Epinephelus malabaricus (Bloch & Schneider, 1801)

The Malabar grouper (Epinephelus malabaricus), an Indo-pacific fish from the family Serranidae, is one of the largest and most common cods found in tropical estuaries and on coastal reefs. A robust marine fish, adults have a brownish head and long body. The body is covered with randomly scattered small blackish-brown spots, which increase in number with age, and scattered whitish spots and blotches. Their tail fins are rounded and five irregular dark brown bars are often visible on the body .

Brackish, Marine

E. malabaricus is a protogynous hermaphrodite species - individuals first function sexually as females and then later, at least some of the mature females change to males. Sexual maturity in males does not occur until they are 114 cm in length (Lau and Li 2000). Fertilisation occurs externally. These fish are non-guarders and scatter their eggs in open water.

Amphidromous. Refers to fishes that regularly migrate between freshwater and the sea (in both directions), but not for the purpose of breeding, as in anadromous and catadromous species. Sub-division of diadromous. Migrations should be cyclical and predictable and cover more than 100 km.

These amphidromous fish regularly migrate between freshwater and the sea (in both directions), but not for breeding as in anadromous and catadromous species. These fish reproduce in fresh water, newly hatched larvae move to the sea where they feed and grow over a few months and return to fresh water as well-grown juveniles. After a few more months of feeding and growing these juveniles mature and reproduce.

Max length : 234 cm TL male/unsexed. Common length : 100.0 cm TL male/unsexed. Max. published weight: 150.0 kg.

Dorsal fin with 11 spines and 15 or 16 soft rays. The last spine considerably shorter than third spine. Anal fin with 3 spines and 8 rays. Pectoral fin as long as postorbital part of head. Caudal fin rounded. Body color mostly brownish with very small blackish spots on body, head and fins. Spots on head widely separated. Five dark cross bands on body, distinct in young fishes but indistinct in large adults.

Morphologically E. malabaricus looks similar to E. coioides and E. tauvina.

A common species found in a variety of habitats: coral and rocky reefs, tide pools, estuaries, mangrove swamps and sandy or mud bottom from shore to depths of 150 m. Juveniles found near shore and in estuaries; sex reversal probable; catch statistics poor being previously confused with E. andersoni . Feeds primarily on fishes and crustaceans, and occasionally on cephalopods . Also in Ref. 9137, 58534.

Tertiary consumer. Trophic level above 4 Prey: Teleost fishes, benthic crusteceans such as juvenile crabs, shrimps and squilla. Sometimes, cephalopods.

Copepoda, Isopoda, Nematoda, Myxosporea, Monogenea, Digenea, Cestoda, Acanthocephala

The taxonomic relationship among seven species of groupers was revealed by Govindaraju and Jayasankar (2004) using RAPD fingerprinting. E. malabaricus was most distantly related to E. diacanthus and E. bleekeri. The genetic relationship was very close among E. coioides, E. tauvina, and E. malabaricus. In E. malabaricus all 24 pairs of chromosomes are acrocentric (including the smallest pair no. 24) and the NOR (nucleolar organizer regions) is located in the subcentromeric region of pair no. 24. Also, their C-banding patterns are different - all chromosomes are C-positive at centromeric regions, with extra heterochromatin regions covering the whole arms of pair no. 24 (Wang et al., 2010).

Baldness disease in Snapper. Parasitic infestations (protozoa, worms, etc.) ; Capsalid Monogenean Infection 3. Parasitic infestations (protozoa, worms, etc.) ; Diplectanum Disease. Parasitic infestations (protozoa, worms, etc.) ; Erilepturus Disease. Parasitic infestations (protozoa, worms, etc.) ; Prosorhynchus Infestation 4. Parasitic infestations (protozoa, worms, etc.) ; Pseudorhabdosynchus Infestation. Parasitic infestations (protozoa, worms, etc.) ; Pseudorhabdosynochus Infestation 2. Parasitic infestations (protozoa, worms, etc.) ; Rhapidascaris Disease (larvae). Parasitic infestations (protozoa, worms, etc.) ; Trichodinosis. Parasitic infestations (protozoa, worms, etc.) ; Vibriosis Disease (general). Bacterial ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ;

Blister disease caused due to iridovirus was observed in wild and cultured E.malabaricus in Thailand (Kongpradit et al., 1997). Fingerling to spawn sized E. malabaricus was found to be infected with Grouper Spawner Iridovirus Disease (GSIVD) in which the size of iridovirus is 120-135 nm. Kanchanakhan et al. 2005 reported betanodavirus belonging to the genotype of Red Spotted Grouper Nervous Necrosis Virus (RGNNV) in cultured E. malabaricus in Thailand. Fish lymphocystis disease (FLD) was reported in E. malabaricus cultured in marine net cages in China (Yogija, 1992) and in South east Asia (Chang & Chao, 1984). Mortality due to possible ammonia poisoning was observed at Tuticorin bay, East coast of India (Asha et al., 2009). Parasites reported from E. malabaricus at different locations include: 1. Leong and Wong (1988) reported Acanthocephalus sp. (Koelreuther, 1771)  from the parasite group Acanthocephala in Malaysia  2. Leong and Wong (1988) reported Tetraphyllidae sp. us from the parasite group Cestoda  in Malaysia S 3. Chinabut (1998) reported Tetraphyllidae sp. us from the parasite group Cestoda  in Thailand  4. Ho et al. 2000 reported Caligus acanthopagris  Lin, Ho & Chen 2000 from the parasite group Copepoda  in Taiwan 5. Roubal (1995) reported Caligus epidemicus Hewitt, 1971 from the parasite group Copepoda  in Taiwan  6. Urawa and Kato 1991 reported Caligus orientalis Gussev, 1951 from the parasite group Copepoda  in Kenkyu 7. Lin et al. (1996) reported Caligus punctatus Shiino, 1955 from the parasite group Copepoda  in Taiwan  8. Lin et al. (1996) reported Caligus rotundigenitalis Yu, 1933 from the parasite group Copepoda  in Taiwan  9. Chinabut (1998) reported Caligus sp. (Muller, 1785) from the parasite group Copepoda  in Thailand  10. Koesharyani et al. (1999a) reported Caligus sp. (Muller, 1785) from the parasite group Copepoda  in Indonesia  11. Leong and Wong (1990) reported Caligus sp. (Muller, 1785) from the parasite group Copepoda  in Malaysia  12. Leong and Wong (1988) reported Ergasilus borneoensis  Yamaguti, 1954 from the parasite group Copepoda  in Malaysia  13. Lin and Ho 1998 reported Ergasilus lobus (Lin, 1997) from the parasite group Copepoda  in Taiwan 14. Koesharyani and Yuasa (2001) reported Lepeoptheirus sp. from the parasite group Copepoda  in Philippines 15. Chinabut (1996) reported Thebius sp. from the parasite group Copepoda  in Thailand 16. Leong and Wong (1988) reported Allopodocotyle serrani Yamaguti, 1942 from the parasite group Digenea in Malaysia 17. Chinabut (1998) reported Cardicola sp. (Short, 1952) from the parasite group Digenea in Thailand 18. Leong and Wong (1988) reported Cardicola sp. (Short, 1952) from the parasite group Digenea in Malaysia 19. Leong and Wong (1988) reported Ectenurus sp. (Looss, 1907) from the parasite group Digenea in Malaysia 20. Chinabut (1998) reported Gonapodasmius sp. (Justine, 1981) from the parasite group Digenea in Thailand 21. Leong and Wong (1990) reported Helicometrina nimia Linton, 1910 from the parasite group Digenea in Malaysia 22. Chinabut (1998) reported Lecithochirium neopacificum from the parasite group Digenea in Thailand 23. Leong and Wong (1988) reported Velasquez, 1962 from the parasite group Digenea in Malaysia 24. Bray and Justine, 2006 reported Prosorhynchus maternus Bray and Justine, 2006 from the parasite group Digenea in New Caledonia 25. Hafeezullah and Siddiqi (1970) reported Prosorhynchus pacificum Manter 1940 from the parasite group Digenea in India 26. Leong and Wong (1988) reported Prosorhynchus pacificum Manter 1941 from the parasite group Digenea in  Malaysa 27. Chinabut (1998) reported Prosorhynchus pacificum Manter 1942 from the parasite group Digenea in Thailand 28. Leong and Wong (1988) reported Pseudometadena celebesensis Yamaguti, 1952 from the parasite group Digenea in Malaysia 29. Chinabut (1998) reported Pseudopecoeloides sp. (Yamaguti, 1940) from the parasite group Digenea in Thailand 30. Leong and Wong (1988) reported Stephanostomum sp. (Looss, 1899) from the parasite group Digenea in Malaysia 31. Shalaby and Hassanine (1996) reported Telorhynchus arripidis Crowcroft, 1947 from the parasite group Digenea in Red Sea 32. Chinabut (1998) reported Gnathia sp. from the parasite group Isopoda in Thailand 33. Leong (2001) reported Benedenia lutjani (Whittington and Kearn, 1993) from the parasite group Monogenea in Thailand 34. Chinabut (1998) reported Cycloplectanum epinepheli (Yamaguti 1938) from the parasite group Monogenea in Thailand Ruangpan and Rungsichai (1993), Danayadol (1999) reported 35. Dactylogyrus sp. Diesing, 1850 from the parasite group Monogenea in Thailand 36. Leong (2001) reported Diplectanum grouperi Leong, Wong, Woo e Foo, 1999 from the parasite group Monogenea in Thailand 37. Chinabut (1998) reported Gyrodactylus sp. Nordmann, 1832 from the parasite group Monogenea in Thailand 38. Koesharyani and Yuasa (2001) reported Haliotrema sp. Johnston and Tiegs, 1922 from the parasite group Monogenea in Philippines 39. Leong (2001) reported Megalocotyloides convolute from the parasite group Monogenea in Thailand 40. Leong and Wong (1988) reported Megalocotyloides epinepheli (Bychowsky and Nagibina, 1976) from the parasite group Monogenea in Malaysia 41. Leong 2001 reported Megalocotyloides epinepheli (Bychowsky and Nagibina, 1976) from the parasite group Monogenea in Thailand 42. Leong (2001) reported Neobenedenia girellae (Hargis, 1955) from the parasite group Monogenea in Thailand 43. Koesharyani and Yuasa (2001) reported Neobenedenia girellae (Hargis, 1955) from the parasite group Monogenea in Philippines 44. Leong (2001) reported Neobenedenia sp. (Yamaguti, 1963) from the parasite group Monogenea in Thailand 45. Leong and Wong (1988) reported Pseudorhabdosynochus epinepheli Yamaguti,1958 from the parasite group Monogenea in Malaysia 46. Chinabut (1998) reported Pseudorhabdosynochus epinepheli Yamaguti,1958 from the parasite group Monogenea in Thailand 47. Leong (2001) reported Pseudorhabdosynochus lanteuensis from the parasite group Monogenea in Thailand 48. Koesharyani and Yuasa (2001) reported Pseudorhabdosynochus sp. Yamaguti, 1958 from the parasite group Monogenea in Philippines 49. Justine and Sigura, 2007 reported Pseudorhabdosynochus manifestus n. sp from the parasite group Monogenea in New Caledonia 50. Justine and Sigura, 2008 reported Pseudorhabdosynochus malabaricus n. sp. from the parasite group Monogenea in New Caledonia 51. Justine and Sigura, 2009 reported Pseudorhabdosynochus maternus n. sp from the parasite group Monogenea in New Caledonia 52. Justine and Sigura, 2010 reported Pseudorhabdosynochus manipulus n. sp from the parasite group Monogenea in New Caledonia 53. Justine and Sigura, 2011 reported Pseudorhabdosynochus marcellus n. sp from the parasite group Monogenea in New Caledonia 54. Justine and Sigura, 2012 reported Pseudorhabdosynochus maaensis n. sp. from the parasite group Monogenea in New Caledonia 55. Justine and Sigura, 2013 reported Pseudorhabdosynochus cf. shenzhenensis Yang, Zeng & Gibson, 2005 from the parasite group Monogenea in New Caledonia 56. Leong and Wong (1988) reported Contracaecum sp. (Railliet and Henry, 1912) from the parasite group Nematoda in Malaysia 57. Leong and Wong (1988) reported Echinocephalus sp. (Rüppell, 1830) from the parasite group Nematoda in Malaysia 58. Chinabut (1998) reported Raphidascaris sp. (larva) from the parasite group Nematoda in Thailand 59. Leong and Wong (1990) reported Raphidascaris sp. (larva) from the parasite group Nematoda in Malaysia 60. Supamattaya et al., 1991 reported Sphaerospora epinepheli n. sp. from the parasite group Myxosporea in Thailand.

Habitat reef-associated; amphidromous ; brackish; marine; depth range 0 - 150 m

A common reef-associated, amphidromous species found in a variety of habitats: coral and rocky reefs, tidepools, laggons, estuaries, mangrove swamps and sandy/mud bottom from the shore to depths of 150 m. Juveniles are found near shore and in estuaries (Heemstra and Randall 1993). Climate/ Range: Tropical; 30°N - 32°S, 29°E - 173°W

Decreasing

Near Threatened (NT) , IUCN Grouper and Wrasse Specialist Group IUCN 2006

Red List Category & Criteria: Near Threatened ver 3.1 Year Published: 2006 Assessor/s: Cornish, A. (Grouper & Wrasse Specialist Group) Reviewer/s: Sadovy, Y. & Kulbicki, M. (Grouper & Wrasse Red List Authority)

Major threats are anthropogenic. Sannadurgappa (2010) attributed the disappearance of E. malabaricus from the Aghanashini estuary ecosystem, South India to increased human activity. Fishing pressures: This species has a very low resilience to fishing, with a minimum population doubling time more than 14 years (Froese and Pauly 2005). Commercial and recreational trawl and line fishing along reef and muddy bottoms, and the live reef fish trade, are main fishing threats. Trawl fishery removes many small juveniles. Small juveniles are also captured from wild for aquaculture activities like pond and cage culture. Habitat Loss: Includes loss in mangrove belts, destructive fishing methods in coral reefs for live fishes, and industrialisation in coastal belts. These threats are predominant in South East Asia. In other areas where E. malabaricus occurs, the risk is not as high but still considerable - 15% in the Middle East and 25% in the Indian Ocean, also 10% in the Pacific where E. malabaricus is only known from a few locations (all figures from Bryant et al. 1998).

fisheries: highly commercial; aquaculture: commercial; gamefish: yes; price category: very high; price reliability: questionable: based on ex-vessel price for species in this genus

A fine game fish and excellent food fish. E. malabaricus is one of the most important groupers in fisheries of the Indo-Pacific region. Common in markets. About 5% of grouper fishery comprises by this species along Calicut, Malabar coast, West coast of India (Manojkumar, 2005). Specimens of 45 cm size are more common in the commercial catches along Indian coast. It is caught with trawls, longlines, traps, spear and hook-and-line. Used in marine aquariums. Widely used in mariculture mainly in the Far East.

Hatchery produced juveniles may be used for mariculture practices, instead of harvesting live juveniles from wild.