkont−i = to meet. invit−i = to invite. sxu−o = shoe. jxus = 

just, at the moment. uz−i = to use. 

[Footnote: The adverb "jxus" indicates the elapsing of the least possible time since the act or condition 

indicated, or between the two acts or conditions indicated. "Ni jxus venis", we just came (we came but a 

moment ago). "Mi havas la saman opinion kian vi jxus diris", I have the same opinion as you just gave (said). 

"Mi vidis lin jxus kiam li estis forironta", I saw him just when he was about to depart. "Jxus kiam vi venis li 

foriris", just as you came he went away.] 

LA INVITO. 

Hieraux matene mia kuzo vizitis cxe ni, kaj invitis min al malgranda festo kiu okazos morgaux vespere. Tiam 

li festos la lastan tagon de la jaro. Li diris ke la gastoj sidos cxirkaux la fajrejo kaj rakontos rakontojn gxis 

malfrua horo. Mi akceptis lian gxentilan inviton, kaj diris ke mi certe venos. Mia kuzo logxas en la sama urbo 

kie nia familio logxas, sed en alia parto. Lia hejmo estas preskaux du mejlojn de la nia. Tamen, ni estas bonaj 

kunuloj, kaj ofte promenas kune. Jxus kiam li estis elironta el la pordo hieraux, mi uzis la okazon 

("opportunity") por proponi mallongan promenon. Li respondis ke li gxoje promenos kun mi, malgraux la 

negxa vetero. Tial ni formarsxis tien, kie la stratoj estis malplej kotaj. La kuzo havas dek ok jarojn, sed mi 

estas preskaux tiel alta kiel li. Mi estas certa ke mi estas ankaux tiel forta kiel li. Ni parolis pri multaj interesaj 

aferoj, kaj bonege nin amuzis, gxis kiam estis necese hejmen iri. La kuzo diris "adiaux," kaj iris rekte hejmen, 

sed mi iris al granda butiko. Unue, mi volis acxeti paron da novaj gantoj, por anstatauxi la malnovajn gantojn 

kiujn mi ankoraux estis portanta, kvankam mi acxetis ilin antaux tri monatoj. Due, mi bezonis paron da novaj 

sxuoj. Mi iris en la butikon kie pendis tiaj gantoj, kiajn mi sxatas, kaj oni tuj venis por renkonti min, kaj 

demandis "Kiajn vestojn vi volas acxeti?" Oni montris al mi preskaux dudekon da paroj da gantoj. Mi elektis 

tre bonan paron, kaj estis jxus acxetonta ilin, malgraux la tro granda prezo, kiam mi vidis alian pli belan 

paron. Tial mi acxetis cxi tiun, kaj poste mi rigardis la sxuojn. Mi trovis rimarkinde bonan paron, cxar estas 

centoj da sxuoj en tiu butiko. Mi tuj acxetis tiun paron, kaj tiam hejmen iris. 


1. My friend likes to live in the city, but his wife prefers to live in their little wooden house in the country. 2. 

There she can see and smell the flowers, and can take ("fari") long walks in the adjacent fields and forest. 3. 

There are often hundreds of persons in a village, but there are thousands of persons in a city. 4. The larger a 

city is, the larger and better its stores are. 5. In the second place, one can buy better bread, vegetables and cake 

in the city. 6. Thirdly, one can also find better gloves, hats and shoes there, and the price is often less. 7. 

Therefore I make use of the opportunity when I go to the city, and usually buy a pair of new gloves. 8. I am 

still wearing a pair of gloves which the rain spoiled. 9. Notwithstanding their ugly color, they are still thick 

and good. 10. But soon I shall buy such a pair as (150) is hanging in the window of that store. 11. The price is 

low, and I need a new pair now, for my cousin has invited me to a small party ("festo") at his house. 12. I 

accepted his invitation courteously, and said that I would gladly be his guest. 13. We are good comrades, 

although he is younger than I am. 14. My (girl) cousin, his sister, is older than he is, but he is as tall as she. 15. 

I was just about to send a letter to him at the minute that (155) he knocked on our door. 16. His visit will take 

the place of (159) my letter. 17. Just as (just when) he was going away, I said goodbye to him, and said that I 

would meet him in the park tomorrow. 18. I think that we shall have a pleasant walk, although the weather is 

still remarkably cold, the same as (156) it was two or three months ago.


LESSON XXXIV. 

PREPOSITIONS AS PREFIXES. 

160. Any preposition may be used as a prefix to a verb, provided the resulting compound is intelligible. A few 

prepositional compounds are given below, only verbs being shown, although nouns, adjectives and adverbs 

may be formed from these (116): 

alveni = to arrive. interparoli = to converse. aldoni = to add. kontrauxdiri = to contradict. antauxdiri = to 

predict. kunlabori = to collaborate. cxirkauxpreni = to embrace. kunveni = to assemble. cxeesti = to be 

present. priskribi = to describe. dependi = to hang from, to depend. subteni = to support. demeti = to lay aside. 

surmeti = to put on. depreni = to subtract. traguti = to percolate. enhavi = to contain. travidi = to see through 

eliri = to go out. transiri = to cross. 

[Footnote: Like English "out" the preposition "el" often develops in composition a secondary sense of 

"thoroughly" or "completely" (cf. "I am tired out"): "eltrovi", to find out, to discover. "elpensi", to think out, 

to invent. "ellabori", to work out, to elaborate. "ellerni", to learn thoroughly, to master. "eluzi", to use 

completely, to wear out (transitive).] 

THE SUFFIX "−EBL−". 

161. The suffix "−ebl−" is used to form adjectives, adverbs, etc., expressing the likelihood or possibility of 

that which is indicated by the root. It may be used as a root, to form "ebla", possible, etc. 

eltrovebla = discoverable. rompebla = breakable. legebla = legible. videbla = visible. mangxebla = edible. 

travidebla = transparent. 

[Footnote: The suffix "−ebl−" is often equivalent to the English suffixes "−able", "−ible", but these suffixes 

have other meanings also, as in "readable," "worth reading" (leginda), "lovable," "deserving of love" 

(aminda), etc.] 

EXPRESSION OF THE HIGHEST DEGREE POSSIBLE. 

162. The adverb "plej", "most" (74), modified by "kiel eble" (as possible), is used to express the highest 

degree possible: 

Gxi estas kiel eble plej bona, it is the best possible. Ni estos kiel eble plej sagxaj, we shall be as wise as 

possible. Li uzis kiel eble plej malmulte, he used the least possible. Mi skribis kiel eble plej legeble, I wrote as 

legibly as possible. 

TITLES AND TERMS OF ADDRESS. 

163. The words "sinjoro," gentleman, "sinjorino," lady, "frauxlino," miss, are used like English "Mr., Mrs., 

Miss," before proper names, and are also used as terms of address, without being followed by the name: 

"Adiaux, Sinjoro. Adiaux, Sinjorino," Goodbye (Sir). Goodbye, Madam. 

Frauxlino B−−−−, cxu vi konas tiun sinjoron kun Sinjorino C−−−−? Miss B−−−−, do you know that 

gentleman with Mrs. C−−−−? Mi ne konas tiun frauxlinon, I do not know that young lady. Kien vi volas iri, 

Frauxlino? Where do you wish to go (Miss)? Sinjoro A−−−− estas tre afabla, Mr. A−−−− is very amiable. 

[Footnote: Cf. English "Doctor, Professor, Madam," as terms of address, and also German "Mein Herr, 

gnaedige Frau, gnaediges Fraeulein," French "Monsieur, Mademoiselle," Spanish, "Senor, Senora," Italian


"Signore," etc.] 

VOCABULARY 

atent−a = attentive. onkl−o = uncle. auxskult−i = to listen. san−a = in good health. babil−i = to chatter. sent−i 

= to feel. doktor−o = doctor. sinjor−o = gentleman. frauxl−o = bachelor. sxtup−o = step (of stairs). gaj−a = 

merry, gay. tas−o = cup. grup−o = group. vojagx−o = voyage, journey. 

CXE LA FESTO. 

Hieraux vespere mi iris al la hejmo de mia kuzo, kiu estis invitinta min al malgranda festo cxe li. Cxar mi 

deziris alveni kiel eble plej frue, mi foriris de mia logxejo kiel eble plej baldaux, malgraux la negxa vetero. Mi 

estis surmetinta paron da dikaj gantoj, kaj mi portis dikajn sxuojn. Mi ankaux havis mian ombrelon, kvankam 

pro la vento mi ne povis uzi tiun. Tuj kiam mi supreniris la sxtuparon cxe la hejmo de la kuzo, li auxdis min, 

kaj venis por malfermi la pordon kaj akcepti min. "Bonan vesperon, kia estas via sano?" li diris. Mi respondis 

"Mi sanas bonege, dankon," kaj eniris la domon kun li. Ni supren iris per granda sxtuparo al cxambro kie mi 

lasis la cxapelon, gantojn kaj ombrelon, tiam ni malsupren venis kaj eniris la salonon. Mi salutis la onklinon, 

kiu afable parolis al mi, kaj ankaux la du kuzinojn. Unu kuzino estis jxus priskribonta interesan libron, kiun 

sxi antaux ne longe tralegis, kiam la aliaj gastoj komencis alveni. Sinjoro B−−−− cxeestis, kaj Doktoro 

C−−−−, kun sia filino Frauxlino Mario, kaj multe da aliaj sinjoroj kaj sinjorinoj. La gastoj sidis aux staris en 

malgrandaj grupoj, kaj interparolis kun videbla plezuro. Unu rakontis pri vojagxo, kaj tiam oni komencis 

priparoli la prezojn de aferoj en aliaj landoj. Mi atente auxskultis kelkajn minutojn, kaj tiam foriris al alia 

grupo, kie oni gaje babilis pri estontaj ("future") promenoj kaj festoj. Post unu aux du horoj, la servistinoj 

alportis al ni bonan malgrandan mangxon, kune kun tasoj da bonega kafo. Fine, je malfrua horo ni gxentile 

dankis la familion de mia kuzo, kaj diris adiaux. Tiam ni foriris hejmen, kun sentoj da granda plezuro pro la 

agrabla festo. 


1. There are dozens of edible fruits, but the fruits of hundreds of trees are not at all ("tute ne estas") edible. 2. 

The transparent cup and plate upon the table are very breakable. 3. I predict that you will break them as soon 

as you seize them. 4. That letter is worth reading. 5. But it is difficult to read it, for it is not very legible. 6. It 

is from my uncle, who wishes to arrive at−our−house as early as possible. 7. He is still in the city, but soon he 

will be here, and will go up the steps ("sxtuparon") of our porch and knock on the door. 8. There are very few 

persons who contradict his opinions. 9. His opinions, however, are worthy of attention (154) and usually I 

listen courteously while he is talking. 10. Now, however, I prefer to listen to the group of ladies in the 

adjacent room. 11. They are chattering gaily, and listening to the young lady who is about to sing. 12. Madam, 

do you feel the wind? I notice that it is blowing the curtains which hang before that window. 13. I will close 

the window, because I am not very well ("sana") today. 14. Is that gentleman across the room a bachelor? 15. 

Yes. He is describing a voyage and the people whom he met. 

LESSON XXXV. 

"KIOM" AS A RELATIVE ADVERB. 

164. The interrogative adverb "kiom" (140) is used as a relative adverb of quantity, with "tiom" or some 

equivalent word or phrase for its antecedent. In this use it is commonly translated "as": 

La taso enhavis tiom da kafo, kiom mi povis trinki, the cup contained as much coffee as I could drink. Mi 

havos tiom da tempo, kiom mi bezonos, I shall have as much time as I shall need. Li sendis tiom, kiom vi 

volis, he sent as much as you wished.


THE PRESENT PASSIVE PARTICIPLE. 

165. The present passive participle (for the present active participle see 108), expressing that which is 

"undergone by" the person or thing indicated by the word modified, ends in "−ata", as "vidata", being seen: 

[Footnote: The verb "iri", to go, used to illustrate the active participles (108, 119, 152), cannot be used to 

illustrate a passive participle, since passive participles can be made from transitive verbs (22) only.] 

La lauxdata knabo estas felicxa, the boy being praised is happy. Mi sercxos la deziratan libron, I shall look for 

the desired book. La vestoj farataj por vi estas belaj, the clothes being made for you are beautiful. 

FRACTIONS. 

166. Fractions are formed from the cardinals by the use of the suffix "−on−" followed by the ending "−o". 

Adjectives and adverbs may be derived from these by use of the endings "−a" or "−e": 

La duono de ses estas tri, the half of six is three. Li estis nur duone atenta, he was only half attentive. La triona 

parto de ses estas du, the third part of six is two. Dek unu dekduonoj, eleven twelfths. Mi dudekone finis la 

laboron, I one−twentieth finished the work. 

DESCRIPTIVE COMPOUNDS. 

167. A compound word whose first element modifies the second in an adjectival or adverbial relation is called 

a "descriptive compound". The final "−a" or "−e" of the first element may be omitted, unless the resulting 

combination would be ambiguous or harsh−sounding. 

a. When the first element is adverbial (an adverb or preposition), the second element may be either an adverb 

or adjective: 

multekosta, expensive. duonkolere, half angrily. nevidebla, invisible. nevole, involuntarily. rugxflava 

(rugxeflava), reddish yellow. survoje, on the way, en route. antauxhieraux, day before yesterday. 

postmorgaux, day after tomorrow. 

b. An adjective may be used for the first element, if the second is an adverb or adjective "derived from a 

noun−root": 

samtempa, contemporaneous. unufoje, once, one time. trifoje, thrice, three times. unutaga, one day's, of one 

day. unuataga, the first day's. frutempe, at an early time. 

c. A noun may be used for the second element, if the resulting word has not merely unity of form, but also 

unity of meaning with a slightly different sense from that expressed by the noun and adjective uncombined: 

[Footnote: In national languages a change of accent often accompanies such change in meaning, as 

"BLACKberry" (not "black BERry"), "BLUEbird" (not "blue BIRD"), "SWEETheart" (not "sweet HEART"), 

German "JUNGfrau", "virgin" (not "jung FRAU", young woman), etc.] 

bonveno, a welcome (not "bona veno", a good coming). libertempo, a vacation, leisure (not "libera tempo", 

free time). superjaro, leap−year (not "super jaro", above a year). bondeziroj, good wishes, felicitations (not 

"bonaj deziroj", good desires). plimulto, a majority (adverb and noun combined). 

VOCABULARY


hxin−o = Chinaman. naci−o = nation. jam = already. pagx−o = page. kler−a = enlightened, learned. pres−i = 

to print. komerc−o = trade, commerce. pulv−o = gunpowder. lanc−o = spear, lance. sxangx−i = to change. 

liber−a = free. te−o = tea. metod−o = method, way. ted−a = tiresome, tedious. 

[Footnote: The adverb "jam" indicates a change from some preceding action or state to the different one 

expressed in the sentence, clause or phrase containing "jam". It may often be translated "yet," "now," etc. "Mi 

jam vidis lin", I already saw (have already seen) him. "Cxu vi jam trovis gxin? Ne, mi ankoraux ne trovis 

gxin". Have you yet (have you already) found it? No, I have not yet (still not) found it. "Li jam ne vivas", he 

no longer lives (he already is−not−alive). "Jam ne negxas", it is not snowing now (already not snowing).] 

LA HXINOJ. 

Antaux miloj da jaroj la hxinoj estis la plej klera nacio en la mondo. Dum aliaj nacioj ankoraux ne konis 

metodojn por presi librojn, kaj ankoraux faris ilin skribe, la samtempaj hxinoj jam estis forlasintaj tiun 

multekostan kaj tedan metodon. Ili jam estis presantaj la pagxojn de miloj da libroj. Aliaj nacioj tiam estis 

batalantaj kiel eble plej kruele, per sago kaj pafarko, kaj per lanco. Sed ili ankoraux ne havis pafilojn, cxar 

pulvo estis tute nekonata al ili. Tamen la hxinoj jam bone konis metodojn por fari kaj por uzi pulvon, kaj faris 

tiajn amuzajn flavrugxajn fajrojn, kiajn ni ankoraux hodiaux acxetas de ili, por uzi je festaj tagoj. Sed la 

hxinoj ne multe sxatis la komercon, kaj ne deziris acxeti aux lerni de aliaj nacioj. Ili ankoraux nun havas la 

samajn metodojn por presi librojn kaj por fari pulvon, kiajn ili havis antaux mil jaroj. Ili malofte sxangxas 

siajn kutimojn. Tial la aliaj nacioj, kiuj antauxe ne estis tiel kleraj, antauxeniras pli rapide ol la hxinoj. La 

lando de la hxinoj enhavas tiom da personoj, kiom tri aux kvar aliaj nacioj. Granda parto de tiu lando estas 

ankoraux nekonata al okcidentaj nacioj, kvankam plej multe da nia teo elvenas el la hxina lando. Oni diras ke 

la parolata lingvo kaj la skribata lingvo de la hxinoj estas du tre malsamaj aferoj. La lingvo estas almenaux 

treege malfacila, kaj post kiam oni estas longe studinta gxin, oni tamen estas nur duone lerninta gxin. Mi 

gxojas tial ke la lingvoj studataj en la lernejoj de nia lando ne estas tiel malfacilaj kiel la hxina lingvo. La 

latina kaj germana lingvoj estas suficxe malfacilaj, kvankam ili estas tre interesaj kaj ankaux konataj de la 

kleruloj en multaj landoj. La latina lingvo jam ne estas parolata lingvo. 


1. Why are the persons in that merry group laughing and chattering instead of listening to Mr. B−−−−? 2. I 

think that the doctor is telling stories about a bachelor who was once a good friend of his. 3. The gentleman 

being talked about (160, 165) will visit us this evening, possibly. 4. My aunt and cousin will come down stairs 

and converse with him. 5. We shall drink as many cups of tea or of coffee as we wish. 6. He will say "How is 

your health, Madam?" My aunt will reply half−angrily that she is seldom ill. 7. We shall sit on the veranda, 

for the sun is still shining, although it is already setting. 8. That young lady who came with Mrs. C−−−− 

relates the best possible stories. 9. She says that the Chinese were already an enlightened nation hundreds of 

years ago, while other nations were still cruelly fighting. 10. A method for printing the pages of books, instead 

of writing them, was a discovery of the Chinese. They printed books in their printing−shops, a thousand years 

ago. 12. They also were−acquainted−with gunpowder, which they made and used for such fires as we use on 

national days of−celebration, when we have leisure and wish to enjoy (to amuse) ourselves. 13. But the 

Chinese have not changed these methods. 14. Their ways of commerce, work and pleasure are the same as 

they were long ago. 15. Such a nation does not progress rapidly, even though its life is very long. 

LESSON XXXVI. 

THE PRESENT PASSIVE TENSE. 

168. The compound tense formed by combining the present passive participle with the present tense of the 

auxiliary verb "esti" expresses an act or condition as "being undergone" by the subject of the verb, and is 

called the "present passive tense". The conjugation of "vidi" in this tense is as follows:


mi estas vidata, I am (being) seen. vi estas vidata, you are (being) seen. li (sxi, gxi) estas vidata, he (she, it) is 

(being) seen. ni estas vidataj, we are (being) seen. vi estas vidataj, you are (being) seen. ili estas vidataj, they 

are (being) seen. 

THE USE OF "DE" TO EXPRESS AGENCY. 

169. The person by whom (or the thing by which) an act, indicated by a passive verb or participle, is 

performed is called the "agent" of the passive voice, and is expressed by a substantive preceded by "de": 

La lanco estas portata de mi, the spear is carried by me. La libroj estas jam presataj de li, the books are already 

being printed by him. La vojoj estas kovrataj de negxo, the roads are being covered by snow. Sxi estas 

lauxdata de la sinjoro, she is being praised by the gentleman. 

THE GENERAL MEANING OF "DE". 

170. The preposition "de" conveys the general idea of separation from a source or starting point, in space 

(literal or figurative), or in time (89, 131). This meaning develops into that of the source from which 

connection or ownership arises (49), and also into that of the agency from which an act is done or a condition 

caused (169). The prepositional phrase containing "de" must be so placed as to avoid ambiguity in its 

meaning, or must be reinforced by an adverb or other word: 

La arbo estas malproksima de la domo, the tree is far from the house. Gxi estas proksima de la gxardeno, it is 

near to (from) the garden. Mi prenas la libron for de la knabo, I take the book away from the boy. Mi prenas la 

libron de la knabo, I take the book of the boy. La afero dependas de vi, the matter depends upon (from) you. 

WORD DERIVATION FROM PRIMARY ADVERBS. 

171. Adjectives, verbs, and nouns may be derived from primary adverbs (66), as well as from prepositions 

(120, 159): 

La nunaj metodoj, the present methods (methods of−now). Mi adiauxis lin per adiauxa saluto, I bade farewell 

to him by a farewell salute (see also 273). Ni faris tujan intersxangxon, we made an immediate exchange. Cxu 

li skribis jesan aux nean respondon? Did he write an affirmative or a negative answer? Anstataux nei, li 

respondis jese, instead of denying, he answered affirmatively. La morgauxa festo estos pli agrabla ol la 

hierauxa, tomorrow's (the morrow's) celebration will be more pleasant than that of yesterday. La tiamaj 

personoj estis liaj samtempuloj, the persons of−that−time were his contemporaries. 

THE SUFFIX "−IST−". 

172. The suffix "−ist−" is added to roots to express the profession, trade or occupation connected with the idea 

in the root: 

floristo = florist. okulisto = oculist. komercisto = trader, merchant. presisto = printer. servisto = servant. 

sxtelisto = thief. 

VOCABULARY 

administr−i = to manage. mont−o = mountain. antikv−a = ancient nom−o = name. Euxrop−o = Europe. 

proksim−a = near. grav−a = important, serious. reprezent−i = to represent. ital−a = Italian. respublik−o = 

republic. kvadrat−a = square. tiran−o = tyrant. 

[Footnote: The words "antikva", "maljuna", "malnova", all of which may at times be translated "old," must not


be confused in use: Mi havas malnovan cxapelon, "I have an old hat (a hat which is not new)". Li estas 

maljuna sinjoro, "he is an old (aged) gentleman". Li estas malnova amiko mia, "he is an old friend of mine (a 

friend of long standing)". La hxinoj estis kleraj ecx en la antikva tempo, "the Chinese were learned even in the 

olden time (in ancient time)". La antikvaj kleruloj jam sciis tre multe, "the ancient learned (enlightened) men 

already knew a great deal". La maljuna sinjoro en la malnovaj vestoj estas antikvisto, "the old gentleman with 

the old clothes is an antiquary".] 

ANTIKVA RESPUBLIKO. 

La plej antikva respubliko en Euxropo kusxas en la norda parto de la bela itala lando, inter la maro kaj la 

rivero, proksime de la montoj. Gxia nomo estas San Marino, kaj gxi estas respubliko de antaux mil kvarcent 

jaroj. Kvankam la cxirkauxaj landoj kaj nacioj apartenis en antikva tempo al la tiamaj regxoj, San Marino jam 

estis libera. Gxiaj aferoj estas ankoraux administrataj tiel, kiel la anoj (145) volas, ne kiel unu aux alia regxo 

aux tirano deziras. Dufoje en la jaro la anoj elektas personojn, kiuj administros la gravajn aferojn de la 

respubliko dum la sekvontaj ses monatoj. Kvardek ses el tiuj personoj reprezentas la anojn, kaj unu alia estas 

regxo tiun duonon da jaro. Per tia metodo, la anoj estas bone reprezentataj, kaj la aferoj estas administrataj 

kiel eble plej sagxe. La tuta respubliko enhavas nur dudek du kvadratajn mejlojn da tero. En la respubliko kaj 

la tiea (171) urbo kiu havas la saman nomon, ne estas tiom da personoj kiom en multaj italaj urboj. Tamen cxi 

tiu respubliko estas pli granda ol multaj antikvaj grekaj respublikoj. La grekaj respublikoj estis bonekonataj, 

kaj enhavis multe da kleruloj inter siaj anoj. Sed en la nuna tempo la grekoj havas regxon. Oni ne trovas tre 

klerajn personojn en San Marino, tamen la laboristoj estas energiaj, kaj laboras kiel eble plej multe. La 

rikoltistoj plej ofte havas bonajn rikoltojn, kaj la plimulto da personoj estas treege kontenta kaj felicxa. Oni ne 

pensas pri komerco aux eksterlandaj (167, a) aferoj kaj ne volas vojagxi malproksimen de la bone amata 

hejmo. Oni preferas gaje amuzi sin cxehejme (167, a), en la libertempo inter la rikoltoj, kaj la vivo tute ne 

sxajnas malfacila aux teda. 


1. The serious affairs of a republic are managed by persons representing the persons who live there. 2. The 

inhabitants are well represented, and as free as possible. 3. Enlightened persons often prefer to live in a 

republic. 4. Persons who have a good king are very happy, but those who have a bad king are as unhappy as 

possible. 5. Nowadays ("nuntempe") there are very few tyrants. 6. The majority of the kings of Europe are 

praiseworthy. 7. That nation which was most enlightened a thousand years ago was the Chinese nation. 8. The 

Chinese of−that−time already had good printers among them. 9. It is said (54) that the Chinese drink as much 

tea as two or three contemporary nations. 10. The oldest republic in Europe is named San Marino. 11. It is 

near the mountains, in the northern part of the much praised Italian land. 12. It contains only twenty−two 

square miles, and is therefore one of the smallest republics in the world. 13. Fourteen hundred years ago it was 

already a republic, and it is still that same republic. 14. The inhabitants are energetic and patient, and have as 

much to eat as they need. 15. There are bakers and shopkeepers (172) and many laborers among them. 16. 

They do not think about commerce, or greatly ("multe") change their customs. 17. They seldom take ("faras") 

tiresome journeys, but remain peacefully ("pace") at home. 

LESSON XXXVII. 

THE DISTRIBUTIVE PRONOUN. 

173. The distributive pronoun (and pronominal adjective) is "cxiu", each (one), every (one). Sometimes it is 

equivalent to English "any", as in "Any one who studies can learn," etc. The plural is "cxiuj", every, all. The 

article is never interposed between "cxiuj" and the noun modified (as in English "all the men"), and is used 

only if "cxiuj" is pronominal and followed by "el": 

[Footnote: The use of "cxiu" and "cxiuj" must be distinguished from that of the adjective "tuta", which means


"all" in the sense of "entire": "Cxiuj viroj laboras la tutan tagon", all men work all (the whole) day. "Mi vidis 

cxiun vizagxon, sed mi ne vidis la tutan vizagxon de cxiu viro", I saw every face, but I did not see all the face 

of each man.] 

Cxiu, kiu studos, lernos, every one who studies will learn. Mi vidis cxiun el ili, kaj parolis al cxiu knabo, I 

saw each of them, and talked to every boy. Mi dankas vin cxiujn, I thank you all (I thank all of you). Ni cxiuj 

estas reprezentataj, we are all (all of us are) represented. Cxiuj el la maristoj alvenis, all (every one) of the 

sailors arrived. 

174. The distributive pronoun has a possessive or genitive form "cxies", every−one's, every−body's: 

Li konas cxies nomon, he knows every−one's name. Cxies opinio estis diversa, every−body's opinion was 

different. Kies vocxojn mi auxdas? Cxies, whose voices do I hear? Everybody's. 

THE PREPOSITION "PO". 

175. The preposition "po", at the rate of, at, is used chiefly before cardinals and has a distributive sense: 

Li marsxas po kvar mejloj cxiutage, he walks at the rate of four miles daily (every−day). Mi acxetis kafon po 

malalta prezo, I bought coffee at a low price. Mi acxetis viandon po kvarono da dolaro por funto, I bought 

meat at a quarter of a dollar for (per) pound. La cxapelisto acxetas cxapelojn pogrande, the hatter buys hats 

wholesale. 

DEPENDENT COMPOUNDS. 

176. A compound word whose first element is a substantive, dependent upon the second element in some 

prepositional relation, is called a "dependent compound". (If the two words were not united into one, the first 

element would be preceded by a preposition, or would be in the accusative case.) The ending "−o" may be 

omitted from the first element of a dependent compound: 

[Footnote: A personal pronoun serving as the first element of a dependent compound may keep the accusative 

ending, to indicate its construction: "sinlauxdo", self−praise. "sinekzameno", self−examination. "sindefendo", 

self−defence. "sinkontrauxdira", self−contradictory.] 

jarcento, century (cento da jaroj). mangxocxambro, dining−room (cxambro por mangxoj). noktomezo, 

midnight (mezo de la nokto). paperfaristo, papermaker (faristo de papero). sunbrilo, sunshine (brilo de la 

suno). tagmezo, noon (mezo de la tago). vespermangxo, supper (mangxo je la vespero). ventoflago, 

weathercock (flago por la vento). 

VOCABULARY 

cxies = every body's (174). lag−o = lake. cxiu = every−body (173). po = at the rate of (175). decid−i = to 

decide. sever−a = severe. dev−o = duty. stang−o = pole. fleks−i = to bend. svis−o = Swiss. genu−o = knee. 

vend−i = to sell. intenc−i = to intend. Vilhelm−o = William. jugx−i = to judge. vort−o = word. 

LA CXAPELO SUR LA STANGO. 

Antaux ol Svislando estis tiel libera kiel la nuna svisa respubliko, gxiaj aferoj estis administrataj de personoj 

kiuj reprezentis aliajn naciojn. Ofte tiuj personoj estis kiel eble plej severaj jugxistoj al la svisoj. Unufoje plej 

kruela tirano estis administranta aferojn svisajn. Li elpensis rimarkindan metodon por montri sian povon 

("power"), kaj por esti malagrabla al la svisoj. Li decidis meti sian cxapelon sur altan stangon en la vendejo 

("market−place"), en malgranda vilagxo apud bela lago inter la altaj montoj. Li diris ke de nun tiu cxapelo


reprezentas lin, kaj portos lian nomon. Saluti la cxapelon estos la grava devo de cxiu persono en la vilagxo. 

Estos cxies devo ne nur saluti la cxapelon, sed ankaux genufleksi ("kneel") antaux la stango. La tirano diris ke 

li forprenos la domon, la kampojn kaj tiom da mono, kiom li povos, de cxiu vilagxano aux kamparano kiu 

forgesos genufleksi. "Mi intencas sendi gardistojn," li diris, "kiuj rimarkos cxu vi cxiuj genufleksos kiam vi 

estas proksimaj de la stango." Je tagmezo alvenis gardistoj, por rimarki cxu la necesaj salutoj estos farataj de 

cxiuj, kaj por kapti cxiujn svisojn kiuj ne genufleksis. Baldaux la kamparanoj komencis eniri la vendejon, por 

vendi legomojn po kiel eble altaj prezoj, kaj por acxeti vestojn kaj aliajn aferojn po treege plej malaltaj prezoj. 

Cxiu, kiu iris proksimen de la stango, zorge genufleksis antaux la cxapelo de la malamata tirano, pro timo pri 

la hejmoj kaj la familioj. Fine, kamparano, kies nomo estis Vilhelmo Tell, eniris la vendejon, kaj staris du aux 

tri minutojn proksime de la stango, dum li diris kelkajn vortojn al amiko. Sed anstataux fari tujan saluton, aux 

genufleksi, li tute ne rigardis la stangon. 


1. The day before yesterday my youngest cousin was sitting on my knee, and I told him that a rainbow 

("cxielarko") is made by the sunshine and the rain. 2. My cousin goes to school every day, after he has 

breakfast in the dining−room. 3. A new school is being built, not far from the home of the judge. 4. It is my 

cousin's duty to study those books at the rate of ten pages a day. 5. My cousin and I decided last night (93) to 

buy new hats for ourselves. 6. We intend to go to the hatter's early tomorrow morning. 7. I think that all 

clothes are being sold at a low price at−the−present−time. 8. During a visit at a friend's, I read an interesting 

book about ancient Europe. 9. It relates that several centuries ago a severe and cruel tyrant was managing 

affairs in Switzerland. 10. Once he put his hat on a pole in the market−place, and said that it was the duty 

of−every−one to kneel before it. 11. This serious affair happened in a village one or two miles square, on 

("cxe") the lake not far from the mountains through which one goes on the way (167, a) to the Italian land. 12. 

William Tell did not kneel or even look at the hat representing the tyrant. 

LESSON XXXVIII. 

THE DISTRIBUTIVE ADJECTIVE. 

177. The distributive adjective related to the distributive pronoun "cxiu", giving a comprehensive idea of the 

quality of some person or thing, is "cxia", every kind of, every sort of: 

Oni vendas cxiajn fruktojn tie, they sell every sort of fruit there. Estas cxiaj personoj en la mondo, there are all 

sorts of persons in the world. 

THE IMPERFECT PASSIVE TENSE. 

178. The compound tense formed by combining the present passive participle with the past tense of the 

auxiliary verb "esti" expresses an act or condition as being undergone by the subject of the verb "at some time 

in the past". It is called the "imperfect passive tense". The conjugation of "vidi" in this tense is as follows: 

mi estis vidata, I was (being) seen. vi estis vidata, you were (being) seen. li (sxi, gxi) estis vidata, he (she, it) 

was (being) seen. ni estis vidataj, we were (being) seen. vi estis vidataj, you were (being) seen. ili estis vidataj, 

they were (being) seen. 

COMPOUND TENSES OF IMPERSONAL VERBS. 

179. When impersonal verbs, or other verbs used impersonally, are in compound tenses, the participial 

element is given the ending "−e", like other modifiers of impersonally used verbs (141): 

Estis pluvante antaux unu minuto, it was raining a minute ago. Estis multe negxinte, it had snowed a great


deal. Estis vidate ke cxiu ploras, it was seen that every one wept. 

RECIPROCAL EXPRESSIONS. 

180. To give a reciprocal sense, when there are two or more subjects and the action goes from one to the other 

(expressed in English by "each other," "one another," "mutually," "reciprocally"), the phrases "unu la alian", 

"unu al la alia", etc., or the adverb "reciproke", is used: 

Estas nia devo helpi unu la alian, it is our duty to help one another. Ili parolas unu al la alia, they are talking to 

each other. La viroj reciproke uzis siajn pafilojn, the men used each other's guns. Ili falis unu sur la alian, they 

fell upon each other. 

THE SUFFIX "−UJ−". 

181. The suffix "−uj−" may be used to form words indicating "that which contains, bears, or is a receptacle 

for", some number or quantity of that which is expressed by the root. It may be used instead of "−lando" to 

form the name of a region containing any one race or tribe, and instead of "−arbo" to form the names of fruit 

trees: 

ujo = a receptacle. patrujo (patrolando) = fatherland. monujo = purse. sukerujo = sugar−bowl. supujo = 

soup−tureen. pomujo (pomarbo) = apple−tree. leterujo = letter−case. sagujo = quiver. 

VOCABULARY 

ag−i = to act. mort−i = to die. ceter−a = remaining. pet−i = to plead, to request. cxia = of every kind (177). 

prepar−i = to prepare. fier−a = proud. pun−i = to punish. imag−i = to imagine. reciprok−a = reciprocal, 

mutual. konduk−i = to lead. simil−a = like, similar. kor−o = heart. tusx−i = to touch. 

VILHELMO TELL KAJ LA POMO. 

Tuj kiam la gardistoj rimarkis ke la cxapelo sur la stango ne estis salutata de Vilhelmo Tell, ili kaptis lin, kaj 

kondukis lin al la tirano, por esti jugxata. La tirano demandis de Tell kial li ne genufleksis antaux la cxapelo, 

simile al la aliaj vilagxanoj. Tell respondis fiere ke li ne sciis pri la cxiutagaj genufleksoj de la aliaj personoj. 

Li diris ke li tute ne intencis agi kontraux la deziroj de la jugxistoj. Sed la tirano malamis la altan fortan 

svison, tial li decidis puni lin per severa puno, kaj demandis "Kiun el viaj infanoj vi plej amas?" Vilhelmo Tell 

ne povis imagi kial la demando estas farata al li, kaj respondis "Mi amas cxiujn el ili, sinjoro." La tirano diris 

"Nu, estas rakontate inter la vilagxanoj ke vi estas rimarkinda arkpafisto ("archer"). Ni eltrovos kia arkpafisto 

vi estas. Ni vidos cxu vi povos forpafi pomon de sur la kapo de via plej juna filo. Aldone ("in addition"), estos 

via devo forpafi la pomon per la unua sago, alie ("otherwise") mi punos vin kaj vian filon per tuja morto." Tell 

diris ke li estas preta por ricevi cxian alian punon, anstataux tia puno, sed malgraux cxies petoj la tirano estis 

jam elektanta pomon de apuda pomarbo. Li kondukis la knabon malproksimen de la ceteraj personoj, kaj 

metis la pomon sur lian kapon. Tell kaj la filo reciproke rigardis sin, dum la patro diris ke li ne tusxos haron 

de lia kapo. Tiam li elprenis sagon el la sagujo, faris la necesajn preparojn, kaj rapide pafis. Tuj la pomo 

forfalis de la kapo de la infano, kaj cxiu havis felicxan koron. Dum Tell cxirkauxprenis la filon, la tirano 

demandis "Kial vi havas tiun ceteran sagon en la mano." Tell lauxte respondis "Por mortpafi vin, tuj post la 

infano, cxar mi treege timis pro la vivo de mia kara filo." 


1. William Tell had a strong flexible (161) bow. 2. He could shoot−with−a−bow ("arkpafi") excellently, 

therefore he was a well−known archer. 3. He put six or eight arrows into his quiver, and went with his sons to 

the village. 4. Possibly he saw the hat upon the pole, but he did not kneel before it. 5. It was being noticed


already in the village that Tell hated the tyrant very much. 6. When the guards seized him for that act, and led 

him before the tyrant, who was also the judge, Tell said "I did not know about this new duty, and could not 

imagine why the hat was on the pole there." 7. The tyrant replied with ("per") angry words, for he hated the 

proud Swiss whom every one else loved. 8. He said severely "It is said that you are a praiseworthy archer. 9. 

Therefore I was wondering whether you could shoot an apple from your son's head. 10. Now we shall see 

whether you can shoot off the apple, or whether you will touch the child's head." 11. Amid the pleadings of 

all, Tell successfully shot off the apple. 12. A similar second arrow was ready in his hand. 13. The tyrant saw 

the remaining arrow, and prepared to punish Tell by death. 14. But he escaped, and the Swiss congratulated 

each other heartily ("kore"). 15. After some time they followed him, at the rate of six miles an hour. 

LESSON XXXIX. 

THE DISTRIBUTIVE ADVERB OF PLACE. 

182. The distributive adverb of place, related to the distributive pronoun "cxiu", is "cxie", everywhere. The 

ending "−n" may be added to "cxie" to show direction of motion (121): 

Oni trovas tiajn virojn cxie, such men are found everywhere. Li iris cxien, kie mi estis estinta, he went 

everywhere where I had been. Mi vidas lin cxie, kien mi iras, I see him everywhere I go. 

THE FUTURE PASSIVE TENSE. 

183. The compound tense formed by combining the present passive participle with the future tense of "esti" 

indicates that an act or condition "will be undergone" by the subject of the verb. It is called the "future passive 

tense". The conjugation of "vidi" in this tense is as follows: 

mi estos vidata, I shall be seen. vi estos vidata, you will be seen. li (sxi, gxi) estos vidata, he (she, it) will be 

seen. ni estos vidataj, we shall be seen. vi estos vidataj, you will be seen. ili estos vidataj, they will be seen. 

POSSESSIVE COMPOUNDS. 

184. Compound adjectives may be formed with an adjectival root for the first element, and a noun−root for 

the second element. Such adjectives have the meaning "possessed of" that which is indicated in the 

compound. (Similar adjectives are formed in English, with "−ed" as the final syllable): 

belbrova = beautiful−browed. longnaza = long−nosed. bonintenca = good−intentioned. kvarpieda = 

four−footed. dumana = two−handed. rugxhara = red−haired. 

THE TIME OF DAY. 

185. The ordinals are used in expressing the hour of the day, with "horo" expressed or understood. The 

minutes are expressed by the cardinals. In questions the adjective "kioma" (from "kiom", how much) is used: 

Kioma horo estas? What hour (what o'clock, what time) is it? Je kioma horo vi venos? At what time (what 

o'clock) will you come? Estas la dua horo, it is two o'clock (it is the second hour). Estas la tria kaj kvin 

minutoj, it is five minutes past three. Ni iris je la sesa kaj duono, we went at half past six. Estas la oka kaj 

kvardek kvin (or: estas unu kvarono antaux la nauxa), it is eight forty−five (a quarter of nine). 

THE SUFFIX "−OBL−". 

186. The suffix "−obl−" is used to form multiples indicating how many fold, as "two fold," "double," "triple," 

etc.:


duoblo, a double. duobla, double. duoble, doubly. kvarobla, quadruple. kvindekobla, fifty−fold. multobla, 

manifold. Trioble du estas ses, three times two is six. 

VOCABULARY 

bilet−o = ticket. pag−i = to pay. cend−o = cent. preter = beyond, past. cxie = everywhere (182). staci−o = 

station. esprim−o = expression. telefon−i = to telephone. gicxet−o = wicket, ticket−window. vagon−o = car. 

horlogx−o = clock. valiz−o = valise. 

[Footnote: The preposition "preter" indicates the movement of something alongside of and passing beyond 

something else. Since it does not express motion "toward" its complement, it cannot be followed by the 

accusative.] 

EN LA STACIDOMO. 

Du bonkoraj (184) amikoj miaj logxas en la urbo B−−−−. Ni reciproke konas nin de antaux ses jaroj. Mi estis 

duoble gxoja hieraux kiam mi ricevis leteron de ili, cxar en tiu ili petis de mi baldauxan viziton. Tial mi 

telefonis hieraux posttagmeze al la stacidomo, por demandi je kioma horo foriros la vagonaro ("train") al 

B−−−−. Oni respondis per la telefono ke la vagonaro foriros je la tria kaj tridek kvin. Tuj poste mi enmetis 

kelkajn vestojn en mian jam preskaux eluzitan valizon, kaj faris cxiujn preparojn por la mallonga vojagxo. Je 

la dua horo, tuj post la tagmangxo ("midday meal"), mi marsxis stacidomon. Survoje mi eniris butikon kaj 

acxetis paron da novaj gantoj. Kiam mi eniris la stacidomon, mi kuris preter la aliaj personoj al la gicxeto kie 

biletoj estas vendataj. Mi diris al la sinjoro cxe la gicxeto "Mi deziras bileton al B−−−−. Kiom estos necese 

pagi?" La brunokula sinjoro respondis "Tia bileto kostos dolaron dudek cendojn." Mi pusxis tiom da mono tra 

la gicxeto, kaj tuj ricevis la bileton, kiun la sinjoro jam havis en la mano. Tiam mi iris proksimen de la 

pordego tra kiu oni estos enlasata al la vagonaro. "Kiom da tempo antaux la foriro de la vagonaro al B−−−−?" 

mi demandis al la gardisto. Li lauxtvocxe respondis "Nur sep minutojn. Cxu vi ne vidas tiun horlogxon?" Mi 

ne estis rimarkinta la horlogxon, tial mi almetis la montrilojn de mia posxhorlogxo ("watch") por montri la 

saman horon. Mi estis multe tusxata de cxiaj bonintencaj personoj kurantaj cxien preter mi, kaj pusxantaj unu 

la alian. Fine oni malfermis la pordegon. Mi kaj la ceteraj personoj rapidis al la vagonaro kaj kiel eble plej 

baldaux eniris gxin. 

[Footnote: "Posttagmezo", afternoon, is a descriptive compound (167, a) whose second element "tagmezo" is 

a dependent compound (176).] 


1. Because of the request of my friend whose brother died recently, I went last ("la antauxan") week to visit 

him. 2. The remaining persons of his family were not at home. 3. I telephoned to find out at what time the 

train would depart. 4. I was told (54) that it would leave at four twenty−seven. 5. I put enough money into my 

purse, and carried along ("kunportis") a valise into which I had put some clothes. 6. When I entered the 

station, I hurried past the other people to the wicket, and asked for ("petis") a ticket to B−−−−. 7. The ticket 

seller said "Two dollars and forty cents." 8. I could not imagine why it was necessary to pay so much, but I at 

once pushed that much money through the window, and received the ticket. 9. Then I looked at my watch and 

went near the gate, but the yellowhaired guard who conducts persons to the trains said "Persons who go 

through that gate before the train arrives will be severely punished." 10. So all of us stood near the double 

gate. 11. The trains are much like each other, and it is better to act as the guards request, and not express 

impatience. 

LESSON XL. 

THE DISTRIBUTIVE TEMPORAL ADVERB.


187. The distributive adverb of time, related to the distributive pronoun "cxiu", is "cxiam", always, at all 

times: 

Vi cxiam pagas tro multe, you always pay too much. Mi estas cxiam preta por helpi vin, I am always ready to 

help you. 

THE DISTRIBUTIVE ADVERB "CXIAL". 

188. The distributive adverb of motive or reason, related to the pronoun "cxiu", is "cxial", for every reason, 

for all reasons: 

Cxial li estas felicxa hodiaux, for every reason he is happy today. La mia cxial estas la plej bona, mine is for 

all reasons the best. 

THE PAST PASSIVE PARTICIPLE. 

189. The past passive participle expresses an act or condition as "having been undergone" by the person or 

thing indicated by the word modified. This participle ends in "−ita", as "vidita", having been seen: 

La prezo pagita de vi estis tro granda, the price paid by you was too great. La punita infano ploras, the 

(having−been) punished child is crying. Mi acxetos bonefaritajn gantojn, I shall buy well−made gloves. Li 

sercxis la forgesitan bileton, he looked for the forgotten ticket. 

THE PERFECT PASSIVE TENSE. 

190. The compound tense formed by combining the past passive participle with the present tense of the verb 

"esti" expresses an act or condition which "has been undergone" by the subject of the verb. It is called the 

"perfect passive tense". The conjugation of the verb "vidi" in this tense is as follows: 

mi estas vidita, I have been seen (I am having−been−seen). vi estas vidita, you have been seen. li (sxi, gxi) 

estas vidita, he (she, it) has been seen. ni estas viditaj, we have been seen. vi estas viditaj, you have been seen. 

ili estas viditaj, they have been seen. 

THE PREPOSITION "LAUX". 

191. In expressing that "in accordance with which" something is done, takes place, moves, etc., the 

preposition "laux" is used: 

Li agis laux sia opinio, he acted in accordance with his own opinion. Mi faros gxin laux bona metodo, I shall 

do it according to a good method. Laux kia maniero li agis? In what manner did he act? Mi marsxis laux la 

strato, I walked down (or up) the street. Li iris laux la rivero per tiu vojo, he went along the river by that road. 

Nuboj nigraj kuris laux la cxielo, black clouds raced along the sky. Gxi kusxas lauxlonge de la domo, it lies 

lengthwise of the house. 

THE SUFFIX "−EM−". 

192. The suffix "−em−" indicates a "tendency" or "inclination" toward that which is expressed in the root: 

agema = active. pacema = peaceful, pacific. mallaborema = lazy. pensema = pensive, thoughtful. 

VOCABULARY


atend−i = to wait (for), to expect. laux = according to (191). cxial = for every reason (188). manier−o = 

manner, way. cxiam = always (187). mov−i = to move (transitive) gazet−o = magazine, gazette. okup−i = to 

occupy. jxurnal−o = journal, paper. pal−a = pale. kompat−i = to pity. polic−o = police. larm−o = tear. 

trankvil−a = calm, tranquil. 

LA PERDITA INFANO. 

Dum mi estis atendanta hieraux posttagmeze en la stacidomo, mi subite rimarkis palan sinjorinon kun larmoj 

en sxiaj okuloj. Sxi rigardis cxien kun esprimo de nekasxebla timo, kaj estis videble maltrankvila. Sxi sercxis 

du aux tri minutojn inter la personoj cxirkaux si, kaj fine sxi vidis bluevestitan policanon, kiu estis parolanta 

al unu el la gardistoj. Sxi rapide diris kelkajn vortojn al li, kaj tuj li ankaux komencis sercxi cie. Mi tre 

kompatis la ploreman sinjorinon, kaj kiam la policano preteriris, mi demandis cxu mi ne povas helpi. Mi diris 

ke mi ne estos okupata ("busy") gxis la alveno de la vagonaro. Li respondis ke la filo de tiu virino estas 

perdita, kaj li donis al mi la sekvantan priskribon de la infano, laux la vortoj de la patrino: la knabo estas 

agema brunhara sesjarulo, kun bluaj okuloj, kaj li estas rugxe vestita ("dressed in red"). Lia patrino estis jxus 

acxetinta sian bileton cxe la gicxeto, kaj post kiam sxi pagis la nauxdek cendojn por gxi, subite sxi rimarkis ke 

la infano ne estis kun sxi. Kvankam sxi jam sercxis cxie, la filo sxajnas ankoraux netrovebla. Sxi multe timas 

pro li, kvankam li cxiam estas bona knabo. Mi tuj komencis marsxi cxien inter la personoj cxirkaux mi, kaj 

fine eniris malgrandan cxambron apud la horlogxo cxe la fino de la stacidomo, kie estas vendataj tagjxurnaloj 

("newspapers"), gazetoj kaj libroj. Tie antaux nemovebla tablo kovrita de brile koloritaj jxurnaloj staris 

malgranda rugxevestita knabo. Mi diris al li "Mia studema juna amiko, oni ne vojagxas laux tiu metodo. Via 

patrino jam de longe atendas vin. Mi montros al vi kie sxi estas." Li venis kun mi, kaj proksime de la pordo 

kie mi estis lasinta mian valizon staris la sinjorino. Sxi estis cxial gxoja kiam sxi vidis nin, kaj dankeme 

cxirkauxprenis la infanon. 


lost in the station yesterday afternoon was very uneasy about him for every reason. 2. She was pale and tearful 

("plorema") when I saw her, and looked in every direction in a most impatient manner. 3. There was an 

expression of fear upon her face and she went as quickly as possible to a nearby policeman, and said a few 

("kelkajn") words to him. 4. I heard the last words, and at once said to myself "It is now only ten minutes past 

two. 5. My train will leave ("foriros") at half−past two, so I have time to help." 6. I said to the blue−garbed 

policeman "During the next ("sekvontajn") twenty minutes I shall not be busy. Do you desire my help?" 7. He 

answered "Yes, you are very kind ("gxentila"). The son of that lady has been lost. 8. According to her 

description, he is a yellow−haired blue−eyed five−year−old, and apparently ("sxajne") too restless 

("movema"). 9. I shall find him as soon as possible, nevertheless I shall gladly accept your help. 10. The child 

is dressed in white and wears a red hat." 11. As ("cxar") I am not at all lazy ("mallaborema"), I went along the 

stationary ("nemoveblaj") tables as−far−as the end of the station, and there I saw that−sort−of child, looking 

at the magazines and newspapers. 12. I led him to the lady, who with tears in 

LESSON XLI. 

THE DISTRIBUTIVE ADVERB "CXIEL". 

193. The distributive adverb of manner, related to the distributive pronoun "cxiu", is "cxiel", in every way, in 

every manner: 

Li povas cxiel prepari gxin, he can prepare it in every manner. Li estos cxiel helpata, he will be helped in 

every way. 

THE DISTRIBUTIVE ADVERB "CXIOM".


194. The distributive adverb of quantity, related to the distributive pronoun "cxiu", is "cxiom", every quantity, 

the whole, all: 

Li prenis multe da sukero, sed ne cxiom da gxi, he took a great deal of sugar, but not all of it. Li elprenis 

cxiom de la teo el la teujo, he took all of the tea out of the tea caddy. 

THE PLUPERFECT PASSIVE TENSE. 

195. The compound tense made by combining the past passive participle with the past tense of the verb "esti" 

expresses an act or condition which "had been undergone" by the subject of the verb at some point in past 

time. It is called the "pluperfect passive tense". The conjugation of "vidi" in this tense is as follows: 

mi estis vidita, I had been seen (I was having−been−seen). vi estis vidita, you had been seen. li (sxi, gxi) estis 

vidita, he (she, it) had been seen. ni estis viditaj, we had been seen. vi estis viditaj, you had been seen. ili estis 

viditaj, they had been seen. 

THE FUTURE PERFECT PASSIVE TENSE. 

196. The compound tense made by combining the past passive participle with the future tense of the verb 

"esti" expresses an act or condition which "will have been undergone" by the subject of the verb at some point 

in future time. It is called the "future perfect passive tense". The conjugation of "vidi" in this tense is as 

follows: 

mi estos vidita, I shall have been seen (shall be having−been−seen). vi estos vidita, you will have been seen. li 

(sxi, gxi) estos vidita, he (she, it) will have been seen. ni estos viditaj, we shall have been seen. vi estos 

viditaj, you will have been seen. ili estos viditaj, they will have been seen. 

THE EXPRESSION OF MATERIAL. 

197. The material "out of which" something is made or constructed is expressed by use of the preposition "el". 

As in English, an adjective may be used instead of the prepositional phrase unless a verb or participle lays 

stress upon the fact of construction: 

La tablo estas farita el ligno, the table is made out of wood. La tablo estas ligna (el ligno), the table is wooden 

(of wood). La infanoj konstruis domon el negxo, the children built a house of (out of) snow. Oni faras supon 

el asparago, they make soup out of asparagus. 

THE SUFFIX "−ET−". 

198. The suffix "−et−" indicates diminution of degree in that which is expressed by the root. It is thus in 

contrast to the augmentative suffix "−eg−" (122). Sometimes an affectionate significance is given: 

beleta = pretty. libreto = booklet. dormeti = to doze. monteto = hill. floreto = floweret, floret. rideti = to smile. 

lageto = pond, small lake. vojeto = path. 

VOCABULARY 

best−o = animal. leon−o = lion. cxiel = in every way (193). lud−i = to play. cxiom = the whole, all (194). 

material−o = material. donac−o = gift, present. posed−i = to own, to possess. drap−o = cloth. pup−o = doll. 

hund−o = dog. rost−i = to roast. konsist−i = to consist. versx−i = to pour. 

LA DONACO.


Mi volas doni beletan donacon al mia plej juna fratino morgaux, sed ju pli mi pensas pri gxi, des pli malfacile 

estas decidi pri la afero. Estas duoble malfacile, cxar sxi jam posedas cxiun ludilon ("toy") kiun oni povas 

imagi. Cxiu el sxiaj amikoj gxoje donacas ("make presents") al tiel afabla knabino. Tamen mi iris hieraux 

matene al ludilobutiko, kaj rigardis la ludilojn tie. Multaj konsistis el diversaj pupoj, grandaj kaj malgrandaj, 

kaj belege vestitaj. Sed mi estas certa ke la fratineto jam posedas suficxe da pupoj−−tial mi ne acxetis tian 

ludilon, kvankam ili estas cxiam interesaj al knabinetoj. Sur unu tablo kusxis cxiaj malgrandaj bestoj, faritaj el 

ligno, drapo, kaj diversaj materialoj. Estis cxevaletoj, hundetoj, katetoj, kaj flavaj leonetoj. Proksime de tiuj 

staris malgrandaj brile koloritaj vagonaroj, kiujn oni povis rapide movi, laux la maniero de grandaj vagonaroj. 

Etaj policanoj staris apude, kaj estis cxial malfacile elekti la plej interesan el tiom da interesaj ludiloj. Baldaux 

mi rimarkis knabineton apud mi. Cxiel sxi tre similis al mia fratino, kaj tial mi decidis elekti tian ludilon, kia 

estos elektita plej frue de la nekonata knabineto. Mi atendis trankvile, kaj ecx legis unu aux du pagxojn de 

miaj jxus acxetitaj gazetoj kaj tagjxurnaloj. Fine la beleta infano estis rigardinta preskaux cxiom de la ludiloj 

kiuj okupis la tablojn, dum la kompatinda servistino lace sxin sekvis. Tiam la knabineto kriis "Ho, kiel beleta 

pupodomo! Estas litoj en la dormocxambroj; legomoj kaj rostita viando, faritaj el papero, kusxas sur la tablo 

en la mangxo−cxambro; kaj mi vidas tie pupon, kiu certe jxus faris la teon, kaj estas elversxonta gxin en tiujn 

tasetojn!" Tuj mi faris decidon laux la plezuro de la knabineto, kaj baldaux la pupodomo estis acxetita por mia 

fratineto. 


1. My pale delicate ("malsanema") little sister is always happy when she has a new toy. 2. Her dolls were 

made out of cloth when she was a very little girl, because otherwise she could too easily break them. 3. But 

yesterday my grandmother made a present of a doll (presented a doll) to her, and since that moment she has 

been as happy as possible. 4. I have not seen tears in her eyes, or heard a cross ("koleretan") word. 5. This 

new doll is made out of cloth, and its dress consists of very pretty material. 6. My sister decided that she likes 

it better than her other playthings, and I think that those poor ("kompatindaj") other dolls will soon have been 

forgotten. 7. The doll seems in every way more interesting than the little animals made out of cloth or wood, 

which are on the table with her dolls. 8. She possesses a little dog and a little cat, and a little lion, and until 

yesterday she had a wooden pony. 9. The pony is already broken, and has been given away to a poor 

("malricxa") child, the daughter of our laundress ("lavistino"). 10. My sister possesses a small train of cars 

which she can move everywhere, and she is very fond of ("ametas") this toy. 11. There are small sacks of sand 

in the cars, and usually she is happy when she is pouring the sand out of one of these into another, or putting 

all of the sand into a box, by means of a small spoon. 12. For every reason I am doubly glad today that she is 

busied in this manner ("tiamaniere"). 13. I wish to take a walk along that pleasant path toward the hill, instead 

of waiting for my little sister. 14. I must buy the meat to roast for supper, before I come home from my walk. 

LESSON XLII. 

THE FUTURE PASSIVE PARTICIPLE. 

199. The future passive participle, expressing that which "will be or is about to be undergone" by the person 

or thing indicated by the word modified, ends in "−ota", as "vidota", about to be seen: 

La punota infano mallauxte ploretas, the child about to be punished whimpers softly. La formovota tablo estas 

peza, the table about to be moved away is heavy. La domo konstruota de li estos bela, the house going to be 

built by him will be beautiful. 

THE PASSIVE PERIPHRASTIC FUTURE TENSES. 

200. The compound tenses formed by combining the future passive participle with each of the three aoristic 

tenses of "esti" represent an act or condition as "about to be undergone" in the present, past, or future, 

respectively. These are called "passive periphrastic future tenses". Except when great accuracy is desired,


these tenses, like those of the active voice (153) are not often used. A synopsis of "vidi" in the first person 

singular of these tenses is as follows: 

Present Periphrastic Future. mi estas vidota, I am about to be (going to be) seen. 

Past Periphrastic Future. mi estis vidota, I was about to be (going to be) seen. 

Future Periphrastic Future. mi estos vidota, I shall be about to be (going to be) seen. 

THE GENERIC ARTICLE. 

201. The article is placed before nouns used in a comprehensive or universal sense, indicating a whole class, 

kind, substance, or abstract quality. In such use it is called the "generic article": 

La pacienco estas lauxdinda, patience is praiseworthy. La vivo surtera estas nur parto de la vivo cxiama, life 

on earth is merely a part of the life eternal. La viro estas pli forta ol la virino, man is stronger than woman. 

[Footnote: Cf. French "La patience est amere, mais son fruit est doux, patience is bitter, but its fruit is sweet", 

German "Das Leben ist kurtz, life is short", Italian "La speranza e il pan de miseri, hope is the poor man's 

bread", Spanish "Las riquezas son bagajes de la fortuna, riches are the baggage of fortune", etc. In English the 

generic article (as in "the life eternal" above) may often be replaced by omission of both "a" and "the."] 

THE SUFFIX "−EC−". 

202. The suffix "−ec−" is used to form words indicating the "abstract quality" of that which is expressed in the 

root, or formation, to which it is attached: 

amikeco = friendship. fleksebleco = flexibility. ofteco = frequency. patreco = fatherhood. indeco = 

worthiness. patrineco = motherhood. dankemeco = thankfulness. maltrankvileco = uneasiness. 

VOCABULARY 

bord−o = bank, shore. pont−o = bridge. brak−o = arm. sonor−i = to ring (intrans.). fabrik−i = to manufacture. 

surtut−o = overcoat. krut−a = steep. sving−i = to swing, to brandish. lan−o = wool. sxip−o = ship. mebl−o = 

piece of furniture. sxton−o = stone. pas−i = to pass (intrans.). vapor−o = steam. pitoresk−a = picturesque. 

vetur−i = to travel (in a vehicle). 

SUR LA VAPORSXIPO. 

Unu el la plezuroj de la kampara vivo konsistas el la multenombraj ("numerous") okazoj por veturi cxien, kien 

oni volas iri, per kvietaj pitoreskaj vojoj. Ni havas ankoraux unu ("still one, yet another") okazon por plezuro 

en nia vilagxo, cxar ni povas veturi per vaporsxipo sur la bela lago cxe kies bordo kusxas la vilagxo. Hieraux 

du kuzinoj venis por viziti cxe ni, kaj tuj post la tagmangxo ni decidis promeni laux tiu pitoreska vojeto al la 

lago. Kiam ni alvenis al la lago, ni rimarkis ke beleta vaporsxipeto estis jxus forironta. Tial mi acxetis tri 

biletojn, kaj kiel eble plej rapide ni suriris la sxipeton. La sonoriloj ("bells") estis jam sonorintaj, kaj tuj post 

kiam ni transmarsxis la ponteton, de la tero al la planko de la sxipeto, oni forprenis la ponteton. Kelkaj 

personoj kiuj estis ankoraux sur la tero kuris kun granda rapideco al la ponteto. Ili svingis la brakojn kaj la 

ombrelojn tre energie, sed la sxipeto ne atendis ecx unu minuton. La personoj sxajnis tre koleraj pro sia 

malfrueco, kaj ankoraux pli koleraj pro la trankvila foriro de la sxipeto. Cxiu sur la sxipeto ridetis, cxar la 

koleremo ("irascibility") estas cxiam amuza. Tiam cxiu komencis sin amuzi tiel, kiel li deziris. Mi estis 

kunportinta dikan lanan surtuton, sed pro la varmeco de la vetero mi ne bezonis gxin, kaj lasis gxin sur apuda 

segxo. Ni atendis kun plezuro por vidi la krutajn montetojn kiuj estos videblaj tuj kiam la sxipeto estos pasinta


preter malgranda arbaro. La pitoreskeco de la belaj montetoj estas difektota, cxar grandaj fabrikejoj estas jam 

konstruataj cxe la montpiedoj. La sxtonoj por la muroj jam kusxas pretaj apude, kune kun grandaj stangoj kaj 

aliaj pecoj da ligno. Tie oni fabrikos tablojn, segxojn, kaj aliajn meblojn el zorge elektita ligno. 


1. It is difficult in every way to select a present for a child who already possesses enough toys. 2. In a 

toy−shop yesterday I examined the dolls made out of woolen cloth and other material, and also looked at the 

various little animals. 3. There were ponies, little dogs and little lions and camels. 4. There were also little sets 

of furniture (126), which consisted of tables, sofas and chairs. 5. On the tables were small plates containing 

vegetables, fruits and roast (189) meat, entirely made out of colored paper. 6. There were also little cups and 

tumblers of thin glass, into which one could pour water or milk. 7. As (cxar) one dollar was all (194) of the 

money which I had in my purse, I left the shop. 8. I walked along a stony picturesque path toward the lake, 

swinging my overcoat on my arm, while I thought over ("pripensis") the difficulty, and tried to decide what 

sort of present to choose. 9. The steamboat to B−−−− was just leaving, so I went across the footbridge 

("ponteto") on to the pretty little ship, while its bells were ringing, and rode an hour in the open ("libera") air. 

10. The shore which we passed is very picturesque, but its beauty is about to be spoiled, for a large furniture 

factory is going to be built between that steep hill and the lake. 11. Its proximity to the water is necessary, for 

water−power ("akvoforto") will be used. 

LESSON XLIII. 

THE INDEFINITE PRONOUN. 

203. The indefinite pronoun (and pronominal adjective) "iu", any one, a certain one, presents the idea of some 

person or thing, without definitely characterizing it: 

Mi parolas pri iu, kiun vi konas, I am talking about a certain one whom you know. Mi vizitis iujn el viaj 

amikoj, I visited some of your friends. Mi havas kelkajn pomojn, sed iuj ne estas bonaj, I have several apples, 

but certain ones are not good. Iuj pontoj estas bone faritaj, some bridges are well made. 

204. The indefinite pronoun "iu" has a possessive or genitive form "ies", somebody's, someone's, a certain 

one's: 

Mi tusxis ies brakon, I touched someone's arm. Cxu ies surtuto kusxas sur la tablo? Is anybody's overcoat 

lying on the table? Ies ludiloj estas rompitaj, someone's playthings are broken. 

PARTICIPIAL NOUNS. 

205. Nouns may be formed from participles, by substituting the noun ending "−o" for the adjectival ending 

"−a". Such participial nouns indicate persons temporarily or non−professionally performing or undergoing 

that which is expressed by the root: 

helpanto, one who is helping, an assistant. elpensinto, one who has thought out something, an inventor. 

legonto, one who is about to read. vidato, one (being) seen. sendito, one (having been) sent, an envoy. la 

jugxoto, the one about to be judged, the accused. 

[Footnote: Participial nouns must not be confused with nouns formed by the suffix "−ist−" (172) expressing 

professional or permanent occupation: "rajdanto", a rider, "rajdisto", jockey, horseman, "jugxanto", a judge 

(of something), "jugxisto", judge (professional), "laboranto", a person working, "laboristo", laborer.] 

THE PREFIX "EK−".


206. Sudden or momentary action, or the beginning of an action or state, is indicated by the prefix "ek−": 

ekdormi, to fall asleep. ekkanti, to burst into song. ekiri, to set out, to start. ekridi, to burst into a laugh 

ekrigardi, to glance at. 

THE SUFFIX "−ID−". 

207. Words indicating the "young of, the child of, the descendant of," are formed by use of the suffix "−id−": 

cxevalido, colt (from "cxevalo", horse). hundido, puppy (from "hundo", dog). katido, kitten (from "kato", cat). 

leonido, a lion's whelp (from "leono", lion). regxidino, a king's daughter, a princess (from "regxo", king). 

VOCABULARY 

amas−o = heap, throng. kugl−o = bullet. dauxr−i = to continue. milit−i = to fight, to make war. hirund−o = 

swallow. (bird). ost−o = bone. hom−o = human being. renvers−i = to upset, to overturn. humor−o = temper, 

humor. sign−o = sign, mark. ies = some one's (204). tend−o = tent. iu = some one (203). tru−o = hole. 

[Footnote: Cf. the difference between "viro", man (in contrast to "virino", woman), and "homo", man in the 

generic sense, including both men and women.] 

LA NESTO SUR LA TENDO. 

Unufoje iu regxo estis farinta militon kontraux la homoj de lando cxe la bordo de pitoreska rivero. La soldatoj 

ne venis tien per vaporsxipoj, sed estis konstruintaj ponton trans la rivero, por la veturiloj ("vehicles"). Estis 

necese resti kelkan tempon apud urbo kiun la regxo volis ekataki, kaj li havis grandan tendaron 

("encampment") antaux tiu urbo. Unu tagon en la dauxro ("course") de la milito, iuj el la soldatoj pasis preter 

la tendo de la regxo, laux la sxtona vojeto laux kiu ili cxiutage marsxis por gardi la tendaron. Unu el cxi tiuj 

ekrimarkis ke hirundo estas konstruinta sian neston sur la regxa tendo. Sur la nesto, kiu estis bone konstruita 

el koto, sidis trankvile la hirundo. Dum la soldatoj svingis la brakojn kaj ekridis unu post la alia, pri la 

kuragxa birdo, la regxo auxdis ies vocxon. Li elvenis el sia tendo por eltrovi kial la parolantoj faras tiom da 

bruo, kaj kial ili tiel ekkriis kaj ekridis. Kiam la viroj montris al li la birdon, li diris kun bonhumora rideto, 

"Tiu hirundo estos mia gasto. Cxiuj el la militistoj certe zorgos de nun pri la hirundo kaj la hirundidoj." Tial la 

nesto restis netusxata en la dauxro de cxiu batalo. Kelkaj kugloj pasis preter gxi, sed la trankvileco de la birdo 

dauxris same kiel antauxe. Fine la regxo venkis, per kruelega batalo. Tuj la venkintoj forportis la tendojn, 

kune kun multaj militkaptitoj ("prisoners of war"). Nur la tendon de la regxo oni lasis tie, cxar la regxo diris 

ke gxi nun apartenas al la hirundo. Gxi jam estis malnova kaj eluzita, tra kiu la pluvo eniris per multe da truoj. 

Sed gxi ankoraux staris, gxis iu tago somera kiam la hirundidoj povis jam bone flugi. Tiam la vento subite 

renversis gxin, kaj gxi ekfalis, kaj kusxis, amaso da cxifonoj, inter multe da kugloj, homaj ostoj, kaj la ceteraj 

malgajaj postsignoj ("traces") de ies venko sur la batalejo. 


1. There is a pretty story about a swallow which built its nest for its young ("idoj") on the king's tent. 2. The 

soldiers who were walking along the steep path past the tent glanced at it, and caught sight of (206) the bird. 

3. Some of them burst into a laugh, and gestured ("svingis la brakon") toward the bird, to point it out to their 

comrades. 4. The good−humored king put on a thick woolen overcoat, and came out of his tent, to inquire 

why his soldiers were conversing so noisily there. 5. The tent was an expensive one, and contained handsome 

furniture, as well as ("kaj ankau") a bell which always rang as soon as ("tuj kiam") one touched it. 6. The king 

immediately noticed the swallow's nest, and said with an amiable smile "Surely such a courageous bird is a 

worthy (154) guest for a king." 7. The warriors (172) cared for the swallow as much as possible during the 

course of the war. 8. When the victors departed, they left that tent there. 9. Finally the wind upset it, and it fell


to the ground. 10. The young swallows already could fly, by ("je") that time. 11. The battleground is covered 

with bullets, piles of human bones, and similar melancholy signs of war. 12. War (201) is wicked and 

shameful (154). 13. Why do kings and princes wish to make war upon each other (180)? 14. When their sons 

have gone away to (make) war, the mothers of the soldiers are very uneasy. 15. Perhaps those sons will be 

prisoners of war. 

LESSON XLIV. 

THE INDEFINITE ADJECTIVE. 

208. The indefinite adjective, related to the indefinite pronoun "iu", is "ia", of any kind, some kind of, a 

certain kind of, expressing indefinitely the quality of a person or thing: 

Estas ia birdo sur tiu arbo, there is a bird of some sort on that tree. Mi vidis iajn ostojn sur la tero, I saw some 

kind of bones on the ground. Estas ia homo en tiu tendo, there is some sort of human being in that tent. 

THE INDEFINITE ADVERB OF PLACE. 

209. The indefinite adverb of place, related to the indefinite pronoun "iu", is "ie", anywhere, somewhere, in 

(at) a certain place. If the verb in the sentence expresses motion toward the place indicated by "ie", the ending 

"−n" is added (121): 

Ie en tiu arbaro estas leono, somewhere in that forest is a lion. Ie malantaux la soldatoj vi trovos amason da 

kugloj, somewhere behind the soldiers you will find a heap of bullets. La hirundo flugis ien, the swallow flew 

somewhere (in some direction). Mi iros ien, sed mi ankoraux ne scias kien, I am going somewhere, but I do 

not yet know where. 

PREDICATE NOMINATIVES. 

210. An adjective may stand in predicate relation to the direct object of a transitive verb, as well as to the 

subject of an intransitive verb (19). Such a predicate adjective, agreeing in number (21) with the object of the 

verb, but remaining in the nominative case, indicates the result produced by the verb upon the object, or the 

condition, quality or temporary state in which this object is found: 

Li faris la mondon felicxa, he made the world happy (made−happy the world). Mi lasis la knabon trankvila, I 

left the boy calm (undisturbed). Mi trovis la truon jam farita, I found the hole already made. Mi lasis ilin bone 

punitaj, I left them well punished. 

[Footnote: Cf. the difference between the examples given and sentences with the same words in an attributive 

(13) use: Dio faris la mondon felicxan, God made the happy world. Mi lasis la knabon trankvilan, I left the 

calm boy. Mi trovis la jam faritan truon, I found the already made hole. Mi lasis ilin bone punitajn, I left those 

who had been well punished.] 

211. A noun may be used similarly in predicate relation after a transitive verb, as well as after an intransitive 

verb (20): 

Sxi nomis sian filinon Mario, she named her daughter Mary. Oni elektis tiun reprezentanto, they elected that 

one representative. Mi vidos lin venkinto, I shall see him a conqueror. Mi trovis lin sxtelisto, I found him a 

thief. 

[Footnote: Cf. the examples given and the following sentences using the same words in apposition (48) or 

attributive relation (13): Sxi nomis sian filinon Marion, she named (mentioned) her daughter Mary. Oni


elektis tiun reprezentanton, they elected that representative.] 

VOCABULARY 

anonc−i = to announce. pasxt−i = to feed (flocks, etc.). ia = some kind of (208). plend−i = to complain. ie = 

somewhere (209). proces−o = legal process. just−a = upright, just. rajt−o = right, privilege. klar−a = distinct, 

clear. ripar−i = to mend, to repair. kresk−i = to grow. sufer−i = to suffer. oportun−a = convenient. sxnur−o = 

string. 

LA CXEVALO KAJ LA SONORILO. 

Unufoje en malgranda urbeto ("town") en Italujo, la regxo, kiun oni estis nominta Johano, metis grandan 

sonorilon en la vendejon. Li anoncis ke cxiu plendanto pri maljusteco havos la rajton alvoki ("to summon") 

jugxiston per tiu sonorilo. Tiam la jugxisto faros proceson en la jugxejo pro tiaj plendantoj. Oni multe uzis la 

sonorilon, laux la anonco de la regxo, kaj multe da plendantoj ricevis justecon. Sammaniere, granda nombro 

da maljustuloj estis punata per gxia helpo. Kiam okazis ke iu homo montris sin maljusta al alia, cxi tiu anoncis 

la aferon per la oportuna sonorilo. Kiam iu faris la edzinon malfelicxa, la sonorilo tuj sonoris por anonci 

sxiajn suferojn, kaj por alvoki la jugxiston. Fine, oni tiom uzis la sonorilon justecan, ke la sxnurego ("rope") 

estis tute eluzita, kaj gxia lasta uzinto okaze forrompis gxin. Sed iu preterpasinto vidis la duonon de la 

sxnurego kusxanta sur la tero, kaj riparis gxin per kelkaj brancxetoj de apuda arbo. Li pensis en si "Iu 

plendonto nun trovos gxin preta por esti uzata." Rimarkinde, la brancxetoj ne velkis, sed restis verdaj, kaj 

kreskis kiel antauxe. 

En la sama urbo logxis ricxulo kiu estis forvendinta preskaux cxiom de siaj domoj, cxevaloj, cxevaletoj, 

cxevalidoj, hundoj kaj multekostaj vestoj, cxar en sia maljuneco li amis nur la monon, kaj tiun li amegis. Li 

ankoraux posedis nur unu maljunan cxevalon, kaj fine li forsendis ecx tiun, por sin pasxti laux la vojo. En la 

dauxro de la tago, la cxevalo ekrimarkis la brancxetojn kreskantajn sur la sxnurego de la sonorilo. Tuj gxi 

kaptis la brancxetojn, por mangxi ilin, kaj tuj la jugxisto auxdis la sonorilon klare sonoranta. Li rapidis al la 

vendejo, kaj lauxte ekridis kiam li vidis ies cxevalon tie. Li decidis puni la ricxulon cxar tiu cxi ne donis 

suficxe por mangxi al la maljuna militcxevalo. 


1. The horse caught sight of the twigs with which a passer−by had mended the bellrope. 2. Because it wished 

to eat the green leaves, it seized the rope, and the bell immediately rang loudly and clearly. 3. The horse 

almost upset the poles which supported (160) the roof over the bell of−justice. 4. Any one (173) had the right 

to use this bell, to announce any kind of injustice. 5. The judge burst into a laugh as soon as he saw that sort of 

plaintiff standing there. 6. More often he saw human beings as plaintiffs, instead of animals. 7. When a 

laborer showed himself unkind to his wife and children, they could announce their sufferings by means of the 

convenient bell. 8. People called it the bell of justice. 9. According to everyone's opinion, it is the duty of a 

just judge to punish evildoers and unjust persons. 10. He decided that he would institute proceedings ("faros 

proceson") against the owner (205) of the horse. 11. The man had driven away the horse, and it was grazing 

("sin pasxtanta") along the road. 12. It was some one's duty to give some sort of home to his horse. 13. The 

judge said, "I will find out whose horse that poor beast is, and will put a mark opposite the name of that man. I 

will not leave him alone ("trankvila"), but will show myself very severe." 

LESSON XLV. 

THE INDEFINITE TEMPORAL ADVERB. 

212. The indefinite temporal adverb, related to the indefinite pronoun "iu", is "iam", sometime, any time, ever, 

once upon a time:


Iam mi rakontos la aferon al vi, sometime I will tell you the affair. Regxo iam logxis tie, a king once (upon a 

time) dwelt there. Cxu vi iam faris proceson kontraux li? Did you ever go to law against him? 

THE INDEFINITE ADVERB "IAL". 

213. The indefinite adverb of motive or reason, related to the indefinite pronoun "iu", is "ial", for any reason, 

for some reason, for certain reasons: 

Ial li ne riparis la tendon, for some reason he did not repair the tent. Cxu vi opinias ke ial li maljuste suferas? 

Do you think that for any reason he is suffering unjustly? 

CAUSATIVE VERBS. 

214. The suffix "−ig−" is used to form verbs indicating the "causing, rendering or bringing about" of that 

which is expressed in the root or formation to which it is attached. Verbs containing the suffix "−ig−" are 

called "causative verbs" and are always transitive (22). 

a. Causative verbs from adjectival roots indicate that the quality or condition expressed in the root is produced 

in the object of the verb: 

dolcxigi, to sweeten, to assuage (from "dolcxa", sweet). moligi, to soften (from "mola", soft). plilongigi, to 

lengthen, to make longer (from "pli longa", longer). faciligi, to facilitate (from "facila", easy). beligi, to 

beautify (from "bela", beautiful). 

[Footnote: The meaning often resembles that of the predicate nominative (210), as: Li faris la mondon gxoja, 

he made the world glad. Li gxojigis la mondon, he gladdened the world.] 

b. Causative verbs from verbal roots indicate that the action expressed in the root is made to take place: 

dormigi, to put to sleep (from dormi, to sleep). konigi, to make acquainted with (from koni, to know). mirigi, 

to astonish (from miri, to wonder). mortigi, to kill (from morti, to die). 

c. Causative verbs may be formed from noun−roots, prepositions, adverbs, prefixes and suffixes whose 

meaning permits: 

amasigi, to amass, to heap up (from amaso, pile). kunigi, to unite, to bring together (from kun, with). forigi, to 

do away with (from for, away). ebligi, to render possible (−ebl−, 161). 

EMPHASIS BY MEANS OF "JA". 

215. The emphatic form of the verb, expressed in English by "do", "did", as in "I do study", "I did find it", 

"Do tell me", and by adverbs such as "certainly", "indeed", etc., is expressed in Esperanto by placing the 

adverb "ja", indeed, before the verb: 

Vi ja mirigas min! You do astonish me! Li ja estas justa jugxisto, he is indeed an upright judge. Li ja havis 

tiun rajton, he did have that right. 

VOCABULARY 

akompan−i = to accompany. indiferent−a = indifferent. dangxer−o = danger. ja = indeed (215). gvid−i = to 

guide. kred−i = to believe. ial = for some reason (213). salt−i = to leap, to jump. iam = sometimes (212). tir−i 

= to draw, to pull.


[Cf. the difference in meaning and use between "esti indiferenta", to be indifferent, and "ne esti zorga", not to 

be careful, both of which may be translated "not to care for": Li estas indiferenta al la libro, he does not care 

about (is indifferent to) the book. Li ne zorgas pri la libro, he does not care for (take care of) the book. Estas 

indiferente al mi cxu li venos, aux ne, I do not care whether he is coming or not.] 

CXE LA MALNOVA PONTO. 

Iam logxis en nia urbeto junulo kiu havis afablan pli junan fratinon. Unu tagon en la dauxro de la bela 

printempa vetero la junulo invitis la fratinon veturi ien en veturilo tirata de du cxevaloj. La invito gxojigis la 

knabinon, kaj sxi respondis ke sxi kun plezuro akompanos la fraton. Tuj sxi pretigis sin por iri, kaj ili 

ekveturis. Ili pasis preter pitoreskaj kampoj kaj arbaretoj, kaj fine alvenis al ponto trans la rivero. Ili kredis 

gxin malnova kaj ne tre forta, kaj ial la junulino estis treege timigita ("frightened"). "Ho, kara frato," sxi 

ekkriis, kun eksalteto pro timo, "tiu ponto ja estas dangxera! Mi deziras marsxi trans gxin, cxar iam la pezeco 

de unu persono estos tiom tro multe por veturilo sur malforta ponto!" Sed la timemaj petoj de lia fratino 

sxajne kolerigis la junulon, kaj li respondis malafable, "Nu, vi ja mirigas min! Vi montras vin tre malsagxa, 

cxar la konstruintoj de tiu ponto certe faris gxin suficxe forta por tia veturilo kia la nia. Ne estos necese eksalti 

de gxi, kaj piede transiri la ponton." Tiamaniere li penis trankviligi la kompatindan knabinon, sed tiaj vortoj 

nur silentigis sxin, kaj sxi komencis mallauxte ploreti. Tamen la frato montris sin indiferenta al sxiaj timemaj 

sentoj, kaj tute malatentis sxiajn larmojn. Li gvidis la cxevalojn rekte trans la ponton, dum la fratino atendis la 

bruegon de rompigita ligno, kaj imagis ke sxi estas tuj mortigota. Tamen, la ponto estis tiel forta kiel la junulo 

estis klariginta, kaj tute ne estis dangxera. Sed pro la malafableco de la frato al la fratino, ili tute ne agrable 

pasigis la ceterajn horojn de la posttagmezo, malgraux la beleco de la vetero kaj de la kamparo. 


1. Somewhere in that same town, there lived another youth, who also had an amiable sister. 2. One convenient 

day, she accompanied him for a ride in a vehicle drawn by a fast horse. 3. When they reached ("alvenis al") 

the bridge, this girl also was frightened for some reason, the same as the girl in the other story. 4. She said "I 

do not intend to complain, but the carriage will certainly be too heavy while we are in it. I am afraid that that 

bridge is dangerous, so I will jump out and walk. I will also pick ("kolektos") some sort of flowers, among the 

flowers growing there, near where someone's horses are grazing. I will not delay ("atendigi") you long." He 

replied, "That bridge is entirely safe ("nedangxera") but instead of explaining ("making−clear") to you about 

it, I will lead the horse across the bridge, while you walk across, for I am not indifferent to your fear." Then he 

helped his sister get out ("eliri") of the carriage, and guided the horse across. Then he said with a pleasant 

smile, "It was not necessary to cross on foot." She replied, "No, but you showed yourself a courteous brother, 

and were very patient." Then they rode on ("antauxen"), and talked to each other very amiably. 

LESSON XLVI. 

THE INDEFINITE ADVERB "IEL". 

216. The indefinite adverb of manner, related to the indefinite pronoun "iu", is "iel", somehow, in any way, in 

some (any) manner: 

Mi penis vin iel gvidi tien, I tried somehow to guide you thither. Iel ni anoncos la decidon, we shall announce 

the decision in some way. 

THE INDEFINITE ADVERB "IOM". 

217. The indefinite adverb of quantity, related to the indefinite pronoun "iu", is "iom", some, any quantity, a 

certain amount:


Cxu vi havas iom da tempo? Have you some time? Sxi varmigos iom da akvo, she will heat some water. Tiu 

metodo estas iomete dangxera, that way is a little dangerous (198). La sxnuro estas iom tro longa, the string is 

somewhat too long. 

THE SUFFIX "−AD−". 

218. The suffix "−ad−" is used to form words indicating that the action expressed in the root is continuous, 

habitual or repeated. 

a. Verbs formed with the suffix "−ad−" are called "frequentative verbs", and may often be translated by the 

root meaning, preceded by "keep (on)", "used to", etc.: 

frapadi, to keep knocking, to knock repeatedly. rigardadi, to keep on looking, to gaze. vizitadi, to keep 

visiting, visit repeatedly, frequent, haunt. Antaux du jaroj sxi tre dolcxe kantadis, two years ago she used to 

sing very sweetly. 

b. Nouns formed with the suffix "−ad−" are often equivalent to English verbal nouns ending in "−ing", and 

(with the generic article, 201) may replace the infinitive as subject (130) and sometimes as object (29): 

kriado, crying, shouting (from krio, cry, shout). movado, motion, movement in general (from movo, a 

movement). pafado, shooting, fusillade (from pafo, a shot). parolado, a speech, address (from parolo, a word 

spoken). pensado, thought, contemplation (from penso, a thought). La promenado donas plezuron, the taking 

of walks gives pleasure. Mi preferas la legadon de tiaj libroj, I prefer the reading of (to read) such books. 

THE USE OF "MEM". 

219. The invariable pronoun "mem", self, selves, is intensive, and lays stress upon the substantive which 

immediately precedes it, or which it obviously modifies. (The combination of "mem" with personal pronouns 

must not be confused with reflexive pronouns, 39, 40): 

Mi mem akompanos vin, I myself shall accompany you. La gvidisto mem perdis la vojon, the guide himself 

lost the way. Mi kredos al la viro mem, I shall give credence to the man himself. La viroj mem defendis sin, 

the men themselves defended themselves. Gxi pendas sur la muro mem, it hangs on the very wall (the wall 

itself). Sxi venis mem por vidi vin, she came herself to see you. Mi ekvidis la sxteliston mem, I caught a 

glimpse of the thief himself. 

VOCABULARY 

Arhximed−o = Archimedes. jxet−i = to throw, to cast. ban−i = to bathe (trans.). kompren−i = to understand. 

fals−i = to debase, to forge. kron−o = crown. Hieron−o = Hiero. lev−i = to lift, to raise. honest−a = honest. 

lok−o = place. ide−o = idea. mem = self, selves (219). iel = somehow (216). or−o = gold. iom = some (217). 

Sikeli−o = Sicily. 

ARHXIMEDO KAJ LA KRONOJ. 

Iam bonekonata regxo, nomita Hierono, vivadis en granda urbo en Sikelio, kiu estas sudokcidenta de Italujo. 

Li suspektis ke iam la kronfaristoj, kiuj fabrikadis kronojn por li, ne uzis cxiom de la oro donita al ili de la 

regxo, sed falsadis gxin per la uzado de iu alia materialo. Tamen, Hierono ne povis per si mem eltrovi cxu oni 

falsadas la oron. Tial li venigis grekan klerulon, kies nomo estis Arhximedo, kaj rakontis al li sian timon pri la 

falsita oro. Arhximedo certigis lin ke iel li ja eltrovos pri la falsado, kaj helpos la regxon kontraux la falsintoj, 

kiuj estis tiel indiferentaj al la honesteco. Cxiutage li multe pensadis pri la afero, sed ju pli longe li pensadis, 

des malpli sukcesaj estis liaj penoj, gxis iu tago, kiam li okaze faris interesan eltrovon. Li estis jxus baninta


sin, kaj subite ekrimarkis ke dum li mem restis en la akvo, ial sxajnis esti iomete pli multe da akvo en la 

banujo ol antauxe. Tuj li komprenis ke lia korpo estas forpusxinta iom de la akvo el gxia loko. Li komprenis 

ke tiom da akvo estas elpusxita, kiom antauxe estis en tiu loko kie li mem estas. Tia levado de la akvo per lia 

korpo donis al li sagxan ideon, kaj li prenis en la mano du aux tri orajn kronojn. Li jxetis ilin unu post la alia 

en la banujon, kaj zorge rimarkis al kiu alteco cxiu el ili levis la akvon. Tiam li eltiris ilin, kaj enmetis la 

kronon pri kiu Hierono estis plej suspektema. Li rimarkis ke cxi tiu ne tiel alten levis la akvon, tial li estis 

certa ke la oro en gxi estas multe falsita. Oni diras ke kiam li eltrovis cxi tiun metodon por montri la falsadon 

de la malhonestaj kronfaristoj, li eksaltetis pro gxojo kaj ekkriis "euxreka," kiu estas la greka vorto por "mi 

estas trovinta." Tiun saman vorton oni ankoraux nun uzadas en la angla lingvo. 


1. Several centuries ago, a rich and powerful ("multepova") king, named Hiero, lived in Sicily. 2. Sometimes 

he was suspicious about the crown−makers who wrought ("faris") crowns for him, out of the gold which he 

himself gave them. 3. He wondered whether these men were honest. 4. He suspected that perhaps ("eble") 

they did not use all of the gold which was given them, but kept some of it for themselves. 5. He could not of 

himself ("per si mem") discover whether they were debasing the gold in his crowns, so he summoned a wise 

man from ("el") Greece. 6. To this well−informed man, whose name was Archimedes, he made clear his fears. 

7. Archimedes assured the king that he would find out somehow about the matter. 8. He meditated several 

hours every day, and tried to discover a satisfactory ("kontentiga") method, but for some reason he did not 

succeed. 9. One day, however, when he was bathing (himself), he noticed that there seemed to be a little more 

water in the bathtub when he himself was in it, than before. 10. The rising of the water gave him an idea. 11. 

He threw the crowns one after another into the water, and noticed how much water each displaced. 12. In this 

manner ("tiamaniere") he understood how much each had been alloyed by the local ("lokaj") crown−makers, 

whom Hiero soon threw into prison ("la malliberejon"). 

LESSON XLVII. 

THE NEGATIVE PRONOUN. 

220. The negative pronoun (and pronominal adjective) is "neniu", no one, nobody, no (formed of "ne" and 

"iu", with a medial "n" inserted for the sake of euphony): 

Neniu el vi komprenas min, no one of you understands me. Mi trovis neniun preta por iri, I found nobody 

ready to go. Li havis neniun honestan serviston, he had no honest servant. 

221. The negative pronoun "neniu" has a possessive or genitive form, "nenies", nobody's, no one's: 

Cxies afero estas nenies afero, everybody's affair is nobody's affair. Li lauxdos nenies ideojn, he will praise no 

one's ideas. 

THE ADVERBIAL PARTICIPLE. 

222. A participle may be equivalent not only to a clause describing or determining the substantive modified, 

as in "la parolanta viro", the man who−is−talking, "la sendota knabo", the boy who−will−be−sent, but also to 

an "adverbial" clause. 

[Footnote: An adverbial clause modifies a verb, as in "dum vi atendis, li foriris", while you waited, he went 

away; "cxar mi gxojis, mi ridis", because I was happy, I laughed.] 

Such a participle has for its subject the subject of the verb in the sentence (though not in attributive or 

predicate relation with it), and indicates some relation of time, cause, manner, situation, etc., between the


action of the participle and that of the main verb in the sentence. An adverbial participle is given the ending 

"−e": 

Gxojante, mi ridis, rejoicing, I laughed. Forironte, ni adiauxis lin, being about to depart, we bade him 

farewell. Baninte la infaneton, sxi dormigis gxin, after bathing (having bathed) the baby, she put it to sleep. 

Estante ruzaj, ili falsis la oron, being sly, they debased the gold. Tiel helpate de vi, mi sukcesos, thus helped 

by you, I shall succeed. Silentigite de li, ili ne plendis, (having been) silenced by him, they did not complain. 

Punote, li ekkriis, being about to be punished, he gave a cry. Ne parolinte, li foriris, without speaking (not 

having spoken), he left. Li venis, ne vokite, he came without being (came not−having−been) called. 

[Footnote: The adverbial participle must not be used in rendering the English "nominative absolute" 

construction of a participial clause referring to something else than the subject. In such a sentence a clause 

must be used: "The youth being young, everyone watched him", cxar la junulo estis juna, cxiu rigardadis lin; 

"the work being finished, he went away", kiam la lahoro estis finita, li foriris.] 

THE PREFIX "RE−". 

223. The prefix "re−" indicates the repetition of an action or state, or the "return" of a person or thing to its 

original place or state. (Cf. English prefix "re−"; meaning either "again" or "back.") 

rekapti = to recapture. rebrili = to shine back, to reflect. renovigi = to renew. reteni = to hold back, to retain. 

rekoni = to recognize. reveni = to come back, to return. gxis la revido = au revoir. reiri = to go back, to return. 

ree = again, anew. rejxeti = to throw back, to reject. 

VOCABULARY 

brul−i = to be in flames, to burn. masxin−o = machine. cilindr−o = cylinder. nenies = nobody's (221). detru−i 

= to destroy. neniu = no one (220). fam−a = famous. problem−o = problem. filozof−o = philosopher. 

Sirakuz−o = Syracuse. fizik−o = physics. spegul−o = mirror. insul−o = island. sxrauxb−o = screw. 

LA FILOZOFO ARHXIMEDO. 

Eble neniu greka klerulo estis pli fama ol la filozofo Arhximedo. Longe studadinte la problemojn de la 

geometrio kaj de la fiziko, li faris multe da eltrovoj. Li tiel multe komprenis pri la uzado de la levilo ("lever") 

ke oni rakontas la sekvantan rakonteton pri li: Li diris al la regxo Hierono "Kiam oni donos al mi lokon sur 

kiu mi povos stari, mi mem ekmovos la mondon per mia levilo!" Zorge ekzameninte la ecojn (202) de la 

sxrauxbo kaj de la cilindro, li elpensis diversajn masxinojn en kiuj sxrauxboj kaj cilindroj estas iamaniere 

kunigitaj. Uzante unu el tiuj masxinoj, oni povis facile pusxi al la akvo la sxipojn (necese konstruitajn sur la 

tero); kiujn antauxe la viroj mem enpusxis en la akvon, kun multe da laboro, aux tiris tien per cxevaloj. 

Uzante alian masxinon elpensitan de tiu greko, oni povis levi akvon de unu loko al alia. Ankoraux nun oni 

nomas tian masxinon la "sxrauxbo de Arhximedo." En la dauxro de granda militado kontraux la urbo 

Sirakuzo, sur la insulo Sikelio, Arhximedo elpensis diversajn masxinojn por helpi la Sirakuzanojn. Vidinte ke 

la sunlumo rebrilas de spegulo, li faris el speguloj masxinon per kiu li ekbruligis ("set on fire") la sxipojn de la 

malamikoj. Cxi tiuj, ne komprenante kiamaniere* la sxipoj ekbrulis, estis multe timigitaj. Sed ecx helpite de 

Arhximedo la Sirakuzanoj ne venkis. Post iom da tempo, la malamikoj kaptis kaj tute detruis la urbon 

Sirakuzon. Nenies domo restis netusxita, kaj centoj da personoj estis mortigataj. Oni ne scias per kia morto 

Arhximedo mortis, sed eble la malamikoj, iel rekoninte la elpensinton de la spegulmasxino, jxetis lin en la 

maron aux alimaniere lin mortigis. 

[Footnote: The use of "kiamaniere" (in what manner, how) is preferable to that of "kiel" in indirect questions, 

as the latter might be confused with the use of "kiel", meaning "as" (156).]



1. The Greek philosopher Archimedes was not only famous long ago, among his contemporaries (167, b, 

132), but even today his name is well known everywhere. 2. No one's knowledge about the problems of 

geometry and physics was greater. 3. No one understood better the properties of the cylinder and the screw. 4. 

Having studied these properties a long time, and having meditated a great deal about them, he understood 

them a little (217) better than any one else ("iu alia"). 5. The story about the debasing of the gold crowns has 

already been told. 6. There is another anecdote, namely ("nome"), that he remarked to Hiero, king of 

Syracuse, that with a lever he would move the world, as soon as he had a place on which he himself could 

stand. 7. Having discovered how ("kiamaniere") the sunlight is reflected by a mirror, and heats the wood upon 

which it shines, he invented a machine made out of mirrors. 8. Aided by this machine, the Syracusans were 

able to set on fire the wooden ships of the enemy. 9. The enemy, however, were not repulsed from the island, 

but at once rebuilt and repaired their ships, and sent them back to attack the city again. 10. Finally, having 

captured the city, they destroyed it, and killed a large number of the inhabitants ("logxantoj"), also 

Archimedes himself. 

LESSON XLVIII. 

THE NEGATIVE ADJECTIVE. 

224. The negative adjective, related to the negative pronoun "neniu," is "nenia", no kind of, no sort of, 

expressing a negative idea concerning the quality of a person or thing: 

Mi havas nenian spegulon, I have no sort of mirror. Nenia problemo estas tro malfacila por li, no sort of 

problem is too difficult for him. 

THE NEGATIVE ADVERB OF PLACE. 

225. The negative adverb of place is "nenie", nowhere. The ending "−n" may be added, as to other adverbs 

(121), to indicate direction: 

Nenie estas pli bona masxino, nowhere is there a better machine. Mi iros nenien morgaux, I shall go nowhere 

tomorrow. 

THE NEGATIVE TEMPORAL ADVERB. 

226. The negative adverb of time is "neniam", never, at no time: 

Neniam vivis pli fama filozofo, there never lived a more famous philosopher. Vi neniam trovos tiajn 

sxrauxbojn aux cilindrojn, you will never find that kind of screws or cylinders. 

THE SUFFIX "−AJX−". 

227. The suffix "−ajx−" is used to form "concrete" words. It is thus in contrast to the abstract−forming suffix 

"−ec−" (202). 

a. A word formed from a verbal root by means of the suffix "−ajx−" expresses a concrete example of "a thing 

which undergoes" (or, in the case of intransitives, "results from") the action indicated in the root: 

konstruajxo = a building. kreskajxo = a plant, a growth. sendajxo = consignment, thing sent. rebrilajxo = a 

reflection. mangxajxo = food. restajxo = remainder.


b. A word formed from an adjectival root or formation by means of the suffix "−ajx−" indicates "a thing 

characterized by" or "possessing the quality" expressed in the root or formation to which it is attached: 

belajxo = a thing of beauty. mirindajxo = a marvel. maljustajxo = an injustice. okazintajxo = an occurrence. 

c. A word formed from a noun−root by means of the suffix "−ajx−" indicates "a thing made" or "derived 

from" that which is expressed in the root: 

sukerajxo = a sweet, confection. orajxo = a gold object. ovajxo = an omelet. araneajxo = a spider−web. 

THE ADVERB "JEN". 

228. The adverb "jen", behold, here, there, is used to point out or call attention to something: 

Jen estas la problemo! There is the problem! Jen la filozofo! Behold the philosopher! Jen sxi ludas, jen sxi 

studas, now she plays, now she studies. Mi faris gxin jene, I did it as follows. Mi agis laux la jena metodo, I 

acted in the following way. Li diris la jenajn vortojn, he spoke the following words. 

VOCABULARY 

arangx−i = to arrange. neniam = never (226). art−o = art. nenie = nowhere (225). ber−o = berry. pentr−i = to 

paint. jen = there, behold (228). postul−i = to demand. jxaluz−a = jealous. precip−a = principal, chief. 

konkurs−o = competition. regul−o = rule. lert−a = skilled, clever. tromp−i = to deceive. nenia = no kind of 

(224). vin−o = wine. 

DU ARTKONKURSOJ. 

Vivadis en Grekujo antaux multaj jarcentoj du lertaj famaj pentristoj. Ili estis reciproke jxaluzaj, kaj neniam 

povis interparoli paceme. Ne povinte decidi la problemon, kaj eltrovi kiu el ili estas la plej lerta, ili fine 

arangxis konkurson pri la pentrado. Laux gxiaj reguloj, cxiu el ili pentris pentrajxon, por montri sian lertecon. 

Unu pentris teleron da vinberoj ("grapes"). Gxi estis tiel mirinde kolorigita ke ecx la birdoj venis kaj penis 

gxin mangxi, pensinte gxin ne nur pentrajxo, sed la vinberoj mem. "Nenia pentrajxo povos superi la mian," 

gxojege ekkriis la pentristo, "jen, la birdoj mem rekonas mian lertecon!" Tiam li diris al la alia artisto, "Nu, 

kial vi ne fortiras tiun kurtenon? Mi volas rigardi vian pentrajxon." La dua pentristo respondis kun rideto, "Jen 

estas mia pentrajxo. Nenie apud vi estas kurteno, sed vi vidas nur pentrajxon de kurteno antaux tiu 

konstruajxo." Tre mirigite, la pentrinto de la vinberoj diris "Vi ja superas min en la pentrado. Mi trompis la 

birdojn per mia pentrajxo, sed vi trompas ecx aliajn artistojn! Tia lerteco estas ja mirindajxo!" 

Oni rakontas similan okazintajxon pri fama artisto kiu pentris multe da pentrajxoj por Aleksandro Granda. 

Malgajninte en konkurso kontraux iuj aliaj artistoj, li opiniis ke la jugxintoj estas maljustaj al li, precipe pro la 

jxaluzeco. Li ekkriis "Cxar niaj pentrajxoj estas bildoj de cxevaloj, ili certe postulas cxevalajn jugxantojn!" 

Tial oni enkondukis du aux tri cxevalojn. La cxevaloj, tute ne rigardinte la pentrajxojn de la aliaj artistoj, kuris 

rekte al tiu de la plendinta artisto, kaj klare montris sian rekonadon de la tie pentritaj cxevaloj. Surprizite, oni 

diris "Jen estas justaj jugxantoj!" Tuj oni lauxdis la pentriston kaj severe punis la malhonestajn homajn 

jugxintojn. 

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION 

1. Syracuse was the largest city on the island of Sicily. 2. The famous philosopher and physicist Archimedes 

lost his life when that city was destroyed and entirely burned. 3. At least, no sort of trace of him seems to have 

been found after that occurrence. 4. Never, perhaps, was there a more learned man in Syracuse. 5. Greece was 

also famous for its skilled painters, and there are many anecdotes about them. 6. A painter who failed in a


certain competition believed that none of the judges had been just to him. 7. He exclaimed "Behold this 

iniquity (injustice)! Nowhere can I find a human being who is not jealous. 8. Since the paintings are chiefly of 

horses, do they not require horses for judges?" 9. His proposal was accepted (54), and some horses were led 

in. 10. Without noticing (222) the other paintings, the horses walked at once to the picture of the unsuccessful 

artist, and showed immediate recognition of the horses painted there. 11. This act showed which competitor 

("konkursinto") was the most skilful. 12. The painter, having deceived the horses, as another artist had once 

deceived birds by a picture of grapes, said "Animals decide not by rules, but by feelings." 

LESSON XLIX. 

THE NEGATIVE ADVERBS "NENIAL", "NENIEL", "NENIOM". 

229. The negative adverb of motive or reason, related to the negative pronoun "neniu", is "nenial", for no 

reason: 

Li estas nenial jxaluza, he is jealous for no reason. Nenial li trompis vin, for no reason he deceived you. 

230. The negative adverb of manner is "neniel", in no way. 

Mi povos neniel arangxi konkurson, I can in no way arrange a competition. Tiu ago estas neniel lauxregula, 

That act is in no way regular. 

231. The negative adverb of quantity is "neniom", no amount of, not any, none, no: 

Tiu pentrajxo postulas neniom da lerteco, such a painting requires no skill. Estas neniom da vino en lia glaso, 

there is no wine in his glass. 

THE SUFFIX "−IGX−". 

232. The suffix "−igx−" is used to form intransitive verbs of an "inchoative" nature. 

a. Inchoative verbs from the roots of "intransitive verbs" indicate the "beginning" or "coming into existence" 

of the act or condition expressed in the root: 

sidigxi, to become sitting, to sit down, to take a seat. starigxi, to become standing, to stand up. 

b. Intransitive verbs may be similarly formed from the roots of "transitive" verbs, and indicate an action of the 

verb not immediately due to the subject's acting upon itself (as in the case of reflexive verbs, 41) and not 

caused by any direct agency (as in the case of the passive voice, 169): 

La pordo fermigxas, the door closes (goes shut). La veturilo movigxas, the vehicle moves. La brancxo 

rompigxas, the branch breaks. Grupo da personoj kolektigxis, a group of persons gathered. 

[Footnote: Cf. the examples given and the following sentences in which the same verbal roots are used in the 

simple form and in the passive voice: 

Ni fermas la pordon, La pordo estas fermita, we close the door. the door is (has been) closed. 

Oni movas la veturilon, La veturilo estas movata, they move the vehicle. the vehicle is being moved. 

Mi rompas la brancxon, La brancxo estas rompita, I break the branch. the branch is (has been) broken.


Li kolektis florojn, Floroj estas kolektitaj, he gathered flowers. flowers have been gathered.] 

c. Intransitive verbs may similarly be formed from "adjectival" roots, and indicate the acquiring of the 

characteristic or quality expressed in the root: 

lacigxi, to become tired, to get tired. varmigxi, to become warm, to get warm. maljunigxi, to become old, to 

age. 

d. Verbs may similarly be formed from noun−roots, adverbs, prepositions, prefixes and suffixes whose 

meaning permits: 

amikigxi, to become a friend. kunigxi, to become joined. forigxi, to go away, to disappear. ebligxi, to become 

possible. 

VOCABULARY 

apenaux = hardly, scarcely. nenial = for no reason (229). atmosfer−o = atmosphere. neniel = in no way (230). 

dub−i = to doubt. neniom = none, no (231). efektiv−a = effective, real. ombr−o = shadow. hel−a = clear, 

bright. pejzagx−o = landscape. horizont−o = horizon. radi−o = ray. krepusk−o = twilight. tropik−a = tropical. 

LA KREPUSKO. 

Estas tre agrable sidigxi sur la herbon, kaj rigardi la plilongigxantajn ombrojn, en la dauxro de bela somera 

vespero. La suno grade mallevigxas post la montetoj, la nuboj farigxas ("become") bele kolorigitaj, kaj la tuta 

pejzagxo pli kaj pli beligxas. Malrapide la krepusko anstatauxas la helan sunlumon, kaj fine cxie noktigxas. 

La krepusko estas la rebrilado de la sunlumo tra la atmosfero, post la mallevigxo de la suno mem, laux la jena 

maniero: la radioj suprenbriladas, en la aeron super niaj kapoj, en la okcidenta parto de la cxielo. De tie ili 

rebriladas tiamaniere ke la cxielo lumigxas. Kiam estas iom da nuboj sur la cxielo okcidenta, la sunradioj 

briladas rekte kontraux ilin, belege kolorigante tiujn nubojn. En tropikaj landoj la krepuskigxo okazas tre 

rapide. Gxi ne nur komencigxas subite, sed ankaux dauxras tre mallongan tempon. La noktigxo preskaux tuj 

sekvas la taglumon, kun rimarkinda subiteco. Apenaux komencigxas la krepusko, kiam la subiranta suno 

sxajnas fali preter la horizonto. Tute male ("quite on the contrary"), en landoj treege nordaj, krepuskigxas tre 

frue en la tago, kaj la krepusko dauxras longan tempon antaux ol la nokto venas. Efektive ("really"), en tiuj 

landoj la krepusko tute anstatauxas la nokton, dum ses monatoj de la jaro. Tie oni havas krepuskon dum la 

unua duonjaro, kaj la taglumon dum la sekvinta duonjaro. Krepusko dauxranta tiom da tempo estas tiel 

rimarkinda kiel tago de tia sama longeco. Mi dubas cxu tia dividado de la tempo inter tago kaj malhela nokto 

estas agrabla, sed oni povas neniel malhelpi gxin. Cxiu tre norda lando havas la saman travivajxon 

("experience"), cxiujare, kaj efektive oni apenaux rimarkas gxin. Pri cxiu plendanto oni nur diras "Li estas 

nenial malkontenta." 


of ("pri") the two painters who, being mutually (180) jealous, arranged a competition. 2. One painted a cluster 

(126) of grapes, so excellently that the birds flew to it. 3. The other deceived his rival (competitor) himself, by 

a painting of a curtain. 4. The most famous artists, however, often show their skill by painting (222) pictures 

of the sunset, chiefly, I think, because of the brilliant colors. 5. In fact ("efektive"), I doubt whether there is a 

more beautiful sight (227, b) than the sunset. 6. It is made by the bright rays of the sun, which shine back 

through the atmosphere, long after the sun itself has passed below the horizon. 7. The more moisture 

("malsekajxo") there is in the air, the more brilliant the colors are, and the more beautiful the entire landscape 

becomes. 8. In tropical lands, night falls very suddenly, and there is almost no sort of twilight. 9. In fact, a 

twilight scarcely occurs there. 10. In the lands far north, on the contrary, the twilight lasts six months, and the 

remainder of the year is the day. 11. To dwell in such a land is surely a remarkable experience. 12. It can in no


way be understood by persons who have never lived there. 13. Such things increase (make greater) my desire 

to visit those northern lands. 14. For no reason, however, do I 

LESSON L. 

THE PRONOUNS ENDING IN "−O". 

233. In contrast to the pronouns ending in "−u" ("tiu", "kiu", "cxiu", "iu", "neniu"), a similar series ending in 

"−o" refers to an object, fact or action not definitely specified (but never to a person), like English "what, 

anything, something, nothing," etc. Because of their somewhat vague meaning, these pronouns do not occur in 

the plural, nor are they ever used as pronominal adjectives: 

Demonstrative: tio = that (thing, fact or action). cxi tio = this (thing, fact or action). 

Interrogative and Relative: kio = what. 

Distributive: cxio = everything. cxio cxi = all this. 

Indefinite: io = anything, something. 

Negative: nenio = nothing. 

234. A pronoun (not personal) in predicate or relative relation to a pronoun ending in "−o" must itself be of 

the same series: 

Kio estas cxi tio, kion vi diras? What is this, which you say? Sxi vidis tion, kio jxus okazis, she saw that 

which just occurred. Cxio cxi, kion vi vidas, estas farita de ili, everything here (all this), which you see, was 

done by them. Li havas ion por vi, sed nenion por mi, he has something for you, but nothing for me. 

CORRELATIVE WORDS. 

235. Pronouns, adjectives and adverbs, which are related to each other as corresponding demonstratives, 

interrogatives, relatives, etc., are called "correlatives". In Esperanto the correlative system is more complete 

than in any other language, and may be summarized as follows: 

Demonstrative Interrogative Distributive Indefinite Negative and Relative 

tio (233) kio (233) cxio (233) io (233) nenio (233) that (thing) what, which everything anything nothing 

tiu (56) kiu (146) cxiu (173) iu (203) neniu (220) that (one) who, which every, each any (one) no (one) 

ties (62) kies (147) cxies (174) ies (204) nenies(221) that one's whose every one's any one's no one's 

tia (65) kia (150) cxia (177) ia (208) nenia (224) that kind of what kind of every kind any kind no kind of 

tie (68) kie (151) cxie (182) ie (209) nenie (225) there where everywhere anywhere nowhere 

tiam (73) kiam (155) cxiam (187) iam (212) neniam (226) then when always any time never 

tial (78) kial (129) cxial (188) ial (213) nenial (229) therefore, wherefore, for every for any for no so why 

reason reason reason


tiel (88), kiel (156) cxiel (193) iel (216) neniel (230) (156) thus, so how, as every way any way in no way 

tiom (104) kiom (164) cxiom (194) iom (217) neniom (231) that much, how much, all, the some, any none, no 

so much as whole of amount quantity 

THE USE OF "AJN". 

236. The word "ajn" may be placed after any interrogative−relative or indefinite correlative word, to give a 

generalizing sense. In order to avoid confusion with the accusative plural ending, "ajn" is "never attached" to 

the correlative which it follows: 

kio ajn = whatever. kiam ajn = whenever. kies ajn = whosesoever. kiom ajn = however much. kie ajn = 

wherever. ia ajn = any kind whatever. 

THE SUFFIX "−ING−". 

237. The suffix "−ing−" is used to form words indicating that which holds "one" specimen of what is 

expressed in the root: 

glavingo = scabbard. plumingo = pen−holder. lumingo = torch−holder. ingo = sheath, case, socket. 

VOCABULARY 

cxio = everything (233). nenio = nothing (233). Gordio = Gordius. ofer−o = offering. io = anything (233). 

reg−i = to rule, to govern. jug−o = yoke. sankt−a = sacred, holy. klin−i = to bend, incline (trans). templ−o = 

temple. kio = what (233). tio = that (thing) (233). lig−i = to tie, to bind. util−a = useful. 

LA GORDIA LIGAJXO. 

Unufoje en antikva tempo la regatoj de iu regxolando en Azio ne havis regxon. Ne sciante kion fari, ili 

demandis de la dioj. La dioj respondis, "Kiu ajn venos unue en nian sanktan templon hodiaux, por fari oferojn, 

estos via regxo." Okaze kamparano nomita Gordio venis al la templo, jxus post la tagigxo. La regatoj tuj 

rekonis la estontan regxon, kvankam li veturis sur peza malbela veturilo. Salutinte la surprizitan kamparanon, 

oni nomis lin regxo. Decidinte fari dankoferon al la dioj, Gordio metis en la templon la veturilon mem sur kiu 

li tien veturis, antaux ol li komencis regi kiel la nova regxo. La jugo estis alligita ("tied fast") per granda 

ligajxo el sxnurego. Post la morto de Gordio oni grade komencis kredi ion tre interesan pri tio. Oni diris ke 

tiu, kiu povos iel ajn malligi tiun ligajxon, farigxos reganto super cxiuj regxoj de Azio. 

Post kelkaj jaroj Aleksandro Granda decidis fari grandan militadon kontraux Azio, kaj alproksimigxis al la 

lando kie estis reginta Gordio. Kiam li demandis, "Kio estas cxi tie la plej interesa vidindajxo?" oni rakontis al 

li tion, kion oni diras pri la sxnurega ligajxo sur la veturilo de Gordio. Kompreneble ("of course") Aleksandro 

deziris fari ion ajn utilan por venki Azion, tial li tuj venigis gvidiston por konduki lin al la templo. Alveninte 

tien, li zorge rigardadis la ligajxon, kaj ekzamenis la sxnuregon el kiu gxi estis farita. Tiam, elpreninte sian 

glavon el la glavingo, subite klinigxante li rekte tratrancxis la tutan ligajxon. "Nenio estas pli facila ol tio," li 

diris, "kaj nun mi ne dubas cxu mi certe regos super cxiuj regxoj de Azio." Pro tio, kion faris Aleksandro 

Granda, oni ankoraux nuntempe diras, kiam iu ajn superas malfacilajxon per kia ajn subita metodo, "Li 

trancxis la gordian ligajxon." 


1. One often hears the remark "I will cut the Gordian knot." 2. There is an interesting story about this. 3. A 

wagon whose yoke was tied to the pole by a large knot had been put in the middle of the temple. 4. It was a


thank−offering to the sacred gods, by whose help Gordius had in olden time become king. 5. It was said that 

whoever would be able to untie that rope would no doubt become ruler over the whole of Asia. 6. Alexander 

the Great, having begun a campaign against Asia, approached the city where this temple was. 7. Having heard 

the story, he at once had a guide come, and went thither, guided by him. 8. He desired to do everything which 

was useful to the conquering of Asia. 9. Having examined the knot carefully, he bent over and tried for a few 

minutes to untie it. 10. Then he chose another method. 11. He seized his sword, and suddenly cut through the 

whole knot. 12. Having done this, he put the sword back into the scabbard. 13. This he did, instead of 

continuing ("dauxrigi") his efforts to untie the knot. 14. In fact, having no patience, he had become tired. 15. 

Perhaps the conquering of Asia did not in any way become possible on account of this, but at least the story is 

interesting, whatever actually ("efektive") happened. 16. Nothing is impossible, whenever one tries enough. 

17. In a tropical country, such as part of Asia is, the landscapes are beautiful. 18. A tropical twilight is very 

short, however, and the shadows have scarcely become long when the sun seems to sink suddenly below the 

horizon, although the last bright rays continue to shine back through the atmosphere for a few minutes. 

LESSON LI. 

THE PRONOUN "AMBAUX". 

238. The pronoun (and pronominal adjective) "ambaux", both, indicates two persons or things considered 

together. It is invariable in form: 

Ili ambaux venis al la templo, they both came to the temple. Ambaux faris oferojn al la dioj, both made 

offerings to the gods. Vidante kaj la plumon kaj la plumingon, mi prenis la ambaux, seeing both the pen and 

the penholder, I took both. 

[Footnote: This pronoun must not be confused with the use of "kaj", translated "both" in the combination "kaj 

... kaj ...", "both ... and ..." (26).] 

FORMATIONS WITH "−IG−" AND "−IGX−". 

239. Some verbs may be used in the simple form, and also with both the suffix "−ig−" and the suffix "−igx−". 

Thus from one verb−root three verbs of distinct meaning may be made, and the formation with "−ig−", being 

transitive, may also be used in the passive: 

sidi = to sit, to be sitting. sidigxi = to become sitting, to take a seat. sidigi = to cause to sit, to seat. esti sidigata 

= to be caused to sit. silenti = to be silent. silentigxi = to become silent. silentigi = to cause to be silent, to 

silence. esti silentigita = to be silenced. kusxi = to lie, to be lying. kusxigxi = to lie down, to go to bed. kusxigi 

= to cause to lie, to lay. esti kusxigita = to be laid. stari = to stand, to be standing. starigxi = to rise, to stand 

up, to become erect. starigi = to raise, to cause to stand up, to erect. esti starigita = to be raised, to be erected. 

FACTUAL CONDITIONS. 

240. A conditional sentence consists of two parts, an "assumption" and a "conclusion". The assumption is a 

clause (introduced usually by the conjunction "se", "if") which assumes something as true or realized. The 

conclusion is a statement whose truth or realization depends upon the truth or realization of the assumption. 

"Factual conditions" (conditions of fact) may deal with the present, past or future time: 

Se li vidas tion, li ploras, if he sees that, he weeps (is weeping). Se li vidis tion, li ploris, if he saw that, he 

wept. Li ploros, se li vidos tion, he will weep, if he sees that. Se li venis hieraux, li foriros morgaux, if he 

came yesterday, he will go away tomorrow. Se li estas vidinta tion, li nun ploras, if he has seen that, he now is 

weeping. Se tio estas vidota, li estas punota, if that is going to be seen, he is going to be punished. Se li estas 

kaptita, li estos jam punita, if he has been captured, he will already have been punished.


VOCABULARY 

ambaux = both (238). mut−a = dumb, mute. azen−o = ass, donkey. orel−o = ear. ben−i = to bless. petol−a = 

mischievous. dors−o = back. propr−a = own, one's own. form−o = form. se = if. halt−i = to stop (intrans.). 

spir−i = to breathe. monahx−o = monk. turment−i = to torment. 

LA MONAHXOJ KAJ LA AZENO. 

Iam du monahxoj reiris tra la arbaro al la monahxejo, dum grade krepuskigxis. Ambaux portis pezajn sakojn 

da terpomoj, kaj baldaux lacigxis, sed ne sciis kion fari. Okaze ili ekvidis azenon ligitan al arbo, kaj unu 

monahxo, haltinte, diris petole al la alia "Se vi anstatauxos la beston, mi havos portanton por miaj propraj 

sakoj, kaj ankaux por la viaj." Lia kunulo respondis "Nu, se la azeno portos miajn sakojn, mi mem gxoje 

restos en gxia loko." Jxus dirite, tuj farite ("no sooner said than done"). Malliginte la ligajxojn kiuj tenis la 

azenon, ili jxetis la sakojn trans la dorson de la utila besto. Unu monahxo tuj forkondukis la azenon, dum 

ambaux viroj lauxte ridis. Post tio, la dua monahxo sin ligis per la sama sxnurego kiu antauxe tenis la azenon. 

Kiam revenis la kamparano, kies azeno estis jxus sxtelita, li ekhaltis, multe mirigite, vidante homon tie ligita. 

La monahxo anoncis al li, "Cxar mi estis tro mangxema, Dio faris azenon el mi, antaux du jaroj. Mi jxus 

rericevis mian propran formon." Tuj la kredema kamparano invitis la petolan monahxon al sia hejmo. La 

monahxo restis tiun nokton cxe la kamparano, kaj la sekvintan tagon li foriris, beninte la kamparanon, sed 

kasxe ridante pri la afero. Tiam la kamparano iris vendejon, por acxeti alian azenon. Li ekvidis sian propran 

azenon, kiun la unua monahxo estis sendinta tien, post sia reveno al la monahxejo. La malsagxa kamparano, 

klinigxinte al la besto, diris "Ho, bona monahxo, mi vidas ke duan fojon vi jam estis tro mangxema!" La muta 

besto forte svingis la orelojn kaj skuis la kapon, pro la varma elspirajxo apud sia orelo. Tio sxajne estis 

respondo al la jxus diritaj vortoj, tial la malsagxa kamparano ree acxetis sian propran azenon. Cxiam poste li 

nek turmentis nek ecx laborigis gxin, kredante la azenon la sankta monahxo mem. 


ancient times, they usually asked the sacred gods about it. 2. If the gods informed ("sciigis") them that 

whatever man would come to the temple first would become their king, they immediately chose the first 

comer ("la unuan veninton") king. 3. Whoever was chosen king made the blessed gods a thank−offering, 

which consisted of something out of his own possessions (227, a). 4. Gordius did not offer to the gods merely 

the yoke of his wagon, but the whole wagon. 5. A knot of rope was tied between the yoke and the pole. 6. 

People soon began to say, "If any one soever can untie that knot, he will become ruler of Asia." 7. If any other 

men tried to untie that rope, they failed. 8. Alexander, though ("tamen"), had scarcely arrived when he drew 

(out) his sword from the scabbard, and cut the knot. 9. If you will take−a−seat, I will tell you about the two 

mischievous monks, returning to the monastery. 10. Both were breathing with difficulty, and stopped to rest. 

11. Having noticed a donkey near by, they untied it. 12. One led the long−eared dumb animal away, while the 

other tied himself in its own place. 13. The credulous (192) peasant believed everything which was told (54) 

him, 

LESSON LII. 

THE CONDITIONAL MOOD. 

241. That indication of the speaker's frame of mind which is given by the form of the verb is called the 

"mood" of the verb. All verbs given so far have been in the "indicative mood", which represents an act or state 

as a reality or fact, or in the "infinitive mood", which expresses the verbal idea in a general way, resembling 

that of a substantive. The "conditional mood" does not indicate whether or not the act or state mentioned is a 

fact, but merely expresses the speaker's idea of its likelihood or certainty, or is used in an assumption or 

conclusion dealing with suppositions, not with actual facts. The ending of the conditional mood is "−us". The 

conjugation of "vidi" in the aoristic tense of the conditional mood is as follows:


mi vidus, I should see. vi vidus, you would see. li (sxi, gxi) vidus, he (she, it) would see. ni vidus, we should 

see. vi vidus, you would see. ili vidus, they would see. 

COMPOUND TENSES OF THE CONDITIONAL MOOD. 

242. In addition to the aoristic tense, the conditional mood has three active and three passive compound 

tenses, formed by combining the participles with the aoristic tense of "esti" in the conditional mood. A 

synopsis of "vidi" in these compound tenses is as follows: 

Active Voice. 

Present: mi estus vidanta, I should be seeing. Past: mi estus vidinta, I should have seen. Future: mi estus 

vidonta, I should be about to see. 

Passive Voice. 

Present: mi estus vidata, I should be seen. Past: mi estus vidita, I should have been seen. Future: mi estus 

vidota, I should be about to be seen. 

LESS VIVID CONDITIONS. 

243. A conditional sentence dealing with "suppositions" concerning events in present or future time is called a 

"less vivid condition" ("Less vivid", in contrast to factual conditions (240), which are "vivid", because they 

deal with facts.), and the conditional mood is used in both the assumption and the conclusion: 

Se li vidus tion, li plorus, if he should see that, he would weep. Mi gxoje helpus vin, se mi povus, I would 

gladly help you, if I could. Se vi metus ilin sur la dorson de la azeno, gxi portus ilin, if you should put them on 

the donkey's back, it would carry them. La petola junulo turmentus la monahxon, se li revenus, the 

mischievous youth would torment the monk, if he should return. Se li estus kaptata, li estus punata, if he 

should be caught, he would be punished. 

INDEPENDENT USE OF THE CONDITIONAL MOOD. 

244. The conditional mood may be used in a conclusion whose assumption is merely implied, serving thus to 

soften or make vague the statement or question in which it is used: 

Mi gxoje helpus vin, I would gladly help you. Cxu vi bonvole dirus al mi? Would you kindly tell me? Kiu 

volus enspiri tian aeron? Who would wish to inhale such air? Estus bone reteni vian propran, it would be well 

to keep your own. La cxielo vin benus pro tio, Heaven would bless you for that. 

THE PREFIX "DIS−". 

245. The prefix "dis−" indicates separation or movement in several different directions at once: 

disdoni = to distribute. disigxi = to separate (intrans.). dispeli = to dispel. disigxo = separation, schism. disigi 

= to separate (trans.). dissendi = to send around. 

[Footnote: Cf. the English prefix "dis−" in "disperse", "disseminate", "distribute," etc.] 

VOCABULARY 

cxes−i = to cease, to leave off. kauxz−i = to cause. dens−a = dense. legx−o = law. difin−i = to define. natur−o


= nature. ekzist−i = to exist. objekt−o = object. flu−i = to flow. plu = further, more. gravit−i = to gravitate. 

turn−i = to turn (trans.). 

[Footnote: The adverb "plu" gives an idea of continuance to the word which it modifies. When used with "ne", 

the two together give an idea of cessation concerning a previous continuous act or state: "Ambaux parolos plu 

morgaux", both will talk further tomorrow. "Mi ne plu haltos", I shall not stop (any) more. "Li ne plu sxajnis 

muta", he no longer seemed mute.] 

PRI LA GRAVITADO. 

1. Ofte oni parolas pri la pezeco de diversaj objektoj. Tia pezeco estas kauxzata de la forto kiun oni nomas la 

gravitado. Pro tiu forto ne nur objektoj sur la tero, sed ankaux la tero mem, havas konatan pezecon, kiun la 

kleruloj jam antaux longe kalkulis. La suno kaj la luno simile havas pezecon, cxar ili ambaux, same kiel la 

tero, movigxas laux tiu sama gravitado kiu efektive regas cxiujn el la cxielaj korpoj. Se la gravitado cxesus 

ekzisti, la riveroj ne plu fluus antauxen en siaj fluejoj ("beds"). Ne fluante de altaj gxis malaltaj lokoj, la akvo 

disfluus, aux restus tie, kie ajn gxi okaze estus. Neniom da pluvo falus; kontrauxe, la malsekajxo en la aero 

ankoraux restus tie, en la formo de densaj mallumaj cxiamaj nuboj. Cxiuj vivaj estajxoj ("beings"), cxiuj 

konstruajxoj, efektive cxio, baldaux disflugus de la rapide turnigxanta mondo. Cxiuj cxi ("all these") nun 

devas resti sur la tero, tial ke la gravitado restigas ilin cxi tie. Se la gravitado ne plu ekzistus, nenio restus plu 

sur la tero. La aero mem ne plu cxirkauxus nin, sed gxi ankaux forlasus la mondon, tuj maldensigxinte 

("having become rarefied"). La fama angla filozofo Newton estis la unua, kiu studadis la kialon ("reason") de 

la falado de objektoj. Li komencis, laux la rakonto, per okaza ekrigardo al falantaj pomoj en sia propra 

pomarbejo. Antaux tri jarcentoj, li eltrovis ke estas tia forto kia la gravitado, kaj difinis la naturajn legxojn 

laux kiuj la gravitado sin montras. Cxi tiu forto, kiu restigas cxion sur la tero, estas tamen la kauxzo de nia 

lacigxado, kiam ni marsxas aux kuras, cxar gxi faras nin pezaj, kaj tial ni ofte deziras halti kaj ripozi. Estas 

ankaux la malfacileco en la superado de tiu sama forto, kiu faras tiel malfacila la konstruadon de utilaj 

aersxipoj. 


1. Newton was an Englishman who lived three centuries ago. 2. One day he was walking in his orchard, and, 

noticing the falling apples, he stood still ("ekhaltis") and began to wonder why they fall. 3. He studied the 

cause of their falling, wishing to discover whatever laws of nature he could. 4. He watched various falling 

objects, and tried to calculate their velocity ("rapideco"). 5. Finally he recognized that force which is called 

gravitation. 6. Of course ("kompreneble") gravitation had always existed, but its laws were not noticed or 

clearly defined until Newton studied the matter. 7. If gravitation should not exist any more, no rain would fall, 

but instead of condensing, the moisture would remain above our heads in eternal clouds. 8. But gradually the 

moisture and the air itself, becoming rarefied, would fly away from the earth, being held no longer by the 

force of gravitation. 9. The water in the rivers would leave off flowing (cease to flow) on toward the sea, 

because now the water flows from high to low places only on account of gravitation. 10. Instead of gravitating 

toward the sea, in fact, the water would flow in every direction (245) out of the riverbeds, or would remain 

there, without moving at all ("tute ne movante"). 11. Nothing on earth would remain here very long, but 

everything would fly off the quickly moving world, and leave it entirely bare. Soon, also, the earth itself 

would break−into−pieces (245). 

LESSON LIII. 

CONDITIONS CONTRARY TO FACT. 

246. A "condition contrary to fact" indicates that the opposite of what is mentioned has really taken place or is 

taking place. It expresses the speaker's certainty that an act or state would have been realized, if some other 

act or state were also realized. Such conditions cannot refer to the future, but only to present or past time. The


conditional mood is used: 

Se vi estus turninta vin, vi estus vidinta tion, if you had turned, you would have seen that. Se la malsekajxo ne 

estus densigxinta, ne estus pluvinte, if the moisture had not condensed, it would not have rained. Se li estus 

kaptita, li estus punita, if he had been caught, he would have been punished. Se li estus sidanta tie, mi vidus 

lin, if he were (if he should be) sitting there, I should see him. Se la gravitado ne ekzistus, tiu pluvo ne estus 

falanta, if gravitation did not (should not) exist, that rain would not be falling. 

THE VERB "DEVI". 

247. The verb "devi" (cf. "devo", duty) is equivalent to the verb "must" (which in English has no future, past, 

infinitive, etc.), and to "to have to", "to be obliged to", etc., carrying the idea of "must" into all tenses and 

moods. In the conditional mood its meaning is softened into a vaguer sense (of "moral" obligation), and 

carries the idea of "ought": 

Objektoj en la aero devas fali, objects in the air have to fall. Ni devis agi laux la legxoj, we had to act 

according to the laws. Vi devos iri, you must (will have to) go. Sxi ne volas devi fari tion, she does not wish to 

have to do that. Ili devigis min iri, they compelled me to go. Vi devus iri, you should go (you ought to go). 

Oni devus pensi antaux ol paroli, one ought to think before speaking. Li estus devinta veni, he ought to have 

come. Tio devus esti farita, that ought to have been done. 

THE PREPOSITION "SEN". 

248. The preposition "sen", without, indicates the omission, absence or exclusion of that which is expressed 

by its complement. It may be used as a prefix (160), giving a sense of deprivation or exclusion (like that given 

by the English suffix "−less"): 

Li difinis la vorton sen eraro, he defined the word without an error. La rivero sencxese fluas, the river flows 

without ceasing. Tio estas ne nur senutila sed ecx malutila, that is not only useless but even harmful. Li ne plu 

estas senmona, he is no longer penniless. Li sentime alproksimigxis al gxi, he fearlessly approached it. 

[Footnote: English phrases containing "without" as in "without reading," must be changed to phrases clearly 

containing verbal nouns, as "without the reading of," before translating into an Esperanto phrase with "sen". 

Otherwise a participle with "ne" should replace the phrase ("222"): "Sen la legado de tio, mi ne komprenus", 

without (the) reading (of) that, I should not understand. "Ne leginte tion, mi ne komprenus", without reading 

(not having read) that, I should not understand.] 

VOCABULARY 

akuz−i = to accuse. nobl−a = noble. instru−i = to teach. pardon−i = to pardon. kondamn−i = to condemn. 

pek−i = to sin. konfes−i = to confess, to admit. prav−a = right, correct. konscienc−o = conscience. sen = 

without (248). kulp−o = guilt. So−krato = Socrates. merit−i = to deserve. venen−o = poison. 

LA FILOZOFO SOKRATO. 

Unu el la plej famaj grekaj filozofoj estis nomita Sokrato. Li estis malbela malalta persono, kun senhara kapo 

kaj dika korpo, sed malgraux tio li estis treege bona, nobla kaj sagxa. Li instruadis per interparolado kun la 

lernantoj. Kutime li komencis per demando pri io ajn, pri kio la auxskultanto respondos. Fine, la lernanto 

grade komprenis cxu liaj propraj opinioj pri la afero estas pravaj. Ankoraux nun oni nomas tiun metodon de 

instruado per la interparolado "la Sokrata metodo." Sokrato diradis tute sen timo cxion, kion li pensis, ecx pri 

la dioj kaj pri la nekredeblaj rakontoj pri la dioj. Se li ne estus tiel multe klariginta, eble li estus vivinta pli 

longan tempon. Sed multaj personoj malamis lin, precipe cxar li donis novajn ideojn al la junuloj, kiuj sekve


komencis pensi por si mem, anstataux fari tion kion faras cxiu alia. Tial oni akuzis Sokraton en la jugxejo, 

nomante lin pekanto kaj malbonfaranto, unue, cxar li ne disdonas oferojn al la dioj, due, cxar li enkondukas 

novajn diojn (cxar li diris ke supernatura vocxo, kiu sendube estis lia nomo por la konscienco, parolis 

mallauxte cxe lia orelo), trie, cxar li malbonigas la junularon de la urbo. Se li estus konfesinte la kulpon kaj 

petinte pardonon, tiam la jugxistoj eble estus punintaj lin per nura ("mere") monpago ("fine"). Sed li fiere 

respondis ke efektive li multe plibonigas la junularon, kaj anstataux esti malutila, aux ecx neutila, li treege 

utilas al la urbo. Li diris ke oni havas nenian rajton puni lin, sed ke, kauxze de sia bonfarado al la urbo, li 

efektive meritas cxiutagan mangxon senpagan. Tamen, tute ne kompreninte kiel prava Sokrato estas, la 

jugxistoj mortkondamnis lin. Oni devigis lin trinki la venenon. Iom poste, en la malliberejo, li trankvile 

adiauxis siajn plorantajn amikojn, kaj akceptinte la venenan trinkajxon, sentime gxin trinkis. 


1. Socrates believed that if one knows about good and evil (201) he will do good, but will not do evil. 2. 

Therefore he wished to help mankind ("la homaron"), teaching them what the good is. 3. He also wished to 

discover for himself what is right and what is wrong. 4. So he asked every one whom he met (about) his 

opinions, and the one−talking−with [him] would also notice whether his own ideas were right or not. 5. But 

the fellow−citizens of Socrates were jealous, and hated him, because they did not understand him. 6. 

Therefore they accused him, called him a sinner, and sent around (245) false reports ("falsajn sciigojn") about 

him. 7. Because he said that conscience guided him (in the form of a soft voice at his ear), they accused him 

of ("pri") introducing (218, b) new gods. 8. They also said that he was corrupting the youth of the city. 9. If 

Socrates had pleaded guilty, and begged for a fine instead of the death−punishment, without doubt he would 

have been pardoned and fined ("monpunita"). 10. But he said "I have never in my life sinned in any way, and I 

do not deserve any sort of punishment." So the judges condemned him to death by the drinking of poison. 

LESSON LIV. 

SUMMARY OF CONDITIONS 

249. The three kinds of conditional sentences, together with the moods and tenses used in them, may be 

tabulated as follows: 

Name: Factual Less Vivid Contrary to Fact 

Subject Matter: facts suppositions opposite of facts 

Time: any (usually) future present or past 

Mood: indicative conditional conditional 

Tense: any (usually) aoristic (usually) compound 

CLAUSES OF IMAGINATIVE COMPARISON. 

250. Clauses of imaginative comparison are introduced by the conjunction "kvazaux", as though, as if. 

Sometimes the verb in the comparison may be left unexpressed or merely implied: 

Li trinkas la venenon kvazaux gxi estus vino, he drinks the poison as though it were wine. La kondamnito 

marsxis kvazaux kun malfacileco, the condemned man walked as if with difficulty. Li konfesis kvazaux 

kulpulo, he confessed like a culprit. 

THE USE OF "AL" TO EXPRESS REFERENCE.


251. Personal pronouns, and less frequently nouns, may be used with the preposition "al" to express "concern" 

or "interest" on the part of the person indicated by the complement of this preposition: 

Li bruligis al si la manon, he burned his hand. Hi trancxis al li la barbon, they cut his beard (the beard for 

him). Sxi preparas al ni bonan mangxon, she is preparing us a good meal. Cxu vi faros servon al mi? Will you 

do me a service? 

[Footnote: The use of "al" in this sense, approaching that of "por" but less purposeful and definite, resembles 

the "dative of reference" and "ethical dative" of other languages, as in French "je me suis brule la langue", I 

have burned my tongue, German "ich wasche mir die Haende", I wash my hands, Latin "sese Caesari ad pedes 

proicerunt", they threw themselves at the feet of Caesar, Greek "ti soi mathesomai", what am I to learn for 

you? etc.] 

252. By an extension of its use in expressing reference, "al" may often be used in the place of "de" expressing 

separation (170), when the use of "de" might seem to indicate agency (169) or possession (49): 

La luno estas kasxata al ni de la nuboj, the moon is hidden from us (to us) by the clouds. Gxi estas stelita al mi 

de li, it has been stolen from me by him. 

[Footnote: This use resembles the "dative of separation" of other languages, as in German "es stahl mir das 

Leben", it stole the life from me, French "il me prend la vie", it takes my life, Latin "hunc mihi timorem 

eripe", remove this fear from me, Greek "dexato oi skaeptron", he took his sceptre from him, etc.] 

THE SUFFIX "−ESTR−". 

253. The suffix "−estr−" is used to indicate the "chief", "head", or "one in control" of that which is expressed 

in the root: 

lernejestro = (school) principal. urbestro = mayor. monahxestro = abbot. estraro = governing body. policestro 

= chief of police. sxipestro = ship−captain. 

VOCABULARY 

Aristejd−o = Aristeides. popol−o = a people. ekzil−i = to exile. pot−o = pot. enu−i = to be wearied, bored. 

senc−o = meaning, sense. gxust−a = exact. signif−i = to signify. kvazaux = as though, as if (250). son−i = to 

sound. ostr−o = oyster. strang−a = strange. ostracism−o = ostracism. sxel−o = shell, bark, peel. 

[Footnote: Care must be taken to distinguish "gxusta", exact, "gxuste", exactly, just, from "justa", upright, 

just, "juste", justly, and also from the adverb "jxus" just.] 

LA OSTRACISMO DE ARISTEJDO. 

La vorto ostracismo havas interesan devenon ("origin"). En gxia komenco oni rekonas la grekan vorton kiu 

signifas "sxelon de la ostro." En gxia fino oni vidas la saman "−ismon " kiu, deveninte de la greka, ankoraux 

estas uzata kiel vortfino en multaj diversaj lingvoj. La nuna senco de la vorto, facile trovebla en anglaj 

vortaroj ("dictionaries"), devenas de la jena greka kutimo: 

Sepdek jarojn antaux ol vivadis Sokrato, oni faris strangan legxon en lia urbo. Laux tiu, oni povis ekzili iun 

ajn estron kies ideoj pri la administrado de la urbo ne sxajnis pravaj. Cxi tion oni povis fari, tute sen jugxado 

aux ecx akuzado, cxar oni havis la jenan metodon: se cxe popola kunveno ses mil urbanoj vocxdonis ("vote") 

kontraux iun ajn, tiu estis devigata foriri de la urbo, kaj forresti dek jarojn. Li povis neniel havigi ("get") al si 

pardonon, sed devis tuj foriri kvazaux konfesinta kulpulo. Por vocxdonoj, oni skribis la nomon de la


kondamnoto sur peco da potajxo ("pottery"), aux pli ofte sur ostrosxelo. Gxuste tial oni nomas la kutimon 

ostracismo. Unufoje, kelkaj malamikoj proponis vocxdonadon pri la ostracismo de tre bona kaj nobla viro, 

nomita Aristejdo, kiu tute ne meritis tian punadon. 

Antaux ol la kunveno disigxis, kamparano alproksimigxis al Aristejdo (kiu mem cxeestis), petante lian 

helpon, cxar la neinstruita kamparano ne povis skribi. La sagxulo diris "Kion vi volas skribi sur la sxelo?" La 

kamparano, ne sciante ke li parolas al la viro mem, respondis "Aristejdon." Skribinte gxin, Aristejdo demandis 

kun trankvila konscienco "Pro gxuste kiaj pekoj vi malamas Aristejdon?" La kamparano respondis, "Ho, mi 

ne kasxos al vi ke mi ecx ne konas lin! Sed mi deziras ekzili lin nur cxar min enuigas la sono de lia nomo. Mi 

tre enuas cxiam auxdante lin nomata Aristejdo la justa!" 


1. Aristeides had just arrived at the popular assembly when a peasant approached him. 2. If Aristeides had not 

had a pleasant countenance and musical ("belsonan") voice, doubtless the peasant would not have asked his 

help. 3. Ought Aristeides to have written his own name on the oyster−shell or piece of pottery which was 

going to be used as a vote against him? 4. Without just (exactly) this help, the peasant could not have voted. 5. 

Doing him the service requested, Aristeides said, as if ("250") he himself were not the man under−discussion 

("205"), "Why do you hate Aristeides? 6. Could you tell me how he has sinned against the city?" 7. The 

silly−creature ("132") replied, "Oh, I know nothing about him, but I am weary [of] always hearing him called 

the just." 8. Ought such persons as that ignorant peasant have−the−right to vote about important affairs? 9. 

The ancient law about ostracism was a strange [one]. 10. The name of the person to−be−exiled ("199") was 

usually written upon an oyster−shell, and the meaning of the word signifying the custom comes from that. 11. 

Through ("per") ostracism, any leader could be banished, justly or unjustly, without trial of any kind, or 

explanation of the reasons. 

LESSON LV. 

THE IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

254. For expressions of command, exhortation, entreaty, etc., there is an "imperative mood", as in English. 

The ending of the imperative mood is "−u". Beside the aoristic tense, six compound tenses are formed by 

combining the participles with the imperative mood "estu" of the auxiliary verb, but these tenses are seldom 

used. The conjugation of "vidi" in the aoristic tense of this mood, together with a synopsis in the compound 

tenses, is as follows: 

Aoristic Tense. 

mi vidu! = let me see! ni vidu! = let us see! (vi) vidu! = (you) see! (vi) vidu! = (you) see! li (sxi, gxi) vidu! = 

ili vidu! = let them see! let him (her, it) see! 

Compound Tenses. 

Active. Passive. 

Present: mi estu vidanta Present: mi estu vidata Past: mi estu vidinta Past: mi estu vidita Future: mi estu 

vidonta Future: mi estu vidota 

RESOLVE AND EXHORTATION. 

255. The "first person singular" of the imperative mood is used to express the speaker's resolve concerning his 

own action, or an exhortation to himself concerning such action. The "first person plural" is used to express


resolve or exhortation concerning the joint action of the speaker and the person or persons addressed: 

Mi pensu pri tio! Let me think about that! Mi ne forgesu tion! I must not (do not let me) forget that! Ni ekzilu 

lin! Let us exile him! Ni ne sidigxu tie! Let us not sit down there! Ni estu grize vestitaj! Let us be dressed in 

gray! 

[Footnote: This force is usually expressed in English by "let" with an accusative and infinitive construction.] 

COMMANDS AND PROHIBITIONS. 

256. The "second" and "third" persons of the imperative are used to express peremptory commands and 

prohibitions. 

a. In the second person the pronoun is usually omitted, as in English, unless special emphasis is placed upon 

it: 

Estu trankvila! Be calm! (One person is addressed.) Estu pretaj por akompani min! Be ready to accompany 

me! (Two or more persons are addressed.) Parolu kvazaux vi komprenus! Talk as though you understood! Ne 

fermu tiun pordon! Do not shut that door! Ne estu vidata tie! Do not be seen there! 

b. In the third person a circumlocution in English is necessary in translation (as "let", "must", "are to", "is to", 

etc.): 

Li estu zorga! Let him be careful (he must be careful)! Sxi ne faru tion! Do not let her do that (she is not to do 

that)! Cxio estu pardonata! Let everything be forgiven! Oni lasu min trankvila! People are to let me alone! Ili 

neniam revenu! Let them never (do not let them ever) return! La kulpuloj estu punataj! Let the culprits be 

punished! 

LESS PEREMPTORY USES OF THE IMPERATIVE. 

257. By an extension of its use in resolve, exhortation, command and prohibition, the imperative mood may 

be employed for less peremptory expressions, such as "request", "wish", "advice", etc., and in "questions of 

deliberation or perplexity", or "requests for instruction": 

Request: Cxesu tiun bruon, mi petas! Stop that noise, I beg! Bonvolu fari tion! Please do that! Pardonu al ni 

niajn pekojn! Forgive us our sins! Wish: Ili estu felicxaj! May they be happy! Dio vin benu! God bless you! 

Vivu la regxo! (Long) live the king! Advice: Pensu antaux ol agi! Think before acting! Foriru, se vi ne estas 

kontenta! Go away, if you are not satisfied! Consent: Nu, parolu, sed mi ne auxskultos! Well, talk, but I shall 

not listen! Iru tuj, se vi volas. Go at once, if you like. Question: Cxu mi faru tion aux ne? Am I to do that or 

not? Cxu ni disdonu la librojn? Shall we distribute the books? Cxu li estu kondamnita? Shall he be 

condemned? Cxu ili venu cxi tien? Are they to (shall they) come here? 

THE USE OF "MOSXTO". 

258. The word "mosxto" may be used alone, or after a title, to denote respect. When used after a title, the title 

becomes an adjective: 

Lia regxa mosxto, his majesty. Lia jugxista mosxto, his honor the judge. Sxia regxina mosxto, her majesty. 

Lia urbestra mosxto, his honor the mayor. Cxu via mosxto lin auxdis? Did your honor (excellency, etc.) hear 

him? 

VOCABULARY


Afrik−o = Africa. mosxt−o = a title (see 258). barbar−o = barbarian. ordon−i = to order, to bid. Damokl−o = 

Damocles. permes−i = to permit. flank−o = side. placx−i = to please. imperi−o = empire. sklav−o = slave. 

konsent−i = to consent. sol−a = sole, only. konsil−i = to advise. volont−e = willingly. 

LA GLAVO DE DAMOKLO. 

Antaux pli multe ol dumil jaroj vivis en Sirakuzo, sur la insulo Sikelio, tre kruela tirano. Li diris al si "Mi estu 

cxiopova ("all−powerful")!" Tial li faris multe da militadoj, kaj venkis ne nur barbarajn popolojn, sed ankaux 

multajn urbojn en Italujo kaj norda Afriko. Detruinte cxion sen kompato, li ordonis "La logxantoj estu 

vendataj por sklavoj!" Li deziris fari por si, el la venkitaj kaj sklavigitaj popoloj, unu grandan imperion. Sed la 

urboj cxie, ecx en Grekujo, ne kasxis al li sian grandan malamon al tia tirano. Tial li cxiam timis pri sia vivo, 

timante ke iu subite mortigos lin. Unufoje Damoklo, amiko de la tirano, diris al li, "Se mi estus tiel ricxa kaj 

pova kiel via regxa mosxto, mi estus treege felicxa!" La tirano respondis, "Venu al festo cxe mi, se tio placxas 

al vi, kaj eltrovu cxu mi devus esti felicxa aux ne." "Mi venos tre volonte," ekkriis Damoklo, "kaj mi dankas 

vian mosxton pro tia afableco!" La tirano gxentile respondis "Ho, estas nenio (="you are welcome")! Nur ne 

forgesu la deciditan horon!" Je la gxusta horo Damoklo iris al la festo, kie oni donis al li segxon flanke de la 

tirano mem. "Mangxu kaj trinku kiom ajn vi volas," konsilis la tirano, "kaj poste ni parolos pri la felicxeco." 

Damoklo tuj konsentis al tia propono, kaj agis laux la permeso tiel afable donita al li. Mangxante bonegan 

mangxajxon, kaj trinkante dolcxan vinon, li tute ne enuis cxe la festo. Baldaux la tirano diris "Rigardu supren, 

kaj vidu gxuste kian felicxecon mi havas!" Supren rigardinte, Damoklo ekvidis akran glavon, antauxe 

kasxitan al li de kurteno. Subtenate de unu sola haro, la glavo sxajnis kvazaux tuj falonta sur la kapon de 

Damoklo. "La dioj min helpu!" li ekkriis, forsaltinte de la tablo. Pro la jxus dirita stranga rakonto, oni 

ankoraux nun nomas la atendadon por io timeginda, kio sxajnas cxiam okazonta sed efektive ne okazas, "la 

glavo de Damoklo." 


1. The word ostracism comes from the Greek word signifying "oyster−shell." 2. It has its present meaning 

because oyster−shells or pieces of pottery were used for the voting. 3. The story about Aristeides is 

interesting, but that about the sword of Damocles is also interesting. 4. His friend, the Syracusan tyrant, had 

permitted all sorts of injustices, against not only barbarians but even Greeks. 5. His only bidding usually was 

"Let every inhabitant be sold as a slave!" 6. He thought "Let me make one sole empire out of Africa, Italy and 

Sicily!" 7. Damocles said to him "Your royal highness ought to be very happy!" 8. The tyrant answered, 

"Come to a feast tomorrow, and find out. I will give you a seat (214, b) beside me." 9. Damocles willingly 

consented, and went thither. 10. The tyrant advised "Let us eat and drink until midnight, if that would 

be−pleasing to you. Then let us discuss the problem about happiness." 11. After a few hours Damocles heard a 

slight sound over his head, and the tyrant said to him, "Look up and you will see what kind of happiness mine 

is." 12. "Heaven defend me!" exclaimed Damocles, catching sight of a sharp sword hanging by a single (sole) 

hair. 

LESSON LVI. 

THE IMPERATIVE IN SUBORDINATE CLAUSES. 

259. The imperative mood is used in a subordinate clause, with a meaning similar to that in its independent 

use, after a main verb expressing "command", "exhortation", "resolve", "consent", "wish", etc., or after any 

word or general expression of "command", "intention", "necessity", "expedience", etc. Such clauses are 

introduced by the conjunction ke: 

Command and Prohibition. 

Li diras ke vi iru, he says that you are to go. Sxi skribis al li ke li venu, she wrote him to come. Mi


malpermesas ke vi restu, I forbid you to remain. Ni ordonos ke li estu punata, we shall order that he be 

punished. 

Request and Wish. 

Mi petas ke vi ne lasu min, I beg that you do not leave me. Mi petegas ke vi estu trankvilaj, I implore you to 

be calm. Li deziras ke ili estu sklavigitaj, he desires that they be enslaved. Ni volis ke li ne forgesu tion, we 

wished him not to forget that. 

Advice, Consent, Permission. 

Mi konsilis al li ke li iru, I advised him to go. Mi konsentis ke li restu, I consented that he remain. Ili permesos 

ke la barbaroj forkuru, they will permit the barbarians to escape (that the barbarians escape). 

Questions. 

Li demandas cxu ili foriru, he inquires whether they are to go away. Oni demandis cxu lia mosxto eniru, they 

asked whether his honor was to enter. Mi miras cxu mi faru tion, I wonder whether I am to do that. 

Intention, Expedience, Necessity, etc. 

Ni intencas ke vi estu helpata, we intend that you shall be helped. Lia propono estas ke ni ricevu la duonon, 

his proposal is, that we receive the half. Lia lasta ordono estis, ke vi venu, his last order was that you come. 

Estos bone ke vi ne plu nomu lin, it will be well for you not to (that you do not) mention him any more. Estas 

dezirinde ke ni havu bonan imperiestron, it is desirable that we have a good emperor. Estis necese ke cxiu 

starigxu, it was necessary for everyone to rise. Placxos al li ke vi iru, he will be pleased to have you go. 

[Footnote: In English and some other languages an imperative idea may often be expressed by the infinitive, 

as "I wish you to go," but in Esperanto this must be expressed by the equivalent of "I wish that you go." The 

infinitive may not be used except when it can itself be the subject of the verb in such general statements as "it 

is necessary to go."] 

THE PREPOSITION "JE". 

260. Since prepositional uses are not exactly alike in any two languages, it is not always possible to translate a 

preposition of one language by what is its equivalent in some senses in another. In order to insure some means 

of translating correctly into Esperanto any prepositional phrase of the national languages, the preposition "je" 

is regarded as of rather indefinite meaning. In addition to its use in dates and allusions to time (89, 185), it 

may be employed when no other preposition gives the exact sense required, especially in protestations and 

exclamations, expressions of measure (see also 139), and of indefinite connection: 

Je la nomo de cxielo! In the name of Heaven! Je mia honoro mi ja elfaros tion! On my honor I will 

accomplish that! Gxi estas longa je du mejloj, it is two miles long (long by two miles). Ili venis je grandaj 

nombroj, they came in great numbers. Li estas tenata de la policano, je la brako, per forta sxnurego, he is held 

by the policemen, by the arm, with (by) a strong rope. 

The preposition "je" is used to express indefinite connection after the following words (other prepositions 

sometimes used are given in parentheses): 

ekkrii je (pro), to cry out at. (sin) okupi je, busy (oneself) at. enui je, to be bored with. plena je (de), full of. 

fiera je (pri), proud of. preni je, to take by. fidi je (al), to rely upon. provizi je (per), to provide with. gxoji je 

(pri), to rejoice at. ricxigi je (per), to enrich with. gratuli je (pri), congratulate on. ridi je, to laugh at. honti je


(pri), to be ashamed of. satigxi je, to be sated with. inda je, worthy of. senigi je, to deprive of. interesigxi je, 

take interest in. simila je (al), similar to. kapti je, to seize by. sopiri je (al), to yearn for. kontenta je (kun), 

content with. sxargxi je, to load with. kredi je, to believe in. teni je, to hold by. 

[Footnote: The translation given for a preposition in any dictionary is the general one which serves in the 

majority of cases. The finer shades of meaning and real or apparent exceptions can merely be touched upon if 

mentioned at all.] 

THE SUFFIX "−OP−". 

261. The suffix "−op−" is used to form "collective" numerals: 

duope = by twos, in pairs. milope = by thousands. kvarope = by fours. sesopigi = to form into groups of six. 

VOCABULARY 

cel−i = to aim. prokrast−i = to delay (trans.). Cirus−o = Cyrus. proviz−i = to provide. fidi = to rely. rezult−i = 

to result. gxu−i = to enjoy. sopir−i = to yearn, to sigh. honor−o = honor. spac−o = space. krom = beside, save, 

but. terur−a = terrible. plen−a = full. ver−o = truth. 

LA MARSXADO DE LA DEKMIL GREKOJ. 

Iam Ciruso, nepo de Ciruso Granda, sopiris je la imperio de sia pli maljunafrato, kiu sekvis la patron de 

ambaux fratoj kiel regxo, aux pli gxuste imperiestro. Decidinte forigi de la regxeco ("to dethrone") sian fraton, 

Ciruso petis la grekojn ke ili partoprenu ("take part") en kelkaj negravaj militadoj. Multaj tiamaj grekoj tre 

volonte sin okupis je la batalado, pro la granda pago ricevata. La venditaj sklavoj kaj la detruitaj konstruajxoj 

cxiam provizis ilin je multe da ricxajxo, kaj krom tio la militistoj sxajnis gxui ecx la militadon mem. Estis tute 

indiferente al ili cxu la kauxzo de la militado estas prava kaj justa aux ne. Unue Ciruso nur petis ke ili helpu 

liajn proprajn soldatojn kontraux iuj najbaroj. Li kasxis al ili sian veran celon, cxar se la grekoj estus 

suspektintaj tion, kion li intencis fari, ili neniam estus akompanintaj lin tiel malproksimen de sia patrolando. 

Grade li kondukis ilin trans tutan Azion, kaj fine la dekmil grekoj komprenis cxion, kaj treege kolerigxis. 

Paroladante al ili, Ciruso tuj diris "Mi ne permesas ke vi reiru, kaj mi petegas ke vi antauxen marsxadu kun 

mi, sen plua ("further") prokrasto! Se mi sukcesos kontraux mia frato, mi certigas vin je mia honoro ke cxiu el 

vi revenos havante sakojn plenajn je ricxajxo! Estas nur necese ke vi fidu je mi, kaj cxio estos bona!" Tiam la 

soldatoj hontis je sia antauxa timo, kaj kuragxe antauxen marsxadis. Fine, apud granda urbo, la frato de Ciruso 

elvenis havante okcentmil soldatojn, por batali kontraux la centmil de Ciruso. Per la helpo de siaj grekoj, 

Ciruso estis preskaux venkinta en terura batalo, kiam subite li ekvidis sian fraton, je malgranda interspaco. 

Ekkriante "Mi vidas la viron!" li rajdis rekte al la regxo, jxetante sian pezan lancon al li. La sola rezulto estis 

la morto de Ciruso mem, cxar la amikoj de la regxo, kvinope kaj sesope atakinte Ciruson, lin tuj mortigis. 


1. Cyrus did not desire that his brother should remain king. 2. He decided, "Let me myself become ("farigxi") 

king! I should much enjoy that!" 3. So he asked the Greeks to help him in some battles against nearby 

enemies. 4. Gradually an army (126) of a hundred thousand men, ten thousand of whom were Greeks, 

gathered (232, b) around him. 5. He led them farther and farther, into the middle of Asia, until finally the 

Greeks suspected his true aim. 6. They said to each other in terror, "He did not at first propose that we fight 

against the Great King. Let us return home without delay!" 7. Cyrus addressed (218) them as follows: "Must I 

permit you to go back? I implore you to be courageous, and I do advise you not to forget your longing for 

(260) honor! 8. Only be worthy of your leader, and rely upon me! Do you not wish to return home provided 

with wealth, beside the money which I shall pay to you?" 9. Immediately the soldiers were ashamed of their 

fear, and advanced by hundreds, full of courage. 10. Soon the brother of Cyrus approached, with ("havante")


eight hundred thousand men. 11. By the aid of the Greeks, Cyrus won the battle, but he himself lost his life. 

12. So neither he nor the Greeks could enjoy the result of their efforts. 

LESSON LVII. 

CLAUSES EXPRESSING PURPOSE. 

262. Purpose may be expressed by a subordinate imperative clause, introduced by "por ke": 

Mi faras gxin por ke li helpu vin, I do it in order that he may help you. Mi ekkriis por ke vi auxdu, I cried out 

in order that you should hear. Li venos por ke ni estu felicxaj, he will come that we may be happy. Mi studas 

por ke mi lernu, I study that I may learn. Ili restu por ke ni punu ilin, let them stay for us to punish them. 

[Footnote: Cf. the expression of purpose by the infinitive with "por" (98), which however cannot be used 

except when the subject of the main verb is the subject of the subordinate verb, or when the object of the main 

verb is the subject of the subordinate verb.] 

FURTHER USES OF THE ACCUSATIVE. 

[Footnote: Cf. the accusative of direct object (23), direction of motion (46, 121), time (91), and measure 

(139).] 

263. The accusative of direction of motion is used after nouns from roots expressing motion: 

Lia eniro en la urbon estis subita, his entrance into the city was sudden. La irado tien estos plezuro, (the) 

going thither will be a pleasure. Gxia falado teren timigis min, its falling earthward terrified me. 

264. a. An intransitive verb may be followed by a noun in the accusative case, if the meaning of the noun is 

related to that of the verb: 

Li vivas agrablan vivon, he lives an agreeable life. Sxi dancis belan dancon, she danced a beautiful dance. Ili 

ploris maldolcxajn larmojn, they wept bitter tears. 

b. Verbs of motion ("iri", "veni", "pasi", "marsxi", "veturi", etc.) compounded with prepositions or adverbs 

(121) indicating direction, also compounds of such verbs as "esti" and "stari" with prepositions expressing 

situation, may be followed by the accusative, instead of by a prepositional phrase in which the preposition is 

repeated: 

La viro preterpasis la domon, the man passed (by) the house. Lin antauxvenis du sklavoj, there preceded 

(came before) him two slaves. Ni supreniru la sxtuparon, let us go up the stairs. Mi cxeestis la feston, I 

attended (was present at) the entertainment. Mi kontrauxstaras vian opinion, I oppose (withstand) your 

opinion. 

c. The slight change in meaning given by "pri" used as a prefix may render intransitive verbs transitive. The 

same is true of "el" prefixed to intransitive verbs not expressing motion: 

Sxi priploris la mortintan birdon, she mourned the dead bird. Mi pripensos la aferon, I shall consider (think 

over) the matter. Ni gxin priparolos, we shall talk it over. Li klare elparolas la vortojn, he pronounces the 

words clearly. 

[Footnote: In this use "pri" resembles the English and German inseparable prefix "be−", as in English 

"bemoan", "bewail", "bethink", "bespeak", German "beklagen", "besprechen", "sich" , etc.]


265. The accusative may be used after verbs of such meaning that either a prepositional phrase or an 

accusative would seem correct: 

Mi pardonas lin (al li), I pardon (grant pardon to) him. Mi helpis lin (al li), I helped (gave aid to) him. Gxi 

placxas min (al mi), it pleases (is pleasing to) me. Li obeis nin (al ni), he obeyed (was obedient to) us. Sxi 

ridis mian timon (je mia timo), she ridiculed (laughed at) my fear. 

[Footnote: When ambiguity would be caused, as by the presence of another accusative, this construction may 

not be employed. One may say "pardonu nin", but must say "pardonu al ni niajn pekojn".] 

266. The accusative may be used after certain adverbs which are normally followed by a prepositional phrase: 

Rilate tion (rilate al tio), in regard to that. Escepte tion (escepte de tio), with the exception of that. Koncerne la 

aferon (koncerne je la afero), concerning the affair. Kompare la alian (kompare kun la alia), in comparison 

with the other. Konforme la legxon (konforme al la legxo), in conformity to the law. 

SYNOPSIS OF THE CONJUGATION OF THE VERB. 

267. vidi, to see. 

ACTIVE. PASSIVE. 

INDICATIVE. 

Present. (Aoristic) mi vidas mi estas vidata (Progressive) mi estas vidanta 

Past. (Aoristic) mi vidis mi estis vidata (Imperfect) mi estis vidanta 

Future. (Aoristic) mi vidos mi estos vidata (Progressive) mi estos vidanta 

Perfect. mi estas vidinta mi estas vidita 

Pluperfect. mi estis vidinta mi estis vidita 

Future Perfect. mi estos vidinta mi estos vidita 

Periphrastic Futures. 

(Present). mi estas vidonta mi estas vidota 

(Past). mi estis vidonta mi estis vidota 

(Future). mi estos vidonta mi estos vidota 

CONDITIONAL. 

Present. (Aoristic) mi vidus mi estus vidata (Progressive) mi estus vidanta 

Past. mi estus vidinta mi estus vidita 

Future. mi estus vidonta mi estus vidota


IMPERATIVE. 

Present. (Aoristic) mi vidu mi estu vidata (Progressive) mi estu vidanta 

Past. mi estu vidinta mi estu vidita 

Future. mi estu vidonta mi estu vidota 

INFINITIVE. 

Present. (Aoristic) vidi esti vidata (Progressive) esti vidanta 

Perfect. esti vidinta esti vidita 

Future. esti vidonta esti vidota 

THE SUFFIX "−UM−". 

268. The indefinite suffix "−um−" serves the same general purpose in word formation which "je" serves as an 

indefinite preposition (260): 

aerumi = to air. kolumo = collar. busxumo = muzzle. plenumi = to fulfil. gustumi = to taste. proksimume = 

approximately. 

VOCABULARY 

eben−a = level, even. nepr−e = inevitably, certainly. escept−o = exception. obe−i = to obey. esper−i = to hope. 

obstin−a = obstinate. fremd−a = foreign. promes−i = to promise. histori−o = history. rilat−o = relation. 

kompar−i = to compare. sat−a = satiated. koncern−i = to concern. sav−i = to save. konform−i = to conform. 

verk−i = to compose (books or music). 

LA REIRADO DE LA DEKMILO. 

La grekaj militistoj sentis grandan teruron kiam Ciruso ne plu vivis. La celo de la longa marsxado ne povis 

esti plenumata, pro la morto de la obstina trokuragxa militestro mem. Kvankam la grekoj estis venkintoj, ili 

estis tute solaj en fremda lando, cxirkauxitaj de barbaroj kiuj, per trompemaj proponoj kaj falsaj promesoj pri 

amikaj interrilatoj, tuj okazigis la morton de la grekaj estroj. Senigite je siaj estroj, la kompatindaj viroj tute 

malesperis. Sed kelkaj subestroj, rapide kunveniginte la soldatojn, diris, "Ni mem kondukos vin per kiel eble 

plej rekta vojo hejmen! Ni faros nian eblon ("utmost") por ke ni cxiuj estu savitaj!" Cxar restis nenio alia por 

fari, la malfacila malgaja reirado de la grekoj komencigxis sen prokrasto. Ili transiris varmegajn ebenajxojn 

("plains"), supreniris kaj malsupreniris krutajn negxkovritajn montojn, meze de la vintro, kaj sen pontoj 

transiris largxajn riverojn. Cxie la malfidindaj barbaroj atakis ilin, kvazaux por ke neniu greko restu viva. 

Krom tio, la grekoj mortis dekope kaj dudekope cxiutage, pro varmegeco, malvarmegeco, laceco kaj 

malsateco ("hunger"). Fine, post nekredeblaj suferoj, la restajxo de la dekmil soldatoj alvenis sur monton, kaj 

ekvidis la maron. Lauxta ekkriego "La maro! La maro!" eksonis inter la lacaj viroj, el kiuj multaj ploris 

larmojn de gxojo. De infaneco ili alkutimis al la vojagxado per akvo, kaj post iom da ripozo ili sin provizis je 

sxipoj, por transiri la maron al la patrujo je kiu ili estis tiel longe sopirintaj. Treege interesa historio koncerne 

la tutan aferon estas verkita de fama greka verkisto ("writer"), kiu estis akompaninta Ciruson por ke li povu 

gxui kaj studi cxion interesan sur la vojo. Tiu azia militado de Ciruso nepre estas unu el la plej rimarkindaj 

okazintajxoj iam priskribitaj, ecx sen escepto de la posta irado tien de Aleksandro Granda. 

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.


1. After the death of Cyrus, the leaders of the Greek warriors did not know what to do. 2. In the course of the 

following day, one of the leaders of the enemy sent a messenger (205) with deceitful promises about help. 2. 

He said "Assemble in our leader's tent, in order that you may all discuss the matter." 3. The Greek leaders 

went, although they suspected danger, because they did not know how else to save their men. 4. But they 

never returned, and soon the Greeks understood that the barbarians had killed them. 5. They wept tears of 

despair, and said "The barbarians will inevitably destroy us, for we are in a foreign land, where we know 

neither the languages nor the roads, and the peoples are without exception hostile to us." 6. But the 

leaders−of−lesser−rank said "Obey us and follow us, and we shall do our best to save you!" 7. Their return, 

across hot plains and snow−covered mountains, made−more−difficult by hunger and by the unceasing attacks 

of the barbarians, is related in the history written by a famous Greek historian. 8. One can still read this 

interesting narrative, in Greek or in a translation. 

LESSON LVIII. 

PERMISSION AND POSSIBILITY. 

269. Permission is usually expressed by the use of "permesi", "lasi", or the imperative mood: 

Cxu vi permesas ke mi restu? May I (do you permit me to) stay? Jes, mi permesas (jes, restu), yes, you may 

(yes, stay). Ne estas permesate eniri tien, it is not allowed to enter there. Lasu lin veni, let him come. 

270. The idea of possibility or probability is given by the use of some such adverb as "eble", "kredeble", 

"versxajne", etc.: 

Eble li obeos al vi, he may (perhaps he will) obey you. Kredeble li sukcesos, probably he will succeed. 

Versxajne vi estas prava, you are probably right. Eble oni lin savus, they might (possibly they would) save 

him. Ili nepre ne batis lin, they could not have (surely did not) beat him. Tio estas neebla! That can not be 

(that is impossible)! 

THE PREFIX "GE−". 

271. Words formed with the prefix "ge−" indicate the two sexes together: 

gepatroj = parents. gefiloj = son(s) and daughter(s). geavoj = grandparents. gefratoj = brother(s) and sister(s). 

genepoj = grandchildren. geedzoj = husband(s) and wife (wives). gesinjoroj = Mr. and Mrs., lady (ladies) and 

gentleman (gentlemen). 

THE SUFFIX "−ACX−". 

272. The suffix "−acx−" has a disparaging significance: 

domacxo = a hovel. pentracxi = to daub. hundacxo = a cur. popolacxo = rabble, mob. obstinacxa = obstinate. 

ridacxi = to guffaw. 

INTERJECTIONS. 

273. Interjections are words used to express feeling or call attention. Among the more common interjections 

are: 

Adiaux! Farewell! (171). Hura! Hurrah! Fi! Fie! Nu! Well! Ho! Oh! Ho! Ve! Woe! (Ho ve! Alas!). 

[Footnote: Verbs in the imperative, and adverbs, are frequently used as interjections, as "Atentu!", Look out!,


"Auxskultu!", Hark!, "Bonvenu!", Welcome!, "Antauxen!", Forward!, "Bone!", Good!, "For!", Away!, "Ja!", 

Indeed!, "Jen!", There!, Behold!] 

[Footnote: The interjection "fi" is sometimes used as a disparaging prefix, like "−acx−" (272), as "fibirdo", 

ugly bird, "ficxevalo", a sorry nag.] 

VOCABULARY 

Aleksandri−o = Alexandria. fond−i = to found, establish. Amerik−o = America. hispan−o = Spaniard. 

Aristotel−o = Aristotle. kapabl−a = capable. Auxstrali−o = Australia. komun−a = common, mutual. 

bibliotek−o = library. kontinent−o = continent. eduk−i = to bring up, educate. Krist−o = Christ. Egipt−o = 

Egypt. milion−o = million. estim−i = to esteem. spite = in spite of. firm−a = firm. vast−a = vast, extensive. 

ALEKSANDRO GRANDA. 

Permesu ke mi diru kelkajn vortojn pri la vivo de Aleksandro Granda, kiu ne estis matura viro sed havis nur 

dudek jarojn kiam li farigxis regxo. Liaj gepatroj estis tre zorge edukintaj lin, kaj la filozofo Aristotelo, kiun li 

tre alte estimis, estis unu el liaj instruistoj. Aleksandro firme tenadis sian propran regxolandon, kaj ankaux 

Grekujon, kiun lia patro estis venkinta; krom tio, li faris militadojn kontraux diversaj fremdaj landoj, unue en 

Azio, tiam en Afriko, kie li fondis urbon, kaj gxin nomis Aleksandrio. Aleksandrio nepre estis belega ricxa 

urbo. Tie trovigxis* poste la fama Aleksandria biblioteko. Se gxi ne estus detruita de fajro, en la dauxro de iuj 

militadoj, ni sendube konus multe pli bone la sciadon de la antikvaj grekoj, kiuj versxajne estis la plej klera 

popolo iam vivinta en Euxropo. Venkinte Egipton, Aleksandro reiris en Azion, gxis tre orienta kaj suda partoj, 

venkante cxiujn cxie, kvazaux ili estus la plej malkuragxaj popolacxoj en la mondo. Sed spite cxies petoj li 

estis obstinacxe nezorgema pri sia sano, kaj subite, ho ve, li mortis pro febro, tricent dektri jarojn antaux 

Kristo. Se li ne estus tiel frue mortinta, kiel multe li estus eble elfarinta! Li esperis venki Hispanujon, Italujon, 

kaj, mallongavorte, tiom de la okcidenta mondo kiom li jam posedis de la orienta. Tiam li celis kunigi cxion 

en unu vastan imperion, kvazaux por fari el la mondo unu grandan familion. Li intencis ke la milionoj da 

enlogxantoj akceptu komunajn legxojn kaj kutimojn, ecx komunan lingvon, −− kredeble la grekan. Eble li ja 

havis la kapablecon por fari cxion cxi. Estas pro tio ke oni ofte auxdas la diron "Aleksandro sopiris je aliaj 

mondoj por venki." Tamen, kiel malgranda estis tiu mondo kiun li konis! La tiamuloj konis nur malgrandan 

parton de Afriko, de Azio, ecx de Euxropo. Ili sciis nenion pri Anglujo, aux pri la vastaj kontinentoj 

Auxstralio, norda kaj suda Amerikoj. 

[Footnote: The use of "trovigxi", and also of "sin trovi", "kusxi", "stari" and "sidi", in a sense not greatly 

differing from that of "esti", avoids the monotonous repetition of forms of "esti", just as English uses "lie", 

"sit", "perch", etc., in narration for similar reasons: Multaj vilagxoj trovigxas tie, many villages are (situated) 

there. Egipto trovigxas en la nordorienta parto de Afriko, Egypt is (found) in the northeastern part of Africa. 

Li sin trovis sola en la dezerto, he found himself (he was) alone in the desert. La urbo kusxis inter du lagoj, 

the city lay between two lakes. Sur la montflanko sidis vilagxeto, on the mountainside perched a tiny village.] 


1. Alexander the Great wished to unite the whole world into one vast empire. 2. He intended that all the 

different peoples should conform to common laws and that their sons−and−daughters should speak one 

common language, and in spite of their love for their national languages, should leave−off speaking them. 3. 

Possibly he might have accomplished his object to some extent (217), if he had not died suddenly when he 

was only thirty−two years old. 4. His soldiers marched weeping past his tent, to bid farewell to their dying 

leader. 5. They must have esteemed him very highly! 6. It was Alexander who founded the city of Alexandria, 

in Egypt, where approximately three hundred years before Christ the famous Alexandrian library was located. 

7. It contained an enormous collection−of−books −− almost seven hundred thousand. 8. Alas, this extensive 

library was destroyed by fire! 9. Alexander, who "sighed for other worlds to conquer," did not even know of


the existence of North and South America, Australia, or even of England and Northern Europe. 10. Beside his 

Asiatic empire, he knew very little of Asia, even of China, with its millions of inhabitants. 11. How small the 

world was in those days! 

LESSON LIX. 

THE POSITION OF UNEMPHATIC PRONOUNS. 

274. An unemphatic personal, indefinite or demonstrative pronoun very frequently precedes the verb of which 

it is the object. This is especially true if the verb in question is an infinitive: 

Mi volas lin vidi, I wish to see him. Li povos tion fari, he will be able to do that. Vi devus ion mangxi, you 

ought to eat something. Cxu vi gxin kredis? Did you believe it? Se li min vidus, li min savus, if he should see 

me, he would save me. 

[Footnote: Cf. in other languages, as in German "ich moechte ihn sehen", French "je veux le voir", Latin "se 

alunt, me defendi", etc. That such pronouns "are" unemphatic can be seen from English "let her come" (= 

"let'er come"), "make him stop" (= "make'im stop"), etc., in which the unemphatic forms "er, im", replace 

"him, her", in pronunciation (cf. the Greek enclitic pronouns "mou, moi, me, son, soi, se, ou, oi, e,", the 

Sanskrit enclitic forms "ma, me, tva, te, nas, vas, enam, enat, enam," also "sim", and the Avestan "i, im"). The 

same phenomenon is indicated in "prithee" (= "pray thee"), and in the spellings "gimme" (= "give me"), 

"lemme" (= "let me"), in dialect stories.] 

SOME INTRANSITIVE VERBS. 

275. Some intransitive verbs have English meanings which do not differ in form from the transitive English 

verbs to which they are related. In Esperanto the suffix "−ig−" (214) must be used when the transitive 

meaning is desired. Some examples are given in the following table: 

Verb. Intransitive Use. Transitive Use. 

Boli . . . . La akvo bolas Li boligas la akvon The water boils He boils the water 

Bruli. . . . La fajro brulas Li bruligis la paperon The fire burns He burned the paper 

Cxesi. . . . La bruo cxesas Li cxesigas la bruon The noise stops He stops the noise 

Dauxri . . . La bruo dauxras Li dauxrigas la bruon The noise continues He continues the noise 

Degeli . . . La glacio degelas Li gxin degeligas per fajro The ice thaws He thaws it with fire 

Droni. . . . La knabino dronis La viro sxin dronigis The girl drowned The man drowned her 

Eksplodi . . Pulvo eksplodas Li gxin eksplodigos Gunpowder explodes He will explode it 

Halti. . . . Li haltis timigite Li haltigis la soldatojn He halted in alarm He halted the soldiers 

Lumi . . . . La suno lumas Li lumigis la lampon The sun shines He lighted the lamp 

Pasi . . . . La tempo pasas Tiel li pasigis la tagon Time passes Thus he passed the day 

Pendi. . . . Gxi pendas de brancxo Li gxin pendigis de brancxo It hangs on a branch He hung it on a branch


Soni . . . . La saluta pafo sonis Oni sonigis la salutan pafon The salute sounded They sounded the salute 

Sonori . . . La sonorilo sonoris Oni sonorigis la sonorilon The bell rang They rang the bell 

[Footnote: A transitive use of such intransitive verbs would be like using the English intransitive verb "learn" 

for the transitive verb "teach," as in the "I'll learn you" (for "I'll teach you") of illiterate speech.] 

THE SUFFIX "−ER−". 

276. The suffix "−er−" is used to form words expressing units or component parts of that which is indicated in 

the root: 

fajrero = spark (of fire). negxero = snowflake. monero = coin. sablero = grain of sand. 

THE PREFIXES "BO−" AND "DUON−". 

277. The prefix "bo−" indicates relationship by marriage. To indicate half−blood relationship, or 

step−relationship, "duon−" (166) is used: 

bopatro = father−in−law. duonpatro = stepfather. bofratino = sister−in−law. duonfrato = half−brother. 

CORRESPONDENCE. 

278. a. Letters should be dated as indicated in the following: 

Bostono, je la 24a de decembro, 1912a. Nov−Jorko, la 24an decembro, 1912a. Sirakuzo, 24/XII/1912. 

b. The usual methods of address are (to strangers and in business letters): "Sinjoro, Sinjorino, Estimata 

Sinjoro, Karaj Sinjoroj, Tre estimata Frauxlino," etc.; (to friends and relatives) "Kara Frauxlino, Karaj 

Gefratoj, Kara Amiko, Kara Mario, Patrino mia," (placing the possessive adjective after the noun in this way 

gives an affectionate sense, as in English "Mother mine," etc) etc.; (to persons whose opinions on some 

subject are known to agree with those of the writer) "Estimata (Kara) Samideano" ("follower of the same 

idea"). 

c. Among the more usual forms of conclusion are (to strangers and in business letters): "Tre fidele la via, Tre 

vere, Kun granda estimo, Kun plej alta estimo," etc., (to friends): "Kun amika saluto, Kun cxiuj bondeziroj, 

Kun samideanaj salutoj, Frate la via," etc. 

VOCABULARY 

adres−o = address. krajon−o = pencil. apart−a = separate. mend−i = to order (of stores, etc). bedaur−i = to 

regret. Nov−Jorko = New York. cxef−a = chief. numer−o = number (numeral). do = so, then. ofic−o = office, 

employment. fontan−o = fountain. posxt−o = post (letters, etc.). hotel−o = hotel. respekt−o = respect. ink−o = 

ink. special−a = special. konven−a = suitable. stat−o = state (political body) kovert−o = envelope (for letters) 

tram−o = tram. 

[Footnote: "Cxef−" is often used in descriptive compounds (167, b), as "cxefkuiristo", chief (head) cook, chef, 

"cxefurbo", chief city, capital, "cxefangxelo", archangel.] 

* * * * * 

KELKAJ LETEROJ.


* * * * * 

Sirakuzo, la 2an de marto, 1911. 

Kara Amiko, 

Sendube vin surprizos ricevi leteron skribitan de mi cxe hotelo en cxi tiu urbo, ne tre malproksime de via 

propra oficejo! Via bofrato, kiun mi okaze renkontis hieraux en la posxtoficejo, donis al mi vian adreson. Gxis 

nun, mi estas tiel okupata ke mi ne havis la tempon ecx por telefoni al vi. Sed nun mi havas du aux tri 

minutojn da libera tempo, kaj mi tuj ekkaptas la okazon por skribi letereton, petante ke vi vespermangxu kun 

mi hodiaux vespere, cxe la hotelo kie, kiel vi vidas, mi logxas de antaux unu tago. (Pardonu, mi petas, "ke" mi 

finas cxi tiun leteron per krajono, sed mi jxus eltrovis ke restas neniom plu da inko en mia fontanplumo.) 

Venu je la sesa, se tiu horo estas konvena. Bedauxrinde ("unfortunately"), mi devos forresti de la hotelo la 

tutan posttagmezon, pri komercaj aferoj, alie mi vin renkontus cxe la tramvojo, kie haltas la tramveturiloj 

("streetcars"). Estos plej bone, mi opinias, ke vi iru rekte al mia cxambro, numero 26, kie mi senprokraste vin 

renkontos, se mi ne estos efektive jam vin atendanta. Ni esperu ke la cxefkuiristo preparos al ni bonan 

mangxon! Mi esperas ke vi malatentos la falantajn negxerojn, kaj nepre venos, responde al mia iomete subita 

invito, cxar ni ja havos multe da komunaj travivajxoj por priparoli. Do gxis la baldauxa revido je la 

vespermangxo! 

Kun plej amikaj salutoj, 

Roberto. 

[Footnote: The word "tial" may be omitted from the combination "tial ke" (83), if the meaning is obvious.] 

* * * * * 

Boston, 13/VII/1911. 

Wilson kaj Jones, Nov−Jorko. Estimataj Sinjoroj:−− Bonvolu sendi al mi per revenanta posxto vian plej 

novan prezaron ("price−list"). Ni baldaux bezonos iujn novajn meblojn por niaj oficejoj, precipe skribtablojn, 

tablojn konvenajn por skribmasxinoj ("typewriters"), kaj specialajn librujojn, farotajn laux niaj bezonoj. Se 

viaj prezoj estas konvenaj, ni sendube volos mendi de vi tian meblaron. Kun respekto, J. F. Smith, cxe Brown 

kaj Brown. 

* * * * * 

Nov−Jorko, 17/VII/1911. 

Sinjoro J. F. Smith, cxe Brown kaj Brown, Nov−Jorko. Estimata Sinjoro:−− Ni havas la honoron sendi al vi 

en aparta koverto nian plej novan prezaron, al kiu ni petas ke vi donu vian atenton, precipe al pagxoj 15−29. 

Tie vi trovos priskribitaj niajn plej bonajn oficejajn meblarojn. Ni senpage metos cxiujn acxetitajn meblojn 

sur la vagonaron, sed kompreneble ni ne pagos la koston de la sendado. Ni plezure fabrikos specialajn 

librujojn laux viaj bezonoj, kaj volonte ricevos viajn ordonojn pri tio. Niaj prezoj estos kiel eble plej malaltaj. 

Esperante ke la meblaroj priskribitaj en nia prezaro, kune kun la tie−presitaj prezoj, estos plene kontentigaj, 

kaj certigante al vi ke ni zorge plenumos cxiun mendon, ni restas, Tre respekte la viaj, Wilson kaj Jones. 

* * * * * 

Bostono, la 27an Majo.


Sinjoro B. F. Brown, Sirakuzo, Nov−Jorka Sxtato. Kara Sinjoro:−− Vian adreson ni dankas al niaj komunaj 

amikoj Sinjoroj Miller kaj White, kaj per cxi tio ni permesas al ni proponi al vi niajn servojn por la vendado 

de tiaj infanludiloj, kiajn vi fabrikas. Ni havas bonegajn montrajn fenestrojn ("show−windows"), en nia 

butiko, preskaux meze de la cxefstrato en la urbo, kaj en nia butiko trovigxas suficxe da grandaj vitramebloj 

("show−cases"). Tial ni povus tre oportune administri tian aferon. Ni multe gxojos se vi respondos kiel eble 

plej baldaux, sciigante al ni kiom da procento vi donos, kaj kiajn arangxojn vi volus fari. Ni certigas al vi ke 

en cxiu okazo ni penos fari nian eblon por via plej bona intereso. Kun alta estimo, D. Rose. 

LESSON LX. 

SOME TRANSITIVE VERBS. 

279. Some transitive verbs have English meanings which do not differ in form from the "intransitive" English 

verbs to which they are related (conversely to the use explained in 275). In Esperanto the suffix "−igx−" 

(232), or a different root, must be used when an intransitive meaning is desired. Following are the more 

common verbs of this character, together with examples of the intransitive use of several of them: 

balanci = to balance. renversi = to upset, to overturn. etendi = to extend, to expand. rompi = to break. fermi = 

to close, to shut. ruli = to roll, (wheel, ball, etc.). fini = to end, to finish. skui = to shake. fleksi = to bend, to 

flex. strecxi = to stretch. hejti = to heat. svingi = to swing. klini = to incline, to bend. sxanceli = to cause to 

vacillate. kolekti = to gather, to collect. sxangxi = to change. komenci = to begin, to commence. sxiri = to tear. 

mezuri = to measure. turni = to turn. montri = to show. veki = to wake. movi = to move. versxi = to pour. 

pasxti = to pasture, to feed. volvi = to roll (around something). 

La laboro nun finigxas, the work is now coming to an end. La glavo fleksigxis, the sword bent. La folioj 

disvolvigxas, the leaves unroll (develop). Cxiu kutimo sxangxigxos, every custom will change. La vintro jam 

komencigxas, the winter is already beginning. Mi vekigxos je la sesa, I shall awake at six (o'clock). La 

montrilo sxanceligxis, the indicator trembled (vacillated). Vasta ebenajxo etendigxis antaux li, a vast plain 

extended before him. 

ELISION. 

280. Elision is not common, and its use in writing as well as in speaking is best avoided. It occurs most 

frequently in poetry. 

a. The "−a" of the article may be elided before a word beginning with avowel, or after a preposition ending in 

a vowel: 

L' espero, l' obstino kaj la pacienco. De l' montoj riveretoj fluas. Kaj kantas tra l' pura aero. 

b. The final "−o" of a noun may be elided in poetry. The original accent of the noun remains unchanged: 

Ho, mia kor', ne batu maltrankvile. Sur la kampo la rozet'. 

c. The final "−e" of an adverb is very rarely elided (except in the expression "dank' al", which occurs in prose 

as well as in poetry): 

Ke povu mi foj' je eterno ekdormi! Dank' al vi, mi sukcesis. (Thanks to you, I succeeded.) 

THE PREFIX "EKS−". 

281. The prefix "eks−" is used to form words expressing a previous incumbent of a position, or removal from


such position: 

eksprezidanto, ex−president. eksregxo, ex−king. eksigi, to put out of office, to discharge. eksigxi, to withdraw 

from one's office, to resign. 

THE PREFIX "PRA−". 

282. The prefix "pra−" is used to form words expressing precedence in the line of descent, or general 

remoteness in past time: 

praavo = great grandfather. prapatroj = forefathers, ancestors. pranepo = great grandson. pratempa = primeval. 

THE SUFFIXES "−CXJ−" AND "−NJ−". 

283. The suffix "−cxj−" is used to form affectionate diminutives, from the first syllable or syllables of 

masculine names or terms of address. The suffix "−nj−" forms similar feminine diminutives: 

Jocxjo = Johnnie, Joe. Manjo = May, Mamie. Pacxjo = Papa. Panjo = Mamma. 

WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 

284. National systems of weights and measures translated into international form (as "mejlo", mile, "funto", 

pound) cannot convey a very definite meaning to one not familiar with the particular system used. 

Consequently the metric system (already used by scientists everywhere and by the general public in many 

countries) is adopted for the international system of weights and measures: 

Length and Surface. 

milimetro = millimeter (.0394 inch). centimetro = centimeter (.3937 inch). decimetro = decimeter (3.937 

inches). metro = meter (39.37 inches). dekametro = dekameter (393.7 inches). hektometro = hektometer (328 

feet 1 inch). kilometro = kilometer (3280 feet 10 inches; .62137 mile). kvadrata metro = square meter (1550 

square inches). hektaro = hektare (2.471 acres). 

Weight. 

gramo = gram (15.432 grains avoirdupois). dekagramo = dekagram (.3527 ounce avoirdupois). hektogramo = 

hektogram (3.5274 ounce avoirdupois). kilogramo = kilogram (2.2046 pounds avoirdupois). 

Capacity. 

decilitro = deciliter (6.1022 cubic inches; .845 gill). litro = liter (.908 quart, dry measure; 1.0567 quart, 

liquid). dekalitro = dekaliter (9.08 quart, dry measure; 2.6417 gallons). hektolitro = hektoliter (2 bushels 3.35 

pecks; 26.417 gallons). kilolitro = kiloliter (1.308 cubic yards; 264.17 gallons). 

THE INTERNATIONAL MONEY SYSTEM. 

285. Names of national coins translated into international form (as "dolaro", dollar, "cendo", cent) cannot 

convey a very definite meaning to persons not familiar with these coins. Consequently the system devised for 

international use (not for actual coins, but for calculation and price quotations) is based upon a unit called the 

"speso". The multiples of this unit are the "spesdeko" (10 spesoj), "spescento" (100 spesoj), and "spesmilo" 

(1000 spesoj). Ten spesmiloj have approximately the value of a five−dollar gold piece, twenty marks, 

twenty−five francs, one pound sterling, etc. The spesmilo, equivalent to about $0.4875 in the money of the


United States and Canada, is the unit commonly used. (To reduce dollars to spesmiloj, multiply by 2.051.) 

ABBREVIATIONS. 

286. The following abbreviations are often used (for those of the metric system see any English dictionary): 

Dro. = Doktoro, [Dr.] Sm. = spesmilo(j). Fino. = Frauxlino, [Miss]. Sd. = spesdeko(j). Pro. = Profesoro, 

[Prof.] k.t.p. = kaj tiel plu, [and so forth]. Sro. = Sinjoro, [Mr.] k.c. = kaj ceteraj, [etc.] Sino. = Sinjorino, 

[Mrs.] k.sim. = kaj simila(j), [et. sim.] Ko. = K−io., Kompanio, [Co.] t.e. = tio estas, [i.e.] No. = N−ro., 

Numero, [No.] e. = ekzemple, [e.g.] & = kaj, &. p.s. = postskribajxo, [P.S.] 

VOCABULARY. 

abon−i = to subscribe to, take. led−o = leather. aparat−o = apparatus. metal−o = metal. auxtomat−a = 

automatic. moment−o = moment. bov−o = ox. negativ−o = negative. dimensi−o = dimension. objektiv−o = 

lens, objective. ekzempl−o = example. original−o = original. fokus−o = focus. plat−o = plate 

(photographic,etc) fotograf−i = to photograph. prov−i = to try. funkci−i = to function, work. reklam−i = to 

advertise. kamer−o = camera. strecx−i = to stretch (trans.). 

[Footnote: Cf. the difference between "provi", to try, in the sense of testing, making an essay or endeavor, 

"peni", to try, in the sense of taking pains or making an effort, and "jugxi", to try, in a judicial sense.] 

* * * * * 

PRI LA KAMERO. 

Bostono, 12/XI/1910. 

Brown kaj Ko., Nov−Jorko. Sinjoroj:−− Vidinte vian reklamon en gazeto al kiu mi abonas, mi skribas por peti 

ke vi sendu al mi priskribajxon de via kamero nomita "La Infaneto," kiun eble mi deziros provi. Bonvolu 

ankaux sendi dekduonon da platoj, 6 x 9 centimetrojn, por kiu mi cxi* kune sendas spesmilon kaj duonon. 

Kun respekto, J. C. Smith. 

[Footnote: The particle "cxi" (used with "tiu, tio, ties, cxiu, cxio") may also be used with certain adverbs, as 

"cxi sube", "here below", "cxi supre", "here above", "cxi kune", "herewith", etc.] 

* * * * * 

Nov−Jorko, 18an novembro, 1910. 

Kara Sinjoro:−− Respondante al via estimata letero de la 12a, ni donas cxi sube mallongan priskribajxon de 

nia bonega fotografilo nomita "La Infaneto." "La Infaneto" kamero havis neesperitan sukceson, kaj estas 

vendita po miloj da ekzempleroj. Cxie oni unuvocxe lauxdas gxian malgrandan kaj tamen bonegan konstruon, 

kaj ankaux gxian firman samtempe facilan funkciadon. Gxi ne estas pli granda ol monujo, tial gxi ne bezonas 

pli multe da spaco ol tiu, kaj povas esti portata kaj uzata treege konvene. La dimensioj de la fermita kamero 

estas 8 x 5 x 6.5 centimetroj. La pezo, kun objektivo, tri platingoj, kaj malbrila ("ground") vitro, estas 365 

gramoj. "La Infaneto" estas konstruita tute el metalo, kaj kovrita de bonega bovledo. Kiam oni malfermas la 

aparaton, la objektivo samtempe enfokusigxas, tiamaniere ke la kamero estas preta por uzado post unu 

sekundo, cxar la objektivfermilo ("shutter") estas cxiam strecxita. Sekve: neniaj preparadoj, nenia prokrasto je 

la ekfotografado. La negativoj estas klaraj gxis la bordo, kaj tial konvenaj por pligrandigo. Cetere, oni scias ke 

bona pligrandigo ofte pli kontentigas ol malgranda originalo. Precipe cxe promenoj kaj vojagxoj oni tial 

volonte preferas la malgrandan "Infaneton," por poste pligrandigi la negativojn. Por la pligrandigo ni fabrikas


specialajn taglum−pligrandigajn aparatojn, kies prezoj estas malaltaj (vidu en nia prezaro). Ni ne sxangxis la 

konstruon de "La Infaneto" de post 1909, cxar gxis nun gxi estas cxiurilate kontentiga. Sole la rapideca 

reguligo de la momenta ("instantaneous") fermilo estas plibonigita, cxar ni gxin fabrikas kun speciala 

auxtomata fermilo, kiu estas arangxita por malfermoj dauxraj ("time exposures"), kaj momentaj, je unu 

sekundo gxis unu centono da sekundo. Esperante ke ni baldaux ricevos mendon de vi, kaj certigante al vi ke ni 

tre zorge plenumos iun ajn mendon, ni restas. Tre respekte la viaj, Brown & Ko. Per C. 

* * * * * 

ESPERANTO−ENGLISH VOCABULARY. 

The following vocabulary includes all roots used in the preceding Lessons, all primary words of the language, 

and a large number of additional roots (to facilitate original composition). No attempt has been made, 

however, to include all of the roots in the language, for which an Esperanto−English Dictionary should be 

consulted. 

References are to sections, unless the page (p.) is given. For other parts of speech than those indicated under 

each root or primary word, see Word Formation, 116, 120, 159, 171. See also the references given under each 

prefix and suffix. For formation of compound words, see 160, 167, 176, 184. The following abbreviations are 

used: adj. = adjective; adv. = adverb; conj. = conjunction; intrans. = intransitive; prep. = preposition; trans. = 

transitive; −− = repetition of the word. 

A. 

abel−o = bee. abi−o = fir. abiturient−o = bachelor of arts (A.B.). abomen−a = abominable. abon−i = to 

subscribe to, take (magazine, etc.). abrikot−o = apricot. acer−o = maple (tree). acid−a = acid, sour. −acx− = 

derogatory suffix (272). acxet−i = to buy. −ad− = suffix indicating duration (218). adiaux = (adv. and 

interjection), farewell, good−bye (171, 273). adjektiv−o = adjective. administr−i = to administer, to manage. 

admir−i = to admire. admon−i = to exhort, admonish. ador−i = to worship, adore. adres−o = address (on 

letters, etc.). adverb−o = adverb. advokat−o = lawyer, barrister. aer−o = air. afabl−a = affable, amiable. afer−o 

= affair, matter, thing, cause. afisx−o = handbill, placard, poster. afrank−i = to frank (letters), prepay; −−ite, 

post−paid. Afrik−o = Africa. ag−i = to act, perform action. agac−i = to set on edge (of teeth). agent−o = agent. 

agit−i = to agitate. agl−o = eagle. agoni−o = agony. agrabl−a = agreeable, pleasant. agx−o = age. ajn = (adv.), 

ever (236). −ajx− = (suffix forming concrete words) (227). akademi−o = academy. akcel−i = (trans.), to 

accelerate, hasten. akcent−o = accent, stress. akcept−i = to accept, receive, welcome. akcident−o = accident. 

akir−i = to acquire. akompan−i = to accompany. akr−a = sharp, acute, shrill. akrid−o = grasshopper. aks−o = 

axis, axle. akt−o = act (of a play). aktiv−a = active (grammatical). aktor−o = actor (player). akurat−a = 

accurate, exact. akuz−i = to accuse. akuzativ−o = accusative. akv−o = water. akvarel−o = water−color 

painting. akvari−o = aquarium. al = (prep.), to, toward (46, 160, 251, 252). alauxd−o = lark (bird). ale−o = 

avenue, walk, path (of garden, park, etc.). Aleksandri−o = Alexandria. Aleksandr−o = Alexander. alfabet−o = 

alphabet. Alfred−o = Alfred. algebr−o = algebra. ali−a = other. alk−o = elk. alkohol−o = alcohol. alkov−o = 

alcove, recess. almanak−o = almanac. almenaux = (adv.), at least (66). almoz−o = alms; −−ulo, beggar. alt−a 

= high, tall. altar−o = altar. alud−i = to allude to. alumet−o = match (for fire). am−i = to love. amas−o = 

crowd, throng, mass. ambaux = (pronoun), both (of two objects naturally in pairs,or of persons or things 

assumed or already known to be thus grouped) (238). ambos−o = anvil. amel−o = starch. Amerik−o = 

America. amfibi−a = amphibious. amfiteatr−o = amphitheatre. amik−o = friend. amindum−i = to woo, make 

love. ampleks−o = extent, dimension. amuz−i = to amuse. −an− = suffix denoting membership, etc. (145). 

analiz−i = to analyse. ananas−o = pineapple. anas−o = duck. anekdot−o = anecdote. Angl−o = Englishman. 

angul−o = angle, corner. angxel−o = angel. anim−o = soul. ankaux = (adv.), also. ankoraux = (adv), still, yet. 

ankr−o = anchor. anonc−i = to announce. ans−o = latch, door−handle. anser−o = goose. anstataux = (prep.), 

instead of (98, 159). antaux = (prep.), before (89, 90, 120, 159, 160), "antaux ol" (conj.), 97, 98. antikv−a = 

ancient, antique. antilop−o = antelope. antipati−o = antipathy. aparat−o = apparatus. apart−a = separate.


apartament−o = apartment, suite (of rooms). aparten−i = to belong. apati−o = apathy. apenaux = (adv.), 

scarcely, hardly. aper−i = to appear. apetit−o = appetite. aplauxd−i = to applaud. aplomb−o = assurance, 

self−command. apog−i = to lean, to rest (upon). apologi−o = apology, vindication. apotek−o = pharmacy, 

drugstore, chemist's shop. april−o = April. aprob−i = to approve. apud = (prep.), near to, close by (120, 159). 

−ar− = suffix forming collectives (126). Arab−o = Arab. arane−o = spider. arangx−i = to arrange. arb−o = 

tree. arbitraci−i = to arbitrate. ardez−o = slate (stone). aren−o = arena. arest−i = to arrest. argil−o = clay. 

argument−i = to argue. argxent−o = silver (metal). arhxitektur−o = architecture. Arhximed−o = Archimedes. 

ari−o = tune, air (music). Aristejd−o = Aristeides. aristokrat−o = aristocrat. Aristotel−o = Aristotle. 

aritmetik−o = arithmetic. ark−o = arc. arkad−o = arcade. arm−i = to arm. arme−o = army. armoraci−o = 

horse−radish. arogant−a = arrogant. arom−o = aroma, fragrance. art−o = art. artik−o = joint. artikol−o = 

article (grammatical or literary). Artur−o = Arthur. asekur−i = to insure (with a company). asoci−o = 

association (organization). asparag−o = asparagus. aspekt−o = aspect, appearance. astr−o = heavenly body, 

star. atak−i = to attack. atend−i = to wait, wait for, expect. atent−a = attentive. atest−i = to attest, give witness, 

certify. ating−i = to attain, reach. atlas−o = satin. atlet−o = athlete. atmosfer−o = atmosphere. atribut−o = 

attribute. aux = (conj.), or, either. auxd−i = to hear. auxgust−o = August. auxskult−i = to listen. Auxstrali−o = 

Australia. auxtomat−a = automatic. auxtor−o = author. auxtun−o = autumn. av−o = grandfather. avar−a = 

avaricious, miserly. avel−o = hazel−nut. aven−o = oats. avert−i = to warn, caution. avid−a = eager. aviz−i = to 

give notice. azen−o = ass, donkey. Azi−o = Asia. azot−o = nitrogen. 

B. 

babil−i = to chatter, babble. bagatel−o = trifle, bagatelle. bal−o = ball (dance). bak−i = to bake. bala−i = to 

sweep (a floor, etc.). balanc−i = (trans.), to balance, poise; −−i la kapon, to nod the head. baldaux = (adv.), 

soon. balen−o = whale. ban−i = (trans.), to bathe. banan−o = banana. bandagx−i = to bandage. bank−o = bank 

(financial). bankrot−i = to become bankrupt, fail. bant−o = bow (of ribbon). bar−i = (trans.), to bar, to 

obstruct. barakt−i = to wrestle, struggle. barb−o = beard. barbar−o = barbarian. barel−o = barrel. bariton−o = 

barytone. bas−o = bass (voice). baston−o = stick. bat−i = to beat. batal−i = to fight, battle. batat−o = sweet 

potato. bedauxr−i = to regret. bek−o = beak, bill. bel−a = beautiful, handsome. belg−o = Belgian. ben−i = to 

bless. benk−o = bench. ber−o = berry. best−o = animal, beast. bet−o = beet. bezon−i = to need, want. 

bibliotek−o = library. bicikl−o = bicycle. bien−o = land, property, estate. bier−o = beer. bifstek−o = beefsteak. 

bild−o = picture, image. bilet−o = ticket, note; bank−−, bank−note, bill. bird−o = bird. bis = (adv.), once 

more, a second time, encore. biskvit−o = biscuit. blank−a = white. blek−i = to neigh, bleat, give its cry (of any 

animal). blind−a = blind. blov−i = to blow. blu−a = blue (color). bluz−o = blouse. bo− = prefix expressing 

relationship by marriage (277). boat−o = boat. boj−i = to bark (of dogs). bol−i = (intrans.), to boil. bombon−o 

= bonbon, sweet. bon−a = good; −−veni, to welcome. bor−i = to bore (holes). bord−o = shore, bank, edge (of 

rivers, etc.). Boston−o = Boston. bot−o = boot. botel−o = bottle. bov−o = ox; −−ajxo, beef; −−idajxo, veal; 

−−viro, bull. brak−o = arm (of the body). brancx−o = branch, bough. brand−o = brandy. brasik−o = cabbage; 

(florbrasiko), cauliflower. brav−a = brave. bret−o = shelf, bracket. brid−o = bridle (of harness). brik−o = 

brick, tile. bril−i = to shine (116). Brit−o = Briton. brod−i = to embroider. bronz−o = bronze. bros−i = to 

brush. brosxur−o = pamphlet, brochure. brov−o = eyebrow. bru−o = noise. brul−i = (intrans.), to burn (275). 

brun−a = brown. brut−o = cattle, dumb animal. bub−o = street arab, gamin. bucx−i = to slaughter, butcher. 

buf−o = toad. buk−o = buckle (metal). buked−o = bouquet. bukl−o = curl, ringlet (of hair). bulb−o = onion, 

bulb. bulgar−o = Bulgarian. bulk−o = roll (bread). bulvard−o = boulevard. burgxon−o = bud, young shoot. 

busx−o = mouth. buter−o = butter. butik−o = shop, store. buton−o = button. 

C. 

cel−i = to aim, have as purpose or goal. celeri−o = celery. cend−o = cent (coin). cent = hundred (142). 

centigram−o = centigram (284). centilitr−o = centiliter (284). centimetr−o = centimeter (284). centr−o = 

center. cerb−o = brain. cert−a = certain, sure. cerv−o = stag, deer. ceter−a = remaining. ci = (pronoun), thou 

(40). cidoni−o = quince. cifer−o = cipher. cigar−o = cigar. cigared−o = cigarette. cign−o = swan. cilindr−o = 

cylinder. cinam−o = cinnamon. cindr−o = ashes. cir−o = blacking (for shoes). cirkonstanc−o = circumstance.


cirkuler−o = circular (letter). Cirus−o = Cyrus. cit−i = to quote. citron−o = lemon. civiliz−i = to civilize. col−o 

= inch (measure). 

CX. 

cxagren−i = (trans.), to grieve, vex, annoy. cxambr−o = room. cxap−o = cap. cxapel−o = hat. cxapitr−o = 

chapter (of book). cxar = (conj.), because, since (83). cxarm−a = charming, delightful. cxarnir−o = hinge. 

cxas−i = to hunt (game or wild animals). cxe = (prep.), at, in the house or presence of (125, 160). cxef−a = 

chief, principal, head. cxek−o = cheque. cxemiz−o = shirt, chemise. cxen−o = chain (for watch, etc.). cxeriz−o 

= cherry. cxes−i = (intrans.), to cease, leave off (275). cxeval−o = horse; −−viro, stallion. cxi = (adv.), 

expresses proximity (60, 66). cxia = of every kind (177). cxial = (adv.), for every reason (188). cxiam = 

(adv.), always (187). cxie = (adv.), everywhere (182). cxiel = (adv.), in every way (193). cxiel−o = heaven, 

sky. cxies = (pronoun, possessive), everybody's (174). cxifon−o = rag. cxio = (pronoun), everything, all (233). 

cxiom = (adv.), all (194). cxirkaux = (prep.), around, roundabout (89, 120, 159, 160). cxiu = (pronoun and 

adj.), every one, each (173). −cxj− = suffix forming affectionate diminutives (283). cxokolad−o = chocolate. 

cxu = (adv.), whether (when translated) (30, 66). 

D. 

da = (prep.), of (after quantitative noun or adv.) (99, 101, 103). daktil−o = date (fruit). Damokl−o = Damocles. 

dan−o = Dane. danc−i = to dance. dangxer−o = danger. dank−i = to thank. dat−o = date (chronological). 

dauxr−i = (intrans.), to continue, last. de = (prep.), of, from, by (49, 89, l00, 160, 169, 170). dec−i = to be 

proper, decent; "ne decas ke vi iru", it is not proper for you to go. decembr−o = December. decid−i = to 

decide. decigram−o = decigram (284). decilitr−o = deciliter (284). decimetr−o = decimeter (284). defend−i = 

to defend. degel−i = (intrans.), to thaw (275). dejxor−i = to be on duty (of officer, attendant, etc.). dek = (adj.), 

ten (136). dekagram−o = dekagram (284). dekalitr−o = dekaliter (284). dekametr−o = dekameter (284). 

deklam−i = to declaim, recite. dekstr−a = right (not left). deleg−i = to delegate. delikat−a = delicate, dainty, 

nice. demand−i = to ask, inquire. dens−a = dense, thick, close. dent−o = tooth. depesx−o = a dispatch. des = 

(adv.), the more (used with "pli", 84). desert−o = dessert. detal−o = detail. detru−i = to destroy. dev−i = to 

have to, must (247). dezert−o = desert, waste. dezir−i = to desire. Di−o = God. diamant−o = diamond. difekt−i 

= to damage, spoil. diferenc−a = different. difin−i = to define, to destine. dik−a = thick, corpulent. dikt−i = to 

dictate (letters, etc.) diligent−a = diligent. dimancx−o = Sunday. dimensi−o = dimension. Diogen−o = 

Diogenes. diplom−o = diploma. diplomat−o = diplomat. dir−i = to say (77). direkt−i = to direct, guide, 

manage. dis− = prefix expressing separation (245). diskut−i = to discuss. distanc−o = distance. disting−i = to 

distinguish. distr−i = to distract, take away the attention. diven−i = to guess. divers−a = varied, diverse, 

different. divid−i = (trans.), to divide. do = consequently, then, so. doktor−o = doctor. dolar−o = dollar. 

dolcx−a = sweet, pleasant. dolor−o = pain, ache. dom−o = house. domagx−o = pity, regrettable affair. don−i = 

to give. donac−i = to make a gift, present. dorlot−i = to caress, fondle, pet. dorm−i = to sleep. dorn−o = thorn. 

dors−o = back (of the body). dot−i = to endow. drap−o = cloth. drog−o = drug. dron−i = (intrans.), to drown 

(275). du = (adj.), two (136) dub−i = to doubt. dum = (prep and conj.), during, while (96, 120, 159). dung−i = 

(trans.), to hire (persons). 

E. 

eben−a = even, flat, level. −ebl− = suffix expressing possibility (161, 162). ebri−a = inebriate, intoxicated. 

−ec− = suffix forming abstracts (202). ecx = (adv.), even. eduk−i = to bring up, educate. edz−o = husband, 

married man. efekt−o = effect. efektiv−a = real, actual. efik−i = to be efficacious, act (on), produce a result. 

−eg− = suffix forming augmentatives (122). egal−a = equal. Egipt−o = Egypt. ehx−o = echo. −ej− = suffix 

forming words indicating place (III). ek− = prefix expressing suddenness or beginning (206). eks− = prefix 

expressing former incumbency (281). ekscit−i = to excite. eksperiment−i = to experiment. eksplod−i = 

(intrans.), to explode. ekster = (prep.), outside of (120, 121). ekzamen−i = to examine, test. ekzempl−o = 

example. ekzempler−o = copy (of book or magazine). ekzerc−i = (trans.), to exercise. ekzil−i = to exile,


banish ekzist−i = to exist. el = (prep.), out of, of, out (75, 106, 138, 197, 264, c). elekt−i = to choose. elektr−a 

= electric. elokvent−a = eloquent. −em− = suffix expressing propensity or inclination (192). eminent−a = 

eminent. en = (prep.), in (89,160), into (46). energi−o = energy. entrepren−i = to undertake. entuziasm−o = 

enthusiasm. enu−i = to be wearied, be bored. envi−i = to envy. epok−o = epoch, period, time. −er− = suffix 

expressing a component part (276). erar−i = to err, make a mistake. escept−i = to except (266). esper−i = to 

hope. esplor−i = to investigate, explore. esprim−i = to express. est−i = to be (109). establ−i = to establish. 

estim−i = to esteem. esting−i = to extinguish. −estr− = suffix expressing leadership or authority (253). −et− = 

suffix forming diminutives (198). etagx−o = story (of a house); teretagxo, ground floor; unua etagxo, second 

story. etend−i = (trans.), to extend, lengthen, widen. etern−a = eternal. Euxrop−o = Europe. evangeli−o = 

gospel, evangel. evit−i = to avoid, shun. evoluci−o = evolution. 

F. 

fab−o = bean (leguminous fruit). fabel−o = story, tale. fabl−o = fable. fabrik−i = to manufacture. facil−a = 

easy. faden−o = thread. fajf−i = to whistle. fajr−o = fire. fak−o = department, specialty. fakt−o = fact. fal−i = 

to fall. fald−i = to fold. fals−i = to falsify, forge, debase. fam−o = fame, renown, rumor. famili−o = family. 

familiar−a = familiar, accustomed. fand−i = (trans.), to smelt, fuse (metals, etc.). fanfaron−i = to boast, vaunt 

oneself, brag. fantom−o = phantom, ghost. far−i = to make, do, render. faraon−o = pharaoh (Egyptian ruler). 

farm−i = to farm (as a tenant). farmaci−o = pharmacy (knowledge of the use of drugs). fart−i = to be in (good 

or bad) health. farun−o = flour. fask−o = bundle, bunch. fason−o = cut, mode, fashion. fatal−a = fatal, 

predestined. fauxk−o = jaw (literal and figurative). favor−a = favorable. fazeol−o = bean (garden bean). fe−o 

= fairy, fay; −−ino, fairy. febr−o = fever. februar−o = February. fel−o = skin, hide (of animals). felicx−a = 

happy. femur−o = thigh. fend−i = (trans.), to split. fenestr−o = window. fer−o = iron; −−vojo, railway. 

ferdek−o = deck (of ship). ferm−i = (trans.), to close, shut. fervor−o = zeal, fervor. fest−i = to celebrate. 

festen−o = banquet. fi = (interjection), fie! (273). fiakr−o = cab. fiancx−o = betrothed man, fiance. fid−i = to 

rely upon, trust. fidel−a = faithful, loyal. fier−a = proud, haughty. fil−o = son. filozof−o = philosopher. fin−i = 

(trans.), to finish, end. fingr−o = finger; "dika fingro", thumb; "montra fingro", index finger; "longa fingro", 

middle finger; "ringa fingro", ring−finger; "malgranda fingro", little finger. firm−a = firm, steady. fisx−o = 

fish. fizik−o = physics, physical science. flag−o = flag, banner, small standard. flank−o = side. flar−i = 

(trans.), to smell, scent. flav−a = yellow. fleks−i = (trans.), to bend, flex. flik−i = to patch. flor−o = flower 

(116). flu−i = to flow. flug−i = to fly. fluid−a = fluid, liquid. foj−o = time, occasion (127). fojn−o = hay. 

fokus−o = focus. foli−o = leaf. fond−i = to found, establish. font−o = spring (of water), fount. fontan−o = 

fountain (artificial). for = (adv.), away (71). forges−i = to forget. fork−o = fork. form−o = shape, form. 

formik−o = ant. forn−o = stove. fort−a = strong. fos−i = to dig. fotograf−i = to photograph frag−o = 

strawberry. frak−o = evening dress (for men). frakas−i = to shatter, break to pieces. framb−o = raspberry. 

franc−o = Frenchman. frand−i = to be fond of sweets, be an epicure. frangx−o = fringe. frap−i = to knock, 

strike. frat−o = brother. frauxl−o = bachelor, unmarried man. fraz−o = sentence, phrase. Frederik−o = 

Frederick. fremd−a = foreign. frenez−a = crazy, mad. fresx−a = fresh, new. fripon−o = rogue, rascal, knave. 

frit−i = (trans.), to fry. fromagx−o = cheese. frost−o = frost. frot−i = to rub. fru−a = early. frukt−o = fruit. 

frunt−o = forehead. fulm−o = lightning. fum−i = to smoke. fund−o = bottom. fundament−o = foundation, 

base. funebr−o = mourning. fung−o = mushroom. funkci−i = to function, work. funt−o = pound. furioz−a = 

furious, raging. fusx−i = to bungle. fut−o = foot (measure). 

G. 

gaj−a = gay, merry. gajn−i = to gain. galeri−o = gallery. galop−i = to gallop. gant−o = glove. gard−i = to 

guard, watch over. gas−o = gas. gast−o = guest. gazet−o = gazette, magazine. ge− = prefix indicating both 

sexes together (271). general−o = general (military). genu−o = knee; −−fleksi, to kneel. geometri−o = 

geometry. german−o = German. Gertrud−o = Gertrude. gicxet−o = wicket, ticket−window, turnstile. 

girland−o = garland, wreath. glaci−o = ice; −−ajxo, an ice (food). glad−i = to iron (linen, etc.). glas−o = 

tumbler, glass. glat−a = smooth, polished, flat. glav−o = sword. glit−i = to glide, slide. glob−o = globe. glor−o 

= glory. glu−o = glue. glut−i = to swallow. gorgx−o = throat. graci−a = graceful. grad−o = grade, degree.


graf−o = count; −−lando, county. gram−o = gram (284). gramatik−o = grammar. grand−a = great, large, big. 

gras−o = fat. gratul−i = to congratulate. grav−a = important, serious, grave. gravit−i = to gravitate. grek−o = 

Greek. gren−o = grain (wheat, corn, etc.). grimp−i = to climb up, creep up. grinc−i = to grind, gnash. griz−a = 

gray. grup−o = group. gurd−o = hurdy−gurdy, barrel organ. gust−o = taste. gut−i = to drip. gvid−i = to guide. 

GX. 

gxarden−o = garden. gxem−i = to groan. gxen−i = to disturb, incommode. gxeneral−a = general, common. 

gxentil−a = courteous, polite. gxi = (pronoun), it (32, 37, 42, 274). gxis = (prep.), as far as, until (46, 89). 

gxoj−i = to rejoice, be glad (116). gxu−i = to enjoy, find pleasure in. gxust−a = exact, just. 

H. 

hajl−o = hail (frozen rain). hak−i = to chop, hack; −−ilo, axe. halt−i = (intrans.), to halt, stop. har−o = a hair. 

hauxt−o = skin (human). hav−i = to have. haven−o = harbor, port. hazard−o = chance, hazard. hebre−o = 

Hebrew. hejm−o = home. hejt−i = (trans.), to heat (a place). hektar−o = hektare (284). hektogram−o = 

hektogram (284). hektolitr−o = hektoliter (284). hektometr−o = hektometer (284). hel−a = bright, clear. help−i 

= to help, aid, assist. herb−o = grass, herb. hero−o = hero. hezit−i = to hesitate. hieraux = (adv.), yesterday 

(93, 171). Hieron−o = Hiero. hipokrit−i = to play the hypocrite. hirund−o = swallow (bird). hispan−o = 

Spaniard. histori−o = history. ho = (interjection), ho, oh (273). hodiaux = (adv.), today (93, 171). Holand−o = 

Holland. hom−o = human being. honest−a = honest. honor−i = to honor. hont−i = to be ashamed. hor−o = 

hour (185). horizont−o = horizon. horizontal−a = horizontal. horlogx−o = clock; posxhorlogxo, watch. 

hotel−o = hotel. humil−a = humble. humor−o = humor, temper. hund−o = dog. hura! = (interjection), hurrah! 

HX. 

hxemi−o = chemistry. hxin−o = Chinaman. hxor−o = choir. 

I. 

ia = any kind of (208). ial = (adv.), for any reason (213). iam = (adv.), ever, at any time, once (212). −id− = 

suffix indicating descendant or young of (207). ide−o = idea. ideal−o = ideal. ident−a = identical. idiom−o = 

idiom. idiot−o = idiot. ie = (adv.), somewhere (209). iel = (adv.), somehow (216). ies = (pronoun, possessive), 

somebody's (204). −ig− = suffix forming causative verbs (214, 239, 275). ignor−i = to ignore. −igx− = suffix 

forming inchoative and intransitive verbs (232, 239, 279). −il− = suffix forming names of instruments (63). ili 

= (pronoun) they (32, 37, 42). ilustr−i = to illustrate. iluzi−o = illusion, delusion. imag−i = to imagine, fancy. 

imit−i = to imitate. imperi−o = empire. implik−i = to implicate. impost−o = tax, impost. impres−i = to 

impress. impuls−o = impulse. −in− = suffix forming feminines (59). incit−i = to incite, arouse, provoke. −ind− 

= suffix expressing worth or merit (154). indian−o = Indian (American). indiferent−a = indifferent, 

unconcerned, unimportant. industri−o = industry (trade, business). infan−o = child. infekt−i = to infect, 

contaminate. influ−i = to influence. inform−i = to give information. −ing− = suffix expressing a holder or 

container (237). ingxenier−o = engineer. ink−o = ink. insekt−o = insect. insist−i = to insist. inspir−i = to 

inspire. instru−i = to instruct, teach. insul−o = island. insult−i = to insult. inteligent−a = intelligent. intend−i = 

to intend. inter = (prep.), between, among (85, 89, 160). interes−i = (trans.), to interest. intermit−i = to be 

intermittent. intern−a = internal; −−e, inside. interpret−i = to interpret. intim−a = intimate. invit−i = to invite. 

io = (pronoun), something (233). iom = (adv.), some, a certain amount; iom post iom, little by little (217). ir−i 

= to go. −ist− = suffix indicating profession, etc. (172). ital−o = Italian. iu = (pronoun), some one, a certain 

(one) (203). 

J. 

ja = (adv.), indeed, in fact (215). jak−o = jacket, short coat. jam = (adv.), already. januar−o = January. jar−o =


year. je = prep. of indefinite meaning (89, 185, 260). jen = (adv.), there, behold (228). jes = (adv.), yes (171). 

Jesu−o = Jesus. Johano = John. ju = (adv.), the more (used with "pli", 84). jug−o = yoke. jugx−i = to judge. 

juli−o = July. jun−a = young. jung−i = to harness. juni−o = June. jup−o = skirt. jurist−o = jurist. just−a = just, 

upright. juvel−o = jewel. 

JX. 

jxaluz−a = jealous. jxauxd−o = Thursday. jxet−i = to throw, cast, hurl. jxongl−i = to juggle. jxur−i = to take 

oath, swear. jxurnal−o = newspaper, journal. jxus = (adv.), a moment before, just. 

K. 

kadavr−o = corpse. kadr−o = frame (of pictures). kaduk−a = decaying, in ruin. kaf−o = coffee. kagx−o = cage. 

kahel−o = tile (for paving). kaj = (conj.), and; kaj..kaj.., both..and.. (26). kajer−o = notebook. kaldron−o = 

caldron. kalendar−o = calendar. kalesx−o = carriage. kalkan−o = heel (of the foot); −−umo, heel of a shoe. 

kalkul−i = to calculate, reckon. kamel−o = camel. kamen−o = chimney. kamer−o = camera. kamp−o = field. 

kanajl−o = scoundrel, rascal. kanap−o = sofa. kand−o = candy. kandel−o = candle. kanot−o = canoe. kant−i = 

to sing. kap−o = head. kapabl−a = capable. kapel−o = chapel (for prayer). kapital−o = capital (money). 

kapitol−o = capitol. kapt−i = to catch, seize. kar−a = dear, prized. karakter−o = character. karb−o = coal. 

karcer−o = jail. kares−i = to caress. karn−o = flesh. karot−o = carrot. kart−o = card; posxtkarto, postcard; 

vizitkarto, visiting card. karton−o = pasteboard. karusel−o = merry−go−round. kas−o = money−box, treasury; 

−−isto, cashier, treasurer. kaskad−o = waterfall, cascade. kastel−o = castle. kasx−i = to hide, conceal (252). 

kasxtan−o = chestnut. kat−o = cat. katen−o = fetter, chain. kauxz−o = cause. kav−o = cavity, hole. kaz−o = 

case (grammatical). ke = (conj.), that (53, 83, 105, 259, 262). kel−o = cellar. kelk−a = some; −−aj, several, 

more than one or two. kelner−o = waiter (in hotel or restaurant). kest−o = chest; tirkesto, drawer. kia = what 

kind of (112, 150); kiamanier−e, how. kial = (adv.), why (129). kiam = (adv.), when (123, 155). kie = (adv.), 

where (118, 151). kiel = (adv.), how, in which way, as (134, 156). kies = (pronoun, possessive), whose (107, 

147). kilogram−o = kilogram (284). kilolitr−o = kiloliter (284). kilometr−o = kilometer (284). kio = 

(pronoun), what (233). kiom = (adv.), how much (140, 164, 185). kis−i = to kiss. kiu = (pronoun), who (106, 

146). klak−i = (trans.), to clap, clatter. klar−a = clear, distinct. klav−o = key (of piano, etc.). klas−o = class. 

kler−a = enlightened, well−in−formed. klimat−o = climate. klin−i = (trans.), to incline, bend. kling−o = blade 

(of knife, etc.). klopod−i = to undertake initiative work, take steps toward, labor for the success or completion 

of something. klub−o = club (organization) knab−o = boy. kobold−o = sprite, kobold, brownie. kofr−o = 

trunk, chest with a lid. kok−o = cock (domestic fowl). koket−a = coquettish. koks−o = hip. kol−o = neck. 

kolbas−o = sausage. kolegi−o = college. kolekt−i = (trans.), to collect, gather. koler−i = to be angry, lose the 

temper. kolomb−o = pigeon, dove. kolon−o = column, pillar. kolonel−o = colonel. kolor−o = color. kolport−i 

= to peddle. komand−i = to command (military and naval). komb−i = to comb. komedi−o = comedy. 

komenc−i = (trans.), to begin, commence. komerc−i = to trade, engage in commerce. komfort−o = comfort 

(freedom from pain, want, etc.). komisi−i = to entrust with, put in charge of, give the agency for. komitat−o = 

committee. komiz−o = clerk, employee, assistant. kompani−o = company (commercial organization). 

kompar−i = (trans.) to compare, (266). kompat−i = to pity, have compassion for. komplet−o = suit (of 

clothes). komplez−o = kindness, courtesy, disposition to oblige. komplik−i = to complicate. kompost−i = to 

compose, set (type); −−isto, compositor. kompot−o = jam, preserve, kompren−i = to understand. komun−a = 

common, mutual. komunik−i = to communicate. kon−i = to be acquainted with, know; −−atigxi kun, to 

become acquainted with (117). koncern−i = to concern (266). koncert−o = concert (musical). kondamn−i = to 

condemn. kondicx−o = terms specified, stipulation, condition. konduk−i = to conduct, lead. konduktor−o = 

conductor (of car, train, etc.). kondut−i = to behave, conduct oneself. konfes−i = to confess, admit. konfid−i = 

to trust, have confidence in. konfit−i = to preserve, pickle (fruits, etc.). konform−i = to be in conformity with 

(266). konfuz−i = to confuse, confound. kongres−o = congress (assembly). konk−o = shell (of mollusk, etc.). 

konkur−i = to vie, compete. konkurenc−o = competition (in business, etc.). konkurs−o = prearranged trial of 

skill, formal competition (for prizes, etc.). konsci−i = to be conscious. konscienc−o = conscience. konsent−i = 

to consent, agree. konserv−i = to keep, preserve, save. konservativ−a = conservative. konsil−i = to advise,


counsel. konsist−i = to consist. konsol−i = to console, comfort. konsonant−o = consonant. konspir−i = to 

conspire, plot. konstant−a = constant. konstat−i = to verify, ascertain the truth of, certify. konstituci−o = 

constitution. konstru−i = to build. konsul−o = consul. konsult−i = to seek advice of, consult. kont−o = account 

(book−keeping, commercial). kontent−a = content, satisfied. kontinent−o = continent (geographical). 

kontrakt−i = to contract, agree. kontralt−o = contralto. kontraux = (prep.), against, opposite, opposed to (159, 

160). kontrol−i = to control, inspect, examine and check. kontur−o = outline, contour. kontuz−i = to bruise. 

konven−i = to be suitable, be fitting or convenient. konvink−i = to convince, persuade. kopi−i = to copy. 

kor−o = heart (of the body). korb−o = basket. korekt−i = to correct. korespond−i = to exchange letters, 

correspond. koridor−o = corridor, passage. kork−o = cork (bark). korn−o = horn. korp−o = body, −−a, 

corporeal. korpus−o = corps (military). kort−o = courtyard, court. kortego = court (royal, etc.). korv−o = 

raven. kost−i = to cost. kostum−o = costume. kot−o = mud. kotiz−i = to pay dues, pay one's share of an 

assessment. kotlet−o = cutlet, chop. koton−o = cotton. kov−i = to brood (of birds). kovert−o = envelope 

kovr−i = to cover. krab−o = crab. krad−o = grating, grate, lattice. krajon−o = pencil. krak−i = to clack, 

crackle. kran−o = faucet, tap. kravat−o = cravat. kre−i = to create. kred−i = to believe (265). krem−o = cream. 

krepusk−o = twilight, half−light of dawn or evening. kresk−i = to grow. krestomati−o = chrestomathy, 

collection of selected passages. kret−o = chalk. krev−i = (intrans.), to burst, crack open (suddenly and with 

noise). kri−i = to cry out. kribr−i = to sift (with a sieve). krim−o = crime. kring−o = ring−shaped biscuit. 

kripl−a = crippled. Krist−o = Christ. kritik−i = to criticise. krocx−i = to hook. krom = (prep.), beside, aside 

from, except, save, but. kron−o = crown. kruc−o = cross; −−umi, to crucify. krucx−o = pitcher, jug; tekrucxo, 

tea−pot. kruel−a = cruel. krur−o = leg. krust−o = crust. krut−a = steep. kubut−o = elbow. kudr−i = to sew. 

kugl−o = bullet. kuir−i = to cook. kuk−o = cake; −−ajxo, pastry. kukum−o = cucumber. kukurb−o = pumpkin. 

kuler−o = spoon. kulp−a = guilty. kultur−i = to cultivate; terkulturi, to till the soil, farm. kun = (prep.), with 

(70, 76, 120, 160, 159). kunikl−o = rabbit. kupon−o = coupon. kupr−o = copper (metal). kur−i = to run. 

kurac−i = to treat for illness, cure; −−ato, a patient; −−isto, a physician, medical man. kuragx−o = courage. 

kurb−o = curve. kurioz−a = uncommon, curious. kurs−o = course (of lessons). kurten−o = curtain. kusen−o = 

cushion. kusx−i = to lie, recline (239). kutim−o = custom, habit. kuv−o = tub, large basin. kuz−o = cousin. 

kvadrat−o = square (equilateral rectangle). kvalit−o = quality, texture. kvankam = (conj.), though, although, 

while (concessive). kvant−o = quantity, amount. kvar = (adj.), four (136). kvartal−o = quarter (of a city). 

kvazaux = (conj.), as though, as if (250). kverk−o = oak. kviet−a = calm, quiet. kvin = (adj.), five (136). 

kvitanc−o = receipt (for payment). 

L. 

la = (article), the (II, 47, 201, 280, a). labor−i = to work, labor. lac−a = tired, weary. lacx−o = string, lace (of 

shoe, etc.). lad−o = tin plate (sheet iron covered with tin). lag−o = lake. lakt−o = milk. laktuk−o = lettuce. 

lam−a = lame. lamp−o = lamp. lan−o = wool. lanc−o = lance, spear. land−o = land, country. lang−o = tongue 

(of the body). lantern−o = lantern. lanug−o = down (hairs, feathers). lard−o = bacon. largx−a = wide, broad. 

larm−o = tear (of the eye). las−i = (trans.), to leave, let, permit. last−a = last (in a series). latin−a = Latin. laux 

= (prep.), in accordance with, along, by (191). lauxb−o = arbor, summer−house. lauxd−i = to praise. lauxt−a = 

loud. lav−i = to wash. lecion−o = lesson. led−o = leather. leg−i = to read. legom−o = vegetable. legx−o = law. 

lek−i = to lick. leon−o = lion. lepor−o = hare. lern−i = to learn. lert−a = clever, skilful. leter−o = letter 

(epistle). lev−i = to raise, lift. li = (pronoun), he, him (32, 37, 42). liber−a = free. libr−o = book. lig−i = to tie, 

bind, fasten; −−ilo, bond; that which ties or fastens; −−ajxo, knot; −−o, league, alliance. lign−o = wood. lim−o 

= limit, boundary. limonad−o = lemonade. lingv−o = language. lini−o = line; −−ilo, ruler. lip−o = lip; 

−−haroj, moustache. lit−o = bed (for sleeping). liter−o = letter of the alphabet; lauxlitera, literal. literatur−o = 

literature. litr−o = liter (284). liver−i = to deliver, supply, furnish. log−i = to allure. logx−i = to dwell, reside 

(133). lok−o = place; −−a, local. lokomotiv−o = locomotive. long−a = long. lonicer−o = honeysuckle. lorn−o 

= telescope, spyglass; −−eto, opera−glasses. lu−i = to hire, rent (engage and pay rent for). lud−i = to play. 

luks−o = luxury. lul−i = to lull to sleep; −−ilo, cradle. lum−i = to shine (275). lun−o = moon. lunatik−o = 

lunatic. lund−o = Monday. lup−o = wolf. 

M.


macx−i = to chew, masticate. magazen−o = warehouse. magi−o = magic. magistr−o = master of arts (A.M.). 

maiz−o = maize, Indian corn. maj−o = May. majest−a = majestic. majones−a = mayonnaise. majstr−o = 

master (of his art or profession). makaroni−o = macaroni. maksimum−o = maximum. makul−o = spot, stain. 

makzel−o = jaw; −−osto, jawbone. mal− = prefix forming opposites (67). maleol−o = ankle. malgraux = 

(prep.), notwithstanding. malic−a = malicious. man−o = hand. mandat−o = money−order. mangx−i = to eat. 

manier−o = manner, way. manik−o = sleeve. mank−i = (intrans.), to be lacking, wanting. mantel−o = cloak, 

mantle. manuskript−o = manuscript. mar−o = sea. marcx−o = swamp, marsh. mard−o = Tuesday. Mari−o = 

Mary. mark−o = mark. marmelad−o = marmalade. marmor−o = marble (stone), marsx−i = to walk. mart−o = 

March. martel−o = hammer. mastr−o = master (of a house, etc.) masxin−o = machine. maten−o = morning 

(93). material−o = material. matur−a = ripe, mature. mebl−o = piece of furniture. medicin−o = medicine (the 

science). mehxanik−o = mechanics. mejl−o = mile. meleagr−o = turkey. melk−i = to milk. melodi−o = 

melody. melon−o = melon. mem = (pronoun), self, selves (219). membr−o = limb, member. memor−i = to 

remember, keep in mind; rememori, to recall to memory. mend−i = to order (of a store, etc.). mensog−i = to 

lie, tell lies. menton−o = chin. menu−o = menu. merit−i = to deserve, merit. merkred−o = Wednesday. merl−o 

= blackbird. met−i = to put, place. metal−o = metal. meti−o = trade, handicraft. metod−o = method, way. 

metr−o = meter (284). mez−o = middle. mezur−i = to measure. mi = (pronoun), I, me (32, 37). miel−o = 

honey. mien−o = appearance, mien. miks−i = (trans.), to mix. mil = (adj.), thousand (142). mild−a = mild. 

milimetr−o = millimeter (284). milion−o = million. milit−i = to fight, wage war. min−o = mine (of coal, 

silver, etc.). minac−i = to threaten. mineral−o = mineral. minimum−o = minimum. ministr−o = minister 

(political). minut−o = minute. miop−a = shortsighted. mir−i = to wonder. mister−o = mystery. mizer−o = 

misery. mod−o = mode, fashion. model−o = model. moder−a = moderate. modest−a = modest. mok−i = to 

mock. mol−a = soft. moment−o = moment; −−a, momentary, instantaneous. mon−o = money. monahx−o = 

monk. monarhxi−o = monarch. monat−o = month. mond−o = world. mont−o = mountain. montr−i = (trans.), 

to show. mor−o = conduct (in regard to right or wrong); −−oj, morals. moral−a = moral; −−eco, morality. 

mord−i = to bite. morgaux = (adv.), tomorrow (171). mort−i = to die; −−igi, to kill. mosxt−o = title of respect 

(258). mov−i = (trans.), to move, put in motion. muel−o = mill (for grinding). mugx−i = to roar, bellow. 

mult−a = much (81). mur−o = wall. murmur−i = to murmur. mus−o = mouse. mustard−o = mustard. musx−o 

= fly. mut−a = dumb, mute. muze−o = museum. muzik−o = music. 

N. 

naci−o = nation. nagx−i = to swim. naiv−a = artless, naive, ingenuous. najbar−o = neighbor. najl−o = nail (of 

metal). nap−o = turnip. nask−i = to produce, bring forth, give birth to. natur−o = nature. naux = (adj.), nine 

(136). naz−o = nose. ne = (adv.), no, not (27, 66, a, 171). nebul−o = fog, mist. neces−a = necessary. negativ−o 

= negative (photographic). negx−o = snow. nek = (negative conj.), neither, nor (31). nenia = no kind of (224). 

nenial = (adv.), for no reason (229). neniam = (adv.), never (226). nenie = (adv.), nowhere (225). neniel = 

(adv.), in no way (230). nenies = (pronoun, possessive), nobody's (221). nenio = (pronoun), nothing (233). 

neniom = (adv.), none, not any (231). neniu = (pronoun), no one, nobody, no (220). nep−o = grandson. nepr−e 

= inevitably, certainly, unfailingly. nerv−o = nerve. nest−o = nest. neuxtral−a = neutral, non−partisan. nev−o 

= nephew. ni = (pronoun), we, us (32, 37). nigr−a = black. nivel−o = level. −nj− = suffix forming affectionate 

diminutives (283). nobel−o = nobleman. nobl−a = noble (in character). nokt−o = night. nom−o = name; −−i, 

to name, mention. nombr−o = number (quantity). nord−o = north. norveg−o = Norwegian. nostalgi−o = 

homesickness. not−o = note. nov−a = new, recent, novel; denove, anew, again. novembr−o = November. nu = 

(interjection), well! (273). nuanc−o = shade, tint, hue. nub−o = cloud. nud−a = bare, naked, nude. nuks−o = 

nut. nul−o = zero, naught. numer−o = number, numeral (No.). nun = (adv.), now (171). nur = (adv.), merely, 

only. nutr−i = to nourish, to feed. 

O. 

obe−i = to obey (265). objekt−o = object, thing. objektiv−o = lens, objective. −obl− = suffix forming 

multiples (186). oblikv−a = oblique, slanting. observ−i = to observe, take note of. obstin−a = obstinate. 

ocean−o = ocean. odor−i = to smell (good or bad). ofend−i = to offend. ofer−i = to sacrifice, offer. ofic−o =


office, employment; −−isto, officer (of firm or organization); −−ejo, office (the place). oficial−a = official. 

oficir−o = officer (military or naval). oft−a = frequent. ok = (adj.), eight (136). okaz−i = to happen, occur, take 

place. okcident−o = west. oktobr−o = October. okul−o = eye. okup−i = to occupy. ol = (conj.), than (82, 97, 

98). ole−o = oil. oliv−o = olive. ombr−o = shadow, shade. ombrel−o = umbrella. −on− = suffix forming 

fractions (166). ond−o = wave. oni = (pronoun), one, they (54). onkl−o = uncle. −op− = suffix forming 

collective numerals (261). oper−o = opera. opini−i = to have the opinion, think. oportun−a = handy, 

convenient, opportune. or−o = gold. orangx−o = orange (fruit). ord−o = order (methodical or proper 

arrangement). ordinar−a = ordinary; eksterordinara, extraordinary. ordon−i = to order, bid, command. orel−o 

= ear (of the body). orf−o = orphan. organ−o = organ (physical). organiz−i = to organize. orgen−o = organ, 

(musical instrument). orient−o = east. original−o = original. orkestr−o = orchestra. ornam−i = to ornament, 

adorn. ort−a = right−angled. osced−i = to gape, yawn. ost−o = bone. ostr−o = oyster. ostracism−o = ostracism. 

ov−o = egg. 

P. 

pac−o = peace. pacienc−o = patience. padel−i = to paddle. paf−i = to shoot (with gun, etc.). pag−i = to pay. 

pagx−o = page (of a book, etc.). pajl−o = straw. pak−i = to pack. pal−a = pale. palac−o = palace. palis−o = 

stake; −−aro, palisade. palp−i = to feel (with the fingers, etc.); −−ado, touch (the sense). palpebr−o = eyelid. 

pan−o = bread. pantalon−o = trousers. pantofl−o = slipper. paper−o = paper (material). papili−o = butterfly. 

par−o = pair. paradiz−o = paradise. paragraf−o = paragraph. paralel−a = parallel. pardon−i = to forgive, 

pardon (265). parenc−o = relative (person). parfum−o = perfume. park−o = park. parker−e = by rote, by heart, 

from memory. parol−i = to speak (77). part−o = part, share. particip−o = participle. pas−i = (intrans.), to pass. 

pasagxer−o = passenger. paser−o = sparrow. pasi−o = passion. pasiv−a = passive. Pask−o = Easter. pastecx−o 

= patty, small pie. pastinak−o = parsnip. pastr−o = pastor, clergyman, priest. pasx−i = to step. pasxt−i = 

(trans.), to pasture, feed; −−isto, shepherd. pat−o = pan, frying−pan. patr−o = father. pauxz−o = pause. 

pavim−o = pavement. pec−o = piece, morsel. pejzagx−o = landscape. pek−i = to sin. pekl−i = to pickle (meat, 

etc.). pel−i = to chase away, drive off. pelt−o = coat or wrap of fur. pen−i = to strive, try. pend−i = (intrans.), 

to hang. penetr−i = to penetrate. penik−o = paintbrush, hair pencil. pens−i = to think. pent−i = to repent. 

pentr−i = to paint. pep−i = to chirp, twitter. per = (prep.), by means of, with, by (64). perd−i = to lose. pere−i 

= to perish. perfekt−a = perfect. perfid−i = to betray; −−a, perfidious, treacherous. period−a = periodic. perl−o 

= pearl. permes−i = to permit, allow, let. peron−o = platform (railway), stoop (entrance porch). persekut−i = 

to persecute, prosecute. persik−o = peach. persist−i = to persist, persevere. person−o = person. peruk−o = wig. 

pes−i = (trans.), to ascertain the weight of; −−ilo, scales, balance. pet−i = to request, beg, ask. petol−i = to be 

mischievous, saucy, roguish. petrol−o = petroleum, kerosene. petrosel−o = parsley. pez−i = (intrans.), to be 

heavy, weigh. pi−a = pious. pice−o = spruce (tree). pied−o = foot; −−iranto, pedestrian. piedestal−o = 

pedestal. pik−i = to prick, sting. pilgrim−i = to go on a pilgrimage. pilk−o = ball (to play with). pin−o = pine 

(tree). pinakotek−o = picture gallery. pincx−i = to pinch. pingl−o = pin. pint−o = point, pinnacle, summit. 

pionir−o = pioneer. pip−o = pipe (for smoking). pipr−o = pepper. pir−o = pear. pist−i = to crush, mash; 

−−ajxo, puree. pitoresk−a = picturesque. piz−o = pea. plac−o = public square, place (broad, short street or 

open space). placx−i = to please, to be pleasing (265). plad−o = flat dish. plafon−o = ceiling. plan−o = plan, 

scheme. pland−o = sole (of the foot). planed−o = planet. plank−o = floor. plant−i = to plant. plat−a = flat, 

plane. plauxd−i = (trans.), to splash, dabble (a liquid). plej = (adv.), most (74, 79, 81, 162); malplej, least (80). 

plekt−i = to weave, plait, braid. plen−a = full; plenum−i, to fulfil. plend−i = to complain. plet−o = tray. 

plezur−o = pleasure. pli = (adv.), more (74, 79, 81); malpli, less (80). plor−i = to weep, cry. plu = (adv.), 

further, more, any more. plug−i = to plow. plum−o = pen, feather. plumb−o = lead (metal); −−isto, plumber. 

pluv−o = rain. pneuxmatik−o = pneumatic tire. po = (prep.), at the rate of (175). poem−o = poem. poet−o = 

poet. poezi−o = poetry, poesy. pokal−o = goblet, cup. pol−o = Pole. polic−o = police (force). politik−o = 

politics. polm−o = palm (of the hand). polur−i = to polish, make smooth and glossy. polus−o = pole 

(geographical). polv−o = dust. pom−o = apple. pomp−o = pomp, splendor. pont−o = bridge. popol−o = a 

people, folk. popular−a = popular. por = (prep.), for (95, 98, 262). porcelan−o = porcelain, china. porci−o = 

portion, share. pord−o = door. pork−o = swine, pig, hog. port−i = to carry, bear. portret−o = portrait. posed−i 

= to possess, own. post = (prep.), after, behind (89, 120). postul−i = to require, demand. posx−o = pocket.


posxt−o = post (mail); −−kesto, mailbox; −−marko, postage stamp; −−mandato, postal money order. pot−o = 

pot. potenc−a = powerful, mighty. pov−i = to be able, can (72). pra− = prefix indicating remoteness in line of 

descent (282). praktik−o = practice. prav−a = right, in the right. precip−a = principal, chief. preciz−a = 

precise. predik−i = to preach. prefer−i = to prefer. prefiks−o = prefix. pregx−i = to pray; −−ejo, church. 

prem−i = to press. premi−o = premium, prize. pren−i = to take. prepar−i = to prepare. pres−i = to print. 

preskaux = (adv.), almost. pret−a = ready. pretekst−i = to make pretext of, pretend, sham. pretend−i = to make 

pretension to, lay claim to. preter = (prep.), beyond, past, by. prez−o = price. prezent−i = to present, offer. 

prezid−i = to preside; −−anto, presiding officer, president, chairman. pri = (prep.), concerning, about, of (160, 

264, c). princ−o = prince. princip−o = principle. printemp−o = spring (season). pro = (prep.), on account of, 

because of, for (86). problem−o = problem. procent−o = interest, percentage. proces−o = lawsuit, legal 

process. produkt−i = to produce. profesi−o = profession, occupation, calling. profesor−o = professor. profil−o 

= profile. profit−o = profit; −−i, to profit (by). profund−a = deep, profound. progres−i = to progress. projekt−o 

= project. proklam−i = to proclaim. prokrast−i = to delay, procrastinate. proksim−a = near. promen−i = to go 

walking, promenade. promes−i = to promise. propon−i = to propose, offer. proporci−o = proportion. propr−a 

= own (one's own); malpropra, other people's; −−igi al si, to appropriate, make one's own. prosper−i = to have 

success, prosper. protekt−i = to protect. protest−i = to protest. protokol−o = minutes (of a meeting). prov−i = 

to try, attempt, test. proviz−i = to provide. proz−o = prose; −−ajxo, prose composition, piece of prose. 

prudent−a = reasonable, sensible, rational. prujn−o = hoar frost. prun−o = plum. prunt−o = loan; −−i, −−e 

doni, to lend; −−e preni, to borrow. pruv−i = to prove, give proof of. psalm−o = psalm. publik−o = public 

(the); −−igi, to publish. puding−o = pudding. pudr−i = to powder. pugn−o = fist. pulm−o = lung. pulv−o = 

gunpowder. pump−i = to pump. pun−i = to punish. punt−o = lace (point, etc.). pup−o = doll. pupitr−o = desk. 

pur−a = clean, pure. purpur−a = purple. pusx−i = to push; repusxi, to repulse. put−o = well (for water). 

R. 

rabarb−o = rhubarb. rab−i = to pillage, plunder; −−isto, robber. rabat−i = to rebate, give a reduction, discount 

or rebate. rad−o = wheel. radi−o = ray (of light), spoke (of wheel), radius. radik−o = root. rafan−o = radish. 

rafin−i = to refine; −−ejo, refinery. rajd−i = to ride (horse, etc.). rajt−o = right (to something). rakont−i = to 

relate, narrate (77). ramp−i = to creep, crawl, clamber. ran−o = frog. rand−o = edge, border. rang−o = rank, 

grade, dignity. rapid−a = rapid, quick; −−o, speed; −−emo, haste. raport−i = to report, give a report. ras−o = 

race (tribe, people, nation). rasp−i = to rasp, grate; −−ilo, grater. rat−o = rat. rauxk−a = hoarse, raucous. rav−i 

= to enchant. raz−i = to shave. re− = prefix indicating repetition or return (223). real−a = real. reciprok−a = 

reciprocal, mutual (180). redakci−o = editorial department. redakt−i = to edit. redaktor−o = editor. redingot−o 

= frock coat. refut−i = to refute. reg−i = to rule, govern, reign. regal−i = (trans.), to regale, treat (to food or 

drink). region−o = region. registr−i = (trans.), to register, enroll. regn−o = state, governed body; −−ano, 

citizen, subject. regul−o = rule, regulation. regx−o = king. reklam−i = to advertise. rekomend−i = to 

recommend, register (a letter). rekompenc−i = to recompense, reward. rekt−a = straight, undeviating, direct. 

rel−o = rail. religi−o = religion. rem−i = to row. rembur−i = to upholster, stuff, pad. renkont−i = (trans.), to 

meet. renvers−i = (trans.), to upset. reprezent−i = to represent. respekt−i = to respect. respond−i = to answer. 

respublik−o = republic. rest−i = to remain, stay. restoraci−o = restaurant. resum−i = to summarize, give in 

resume. ret−o = net, netting. rev−i = to indulge in revery, dream, fancy. revu−o = journal, review, magazine. 

rezon−i = to reason (exert the power of reasoning). rezult−i = to result. ricev−i = to receive. ricx−a = rich. 

rid−i = to laugh (265). rifuz−i = to refuse. rigard−i = to look. rigl−i = to bolt (fasten). rikolt−i = to harvest, 

reap. rilat−i = to have relation (to) (266). rimark−i = to notice, note. rimed−o = means, way; vivrimedoj, 

means of livelihood. rimen−o = thong, strap. ring−o = ring. rip−o = rib. ripar−i = to mend, repair. ripet−i = to 

repeat. ripoz−i = to repose, rest. riprocx−i = to reproach. river−o = river. riz−o = rice. rob−o = dress, robe. 

Robert−o = Robert. romp−i = (trans.), to break. rond−o = circle, ring, round. ros−o = dew. rost−i = to roast. 

roz−o = rose (flower). ruband−o = ribbon. rubus−o = blackberry. rugx−a = red. ruin−o = ruin. rul−i = (trans.), 

to roll (ball, etc.). rus−o = Russian. rust−i = to rust. rutin−o = routine. ruz−a = crafty, cunning, sly. 

S.


sabat−o = Saturday. sabl−o = sand. sag−o = arrow. sagx−a = wise. sak−o = sack, bag. sal−o = salt. salajr−o = 

salary, wages. salat−o = salad. salon−o = parlor, drawing−room. salt−i = to jump, leap. salut−i = to salute, 

greet. sam−a = same. san−a = healthy, well. sang−o = blood. sankt−a = sacred, holy. sap−o = soap. sarden−o 

= sardine. sat−a = sated; malsata, hungry. sauxc−o = sauce, gravy, dressing. sav−i = to save; rescue. sci−i = to 

know (117). scienc−o = science. se = (conj.), if (240). sed = (conj.), but. seg−i = to saw. segx−o = chair. sek−a 

= dry. sekret−o = secret. sekretari−o = secretary. sekund−o = second (of time). sekv−i = to follow. sel−o = 

saddle. sem−o = seed; −−i, to sow. semajn−o = week. sen = (prep.), without (248). senat−o = senate; −−ano, 

senator. senc−o = sense, meaning. send−i = to send. sent−i = to feel, perceive. sep = (adj.), seven (136). 

septembr−o = September. sercx−i = to seek, hunt, look for. serur−o = lock. serv−i = to serve. servic−o = 

course (of a meal). ses = (adj.), six (136). sever−a = severe, stern. sezon−o = season. si = (pronoun, reflexive), 

himself, herself, etc. (40, 44, 274). sibl−i = to hiss, whistle (wind, etc.). sid−i = to sit (239). sigel−i = to seal. 

sign−o = sign, trace, mark. signif−i = to signify, mean. silab−o = syllable. silent−i = to be silent (239). silk−o 

= silk. simi−o = monkey. simil−a = like, similar. simpl−a = simple. sinjor−o = gentleman, Mr. (163). 

Sirakuz−o = Syracuse. sitel−o = pail, bucket. skatol−o = small box or case. skiz−i = to sketch. sklav−o = 

slave. skot−o = Scot, Scotchman. skrap−i = to scrape. skrib−i = to write. sku−i = (trans.), to shake. skulpt−i = 

to carve, sculpture. societ−o = society. soif−i = to be thirsty. sojl−o = threshold. Sokrat−o = Socrates. sol−a = 

alone, sole, only. soldat−o = soldier. solen−a = formal, solemn. somer−o = summer. son−i = (intrans.), to 

sound. songx−i = to dream (in sleep). sonor−i = (intrans.), to ring, sound; −−ilo, bell. sopir−i = to yearn, long, 

sigh. sorb−i = to absorb; −−papero, blotting−paper. sorcx−o = witchcraft; ensorcxi, to bewitch; −−isto, 

sorcerer. sort−o = destiny, fate, lot. sovagx−a = wild, savage. spac−o = space. spec−o = kind, sort, species. 

special−a = special. specimen−o = specimen, sample. spegul−o = mirror. spert−a = experienced, expert. 

spes−o = speso (international unit of money, 284). spez−o = clearing (financial); elspezi, to disburse, expend, 

spend; enspezi, to take in, receive (funds). spinac−o = spinach. spir−i = to breathe; elspiri, to exhale. spite = 

(prep.), in spite of. sprit−a = witty. staci−o = station (railway, boat, etc.). stamp−i = to mark officially, stamp. 

standard−o = standard, flag. stan−o = tin (metal). stang−o = pole. star−i = to stand (239). stat−o = state (of 

being), condition. stel−o = star. stenografi−o = shorthand, stenography. stil−o = style. stimul−i = to stimulate. 

stomak−o = stomach. strang−a = strange, peculiar. strat−o = street. strecx−i = (trans.), to stretch. strek−i = to 

make a streak, or line; substreki, to underline; surstreki, trastreki, to cross off, strike out. stri−o = streak, 

stripe, band. strik−o = strike (of labor). stud−i = to study. student−o = student (college, etc.). stuf−i = (trans.), 

to stew. stump−o = stump (of tree, etc.). sub = (prep.), under, beneath (121, 160). subit−a = sudden, abrupt. 

substanc−o = substance. sud−o = south. sufer−i = to suffer, endure. suficx−i = to suffice; −−ega, abundant. 

sufiks−o = suffix. sufok−i = (trans.), to suffocate. sugesti−i = to suggest. suk−o = sap, juice (of plants, etc.); 

−−a, succulent. sukces−i = to succeed. suker−o = sugar. sulfur−o = sulphur. sulk−o = furrow, wrinkle. sum−o 

= sum, amount. sun−o = sun. sup−o = soup. super = (prep.), above, over (159); −−a, superior. supersticx−o = 

superstition. supoz−i = to suppose. supr−e = (adv.), above; −−a, upper, above; −−ajxo, surface. sur = (prep.), 

on, upon (160). surd−a = deaf. surpriz−i = to surprise. surtut−o = overcoat. suspekt−i = to suspect. sved−o = 

Swede. sven−i = to faint, swoon. sving−i = (trans.), swing, brandish. svis−o = Swiss. 

SX. 

sxaf−o = sheep; −−ajxo, mutton; −−ido, lamb; −−idajxo, lamb (meat); −−viro, ram. sxajn−i = to seem, appear. 

sxal−o = shawl. sxanc−o = luck, chance; bonsxance, luckily. sxancel−i = (trans.), to oscillate, vacillate, make 

tremble. sxangx−i = (trans.), to change, alter. sxargx−i = to burden, load. sxat−i = to like, prize. sxauxm−o = 

foam, froth. sxel−o = shell, peeling, bark. sxelk−o = suspender, supporter. sxerc−i = to joke, jest. sxi = 

(pronoun), she, her (32, 37, 42). sxild−o = shield. sxink−o = ham. sxip−o = ship. sxir−i = to tear. sxirm−i = to 

shelter, shield; −−ilo, screen. sxlim−o = slime. sxlos−i = to lock; −−ilo, key. sxmir−i = to anoint, smear. 

sxnur−o = string. sxose−o = broad roadway, drive. sxov−i = to shove, push. sxovel−i = to shovel. sxpar−i = to 

spare, be economical of. sxpin−i = to spin. sxpruc−i = to gush, spout, spurt (of liquids). sxrank−o = cupboard, 

wardrobe. sxrauxb−o = screw. sxtal−o = steel. sxtat−o = state (political). sxtel−i = to steal (252). sxtip−o = 

log, block of wood. sxtof−o = cloth, stuff. sxton−o = stone. sxtop−i = to stop up, cork; −−ilo, stopper. 

sxtrump−o = stocking. sxtup−o = step, round; −−aro, stair−case. sxu−o = shoe; supersxuo, overshoe. sxuld−i 

= to owe, be indebted. sxultr−o = shoulder. sxut−o = chute; −−i, to pour (as in a chute). sxvel−i = to swell,


become swollen. sxvit−i = to perspire. 

T. 

tabak−o = tobacco. tabel−o = table, index, tabulation. tabl−o = table (furniture). tabul−o = board, plank. tag−o 

= day; −−igxo, dawn; −−mezo, noon. tajlor−o = tailor. taks−i = to estimate, value, rate. talent−o = talent. 

tali−o = waist; beltalia, shapely, having a good figure. tambur−o = drum. tamen = (conj.), nevertheless, 

however, yet, still. tantiem−o = percentage of profit, royalty. tapisx−o = carpet. tarif−o = tariff, schedule of 

rates. tas−o = cup; subtaso, saucer. task−o = task. tauxg−i = to be fit for, good for. tavol−o = layer. te−o = tea. 

teatr−o = theatre; −−ajxo, play. ted−i = to be tedious. teg−i = to cover, put a covering upon. tegment−o = roof. 

teks−i = to weave. telefon−i = to telephone. telegraf−i = to telegraph. teler−o = plate; −−meblo, sideboard. 

tem−o = theme, subject. temp−o = time. tempi−o = temple (of the head). templ−o = temple (building). ten−i = 

to hold, keep. tend−o = tent. tenor−o = tenor (voice). tent−i = to tempt. teori−o = theory. ter−o = earth, soil; 

enterigi, to inter. teras−o = terrace. teritori−o = territory. termin−o = term, definition (word). tern−i = to 

sneeze. terpom−o = potato. terur−o = terror. tia = that kind of, such (65). tial = (adv.), therefore (78, 83). tiam 

= (adv.), then, at that time (73). tibi−o = shin bone, tibia; −−karno, calf (of the leg). tie = (adv.), there (68). tiel 

= (adv.), thus, so (88, 156). tigr−o = tiger. tikl−i = to tickle. tili−o = linden. tim−i = to fear, be afraid of. 

timon−o = pole, tongue, shaft. tint−i = to jingle, tinkle. tio = (pronoun), that (233, 234). tiom = (adv.), that 

much, so much (104, 164). tir−i = to pull, draw. tiran−o = tyrant. titol−o = title. tiu = (pronoun), that one, that 

(56); tiu cxi, this one, this (60). tost−o = toast (sentiment). tol−o = linen. toler−i = to tolerate. tomat−o = 

tomato. tomb−o = tomb, grave. ton−o = tone. tond−i = to shear; −−ilo, shears, scissors. tondr−i = to thunder. 

tord−i = to twist; −−a, crooked, winding. tra = (prep.), through (46, 160). trab−o = beam (wooden). traduk−i = 

to translate. traf−i = to reach, attain (that which was aimed at or sought); maltrafi, to miss. trajt−o = feature. 

trakt−i = to treat of (in essay, speech, etc.); −−ato, treatise. tram−o = tram; −−vojo, tramway, street−car line; 

−−veturilo, street−car. trancx−i = to cut, sever. trankvil−a = serene, tranquil, calm. trans = (prep.), across, the 

other side of (160). tre = (adv.), very, very much. trem−i = to tremble. tremp−i = to drench, dip. tren−i = to 

drag, haul, draw; −−ajxo, train (of a dress). trezor−o = treasure. tri = (adj.), three (136). trik−i = to knit. trink−i 

= to drink. tritik−o = wheat. triumf−o = triumph. tro = (adv.), too, too much. tromp−i = to deceive. tron−o = 

throne. tropik−o = tropic. trot−i = to trot. trotuar−o = sidewalk, pavement. trov−i = to find. tru−o = hole. 

trud−i = to force upon, impose; altrudema, importunate. trunk−o = trunk (of tree or body). tualet−o = toilet. 

tub−o = tube, pipe. tuber−o = bulb, knot, tuber. tuj = (adv.), at once, immediately tuk−o = piece of cloth. tur−o 

= tower. turk−o = Turk. turment−i = to torment. turn−i = (trans.), to turn. tus−i = to cough. tusx−i = to touch; 

kortusxi, to touch (the heart of). tut−a = entire, whole, all. 

U. 

−uj− = suffix indicating receptacle, that which bears or contains (181). −ul− = suffix indicating person 

characterized by that in the root (132). ulm−o = elm. −um− = indefinite suffix (268). ung−o = nail (of finger); 

−−ego, claw, talon. univers−o = universe. universitat−o = university. unu = (adj.), one (136, 137, 180); 

unuigxo, union. uragan−o = hurricane. urb−o = city; cxefurbo, capital. urgx−i = to be urgent or pressing. 

urs−o = bear. Uson−o = United States of America. util−a = useful. uz−i = to use; trouzi, to abuse. 

V. 

vad−i = to wade. vafl−o = waffle. vag−i = to wander, to roam; −−isto, vagabond. vagon−o = car, railway 

carriage. vak−i = to be vacant. vaks−o = wax. val−o = valley. valiz−o = valise, satchel, bag. valor−i = to be 

worth. vals−i = to waltz. van−a = vain, fruitless. vang−o = cheek. vant−a = vain, conceited. vapor−o = steam, 

vapor. varb−i = (trans.), to enlist, recruit. varm−a = warm. vast−a = vast, spacious, extensive. vaz−o = vase, 

basin. ve! = (interjection), woe! ho ve! alas! (273). veget−i = to vegetate, grow (as plants). vegetar−a = 

vegetarian. vejn−o = vein. vek−i = (trans.), to wake, awake. vel−o = sail. velk−i = to fade, wither, wilt. 

velur−o = velvet. ven−i = to come. vend−i = to sell. vendred−o = Friday. venen−o = poison. vengx−i = to 

avenge. venk−i = to conquer, vanquish. vent−o = wind. ver−o = truth. verand−o = veranda, porch. verd−a =


green. verk−i = to compose (music or literature). verm−o = worm. vermicxel−o = vermicelli. vers−o = verse. 

versx−i = to pour (a liquid). vertikal−a = vertical. vesper−o = evening (93). vest−i = to clothe, dress. vesxt−o 

= vest, waistcoat. vet−i = to wager, bet. veter−o = weather. vetur−i = to ride, go (in vehicle, boat, etc.). vi = 

(pronoun), you (32, 37, 274). viand−o = meat. vibr−i = to vibrate. vic−o = turn, place in a series; lauxvice, in 

turn; siavice, in his (her, its, their) turn; vicprezidanto, vice−president. vid−i = to see. vidv−o = widower; 

−−ino, widow. vigl−a = alert, brisk. vilagx−o = village. vin−o = wine. vinagr−o = vinegar. vinber−o = grape; 

sekvinbero, raisin. vintr−o = winter. viol−o = violet. violon−o = violin. vip−i = to whip. vir−o = man virt−o = 

virtue. visx−i = to wipe. vitr−o = glass (material). viv−i = to live (133). vizagx−o = face, visage. vizit−i = to 

visit. vocx−o = voice; −−doni, to vote. voj−o = road, way. vojagx−i = to journey, travel, voyage. vok−i = to 

call. vokal−o = vowel. vol−i = to be willing, will, wish. volont−e = willingly. volum−o = volume (book). 

volumen−o = volume (of a body). volv−i = to roll (something around something). vort−o = word; −−aro, 

dictionary. vost−o = tail. vual−o = veil. vulgar−a = common, vulgar. vulp−o = fox. vund−i = to wound. 

Z. 

zenit−o = zenith. zigzag−o = zigzag. zingibr−o = ginger. zink−o = zinc. zon−o = girdle, belt, zone. zoologi−o 

= zoology. zorg−i = to care (for), be anxious (about). zum−i = to hum, buzz. 

* * * * * 

ENGLISH−ESPERANTO VOCABULARY. 

The following vocabulary includes all Esperanto roots used in the preceding lessons, all primary words of the 

language, and a large number of additional roots (to facilitate original composition). No attempt has been 

made, however, to include all of the roots of the language, or their various English meanings, for which an 

English−Esperanto Dictionary should be consulted. 

References are to sections, unless the page (p.) is given. [Since page numbers have no relevance in this etext 

version, such references were deleted.] For other parts of speech than those indicated, see Word Formation, 

116, 120, 159, 171, also the references under Prefixes and Suffixes in the Index. For formation of compound 

words other than those given, see 160, 167, 176, 184. The following abbreviations are used: adj. = adjective; 

adv. = adverb; conj. = conjunction; intrans. = intransitive; prep. = preposition; trans. = transitive; −− = 

repetition of the English word. 

A 

abandon = forlas−i. abash = hontig−i. (be) able = pov−i (72). abominable = abomen−a. about = (prep.), 

cxirkaux; (concerning) pri; (adv.), (approximately, proksimum−e. above = (prep.), super (159); (adv.), supr−e; 

cxi supre. abrupt = subit−a. absorb = sorb−i. abundant = suficxeg−a. academy = akademi−o. accelerate = 

(trans.), akcel−i. accent = akcent−o. accept = akcept−i. accident = akcident−o; (chance) okaz−o. accompany = 

akompan−i. (in) accordance with = (prep.), laux (191). account = kont−o; (bill) kalkul−o; (story) rakont−o. 

(on) account of = (prep.), pro (86). accurate = akurat−a. accusative = akuzativ−o. accuse = akuz−i, kulpig−i. 

accustomed = familiar−a, kutimit−a. ache = dolor−o. acid = acid−o. (be) acquainted with = kon−i (117); 

become −−, konatigx−i. acquire, akir−i. across = (prep.), trans. act = ag−i; −−on, efik−i; (behave) kondut−i; 

(of play) akt−o. active = agema; (grammatical), aktiv−a. actor = aktor−o. actual = efektiv−a, ver−a. acute = 

akr−a. add = aldon−i (160). address = (on letters, etc.) adres−o; (lecture) parolad−o. adequate = suficx−a. 

adjacent = apud−a (159). adjective = adjektiv−o. administer = (manage), administr−i. admire = admir−i. admit 

= konfes−i; (let in) allas−i. admonish = admon−i. adore = ador−i. adorn = ornam−i. adverb = adverb−o. 

advantage = util−o, profit−o. advertise = reklam−i. advise = konsil−i. affable = afabl−a. affair = afer−o; 

regrettable −−, domagx−o. affirmative = jes−a (171). (be) afraid = tim−i. Africa = Afrik−o. after = (prep.), 

post (89). afternoon = posttagmez−o. again = denov−e, re−e (223). against = (prep.), kontraux. age = agx−o; 

of −−, plenagx−a; old −−, maljunec−o. (give an) agency = komisi−i. agent = agent−o. agitate = agit−i. agony


= agoni−o. agree = konsent−i; (contract) kontrakt−i. agreeable = agrabl−a. aid = help−i. aim at = cel−i. air = 

aer−o; to −−, aerum−i; (music) ari−o. alas! = ho ve (273). alcohol = alkohol−o. alcove = alkov−o. alert = 

vigl−a. Alexander = Aleksandr−o. Alexandria = Aleksandri−o. Alfred = Alfred−o. algebra = algebr−o. alive = 

viv−a. all = (pronoun and adj.), cxiuj (173); (indefinite pronoun) cxio (233); (adv. of quantity) cxiom (194); 

(whole, entire) tut−a. alliance = lig−o. allow = permes−i. allude = alud−i. allure = log−i. almanac = 

almanak−o. almost = (adv.), preskaux. alms = almoz−o. alone = sol−a. along = (prep.), laux (191); −− with, 

kune kun. aloud = lauxt−e. alphabet = alfabet−o. already = (adv.), jam. also = (adv.), ankaux. altar = altar−o. 

alter = (trans.), sxangx−i, aliig−i. although = (conj.), kvankam. always = (adv.), cxiam (187). America = 

Amerik−o. amiable = afabl−a, amind−a. amid = meze de, inter (85). among = (prep.), inter (85). amount = 

sum−o, kvant−o; a certain −−, iom (217). amphibious = amfibi−a. amphitheatre = amfiteatr−o. amuse = 

amuz−i. analyse = analiz−i. ancestor = prapatr−o (282). anchor = ankr−o. ancient = antikv−a. and = (conj.), 

kaj (26). anecdote = anekdot−o. anew = denov−e. angel = angxel−o. angle = angul−o. angry = koler−a. animal 

= best−o. ankle = maleol−o. announce = anonc−i. annoy = cxagren−i. anoint = sxmir−i. answer = respond−i. 

ant = formik−o. antelope = antilop−o. antipathy = antipati−o. antique = antikv−a. anvil = ambos−o. anxious = 

maltrankvil−a. any = (pronoun and adj.), iu (203); (adv. of quantity) iom (217); −−kind, −−time, −−thing, etc., 

see table, 235. any more = (adv.), plu. apartment = apartament−o. apathy = apati−o. apologise = pardonon 

pet−i. apology = (defence), apologi−o. apparatus = aparat−o. appear = (come in sight), aper−i; (seem) sxajn−i. 

appearance = (aspect), aspekt−o, mien−o, vidigx−o. appetite = apetit−o. applaud = aplauxd−i. apple = pom−o. 

apply = (put on), almet−i; −− to (for information, etc.), sin turni al. approach = alproksimigx−i al. appropriate 

= proprigi al si; (suitable), konven−a, dec−a. approve = aprob−i. approximate = proksimum−a. apricot = 

abrikot−o. April = april−o. apron = antauxtuk−o. aquarium = akvari−o. Arab = arab−o; street −−, bub−o. 

arbitrate = arbitraci−i. arbor = lauxb−o. arc = ark−o. arcade = arkad−o. archer = pafarkist−o. Archimedes = 

Arhximed−o. architecture = arhxitektur−o. arena = aren−o. argue = argument−i. Aristeides = Aristejd−o. 

aristocrat = aristokrat−o. Aristotle = Aristotel−o. arithmetic = aritmetik−o. arm = (of the body), brak−o; 

(weapon) armil−o. army = arme−o. aroma = arom−o. around = (prep.), cxirkaux (89, 160). arouse = incit−i, 

vek−i. arrange = arangx−i. arrest = arest−i. arrive = alven−i. arrogant = arogant−a. arrow = sag−o. art = art−o. 

Arthur = Artur−o. article = (grammatical, literary) artikol−o. artificial = artefarit−a. artless = naiv−a. as = 

(adv.) kiel; as ... as ... tiel ... kiel ... (156); −− if, −− though, kvazaux (250); −− far as, gxis (prep., 46); −− 

much ... as ..., tiom ... kiom (164). ascertain = certigx−i; −− the truth of, konstat−i. (be) ashamed = hont−i. 

ashes = cindr−o. Asia = Azi−o. aside from = (prep.), krom. ask = (inquire), demand−i; (request), pet−i. 

asparagus = asparag−o. aspect = aspekt−o, mien−o. ass = azen−o. assemble = kunven−i, kunvok−i. assist = 

help−i. association = (organization), asoci−o. assurance = aplomb−o, certigo. at = (prep.), cxe (125, 160), je 

(260); −− the rate of, po (175). athlete = atlet−o. atmosphere = atmosfer−o. attack = atak−i. attain = ating−i, 

traf−i. attempt = prov−i. attentive = atent−a. attest = atest−i. attribute = atribut−o. August = auxgust−o. 

Australia = Auxstrali−o. author = auxtor−o, verkist−o. automatic = auxtomat−a. autumn = auxtun−o. 

avaricious = avar−a. avenge = vengx−i. avenue = ale−o, bulvard−o. avoid = evit−i. awake = (trans.), vek−i. 

away = (adv.), for (71); (distant), malproksim−e (170). axe = hakil−o. axis = (axle), aks−o. 

B. 

babble = babil−i. baby = infanet−o. bachelor = frauxl−o; −− of arts (A.B.), abiturient−o. back = (of the body), 

dors−o; to the rear (adv.), malantauxen (121). bacon = lard−o. bag = sak−o, valiz−o. bagatelle = bagatel−o. 

bake = (trans.), bak−i. balance = (trans.), balanc−i; (scales), pesil−o. ball = (to play with), pilk−o; (dance), 

bal−o; (globe), glob−o. banana = banan−o. band = (stripe), stri−o; (music), orkestr−o; (group), ar−o (126). 

bandage = bandagx−i. banish = ekzil−i. bank = (financial), bank−o; (shore), bord−o. (become) bankrupt = 

bankrot−i banner = flag−o, standard−o. banquet = festen−o. bar = bar−i. barbarian = barbar−o. bare = nud−a. 

bark = (of trees), sxel−o; (of dogs), boj−i. barrel = barel−o; −− organ, gurd−o. barren = senfrukt−a. barrister = 

advokat−o. barytone = bariton−o. base = (foundation), fundament−o, baz−o; (ignoble), malnobl−a. basin = 

vaz−o, kuv−o. basket = korb−o. bass = (voice), bas−o. bathe = (trans.), ban−i. battle = batal−i. be = est−i 

(109). beak = bek−o. beam = (wooden), trab−o; (light), radi−o. bean = (leguminous fruit), fab−o; (garden 

bean), fazeol−o. bear = (animal), urs−o; (carry), port−i; (endure), elport−i, sufer−i; (produce, give birth to), 

nask−i. beard = barb−o. beast = best−o. beat = bat−i; (surpass), super−i, venk−i. beautiful = bel−a. because =


(conj.), cxar (83), tial ke (83); −− of (prep.), pro (86). become = igx−i, farigx−i (232); (be suitable), konven−i, 

dec−i. bed = lit−o. bee = abel−o. beef = bovajx−o (227, c). beefsteak = bifstek−o. beet = bet−o. before = 

(prep.), antaux (89, 90, 120, 159, 160); (conj.), antaux ol (97, 98); (adv.), antauxe, jxus antauxe. beg = 

(request), pet−i; (ask alms), almozon pet−i. beggar = almozul−o. begin = (trans.), komenc−i (see also prefix 

"ek−", 206). behave = kondut−i. behind = (prep.), post. behold = rigard−i, vid−i; (adv.), jen (228). Belgian = 

belg−o. believe = kred−i (265). bell = sonoril−o. belong = aparten−i. below = (prep.), sub; (adv.), sub−e, 

malsupr−e. belt = zon−o. bench = benk−o. bend = (trans.), klin−i, fleks−i. benevolence = bonfar−o. berry = 

ber−o. beside = (prep.), krom; (near), apud; (at the side of), flanke de. bet = vet−i. betray = perfid−i. betrothed 

= (man), fiancx−o. between = (prep.), inter (85, 89). bewitch = ensorcx−i. beyond = (prep.), preter. bicycle = 

bicikl−o. bid = (order), ordon−i; −− farewell, adiaux−i. big = grand−a. bill = (of bird), bek−o; bank −−, 

bankbilet−o; hand−−, afisx−o; (reckoning), kalkul−o. bind = (fasten), lig−i; (wounds), bandagx−i. bird = 

bird−o. biscuit = biskvit−o; (ring−shaped), kring−o. bit = (piece), pec−o; (adv.), iom (217). bite = mord−i. 

black = nigr−a; to −− (shoes, etc.), cir−i. blackberry = rubus−o. blackbird = merl−o. blacking = cir−o. blade = 

(of knife, etc.), kling−o. bleat = blek−i. bless = ben−i. blind = blind−a. block = (of wood), stip−o. blood = 

sang−o. bloom = flor−i (116). blot = (spot), makul−o. blotter = sorbil−o, sorbpaper−o. blouse = bluz−o, 

kitel−o. blow = blov−i; (stroke), bat−o. blue = blu−a; −−ish, dubeblu−a. blush = rugxigx−i. board = (plank), 

tabul−o; (food), nutrad−o. boast = fanfaron−i. boat = boat−o, sxipet−o. body = korp−o. boil = (intrans.), bol−i 

(275). bolt = (fasten), rigl−i. bonbon = bombon−o. bond = (fastening), ligil−o. bone = ost−o. book = libr−o; 

note−−, copy−−, kajer−o. boot = bot−o. border = (edge), rand−o. bore = (holes), bor−i; (weary), enuig−i. (be) 

born = naskigx−i. borrow = pruntepren−i. Boston = Boston−o. both = (pronoun and adj.), ambaux (238); 

(adv.), kaj (26). bottle = botel−o. bottom = fund−o, malsupr−o. bough = brancx−o. boulevard = bulvard−o. 

boundary = lim−o. bouquet = buked−o. bow = (of ribbon), bant−o; (for shooting), pafark−o. bow = (bend), 

klinigx−i, salut−i. box = kest−o; small −−, skatol−o. boy = knab−o. bracket = (shelf), bret−o. brag = 

fanfaron−i. braid = plekt−i. brain = cerb−o. branch = (of tree), brancx−o; (of work or study), fak−o. brandish 

= sving−i. brandy = brand−o. brave = brav−o. bread = pan−o. break = (trans)., romp−i; −− to pieces, frakas−i. 

breakfast = matenmangx−o. breathe = spir−i. brick = brik−o. bridge = pont−o. bridle = brid−o. bright = 

(clear), hel−a. bring = alport−i; −− forth (produce), nask−i; −− up (educate), eduk−i. brisk = vigl−a. Briton = 

Brit−o. broad = largx−a. brochure = brosxur−o. bronze = bronz−o. brood = (birds), kov−i. brother = frat−o. 

brown = brun−a. brownie = kobold−o. bruise = kontuz−i. brush = bros−i. brute = brut−o. bucket = sitel−o. 

buckle = buk−o. bud = burgxon−o. build = konstru−i. bulb = tuber−o, bulb−o. Bulgarian = Bulgar−o. bull = 

bovvir−o. bullet = kugl−o. bunch = fask−o. bundle = fask−o, pakajx−o. bungle = fusx−i. burden = sxargx−i. 

burn = (intrans.), brul−i (275). burst = (intrans.), krev−i. bury = enterig−i. but = (conj.), sed; (prep.), krom. 

butcher = bucx−i. butter = buter−o. butterfly = papili−o. button = buton−o; to −−, butonum−i. buy = acxet−i. 

buzz = zum−i. by = (prep.), per (64); de (169, 170); (past), preter; (according to), laux (191). 

C. 

cab = fiakr−o. cabbage = brasik−o. cage = kagx−o. cake = kuk−o. calculate = kalkul−i. caldron = kaldron−o. 

calendar = kalendar−o. calf = bovid−o; (of the leg), tibikarn−o. call = vok−i; (visit), vizit−i. calling = 

(profession), profesi−o. calm = kviet−a, trankvil−a. camel = kamel−o. camera = kamer−o. can = (be able), 

pov−i (72); (preserve fruit, etc.), konfit−i. candle = kandel−o. candy = kand−o. canoe = kanot−o. cap = 

cxap−o. capable = kapabl−a. capital = (money), kapital−o; (excellent), boneg−a; (city), cxefurb−o. capitol = 

kapitol−o. car = vagon−o. card = kart−o; visiting −−, vizitkart−o. care = (for), zorg−i (pri). caress = dorlot−i, 

kares−i. carpet = tapisx−o. carriage = kalesx−o, veturil−o. carrot = karot−o. carry = port−i. carve = skulpt−i. 

case = (small box), skatol−o; (chest), kest−o; (legal), proces−o; (holder), uj−o (181), ing−o (237); (occasion), 

okaz−o; (grammatical), kaz−o. cashier = kasist−o. cascade = kaskad−o. cast = jxet−i. castle = kastel−o. cat = 

kat−o. catch = kapt−i. cattle = brut−o, brutar−o. cauliflower = florbrasik−o. cause = ig−i (214); (produce a 

result), kauxz−i; (motive), kial−o; tial−o; (espoused or advocated), afer−o; (legal), proces−o. caution = 

avert−i. cavity = kav−o. cease = (intrans.), cxes−i. ceiling = plafon−o. celebrate = fest−i, solenig−i; −−ed, 

fama. celery = celeri−o. cellar = kel−o. cent = cend−o. center = centr−o. centigram = centigram−o (284). 

centiliter = centilitr−o (284). centimeter = centimetr−o (284). certain = cert−a; a −− (one), iu (pronoun and 

adj., 203); −− amount, etc., see table, 235. certainly = nepr−e, cert−e, ja (215). certify = atest−i, certig−i,


konstat−i. chain = cxen−o; (fetter), katen−o; (of mountains), montar−o. chair = segx−o. (be) chairman = 

prezid−i. chalk = kret−o. chance = sxanc−o; (hazard), hazard−o; (opportunity), okazo. change = (trans.), 

sxangx−i; (coins), moner−oj. chapel = kapel−o. chapter = cxapitr−o. character = karakter−o. charge = 

(commission), komisi−o; (burden), sxargx−o; (price, cost), prez−o, kost−o. charm = cxarm−i. chase = (game, 

etc.), cxas−i; (drive off), forpel−i. chatter = babil−i. check = (on bank), cxek−o. cheek = vang−o. cheese = 

fromagx−o. chemise = cxemiz−o. chemistry = hxemi−o. chemist's shop = apotek−o. cheque = cxek−o. cherry 

= cxeriz−o. chest = (box), kest−o; (with a lid), kofr−o. chestnut = kasxtan−o. chew = macx−i. chief = cxef−a, 

precip−a; (leader), estr−o (253). child = infan−o, id−o (207). chimney = kamen−o. chin = menton−o. china = 

(porcelain), porcelan−o; (country), Hxinuj−o. Chinaman = hxin−o. chirp = pep−i. chocolate = cxokolad−o. 

choir = hxor−o. choose = elekt−i. chop = hak−i; (cutlet), kotlet−o. chrestomathy = krestomati−o. Christ = 

Krist−o. church = (building), pregxej−o. chute = sxut−o. cigar = cigar−o. cigarette = cigared−o. cinnamon = 

cinam−o. cipher = cifer−o. circle = cirkl−o, rond−o. circular = (letter, etc.), cirkuler−o. circumstance = 

okaz−o, detal−o, cirkonstanc−o. citizen = regnan−o, urban−o. city = urb−o. civilise = civiliz−i. clack = 

krak−i. claim = pretend−i. clamber = ramp−i. clap = (trans.), klak−i. class = klas−o. clatter = (trans.), klak−i. 

claw = ungeg−o. clay = argil−o. clean = pur−a. clear = (bright), hela; (distinct), klar−a. clearing = (financial), 

spez−o. clergyman = pastr−o. clerk = komiz−o. clever = lert−a. climate = klimat−o. climb up = grimp−i, 

supren ramp−i. cloak = mantel−o. clock = horlogx−o. close = (trans.), ferm−i; (dense), dens−a; −− to (prep.), 

apud; proksim−e de (170). cloth = (in general), sxtof−o; (woollen, etc.), drap−o; (piece of), tuk−o; table−−, 

tablotuk−o. clothe = vest−i. cloud = nub−o. club = (organization), klub−o; (weapon), bastoneg−o. coal = 

karb−o. coat = vest−o; (short), jak−o; (frock), redingot−o; over−−, surtut−o. cock = (fowl), kok−o. coffee = 

kaf−o. collect = (trans.), kolekt−i. college = kolegi−o. colonel = kolonel−o. color = kolor−o. column = 

kolon−o. comb = komb−i. come = ven−i. comedy = komedi−o. comfort = (console), konsol−i; (freedom from 

pain, etc.), komfort−o. command = ordon−i; (military and naval), komand−i. commerce = komerc−o. 

commission = (entrusted), komisi−o; (percentage of profit), tantiem−o, komisipag−o. committee = komitat−o. 

common = (general), gxeneral−a; (mutual), komun−a; (vulgar), vulgar−a. communicate = komunik−i. 

company = (commercial), kompanio; (guests), gastar−o; (presence), cxeest−o. compare = (trans.), kompar−i 

(266). compassion = kompat−o. compete = konkur−i. competition = konkurad−o; (for prizes), konkurs−o; (in 

business), konkurenc−o. complain = plend−i. complicate = komplik−i. compose = (music or literature), 

verk−i. compositor = (of type), kompostist−o. conceal = kasx−i (252). concern = koncern−i (266); (anxiety), 

maltrankvilec−o. concerning = (prep.), pri. (264, c). concert = (musical), koncert−o. condemn = kondamn−i. 

condition = cirkonstanc−o; (stipulation), kondicx−o; (state), stat−o. conduct = (lead), konduk−i; −− oneself 

(behave), kondut−i. conduct = (behavior), kondut−o; (in regard to right or wrong), mor−o. conductor = (of 

car, etc.), konduktor−o. confess = konfes−i. confide = konfid−i. conform = konform−i (266). confound = 

(confuse), konfuz−i. congratulate = gratul−i. congress = kongres−o. conquer = venk−i. conscience = 

konscienc−o. (be) conscious = konsci−i. consent = konsent−i. consequently = sekv−e, do; tial (78). (be) 

conservative = konservativ−a. consist = konsist−i. console = konsol−i. consonant = (letter), konsonant−o. 

conspire = konspir−i. constant = konstant−a. constitution = konstituci−o. consul = konsul−o. consult = 

konsult−i, pet−i konsilon de. contaminate = infekt−i. content = kontent−a. continent = (land), kontinent−o. 

continue = dauxr−i, dauxrig−i. contour = kontur−o. contract = (commercial and legal), kontrakt−i. contralto = 

kontralt−o. contrary = mal−o (67); kontrauxstarem−a. control = kontrol−i; (govern), reg−i. convenient = 

konven−a, oportun−a. convince = konvink−i. cook = kuir−i. copper = kupr−o. copy = kopi−i; (of a book, 

etc.), ekzempler−o. coquettish = koket−a. cork = sxtop−i; (bark of cork tree), kork−o. corner = angul−o. 

corporal = corporeal, korp−a. corps = (military), korpus−o. corpse = kadavr−o. correct = korekt−i; (right), 

prav−a. correspond = korespond−i. corridor = koridor−o. cost = kost−i. costume = kostum−o. cotton = 

koton−o. cough = tus−i. counsel = konsil−i. count = kalkul−i, sum−i, nombr−i; (person), graf−o. county = 

grafland−o. country = land−o; (as opposed to city), kampar−o. coupon = kupon−o. (be) courageous = 

kuragx−i. course = (of lessons), kurs−o; (of a meal), servic−o; of −−, kompreneble; in the −− of, en la dauxro 

de. court = kort−o, korteg−o, jugxej−o. courteous = gxentil−a. courtesy = gxentilec−o; (kindness), 

komplez−o. cousin = kuz−o. cover = kovr−i; (put covering upon), teg−i. crab = krab−o. crack = (split) 

(trans.), fend−i; (crackle), krak−i; (burst open) (intrans.), krev−i. cradle = lulil−o. crafty = ruz−a. cravat = 

kravat−o. crawl = ramp−i. crazy = frenez−a. cream = krem−o. create = kre−i. creep = ramp−i; −− up, grimp−i. 

crime = krim−o. crippled = kripl−a. criticise = kritik−i. crooked = tord−a, malrekt−a, kurb−a. cross = kruc−o;


(angry), koler−a; −− off, trastrek−i. crowd = amas−o, anar−o (145, 126). crown = kron−o. crucify = 

krucum−i. cruel = kruel−a. crush = pist−i, premeg−i. crust = krust−o. cry = (weep), plor−i; (shout), kri−i; (of 

animals), blek−i. cucumber = kukum−o. cultivate = kultur−i; −− the soil, terkultur−i. cunning = ruz−a. cup = 

tas−o; (goblet), pokal−o. cupboard = sxrank−o. curious = (odd), kurioz−a; (inquisitive), scivol−a. curl = (of 

hair), bukl−o. curtain = kurten−o. curve = kurb−o. cushion = kusen−o. custom = kutim−o; (tax), impost−o. cut 

= trancx−i; (of a garment), fason−o. cutlet = kotlet−o. cylinder = cilindr−o. Cyrus = Cirus−o. 

D. 

dabble = (a liquid), plauxd−i. dainty = delikat−a. damage = difekt−i. Damocles = Damokl−o. Dane = dan−o. 

danger = dangxer−o. dance = danc−i. date = (fruit), daktil−o; (time), dat−o. dawn = tagigx−o. day = tag−o. 

deaf = surd−a. dear = (prized), kar−a; (expensive), multekost−a. debase = (adulterate), fals−i; (make bad), 

malbonig−i. decay = (mould), sxim−o; (in health), kaduk−i. deceive = tromp−i. December = decembr−o. 

decide = decid−i. decigram = decigram−o (284). deciliter = decilitr−o (284). decimeter = decimetr−o (284). 

deck (of ship) = ferdek−o; (adorn), ornam−i. declaim = deklam−i. deep = profund−a. deer = cerv−o. defend = 

defend−i. define = defin−i, priskrib−i. degree = grad−o. dekagram = dekagram−o (284). dekaliter = dekalitr−o 

(284). dekameter = dekametr−o (284). delay = prokrast−i. delegate = deleg−i. delicate = delikat−a. delightful 

= cxarm−a, placxeg−a. deliver (supply) = liver−i; (set free), liberig−i. delusion = iluzi−o. demand = postul−i. 

dense = dens−a. deny = ne−i (171). department (of work, etc.) = fak−o. desert = dezert−o; (just reward), 

merit−o. deserve = merit−i. desire = dezir−i. desk = pupitr−o, skribtabl−o. dessert = desert−o. destine = 

destin−i; difin−i. destiny = destin−o; (lot), sort−o. destroy = detru−i, neniig−i. detail = detal−o. dew = ros−o. 

diamond = diamant−o. dictionary = vortar−o. dictate (letters) = dikt−i. die = mort−i. different = divers−a, 

malsam−a, diferenc−a. differentiate = diferencig−i. dig = fos−i. dignity (rank) = rang−o. diligent = diligent−a. 

dimension = dimensio; (size), ampleks−o. Diogenes = Diogen−o. dip (in liquid) = tremp−i. diploma = 

diplom−o; holder of −−, diplomit−o. diplomat = diplomat−o. direct (guide) = direkt−i; (undeviating), rekt−a. 

disburse = elspez−i, elpag−i. discount = rabat−i. discuss = diskut−i, priparol−i. disdain = malsxat−i, 

malestim−i. dish (flat) = plad−o. dispatch (letter) = depesx−o. distance = distanc−o. distinct = klar−a. 

distinguish = disting−i. distract (the attention) = distr−i; (confuse), konfuz−i. disturb = gxen−i, 

maltrankvilig−i. diverse = divers−a. divide = (trans.), divid−i. do = far−i; (suffice), suficx−i. doctor = 

doktor−o; (medical), kuracist−o. dog = hund−o. doll = pup−o. dollar = dolar−o. donkey = azen−o. door = 

pord−o; −−handle, ans−o. doubt = dub−i. down (hair or feathers) = lanug−o; (downward) (adv.), malsupren. 

dove = kolomb−o. drag = (trans.), tren−i. draw (pull) = tir−i; (sketch), skiz−i. drawer = tirkest−o. 

drawing−room = salon−o. dream (in sleep) = songx−i; (fancy), rev−i. drench = tremp−i. dress = vest−i (sin); 

(frock), rob−o; −−suit, frak−o. dressing (sauce) = sauxc−o. drink = trink−i. drip = gut−i. drive (off) = pel−i; 

(vehicle), veturig−i; (roadway), sxose−o. drown = (intrans.), dron−i. drug = drog−o; −−store, apotek−o. drum 

= tambur−o. dry = sek−a. duck = anas−o. dues = kotizajx−o; pay −−, kotiz−i. dumb = mut−a; −− animal, 

brut−o. during = (prep.), dum (96); en la dauxro de−. dusk = krepusk−o. dust = polv−o; remove the −−, 

senpolvig−i. duty = dev−o; be on −−, dejxor−i. dwell = logx−i. 

E. 

each = (adj. and pronoun), cxiu (173). eager = avid−a. eagle = agl−o. ear (of the body) = orel−o. early = fru−a. 

earth = ter−o; (the planet), terglob−o. east = orient−o. Easter = Pask−o. easy = facil−a. eat = mangx−i. echo = 

ehx−o. economical = sxparem−a. edge = rand−o; (of rivers, etc.), bord−o. edit = redakt−i. editor = redaktor−o. 

editorial body = redakci−o. educate = (rear), eduk−i; (teach), instru−i. effect = efekt−o. effective = efektiv−a. 

(be) efficacious = efik−i. egg = ov−o. Egypt = Egipt−o. eight = (adj.), ok (136). either = (pronoun and adj.), iu 

(203); cxiu (173); unu aux la alia; (adv.), aux; on −− side (adv.), ambauxflanke (238). elbow = kubut−o. 

electric = elektr−a. elk = alk−o. elm = ulm−o. eloquent = elokvent−a. embroider = brod−i. eminent = 

eminent−a. empire = imperi−o. employ = (hire), dung−i; −− oneself, sin okupi; (use), uz−i. employee = 

komiz−o, dungit−o, oficist−o. employment = ofic−o, okupad−o. enchant = ensorcx−i, rav−i. encore = (adv.), 

bis. end = (trans.), fin−i. endow = dot−i. endure = sufer−i, elport−i. engineer = ingxenier−o. Englishman = 

angl−o. enjoy = gxu−i; −− oneself, sin amuz−i. enlightened = kler−a. enlist = (trans.), varb−i. enroll = (trans.),


registr−i, varb−i. enthusiasm = entuziasm−o. entire = tut−a. entrust = komisii, alkonfid−i. envelope = (of 

letter), kovert−o. envy = envi−i. (be an) epicure = frand−i. epoch = epok−o. equal = egal−a. err = erar−i. 

establish = establ−i, fond−i; (prove, etc.), konstat−i. estate = bien−o. esteem = estim−i. estimate = taks−i. 

eternal = etern−a, cxiam−a. Europe = Euxrop−o. evangel = evangeli−o. even = (level), eben−a; −− number, 

parnombro; (actually) (adv.), ecx. evening = vesper−o (93); −− dress (of man), frak−o. ever = (adv.), iam 

(212); (indefinite adv.), ajn (236); (always), cxiam (187). every = (one), (pronoun and adv.), cxiu (173); 

−−thing, −− way, etc., see table, 235. evolution = evoluci−o. exact = akurat−a, gxust−a; (demand), postul−i. 

examine = ekzamen−i; −− and check, kontrol−i. example = ekzempl−o; (model), model−o. Excellency = 

(title), mosxt−o (258). except = escept−i (266); (prep.), krom. excite = ekscit−i. exercise = (trans.), ekzerc−i. 

exhale = elspir−i. exhort = admon−i. exile = ekzil−i. exist = ekzist−i. expect = atend−i. expend = (money), 

elspez−i; (energy, etc.), uz−i, eluz−i. experienced = spert−a. experiment = eksperiment−i. expert = spert−a, 

lert−a. explode = (intrans.), eksplod−i (275). explore = esplor−i. express = esprim−i; (train), rapida vagonaro. 

extend = (trans.), etend−i, pligrandig−i, plilongig−i. extensive = vast−a, vastampleks−a. extent = (size), 

ampleks−o. extinguish = esting−i. extraordinary = eksterordinar−a. eye = okul−o; −−brow, brov−o; −−lid, 

palpebr−o. 

F. 

fable = fabel−o. face = vizagx−o. fact = fakt−o; in −−, fakt−e, efektiv−e, ja (215). fade = velk−i. fair = (just), 

just−a; (beautiful), bel−a. fairy = fe−o, fein−o. faint = sven−i. faithful = fidel−a. fall = fal−i; (autumn), 

auxtun−o. false = fals−a; (treacherous), perfid−a. fame = fam−o. familiar = familiar−a, kutim−a. family = 

famili−o. fancy = imag−i, rev−i. far = malproksim−e; as −− as (prep.), gxis (46). farm = (as a tenant), farm−i; 

(till the soil), terkultur−i. farewell = (adv. and interjection), adiaux (171, 273). fashion = fason−o, mod−o. 

fasten = lig−i. fat = gras−o; (corpulent), dik−a. fatal = fatal−a. fate = sort−o, fatal−o, destin−o. father = patr−o. 

faucet = kran−o. favor = favor−i; a −−, komplezo. favorable = favor−a. fay = fe−o, fein−o. fear = tim−i. 

feather = plum−o. feature = trajt−o. feed = nutr−i; −− flocks, pasxt−i. feel = sent−i; (with fingers, etc.), palp−i. 

female = in−o (59). fervor = fervor−o. fetter = (chain, etc.), katen−o. fever = febr−o. fiance = fiancx−o. fie = 

(interjection), fi (273). field = kamp−o. fight = batal−i, milit−i. fill = plenig−i. find = trov−i. fine = bel−a, 

delikat−a; (of money), monpun−o. finger = fingr−o; index −−, montra fingro; little −−, malgranda fingro; 

middle −−, longa fingro; ring −−, ringa fingro. finish = (trans.), fin−i. fir = abi−o. fire = fajr−o; set −− to, 

ekbrulig−i. firm = firm−a. fish = fisx−o; (catch fish), fisxkapt−i. fist = pugn−o. fit = almezur−i; (be) −−, 

tauxg−i. (be) fitting = konven−i; (decent), dec−i. five = (adj.), kvin (136). flag = flag−o; standard−o. flat = 

glat−a, eben−a; plat−a. flesh = karn−o. flex = (trans.), fleks−i. floor = plank−o. flour = farun−o. flow = flu−i. 

flower = flor−o (116). fluid = fluid−a. fly = flug−i; (insect), musx−o. foam = sxauxm−o. focus = fokus−o. fog 

= nebul−o. fold = fald−i. folk = popol−o. follow = sekv−i, postven−i, postir−i. (be) fond of sweets = frand−i. 

fondle = dorlot−i. foot = (of the body), pied−o; (measure), fut−o. for = (prep.), por (95, 98, 262); pro (86); 

(conj.), cxar (83). force = fort−o; (compel), devig−i; −− (upon), altrud−i (al). fore− = pra− (282). forehead = 

frunt−o. foreign = fremd−a. forge = (falsify), fals−i. forget = forges−i. forgive = pardon−i. fork = fork−o. 

form = form−i, alform−i, model−i. formal = solen−a. found = fond−i. foundation = fundament−o. four = 

(adj.), kvar (136). fount = font−o. fountain = fontan−o. fox = vulp−o. fragrance = arom−o, bonodor−o. frame 

= (of picture), kadr−o. frank = afrank−i. Frederick = Frederik−o. free = liber−a. Frenchman = franc−o. 

frequent = oft−a; (visit often), vizitad−i. fresh = fresx−a, nov−a. Friday = vendred−o. friend = amik−o. fringe 

= frangx−o. frivolous = malserioz−a. frock coat = redingot−o. frog = ran−o. from = (prep.), de (89, 170); el; 

(cause), pro (86). frost = frost−o; (hoar), prujn−o. froth = sxauxm−o. fruit = frukt−o. fruitless = (vain), van−a. 

fry = (trans.), frit−i. function = (of machinery, etc.), funkci−i. funereal = funebr−a. fulfil = plenum−i. full = 

plen−a. fur = fel−o; (coat or wrap), pelt−o. furious = furioz−a. furnish = (supply), liver−i; (provide), proviz−i; 

(a house), mebl−i. furniture = (piece of), mebl−o. furrow = sulk−o. further = (adv.), plu. fuse = (trans.), 

fand−i. futile = van−a. future = estontec−o; (grammatical), estont−o; (adj.), estont−a. 

G. 

gain = gajn−i, obten−i. gallery = galeri−o; (for pictures), pinakotek−o. gallop = galop−i. gamin = bub−o. gape


= (yawn), osced−i. garden = gxarden−o. garland = girland−o. gas = gas−o. gather = (trans.), kolekt−i. gay = 

gaj−a. gaze = fikse rigard−i. gazette = gazet−o. general = gxeneral−a, komun−a; (military), general−o. 

gentleman = sinjor−o. geometry = geometri−o. German = german−o. Gertrude = Gertrud−o. ghost = 

fantom−o. gift = donac−o. ginger = zingibr−o. girdle = zon−o. give = don−i; (as a gift), donac−i; −− 

information, inform−i; −− notice, aviz−i; −− witness, atest−i; −− birth to, nask−i. (be) glad = gxoj−i (116). 

glass = (material), vitr−o; (tumbler), glas−o. glide = glit−i. globe = glob−o. glory = glor−o. glossy = 

(polished), polurit−a. glove = gant−o. glue = glu−i. gnash = grinc−i. go = ir−i; (in vehicle, boat, etc.), vetur−i; 

−− on a pilgrimage, pilgrim−i. goal = cel−o. goblet = pokal−o. God = Di−o. good = bon−a; be −− for, tauxg−i 

por. good−bye = (adv. and interjection), adiaux (171, 273). goose = anser−o. gospel = evangeli−o. govern = 

reg−i. graceful = graci−a. grade = grad−o; (rank), rang−o. grain = (wheat, etc.), gren−o; (unit) er−o (276). 

gram = gram−o (284). grammar = gramatik−o. grandfather = av−o. grandson = nep−o. grape = vinber−o. 

grass = herb−o. grasshopper = akrid−o. grate = rasp−i; grater, raspil−o. grating = (bar or lattice), krad−o. 

grave = tomb−o; (serious), grav−a. gravitate = gravit−i. gravy = sauxc−o. gray = griz−a. grieve = (trans.), 

cxagren−i, malgxojig−i; (intrans.) malgxoj−i. grind = grinc−i. great = grand−a; (remote in ancestry), pra− 

(282). Greek = grek−o. green = verd−a; −−ish, dubeverd−a. greet = salut−i. groan = gxem−i. group = grup−o, 

ar−o (126). ground = ter−o; −− floor, teretagx−o. grow = kresk−i, veget−i. guard = gard−i. guess = diven−i. 

guest = gast−o. guide = gvid−i, direkt−i. guilty = kulp−a. gunpowder = pulv−o. gush = (of liquids), sxpruc−i. 

H. 

habit = kutim−o. hack = hak−i; (carriage), fiakr−o. hail = (frozen rain), hajl−o. (a) hair = har−o; −− pencil, 

penik−o. half = duon−o (166, 277). halt = (intrans.), halt−i. ham = sxink−o. hammer = martel−o. hand = 

man−o; (of clock), montril−o. handbill = afisx−o. handicraft = meti−o. handsome = bel−a. hang = (intrans.), 

pend−i. handy = oportun−a. happen = okaz−i. happy = felicx−a. harbor = haven−o. hardly = (adv.), apenaux. 

hare = lepor−o. haricot = (bean), fazeol−o. harness = jung−i. harvest = rikolt−i. hasten = (trans.), akcel−i; 

(intrans.) rapid−i. hat = cxapel−o. haughty = fier−a. haul = tren−i. have = hav−i; −− to, dev−i. hay = fojn−o. 

hazard = hazard−o. hazel−nut = avel−o. he = (pronoun), li (32, 37, 42). head = kap−o; (adj.), cxef−a. health = 

san−o; state of (good or bad) −−, fart−o. hear = auxd−i. heart = kor−o; by −−, (by rote), parker−e. heat = 

(trans.), hejt−i, varmig−i. heaven = cxiel−o; heavenly body, astr−o. heavy = pez−a. Hebrew = hebre−o. heel = 

(of foot), kalkan−o; (of shoe), kalkanum−o. hektare = hektar−o (284). hektogram = hektogram−o (284). 

hektoliter = hektolitr−o (284). hektometer = hektometr−o (284). help = help−i (265). hen = kokin−o. herb = 

herb−o. hero = hero−o. hesitate = hezit−i. hide = kasx−i (252); (skin of animals), fel−o. Hiero = Hieron−o. 

high = alt−a. hinge = cxarnir−o. hip = koks−o. hire = (persons), dung−i; (houses, etc.), lu−i. hiss = sibl−i. 

history = histori−o. ho = (interjection), ho (273). hoar = (frost), prujn−o. hoarse = rauxk−a. hog = pork−o. 

hold = ten−i. holder = (handle), tenil−o, ans−o; (receptacle), uj−o (181); ing−o (237). hole = tru−o; (cavity), 

kav−o. Holland = Holand−o. holy = sankt−a. home = hejm−o; at −−, cxehejme. homesickness = nostalgi−o. 

honest = honest−a. honey = miel−o. honeysuckle = lonicer−o. honor = honor−i; (as term of address), mosxt−o 

(258). hook = krocx−i. hope = esper−i. horizon = horizont−o. horizontal = horizontal−a. horn = korn−o. horse 

= cxeval−o. horse−radish = armoraci−o. hose = sxtrump−oj; −− supporter, sxelk−o. hotel = hotel−o. hour = 

hor−o (185). house = dom−o; at the −− of (prep.), cxe (125, 160). how = (adv.), kiel (134); kiamanier−e; −− 

much, kiom (140, 185). however = (conj.), tamen; (adv.), ajn (236). hue = nuanc−o. hum = zum−i. human 

being = hom−o. humble = humil−a. humor = humor−o. hundred = (adj.), cent (142). hungry = malsat−a. hunt 

= sercx−i; (game or wild animals), cxas−i. hurdy−gurdy = gurd−o. hurl = jxet−i. hurrah = (interjection), hura 

(273). hurricane = uragan−o. hurry = rapid−i. husband = edz−o. hypocrite = hipokrit−o. 

I. 

I = (pronoun), mi (32, 37, 274). ice = glaci−o; (food), glaciajx−o. idea = ide−o. ideal = ideal−o. identical = 

ident−a. idiom = idiom−o. idiot = idiot−o. if = (conj.), se (240); as −−, kvazaux (250); (whether), cxu. ignore 

= ignor−i. illusion = iluzi−o. illustrate = ilustr−i. image = bild−o. imagine = imag−i. imitate = imit−i. 

immediate = tuj−a (171). implicate = implik−i. important = grav−a, serioz−a. importunate = altrudem−a. 

impose = trud−i. impost = impost−o. impress = impres−i. impulse = impuls−o. in = (prep.), en (46, 89, 160);


−− the presence of, cxe (125, 160). inch = col−o. incite = incit−i. incline = (trans.), klin−i. incommode = 

gxen−i. (be) indebted = sxuld−i. indeed = (adv.), ja (215); do; efektiv−e. index = tabel−o. Indian = 

(American), indian−o, rugxhauxtul−o; −− corn, maiz−o. indifferent = indiferent−a. industry = (trade), 

industri−o. inebriate = ebri−a. inevitable = nepr−a, neevitebl−a. infect = infekt−i. influence = influ−i. inform 

= inform−i, sciig−i. ingenuous = naiv−a. inhabitant = logxant−o, an−o (145). inhale = enspir−i. ink = ink−o. 

inquire = demand−i. insect = insekt−o. inside = (adv.), intern−e; (prep.), en. insist = insist−i. inspect = 

inspekt−i, ekzamen−i, rigard−i, kontrol−i. inspire = inspir−i. instantaneous = moment−a. instead of = (prep.), 

anstataux (98, 159). instruct = instru−i; (order), ordon−i. insult = insult−i. insure = (with a company), 

asekur−i; (make certain), certig−i. intelligent = inteligent−a. intend = intenc−i. interest = interes−i; (of 

money), procent−o. (be) intermittent = intermit−i. internal = intern−a. interpret = interpret−i. intimate = 

intim−a. intoxicated = ebri−a. investigate = esplor−i, ekzamen−i, elsercx−i. invite = invit−i. iron = (metal), 

fer−o; (linen), glad−i. island = insul−o. it = (pronoun), gxi (32, 37, 42, 274); see also 50, 51. Italian = ital−o. 

J. 

jacket = jak−o. jail = karcer−o. jam = kompot−o, fruktajx−o. January = januar−o. jaw = (orifice, opening), 

fauxk−o; (of the skull), makzel−o; −−bone, makzelost−o. jealous = jxaluz−a. jest = sxerc−i. Jesus = Jesu−o. 

Jew = hebre−o. jewel = juvel−o. jingle = (intrans.), tint−i. John = Johan−o. joint = artik−o. joke = sxerc−i. 

journal = jxurnal−o, revu−o. journey = vojagx−i. judge = jugx−i. jug = krucx−o. juggle = jxongl−i. July = 

juli−o. jump = salt−i. June = juni−o. jurist = jurist−o. just = (upright), just−a; (exact), gxust−a; (adv.), 

gxust−e, jxus. 

K. 

keep = ten−i, gard−i; (preserve), konserv−i; −− in mind, memor−i. kerosene = petrol−o. key = sxlosil−o; (of 

piano, etc.), klav−o. kill = mortig−i. kilogram = kilogram−o (284). kiloliter = kilolitr−o (284). kilometer = 

kilometr−o (284). kind = (species), spec−o; (good), bon−a, bonkor−a; that −−, what −−, etc., see table, 235. 

kindness = komplez−o, bonkorec−o. king = regx−o; −−dom, regxolando. kiss = kis−i. knave = fripon−o. knee 

= genu−o. kneel = genufleks−i. knit = trik−i. knock = frap−i. knot = tuber−o; (tied), ligajx−o; (of ribbon), 

bant−o. know = sci−i; (be acquainted with), kon−i (117). kobold = kobold−o. 

L. 

labor = labor−i; −− for the success or completion of something, klopod−i. lace = punt−o; (of a shoe), lacx−o. 

(be) lacking = (intrans.) mank−i. lake = lag−o. lamb = sxafid−o; (meat), sxafidajx−o. lame = lam−a. lamp = 

lamp−o. lance = lanc−o. land = land−o; (estate), bien−o; (soil), ter−o. landscape = pejzagx−o. language = 

lingv−o. lantern = lantern−o. large = grand−a. lark = (bird), alauxd−o. last = (intrans.), dauxr−i; (in a series), 

last−a; (previous) pasint−a, antaux−a. latch = ans−o. late = malfru−a. Latin = latin−a. latter = cxi−tiu (61, 62). 

lattice = krad−o. laugh = rid−i (265). law = legx−o; −−suit, proces−o; (rule), regul−o. lawyer = advokat−o, 

legxist−o. lay = meti, kusxig−i; −− aside, demet−i; −− claim, pretend−i. layer = tavol−o. lead = konduk−i. 

lead = (metal), plumb−o. leaf = foli−o. league = (alliance), lig−o. lean = (trans.), apog−i, klin−i; (not fat), 

malgras−a. leap = salt−i; −−year, superjar−o. learn = lern−i; (news, etc.), sciigx−i. learned = kler−a. least = 

(adv.), malplej (80), malpli multe (81); at −−, almenaux. leather = led−o. leave = (trans.), las−i; −− off 

(intrans.), cxes−i. leg = krur−o. legal = legx−a; −− process, proces−o. lemon = citron−o. lemonade = 

citronajx−o, limonad−o. lend = prunt−i, pruntedon−i. lens = objektiv−o. lengthen = (trans.), etend−i, 

plilongig−i. less = (adv.), malpli (80); malpli multe (81). lesson = lecion−o. let = (trans.), las−i; (rent), luig−i; 

(permit), permes−i. letter = (epistle), leter−o; (of the alphabet), liter−o. lettuce = laktuk−o. level = nivel−o; 

(flat), eben−a. library = bibliotek−o; (collection of books), librar−o. lick = lek−i. lie = (recline), kusx−i (239); 

(tell falsehoods), mensog−i. lift = lev−i. light = lum−a, hel−a; (not heavy), malpez−a. lightning = fulm−o. like 

= sxat−i; (similar), simil−a; see also 250. limb = membro; (of a tree), brancx−o. limit = lim−i. linden = tili−o. 

line = lini−o, vic−o, strek−o. linen = tol−o. lion = leon−o. lip = lip−o. liquid = fluid−a. listen = auxskult−i. 

liter = litr−o (284). literal = lauxliter−a. literature = literatur−o. little = malgrand−a; (with slightly affectionate


sense), et−a (198); (adv.), malmulte, iom (217); −− by −−, iom post iom. live = viv−i; (dwell), logx−i (133). 

load = sxargx−i. loan = prunt−i, pruntedon−i. local = lok−a. lock = sxlos−i; (fastening), serur−o. locomotive = 

lokomotiv−o. lodge = logx−i. log = sxtip−o. long = long−a; −− for, sopir−i je. look = rigard−i; −− for, 

sercx−i. lose = perd−i; (fail to profit), malgajn−i; −− time, malfru−i. lot = (fate), sort−o. loud = lauxt−a. love = 

am−i; make −−, amindum−i. loyal = fidel−a, lojal−a. luck = sxanc−o; lucky, bonsxanc−a. lull = kvietig−i; (to 

sleep), lul−i. lunatic = lunatik−o. lung = pulm−o. luxury = luks−o. 

M. 

macaroni = makaroni−o. machine = masxin−o. mad = frenez−a. magazine = gazet−o, jxurnal−o, revu−o. 

magic = magi−o. mail = posxt−o, enposxtig−i; −− box, posxtkest−o. maize = maiz−o. majestic = majest−a. 

majesty = (term of address), mosxt−o (258). make = far−i (see also 214); −− mistakes, erar−i; −− love, 

amindum−i. malicious = malic−a. man = vir−o. manage = administr−i, direkt−i; (a household), mastrum−i. 

manner = manier−o; (right or wrong), mor−o; in that −−, in every −−, etc., see table, 235. mantle = mantel−o. 

manufacture = fabrik−i. manuscript = manuskript−o. maple = acer−o. marble = (stone), marmor−o. march = 

marsxad−i. March = mart−o. mark = mark−o, sign−o; (official), stamp−o. marmalade = marmelad−o. marry = 

(become married), edzigx−i. master = mastr−o; (of his profession or art), majstr−o; −− of Arts (A.M.), 

magistr−o. match = (for fire), alumet−o. material = material−o; (cloth), sxtof−o. matter = afer−o. mature = 

matur−a. maximum = maksimum−o. May = maj−o; (auxiliary verb), see 269, 270. mayonnaise = majones−a. 

mean = signif−i, intenc−i, malnobl−a. meaning = senc−o. means = rimed−o; by −− of (prep.), per (64). 

measure = (trans.), mezur−i. meat = viand−o. mechanics = mehxanik−o. medical = medicin−a, kuracist−a. 

medicine = (drug, etc.), kuracil−o; (science), medicin−o, kuracart−o. meet = (trans.), renkont−i, traf−i; 

(assemble), kunven−i. melody = melodi−o. melon = melon−o. melt = fluidig−i, fluidigx−i, degel−i. member = 

membr−o, an−o (145). memory = memor−o; by −−, parker−e, memor−e. mend = ripar−i; (patch), flik−i. 

mention = nom−i; cit−i. menu = menu−o. merely = (adv.), nur. merit = merit−i. merry = gaj−a; make −−, 

festen−i. merry−go−round = karusel−o. metal = metal−o. meter = metr−o (284). method = metod−o. middle = 

mez−o, centr−o. mien = mien−o. mild = mild−a. mile = mejl−o. milk = lakt−o; (draw the milk of), melk−i. 

mill = muel−o. millimeter = milimetr−o (284). million = milion−o. mine = (coal, etc), min−o; (possessive 

adj.), mi−a (43). mineral = mineral−o. minimum = minimum−o. minister = (political), ministr−o; 

(clergyman), pastr−o. minute = (time), minut−o; (adj.), detal−a, malgrand−a. minutes = (of a meeting), 

protokol−o. mirror = spegul−o. miserly = avar−a. misery = mizer−o. miss = (fail to reach), maltraf−i; (be 

missing), mank−i; (notice the absence of), senti la foreston de; (young lady), frauxlin−o (163). mist = 

nebul−o. mistake = erar−o. Mister = Sinjor−o (163, 286). mix = (trans.), miks−i. mock = mok−i. mode = 

fason−o, mod−o. model = model−o. moderate = moder−a. modest = modest−a. moment = moment−o; a −− 

ago, (adv.), jxus. monarch = monarhx−o. Monday = lund−o. money = mon−o; −− box, kas−o; −− order, 

mandat−o. monk = monahx−o. monkey = simi−o. month = monat−o. moon = lun−o. moral = moral−a, 

bonmor−a; morals, moroj. more = (adv.), pli (74, 79); (quantity), pli multe (81); (further), plu; the −−, ju pli, 

des pli (84). morning = maten−o (93). morsel = pec−o. most = (adv.), plej (74, 79); (quantity), plej multe (81). 

mould = sxim−o. mountain = mont−o. mourning = funebr−o. mouse = mus−o. moustache = lipharoj. mouth = 

busx−o; (of river), enflu−o, elflu−o. move = (trans.), mov−i; (change residence) translogx−i. much = mult−a 

(81); (very), tre. mud = kot−o. murmur = murmur−i. museum = muze−o. mushroom = fung−o. music = 

muzik−o. must = dev−i (247). mute = mut−a. mutton = sxafajx−o. mutual = reciprok−a (180), komun−a. 

myopic = miop−a. mystery = mister−o. 

N. 

nail = (metal), najl−o; (of the finger or toe), ung−o. naive = naiv−a. naked = nud−a. name = nom−o. narrate = 

rakont−i. nation = naci−o. nature = natur−o. naught = nul−o; (none), neniom (231). near = proksim−a (170); 

(prep.), apud (120, 159). necessary = neces−a. neck = kol−o. need = bezon−i. needle = kudril−o. negative = 

ne−a (171); (photographic), negativ−o. neighbor = najbar−o. neither = (conj.), nek (31); (pronoun and adj.), 

neniu (220). nephew = nev−o. nerve = nerv−o. nest = nest−o. net = ret−o. neutral = neuxtral−a. never = (adv.), 

neniam (226). nevertheless = (conj.), tamen. new = nov−a, fresx−a; news, novajx−o. newspaper = jxurnal−o,


tagjxurnal−o. nice = delikat−a. night = nokt−o. nine = (adj.), naux (136). nitrogen = azot−o. no = (adv.), ne 

(27, 66, a); (adj.), neniu (220); −− one, −−where, etc., see table, 235. noble = nobl−a, nobleman = nobel−o. 

nobody = (pronoun), neniu (220). nod = (the head), balanc−i (la kapon). noise = bru−o. none = (adj. and 

pronoun), neniu (220); (adv.), neniom (231). non−partisan = neuxtral−a. noon = tagmez−o. nor = (conj.), nek 

(31). north = nord−o. Norwegian = norveg−o. not = (adv.), ne (27, 66, a). note = not−o, bilet−o; −−book, 

kajer−o; (notice), rimark−i, not−i. nothing = nenio (233). notice = rimark−i; not−i; give −−, aviz−i. 

notwithstanding = (prep.), malgraux; (conj.), tamen. nourish = nutr−i. novel = nov−a; (book), roman−o. 

November = novembr−o. now = (adv.), nun. nude = nud−a. nullify = nulig−i, neniig−i. number = (quantity), 

nombr−o; (numeral), numer−o. nut = nuks−o. 

O. 

oak = kverk−o. (make) oath = jxur−i. oats = aven−o. obey = obe−i (265). object = objekt−o; (aim), cel−o; 

(oppose), kontrauxparol−i, kontrauxstar−i, protest−i. objective = objektiv−o. obligation = (financial), sxuld−o; 

(moral), dev−o. oblige = (compel), devig−i; (render service), far−i komplezon, serv−i. oblique = oblikv−a. 

observe = observ−i, rimark−i, not−i. obstinate = obstin−a. obstruct = bar−i. occasion = foj−o (127); okaz−o. 

occupation = profesi−o, okup−o, meti−o. occupy = okup−i. occur = okaz−i. ocean = ocean−o. October = 

oktobr−o. odor = odor−o. of = (prep.), de (49, 100, 160, 170); da (99, 101, 103); el; (concerning), pri (160, 

264, c). offend = ofend−i. offer = propon−i, prezent−i, ofer−i. office = ofic−o; (place), oficej−o. officer = (of 

organization or firm), oficist−o; (military or naval), oficir−o. official = oficial−a. often = (adv.), oft−e, 

multfoj−e. oh = (interjection), ho (273). oil = ole−o. olive = oliv−o. on = (prep.), sur; −− account of, pro (86). 

once = (adv.), unufoj−e; −− on a time, iam (212); at −−, tuj; −− more, bis. one = (adj.), unu (136, 137, 180); 

(pronoun), oni (54). See 235. onion = bulb−o. only = sol−a; (mere), nur−a. opera = oper−o; −− glasses, 

lornet−o. opinion = opini−o. opportune = oportun−a. opposed to = (prep.), kontraux. opposite = (converse), 

mal−o (67); (prep.), kontraux. or = (conj.), aux. orange = (fruit), orangx−o. orchestra = orkestr−o. order = 

ordon−i; (of store, etc.), mend−i; (methodical or proper arrangement), ord−o; money −−, mandat−o. ordinary 

= ordinar−a. organ = (physical), organ−o; (musical), orgen−o. organize = organiz−i. original = original−o. 

ornament = ornam−i. orphan = orf−o. oscillate = (intrans.), balancigx−i. ostracism = ostracism−o. other = 

ali−a; (remaining), ceter−a; −− people's, malpropr−a; −−wise, ali−e. out of = el. outline = kontur−o; (profile), 

profil−o; (sketch), skiz−o. outside = (prep.), ekster (120, 121). over = (prep.), super; (across), trans; 

(concerning), pri; −−coat, surtut−o; −−shoe, supersxu−o; (adv.), (too), tro. owe = sxuld−i. own = posed−i, 

propr−a. ox = bov−o. oyster = ostr−o. 

P. 

pack = pak−i. pad = rembur−i. paddle = padel−i. page = (of book, etc.), pagx−o. pail = sitel−o. pain = 

dolor−o; (effort), pen−o; take pains, pen−i. paint = pentr−i; (material), kolorigil−o; −−brush, penik−o. pair = 

par−o. palace = palac−o. pale = pal−a. palisade = palisar−o. palm = (of the hand), polm−o. pamphlet = 

brosxur−o. pan = pat−o. paper = (material), paper−o; news−−, jxurnal−o. paradise = paradiz−o. paragraph = 

paragraf−o. pardon = pardon−i (265). parallel = paralel−a. park = park−o. parlor = salon−o. parsley = 

petrosel−o. parsnip = pastinak−o. part = part−o; of a work or book, kajer−o; separate (trans.), disir−i, 

apartig−i, disdivid−i. participle = particip−o. pass = (intrans.), pas−i. passage = koridor−o. passenger = 

pasagxer−o. passion = pasi−o. passive = pasiv−a. past = (prep.), preter; (time), estintec−o; (grammatical), 

estint−o; (bygone), estint−a. paste = (glue), glu−i. pasteboard = karton−o. pastor = pastr−o. pastry = kukajx−o. 

pasture = (trans.), pasxt−i. patch = flik−i. path = vojet−o. patience = pacienc−o. patient = (ill person), 

kuracat−o. patty = pastecx−o. pause = pauxz−i. pavement = pavim−o; (sidewalk), trotuar−o. pay = pag−i; −− 

dues, kotiz−i. pea = piz−o. peace = pac−o. peach = persik−o. pear = pir−o. pearl = perl−o. peculiar = strang−a, 

kurioz−a. peddle = kolport−i. pedestal = piedestal−o. pedestrian = piedirant−o. peeling = sxel−o. pen = 

plum−o; (enclosure), ej−o (III). pencil = krajon−o; hair−−, penik−o. penetrate = penetr−i. people = popol−o; 

(indefinite pronoun), oni (54). pepper = pipr−o. perceive = sent−i; (see), vid−i. percentage = procent−o; (of 

profit), tantiem−o. perfect = perfekt−a. perfidious = perfid−a. perform = (act), ag−i; (fulfil), plenum−i; (do), 

far−i. perfume = parfum−o; (odor), bonodor−o. period = period−o; (of time), epok−o; (punctuation), punkt−o.


perish = pere−i. permit = permes−i. persecute = persekut−i; (worry), turment−i, gxen−i. persevere = persist−i. 

person = person−o. perspire = sxvit−i. persuade = konvink−i. pet = dorlot−i. petroleum = petrol−o. phantom = 

fantom−o. Pharaoh = faraon−o. pharmacy = farmaci−o; (shop), apotek−o. philosopher = filozof−o. 

photograph = fotograf−i. phrase = fraz−o. physician = kuracist−o. physics = fizik−o. pick = (choose), elekt−i; 

(gather), kolekt−i. pickle = pekl−i. picture = bild−o; (portrait), portret−o; −− gallery, pinakotek−o. picturesque 

= pitoresk−a, pentrind−a. pie = kukajx−o; (patty), pastecx−o. piece = pec−o. pig = pork−o. pigeon = 

kolomb−o. (be a) pilgrim = pilgrim−i. pillage = rab−i. pillar = kolon−o. pin = pingl−o. pinch = pincx−i. pine = 

(tree), pin−o; −− for, sopir−i je. pineapple = ananas−o. pinnacle = pint−o. pioneer = pionir−o. pious = pi−a. 

pipe = tub−o; (for smoking), pip−o. pitcher = krucx−o. pity = kompat−i; (regrettable affair), domagx−o. 

placard = afisx−o. place = lok−o; (for something), −ej−o (111); (broad, short street or open space), plac−o; 

(put), met−i. plait = plekt−i. plan = plan−o, projekt−o, skiz−o. plane = plat−a. planet = planed−o. plank = 

tabul−o. plant = plant−i; (vegetable growth), kreskajx−o, vegetajx−o. plate = plat−o; (dish) teler−o. platform = 

(railway), peron−o. play = lud−i; (music), muzik−i; (theatrical), teatrajx−o. player = (theatrical), aktor−o. 

pleasant = agrabl−a, dolcx−a, afabl−a. please = placx−i (265); kontentig−i, far−i plezuron al; (in requests), 

bonvolu, mi petas. pleasure = plezur−o; take −− in, gxu−i. plot = konspir−i. plow = plug−i. plum = prun−o. 

plumber = plumbist−o. plunder = rab−i. plural = multenombr−o. pneumatic = pneumatik−a. pocket = posx−o. 

poem = poem−o. poet = poet−o. poetry = poezi−o. point = punkt−o; (sharp), pint−o; −− out, montr−i. poise = 

(trans.), balanc−i; (of manner), aplomb−o. poison = venen−o. pole = stang−o; (shaft of vehicle), timon−o; 

(geographical), polus−o. Pole = pol−o. police = polic−o. polite = gxentil−a. politics = politik−o. polish = 

polur−i; polished, polurit−a, glat−a. pomp = pomp−o. popular = popular−o, popol−a. porcelain = porcelan−o. 

porch = verand−o; (stoop), peron−o; (balcony), balkon−o. pork = porkajx−o. port = haven−o. portion = 

porci−o, part−o. portrait = portret−o. possess = posed−i. possible = ebl−a (161, 162); kredebl−a (270). post = 

(pole), stang−o; (mail), posxt−o; −−card, posxtkart−o; −−paid, afrankit−e. postage = (cost), posxtelspezo; −− 

stamp, posxtmark−o. poster = afisx−o. pot = pot−o. potato = terpom−o; sweet −−, batat−o. pound = pist−i; 

(measure), funt−o. pour = (liquids), versx−i; (as in a chute), sxut−i. powder = pudr−o. power = pov−o, 

potenc−o. practice = praktik−i. praise = lauxd−i. pray = pregx−i. preach = predik−i. precise = preciz−a, 

gxust−a. predestined = fatal−a. prefer = prefer−i. prefix = prefiks−o. premium = premi−o. prepare = prepar−i. 

prepay = afrank−i. presence = cxeest−o, apudest−o; in the −− of (prep.), cxe (125), antaux. present = (gift), 

donac−o; (time), estantec−o, estant−a, nun−a (171); (in attendance), cxeestant−a. present = prezent−i, 

donac−i, don−i. preserve = (keep), ten−i; (keep safe), konserv−i; (food), kompot−o, konfitajx−o. preside = 

prezid−i. president = prezidant−o. press = prem−i; (print), pres−i; (wardrobe), sxrank−o; (be urgent), urgx−i. 

pretend = (make pretext of), pretekst−i; (feign), sxajnig−i; (lay claim), pretend−i. price = prez−o, kost−o. 

prick = pik−i. priest = pastr−o. prince = princ−o, regxid−o. principal = precip−a, cxef−a. print = pres−i. prize 

= sxat−i; (premium), premi−o. prized = kar−a, altetaksat−a, sxatat−a. problem = problem−o. process = 

metod−o; (legal), proces−o. proclaim = proklam−i. procrastinate = prokrast−i. produce = produkt−i; −− a 

result, efik−i; (give birth to), nask−i. profession = profesi−o. professor = profesor−o. profile = profil−o. profit 

= profit−i; (percentage), tantiem−o. profound = profund−a. progress = progres−i. project = projekt−o. 

promenade = promen−i. promise = promes−i. propensity = inklin−o, em−o (192). (be) proper = dec−i. 

property = proprajx−o, posedajx−o; (land), bien−o; (characteristic), ec−o (202). proportional = proporci−a. 

propose = propon−i, sugesti−i. prose = prozo; piece of −−, prozajxo. prosecute = persekut−i. prosper = 

prosper−i. protect = protekt−i, gard−i. protest = protest−i. proud = fier−a prove = pruv−i; (test), prov−i. 

provoke = incit−i, ekscit−i, kauxz−i, nask−i, kolerig−i. psalm = psalm−o. public = publik−o. publish = 

publikig−i, eldon−i. pudding = puding−o. pull = tir−i. pump = pump−i. pumpkin = kukurb−o. punish = pun−i. 

pure = pur−a. puree = pistajx−o. purple = purpur−a. purpose = cel−i, intenc−i. push = pusx−i; (shove), sxov−i. 

put = met−i; −− off, prokrast−i. 

Q. 

quality = ec−o (202); (texture, etc.), kvalito. quantity = kvant−o; any −−, a certain −−, iom (217); see table, 

235. quarter = (of a city), kvartal−o; (fourth), kvaron−o; −−ly, trimonat−a. question = demand−o; (problem), 

problem−o; (doubt), dub−o. quick = rapid−a; (lively), viv−a. quiet = kviet−a, trankvil−a, silent−a. quince = 

cidoni−o. quite = (adv.), tut−e. quote = cit−i.


R. 

rabbit = kunikl−o. race = (people), ras−o. radish = rafan−o; horse−−, armoraci−o. radius = radi−o. rag = 

cxifon−o. raging = furioz−a. rail = rel−o; −−way, fervoj−o; −−way carriage, vagon−o; −−way station, 

stacidom−o. rain = pluv−o; −−bow, cxielark−o. raise = lev−i. raisin = sekvinber−o. rank = rang−o; (grade), 

grad−o. rap = frapet−i. rapid = rapid−a. rascal = fripon−o, kanajl−o. rasp = rasp−i. raspberry = framb−o. rat = 

rat−o. rate = taks−i; (schedule of prices), tarif−o, prezar−o; (percentage), procent−o; at the −− of (prep.), po 

(175). rational = prudent−a, racional−a. raucous = rauxk−a. raven = korv−o. ravishing = rav−a. raw = 

nekuirit−a. ray = (of light), radi−o. reach = ating−i; (a goal), traf−i. read = leg−i. ready = pret−a. real = 

efektiv−a, real−a; ver−a. reap = rikolt−i. reason = (exert the power of reasoning), rezon−i; (cause), kauxz−o; 

(motive), kial−o; for what −−, for any −−, etc., see table, 235. reasonable = prudent−a. rebate = rabat−i. recall 

= revok−i; (to memory), rememor−i; (to another's memory), rememorig−i. receive = ricev−i; (accept), 

akcept−i; (money), enspez−i. receipt = (for payment), kvitanc−o. reckon = kalkul−i. recent = nov−a, 

antauxnelong−a (90). receptacle = uj−o (237); (for one object), ing−o (181). recess = (alcove), alkov−o; 

(vacation), libertemp−o. reciprocal = reciprok−a (180). recite = deklam−i. recline = kusx−i (239). recommend 

= rekomend−i. recompense = rekompensx−i. recover = (find), retrov−i; (get well), resanigx−i. red = rugx−a; 

reddish, duberugx−a. reduction = (of price), rabat−o. refine = rafin−i. refuse = rifuz−i, malpermes−i. refute = 

refut−i. regale = regal−i. region = region−o. register = (trans.), registr−i; (letters), rekomend−i. regret = 

bedauxr−i; (be penitent for), pent−i. regrettable = bedauxrind−a; −− affair (pity), domagx−o. regulation = 

regul−o, legx−o. reign = reg−i. rejoice = gxoj−i (116). relate = rilat−i (266); (tell), rakont−i. relative = 

(person), parenc−o. religion = religi−o. rely = konfid−i; fid−i. remain = rest−i; remaining (other), ceter−a. 

remember = memor−i; (recall to memory), rememor−i. render = far−i, ig−i (214); (an account), don−i, 

prezent−i, liver−i. renown = fam−o, glor−o. rent = lu−i; (let), luig−i; (farm out), farm−i; (price), luprez−o. 

repair = ripar−i; (patch), flik−i. repeat = ripet−i. repent = pent−i. report = raport−i. repose = ripoz−i. represent 

= reprezent−i. reproach = riprocx−i. republic = respublik−o. repulse = repusx−i, repel−i. request = pet−i. 

require = postul−i; (need), bezon−i. rescue = sav−i. reside = logx−i. respect = respekt−i. rest = (repose), 

ripoz−i; (remain), rest−i; (−− upon), apog−i sur. restaurant = restoraci−o. result = rezult−i. resume = resum−o. 

return = (go back), reir−i; (come back), reven−i; (give back), redon−i. revery = rev−o. review = (magazine), 

revu−o. reward = rekompenc−i. rhubarb = rabarb−o. rib = rip−o. ribbon = ruband−o. rice = riz−o. rich = 

ricx−a. ride = rajd−i; (in vehicle, boat, etc.), vetur−i. ridicule = mok−i; worthy of −− (ridiculous), ridind−a. 

right = prav−a; (to something), rajt−o; (not left), dekstr−a. right−angled = ort−a. ring = (intrans.), sonor−i; 

(circlet), ring−o. ringlet = (of hair), bukl−o. ripe = matur−a. river = river−o. road = voj−o; (broad roadway), 

sxose−o. roam = vag−i. roar = mugx−i. roast = rost−i. rob = rab−i, sxtel−i. robber = rabist−o. robe = rob−o. 

Robert = Robert−o. roguish = petol−a; (rascally), fripon−a. roll = (trans.), rul−i; (something around something 

else), volv−i; (bread), bulk−o; (list), list−o, registr−o. roof = tegment−o. room = cxambr−o; (space), spac−o. 

root = radik−o. rose = roz−o. (by) rote = parker−e. round = rond−o; (of ladder), sxtupet−o; (roundabout) 

(prep.) cxirkaux (89, 120, 159, 160). routine = rutin−o. row = (boats), rem−i. royalty = regxec−o; (share of 

profit) tantiem−o. rub = frot−i. ruin = ruin−o. rule = reg−i; (draw lines), lini−i; (regulation), regul−o. rumor = 

fam−o; rumored, lauxdir−a. run = kur−i; (of fluids), flu−i. Russian = rus−o. rust = rust−i. 

S. 

sack = sak−o; (plunder), rab−i. sacred = sankt−a. sacrifice = ofer−i, oferdon−i. saddle = sel−o. safe = 

sendangxer−a, senrisk−a; (chest), monkest−o. sail = vel−o. salad = salat−o. salary = salajr−o. salt = sal−o. 

salute = salut−i. same = sam−a. sample = specimen−o. sand = sabl−o. sap = suk−o. sardine = sarden−o. 

satchel = valiz−o. sated = sat−a. satin = atlas−o. satisfied = kontent−a; (of hunger), sat−a. Saturday = sabat−o. 

sausage = kolbas−o. sauce = sauxc−o. saucer = subtas−o, teleret−o. saucy = petol−a, malgxentil−a, 

insultem−a. savage = sovagx−a. save = sav−i; (keep), konserv−i; (economize), sxpar−i; (prep.), krom, escepte 

de. saw = seg−i. say = dir−i (77). scales = (for weighing), pesil−o. scarcely = (adv.), apenaux. scent = (trans.), 

flar−i. schedule = (of rates), tarif−o. science = scienc−o. scissors = tondil−o. Scot = (Scotchman), skot−o. 

scoundrel = kanajl−o, fripon−o. scrape = skrap−i. screen = sxirm−i. screw = sxrauxb−o; −−driver, 

sxrauxbturnil−o. sculpture = skulpt−i. sea = mar−o. seal = sigel−i. season = (of the year), sezon−o. second =


(of time), sekund−o; (in order), dua; a −− time (adv.), duafoje, bis. secret = sekret−o. secretary = sekretari−o. 

section = sekci−o, part−o, er−o (276). see = vid−i; −− to, zorg−i pri. seed = sem−o. seek = sercx−i; −− advice 

of, konsult−i. seem = sxajn−i; −−ing, sxajn−a, kvazaux−a. seize = kapt−i. select = elekt−i. self = (reflexive), 

see 39, 40, 44; (intensive), mem (219). self−command = aplomb−o. sell = vend−i. senate = senat−o. send = 

send−i. sense = prudent−o, sagx−o; (meaning), senc−o; (feeling), sent−o. sentence = fraz−o; (legal), jugx−o, 

kondamn−o. separate = (intrans.), disigx−i, disir−i; (distinct), apart−a. September = septembr−o. serene = 

trankvil−a. series = seri−o, vic−o. serious = serioz−a, grav−a. serve = serv−i; (be good for), tauxg−i por. set = 

met−i; (of the sun), subir−i; (type), kompost−i; −− free, liberig−i; −− out (start), forir−i, ekir−i. seven = (adj.), 

sep (136). several = kelk−aj, kelk−e. severe = sever−a. sew = kudr−i. shade = (shadow), ombr−o; (tint) 

nuanc−o; (screen), sxirmil−o. shaft = (of vehicle), timon−o. shake = (trans.), sku−i; (oscillate), sxancel−i; −− 

hands, manprem−i. sham = pretekst−i. shape = form−o; −−ly, beltali−a. share = partopren−i, divid−i, part−o, 

porci−o. sharp = akr−a; (pointed), pint−a. shatter = frakas−i. shave = raz−i. shawl = sxal−o. she = (pronoun), 

sxi (32, 37, 42). shear = tond−i. sheep = sxaf−o. shelf = bret−o. shell = sxel−o; (of mollusk), konk−o; to 

remove the −−, sensxelig−i. shelter = sxirm−i. shepherd = pasxtist−o. shield = sxild−o; (protect), sxirm−i. 

shin−bone = tibi−o. shine = bril−i, lum−i. ship = sxip−o. shirt = cxemiz−o. shoe = sxu−o. shoot = (with gun, 

etc.), paf−i. shop = butik−o. shore = bord−o, marbord−o. short = mallong−a; −−sighted, miop−a; −−hand, 

stenografi−o. shoulder = sxultr−o. shove = sxov−i. shovel = sxovel−i. show = (trans.), montr−i. shrill = akr−a, 

akrason−a. shun = evit−i. shut = (trans.), ferm−i. side = flank−o; −−board, telermebl−o; −−walk, trotuar−o; 

−−wise, oblikv−a. sift = kribr−i. sigh = sopir−i. sign = sign−o; −− the name, subskrib−i. signify = signif−i. 

silent = silent−a (239). silk = silk−o. silver = argxent−o. similar = simil−a. simple = simpl−a. sin = pek−i. 

since = (conj.), cxar, tial ke (83); (prep.), de, depost (89); (adv.), de tiam. sing = kant−i. single = sol−a, 

unuop−a; −− man (unmarried man), frauxl−o. sit = sid−i (239). six = (adj.), ses (136). sketch = skiz−i. skill = 

lertec−o; trial of −−, konkurs−o. skin = (human), hauxt−o; (of animals), fel−o. skirt = jup−o. sky = cxiel−o. 

slanting = oblikv−a, klin−a. slate = (stone), ardez−o. slaughter = bucx−i. slave = sklav−o. sleep = dorm−i; lull 

to −−, lul−i. sleeve = manik−o. slide = glit−i. slime = sxlim−o. slipper = pantofl−o. sly = ruz−a. smear = 

sxmir−i. smell = (trans.), flar−i; (intrans.), odor−i. smile = ridet−i. smoke = fum−i. smooth = glat−a; 

(polished), polurit−a. sneeze = tern−i. snow = negx−i. so = (conj.), do; (adv.), (thus), tiel (88, 156); 

(therefore), tial (78); −− much, tiom (104, 164). society = societ−o. Socrates = Sokrat−o. sofa = kanap−o. soft 

= mol−a. soil = ter−o; soiled, malpur−a. soldier = soldat−o; (professional), militist−o. sole = sol−a; (of foot), 

pland−o; (of shoe), ledpland−o. solemn = solen−a. some = kelk−a, kelk−e, iom (217); −−one, −−how, etc., see 

table, 235. son = fil−o. soon = (adv.), baldaux. sorcerer = sorcxist−o. sort = spec−o, klas−o; (put in order), 

ordig−i, enfakig−i. soul = anim−o. sound = (intrans.), son−i; (of bells), sonor−i; (in good condition), 

bonstat−a. soup = sup−o. sour = acid−a, maldolcx−a. south = sud−o. sow = sem−i. space = spac−o. spacious = 

vast−a, grandspac−a, grandampleks−a. Spaniard = hispan−o. spare = (save), sxpar−i; (pardon), pardon−i. 

sparrow = paser−o. speak = parol−i (77). spear = lanc−o. special = special−a, apart−a. specialty = fak−o. 

species = spec−o. specimen = specimen−o, model−o. spectre = fantom−o. speed = rapid−o, rapidec−o. spell = 

silab−i; (witchcraft), sorcxajx−o. spend = (money), elspez−i; (time), pasig−i. speso = spes−o (285). spider = 

arane−o. spin = sxpin−i. spinach = spinac−o. spite = malic−o; in −− of, (prep.), malgraux, spite. splash = 

(trans.), plauxd−i. splendor = pomp−o, bril−o, belegec−o. split = (trans.), fend−i. spoil = (trans.), difekt−i. 

spoke = (of wheel), radi−o. spoon = kuler−o. spot = makul−i. spout = (liquids), sxpruc−i. spring = (season), 

printemp−o; (of water), font−o. sprite = kobold−o, fe−o. spruce = (tree), pice−o. spurt = (of liquids), sxpruc−i. 

spy = spion−o; (catch sight of), ekvid−i; −−glass, lorn−o. square = kvadrat−o; (public), plac−o. stain = 

makul−i. stair = (staircase), sxtupar−o. stag = cerv−o. stake = (of palisade), palis−o. stamp = (officially), 

stamp−i; (with foot), piedfrap−i; postage −−, posxtmark−o. stand = star−i (239); (endure), sufer−i, elport−i. 

standard = (model), model−o; (flag), standard−o. star = stel−o; (any heavenly body), astr−o. starch = amel−o. 

state = (condition), stat−o; (political), sxtat−o; (governed body), regn−o. station = (state), stat−o; (railway, 

etc.), staci−o, stacidom−o. stay = rest−i. steady = firm−a, konstant−a, nemovebl−a. steal = sxtel−i, rab−i 

(252). steam = vapor−o. steel = sxtal−o. steep = krut−a. step = pasx−i; (of stairs), sxtup−o. stern = sever−a. 

stew = (trans.), stuf−i. stick = baston−o; (adhere), algluigx−i. still = (silent), silent−a; (adv.), ankoraux; jam; 

(conj.), tamen. stimulate = stimul−i, incit−i. sting = pik−i. stipulate = kondicx−o. stocking = sxtrump−o. 

stomach = stomak−o. stone = sxton−o. stoop = klinigx−i; (entrance porch), peron−o. stop = (intrans.), halt−i; 

(leave off), cxes−i; −− up, sxtop−i. stopper = sxtopil−o. store = (shop), butik−o; (warehouse), magazen−o,


konservej−o, tenej−o. story = (tale), fabel−o, rakont−o; (of house), etagx−o. stove = forn−o. straight = rekt−a. 

strange = strang−a, kurioz−a; (foreign), fremd−a. strap = rimen−o. straw = pajl−o. strawberry = frag−o. streak 

= stri−o; make a −−, strek−i. street = strat−o; −− arab, bub−o. street−car = tramveturil−o; −− line, tramvoj−o. 

stress = akcent−o; (force), fort−o. stretch = (trans.), etend−i; (forcibly), strecx−i. string = sxnur−o; (shoelace), 

lacx−o; −− bean, fazeol−o. strike = frap−i, bat−i; (of laborers), strik−o; −− out, trastrek−i. strip = (of paper, 

cloth, etc.), banderol−o; −− off, senig−i. stripe = stri−o. strive = pen−i. strong = fort−a. struggle = barakt−i. 

student = student−o; (person studying), studant−o. study = stud−i. stuff = sxtof−o; (furniture, etc.), rembur−i. 

stump = stump−o. style = stil−o, mod−o, fason−o. subject = (theme), tem−o; (grammatical), subjekt−o; 

(ruled), regat−o. subscribe = subskrib−i; (to magazine, etc.), abon−i. substance = substanc−o. succeed = 

sukces−i; (fare well), prosper−i; (follow), sekv−i, postven−i. succulent = suk−a, sukplen−a. such = tia (65); 

(adv.), tiel (88). sudden = subit−a, neatendit−a. suffer = sufer−i, toler−i; (permit), permes−i. suffice = 

suficx−i. suffix = sufiks−o. suffocate = (trans.), sufok−i. sugar = suker−o. suggest = sugesti−i, propon−i. suit 

= (of clothes), vest−oj, komplet−o; (at law), proces−o. suitable = konven−a, konform−a, tauxg−a, dec−a. suite 

= (of rooms), apartament−o. sulphur = sulfur−o. sum = sum−o; (total), tut−o. summarize = resum−i. summer 

= somer−o; −−house, lauxb−o. summit = pint−o, supr−o. sun = sun−o. Sunday = dimancx−o. superior = 

super−a; (person), superul−o. superstition = supersticx−o. supply = liver−i, proviz−i. suppose = supoz−i; 

opini−i. sure = cert−a. surface = suprajx−o. surprise = surpriz−i. suspect = suspekt−i. suspend = pendig−i. 

suspenders = sxelk−o. swallow = glut−i; (bird), hirund−o. swamp = marcx−o. swan = cign−o. swear = jxur−i. 

Swede = sved−o. sweep = (floors, etc.), bala−i. sweet = dolcx−a; −−potato, batat−o. sweetmeat = bombon−o, 

sukerajx−o, konfitajx−o; be fond of −−, frand−i. swim = nagx−i. swine = pork−o. swing = (trans.), sving−i; 

(balance), balanc−i (279). Swiss = svis−o. swoon = sven−i. sword = glav−o. syllable = silab−o. Syracuse = 

Sirakuz−o. 

T. 

table = (furniture), tabl−o; (tabulation), tabel−o. tail = vost−o. tailor = tajlor−o. take = pren−i; (magazines, 

etc.), abon−i; −− in (money), enspez−i; −− place, okaz−i; −− note of, observ−i, rimark−i; −− oath, jxur−i; −− 

steps toward accomplishing, klopod−i; −− pleasure in, gxu−i; −− the attention of, distr−i. tale = fabel−o. talent 

= talent−o. tall = alt−a, altkresk−a, grand−a. talon = ungeg−o. tap = (rap), frapet−i; (faucet), kran−o. tariff = 

tarif−o. task = task−o. taste = gust−o, gustum−i. tax = impost−o. tea = te−o; −− caddy, teuj−o (181); −−pot, 

tekrucx−o. teach = instru−i. tear = sxir−i; (of the eye), larm−o. tease = turmentet−i, cxagren−i. tedious = 

ted−a, enuig−a, lacig−a. telegraph = telegraf−i. telephone = telefon−i. telescope = teleskop−o. tell = dir−i, 

rakont−i (77); −− lies, mensog−i. temper = humor−o; lose the −−, koler−i. temple = (of the head), tempi−o; 

(building), templ−o. tempt = tent−i. ten = (adj.), dek (136). tender = delikat−a, mol−a, kares−a. tenor = 

(voice), tenor−o; (course), dauxr−o. tent = tend−o. term = (word), termin−o; (condition), kondicx−o; (time), 

templim−o. terrace = teras−o. territory = teritori−o. terror = terur−o. test = prov−i, ekzamen−i. texture = 

kvalit−o; (thing woven), teksajx−o. than = (conj.), ol (82, 97, 98). thank = dank−i (265). that = (conj.), ke (53, 

83, 105, 259, 262); (pronoun), tiu (56); tio (233, 234); −− kind, tia (65); (adv.), tiel (88, 156); −− way, 

tiamanier−e, tiel (88); −− much, tiel mult−e, tiom (104, 164); (when) (adv.), kiam (155). thaw = (intrans.), 

degel−i. the = (article), la (11, 47, 201, 280, a); (adv.), ju, des (84). theatre = teatr−o. theme = tem−o. then = 

(conj.), do; (adv.), tiam (73); (afterwards), post−e. theory = teori−o. there = (adv.), tie (68); (adv. calling 

attention), jen (228); see also 51. therefore = (adv.), tial (78); pro tio, sekv−e. they = (pronoun), ili (32, 37, 

42); (indefinite), oni (54). thick = dik−a, dens−a. thigh = femur−o. thing = afer−o, objekt−o, ajx−o (227); 

any−−, what −−, etc., see table, 235. think = pens−i; (have the opinion), opini−i. (be) thirsty = soif−i. this = 

(pronoun), tio cxi (233, 234); (pronoun and adj.), tiu cxi (60); all −−, cxio cxi. See table, 235. thong = 

rimen−o. thorn = dorn−o. thou = (pronoun), ci (40). though = (conj.), kvankam; as −−, kvazaux (250). 

thousand = (adj.), mil (142). thread = faden−o; −− a needle, enkudrilig−i fadenon. threaten = minac−i. three = 

(adj.), tri (136). threshold = sojl−o. thrifty = sxparem−a. throat = gorgx−o. throne = tron−o. throng = amas−o, 

ar−o (126). through = (prep.), tra (46, 160); (by means of), per (64); (because of), pro (86), de (170). throw = 

jxet−i. thumb = dika fingr−o. thunder = tondr−i. Thursday = jxauxd−o. thus = (adv.), tiel (88, 156), 

tiamanier−e. ticket = bilet−o; −− window, gicxet−o. tickle = tikl−i. tie = lig−i; (shoes, etc.), lacx−i. tiger = 

tigr−o. tile = kahel−o; (brick), brik−o. till = (money box), kas−o; (prep.), gxis (46, 89); −− the soil,


terkultur−i. time = (in general), temp−o; (occasion), foj−o (127); (epoch), epok−o; (of day), hor−o. tin = 

(metal), stan−o; −− plate (sheet iron covered with tin), lad−o. tinkle = tint−i. tint = nuanc−o, kolor−o. tire = 

(trans.), lacig−i, enuig−i; (pneumatic), pneuxmatik−o. to = (prep.), al (46, 160, 251, 252); gxis (46, 89). toad = 

buf−o. toast = (bread), panrostajx−o; (sentiment), tost−o. tobacco = tabak−o. today = (adv.), hodiaux (93, 

171). toe = piedfingr−o. toilet = tualet−o. tolerate = toler−i, sufer−i. tomato = tomat−o. tomb = tomb−o. 

tomorrow = (adv.), morgaux (93, 171). tone = ton−o. tongue = (of the body), lang−o; (of vehicle), timon−o; 

(language), lingv−o. too = (adv.), tro; (too much), tro multe, tro. tool = il−o (63). tooth = dent−o. top = 

supr−o. torment = turment−i. total = tut−o. touch = tusx−i; (feel with the fingers, etc.), palp−i; sense of −−, 

palpad−o; −− the heart of, kortusx−i. toward = (prep.), al (46, 160, 251, 252). tower = tur−o; −− above, 

superstar−i. trace = sign−o, postsign−o. trade = (occupation), meti−o; (commerce), komerc−o; (exchange), 

intersxangx−i. train = (of cars), vagonar−o; (of dress), trenajx−o. tram = tram−o; −−way, tramvoj−o; −− car, 

tramveturil−o. tranquil = trankvil−a; kviet−a. translate = traduk−i. travel = vojagx−i; (by vehicle), vetur−i. 

tray = plet−o. treacherous = perfid−a. treasure = trezor−o. treasurer = kasist−o. treasury = kas−o. treat = (in 

speech or writing), trakt−i; (for illness), kurac−i; (act towards), kondut−i kontraux; (regale), regal−i. treatise = 

traktat−o. tree = arb−o. tremble = trem−i; (vacillate), sxanceligx−i. trial = jugxa auxskultado, esplorad−o; (of 

skill), konkurs−o; (affliction), malgxoj−o, sufer−o; (test), prov−o, ekzamen−o; (attempt), prov−o. trifle = 

bagatel−o. triumph = triumf−o. tropic = tropik−o. trot = trot−i. trousers = pantalon−o. trunk = (chest with lid), 

kofr−o; (of tree), trunk−o. trust = fid−i, konfid−i; (financial), trust−o. truth = ver−o. try = (legally), jugx−i; 

(strive), pen−i; (attempt, test), prov−i. tub = kuv−o. tube = tub−o. tuber = tuber−o. Tuesday = mard−o. 

tumbler = (for drinking), glas−o; (juggler), jxonglist−o. tune = ari−o, melodi−o. Turk = turk−o. turkey = 

meleagr−o. turn = (trans.), turn−i; (in a series), vic−o. turnip = nap−o. turnstile = gicxet−o. twilight = 

krepusk−o. twist = (trans.), tord−i. twitter = pep−i. two = (adj.), du (136). tyrant = tiran−o. 

U. 

umbrella = ombrel−o. uncle = onkl−o. unanimous = unuvocx−a, unuanim−a. uncommon = kurioz−a, 

nekomun−a. unconcerned = indiferent−a; nezorgem−a. under = (prep.), sub (121, 160). underline = 

substrek−i. understand = kompren−i. undertake = entrepren−i; −− initiative work, klopod−i. undeviating = 

rekt−a. unfailing = (adv.), nepr−e, cert−e. unimportant = indiferent−a, negrav−a. union = unuig−o, unuigx−o, 

kunig−o, kunigx−o. universe = univers−o. university = universitat−o. until = (prep.), gxis (89) up = (adv.), 

supre, supren (121); −− to, gxis (46). upholster = rembur−i. upper = supr−a. upon = (prep.), sur (160). upright 

= just−a; (vertical), vertikal−a. urge = urgx−i, insiste pet−i. upset = (trans.), renvers−i. utmost = ekstrem−a, 

ebl−o (161, see also 162). 

V. 

(be) vacant = vak−i, esti neokupata. vacillate = sxanceligx−i. vagabond = vagist−o. vain = (futile), van−a; 

senutil−a, senfrukt−a; (proud), vant−a, fier−a; in −−, vane. valise = valiz−o. valley = val−o. value = 

(appraise), taks−i; (like), sxat−i; have the −− of, valor−i. vanquish = venk−i. vapor = vapor−o. varied = 

divers−a, malsimil−a. vase = vaz−o. vast = vast−a, grand−a. vaunt = fanfaron−i, vantparol−i. veal = 

bovidajx−o (207, c). vegetable = (edible), legom−o; (plant growth), vegetajx−o, kreskajx−o (227, a). 

vegetarian = vegetar−a. vegetate = veget−i. veil = vual−o. vein = vejn−o. velvet = velur−o. veranda = 

verand−o. verify = konstat−i, kontrol−i. vermicelli = vermicxel−o. verse = vers−o; (poesy), poezi−o. vertical 

= vertikal−a. very (very much) = (adv.), tre, tre multe; (adj.), sam−a, ident−a, (intensive) mem (219). vex = 

cxagren−i. vibrate = (intrans.), vibr−i. vice = (wickedness), malvirt−o; (prefix), vic−. vie = konkur−i. village = 

vilagx−o. vindication = apologi−o. vinegar = vinagr−o. violet = viol−o. violin = violon−o. virtue = virt−o. 

visage = vizagx−o. visit = vizit−i. vivid = hel−a. voice = vocx−o. volume = (book), volum−o; (of a body), 

volumen−o. vote = vocxdon−i, balot−i. vowel = vokal−o. voyage = vojagx−i. 

W. 

wade = vad−i. waffle = vafl−o. wager = vet−i. wages = salajr−o. wait = (wait for), atend−i; −− on, serv−i.


waiter = (in restaurant, etc.), kelner−o. waist = tali−o; −−coat, vesxt−o wake = (trans.), vek−i. walk = 

marsx−i; (for pleasure), promen−i; (of park, etc.), ale−o; side−−, trotuar−o. wall = mur−o. waltz = vals−i. 

wander = vag−i. want = (need), bezon−i; (desire), dezir−i, vol−i; (be lacking), mank−i; (extremity), 

mizereg−o. war = milit−i. wardrobe = (garments), vestar−o; (furniture), sxrank−o, vestosxrank−o. warehouse 

= magazen−o. warm = varm−a; make −−, varmig−i, hejt−i. warn = avert−i; (give notice), aviz−i, 

antauxsciig−i. wash = lav−i. waste = (prodigality), malsxpar−o; (refuse), forjxetajx−o; (desert), dezert−o. 

watch = (look at), rigardad−i; (timepiece), posxhorlogx−o; −− over, gard−i. water = akv−o; −− color, 

akvarel−o; −−fall, kaskad−o. wave = ond−o; (flutter, brandish), flirt−i, sving−i. wax = vaks−o. way = 

(manner), manier−o; (custom), kutim−o; (method), metod−o; (means), rimed−o; (road), voj−o; −− in, enirejo; 

this −−, any−−, etc., see table, 235. we = (pronoun), ni (32, 37). wear = port−i; −− out, eluz−i. (be) wearied = 

enu−i. weather = veter−o; −−cock, ventoflag−o. weave = teks−i; (plait), plekt−i. Wednesday = merkred−o. 

week = semajn−o. weep = plor−i. weigh = (trans.), pes−i; (intrans.), (be heavy), pez−i; (meditate upon), 

pripens−i (264, c). welcome = bonven−i; bone akcept−i; you are −−, ("no thanks needed"), estas nenio, 

volonte farite. well = (healthy), san−a; (for water), put−o; (adv.), bon−e; (interjection), nu (273), bon−e; −− 

informed, kler−a; −− nigh (adv.), preskaux. west = okcident−o. wet = malsekig−i, tremp−i. whale = balen−o. 

what = (pronoun), kio (233, 234); (pronominal adj.), kiu (106, 146); −− kind, −− way, −− time, etc., see table, 

235. wheat = tritik−o. wheel = rad−o. when = (adv.), kiam (125, 155); (while), dum (96). where = (adv.), kie 

(118, 151); −−fore, kial (129), tial (78). whether = (conj.), cxu (30, 66, a). which = (pronoun), kio (233, 234); 

(pronoun and adj.), kiu (106, 146); −− way, −− kind, etc. see table, 235. while = (prep.), dum (120, 159); 

(conj.), dum (96); (concessive), kvankam; a −−, iom da tempo. whip = vip−i. whistle = fajf−i; (hiss), sibl−i. 

white = blank−a; whitish, dubeblank−a. who = (pronoun), kiu (106, 143); whose, kies (107, 147). whole = 

(entire), tut−a. why = (adv.), kial (129), pro kio. wicket = gicxet−o. wide = largx−a; make −−, plilargxig−i, 

etend−i. widow = vidvin−o; widower, vidv−o. wig = peruk−o. wild = sovagx−a. (be) willing = vol−i. 

willingly = volont−e. wilt = velk−i. wind = vent−o, survolv−i; (twist), tord−i; (a watch), strecx−i. winding = 

tord−a. window = fenestr−o; ticket −−, gicxet−o. wine = vin−o. winter = vintr−o. wipe = visx−i. wise = 

sagx−a. wish = vol−i, dezir−i. witch = sorcxistin−o; −−craft, sorcx−o. with = (prep.), kun (70, 76, 120, 159, 

160); (by means of), per (64); (agent of the passive), de (169); je (260); −− regard to, rilate (266); −−draw, 

elir−i, forir−i; (= having), havante (222). wither = velk−i. without = (prep.), sen (248). (give) witness = 

atest−i. witty = sprit−a. woe = malgxoj−o; (interjection), ve (273). wolf = lup−o. wonder = mir−i. woo = 

amindum−i. wood = lign−o. wool = lan−o. word = vort−o; (spoken), parol−o. work = labor−i; (of machinery), 

funkci−i; (literary composition), verk−o. world = mond−o. worm = verm−o. worship = ador−i; (divine 

service), Diserv−o. (be) worth = valor−i. worthy = ind−a (154). wound = vund−i. wreath = girland−o. wrestle 

= barakt−i. wretch = fripon−o, kanajl−o; −−ed, mizer−a, acx−a (272). wrinkle = sulket−o, faldet−o. write = 

skrib−i; (books, articles, music), verk−i. wrong = malprav−a, erar−a, maljust−a. 

Y. 

yawn = osced−i; (open), fendigx−i. year = jar−o. yearn = sopir−i; dezireg−i. yellow = flav−a; −−ish, 

dubeflav−a. yes = (adv.), jes (171). yesterday = (adv.), hieraux (93, 171); day before −−, antaux−hieraux. yet 

= (adv.), ankoraux; jam; (conj.), tamen. yoke = jug−o. you = (pronoun), vi (32, 37, 39); see also oni (54). 

young = jun−a; (offspring), id−o (207). 

Z. 

zeal = fervor−o. zenith = zenit−o. zero = nul−o. zigzag = zigzag−o. zinc = zink−o. zone = zon−o. zoology = 

zoologi−o. 

INDEX. 

The references are to sections, unless the page (p.) is given. The following abbreviations are used: ace. = 

accusative; adj. = adjective; adv. = adverb; expr. = expressed; ftn. = footnote; inf. = infinitive; intrans. = 

intransitive; prep. = preposition; trans. = transitive. For Esperanto words whose use or meaning is specially


explained, references are given in the Vocabulary. 

A. 

Abbreviations, 286; of ordinals, p. 107, ftn. Abstract nouns, 202. Accent, 8; of elided word, 280, b. 

Accompaniment, 70; distinguished from instrumentality and opposition, p. 49, ftn. Accordance, expr. by 

"laux", 191. Active voice, participles of, 108, 119, 152; tenses of, see Tenses; synopsis of, 267. Accusative, 

ending, 23; of adj., 24; of pronoun, 37; of adv., 69, 121; of direction, 46, 108; of measure, 139; of time, 91; 

distinguished from temporal adv., 94; with temporal adv., 93; when avoided, 92; after adv., 266; with intrans. 

verb, 264; with nouns expressing motion, 263; in composition, p. 132, ftn.; instead of prepositional phrase, 

265, 266; not used after prep., 36, ("al, gxis, tra") 46, ("preter") p. 139, ftn.; not used with article, 25; not used 

with predicates, 25, 210; "cognate," see acc. with intrans. verbs, 264, a. Adjectives, defined, 12; ending of, 12; 

formation of, 116, (from adv.) 171, (from prep.) 159; attributive, 13; acc. of, 24; plural of, 17; agreement, 

(with nouns) 17, 21, 24, (with pronouns) 33, (with words connected by "nek") 31; comparison of, 74; 

possessive, 43, (pronominal use of) 45; predicate, 19, (after trans, verbs) 210; use of, distinguished from adv. 

with "da", 103; demonstrative, 65; distributive, 177; indefinite, 208; interrogative, 112; negative, 224; 

reflexive possessive, 44; relative, 150; causative verbs from roots of, 214, a; intrans. verbs from roots of, 232, 

c; cardinal, 136; ordinal, 149. Adverbs, defined, 66; primary, 66; derived, 79; (from prep.) 120; demonstrative, 

("tie") 68, ("tiam") 73, ("tial") 78, ("tiel") 88, ("tiom") 104; interrogative, ("kie") 118, ("kiam") 123, ("kial") 

129, ("kiel") 134, ("kiom") 140, ("cxu") 30, p. 38, ftn.; relative, ("kie") 151, ("kiam") 155, ("kiel") 156, p. 170, 

ftn., ("kiom") 164; distributive, ("cxie") 182, ("cxiam") iS7, ("cxial") 188, ("cxiel") 193, ("cxiom") 194; 

indefinite, ("ie") 209, ("iam") 212, ("ial") 213, ("iel") 216, ("iom") 217; negative, ("nenie") 225, ("neniam") 

226, ("nenial") 229, ("neniel") 230, ("neniom") 231, ("ne") 27, 66, a; generalizing, ("ajn") 236; numeral, 158; 

position of, 66, a; expressing direction of motion, 69, 121; with expressions of time, 93; distinguishing from 

acc. of time, 94; with acc., 266; with prep., 87; calling attention, ("jen") 228; causative verbs from, 214, c; 

intrans. verbs from, 232, d; as interjections, p. 216, ftn.; derivation of words from primary, 171. Adverbial 

clauses, p. 168, ftn.; participle, 222, (translating "without") p. 193, ftn. Adversative conjunctions, p. 32, ftn. 

Advice, expression of, 257, 259. Affectionate diminutives, 283 (also 198, and ftn., p. 221). Affirmation, 66. 

Affixes, see Prefixes, Suffixes. Agency, expr. by "de", 169. Agreement, of attributive adj., 17, (with acc.) 24; 

of predicate noun and adj., 21; of adj. with two or more nouns, 17; of adj. with words connected by "nek", 31; 

of adj. with pronouns, 33; of participle, 108; of nouns in apposition, 48. Alphabet, I. Anticipation, expr. by 

clause, 97; by inf. with prep., 98. Aoristic tenses, explained, p. 78, ftn.; conjugation of, (present) 14, (past) 35, 

(future) 55, (conditional) 241, (imperative), 254. Apposition, 48. Argumentative conjunction, p. 32, ftn. 

Article, definite, 11; invariable, 18, 25; for possessive adj., 47; with possessive adj., 45; generic, 201, 218, b, 

elision of, 280, a; no indefinite, II. Assumption, defined, 240; implied, 244. Augmentatives, 122. Auxiliary 

verbs, 109. 

C. 

Cardinal numerals, 136; formation of, 142. Case, see Accusative, Dative, Nominative, Possessive. Causative 

verbs, 214. Cause, expr. by clause, 83; by "pro", 86; by "ke", p. 222, ftn. Characteristic, expr. by "kun", 76; by 

adverbial participle, 222. Clauses, defined, p. 34, ftn.; adverbial, p. 168, ftn.; causal, 83; of anticipation, 97; of 

duration of time, 96; of imaginative comparison, 250; of purpose, 262; of result, 105; subordinate imperative, 

259. "Cognate acc.," see acc. with intrans. verbs, 264. Collective nouns, 126. Collective sense given by use of 

"da", 103. Commands, expression of, 256; in subordinate clause, 259. Complement of prep., 36. 

Complementary inf., 29. Comparison, of adj., 74; of adv., 79; of words expressing quantity, 81; containing 

"ol", 82; "ju" and "des" in, 84. Composition, see Compounds. Compound tenses, explained, 109; of 

impersonal verbs, 179; conjugation of, see Tenses. Compounds, dependent, 176; descriptive, 167; possessive, 

184. Conclusion (of conditions) defined, 240; (of letters), see Correspondence. Concrete nouns, formation of, 

227. Conditional mood, 241; compound tenses of, 242; in contrary to fact conditions, 246; in less vivid 

conditions, 243; independent use of, 244; of "devi", 247; conditional sentences, see Conditions. Conditions, 

defined, 240; contrary to fact, 246; factual, 240; less vivid, 243; vivid, p. 189, ftn.; summary of, 249.


Conjugation, 34; synopsis of, 267; of tenses, see Tenses. Conjunctions, defined, 52; coordinating, 52; 

subordinating, 53, (not omitted) p. 34, ftn.; "aux", p. 32, ftn.; "kaj", 26, p. 32, ftn.; "ke", (in indirect 

statements), 53, (in causal clauses) 83, p. 222, ftn.; (in result clause) 105, (in purpose clause) 262, (in 

subordinate imperative clause) 259; "kvazaux", 250; "nek", 31, p. 32, ftn.; "se", 240; "sed", p. 32, ftn.; 

"tamen", p. 32, ftn.; "do", p. 32, ftn.; see p. 110, ftn. Connection, expr. by "de", 49; indefinite, expr. by "je", 

260. Consent, expression of, 257, (in subordinate clauses) 259. Consonants, combinations of, 6; pronunciation 

of, 3, names of, 4. Contrary to fact conditions, 246. Coordinating conjunctions, 52. Copulative conjunctions, 

p. 32, ftn. Correlative words, 235. Correspondence, 278. 

D. 

Dates, expr. by acc., 91; expr. by "antaux", 90; expr. by prep., 89; on letters, see Correspondence, 278. 

"Dative," ethical, of reference, of separation, p. 197, ftn. Definite quantity, nouns of, followed by "de", 100. 

Degree, advs. of, 66, ("tiel") 88, ("kiel") 134, 156; highest possible, 162; see also Comparison. Deliberation, 

expression of, 257, (in subordinative clause) 259. Demonstrative, pronoun, ("tiu") 56, ("cxi tiu") 60, ("tio, cxi 

tio") 233; adjective, 65; adv., see Adverbs. Dependent compounds, 176. Derivation, of adv., 79, (from prep.) 

120; of words from prep., 159; of words from primary adv., 171. Descriptive compounds, 167. Diminutives, 

198; affectionate, 283. Diphthongs, 5. Direct object, defined, 23; inf. as, see Complementary inf., 29; clause 

as, 53, 259; of complementary inf., 29; of participle, 108; of prep., see Complement, 36. Direction, expr. by 

acc. (of noun) 46, 263, (of adv.) 121. Disjunctive conjunctions, p. 32, ftn. Distributive, prep., see "po", 175; 

pronoun, ("cxiu") 173, ("cxio") 233; adj., 177; adv., see Adverbs. Double letters, 6, e. 

E. 

Elision, 280. Emphasis, by "ecx", 66; by "ja", 215. Emphatic negation, 27. Ending, of acc., 23; of adj., 12; of 

adv., 79; of noun, 10; of plural, 16; of inf., 28; of indicative, 14, 35, 55; of conditional, 241, of imperative, 

254; of participle, see Participles. "Ethical dative," p. 197, ftn. Exclamations, 115; use of "je" in, 260. 

Exhortation, 255. Expedience, expressions of, 259. 

F. 

Factual conditions, 240. Feminine nouns, formation of, 59. Formation, of words, 116; of opposites, 67, of 

feminines, 59; with "−ig−" and "−igx−", 239; from primary words, 159, 171. Fractions, 166. Frequentative 

verbs, 218, a. Future participle, (active) 152, (passive) 199. Future tense, 55, (progressive) 114, (passive) 183, 

periphrastic, 153, 200. Future perfect tense, 148, (passive) 196. 

G. 

Generic article, 201. 218, b. Generalizing adv. "ajn", 236. 

H. 

Highest degree possible, 162. 

I. 

Imaginative comparison, 250. Imperative mood, 254; in commands and prohibitions, 256; in resolve and 

exhortation, 255, in subordinate clauses, 259;. less peremptory uses of, 257; to express purpose, 262. 

Imperfect tense, 113, (passive) 178. Impersonal verbs, 50, compound tenses of, 179; modifiers of, 141. 

Impersonally used verbs, explained, 141; modifiers of, 141. Inchoative verbs, 232, a. Indefinite connection, 

expr. by "je", 260. Indefinite, pronoun, ("iu") 203, ("io") 233; (personal) 54; adj., 208; advs., see Adverbs; 

prep., 260; suffix, 268; quantity, expressions of, with "da", 99, 101. Independent use of conditional mood,


244. Indicative mood, defined, 241; tenses of, see Synopsis, 267. "Indirect object," see "al". Indirect 

quotation, tenses in, 58; statements in, 53; questions in, p. 38, ftn.; p. 170, ftn. Infinitive, defined, 28, 241; 

ending of, 28; complementary, 29; as subject, 29; modifiers of, 130; synopsis of, 267; with prep., 98; replaced 

by noun, 218, b. Instruction, (orders), requests for, 257, 259. Instrumentality, expr. by "per", 64; distinguished 

from accompaniment, p. 49, ftn. Instruments, formation of names of, 63. Intensive pronoun, "mem", 219. 

Intention, expr. by clause, 259. Interjections, 273. International money system, 285; weights and measures, 

284. Interrogation, 30, 66, a. Interrogative, pronoun, ("kiu") 106, (kio) 233; adj., 112; advs., see Adverbs. 

Intransitive verbs, defined, 22; no passive, p. 122, ftn.; from adj. roots, 232, c; from noun roots, advs., preps., 

suffixes, prefixes, 232, d; from trans, verb roots, 232, b, (table of), 279. Introductory particle, not needed, 50, 

51. Invariability, of article, 18; of "mem", 219; of verb, 18; of cardinals, 136. Inversion, not needed in 

questions, 30. 

L. 

Less peremptory uses of imperative, 257. Less vivid conditions, 243. Letters, names of, 4; double, 

pronunciation of, 6, e; see also Correspondence, 278. Limitation of third personal pronoun, 42. 

M. 

Manner, expr. by "kun", 76; expr. by. "per", p. 53, ftn.; by adverbial participle, 222; advs. of, see Adverbs. 

Material, expression of, 197. Means, expression of, 64. Measure, ace. of, 139; expr. by "je", 260. Measures, 

weights and, 284. Metric system, 284. Modifiers of impersonally used verbs, 141. Money system, The 

international, 285. Mood, defined, 241; inf., see Infinitive; conditional, 241; imperative, 254; indicative, see 

267; in conditions, see Conditions. Moral obligation, 247. Motive or reason, advs. of, see Adverbs; expr. by 

clause, 83; expr. by prep., 86. 

N. 

Names, of letters, 4; orthography of proper, 128. Necessity, expression of, 259. Negative, pronoun, ("neniu") 

220; ("nenio") 233; adj., 224; advs., see Adverbs; conjunction, 31. "Nominative absolute," how rendered, p. 

169, ftn. Nominative case, ending of, (for nouns) 10, (for adj.) 12; of predicate noun and adj., 25, 210; with 

prep., 36, ("al", "gxis", "tra") 46. Noun, defined, 10, ending of, 10, plural of, 16; acc. of, 23; elision of, 280, b; 

feminine, 59; numeral, 157; participial, 205; predicate, 20, 211; possessive case of, 49; expressing motion, 

followed by acc., 263; expressing quantity, followed by "da", 99, by "de", 100; replacing inf., 218, b; 

replacing participial phrase, p. 193, ftn.; from adv., 171; from prep., 159. Noun roots, causative verbs from, 

214, c; intrans. verbs from, 232, d. Number, see Plural. Numeral nouns, 157; advs., 158. Numerals, cardinal, 

136; formation of, 142; fractional, 166; ordinal, 149; abbreviation of, p. 107, ftn.; followed by "el", 138. 

O. 

Object, see Direct object, Indirect object, Complement. Obligation, 247, (moral) 247. Opposites, formation of, 

67; of "pli" and "plej", 80. Opposition, distinguished from accompaniment, p. 49, ftn. Order, of word endings, 

p. 10, ftn.; see also Position. Ordinal numerals, 149; advs., 158; abbreviation of, p. 107, ftn. Orthography, of 

proper nouns, 128. 

P. 

Part of the whole, expression of, (after noun) 99, (after adv.) 101. Participial nouns, 205; advs., 222. 

Participle, defined, 108; agreement of, 108; adverbial, 222, (translating "without") p. 193, ftn.; present, 108, 

(passive) 165; past, 119, (passive) 189; future, 152, (passive) 199. Particle, introductory, not needed, 50, 51. 

Partitive construction, p. 74, ftn. Passive voice, agent of, 169; participles of, see Participles; tenses of, see 

Tenses; of "−ig−" formations, 239; distinguished from "−igx−" formations, 232, b. Past tense, 35, (passive)


see Imperfect; past participle, see Participles. Past periphrastic future, 153, (passive) 200. Past inception, 

present action with, 131. Peremptory commands and prohibitions, 256, 259. Perfect tense, 124, (passive) 190; 

perfect participle, see Past participle. Periphrastic futures, 153, (passive) 200. Permission, expression of, 269. 

Perplexity, expression of, 257, 259. Personal pronouns, 32; acc. of, 37; indefinite, 54; reflexive, 39, 40; 

limitation of third personal, 42; position of unemphatic, 274. Place, expr. by "cxe", 125; advs. of, see 

Adverbs; expr. by "−ej−", III; 128. Pluperfect tense, 135, (passive), 195. Plural, of nouns, 16; of pronouns, 56, 

106, 203, 173, 220; of adj., 16; of "unu", 137; none of article, 18; none of pronouns ending in "−o", 233. 

Position, of attributive adj., 13; of adv., 66, a; of emphatic negative, 27; of unemphatic pronoun, 274; of 

interrogative adv., 30. Possession, expr. by "de", 49. Possessive, adjective, 43; reflexive, 44; article for, 47; 

ftn., p. 221. Possessive case of nouns, 49; of pronouns, ("ties") 62, ("kies") 107, 147, ("cxies") 174, ("ies") 

204, ("nenies") 221; see also Possessive adjective, 43. Possessive compounds, 184. "Possessive pronouns," p. 

24, ftn. Possibility, expression of, 270. Predicate, adj., 19, agreement of, 21; after trans, verbs, 210; noun, 20; 

agreement of, 21; after trans. verb, 211; clause as, 259. Prefixes, causative verbs from, 214, c; intrans. verbs 

from, 232, d; prep. as, 160, 248; adverb as, 71, 167, a, interjection as, p. 216, ftn.; "bo−", 277; "dis−", 245; 

"duon−", 277; "ek−", 206; "eks−", 281; "ge−", 271; "mal−", 67; "pra−", 282; "re−", 223. Prepositions, 

defined, 36; with inf., 98; with adv., 87; with other preps., 87; case use with, 36, 46; expressing time relations, 

89; as prefixes, 160; word derivation from, 159; advs. from, 120; causative verbs from, 214, c; intrans. verbs 

from, 232, d; making intrans. verbs trans., 264, b, c; see also references in Vocabulary. Prepositional phrase, 

acc. instead of, 265, 266. Present action with past inception, 131. Present periphrastic future, 153, (passive) 

200. Present participle, 108, (passive) 165. Present tense, 14, (progressive) 110, (passive) 168. Primary 

adverbs, defined, 66; derivation of words from, 171. Probability, expression of, 270. Progressive tenses, 

present, 110, future, 114; passive, 200. Prohibition, expression of, 256, 259. Pronominal adjective, possessive 

adj. as, 45; pronoun as, ("tiu") 57, 60, ("kiu") 106, 146, ("cxiu") 173, ("iu") 203, ("neniu") 220, ("ambaux") 

238. Pronouns, defined, 32; agreement with, 33; personal, 32; indefinite personal, 54; reflexive, 38, 39, 40, (in 

composition) p. 132, ftn.; possessive, p. 24, ftn.; possessive form of, see Possessive case; limitation of third 

personal, 42; position of unemphatic, 274; correlation of predicative or relative, 234; followed by "el", 173, p. 

115, ftn.; series in "−o", 233; demonstrative, 56, 60, 233; distributive, 173, 233; indefinite, 203, 233; 

interrogative, 106, 233; negative, 220, 233; relative, 146; 233; summary, 235; "ambaux", 238; intensive, 219. 

Proper nouns, orthography of, 128. Protestations, use of "je" in, 260. Proximity, expr. by "cxi", 60, 66, p. 229, 

ftn. Purpose, expr. by inf., 98; by imperative, 262; by prep., 95. 

Q. 

Quantity, construction with nouns expressing, 99, 100; construction with advs. expressing, 101; advs. of, 

("tiom") 104, ("kiom") 140, 164, ("cxiom") 194, ("iom") 217, ("neniom") 231; comparison of advs. 

expressing, 81. Questions, 30; indirect, p. 38, ftn., p. 170, ftn.; of deliberation, perplexity, or for instructions, 

257, 259. Quotations, indirect, 53, 58. 

R. 

Reciprocal expressions, 180. Reference, expr. by "al", 251. Reflexive pronouns, of first and second persons, 

39; of third person, 40; with substantival inf., 130. Reflexive possessive adjective, 44. Reflexive verbs, 41; 

distinguished from verbs in "−igx−", 232, b. Relative pronoun, ("kiu") 146, ("kio") 233; not omitted, p. 106, 

ftn. Relative adjective, 150; relative adverb, see Adverbs. Relative clause, see 146, 233, (temporal) 155, (of 

manner) 156, (quantitative) 164. Request, expression of, 257, 259; for instructions, 257, 259. Resolve, 

expression of, 255. Result, clauses of, 105. Root, defined, p. 42, ftn. Route, expression of, 191. 

S. 

Salutations, 115. Separation, expr. by "de", 170; expr. by "al", 252; by "for", 71; by "dis−", 245. Situation, 

expr. by "cxe", 125; by adverbial participle, 222. Source, expr. by "de", 170. Statements, indirect, 53; tenses 

in, 58. Subject, defined, 15; preceded by verb, 51; inf. as, 130; clause as, 141, 259; of adverbial participle,


222. Subordinate clause, defined, 53; imperative in, 259, 262; conditional in, see Conditions, 243, 246. 

Subordinating conjunctions, "ke", 53, 105, 259 ("tial ke") 83, p. 222, ftn.; ("por ke") 262; (not omitted) p. 34, 

ftn.; "se", 240; "kvazaux", 250; "cxu", p. 38, ftn. Substantive, defined, p. 71, ftn.; inf. as, 98, 130; clause as, 

53, 259. Substitution, expr. by prep., p. 63, ftn.; expr. by prep. with inf., 98; of noun for inf., 218, b, p. 193, 

ftn. Suffixes, causative verbs from, 214, c; intrans. verbs from, 232, d; "−ad−", 218; "−acx−", 272; "−ajx−", 

227; "−an−", 145; "−ar−", 126; "−cxj−", 283; "−ebl−", 161; "−ec−", 202; "−eg−", 122; "−ej−", 111; "−em−", 

192; "−er−", 276; "−estr−", 253; "−et−", 198; "−id−" 207; "−ig−", 214, 239, 275; "−igx−", 232, 239, 279; 

"−il−", 63; "−in−", 59; "−ind−", 154; "−ing−", 237; "−ist−", 172, p. 154, ftn.; "−nj−", 283; "−obl−", 186; 

"−on−", 166; "−op−", 261; "−uj−", 181; "−ul−", 132; "−um−", 268. Summary of conditions, 249. Superlatives, 

(adj.) 74, (adv.) 79; followed by "el", 75. Syllables, 7. Synonyms, apparent, ("diri: paroli: rakonti") 77, ("koni: 

scii") 117, ("tempo; fojo") 127, ("logxi: vivi") 133, ("antikva: maljuna: malnova") p. 128, ftn., 67, ("cxiu: 

tuta") p. 130, ftn., ("indiferenta: nezorga") p. 162, ftn., ("provi: peni: jugxi") p. 228, ftn., ("gxuste: juste: jxus") 

p. 198, ftn., ("ankoraux: jam") p. 124, ftn., p. 112, ftn., ("trovigxi: sin trovi: kusxi: sidi)" p. 217, ftn. Synopsis 

of the verb, 267. System, correlative, 235; metric, 284; of money, 285. 

T. 

Temporal clauses, 96, 155. Temporal adverbs, 66, ("tiam") 73, ("kiam") 123, 155, ("cxiam") 187, ("iam") 212, 

("neniam") 226, ("jam") p. 124, ftn. ("ankoraux") p. 112, ftn., ("jxus") p. 116, ftn. Tenses, aoristic, p. 78, ftn.; 

compound, 109; (of impersonal verbs) 179; in indirect quotations, 58; in conditions, 249; of inf., 267; of 

conditional, 241, 242; of imperative, 254; present, 14, (progressive) 110, (passive) 168, past, 35, (passive) 

178; future, 55, (progressive) 114; (passive) 183; imperfect, 113, (passive) 178; perfect, 124, (passive) 190; 

pluperfect, 135, (passive) 195; future perfect, 148, (passive) 190; periphrastic, 153, (passive) 200; synopsis of 

all, 267. Terminations, see Endings. Terms of address, 163; affectionate, 283, p. 221, ftn. Time, of day, 185; 

expr. by prep., 89; expr. by acc., 91; expr. by clause, 96, 155; expr. by adverbial participle, 222; advs. of, see 

Temporal adverbs. Titles, 163; use of "mosxto", 258. Transitive verbs, defined, 22; formed by "−ig−", 214; 

from intrans. roots, 264, b, c; list of some, 275. 

U. 

Unemphatic words, position of, (negative) 27, (pronoun) 274. 

V. 

Verbal nouns in "−ad−", 218, b, p. 193, ftn. Verbal roots, causative verbs from, 214, b. Verbs, mood of, 241; 

invariable, 18; causative, 214; frequentative, 218, a; inchoative, 232, a; impersonal, 50; reflexive, 41; trans., 

defined, 22; trans, from intrans. roots, 275; intrans., defined, 22; intrans. from trans. roots, 232, b, 279; from 

prep., 159; from adv., 171; conjugation of, 34, (synopsis) 267, preceding the subject, 51; as interjection, p. 

216, ftn.; implied, (in comparisons) 82, 156, 250; (in salutations) 115, (in exclamations) 115, 228; with 

prepositional phrase containing "da", 102. Vivid conditions, p. 189, ftn. Vowels, pronunciation of, 2. 

W. 

Way, expression of, (manner) 76, (route) 191. Weights and measures, 284. Wish, expression of, 257, 259. 

Words, correlative, 235; formation of, 116; from prepositions, 159; from primary advs., 171; composition of, 

see Compounds; order of, in question, 30; see also Position. 

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