Polar Biol
DOI 10.1007/s00300-014-1640-5
ORIGINAL PAPER
Distribution patterns in Antarctic and Subantarctic echinoderms
Juan Moles • Blanca Figuerola • Neus Campanyà-Llovet
Toni Monleón-Getino • Sergi Taboada •
Conxita Avila
•
Received: 25 April 2014 / Revised: 11 December 2014 / Accepted: 27 December 2014
Ó Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2015
Abstract Echinoderms are the dominant megafaunal taxa
in Antarctic and Subantarctic waters in terms of abundance
and diversity, having a predominant role in structuring
communities. The current study presents new data on the
asteroids, holothuroids, and ophiuroids (three of the five
extant classes of echinoderms) collected in seven scientific
campaigns (1995–2012) from Bouvet Is., South Shetland
Is., and the Eastern Weddell Sea, from a wide bathymetric
range (0–1,525 m). Among the 316 echinoderms collected,
we extended the bathymetric ranges of 15 species and
expanded the geographic distribution of 36 of them. This
novel dataset was analyzed together with previous reports
in order to establish general patterns of geographic and
bathymetric distribution in echinoderms of the Southern
Ocean (SO). Nearly 57 % of the assembled-data species
resulted endemic of the SO, although further taxonomic
efforts in less accessible areas are needed. Interestingly,
some islands presented high levels of species richness even
comparable to large geographic areas. While generally
exhibiting a wide range of eurybathy, there were
Electronic supplementary material The online version of this
article (doi:10.1007/s00300-014-1640-5) contains supplementary
material, which is available to authorized users.
J. Moles (&) B. Figuerola S. Taboada C. Avila
Department of Animal Biology (Invertebrates) and Biodiversity
Research Institute (IrBIO), University of Barcelona, Barcelona,
Catalonia, Spain
e-mail: moles.sanchez@gmail.com
N. Campanyà-Llovet
Department of Biology, Memorial University of Newfoundland,
St. John’s, NL, Canada
T. Monleón-Getino
Department of Statistics, University of Barcelona, Barcelona,
Catalonia, Spain
differences in species composition across depths corresponding to sublittoral, upper and lower bathyal, and
abyssal. Bathymetric distribution was analyzed considering
biological aspects for each class. As expected, circumpolar
trends were found, although hydrographic currents may be
the cause of differences in species composition among SO
areas. Our analyses suggest zoogeographic links between
Antarctica and the adjacent ocean basins, being the Scotia
Arc the most remarkable. This study contributes to the
knowledge of large-scale diversity and distribution patterns
in an Antarctic key group.
Keywords Asteroidea Holothuroidea Ophiuroidea
Bathymetric distribution Geographic distribution
Southern Ocean
Introduction
The separation of Antarctica from South America allowed
the formation of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ACC)
and the establishment of the Polar Front (PF). This thermal
and hydrographic barrier hampers marine organisms’ dispersion from north to south and vice versa at the Southern
Ocean (SO; Barker and Thomas 2004). Simultaneously, the
PF promotes the dispersal of marine organisms—larvae or
adults—from west to east around Antarctica (Fell 1962;
Olbers et al. 2004), and the East Wind Drift along the
Antarctic coast deeply affects the distribution of shelf
fauna. The combination of geographic isolation and climate change has led to a rich marine Antarctic biota with
high number of endemic taxa (Brandt and Gutt 2011).
However, numerous species are also shared between the
SO and the nearest geographic neighbors mainly due to
their connections during the Cenozoic (Clarke et al. 2005).
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Polar Biol
The Magellanic region, through the Drake Passage and
Scotia Arc, especially acts as a potential faunal exchange
pathway (Clarke et al. 2005; Brandt et al. 2007a). Despite
the present day knowledge, essential baseline data on
marine biodiversity and biogeography are still lacking for
most regions of the SO (Kaiser et al. 2013). This is urgently
required to identify biological responses to predicted
environmental changes in Antarctica. Gutt et al. (2004)
pointed out the need of comparative studies between Antarctic and South-American fauna to better understand
species’ dispersion capabilities and the effect of isolation
of populations on their distribution.
Diachronic anchor ice greatly influences Antarctic
benthic community structure. Short-term seasonal and
spatial variations from anchor and sea ice contribute to the
patchiness of benthic communities in the Antarctic continental shelf (Raguá-Gil et al. 2004). At the same time,
long-term glacial and interglacial cycles allowed allopatric
speciation (Thatje et al. 2005), thus promoting diversification and wide bathymetric tolerances for several Antarctic taxa (Brandt et al. 2007a; Rogers 2007).
Furthermore, due to a very deep continental shelf and a
weakly stratified water column, circumantarctic distributions and broad depth ranges are also widespread characteristic features of marine Antarctic fauna (Brey et al.
1996; Soler i Membrives et al. 2009; Hemery et al. 2012).
This suggests that the deep-sea fauna around Antarctica,
largely consisting of taxa with high dispersal capabilities,
may be related both to adjacent shelf communities and to
deep-sea fauna from other oceans, being directly connected
below 3,000 m (Brandt et al. 2007a, b; Pawlowski et al.
2007). In fact, differences in the reproductive mode might
explain composition variations between sites and depths
(Raguá-Gil et al. 2004). Thus, long-range dispersion by
pelagic planktotrophic and lecithotrophic larvae facilitates
the spreading of many species and increases their colonization capacity of highly disturbed habitats, contrary to
brooding organisms that have lower dispersal capabilities
(Shilling and Manahan 1994; Poulin et al. 2002).
Recently, total species richness of macrozoobenthic
organisms inhabiting the Antarctic continental shelf has
been estimated to comprise between 11,000 and 17,000
species, of which over 8,800 are presently known and
described (Griffiths 2010; De Broyer et al. 2011). Antarctic benthic fauna is characterized by the lack of
durophagous species either as competitors or as predators
(Clarke et al. 2004). Thus, echinoderms are the dominant
errant megafaunal taxa in the SO in terms of abundance
and diversity and have a predominant role in structuring
benthic communities (Dayton et al. 1974; Clarke and
Johnston 2003; Chiantore et al. 2006). Around 10 % of
the known Antarctic macrozoobenthic species are
123
echinoderms, with Asteroidea (208 species; De Broyer
et al. 2011), Holothuroidea (187 species; O’Loughlin
et al. 2011), and Ophiuroidea (126 species; Stöhr et al.
2012), being the most speciose classes. Although echinoderm species richness is higher in the continental shelf,
where dense communities of sessile suspension feeders
and its wandering associated fauna dominate, they also
show a high diversity along the slope and on the deepsea plains (Billett et al. 2001; Aronson et al. 2007).
At the beginning of the twentieth century, the South
Shetland Is. and the Weddell Sea echinoderm fauna were
widely explored (e.g., Ludwig 1903; Vaney 1914;
Koehler 1917). More recently, high species richness of
asteroids, ophiuroids, and holothuroids has been found on
a regular basis in these areas (Gutt 1990a, b; Gutt and
Piepenburg 1991; Massin 1992a; Piepenburg et al. 1997;
Presler and Figielska 1997; Manjón-Cabeza et al. 2001;
Manjón-Cabeza and Ramos 2003). In addition, within the
last decades, new collections and re-examinations of
previously collected material have contributed to the
description of new species (Carriol and Féral 1985; Gutt
1990a, b; Massin 1992a; Stampanato and Jangoux 1993;
O’Loughlin 2002, 2009; Massin and Hétérier 2004;
O’Loughlin and Ahearn 2008; Janosik and Halanych
2010). Other than the South Shetland Is. and the Weddell
Sea, echinoderm fauna from Subantarctic areas such as
the remote Bouvet Is. has been also surveyed within the
last years (Arntz 2006). Interestingly, it appears to be that
the major reason for the impoverished fauna occurring in
the vicinities of Bouvet Is. is under-sampling rather than
isolation or geological youth (Arntz et al. 2006). This
island has been proposed as a missing link in the SO,
connecting macrozoobenthic fauna with the adjacent
Magellanic South America, the Antarctic Peninsula, and
the high Antarctic Weddell Sea (Arntz et al. 2006; Gutt
et al. 2006), although little is known about its echinoderm
fauna.
Bearing in mind the ecological importance of echinoderms as one of the major groups structuring the Antarctic
and Subantarctic benthos, our aim was twofold: first, to
enhance the present knowledge of Antarctic echinoderms
species and their geographic and bathymetric distribution
by identifying species from widely studied (Eastern Weddell Sea and South Shetland Is.) and poorly explored
(Bouvet Is.) areas; second, to determine the bathymetric
and geographic distributions of Antarctic echinoderms in
the SO combining our data with all bibliographic resources
available so far. Species composition of the areas studied
was compared to the adjacent ocean basins and discussed.
Asteroids, ophiuroids, and holothuroids were selected as
target classes within echinoderms to address both
objectives.
Polar Biol
Materials and methods
Collection and identification of newly collected
samples
The study area comprised Bouvet Is., the South Shetland
Is., and the Eastern Weddell Sea. Samples from Bouvet Is.
and the Weddell Sea were collected during the Antarctic
cruises ANT XV/3 (February 1998) and ANT XXI/2
(November 2003–January 2004) on board the R/V Polarstern (AWI, Bremerhaven, Germany) at 33 stations. Samples from the South Shetland Is. (mostly from the vicinities
of Deception and Livingston Is.) were collected at eight
stations on board the BIO-Hespérides in January 1995 and
January 2006 during the BENTART and ECOQUIM-2
cruises, respectively. During the ACTIQUIM campaigns at
Deception and Livingston Is. (2007–2008, 2008–2009, and
2010–2011), 18 stations were surveyed by SCUBA diving.
Collection ranged from 0 to 1,525 m depth using Agassiz
trawl, bottom trawl, epibenthic sledge, giant box corer, and
Rauschert dredge in Bouvet Is. and the Weddell Sea, and
Agassiz trawl and rock dredge in the South Shetland Is.
(Table 1). In all cases, sampling was qualitative.
After photographing the living animals, they were preserved in 70 % ethanol for further taxonomic identification
to the lowest possible taxonomical level (Table 2). Key
references and synopses used for the identification within
the different classes of echinoderms were: Ludwig (1903),
Koehler (1917), Clark (1962, 1963), Clark and Downey
(1992), Stampanato and Jangoux (1993), and Presler and
Figielska (1997) for asteroids; Koehler (1917), Mortensen
(1936), Fell (1961), and Madsen (1967) for ophiuroids;
Théel (1886), Vaney (1914), Carriol and Féral (1985), Gutt
(1990a, b), Massin (1992a, b, 2010), Massin and Hétérier
(2004), O’Loughlin (2002, 2009), O’Loughlin and Ahearn
(2005, 2008), Cross et al. (2009), O’Loughlin et al. (2009,
2011), O’Loughlin and VandenSpiegel (2010), O’Loughlin
and Whitfield (2010), and O’Loughlin personal notes
(unpublished data) for holothuroids. Crinoids and echinoids were not studied here due to the low number of
samples collected during our surveys.
Assembled data
Our data (Table 2) were analyzed together with the Antarctic and Subantarctic echinoderm species list gathered
from the available literature, the ‘Scientific Committee on
Antarctic Research Marine Biodiversity Information Network’, and the SCAR’s Marine Biodiversity Information
database (SCAR-MarBIN; http://www.scarmarbin.be/; De
Broyer et al. 2012). Metadata were checked against the
major world databases, World Ophiuroidea (Stöhr and
O’Hara 2012), World Asteroidea (Mah 2009), and
complemented with the Antarctic Marine Invertebrates of
the NMNH/Smithsonian Institution Databases (Lemaitre
et al. 2009). Global Biodiversity Information Facility
(GBIF; http://www.gbif.org/) and Ocean Biogeographic
Information Systems (OBIS; http://iobis.org/) databases
were used together with information within keys to compile all metadata (Online Resources 1–3). Due to the heterogeneous nature of the compiled data and the assignment
of the occurrences of the species to geographic areas (see
below), sampling effort could not be calculated in this
study.
Study area
Bathymetric and geographic metadata from other cruises
reported in the literature and online databases together with
our own new data were pooled and analyzed in order to
evaluate the relationships between taxa in 20 areas of the
SO (Fig. 1). Following several authors (Clarke and Johnston 2003; Barboza et al. 2011; O’Loughlin et al. 2011),
Antarctica was divided into eight geographic areas: Antarctic Peninsula, Amundsen Sea, Bellingshausen Sea,
Dumont D’Urville Sea (including Ballenny Is.), Enderby
Plain, Prydz Bay, Ross Sea, and Weddell Sea. Also, eight
island groups were considered: Bouvet Is., Heard and
McDonald Is., Kerguelen Is., South Georgia Is., South
Sandwich Is., South Shetland Is., South Orkney Is., and the
Subantarctic Marion, Prince Edward, and Crozet Is. (these
last three considered as a single group). Due to proximity
to the study area, Australia, New Zealand (including
Macquarie Is.), South Africa, and South America shared
species distribution were also included in the analysis for
comparison purposes.
Data analysis
Due to unequal sampling efforts (in both terms of regions
surveyed and bathymetry) and use of heterogeneous gear to
obtain all metadata included in the analysis, binary data
(presence/absence) were chosen to construct the echinoderm data matrix. Echinoderm presence/absence was preferred rather than abundance because our study treated a
large-scale area; therefore, habitat patchiness and/or heterogeneity would bias our results. We performed cluster
and MDS analyses to examine the faunal patterns among
the different areas and across depths. The widely used
Bray-Curtis index was used to build the similarity matrix,
being this index equivalent to the Sörensen index for presence/absence matrices (Clarke et al. 2006). Hierarchical
clustering was obtained using the group linkage clustering
technique to evaluate the similarities in species composition between regions. Depths were divided into 500-m
categories, except for the bathymetric range of 0–100 m as
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Polar Biol
Table 1 Data related to the stations surveyed in the present study
SN
Area
Location
Station code
Date
Latitude
Longitude
1
Bouvet region
Bouvet Is.
PS65/020-1
24/11/2003
54°36,950 S
3°17,580 E
Depth (m)
Gear
553
AT
2
Bouvet region
Bouvet Is.
PS65/029-1
25/11/2003
54°31,59 S
3°13,050 E
377
AT
3
Bouvet region
Bouvet Is.
PS65/019-1
24/11/2003
54°300 S
3°13,990 E
260
AT
AT
0
0
0
4
Bouvet region
Bouvet Is.
PS65/028-1
25/11/2003
54°22 S
3°16,99 E
134
5
South Shetlands
Deception Is.
AGT-9
07/01/2006
60°36,360 S
63°02,290 W
100
RoD
6
South Shetlands
Deception Is.
AGT-12
08/01/2006
63°01,910 S
60°32,640 W
216
RoD
7
South Shetlands
Deception Is.
3, Whalers Bay
11/01/2010
62°59,370 S
60°33,420 W
0–15
SD
8
South Shetlands
Deception Is.
10, Murature
15/01/2010
62°470 S
60°410 2100 W
0–15
SD
9
South Shetlands
Deception Is.
11, Whalers Bay
16/01/2010
62°59,370 S
60°33,420 W
0–15
SD
10
South Shetlands
Deception Is.
13, Baily Head
19/01/2010
62°57,790 S
60°30,650 W
0–15
SD
0–15
15
SD
SD
0
00
11
12
South Shetlands
South Shetlands
Deception Is.
Deception Is.
14, Fildes Point
21, Pete’s Pillar
23/01/2010
18/01/2012
62°59 29 S
62°590 3200 S
60°330 4300 W
60°330 W
13
South Shetlands
Deception Is.
36, Fildes Point
29/01/2012
62°590 2900 S
60°330 4300 W
20
SD
14
South Shetlands
Deception Is.
50, Neptune’s Bellows
14/02/2012
62°590 3200 S
60°330 5800 W
15
SD
15
South Shetlands
Deception Is.
52, Fildes Point
17/02/2012
62°590 2900 S
60°330 4300 W
20
SD
0–16
SD
0
16
South Shetlands
Deception Is.
7, Whalers Bay
11/12/2008
62°59,37 S
60°33,420 W
17
South Shetlands
Deception Is.
10, Whalers Bay
16/12/2008
62°59,370 S
60°33,420 W
4
SD
18
South Shetlands
Deception Is.
15, Whalers Bay
20/12/2008
62°59,37 S
60°33,420 W
16
SD
19
South Shetlands
Deception Is.
17, Whalers Bay
24/12/2008
62°59,370 S
60°33,420 W
17
SD
0
0
00
0
00
20
South Shetlands
Deception Is.
26, Fildes Point
30/12/2008
62°59 29 S
60°33 43 W
0–15
SD
21
South Shetlands
Deception Is.
27, Fildes Point
31/12/2008
62°590 2900 S
60°330 4300 W
0–15
SD
22
South Shetlands
King George Is.
KG1
01/01/1995
n.a.
n.a.
15
SD
23
South Shetlands
Livingston Is.
ANT95-A30
01/01/1995
n.a.
n.a.
15
SD
24
South Shetlands
Livingston Is.
AGT-3
05/01/2006
62°43,570 S
60°27,490 W
50
AT
25
South Shetlands
Livingston Is.
AGT-5
05/01/2006
62°40,560 S
60°42,410 W
25
AT
26
South Shetlands
Livingston Is.
AGT-6
06/01/2006
62°43,120 S
60°43,680 W
78
RoD
37
15
RoD
SD
0
27
28
South Shetlands
South Shetlands
Livingston Is.
Livingston Is.
AGT-7
2, Hannah Point
06/01/2006
06/02/2012
62°41,58 S
62°390 25,700 S
60°44,830 W
60°360 54,000 W
29
South Shetlands
Livingston Is.
4, Raquelia Rocks
07/02/2012
62°380 59,700 S
60°220 54,000 W
15
SD
30
South Shetlands
Livingston Is.
12
12/02/2012
62°390 52,100 S
60°350 35,800 W
15
SD
31
Bouvet region
Spiess Seamount
PS65/344-1
11/01/2004
54°43,990 S
0°7,990 W
576
AT
0
32
Weddell Sea
Austasen
PS65/090-1
09/12/2003
70°55,92 S
10°32,370 W
288
AT
33
Weddell Sea
Austasen
PS65/109-1
10/12/2003
70°47,880 S
11°24,130 W
1,525
AT
34
Weddell Sea
Austasen
PS65/121-1
11/12/2003
70°50,080 S
10°34,760 W
274
AT
35
Weddell Sea
Austasen
PS65/132-1
12/12/2003
70°56,420 S
10°31,610 W
284
BT
36
Weddell Sea
Austasen
PS65/148-1
13/12/2003
70°56,670 S
10°32,050 W
302
BT
296
AT
0
37
Weddell Sea
Austasen
PS65/173-1
16/12/2003
70°56,82 S
10°31,760 W
38
Weddell Sea
Austasen
PS65/259-1
24/12/2003
70°57,000 S
10°33,020 W
333
BT
39
Weddell Sea
Austasen
PS65/276-1
28/12/2003
71°06,44 S
11°27,760 W
277
AT
40
Weddell Sea
Austasen
PS65/336-1
05/01/2004
72°49,990 S
10°280 W
281
AT
0
0
0
41
Weddell Sea
Austasen
PS65/039-1
05/12/2003
71°6 S
11°31,99 W
175
AT
42
43
Weddell Sea
Weddell Sea
Austasen
Austasen
PS65/145-1
PS65/166-1
13/12/2003
15/12/2003
70°57,010 S
70°55,990 S
10°48,640 W
10°31,990 W
406
338
ES
BT
44
Weddell Sea
Austasen
PS65/175-1
16/12/2003
70°55,990 S
10°310 W
337
BT
45
Weddell Sea
Austasen
PS65/237-1
22/12/2003
70°50,50 S
10°35,540 W
264
BT
46
Weddell Sea
Austasen
PS65/245-1
22/12/2003
70°55,990 S
10°31,990 W
337
BT
0
0
0
47
Weddell Sea
Austasen
PS65/253-1
23/12/2004
71°04,30 S
11°33,92 W
309
BT
48
Weddell Sea
Austasen
PS65/265-1
27/12/2003
70°52,750 S
10°51,240 W
295
BT
123
Polar Biol
Table 1 continued
SN
Area
Location
Station code
Date
Latitude
Longitude
Depth (m)
Gear
49
Weddell Sea
Austasen
PS65/279-1
29/12/2003
71°070 S
11°28,990 W
120
AT
50
Weddell Sea
Kapp Norvegia
PS65/233-1
21/12/2003
71°18,990 S
13°56,560 W
848
AT
51
52
Weddell Sea
Weddell Sea
Kapp Norvegia
Vestkapp
PS65/232-1
PS65/297-1
21/12/2003
01/01/2004
71°180 000 S
72°48,500 S
13°550 W
19°31,600 W
910
668
ES
RD
53
Weddell Sea
Vestkapp
PS65/308-1
02/01/2004
72°50,180 S
19°35,940 W
622
RD
54
Weddell Sea
Vestkapp
PS65/292-1
31/12/2003
72°51,43 S
19°38,620 W
598
BT
55
Weddell Sea
North Halley
PS48/150 ? 154
11/02/1998
74°0,660 S
27°0,210 W
567–789
BT
56
Weddell Sea
North Halley
PS48/150 ? 155
11/02/1998
74°0,660 S
27°0,210 W
567–789
BT
0
0
0
57
Weddell Sea
North Halley
PS48/150 ? 156
11/02/1998
74°0,66 S
27°0,21 W
567–789
BT
58
Weddell Sea
North Halley
PS48/150 ? 157
11/02/1998
74°0,660 S
27°0,210 W
567–789
BT
59
Weddell Sea
North Halley
PS48/150 ? 158
11/02/1998
74°0,660 S
27°0,210 W
567–789
BT
SN station number
AT Agassiz trawl, BT bottom trawl, ES epibenthic sledge, RD Rauschert dredge, RoD rock dredge, SD SCUBA diving
n.a. not available
it was statistically different to the closer ranges, and
included into the MDS plot; less surveyed depths
([6,000 m) were not included in the MDS analysis presented here since their composition was remarkably different from the rest of bathymetric categories.
Results
New data
A total of 316 specimens were identified in this study,
including asteroids, ophiuroids, and holothuroids (Table 2).
Out of these, 32 asteroids (107 specimens) from four orders
were identified to species level. The most represented
asteroid families in number of species were Asteriidae and
Odontasteridae (five species each), followed by Pterasteridae (four), Ganeriidae, Goniasteridae, and Solasteridae
(three species each), Astropectinidae, Echinasteridae, Poranidae, and Stichasteridae (two species each), and finally
Asterinidae (one). Thirteen ophiuroid species (53 specimens) from the two existing orders (Euryalida and
Ophiurida) were identified. The greatest number of ophiuroid species was found within the Ophiuridae family (six
species), and two different species were identified from
each Gorgonocephalidae, Amphiuridae, and Ophiacanthidae families; Ophiodermatidae had only one species. Out
of the 156 holothuroid specimens collected, 34 species
from the six existing orders were found. The most speciose
families were the dendrochirotid Cucumariidae (14) and
Psolidae (nine) followed by the families Chiridotidae, Elpidiidae, and Synallactidae (three species each), while
Ypsilothuriidae and Molpadiidae had only one species
each.
Our data extended the bathymetric ranges of 15 species
(10 Holothuroidea and 4 Asteroidea) and enlarged the
geographic distribution of 36 species (19 Holothuroidea, 13
Asteroidea, and 4 Ophiuroidea; see Table 2). Our data
expanded the bathymetric range of Diplasterias kerguelenensis to superficial waters (0 m), and four species of
holothuroids down to 1,525 m (Paradota weddellensis,
Peniagone vignioni, Protelpidia murrayi, Rhipidothuria
racovitzai). Remarkably, although some species were
found for the first time in Bouvet Is. (Cucamba psolidiformis, Cucumaria attenuata, Ophiacantha antarctica,
Ophioplinthus gelida, Ophiura rouchi, Psolidium incubans,
R. racovitzai), the Weddell Sea (Acodontaster elongatus,
Perknaster fuscus, Psolidium whittakeri, Psolus paradubiosus, Pteraster rugatus, Pteraster stellifer), and the
South Shetland Is. (Cladodactyla crocea, Crucella scotiae,
D. kerguelenensis, Echinocucumis hispida, Psolus charcoti), they were previously recorded from the vicinities of
these regions or they were considered as circumantarctic.
The asteroid Solaster longoi and the holothuroid Trachythyone cynthiae, previously known only from Marion Is.
group and Pridz Bay, respectively, have been reported for
the first time in the Weddell Sea.
Assembled data
Species richness
To date, a total of 555 species of echinoderms (excluding
echinoids and crinoids) have been recorded from Antarctic
waters including our data and previous literature: 229
asteroids, 129 ophiuroids, and 197 holothuroids. The total
number of species was slightly higher than those reported by
recent studies (De Broyer et al. 2011; O’Loughlin et al. 2011;
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Polar Biol
Table 2 Depth and collection site of the identified species of this study collected in Bouvet Is., South Shetland Is., and the Weddell Sea
Depth (m)
Collection site
SN
567–789
Weddell Seaa
55, 56
Asteroidea
Acodontaster elongatus granuliferus
(Koehler, 1912)
Acodontaster hodgsoni (Bell, 1908)
294–337
Weddell Sea
46, 48
Adelasterias papillosa (Koehler, 1906)
14–342
Deception Is.a
16
Bathybiaster loripes loripes Sladen, 1889
1,525
Weddell Seaa
33
Chitonaster johannae Koehler, 1908
567–789
Weddell Sea
56
Cryptasterias turqueti (Koehler, 1906)
Cuenotaster involutus (Koehler, 1912)
0–15a (Prev. 25–498)
332
Deception Is.a
Weddell Sea
14, 20
38
Diplasterias kerguelenensis
(Koehler, 1917)
0–16a (Prev.
601–3,950)
Deception Is.a
7, 16, 21
Diplopteraster sp.
308
Weddell Sea
47
Granaster nutrix (Studer, 1885)
20
Deception Is.a
13
Henricia smilax (Koehler, 1920)
567–848
Weddell Sea
50, 55
Kampylaster incurvatus Koehler, 1920
848
Weddell Sea
50
Lysasterias hemiora Fisher, 1940
295–308
Weddell Sea
47, 48
a
Neosmilaster sp.
0–17
Deception Is.
Notioceramus anomalus Fisher, 1940
597–848
Weddell Sea
50, 54
Odontaster meridionalis (E.A. Smith,
1876)
0–264
Deception Is., Weddell Sea
19, 21, 45
Odontaster penicillatus (Philippi, 1870)
567–789
Weddell Sea
55
Odontaster validus Koehler, 1906
0–100
Deception Is., Weddell Sea
5–21, 41
Paralophaster antarcticus
(Koehler, 1912)
567–789
Weddell Sea
59
Paralophaster lorioli (Koehler, 1907)
1,525
Weddell Sea
33
Pergamaster incertus (Bell, 1908)
567–789
Weddell Sea
55
Perknaster densus Sladen, 1889
405
Weddell Sea
42
Perknaster fuscus Sladen, 1889
337
Weddell Seaa
46
Porania (Porania) antarctica Smith, 1876
Psilaster charcoti (Koehler, 1906)
376–789
332
Bouvet Is., Weddell Sea
Weddell Sea
2, 58
38
Pteraster rugatus Sladen, 1882
338
Weddell Seaa
43
56
a
8, 18, 19, 20
Pteraster stellifer hunteri (Koehler, 1920)
567–790 (not recorded
Prev.)
Weddell Seaa
Pteraster stellifer stellifer Sladen, 1882
405
Weddell Seaa
42
Rhopiella hirsuta (Koehler, 1920)
332–789
Weddell Sea
38, 57
Smilasterias triremis Sladen, 1889
0–15a (Prev. 94–2,710)
Deception Is.a
9, 11
Solaster longoi Stampanato and Jangoux,
1993
Spoladaster sp.
333
Weddell Seaa
38
295
Weddell Sea
48
Ophiuroidea
Amphioplus acutus Mortensen, 1936
78
Livingston Is.
26
Amphiura joubini Koehler, 1912
337
Weddell Sea
44
Astrochlamys bruneus Koehler, 1911
337–338
Weddell Sea
43, 44
Astrotoma agassizii Lyman, 1875
277–338
Weddell Sea
39, 43, 44
Ophiacantha antarctica Koehler, 1900
260–622
Bouvet Is.a, Weddell Sea
3, 53
Ophiacantha vivipara Ljungman, 1870
622
Weddell Sea
53
Ophiolimna antarctica (Lyman, 1879)
277–337
Weddell Sea
39, 44
Ophionotus victoriae Bell, 1902
0–260
Bouvet Is., Deception Is.
3, 4, 16
Ophioplinthus brevirima
(Mortensen, 1936)
120–337
Weddell Sea
39, 41, 46, 49
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Table 2 continued
Ophioplinthus gelida (Koehler, 1901)
Depth (m)
Collection site
SN
78–910
Weddell Sea, Bouvet Is.a, Deception Is.a,
Livingston Is.
3, 5, 6, 26, 39, 40, 44, 48,
51, 52
Ophiosteira echinulata Koehler, 1922
277
Weddell Sea
39
Ophiosteira rotundata Koehler, 1922
277–337
Weddell Sea
39, 44
Ophiura rouchi (Koehler, 1912)
260–377
Bouvet Is.a
2, 3
Holothuroidea
Bathyplotes bongraini Vaney, 1914
377
Bouvet Is.
2
Cladodactyla crocea var. croceoides
(Vaney, 1908)
37–50a (Prev. 64–462)
Livingston Is.a
24, 27
Crucella scotiae (Vaney, 1906)
25–281
Deception Is.a, Livingston Is.a, Weddell
Sea
5, 24, 25, 34, 40
Cucamba psolidiformis (Vaney, 1908)
50–78
Livingston Is.a
24, 26
Cucumaria attenuata Vaney, 1906
134–281
Bouvet Is.a, Weddell Sea
4, 39, 40
Echinocucumis hispida (Barrett, 1857)
15a (Prev. 121–3,850)
Livingston Is.a
23
Echinopsolus acanthocola Gutt, 1990
284–333
Weddell Sea
32, 35, 38
Heterocucumis denticulata (Ekman,
1927)
175
Weddell Sea
41
Heterocucumis steineni (Ludwig, 1898)
0–302
Deception Is.a, King George Is., Weddell
Sea
13, 15, 20, 22, 32, 35, 36
Microchoerus splendidus Gutt, 1990
288
Weddell Sea
32
Molpadia musculus Risso, 1826
78
Livingston Is.
26
Paradota weddellensis Gutt, 1990
274–1,525a (Prev.
59–1,191)
Weddell Sea
33, 36, 44
Peniagone vignoni Hérouard, 1901
1,525a (Prev. 300–787)
Weddell Sea
33
Protelpidia murrayi (Théel, 1879)
1,525a (Prev. 0–807)
Weddell Sea
33
a
Pseudostichopus peripatus (Sluiter, 1901)
78 (Prev. 134–5,453)
Livingston Is.
26
Pseudostichopus spiculiferus
(O’Loughlin, 2002)
338–1,525
Weddell Sea
33, 43
Psolicrux coatsi (Vaney, 1908)
50–288
Livingston Is., Weddell Sea
24, 32
Psolidiella mollis (Ludwig and Heding,
1935)
78–134
Bouvet Is., Livingston Is.
4, 26
Psolidium incubans Ekman, 1925
134a (Prev. 12–38)
Bouvet Is.a
4
a
Psolidium poriferum (Studer, 1876)
575
Spiess Seamount
31
Psolidium whittakeri O’Loughlin and
Ahearn, 2008
175–553a (Prev.
200–1,435)
Bouvet Is., Weddell Seaa
1, 41
Psolus antarcticus (Philippi, 1857)
Psolus charcoti Vaney, 1906
575
50–296
Spiess Seamount
Livingston Is.a, Weddell Sea
31
24, 26, 35, 37, 40, 41
Psolus granulosus Vaney, 1906
15–50a (Prev. 5)
Deception Is.a, Livingston Is.a
12, 14, 24
Psolus koehleri Vaney, 1914
288–333
Weddell Sea
32, 38
Psolus paradubiosus Carriol and Féral,
1985
284–553
Bouvet Is., Weddell Seaa
1, 35, 37, 44
Rhipidothuria racovitzai Hérouard, 1901
553–1,525a (Prev.
200–800)
Bouvet Is.a, Weddell Sea
1, 33
Sigmodota contorta (Ludwig, 1875)
284
Weddell Sea
35
Sigmodota magnibacula (Massin and
Hétérier, 2004)
134
Bouvet Is.a
4
Staurocucumis liouvillei (Vaney, 1914)
134–337
Bouvet Is., Weddell Sea
4, 35, 36, 38, 44
Staurocucumis turqueti (Vaney, 1906)
50–338
Weddell Sea
36, 43
Trachythyone bouvetensis (Ludwig and
Heding, 1935)
50–175
Deception Is.a, Livingston Is.a, Weddell
Sea
5, 24, 41
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Table 2 continued
Depth (m)
Collection site
SN
Trachythyone cynthiae O’Loughlin, 2009
333
Weddell Seaa
38
Trachythyone maxima Massin, 1992
337
Weddell Sea
44
SN Station Number. See correspondence in Table 1
Prev. Previous reports
a
New record for this depth or area
Fig. 1 Map of the Southern
Ocean and adjacent waters
showing Antarctic regions used
in the analysis of species
distribution (assembled data)
Stöhr et al. 2012) as we have also included here works with
some species only identified to genus level. The regions with
the highest species richness were as follows: South Shetland
Is. (229), Antarctic Peninsula (211), Weddell Sea (201),
South Orkney (184), South Georgia (182), and South Sandwich (180) islands (the last three being part of the Scotia
Arc), and Ross Sea (176). Dumont D’Urville Sea (151) and
Enderby Plain (134) had intermediate species richness, while
Prydz Bay (112), Marion, Prince Edward and Crozet Is. (99),
Bellingshausen Sea (96), Kerguelen Is. (80), Amundsen Sea
(69), Heard Is. (66), and Bouvet Is. (52) presented the lowest
species richness values (Fig. 2). Asteroids dominated at all
regions except for the Amundsen Sea and the Scotia Arc,
which are dominated by holothuroids and ophiuroids.
123
Endemic and shared species
Remarkable differences were found between classes and
areas studied when considering endemic species in Antarctic regions (Fig. 3). More than half of the species of
each class appeared to be endemic to the SO: 63 % (125
species) in holothuroids, 59 % (76 species) in ophiuroids,
and ca. 50 % (113 species) in asteroids. The highest
endemism rates were present in the Weddell Sea and the
Marion Is. group for asteroids, the Antarctic Peninsula and
the Dumont D’Urville Sea for ophiuroids, and the Scotia
Arc and the Marion Is. group for holothuroids (Fig. 3).
Among the shared species with other non-Antarctic geographic regions, 38 % appeared under 2,500 m. Antarctic
Polar Biol
Fig. 2 Number of species per
each class and per each
geographic region (assembled
data), ordered clockwise for big
geographic areas and island
groups, respectively
Fig. 3 Number of endemic
species per each class and
geographic region (assembled
data), ordered clockwise for big
geographic areas and island
groups, respectively
fauna was more related to South America (36 % species
similarity) in species composition than to New Zealand
(13 %), Australia (9 %), or South Africa (7 %; see Online
Resource 4).
Bathymetric ranges and distribution
As a general trend, species composition gradually changed
across depths and was separated accordingly to the
sublittoral, upper and lower bathyal, and upper and lower
abyssal (Fig. 4a; Vinogradova 1997; Zezina 1997). However, asteroids appeared to be distributed in wider depth
bands, since the distance between depth ranges in the MDS
was less pronounced (Fig. 4b). Thus, asteroids, which have
an 80 % of similarity, had four clusters of species restricted
to the sublittoral and upper bathyal (0–1,000 m), lower
bathyal (1,000–3,500 m), upper abyssal (3,500–5,500 m),
and lower abyssal ([5,500 m). With a 60 % of similarity
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Polar Biol
between ophiuroid samples, four different ophiuroid
groups could be distinguished: sublittoral and upper bathyal (0–1,000 m), lower bathyal (1,000–2,500 m), upper
abyssal (2,500–4,500 m), and lower abyssal ([4,500 m;
Fig. 4c). Holothuroids had a distinct shallow-water fauna
(0–100 m) with only species of the order Dendrochirotida
(Neopsolidium convergens, Pseudocnus intermedia, Psolus
granulosus, and Squamocnus spp.). Sea cucumber assemblages seemed to segregate in sublittoral and upper bathyal
(100–1,000 m), lower bathyal (2,000–3,500 m), upper
abyssal (3,500–5,000 m), and lower abyssal ([5,000 m;
Fig. 4d). High species richness found between 100 and
500 m was the general tendency for the three echinoderm
classes—with more than 65 % of species reported within
this depth range—progressively decreasing with depth,
although holothuroids had a less pronounced decrease in
species composition until 3,000 m (Online Resource 5).
Abyssal depths had less species richness for asteroids
(20 %) and ophiuroids (10 %), which had only two and one
species at these depths, respectively. Conversely, holothuroids had more than 30 % of species richness (eight
species) restricted to abyssal depths.
geographic zones with a similarity greater than 40 % in the
echinoderm fauna (Fig. 5a): cluster 1, formed by the Scotia
Arc Is., the Antarctic Peninsula, the Ross and Weddell seas,
and the East Antarctic areas (Dumont D’Urville Sea, Enderby
Plain, and Prydz Bay); cluster 2, formed by the remote Bouvet
Is. alone, and related to cluster 1; cluster 3, formed by the
Amundsen and Bellingshausen seas; and cluster 4, formed by
the Subantarctic Heard Is., Kerguelen Is., and the Marion,
Prince Edward, and Crozet Is. group. Bathymetric distributions of the species of each cluster are specified in Online
Resources 1–3 (for Asteroidea, Ophiuroidea, and Holothuroidea, respectively). There were mild differences in the
cluster analysis when treating echinoderm classes separately.
The clusters observed for asteroids and ophiuroids were quite
similar to those obtained for the whole echinoderm dataset,
except for the case of Amundsen and Bellingshausen seas,
which did not fall within the same cluster (Fig. 5b, c). As for
holothuroids, areas from cluster 1 and cluster 3 were grouped
together, while the East Antarctica areas were more related to
areas from cluster 2; in addition, Marion, Prince Edward, and
Crozet Is. were not grouped together with Heard Is. and
Kerguelen Is. (Fig. 5d).
Geographic relationships
Discussion
Cluster analyses suggested several regional groups with
similar faunal composition (Fig. 5). The dendrogram obtained
after pooling data of all classes established four distinct
Our work has contributed to expand the knowledge on
echinoderm bathymetric and geographic distribution in the
Fig. 4 MDS plots using Bray-Curtis distance of the species (assembled data) in relation to depth for (a) the three classes grouped together,
b Asteroidea, c Ophiuroidea, and d Holothuroidea
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Polar Biol
Fig. 5 Hierarchical clustering (group average) of the echinoderm
fauna analyzed from the Southern Ocean using the Bray-Curtis
distance (assembled data). a The three classes grouped together,
indicating the four clusters in different colors, b Asteroidea, c Ophiuroidea, and d Holothuroidea. In all cases, 40 % of similarity was
chosen as a threshold to group regions. (Color figure online)
SO. Within the 79 species identified in our survey pertaining to the classes Asteroidea, Ophiuroidea, and Holothuroidea, the families Asteriidae, Odontasteridae,
Ophiuridae, Cucumariidae, and Psolidae were the most
speciose in Bouvet Is., the Eastern Weddell Sea, and the
South Shetland Is. at shelf depths (0–800 m). Our data
show that, even though these areas have been widely
sampled through the last decades (Gutt 1990a, b; Gutt and
Piepenburg 1991; Massin 1992a; Piepenburg et al. 1997;
Presler and Figielska 1997; Manjón-Cabeza et al. 2001;
Manjón-Cabeza and Ramos 2003; Arntz 2006; Arntz et al.
2006; Gutt et al. 2006), new species records are still being
found. This is especially true for Bouvet Is. with seven
echinoderm species recorded for the first time in this study.
More importantly, the echinoderm diversity described so
far in the SO is surely underrepresented since several
newly recorded taxa still are currently undescribed (Kaiser
et al. 2013). In addition, cryptic speciation may also cause
underestimations of echinoderm diversity in the SO. As an
example, two new sea star species of the well-known genus
Odontaster have recently been described combining
molecular and morphological analyses (Janosik and Halanych 2010). Interestingly, these new species occurred along
the Antarctic Peninsula, perhaps one of the best-studied
regions in the SO (Griffiths 2010). Indeed, integrative
taxonomic approaches revealed that some species defined
by morphological characters are in fact complexes of
cryptic species (Rogers 2007; O’Loughlin et al. 2011).
Thus, future work on the re-evaluation of identified sibling
species will probably enrich the number of taxa in the SO.
Antarctic and Subantarctic regions presented general
trends in species composition when treating metadata of all
compiled species records. Species richness among classes
was relatively high and similar between the well-studied
areas, such as Scotia Sea Is., Weddell and Ross seas,
Antarctic Peninsula, and adjacent islands, as seen in Griffiths (2010). In turn, when considering less-sampled areas,
such as Amundsen and Bellingshausen seas, Bouvet Is. or
the Kerguelen group, their number of species decreased,
possibly due to their geographic isolation. Notice that
asteroids were the most diverse class in the Marion group,
with values similar to those of larger geographic areas
(Fig. 2). Arntz (2006) suggested that Subantarctic islands
may have served as refugia for benthic shallow-water
organisms during Cenozoic glacial maxima. The current
island patchiness and/or habitat heterogeneity may have
allowed higher numbers of species with different ecological niches, leading to high degrees of endemism, something
that has already been observed for holothuroids (Gutt
2007). In fact, asteroids and holothuroids showed the
highest endemism values in the Marion Is. area (Fig. 3)
possibly due to marked isolation of this Subantarctic area.
Other regions with a high degree of endemism for holothuroids were Amundsen and Bellingshausen seas, while
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ophiuroids exhibited higher endemism in the East Antarctica and the Antarctic Peninsula, probably due to recent
increase in sampling effort in these areas (Manjón-Cabeza
and Ramos 2003; O’Loughlin et al. 2009). To achieve a
better understanding on the echinoderm biodiversity in
these areas, different sampling methods and greater collecting efforts are specially needed.
In agreement with other studies dealing with various
invertebrate taxa, Antarctic echinoderms also exhibited a
high range of eurybathy (Brey et al. 1996; Soler i
Membrives et al. 2009; Figuerola et al. 2012). This seems
to be explained by both the palaeoclimatic history of
Antarctica and the current iceberg scour activity (Clarke
et al. 2004; Thatje et al. 2005; Smale et al. 2008). It is
hypothesized that Cenozoic glacial–interglacial cycles
may have driven an environmental force toward the
evolutionary trend of eurybathy in many Antarctic benthic
invertebrates. During the extension of continental ice
sheet, shelf fauna may have gone extinct or forced to go
into deeper water refugia. Conversely, during the shelf ice
retreats at the subsequent interglacial, the defaunated shelf
could have been re-colonized by fauna from the slope
(Clarke et al. 2004), deep sea, or shelters on the continental shelf (Thatje et al. 2005). In addition, eurybathic
tendencies of the current benthic shelf fauna (to depths of
500 m) are reinforced by the erosive action of recurrent
iceberg scouring (Smale et al. 2008). Our analysis showed
that echinoderms were gradually distributed across depths.
Bathymetric distribution in Ophiuroidea fitted with the
depth limits suggested by Clarke and Johnston (2003),
and also for other studies using other taxa (Piepenburg
et al. 1997; Aldea et al. 2008; Figuerola et al. 2012).
Thus, ophiuroid communities were distinguished in sublittoral and upper bathyal (0–1,000 m), lower bathyal
(1,000–2,500 m), upper abyssal (2,500–4,500 m), and
lower abyssal ([4,500 m). Asteroid communities from
sublittoral and bathyal depths were similar in species
composition, thus reinforcing the proposed tendency of
eurybathy. This result might be influenced by the generalist and opportunistic feeding strategies observed for
several species of this class (McClintock 1994). We distinguished a stenobathic shallow-water fauna for Holothuroidea, mainly characterized by the occurrence of
suspension-feeding Dendrochirotida species. Generally,
all classes decreased in species richness with depth
probably due to a reduction in organic matter input, the
main factor controlling Antarctic benthos (Arntz et al.
1994). However, holothuroid’s species richness decreased
moderately when compared to asteroids and ophiuroids.
The diversity of feeding strategies in this class (i.e.,
suspension-feeding dendrochirotids from shallow waters,
deposit-feeding deep-sea elasipodid holothuroids) may use
different food qualities of the suspended matter equally
123
along water depth (Gutt and Piepenburg 1991; McClintock 1994). This might reflect the mild reduction in species richness across depths.
The cluster analysis suggested four groups or clusters of
similar echinoderm faunal composition. Cluster 1, comprising Antarctic Peninsula, South Shetland Is., South
Orkney Is., Weddell Sea, South Georgia Is., and South
Sandwich Is., has been identified in previous studies on
Echinodermata and other phyla, and the relationship
between these areas might be influenced by the Weddell
Gyre (Arntz et al. 2005; Barnes et al. 2009; Barboza et al.
2011; Figuerola et al. 2012). This clockwise current connects the Weddell Sea with the Scotia Arc through the
Antarctic Peninsula (Orsi et al. 1993), allowing dispersion
of echinoderm’s planktonic larvae or even epiplanktonic
adults (Olbers et al. 2004). The rest of the areas in cluster 1
are located in the Eastern Antarctica (Dumont D’Urville
Sea, Ross Sea, Enderby Plain, and Prydz Bay) and may be
connected to the above-mentioned Weddell Gyre areas
through the East Wind Drift (Brey et al. 1996; Olbers et al.
2004). Cluster 2 was only composed by Bouvet Is., a
remote area probably also influenced by the Weddell Gyre,
as previously reported for different taxa (Barnes 2005;
Arntz et al. 2006; Gutt et al. 2006).
Amundsen and Bellingshausen seas comprised cluster 3
and were the areas with less species richness relative to
their extension, which may in part be due to the comparatively less sampling effort conducted in these areas
(Griffiths 2010). In fact, due to the relative ancient formation of both seas, a higher number of species, when
compared to close seas, would have been expected
(Thomson 2004). Nevertheless, Saiz et al. (2008) described
low species richness in the Bellingshausen Sea and suggested that this impoverished fauna was related to low-food
supply, a situation exacerbated by the influence of periodic
physical disturbances (such as iceberg scour).
Finally, cluster 4 was composed by Heard and
McDonald Is., Kerguelen Is., and the Marion, Prince
Edward, and Crozet group, a series of Subantarctic islands
located in the Southern Indian Ocean at the edge of the PF.
Their species composition similarity might be explained by
the effects of the ACC, which promotes the dispersal of
marine organisms from west to east in a clockwise pattern,
as it has already been suggested for echinoderms (Fell
1962) and other taxa (Barnes 2002; Raguá-Gil et al. 2004).
The geographic proximity of Heard and Kerguelen Is.
might also have an effect in their similar echinoderm fauna.
In fact, they lay on the so-called Kerguelen Plateau
(1,000–2,500 m deep), which has recently been proposed
as a glacial refugium for echinoderm species (Hemery et al.
2012).
Comparing SO echinoderms with the adjacent ocean
basins, South America was the basin that shared more
Polar Biol
species with all the areas considered in this study. In particular, the Scotia Sea shared the highest number of species, since its intermediate location represents a physical
link between both the SO and South America (Barnes
2005; Kim and Thurber 2007). Their biogeographic similarities might be explained by geological history (both
areas were connected during the Cenozoic) or by a twoway migration of both shallow-water and the deep ocean
fauna. Turbulent flow structures, called eddies, have been
also hypothesized as a mechanism for transport of bathyal
organisms (to 1,000 m) from north to south of the ACC and
vice versa (Clarke et al. 2005). Moreover, there is a global
thermohaline circulation of Antarctic Bottom Water, which
connects the abyssal Weddell Sea with the southwest
Atlantic basin, allowing the dispersal of deep-sea organisms (Pawlowski et al. 2007). Other than South America,
areas such as New Zealand, Australia, and South Africa
harbor echinoderm species in common to the SO; this may
also be explained by global patterns of deep-sea water
circulation.
We firmly believe that our data input analyzed together
with bibliographic datasets in this biogeographic study will
serve to understand the dynamics of a key group structuring the Antarctic benthic fauna. However, the amount of
new data reflects the need of more taxonomic and biogeographic studies in Antarctic and Subantarctic areas.
Different sampling methods and an increase of survey
efforts are specially needed in the less surveyed areas with
supposedly low species richness (e.g., Amundsen Sea,
Bellingshausen Sea, Bouvet Is.), while in higher-sampled
areas major taxonomic effort is also necessary.
Acknowledgments The authors wish to thank Prof M. O’Loughlin
(Museum Victoria, Australia) for his help in the identification of
holothuroid species. Special thanks are given to M. Ballesteros, J.
Cristobo, L. Núñez-Pons, and J. Vázquez for laboratory and field
support. Thanks are also due to the Unidad de Tecnologı́a Marina
(CSIC), as well as the ‘‘Bentart’’, the BIO-Las Palmas, the BIOHespérides, and the ‘‘Gabriel de Castilla’’ Spanish Antarctic Base
crews for providing logistic support during the ECOQUIM-2 cruise.
Thanks are due to Prof W. Arntz and the R/V Polarstern crew during
the ANT XV/3 and XXI/2 Antarctic cruises. Thanks are also given to
I. Afán and D. Aragonés (LAST-EBD-CSIC) for helping with map
design. We also thank the support and valuable comments of A.
Riesgo and J. Giménez and the helpful comments of three anonymous
referees. We thank the editor, Dr. D. Piepenburg, for his patience and
support along the revision of this manuscript. Funding was provided
by the Spanish Government through the ECOQUIM and ACTIQUIM
Projects (REN2003-00545, REN2002-12006E ANT, CGL200403356/ANT, CGL2007-65453, and CTM2010-17415/ANT).
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