Fort Larned National Historic Site

Fort Larned was an American military post on the Santa Fe Trail located a few miles west of Larned, Kansas. The fort was operational from 1859 to 1878 as one of several frontier forts that were established in the mid-1800s. Many of these forts were built to watch over vital trade routes and, during this period, the Santa Fe Trail was one of the most significant and profitable of these routes. The main burden of guarding the Trail was given to forts Larned, Leavenworth, Lyon (Bent’s New Fort), and Union–each each of which played a major role in the story of the Santa Fe Trail.

Fort Larned eventually became a mix between meeting ground and military outpost. Its location on the Trail and its proximity to the major tribes in the area made the fort an ideal place for diplomatic talks between American Indian leaders and the US government; however, it also served as a base of operations for military expeditions against those same tribes.

Today, Fort Larned is one of the best-preserved examples of these frontier forts, and is the most well-preserved of the Santa Fe Trail forts. Although it was not the largest or the most important of these forts, Fort Larned has become a prominent National Park Service site.¹

Origins

In 1848, the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo ended the Mexican-American War. Shortly afterwards, the Gadsden Purchase of 1854, along with several other land acquisitions, gave the United States the boundaries that we know today. Before 1860, many Americans trekked overland to the Far West, especially California and Oregon; in the late 1850s, however, large numbers began settling on the Great Plains–the only region in the United States where Indians had not yet been forced onto reservations.

In the early 19th century, the US military’s goal in the West was simple: to maintain a line of forts as a “buffer zone” between American Indians and whites. The goal of these forts was to act as peacekeepers, preventing Indian attacks on the rapidly expanding settlements and keeping white settlers in check.² Yet the United States soon adopted a more aggressive approach to Indian policy, using military force to keep indigenous peoples on their reservations and away from white settlers. Dozens of new forts sprang up across the western frontier, including Fort Larned. A series of major conflicts with American Indians (the largest campaigns of the Indian Wars) raged from the 1860s to the 1890s, with these forts playing pivotal roles.³

Travelers along the Santa Fe Trail looked to Fort Larned in Kansas, Fort Lyon in Colorado, and Fort Union in New Mexico for law enforcement and protection. These three forts presided over each major fork of the Santa Fe Trail, and supplied troops that patrolled hundreds of miles of the route.⁴ These frontier forts and their soldiers became the only force of law on these trails, and the main source of the US government’s authority on the frontier.⁵

The Fort

The first iteration of Fort Larned was called “Camp on the Pawnee Fork” and was located on the Pawnee River, at the base of Lookout Hill (now called “Jenkins Hill”). This was a small camp, only consisting of tents and other temporary structures. The site was moved to a more permanent location in 1859, on a bend in the river overlooking the plains. It was given the name “Fort Larned” after the US Army’s paymaster, Col. Benjamin F. Larned.⁶ For the first year, the fort included only a few dozen crude structures, the majority of which were intended to be temporary. In 1860, the first set of real buildings were constructed, but they were hastily built and thrown together quickly with adobe and wood. However, as Fort Larned’s significance grew, better fortified buildings gradually emerged; in 1864, a stone blockhouse was built, and later, in 1866, a stone commissary storehouse was constructed. This storehouse had thick walls and rifle ports built into the side, features deemed unnecessary in future additions to the fort.⁷

Despite its name, Fort Larned was really more of a small outpost than a proper fort. The fort overlooked large stretches of the plains to the north and south, and was bordered by groves of hardwood trees along the river. The river itself acted as a moat along the northwest edge of the fort, giving it a natural barrier against any threats.⁸ Because of this natural defense, Fort Larned–devoid of large walls and extensive entrenchments–did not resemble a traditional fort. It never housed more than a few hundred soldiers.⁹

From the government’s perspective, the fort’s construction was an immediate success. Treaties with the United States had guaranteed many Indian nations regular annuity payments, which were distributed from frontier forts by Indian agents. Fort Larned’s location on the Santa Fe Trail made it an easy spot for American and Indian leaders to meet, and it served as the home of Indian agents to the Southern Cheyenne, Kiowa, and Comanche–most notably Jesse Leavenworth and Edward Wynkoop.

Before the creation of Fort Larned, Santa Fe Trail travelers would not encounter any permanent Army posts between Fort Riley, Kansas, and Fort Union (in present-day eastern New Mexico). Larned’s presence on the Trail lowered the frequency of Native American attacks; in 1861, the fort’s commanding officer stated that Indians had completely left the Santa Fe Trail area, and that there was no sign of hostilities in the near future. However, the onset of the Civil War would bring about a new wave of unrest on the plains.¹⁰

Early Interactions with Native Americans

Texas became part of the United States in the 1840s, forcing Apache and Cheyenne tribes in northern Texas to move farther north into western Kansas. This led to a sharp decline in the buffalo population and a scarcity of natural resources in the region; increased traffic on the Santa Fe Trail stressed the environment even more, and many Indian nations in the area turned violent as they struggled to survive.¹¹ Several travelers on the Santa Fe Trail reported stories of large groups of Indians waiting at strategic points in the trail, coercing the travelers to give them food in exchange for safe passage–or simply stealing from them.¹²

Once many frontier soldiers headed eastward to fight the Confederacy, the fight over resources along the Santa Fe Trail intensified. This would lead to several notable incidents, many of which were recorded by travelers on the trail. In his book Treating With Natives On The Santa Fe Trail, William H. Ryus describes several encounters, including the Nine Mile Ridge Massacre, which occurred about 75 miles west of Fort Larned¹³:

In January, 1863, a wagon train that was preparing to bed down for the night was surrounded by a group of hungry Indians who demanded food and coffee. In the excitement that followed, a teamster wounded one of the Indians. This prompted them to return before daylight and massacre all the teamsters, excluding one who escaped to the protection of Fort Larned.¹⁴

Fort Larned would also become directly involved in several of these incidents, and neighboring Kiowa and Cheyenne raided it several times in retaliation:

In that same year a group of destitute Kiowas, under the guise of wanting to trade, ran off 300 cattle from Fort Larned… [In] August […], Little Heart, en route from his Cheyenne village just west of Fort Larned to the fort for the purpose of obtaining supplies, was shot by a sentry. It was later determined that Little Heart had been drunk and that he had attempted to ride over Isaac Marrs, the sentry.¹⁵

The early history of the fort would be marked with many incidents like these, as the US government struggled to impose its control over the tribes of the Great Plains.

The relationship between the fort and American Indians was not all bad, however. In January of that same year, a group of Caddo from Fort Cobb, Oklahoma, wandered up to Fort Larned, hoping to find somewhere to settle down. They had fled their village after their Indian agent had left them to join the Confederate Army. The authorities at Fort Larned were sympathetic to them, and managed to get them a chunk of money and a large swath of land across the river to set up farms.[^Report] Unfortunately, relations between the US government and the tribes of the Southern Plains would only get worse, and tensions continued to rise. After only a year in their new home, the Caddo farmers fled before they got caught in the crossfire.¹⁶

Conflicts of 1864-1867

In 1864 tensions came to a head, and violence broke out across the plains and swept through the region. In the summer, a group of 60 teamsters were attacked just west of Fort Larned. Many of them were killed, and one survivor was rescued later, after he had been captured and tortured by Indians. In the winter, a militia led by John Chivington slaughtered an entire village of peaceful Arapahoes and Cheyennes near the modern Colorado-Kansas border. This infamous event, now dubbed the Sand Creek Massacre, caused a complete breakdown in relations between the Plains tribes and the US government.¹⁷

Throughout the year, Fort Larned was constantly raided for its supplies, especially its livestock and horses, and the surrounding area saw countless attacks and skirmishes. The most direct attack on the fort came on July 17, 1864, when a group of Indians hatched a plan to massacre the entire garrison. Their plan was to infiltrate the base during a ceremony and, at a prearranged signal, launch a surprise attack. However, about three hours before the designated time for the attack, rumors started circulating about a planned Indian attack, and the security on the base was tightened. A Kiowa chieftain, the leader of the attack, approached the fort sutler’s store and was denied entry. After some argument, the chieftain shot the store sentry and fled, triggering the attack early. The original plan of massacre was abandoned, and instead, the attackers ran off with over 200 mules and horses–all of the livestock at the post.¹⁸

Fighting in the area would continue until early 1865. At this point, Colonel Leavenworth wanted to try to find a way to stop the bloodshed. In October, he met with leaders from Kiowa, Comanche, Plains Apache, Arapahoe, and Cheyenne tribes near the Little Arkansas River. Theoretically, this meeting was a success, as every leader present signed new treaties with the US government. In actuality, not every group within those tribes agreed with the treaties, or considered them to be binding in any way. The more militant groups, especially those within the Cheyenne, continued raiding throughout 1866 and 1867.¹⁹

At this point, the US government decided it needed to send a message, so military leaders sent Major General Winfield Scott Hancock and his men to Fort Larned in the spring of 1867.

Hancock’s Expedition

Hancock started gathering troops in Fort Riley for his expedition on April 3, 1867. There, he picked up the 7th Calvary, and with it, Lieutenant Colonel George Custer. They arrived at Fort Larned on April 7th and stayed there until the 13th, when they met with several Cheyenne chieftains from a nearby village.[^Coates51] During this meeting, the main goal of this expedition was explained, as transcribed by Army surgeon Isaac Coates:

The Great Father [The President] has heard that some Indians have taken white men and women captives. He has heard also that a great many Indians are trying to get up war to try to hunt the white men. That is the reason I came down here. I intend, not only to visit you here, but my troops will remain among you, to see that the peace and safety of the Plains is preserved. I am going, also, to visit you in your camp. […] [We] are not anxious for war against Indians, but are ready for a just war, […] Let the guilty, then, beware, I say to you, to show you the importance of keeping treaties made with us, and of letting the white man travel unmolested. - Gen. Winfield S. Hancock²⁰

In response, one of the Chieftans stated:

We never did the white man any harm. We don’t intend to. […] We are willing to be friends with the white man. […] The buffalo are diminishing fast. The antelope, that were plenty a few years ago, are now thin. When they shall all die away, we shall be hungry; we shall want something to eat and will be compelled to come into the fort. Your young men must not fire on us. When they see us, they fire, and we fire on them. - Tall Bull²¹

Ultimately, Hancock ignored Tall Bull’s response, instead insisting on holding another meeting in their nearby village.²² The following morning, his expedition set out to march on the Cheyenne village, about 35 miles west of Fort Larned. About 10 miles before reaching the village, they ran into a group of Cheyenne warriors who proposed that they meet the following day, promising to gather up other local tribes’ chieftains as well. Hancock accepted, and continued marching his troops forward until they stopped and made camp within a few hundred yards of the village. The sight of soldiers gathering near their homes evoked images of the Sand Creek Massacre, and the villagers fled as fast as they could, abandoning almost all of their possessions.²³

The next morning, Custer and his men were tasked with hunting down the villagers, and with that, Hancock declared that it would “now be war against the Cheyenne and Sioux between the Arkansas and the Platte.”²⁴ Shortly afterwards, he ordered the Cheyenne village to be burned to the ground, and his expedition left in pursuit of this new war.

Sources disagree on what exactly compelled Hancock to give the order, but in general, his decisions seemed to be driven by impatience and mistrust of the Indians, as well as a general sense of superiority. Regardless, his mishandling of the situation at the village caused tempers to flare, and his expedition sparked off a series of raids, skirmishes, and massacres across the area. Several historical sources describe this season as a large scale campaign, called “Hancock’s War,” while others see it as a heartless, unnecessary slaughter, with Hancock being “… a buffoon bumbling around Kansas with fifteen hundred men in tow, futilely pursuing uncatchable Indians and oblivious or indifferent to the suffering he was causing women and children.”²⁵

After several months, the expedition would be called to an end, and Hancock would be transferred from his post and replaced with General Phillip J. Sheridan. The effects of Hancock’s expedition would become the main driving force behind the Medicine Lodge Treaty.

The Medicine Lodge Treaty

With the continued fighting on the plains, the US government decided that it would be in their best interest to resolve the situation diplomatically. In July, 1867, it was decided that a peace commission should be created, and over the next two years, this commission would travel around the frontier, holding meetings and signing treaties.²⁶

In the fall, tribal leaders from the Great Plains tribes–Kiowa, Comanche, Plains Apache, Cheyenne, and Arapaho–all agreed to meet at Medicine Lodge Creek, in southern Kansas. Preliminary talks began at Fort Larned and left for Medicine Lodge Creek on October 13.²⁷ The proceedings went relatively well, with every tribe present signing a new treaty (three in total). Native leaders not to disrupt military posts or railroad construction and to relinquish their claims to land between the Platte and Arkansas rivers; in return, they received large reservations and massive allotments of goods.[^Chalfant500] In actuality, though, the supplies did not arrive as promised and the tribes continued raiding outside their designated reservations. Rather than end violence on the plains, the agreements made at Medicine Lodge intensified it.²⁸

Last Years In The Military

This peace would be short-lived, and soon the expeditions of Generals Sheridan and Custer swept through the Midwest and completely wiped out any further Indian resistance. After years of bloodshed, the US military finally succeeded in its goal of confining Native Americans to reservations–far away from significant trails and railroad routes.

By late 1868, all of the Southern Plains tribes were evicted from their homelands in Kansas. Fort Larned’s annuity distribution center was closed, and its time as a site of diplomacy had come to an end. The fort stayed operational for about ten more years, mainly providing troops to protect railroad workers, but the amount of activity in the fort was greatly reduced. Operations slowly wound down until the fort was abandoned in 1878.²⁹

Fort Larned as a National Historic Site

Between 1878 and 1884, Fort Larned was left to the elements, and with the help of scavengers, slowly deteriorated. However, in 1884 the land was sold at an auction and quickly passed through the hands of several owners who eventually converted the fort into a ranching operation. The barracks were converted into barns, new silos and corrals were erected, and many of its more temporary structures were demolished. By 1960, the site had been turned from a rough military outpost into a stylish, cultivated ranch, and it remained as such until its designation as a National Historic Site in 1964.

Since then, the National Park Service has tried its best to remove these changes. All of the new ranch structures have been taken down, and the only buildings left are the few permanent buildings that the military built in the 1860’s.³⁰ Because the fort was well taken care of after its decommissioning, it remains as one of the most well-preserved frontier forts of the 1800’s–and arguably the most well-preserved fort along the Santa Fe Trail. The National Park service uses the fort as a historic museum, mainly to interpret the life of soldiers in Fort Larned and other frontier forts, but there are also exhibits on Hancock’s expedition, American Indians on the Plains, and general frontier history.

Ultimately, the legacy of Fort Larned consists of two major parts: its importance to the military, and its role in diplomacy on the Western frontier. To the military, the fort was relatively insignificant for the majority of its life. Although its military role was often underwhelming, its diplomatic activities left a lasting legacy. It was the main distribution point for gifts and annuities to the Southern Plains tribes, and its location on the Santa Fe Trail made it an easy spot for diplomats to meet and negotiate treaties. However, as we know today, the deals made between Native American tribes and the US government were often underhanded and one-sided, leading to many atrocities in subsequent years.³¹

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Bibliography

Chalfant, W. Y. Hancock’s War: Conflict on the Southern Plains. Norman, Okla.: Arthur H. Clark Company, 2010.

Coates, I., & Kennedy, W. J. D. On the Plains with Custer and Hancock: the Journal of Isaac Coates, Army Surgeon. Boulder, Colo.: Johnson Books, 1997.

Clary, David. “Fort Larned National Historic Site.” National Register of Historic Places Inventory/Nomination Form. Omaha: Midwest Region, National Park Service, 1976.

Oman, K. “The Beginning of the End: The Indian Peace Commission of 1867-1868.” Great Plains Quarterly 22, no. 1 (Winter 2002), 35-51.

Pahre, R. “Reconsidering National Park Interpretation of the Great Plains and Trans-Mississippi West.” Great Plains Research 22, no. 2 (Fall 2012), 99-122.

Pusey, A. “Precedents: October 28, 1867. Medicine Lodge Treaty Is Signed.” ABA Journal 98, no. 10 (October 2012), 72.

Report of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs, 1863, 253-254. Retrieved from digicoll.library.wisc.edu/cgi-bin/History/History-idx?id=History.AnnRep63

Unrau, W. E. “The Story of Fort Larned.” Kansas History: A Journal of the Central Plains 23, no.3 (Autumn 1957), 257–280.

Zwink, T. A. “Fort Larned: Garrison on the Central Great Plains.” Doctoral dissertation, Oklahoma State University, 1980.

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