Fig 1.
Map of northern South America showing from west to east: Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta (SNSM, Colombia), Sierra de San Luis (SSL), Cordillera de la Costa Central or Central Coastal Range (CCR), Turimiquire Massif (TUR), mountains of Isla de Margarita (IMA), and on the Eastern Coastal Range the Paria Range (PR) as well as Trinidad Northern Range (TRI) and Tobago Main Ridge (TOB).
Arrows indicate the main mountainous system in these areas, which are referred in Tables 1–4, Figs 3–6. Although Cerro Campeare (PR1) and Cerro La Cerbatana (PR2) peaks lay outside the proper Paria Peninsula or Paria Range (PR3), both peaks share Paria’s herpetological fauna as confirmed in this work. Numbers in red circles are: 1) Cerro Cachipal, 2) Cerro Humo and Cerro Las Melenas, 3) Macuro. Map build with GIS Cloud Apps (www.giscloud.com). Reprinted from Relief Free Map under a CC BY license, with permission from the Open Data Commons Open Database License (ODbL) by the OpenStreetMap Foundation (OSMF), original copyright OpenStreetMap®.
Fig 2.
Vegetation in Venezuela’s northernmost montane coastal systems.
A. General view of the evergreen montane forest in Sierra de Aroa on the western side of Central Coastal Range Yaracuy state. B. Cloud forest in the Central Coastal Range. Monumento Natural Pico Codazzi, Aragua state. C. Summit of Cerro El Copey on Isla de Margarita. Glomeropitcairnia erectiflora mostly grows on the ground in Copey’s Summit. D. Elfin forest around 700 m in elevation in Cerro El Copey. E. Evergreen forest in Cerro La Cerbatana. F. View of the top of Cerro Campeare G. Cerro Las Melenas and Cerro El Padre seen from Cerro Humo summit. H. Cloud forest surrounding the town of Las Melenas (750 m), near Cerro Humo. Photos by Helga Terzenbach (A), Aurelien Miralles (B), Gilson Rivas (C-F, H), Luis Sibira (G).
Table 1.
Total number of native species, endemic and introduced amphibians (top) and reptiles (bottom) in the studied region.
Table 2.
Total number of exclusive and restricted species of amphibians and reptiles to humid or evergreen mountain forests in the studied region.
Fig 3.
Species-area relationships using the linear function for (a) amphibians (blue circles) and (b) reptiles (green circles). The two graphs on the left (a) are from species-area calculated above 200 m in elevation and the two right graphs labelled (b) are from species-area calculated from mid mountain vegetation. SNSM (Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, Colombia), SSL (Sierra de San Luis), CCR (Central Coastal Range), IMA (Isla de Margarita), TUR (Turimiquire Massif), PR (Paria Range), TRI (island of Trinidad), TOB (island of Tobago).
Table 3.
Matrix of Simpson´s similarity index of amphibians (top) and reptile (bottom) between all regions.
Fig 4.
Distribution patterns of amphibians in the different orographic regions.
Cluster classification for amphibians (a) found above 200 m in elevation and (b) found exclusively at mid altitude mountain vegetation, based on the UPGMA algorithm and the Jaccard coefficient (cophenetic correlation r = 0.95 and r = 0.92). SNSM (Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, Colombia), SSL (Sierra de San Luis), CCR (Central Coastal Range), IMA (Isla de Margarita), TUR (Turimiquire Massif), PR (Paria Range), TRI (island of Trinidad), TOB (island of Tobago). Map build with GIS Cloud Apps (www.giscloud.com). Reprinted from Relief Free Map under a CC BY license, with permission from the Open Data Commons Open Database License (ODbL) by the OpenStreetMap Foundation (OSMF), original copyright OpenStreetMap®.
Fig 5.
Distribution patterns of reptiles in the different orographic regions.
Cluster classification for reptiles (a) found above 200 m in elevation and (b) found exclusively at mid altitude mountain vegetation, based on the UPGMA algorithm and the Jaccard coefficient (cophenetic correlation r = 0.81, and r = 0.84). SNSM (Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, Colombia), SSL (Sierra de San Luis), CCR (Central Coastal Range), IMA (Isla de Margarita), TUR (Turimiquire Massif), PR (Paria Range), TRI (island of Trinidad), TOB (island of Tobago). Map build with GIS Cloud Apps (www.giscloud.com). Reprinted from Relief Free Map under a CC BY license, with permission from the Open Data Commons Open Database License (ODbL) by the OpenStreetMap Foundation (OSMF), original copyright OpenStreetMap®.
Fig 6.
Metric multidimensional ordination and scaling (NMDS) based on the UPGMA algorithm and the Jaccard coefficient for amphibians and reptiles.
The two graphs on the left are (a) amphibians (top) and reptiles (bottom) found above 200 m in elevation and the two graphs at the right labelled (b) are amphibians (top) and reptiles (bottom) found exclusively associated to mountain vegetation. SNSM (Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, Colombia), SSL (Sierra de San Luis), CCR (Central Coastal Range), IMA (Isla de Margarita), TUR (Turimiquire Massif), PR (Paria Range), TRI (island of Trinidad), TOB (island of Tobago).
Table 4.
Matrix of Simpson´s similarity index of amphibians (top) and reptile (bottom) between all regions.
Fig 7.
Reptiles found on Sierra de San Luis, Central Coastal Range, Turimiquire Massif and Isla de Margarita, Venezuela.
A. Kugler´s Largescale Lizard Ptychoglossus kugleri (MBLUZ 1445). B, Sharp-snouted Sun Tegu Euspondylus acutirostris (EBRG 5857). C. The Spotted Anadia Anadia marmorata. D. The Twing Anole Anolis tigrinus. E. the Turimiquire Blue-Tailed Skink Panopa croizati. F. Female specimen of Steyer´s Anadia Anadia steyeri (MBLUZ 1314). G. The Margarita Cribo Drymarchon margaritae. Photo credits Helga Terzenbach (A, F), Luis A. Rodríguez J. (B-C), Rosario Castañeda (D), Gilson A. Rivas (E), Gonzalo Medina with cortesy of Maria Abarca (G).
Fig 8.
Amphibians and reptiles from the Paria Range in Venezuela.
A. Individual of Golden tree frog Phytotriades auratus from Cerro Humo. B. Red bellied lizard Oreosaurus rhodogaster, described initially from the Peninsula de Paria. C. Sucre sun Teju lizard Euspondylus monsfumus. D. Castroviejo’s Glassfrog Vitreorana castroviejoi. E. The Caribbean nurse frog Allobates caribe (MHNLS 17498), is known only from three individuals (all females) collected on Cerro Humo (Paria Range). F. Greater windward skink Copeoglossum aurae (MBLUZ 1412). G. The Rivero´s nurse frog Mannophryne riveroi. H. The variegated gecko Gonatodes ceciliae. Photo credits Mayke De Freitas (A-C), Luis Merlo (D), Hinrich Kaiser (E), Luis A. Rodríguez J. (F), Gilson A. Rivas (G-H).
Fig 9.
Habitats of Trinidad´s Northern Range and Tobago´s Main Ridge.
A. Trinidad´s Northern Range holds most of the endemic and near endemic species known from the island; B. A stream in Tobago´s Main Ridge; C. A view of Trinidad´s coastal Northern Range to the West at Maracas Bay; D. A ravine on Tobago´s Main Ridge; E. Trinidad´s Northern Range El Tucuche cloud forest with elfin woodland; F. A stream in Tobago´s Main Ridge. Photo credits John Weber and John C Murphy.
Fig 10.
Some Trinidad amphibians and reptiles.
A. The Venezuelan Bush Anole, Polychrus auduboni. B. Trinidad Leaf-nesting Frog, Phyllomedusa trinitatis. C. Trinidad Coral Snake, Micrurus circinalis. D. Golden Treefrog, Phytotriades auratus. E. Stimson’s Parrot Snake, Leptophis stimsoni. F. Trinidad Snail-eating Snake, Dipsas trinitatus (Trinidad endemic). G. Trinidad Stream Frog, Mannophryne trinitatis (a male transporting tadpoles endemic). H. Hex-scaled Bachia, Bachia trinitatus. I. Luminous Lizard, Oreosaurus shrevei. J. Minute Yellow Treefrog, Dendropsophuscf minutus, K. Variegated Gecko, Gonatodes ceciliae. L. Caribbean Tree Runner, Plica caribeana. M. The Trinidad Spot-nosed Gecko, Gonatodes ferrugineus. N. Urich’s Rain Frog, Pristimantis urichi. Photo credits John C Murphy (A-N).
Fig 11.
Amphibians and reptiles found on Tobago.
A. The Ocellated Day Gecko, Gonatodes ocellatus. B. Square-scaled Bachia, Bachia whitei (Tobago endemic). C. Tobago Anole, Anolis cf tigrinus. D. Red Snake, Erythrolamprus ocellatus (Tobago endemic). E. Tobago Stream Snake, Erythrolamprus pseudoreginae (Tobago endemic). F. Charlotteville Litter Frog, Pristimantis charlottevillensis (Tobago endemic). G. Tobago Stream Frog, Mannophryne olmonae (Tobago endemic). H. Forest Ground Snake, Atractus fuliginosa on Tobago and in north central Venezuela. I and L Ruschenberger’s Treeboa, Corallus ruschenbergerii (different color morphs), J. Turpin’s Litter Frog, Pristimantis turpinorum (Tobago endemic). K. the Coastal Glassfrog, Hyalinobatrachium orientale (Tobago and northcentral Venezuela). Photo credits John C. Murphy (A-C, E-G, I-L), Richard M. Lehtinen (D), and Alvin L. Braswell (H).