Abstract
Copepods are a miniscule but ecologically significant group of organisms that thrive in a multitude of aquatic habitats. Despite being toe-high to a grasshopper, multiple visually mediated behaviors exist that would suggest that vision is an important sensory mode to this subclass of crustaceans. Unlike many other crustacean lineages, adult copepods have tripartite naupliar eyes that in the most typical form have three fused ocellar cups, each made up of three parts: a retinal sphere, a tapetal layer, and a surrounding pigment cup. The form and function of naupliar eyes have not been well cataloged across the copepods, but the species studied thus far display an inordinate amount of diversification. Across species, modifications to the ocellar components of the typical naupliar eye structure can range from complete loss to extreme enlargement, separation of the cups into three independent eyes, and the addition of an astonishingly diverse array of focusing structures, including multiple crystalline or cuticular lenses. Modifications to the typical copepod naupliar eye structure have been histologically identified in four of the ten currently described copepod orders; additional eye diversity is likely to exist among the remaining unstudied groups as well. In this review, we assemble all of the currently available data on copepod naupliar eye function and structure to highlight the extreme diversity of visual modifications in the group, underscore how much is still unknown, reinvigorate research of copepod eyes, and provide a comprehensive evolutionary framework for future studies. Although the eyes of many species are not yet fully characterized, the visual modifications described here indicate that despite their minute size, copepods are often highly visual creatures with eyes that are an evolutionary playground of diversity.
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Acknowledgments
We would like to thank Mike Bok, Peter Bryant, Danté Fenolio, and Russel Hopcroft for sharing their exceptional images of copepods for this chapter; Petra Lenz, Lauren Block, and Leocadio Blanco-Bercial for their expertise in copepod taxonomy and help with species identification; and Petra Lenz for introducing us to copepods in the first place. This research was funded by grants from the National Science Foundation (OIA-1738567 and DEB-1556105) to MLP and is based upon work supported by the National Science Foundation under Grant Nos. DBI-1062432 2011, ABI-1458641 2015, and ABI-1759906 2018 to Indiana University. Any opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Science Foundation, the National Center for Genome Analysis Support, or Indiana University. This is publication 165 from the School of Life Sciences, University of Hawai’i at Mānoa.
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Steck, M., Theam, K.C., Porter, M.L. (2023). The Cornucopia of Copepod Eyes: The Evolution of Extreme Visual System Novelty. In: Buschbeck, E., Bok, M. (eds) Distributed Vision. Springer Series in Vision Research. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-23216-9_9
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