Elizabeth K. Jones

ELIZABETH B. KOLLIE

School rules and regulations are mechanisms designed to control, regulate and manage students' behaviour in schools in order to create conducive learning environment. The purpose of this study was toestablish commonly violated rules and regulation and aspects of the rules that promote their violation in public secondary schools in Butere Sub-County, Kenya. The study was informed by two specific objectives; to identify school rules and regulations that are frequently violated andestablish the reasons for violation. Study population comprised 3290 students and 319 teachers all from 28 public secondary schools. Descriptive survey research design was used. Stratified sampling was used to categorize the schools into girls' boarding, boys' boarding, girls' day, boys' day and mixed day schools. Purposive sampling was used to select 8 deputy principals and 32 teachers. Simple random sampling was used at school level to select 40 students per school in the 8 selected secondary schools. Based on this criterion a sample size of 360 respondents was accessible for data collection on students' aggressive behaviour. Validity and reliability of instruments were established by experts in the department of education psychology of Maasai Mara University. A pilot study was carried out in four schools different from those where actual study was done. Questionnaires and interview schedules were used to collect quantitative and qualitative data on students' aggressive behaviour. Data generated by questionnaires and interview schedules were analyzed by descriptive statistics using frequency distribution and variable percentages. The findings were presented in graphs and Tables. The findings of the study revealed that students violated school rules and regulations that guard their behaviour and emotions by engaging in aggressive and violent activities such as theft, fighting, quarreling and destruction of school property. The study indicated that age is determinant in students' aggressive behaviour evidenced by high violations in form 2 and 3 where students are at prime adolescent stage. This is because some school rules and regulations are not clear to the students while others are rigid. This is because students are not involved at formulation stage which makes them to easily violate these rules and regulations. The study equally revealed that disciplinary measures conditioned students to behave in a certain manner without molding their character given the high number of repeated mistakes after punishment. The study recommends that school rules and regulations be reviewed to accommodate age challenges, disciplinary measures such as suspension and replacement of stolen items be repealed and that students be involved at formulation level. The findings of the study inform policy makers about the influence of school rules and regulations on students' aggressive behaviour and the need to restructure them to make them appealing as control and management tools.

WELCOME TO THE INDEPENDENT BETHLEHYEM BAPTIST ELEMENTARY, JR. & SR. HIGH SCHOOL KEYHOLE, OLDROAD, SINKOR MONROVIA, LIBERIA ATTENTION!! THE Administration of the IBBHS encourages all students seeking enrollment into this institution to carefully read this student handbook and adhere to all of its provisions. LETTER TO THE STUDENTS In order for the Independent Bethlehem Baptist High School (IBBHS) to maintain quality, standard and viability, it has relied on certain basic rules and regulations that are necessary to the institution. This handbook is particularly designed to bring into focus the guidelines and policies of the Independent Bethlehem Baptist School. It is important that students of the school are adequately aware and familiar with those procedures, guidelines and policies to govern behavior on and off campus and carried out in an orderly manner. Please read this handbook carefully and abide by the rules and regulations because your success in your academic pursuit to a large extent will be determined by your school and your community. ADMISSION For a student to be admitted into the Independent Bethlehem Baptist School, he/ she must meet the following requirements: Sit and pass an entrance exam administered by the school Submits to the registrar office the following documents: transcript, photo copy of report card, letter of recommendation from last school attended and recent health certificate During registration, all fees required per semester must be paid in full and 40% of tuition paid 9th and 12th grade students shall be informed by the school administration about all necessary requirements for the West African Examination Council. ATTENDANCE Devotion starts at 7:30AM. All students must attend it regularly. Students are to be in school at all times. Three lateness constitute one day absent. Any student coming to school after the flag has been hosted is considered late. In case of sickness or emergency, a written communication must be sent to the school authority for notification. It is required that students take part in devotion, chapel service, programs and all other school activities. No student is allowed to leave campus without permission from the school authority. The regular school hours run from 7:30 AM to 2:35 PM daily. Absolutely, there is nothing called NO GOOD SCHOOL in the book of IBBHS. UNIFORM DESCRIPTION SENIOR HIGH 12TH GRADE BOYS Long royal blue trousers White short sleeves shirts Black shoes White socks Black belts Royal blue ties 12TH GRADE GIRLS Royal blue skirts (below knee level) White short sleeves shirts Black shoes Black stockings Royal blue ties 10TH & 11TH BOYS Long royal blue trousers White short sleeves shirts Black shoes Black belts White socks 10TH & 11TH GIRLS Royal blue jumpers (below knee level) White short sleeves shirts Black shoes White socks/ anklets JUNIOR HIGH DIVISION 7TH – 9TH BOYS Long royal blue trousers White short sleeves shirts Black belts Black shoes White socks 7TH – 9TH GIRLS Royal blue jumpers (below knee level) White short sleeves shirts Black shoes White socks/ anklets ELEMENTARY 6TH GRADE BOYS Long royal blue trousers White short sleeves shirts Black belts Black shoes White socks 1st – 5th BOYS Short royal blue trousers White short sleeves shirts Black belts Black shoes White socks 1st – 6th GIRLS Royal blue jumpers (below knee level) White short sleeves shirts Black shoes White socks / anklets KINDERGARTEN DIVISION BOYS Short royal blue trousers with vests Short sleeves sky blue shirts Black belts Black shoes Black socks GIRLS Royal blue jumpers Short sleeves sky blue shirts Black shoes Sky blue socks/ anklets Note: No skinny trouser is allow on this campus. Students caught with such trousers will be ask to change their trousers and if the student refuses, he will be ask to leave the school with no refundable funds. SPECIFIC RULES AND REGULATIONS 1. Students are to remain in their class at all time. Any student wanting to leave the class must obtain a class pass from either the class prefect or the teacher in that particular class. 2. Student found loitering in the academic building or on campus without a class pass will be punished by the vice principal for student affairs. 3. No outside reading / listening materials such as videotapes, cassette recorder, radio/ head phone, magazines, etc. that detract attention in and on the campus will be allowed. Such material if found in the possession of any student will be seized and never to be returned to the owner .Students are prohibited from using phone in class and around the campus. 4. A female student found to be pregnant will be given NTR.A male student who impregnates a female student will also be given NTR. 5. Student found / caught instigating other students to riot and other acts of vandalism will be expelled immediately. 6. All students funds and materials are to be deposited through the office of the vice principal for students- the chief custodian of such funds and materials. 7. Senior students in collaboration with the vice principal for students’ affairs will conduct inspection to ensure that students are properly uniformed. 8. Any student found not properly dressed in his / her school outfit will be sent home for the day or punished. 9. Writing / carving on chairs, desks, tables, doors and walls is strictly prohibited. Any student caught doing such will be punished at the discretion of the vice principal for student affairs. 10. Students are required to attend all school functions, curriculum and extra curriculum activities. Any student who excuses him / herself without an acceptable excuse to the vice principal for student affairs of his / her school shall be given a prescribed punishment. SMOKING AND DRINKING 11. The use of narcotic drugs, drinking alcoholic beverages and smoking are strictly forbidden on school campus. Any student found violating these ordinances will be considered guilty of serious offense and will be punished by suspension or expulsion. 12. Any student found / caught with any offensive weapons such as Guns, Knives, razor blades, etc. on campus shall be handed over to the vice principal for student affairs and later face expulsion. 13. Any student who threatens the life of any administrator, teacher, support staff or a fellow student shall be turned over to the vice principal for student affairs and later faced expulsion. 14. Stealing on campus is a criminal offense. Any student guilty of stealing will not only be asked to return or pay for the stolen goods but undergo some administrative punishment. 15. Students are prohibited from roaming the street during school hours in their uniform. No student while in uniform is allowed to visit places of entertainment including bars, night clubs, video clubs, etc. Violator (s) will be suspended for two weeks for the first offense and expelled for repeated act. 16. No student is allowed to take visitor (s) in a classroom. Violators will be punished. 17. Any student who is guilty of damaging or defacing school property (ies) shall be punished by payment or replacement of such property (ies) destroyed. 18. Students are expected to be courteous in speech and manner to all administrators, teachers, support staffs and fellow students on campus. 19. There shall be no fighting and or using abusive languages on campus. Therefore, any student who insults or assaults or unjustifiably misbehave shall apologize publicly with the presence of the parents or guardians and be suspended from the school for a week, second offense he / she shall be expelled. 20. Any student having problems with his or her fellow students or instructor should follow the following procedures for redress: a. class sponsor b. vice principal for student affairs c. vice principal for instruction/ administration and lastly the principal proper. 21. Extra classes approved by the school must be considered as an extension of school’s activities. Therefore, all rules and regulations of the school are applicably. EXCUSES *Students are not allowed to leave school campus for whatever reason (s) without permission from the vice principal for student affairs’ office. Violators shall be punished. *If a parent or guardian wishes for a student to leave school before the close of the school day, a written request must be sent to the vice principal for student affairs. *Any student who for any reason (s) must wear anything other than the official school uniform on campus and at school related functions must present a letter of excuse from parent/ guardian to the office of the vice principal for student affairs, who shall grant such permission. ACADEMIC POLICY All students of the Independent Bethlehem Baptist High School must maintain a certain level of academic achievement. All ninth and twelve graders must register for the WAEC exams. Any 12th grade student(s) failing to register for WAEC exams will not be allowed to graduate and receive any document until he / she completes same with WAEC. Only students who are successful in both the school and WAEC exams will be allowed to graduate. PERIODIC GRADE A periodic grade shall have the following components: I. The period test………………………….60% II. Quizzes……………………………........20% III. Assignment……………………………..10% IV. Class attendance………………………....5% V. Class participation…………………………5% Total……………………………………….100% First and second semester exams independent with no component part and each worth 100%. B. SEMESTER AVERAGE A semester average shall be calculated by this method: First semester- add the first, second and third period grades; find the average, then add the average to the first semester exam grade and again find the two grades. This will represent the first semester average for each using the same method. The same method will be applied for the second semester using the fourth, fifth and sixth period grades and the second semester exam grade. INCOMPLETE Incomplete shall have the duration of one marking period, from the period the test was missed to the administration of the next period test. There shall be no incomplete for exams (first and second semester).The vice principal for student affairs shall furnish the list of students officially excused from a marking period test to the instructors concerned or on the bulletin board. Incomplete as stated in this handbook, only refers to student (s) who obtained official excuse from the school authority. STANDARD FOR PROMOTION The following shall constitute promotion statement at the end of the school year: PROMOTION STATEMENT SENIOR HIGH No red in the yearly average-promoted One red in the yearly average-conditioned Two red and above in the yearly average-failed JUNIOR HIGH No red in the yearly average-promoted One red in the yearly average-conditioned Two red and above in the yearly average-failed Note: civics and history shall together form a single average in determining them. ELEMENTARY No red in the yearly average-promoted One red in the yearly average-conditioned pass Two red and above in the yearly average-conditioned Three red in the yearly average-failed Note: English, spelling, writing and drawing shall together form a single yearly average in determining the promotion statement.*Student (s) with four (4) red marks and above on the average line at the end of semester I, will be demoted. STUDENT COUNCIL GOVERNMENT 1. Students in the Independent Bethlehem Baptist High School are given the opportunity to determine and participate in a democratic system of government. The guidelines for such elections shall be prepared by an Election and Impeachment Committee (EIC) to be appointed by the school authorities and other faculty members shall sere on the commission. 2. The student government shall be considered. The student council which comprises of a President, vice President, Secretary, Treasurer and a Chaplain who are democratically elected. 3. Students applying for positions or offices must send a written application one month before elections to EIC. 4. All elections for student council governments on campus must take place after the first or second marking period test. REQUIREMENT FOR HOLDING OFFICE Student seeking to hold position in a class or the student council government must be in a good academic standing in their lesson and moral behavior. 1. Any student seeking office as president of the student council government must be a senior student in good academic standing with good moral behavior. He /She must have an accumulative average of 80% and above in four basic subjects to be determined by the school’s administrations. Such student must have spent three (3) years in the school. 2. The vice president of the student council government must be a junior student in good academic standing and behavioral standing. He /She must have an accumulative average of 80% and above in four basic subjects to be determined by the school’s administrations. Such student must have spent two (2) years in the school. 3. The secretary of the student council government must be a junior r senior student in good academic and behavioral standing. He / She must have an accumulative average of 79% and above in four basic subjects to be determined by the school’s administrations and must have a good grades in English. Such student must have spent one (1) year in the school. 4. The chaplain of the student council government must be a junior high student with good academic, behavioral standing and should be a devoted Christian who have membership to a church. He / She must have an accumulative average of 78% and above. He / she must know how to get along with fellow students. EXTRA CURRICULUM ACTIVITIES GALA DAY The school gala day is celebrated in the month of March each year. Several activities are planned for student’s participation. Student(s) refusing to take part in the gala day celebrations will be punished by the administration. QUUEN CONTEST The queen contest for the Miss Bethlehem Baptist crown is held once every year. Each class is required to identify a queen and along with the class sponsor shall design ways and means to financially support said queen. COLOR DAY Color days are held based on the request of a department for the purpose of raising funds. There shall be only four (4) color day within one academic year. SPORTS Students are encouraged to participate in kickball, soccer, basketball, volleyball, etc. The school offers sport scholarship to deserving students. PUNISHMENT There will be categories of punishments, depending on the gravity of the offence. Student failing to accept whatsoever punishment given to him / her by the school authority will be suspended and issued a warning. After first and second warning, such student will be expelled. INDEPENDENT BETHLEHEM BAPTIST CHURCH DOCTRINE BELIEF We believe: 1. That the Holy Bible is the product of Spirit controlled men. II peters 1:19-21 2. That the Holy Bible is the Center of Christian union. (Psalm 119:93,150,130) 3That God is the Maker and Supreme Ruler of heaven and earth. (Revelation 4:11) 4. That Jesus is the son God. (John 3:16) 5. That the trinity: GOD THE FATHER, GOD THE SON AND THE HOLY SPIRIT. Each having equal part in the work of creation. (Genesis 1:1) 6. That our first obligation is to God and then to our government.(Matthews 10:28, 23;10) 7. That every pastor should preach the whole truth of God’s Holy Word.(II Timothy 4;1-2) SCHOOL ODE LEAD:OH, dear Bethlehem Baptist School, that is built on solid ground, where leaders of tomorrow can be found………we praise your Name, and the joy we always cherish, we love you oh, Bethlehem.. CHORUS: Bethlehem Baptist School. The fame spread far and wide faming through her honesty, with hearts of joy, we raise your name. LEAD: Our beloved school, we know of your colors, the blue is the symbol of heaven; the white is for light that signifies purity, joy peace and unity. IBBS with hearts with hearts of joy we sign of thee. OBJECTIVES The purpose of preparing a student handbook of the Independent Baptist High School is to: 1. Give the students sound and moral education. 2. Aid students in their growth toward full maturity and to make them aware of their capabilities and limitations. 3. To discourage lawlessness on campus and the general society. 4. To enable them to apply themselves to their role in life with fulfillment of commitment to their fellow men. AMENDMENTS These rules and regulations of the Independent Bethlehem Baptist High School are subject to amendment Compiled this 8th day of February 2003 THE NATIONAL ANTHEM All hail Liberia hail All hail Liberia hail This glorious land of liberty shall long be ours Tho’ new her name, green be her fame And mighty be her powers. In joy and gladness with our hearts united, We’ll shout the freedom of the race benighted, Long live Liberia happy land, a home of glorious Liberty by God’s command. All hail Liberia hail All hail Liberia hail In union strong success is sure We cannot fail with God above Our rights to prove, we will overall prevail With heart and hands our country Cause defending, we’ll meet a foe With valor unpretending, Long live Liberia happy land, a home of glorious liberty By God’s command. THE LONESTAR FOREVER When freedom raised her glowing form On montserrado’s verdant heights She set within the doom of night Midst lowering skies and thunderstorm The star of liberty And seizing from the waking moon Its burnished shield of golden flame She lifted it in her proud name And roused a nation long furlong To noble destiny Refrain The lonestar forever The lonestar forever O long may it float o’er land o’er sea Desert it no never! Uphold it forever O shout for the Lonestar Banner, all hail Then speeding in her coast along The broad Atlantic golden strand She woke reverberant through the land A nation loud triumphant song and sere The song of liberty! Physical science, which includes chemistry and physics, is usually thought of as the study of the nature and properties of matter and energy in non-living systems. Matter is the “stuff” of the universe — the atoms, molecules and ions that make up all physical substances. Matter is anything that has mass and takes up space. Energy is the capacity to cause change. Energy cannot be created or destroyed; it can only be conserved and converted from one form to another. "Potential energy" is the energy stored in an object due to its position — for example, a bucket of water balanced over a doorway has the potential to fall. "Kinetic energy" is energy that is in motion and causing changes. Any object or particle that is in motion has kinetic energy based on its mass and speed. Kinetic energy can be converted into other forms of energy, such as electrical energy and thermal energy. Five phases There are five known phases, or states, of matter: solids, liquids, gases, plasma and Bose-Einstein condensates. The main difference in the structures of each state is in the densities of the particles. Solids In a solid, particles are packed tightly together so they are unable to move about very much. Particles of a solid have very low kinetic energy. The electrons of each atom are in motion, so the atoms have a small vibration, but they are fixed in their position. Solids have a definite shape. They do not conform to the shape of the container in which they are placed. They also have a definite volume. The particles of a solid are already so tightly packed together that increasing pressure will not compress the solid to a smaller volume. [Related: Properties of Matter: Solids] Liquids In the liquid phase, the particles of a substance have more kinetic energy than those in a solid. The liquid particles are not held in a regular arrangement, but are still very close to each other so liquids have a definite volume. Liquids, like solids, cannot be compressed. Particles of a liquid have just enough room to flow around each other, so liquids have an indefinite shape. A liquid will change shape to conform to its container. Force is spread evenly throughout the liquid, so when an object is placed in a liquid, the liquid particles are displaced by the object. [Related: Properties of Matter: Liquids] The magnitude of the upward buoyant force is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the object. When the buoyant force is equal to the force of gravity pulling down on the object’s mass, the object will float. This principle of buoyancy was discovered by the Greek mathematician Archimedes who, according to legend, sprang from his bath and ran naked through the streets shouting "Eureka!" Particles of a liquid tend to be held by weak intermolecular attraction rather than moving freely as the particles of a gas will. This cohesive force pulls the particles together to form drops or streams. Scientists reported in April 2016 they had created a bizarre state of matter, one that had been predicted to exist but never seen in real life. Though this type of matter could be held in one's hand as if it were a solid, a zoom-in on the material would reveal the disorderly interactions of its electrons, more characteristic of a liquid. In the new matter, called a Kitaev quantum spin liquid, the electrons enter into a sort of quantum dance in which they interact or "talk" to one another. Usually when matter cools down the spin of its electrons tends to line up. But in this quantum spin liquid, the electrons interact so that they affect how the others are spinning and never align no matter how cool the material gets. The material would behave as if its electrons, considered indivisible, had broken apart, the researchers reported April 4, 2016, in the journal Nature Materials. Gases Gas particles have a great deal of space between them and have high kinetic energy. If unconfined, the particles of a gas will spread out indefinitely; if confined, the gas will expand to fill its container. When a gas is put under pressure by reducing the volume of the container, the space between particles is reduced, and the pressure exerted by their collisions increases. If the volume of the container is held constant, but the temperature of the gas increases, then the pressure will also increase. Gas particles have enough kinetic energy to overcome intermolecular forces that hold solids and liquids together, thus a gas has no definite volume and no definite shape. [Related: Properties of Matter: Gases] Plasma Plasma is not a common state of matter here on Earth, but may be the most common state of matter in the universe. Plasma consists of highly charged particles with extremely high kinetic energy. The noble gases (helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon and radon) are often used to make glowing signs by using electricity to ionize them to the plasma state. Stars are essentially superheated balls of plasma. [Related: Properties of Matter: Plasma] Bose-Einstein condensates In 1995, technology enabled scientists to create a new state of matter, the Bose-Einstein condensate (BEC). Using a combination of lasers and magnets, Eric Cornell and Carl Weiman cooled a sample of rubidium to within a few degrees of absolute zero. At this extremely low temperature, molecular motion comes very close to stopping altogether. Since there is almost no kinetic energy being transferred from one atom to another, the atoms begin to clump together. There are no longer thousands of separate atoms, just one “super atom.” A BEC is used to study quantum mechanics on a macroscopic level. Light appears to slow down as it passes through a BEC, allowing study of the particle/wave paradox. A BEC also has many of the properties of a superfluid — flowing without friction. BECs are also used to simulate conditions that might apply in black holes. [Related: Properties of Matter: Bose-Einstein Condensate] Going through a phase Adding energy to matter causes a physical change — matter moves from one state to another. For example, adding thermal energy — heat — to liquid water causes it to become steam or vapor — a gas. Taking away energy also causes physical change, such as when liquid water becomes ice — a solid — when heat is removed. Physical change also can be caused by motion and pressure. Melting and freezing When heat is applied to a solid, its particles begin to vibrate faster and tend to move farther apart. When the substance, at standard pressure, reaches a certain point — called the melting point — the solid will begin to turn into a liquid. The melting point of a pure substance can often be determined to within 0.1 degrees C, the point at which the solid and liquid phases are in equilibrium. If you continue to apply heat to the sample, the temperature will not rise above the melting point until the entire sample has been liquefied. The heat energy is being used to convert the solid into the liquid form. Once the entire sample has become a liquid the temperature will begin to rise again. Compounds that are otherwise very similar can have different melting points, so melting point can be a useful way to distinguish among them. For example, sucrose has a melting point of 367 F (186.1 C) while the melting point of glucose is 294.8 F (146 C). A solid mixture, such as a metal alloy, can often be separated into its constituent parts by heating the mixture and extracting the liquids as they reach their different melting points. The freezing point is the temperature at which a liquid substance is cooled enough to form a solid. As the liquid is cooled, particle motion slows. In many substances, the particles align in precise, geometric patterns to form crystalline solids. Most liquids contract as they freeze. One of the important characteristics of water is that it expands when it freezes, so ice floats. If ice didn’t float, there would be no liquid water underneath a frozen body of water and many forms of aquatic life would be impossible. The freezing point is often nearly the same temperature as the melting point, but is not considered to be characteristic of a substance, as several factors can alter it. For example, adding dissolved substances, or solutes, to a liquid will depress the freezing point. An example of this is using salt slurry to lower the temperature at which water freezes on our roads. Other liquids can be cooled to temperatures well below their melting point before they begin to solidify. Such liquids are said to be “super cooled” and often require the presence of a dust particle or “seed crystal” to start the process of crystallization. Sublimation When a solid is converted directly into a gas without going through a liquid phase, the process is known as sublimation. Sublimation occurs when kinetic energy of the particles is greater than atmospheric pressure surrounding the sample. This may occur when the temperature of the sample is rapidly increased beyond the boiling point (flash vaporization). More commonly, a substance can be "freeze dried" by cooling it under vacuum conditions so that the water in the substance undergoes sublimation and is removed from the sample. A few volatile substances will undergo sublimation at normal temperature and pressure. The best known of these substances is CO2 or “dry ice.” Vaporization Vaporization is the conversion of a liquid to a gas. Vaporization can occur through either evaporation or boiling. Because the particles of a liquid are in constant motion they frequently collide with each other, transferring energy when they do so. This energy transference has little net effect beneath the surface, but when enough energy is transferred to a particle near the surface; it may gain enough energy to be knocked completely away from the sample as a free gas particle. This process is called evaporation and it continues as long as liquid remains. It is interesting to note that a liquid cools as it evaporates. The energy transferred to surface molecules, which causes their escape, is carried away from the remaining liquid sample. When enough heat is added to a liquid that vapor bubbles form below the surface of the liquid, we say that the liquid is boiling. The temperature at which a liquid boils is variable. Boiling point is dependent upon the pressure the substance is under. A liquid under higher pressure will require more heat before vapor bubbles can form within it. At high altitudes, there is less atmospheric pressure pressing down on the liquid, so it will boil at a lower temperature. The same amount of liquid at sea level is under a greater atmospheric pressure and will boil at a higher temperature. Condensation and deposition Condensation is when a gas transforms into a liquid. Condensation occurs when a gas has been cooled or compressed to the point where kinetic energy of the particles can no longer overcome the intermolecular forces. An initial cluster of particles initiates the process which tends to further cool the gas so that condensation continues. When the gas transforms directly into a solid, without going through the liquid phase, it is called deposition or desublimation. An example of this occurs when subfreezing temperatures convert water vapor in the atmosphere into frost or ice. Frost tends to outline solid blades of grass and twigs because the air touching these solids cools faster than air that is not touching a solid surface. Matter Anything that occupies space and has mass and is felt by senses is called matter. Matter is the form of five basic elements –air, earth, fire, sky and water. Characteristics of particles of matter Made of tiny particles. Vacant spaces exist in particles. Particles are in continuous motion. Particles are held together by forces of attraction. States of Matter Basis of Classification of Types Based upon particle arrangement Based upon energy of particles Based upon distance between particles Five states of matter Solid, Liquid, Gas, Plasma, Bose-Einstein condensate DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE STATES OF MATTER (i)SOLID Fixed shape and definite volume . Inter particle distances are smallest Incompressible High density and do not diffuse. Inter particle forces of attraction are strongest. Constituent particles are very closely packed. Ii LIQUID Not fixed shape but fixed volume. Inter particle distances are larger. Almost incompressible. Density is lower than solids and diffuse. Inter particle forces of attraction are weaker than solids. Constituent particles are very closely packed. Iii GAS Neither fixed shape nor fixed volume. Inter particle distances are largest. Highly compressible. Density is least and diffuse. Inter particle forces of attraction are weakest. Constituent particles are free to move about. (iv) Plasma A plasma is an ionized gas. A plasma is a very good conductor of electricity and is affected by magnetic fields. Plasma, like gases have an indefinite shape and an indefinite volume. Ex. Ionized gas (v) Bose-Einstein condensate A BEC is a state of matter that can arise at very low temperatures. The scientists who worked with the Bose-Einstein condensate received a Nobel Prize for their work in 1995. The BEC is all about molecules that are really close to each other (even closer than atoms in a solid). Microscopic Explanation for Properties of Gases Gases are easily compressible because there is a great deal of free space between particles Gases flow very easily because the particles randomly move past one another. Gases have an indefinite shape and an indefinite volume because the particles can move past one another. Microscopic Explanation for Properties of Liquids Liquids are not easily compressible and have a definite volume because there is little free space between particles. Liquids have an indefinite shape because the particles can lide past one another. Liquids flow easily because the particles can move/slide past one another. Microscopic Explanation for Properties of Solids Solids have a definite shape and a definite volume because the particles are locked into place Solids do not flow easily because the particles cannot move/slide past one another Solids are not easily compressible because there is little free space between particles. Microscopic Explanation for Properties of BEC Particles are less energetic than solids because Exist at very low temperature .Particles are literally indistinguishable because they are locked into same space .BEC shows super fluidity because Particles can flow without friction. Microscopic Explanation for Properties of Plasmas Plasmas have an indefinite shape and an indefinite volume because the particles can move past one another. Plasmas are easily compressible because there is a great deal of free space between particles. Plasmas are good conductors of electricity &are affected by Magnetic fields because they are composed of ions. 3. Interchange in states of matter Matter Can Change its State Water can exist in three states of matter • Solid, as ice, • Liquid, as the familiar water, and • Gas, as water vapor. Sublimation: The changing of solid directly into vapors on heating & vapors into solid on cooling. Ex. Ammonium chloride, camphor & iodine. a) Effect of change in temperature The temperature effect on heating a solid varies depending on the nature of the solid & the conditions required in bringing the change. On increasing the temperature of solids, the kinetic energy of the particles increases which overcomes the forces of attraction between the particles thereby solid melts and is converted to a liquid. The temperature at which a solid melts to become a liquid at the atmospheric pressure is called its melting point. The melting point of ice is 273.16 K. The process of melting, that is, change of solid state into liquid state is also known as fusion. b) Effect of Change of Pressure Increasing or decreasing the pressure can change the state of matter. Applying pressure and reducing temperature can liquefy gases. Solid carbon dioxide (CO2) is stored under high pressure. Solid CO2 gets converted directly to gaseous state on decrease of pressure to 1 atmosphere without coming into liquid state. This is the reason that solid carbon dioxide is also known as dry ice. Latent Heat: The hidden heat which breaks the force of attraction between the Molecules during change of state. Fusion Vaporization Heat energy required to change 1kg of solid into liquid. Heat energy required to change 1kg of liquid to gas at atmospheric pressure at its boiling point. Thus, we can say that pressure and temperature determine the state of a substance, whether it will be solid, liquid or gas. 4. Evaporation & Boiling Particles of matter are always moving and are never at rest. At a given temperature in any gas, liquid or solid, there are particles with different amounts of kinetic energy. In the case of liquids, a small fraction of particles at the surface, having higher kinetic energy, is able to break away from the forces of Attraction of other particles and gets converted into vapor. This phenomenon of change of a liquid into vapors at any temperature below its boiling point is called evaporation. Factors Affecting Evaporation The rate of evaporation increases with an increase of surface area. With the increase of temperature, more number of particles get enough kinetic energy to go into the vapor state. Humidity is the amount of water vapor present in air. The air around us cannot hold more than a definite amount of water vapor at a given temperature. If the amount of water in air is already high, the rate of evaporation decreases. Wind speed: the higher the wind speed, the more evaporation. Evaporation cause cooling. The particles of liquid absorb energy from the surrounding to regain the energy lost during evaporation, Evaporation Vs Boiling Boiling is a bulk phenomenon. Particles from the bulk (whole) of the liquid change into vapor state. Evaporation is a surface phenomenon. Particles from the surface gain enough energy to overcome the forces of attraction present in the liquid and change into the vapor state. 5. Kelvin & Celsius Scale Kelvin is the SI unit of temperature, 00C =273.16 K. we take 0 0C = 273 K. SI unit of temperature is Kelvin. T (K) = T (oC) +273 Kelvin scale of temperature has always positive sign, hence regarded as better scale than Celsius. Atmosphere (atm) is a unit of measuring pressure exerted by a gas. The SI unit of pressure is Pascal (Pa): 1 atmosphere = 1.01 × (10 to the power 5) Pa. The pressure of air in atmosphere is called Atmospheric pressure. The atmospheric pressure at sea level is 1 atmosphere, and is taken as the normal atmospheric pressure. General Science notes GRADE 9 TOPIC: SCIENTIFIC METHOD Scientific method is the systematic approach in solving problem. The basic steps are as follow: 1. State the problem: A problem can’t be solved if it isn’t understood. 2. Form a hypothesis: This is a possible solution to the problem formed after gathering information about the problem. The term “research is properly applied here. 3. Test the hypothesis: An experiment is performed to determine if the hypothesis solves the problem or not. Experiments are done to gather data. It is very important that good observations and records are made during an experiment. 4. Collect data: This is where you record your observations, measurements or information from experiment. 5Analyze data: Just about what the data indicates about answering the problem you are solving. 6. Draw conclusion: After examining the data from the experiment, conclusions can be drawn. IN its simplest form, the conclusion will be “YES” the hypothesis was correct or “NO” the hypothesis was not correct. THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY Science can broadly be defined as the study of things such as chemistry, biology, physics ,genetics, geology, psychology, sociology and other fields of study that analyze interactions, behaviors, physical properties, effects, causes, etc. in order to rationalize or establish given properties, behaviors and interactions about such ”thing”. The basis of science is the conducting of experiments. Technology refers generally to items of use, created “AppliedScience”.an example is a solar panel calculator. In short, science is the study of forces and interactions between different “things “both animate and inanimate while Technology can be referred to as things which we make but were developed by applying scientific laws, knowing what such “things” are capable of doing. Matter Anything that occupies space and has mass and is felt by the senses is called matter. Matter is the form of five basic elements –air, earth, fire, sky and water. Characteristics of particles of matter Made of tiny particles. Vacant spaces exist in particles. Particles are in continuous motion. Particles are held together by forces of attraction. States of Matter Basis of Classification of matter Based upon particle arrangement Based upon energy of particles Based upon distance between particles Five states of matter Solid, Liquid, Gas, Plasma, Bose-Einstein condensate DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE STATES OF MATTER (i)SOLID Fixed shape and definite volume. Inter particle distances are smallest Incompressible High density and do not diffuse. Inter particle forces of attraction are strongest. Constituent particles are very closely packed. ii LIQUID Not fixed shape but fixed volume. Inter particle distances are larger. Almost incompressible. Density is lower than solids and diffuse. Inter particle forces of attraction are weaker than solids. Constituent particles are very closely packed. iii GAS Neither fixed shape nor fixed volume. Inter particle distances are largest. Highly compressible. Density is least and diffuse. Inter particle forces of attraction are weakest. Constituent particles are free to move about. (iv) Plasma A plasma is an ionized gas. A plasma is a very good conductor of electricity and is affected by magnetic fields. Plasma, like gases have an indefinite shape and an indefinite volume. Ex. Ionized gas. (v) Bose-Einstein condensate A BEC is a state of matter that can arise at very low temperatures. The scientists who worked with the Bose-Einstein condensate received a Nobel Prize for their work in 1995. The BEC is all about molecules that are really close to each other (even closer than atoms in a solid). Microscopic Explanation for Properties of Gases Gases are easily compressible because there is a great deal of free space between particles. Gases flow very easily because the particles randomly move past one another. Gases have an indefinite shape and an indefinite volume because the particles can move past one another. Microscopic Explanation for Properties of Liquids Liquids are not easily compressible and have a definite volume because there is little free space between particles. Liquids have an indefinite shape because the particles can lied past one another. Liquids flow easily because the particles can move/slide past one another. Microscopic Explanation for Properties of Solids Solids have a definite shape and a definite volume because the particles are locked into place Solids do not flow easily because the particles cannot move/slide past one another Solids are not easily compressible because there is little free space between particles. Microscopic Explanation for Properties of BEC Particles are less energetic than solids because Exist at very low temperature .Particles are literally indistinguishable because they are locked into same space .BEC shows super fluidity because Particles can flow without friction. Microscopic Explanation for Properties of Plasmas Plasmas have an indefinite shape and an indefinite volume because the particles can move past one another. Plasmas are easily compressible because there is a great deal of free space between particles. Plasmas are good conductors of electricity &are affected by Magnetic fields because they are composed of ions. ELEMENTS Elements are the simplest pure substances that cannot be broken down by ordinary chemical means. Examples of an element are: Ca, Cl , H, O ATOM AND ITS STRUCTURE Atom is the smallest particles of an element that has the properties of that element. An atom is the basic building block of matter. There are three (3) basic parts of an atom. They are: 1.ELECTRON 2.PROTONS AND 3.NEUTRONS Electrons are the smallest of the three particles that make up atoms .Electrons are found in shells or orbitals that surround the nucleus of an atom. Protons and neutrons are found in the nucleus. PROTON NEUTRON ORBIT OF ELECTRON ELECTRON NUCLEUS Protons and neutrons make up the small central part of an atom called the nucleus. Electrons move rapidly around the nucleus in paths, which are sometimes called orbits. However, each pathway is three dimensional, rather like a nutshell, and so they are usually called shells. Protons carry a positive electric charge. Neutrons are neutral with no charge. Electrons carry a negative electrical charge. The positive protons in a nucleus attract the negative electrons moving around it. In a normal atom, the number of protons (positive) and electrons (negative) are equal, so the charges balance out. The particles have different masses. Protons and neutrons have the same mass, but electrons are so small that we usually ignore their mass. Table 2:1 properties of the subatomic particles Particle Location Charge Mass Proton Nucleus Positive 1 Neutron Nucleus Neutral 1 Electron Moves around the nucleus in shells Negative 0 So, if atoms are made from just three (3) small building blocks, how can there be so many different atoms? The answer is that the number of particles in each type of atom varies. In the simplest atom, there is just one proton in the nucleus. One electron moves around this nucleus. There are no neutrons. These atoms are hydrogen atoms. All hydrogen atoms have one proton and one electron. The next simplest atom is the helium atom. This has two protons and two electrons. It also has two neutrons in its nucleus. It is the number of protons that an atom has that is important. It is this number that determines which element an atom is. For example, all carbon atoms have six protons. Any atom with six protons is a carbon atom. We call the number of protons the atomic number. It is more difficult to know how many neutrons an element has. To help, scientists have given each element a mass number. The mass number is the total number of protons and neutrons in each atom. To calculate the number of neutrons an atom has, we subtract the atomic number from the mass number Mass number 40 Ar Atomic number 18 This is the element Argon Example: 2311Na ,the mass number is 23 and the atomic number is 11. The atomic number tells you the number of protons. Sodium has 11 protons. An atom has a neutral charge overall, so the number of electrons equals the number of protons. Sodium has 11 electrons. The mass number is the total number of neutrons and protons in the nucleus. If you take the atomic number from the mass number, you will be left with the number of neutrons. Sodium has 12 neutrons. Atom Number of protons Number of electrons Number of neutrons 6530 Zn 30 30 35 8035Br 35 35 45 The first 20 elements The atoms are arranged in order of increasing proton and electron numbers. Table 2.2 shows the first 20 elements and the number of subatomic particles in their atoms. Element Symbol Atomic number Mass number Number of protons Number of neutrons Number of electrons Hydrogen H 1 0 1 0 1 Helium He 2 4 2 2 2 Lithium Li 3 7 3 4 3 Beryllium Be 4 9 4 5 4 Boron B 5 11 5 6 5 Carbon C 6 12 6 6 6 Nitrogen N 7 14 7 7 7 Oxygen O 8 16 8 8 8 Fluorine F 9 19 9 10 9 Neon Ne 10 20 10 10 10 Sodium Na 11 23 11 12 11 Magnesium Mg 12 24 12 12 12 Aluminum Al 13 27 13 14 13 Silicon Si 14 28 14 14 14 Phosphorus P 15 31 15 16 15 Sulfur S 16 32 16 16 16 Chlorine Cl 17 35 17 18 17 Argon Ar 18 40 18 22 18 Potassium K 19 39 19 20 19 Calcium Ca 20 40 20 20 20 ELECTRONS IN SHELLS Earlier, we stated that electrons orbit the nucleus in pathways called shells. There can be several shells around an atom, each with electrons moving in them. The number of electrons in a shell can vary. However, there are some simple rules to help you work out how many electrons there are in each shell. The first shell can hold a maximum of two electrons. The second shell can hold a maximum of eight electrons. When there are 18 electrons in the third shell (the maximum it can hold ), the fourth shell starts to fill up. Remember these rules and that electron shells always fill up starting from the inside. CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS Elements are classified in many ways.One useful way is by METALS,NON-MENTALS and METALLOIDS. METALS All elements to the left of the line starting at boron (B), atomic number 5 and going all the way down to polonium (P) atomic number 84 except for Germanium (Ge) and Antimony (Sb) are metals. CHARACTERISTICS OF METALS Metals are solid (with the exception of mercury, Hg, a liquid). They are shiny, good conductors of electricity and heat. They are ductile (they can be drawn into thin wire). They are malleable (they can be easily hammered into very thin sheet). All metals tend to lose electron easily. NON-METALS Except for the elements that border the stair stepped line, the elements to the right of the line are called non-metals. CHARACTERISTICS OF NON-METALS Non-metals are brittles They are not malleable or ductile They are poor conductors of heat and electricity and tend to gain electrons in chemical reaction Some non-metals are liquid. METALLOIDS Metalloids are elements that display the properties of both metals and non-metals. The word metalloid means “metal like”. There is no standard definition of a metalloid nor is there complete agreement as to which elements are approximately classified as metalloids. The six (6) commonly recognized metalloids are boron, silicon, germanium, arsenic, antimony and tellurium. Elements less commonly recognized as metalloids include: carbon, aluminum, selenium, polonium and astatine. CHARACTERISTICSOF METALLOIDS They have a metallic appearance They are brittles Chemically, they mostly behave as non-metals They can form alloys with metals They are ductile and malleable They are good conductors of heat and electricity. PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL CHANGE PHYSICAL CHANGE The substance(s) involved in physical change are not changed chemically. They may change state (solid to liquid to gas) or they may be separated or mixed. However, they can always be separated or changed back to their original state. Examples are: 1. Water is frozen or evaporated (change to ice or to steam) 2. Salt dissolve in water .when the saltwater is evaporated, the salt remain behind. CHEMICAL CHANGE When two substances (reactants) react with each other and one or more new substance(s) product(s) are created that is, different from the original properties. Example: when electricity is passed through water (H2O), two new substances are formed, Hydrogen (H) and Oxygen (O2). MIXTURES Mixtures are substances made up of more than one element and /or compound. Example: salt water is a good example of a mixture. You could have 15%Nacl and 85% H2O. The two types of mixtures are: 1. Homogeneous Mixtures: There is the same composition of elements and/or compounds everywhere. So homogeneous mixtures are exactly the same everywhere. When a substance dissolves in water (like salt water) it will be homogeneous. 2. Heterogeneous mixtures: Substances in heterogeneous mixtures are not evenly distributed. Example: sand and rock in water USES OF SALT Our bodies need salt; we use it in cooking and to flavor food. Salt is also an important source of other chemicals. The chemical name of salt is sodium chloride. It is used to make chlorine (use in bleach and plastic), sodium hydroxide (used to make paper, soap, and ceramics) and sodium bicarbonate for baking powder. THE AIR Air is a mixture of gases. However, scientists did not always know this and it was only important experiments conducted about 250 years ago that identified the important gas oxygen in air. Other gases in the air were discovered much later. For example, krypton and xenon were identified in 1898. THE GASES AND THEIR AMOUNT PRESENT IN CLEAN AIR GAS PERCENTAGE Nitrogen 78 Oxygen 21 Argon 0.93 Carbon dioxide 0.04 Others 0.03 The “other” gases mentioned in the table are helium, neon, krypton and xenon. There are only tiny amounts of each of these gases. You can find these gases in the Periodic Table. They are in Group 8, on the right- hand of the table. These gases are all very similar and do not react with other elements. Because they are so unreactive, they are called the INERT OR NOBLE GASES. SEPARATING AIR Separating the mixture of gases that makes up the air is difficult. The air has to cooled to make it a liquid. To do this, we have to reduce the temperature to approximately 200oC. The liquid air is then allowed to warm up. Liquid nitrogen boils first at 196oC and is then piped away. Liquid oxygen has to get warmer (-183oC) before it boils and turns back to a gas. Separating a mixture of liquids with different boiling points is called FRACTIONAL DISTILLATION. USES OF AIR Nitrogen is the most common gas in the air. Plants need nitrogen to grow. However, most plants cannot take nitrogen directly from the air. Instead, we use nitrogen to make fertilizers that we spread onto soil. Plants can then absorb this nitrogen through their roots. Nitrogen is also used to make explosives. As a liquid, it is very cold and so scientists use it to freeze things very quickly and store samples. Oxygen is essential for respiration and combustion. We store oxygen in cylinders so that people who have trouble breathing can use it. These people include those who are in hospital, babies that are born too early or people that go where there is no oxygen. Mountaineers, divers and firefighters all need to take oxygen with them. Argon is the most common of the noble gases. Argon is put into light bulbs as it does not react with the metal wire inside that gets very hot when its glows. Carbon dioxide does not allow things to burn in it. Therefore, it is used in fire extinguishers. Carbon dioxide is also the gas that makes drinks fizzy. The other inert gases have some uses. The most well-known is helium, which is used in balloons. Because helium is lighter (less dense) than air, balloons that contain helium rise. COMPOUNDS Compounds are pure substances that are made of two or more different atoms. These substances can be broken down by chemical means into the atoms that make up them. They cannot be separated by physical means. Common compounds include the following: Sodium Chloride (salt)---NaCl Water----------H2O Carbon dioxide----------CO2 Chalk------------CaCO3 Natural gas (methane)-------CH4 Weed killer----------NaClO3 Ammonia----------------NH3 Baking soda--------------NaHCO3 All compounds have a chemical formula. The formula shows the ratio of atoms that joined together. For any compound this ratio is fixed- it cannot change. USES OF COMPOUNDS There are many other compounds that are important to us. Compounds are used in hospitals, industries, homes, and so on. For example, look at all the different uses that are listed on an antiseptic label. ACIDS An acid is a substance that gives H+ ion when dissolved in water. Acids are compounds that contain Hydrogen (Hydrochloric (HCl), Sulphuric (H2SO4), Nitric (HNO3)).Not all compounds that contain hydrogen are acids. Acids are usually compounds of non-metals with Hydrogen and sometimes Oxygen. The three (3) acids above react with water in the following ways: 1. HCl_______ (H2O) _____H+ + Cl 2. H2SO4_____ (H2O) ____2H+ SO4 3. HNO3______ (H2O) _____H+ NO3 Many acids only show acidic properties when water is present. Acids are corrosive and can burn flesh and dissolve metal. Citric acid is not as dangerous as the above acids; we eat it. It gives the fruit its sour taste. Vinegar also contains an acid - ethanoic acid- and it is also sour. Acids are sour, but there are many that we would not want to taste. Another common acid is found in ant bites. Ants inject formic acid when they bite. It is the acid that causes the pain and irritation when an ant bites us. When milk goes sour, it is because an acid has formed in it. There are chemicals that change color at different PH values. These are called INDICATORS. One of the most famous in Litmus. BASES A base is a substances OH- ion when dissolve in water. Bases are usually metal hydroxides (MOH).Examples include: sodium Hydroxide (NaOH), Calcium Hydroxide (CaOH)2.The solution of a base in water is called an alkali. The two (2) bases above react with water in the following ways: 1. NaOH________(H2O)_______Na+ +OH- 2. Ca (OH)2______(H2O)_______Ca2+ +2OH- Alkalis have soapy feel and can corrode. Acidity is measured on a scale called PH. The value of PH determines how acidic or basic a solution is. PH of 1 is very acidic, a PH of 14 is a strong alkali. A neutral solution (or pure water) has a PH of 7. This substance turns red when the PH is less than 7 (acidic) and turns blue when the PH is greater than 7 (basic). THE pH SCALE Scientists have another way of measuring the strength of acids and bases. They use a measurement called the pH scale. The pH scale ranges from 1-4. Values 1-6 are for acids, with 1 being the strongest acid. pH 7 is neutral; it is neither an acid nor an alkali. PH 8 is a weak alkali, and pH 14 is the strongest alkali. Scientists have developed an indicator that is similar to litmus paper. It changes to a different color at each pH value. It is called UNIVERSAL INDICATOR. SALTS A salt results when an acid reacts with a base. Both are neutralized. The H+ and OH- ions combine to form water. The nonmetallic ions of the acid and the metal ions of the base form the salt. Examples ACID + BASE ____________SALT + WATER HCl + NaOH___________NaCl + H2O H2SO4 + Ca (OH)2_______ CaSO4 + H2O NaCl is sodium chloride (common salt); CaSO4 is calcium Sulphate. The salt ion normally stay in solution. The salt crystalizes out when the water is removed. Some salts are insoluble. WRITING CHEMICAL EQUATIONS To write chemical equation, you simply need to follow three rules: Say (or write) the equation in words: It is important to identify all the substances involved in the reaction and to make sure that you refer to substances that actually exist. Turn all the names into formula: This gives you the combining powers of atoms and groups of atoms. Balance the equation: A chemical equation must have the same number of atoms on each side. If this is not the case, you have either made or destroyed atoms and this is not possible! To balance an equation, you cannot change a formula; you can only put numbers in front of a formula. Look at these steps again with a real example in which hydrochloric acid is neutralized with calcium hydroxide. Write the equation in words: Hydrochloric acid + calcium hydroxide calcium chloride + water Turn the name into formula HCl + Ca(OH)2 CaCl2 +H2O METHODS OF SEPARATING VARIOUS MIXTURES There are various methods used to separate various mixture. Some of which are: 1. Distillation 2. Filtration 3. Evaporation 4. Chromatography DISTILLATION Distillation is the action of purifying a liquid by a process of heating and cooling. The two types of distillation are: 1. Simple distillation and 2. Fractional distillation SIMPLE DISTILLATION This method is good for separating a liquid from a solution. For example, water can be separated from salty water by simple distillation. This method works because the water evaporates from the solution, but is then cooled and condensed into a separate container. The salt does not evaporate. Example: when salty water is heated FRACTIONAL DISTILLATION This method is good for separating two or more liquids from each other. Example, ethanol (alcohol) can be separated from a mixture of ethanol and water by fractional distillation. This method works because the two liquids have different boiling points. Ex: when water and ethanol solution is heated. EVAPORATION This method is good for separating a soluble solid from a liquid (a soluble substance does dissolve to form a solution).It is the water that evaporates away, not the solution. FILTRATION Filtration is good for separating insoluble solid from a liquid (an insoluble substance does not dissolve). Ex: sand and water CHROMATOGRAPHY This method is good for separating dissolved substances that have different color such as inks and plant dyes. It works because some of the colored substances dissolve in the liquid better than other. Differences between elements, compounds and mixture ELEMENTS COMPOUNDS MIXTURES Made of only one kind of atom Made up of more than one kinds of atoms Made up of more than one kinds of molecules Cannot be broken down by chemical means Can be broken down by chemical means Can be separated by physical means Has same properties as atoms making it up Has different properties from element making it up Has the same properties of substances making it up Has the same properties throughout Always contain the same ratio of its component atoms Has different properties throughout GENERAL SCIENCE NOTES GRADE 8 TOPIC: SCIENTIFIC METHOD A step by step procedures of scientific problem solving are called scientific method. Solving any problem scientifically involves several steps. The steps used can vary from situation to situation and are not done in the same order. These steps are as follow: Recognizing the problem Observe the problem Form a hypothesis Test your hypothesis Analyze your data Draw conclusions and communicate A hypothesis is a statement that is tested with experiments. MEASUREMENT Measurements are made during experiment and must be liable and accurate as well as easily communicated to others. The standard system of measurement used by all scientists around the world is the metric system. The metric system is also referred to as the INTERNATIONAL SYSTEMOF UNITS or SI. The basic unit for area in the metric system is square meters or meter square (m2).example: meter * meter=m2 The basic unit of volume in the metric system is the cubic meters (m3) meter*meter*meter =m3 Example: 1m3 =1000 liter The basic unit of density is kg/cm3 or g/cm3 Density is defined as the mass per unit volume of a substance. The formula shows the relationship between density, mass and volume Density =mass/volume Weight (mass) =the basic unit of weight in the metric system is the kilogram (Kg) .weight is a measured of the amount of matter in an object. Mass =density *volume Force –the unit of force in the metric system is Newton (N) .Forces are measured by an instrument called spring balance or force meter. Force =work/distance MATTER Matter Anything that occupies space and has mass and is felt by the senses is called matter. Matter is the form of five basic elements –air, earth, fire, sky and water. Characteristics of particles of matter Made of tiny particles. Vacant spaces exist in particles. Particles are in continuous motion. Particles are held together by forces of attraction. States of Matter Basis of Classification of matter Based upon particle arrangement Based upon energy of particles Based upon distance between particles Five states of matter Solid, Liquid, Gas, Plasma, Bose-Einstein condensate SOLID The solid state of matter is a state that has a definite shape and a definite volume. Examples of solid are: cube of sugar, cube of ice, etc. In many solids, the particles are arranged in a regular repeating pattern called CRYSTAL. Solids made up of crystals are called crystalline solids. Example of crystalline solid is a common table salt. Some solids particles are not arranged in a rigid way. These solids do not keep a definite shape because they are not made of crystals. They are said to be amorphous solids because they lose their shape under certain condition. Amorphous solids are slow-moving liquids. Examples of amorphous solid are as follow: TAR, CANDLE WAX, ETC. Characteristics of a solid (i)SOLID Fixed shape and definite volume. Inter particle distances are smallest Incompressible High density and do not diffuse. Inter particle forces of attraction are strongest. Constituent particles are very closely packed. Microscopic Explanation for Properties of Solids Solids have a definite shape and a definite volume because the particles are locked into place Solids do not flow easily because the particles cannot move/slide past one another Solids are not easily compressible because there is little free space between particles. LIQUIDS A liquid state of matter is a state that has no definite shape but has a definite volume. The volume of a liquid takes the shape of the container its occupied. The particles of a liquid are close together but are free to move. Eventhough the particles in a liquid are close together but they can easily flow around one another. Some liquids flow more easily than others. The resistance of a liquid to flow is called VISCOSITY. Motor oils have a high viscosity as compared to water. Honey has a high viscosity compared to water. Characteristics of a liquid ii LIQUID Not fixed shape but fixed volume. Inter particle distances are larger. Almost incompressible. Density is lower than solids and diffuse. Inter particle forces of attraction are weaker than solids. Constituent particles are very closely packed. Microscopic Explanation for Properties of Solids Solids have a definite shape and a definite volume because the particles are locked into place Solids do not flow easily because the particles cannot move/slide past one another Solids are not easily compressible because there is little free space between particles. GASES A gas does not have a definite shape or a definite volume. A gas fills all the available space in a container regardless of the size or shape of a container. The particles of a gas can spread out to fill a large volume. If not for the pull of gravity, the gases making up the earth’s atmosphere would soon expand into deep space. The particles in a gas are spread very far apart. The particles also move about freely and rapidly at speed of about 500 meters per second. Each particle undergoes about 10 billion collisions per second. The effect of all these collisions is an outward pressure or push exerted by the gas. The pressure is what makes the gas expands to fill its container. CHARACTERISTICS OF A GAS iii GAS Neither fixed shape nor fixed volume. Inter particle distances are largest. Highly compressible. Density is least and diffuse. Inter particle forces of attraction are weakest. Constituent particles are free to move about. Microscopic Explanation for Properties of Gases Gases are easily compressible because there is a great deal of free space between particles. Gases flow very easily because the particles randomly move past one another. Gases have an indefinite shape and an indefinite volume because the particles can move past one another. BOYLE’S LAW If the volume of a gas is greatly reduced, the number of particles collisions within the gas will increase. This relationship between volume and pressure is called BOYLE’S LAW. According to Boyle’s law, the volume of a fixed amount of gas varies inversely with the pressure of the gas. An inverse proportion or variation means that as one factor increases, the other factor decreases. The formula is PV=K CHARLES’ LAW If the temperature of a gas is changed but the pressure is kept constant, then, the volume of the gas must also change in order to keep the number of particle collisions the same. The relationship between temperature and volume is called CHARLES’ LAW. According to Charles’ law, the volume of a fixed amount of gas varies directly with the temperature of the gas. A direct proportion or variation means that as one factor increase, the other factor also increases. If the temperature of the gas increase, the volume of the gas increases. Boyle’s Law and Charles’ Law together are called the Gas Law. The Gas Law describes the behavior of gases with changes in pressure, temperature and volume. PLASMA The fourth phase of matter is called plasma. The plasma phase is actually one of the most common phase in which matter is found in the universe. Plasma is quite rare on the earth. Matter in the plasma phase is very high in energy and therefore dangerous to livingthings. Plasma cannot be contained by the walls of ordinary matter which could easily destroy. Characteristics of a plasma (iv) Plasma A plasma is an ionized gas. A plasma is a very good conductor of electricity and is affected by magnetic fields. Plasma, like gases have an indefinite shape and an indefinite volume. Ex. Ionized gas. Microscopic Explanation for Properties of Plasmas Plasmas have an indefinite shape and an indefinite volume because the particles can move past one another. Plasmas are easily compressible because there is a great deal of free space between particles. Plasmas are good conductors of electricity &are affected by Magnetic fields because they are composed of ions. Bose- Einstein Condensate The BEC is a state of matter that can arise at very low temperature. Characteristics of BEC (v) Bose-Einstein condensate A BEC is a state of matter that can arise at very low temperatures. The scientists who worked with the Bose-Einstein condensate received a Nobel Prize for their work in 1995. The BEC is all about molecules that are really close to each other (even closer than atoms in a solid). Microscopic Explanation for Properties of BEC Particles are less energetic than solids because Exist at very low temperature .Particles are literally indistinguishable because they are locked into same space .BEC shows super fluidity because Particles can flow without friction. Properties in the state of matter There are two (2) main properties in the phase of matter.They are: 1. PHYSICAL PROPERTY and (2) CHEMICAL PROPERTY Physical property Physical property is a property of matter that can be observed without changing the identity of the substance. Chemical property Chemical property is a property of matter that describes a substance ability to change into different substance. Classification of matter Matter can be classified into three (3).They are: 1. ELEMENTS 2.COMPOUNDS and 3. MIXTURES ELEMENTS Elements are the simplest pure substances that cannot be broken down into simpler substance by ordinary chemical means. The smallest particles of an element is called Atom. An atom is the basic building block of matter. Elements are represented by chemical symbols. Chemical symbols are shorthand way of representing the elements. Each symbol consists of one or two letters usually taken from the element’s name. Examples of elements and their chemical symbols are: Elements symbol Oxygen __________________________________ O Copper __________________________________ CU Calcium __________________________________ Ca COMPOUNDS Compounds are pure substances that are made of two or more elements chemically combined. Unlike elements, compounds can be broken down into simpler substances. Heating is one way of separating some compounds into their elements. Electric energy is often used to break down compounds that do not separate upon heating. Most compounds are made of molecules. A molecule is made of two or more atoms chemically bonded together. A molecule is the smallest particle of a compound that has all the properties of that compound. Water is a compound. A molecule of water (H2O) is made up of 2 atoms of hydrogen chemically bonded to 1 atom of oxygen. 2H + O__________ H2O SCIENTIFIC NAMES SYMBOLS COMMERCIAL NAMES Sodium bicarbonate NaHCO3 Baking powder Sulphuric acid H2SO4 Battery acid Sodium hydroxide NaOH Caustic soda Calcium carbonate CaCO3 Chalk Calcium oxide CaO Lime Sodium chloride Nacl Salt (table salt) Silicon dioxide SiO2 Sand Sodium hypochlorite NaclO Bleach (laundry) COMPARISON OF ELEMENTS, COMPOUNDS AND MIXTURES ELEMENTS COMPOUNDS MIXTURES Made up of only one kind of atom Made up of more than one kinds of atoms Made up of more than one kinds of molecules Cannot be broken down by chemical means Can be broken down by chemical means Can be separated by physical means Has the same properties as atoms making it up Has different properties from elements making it up Has the same properties of substances making it up Has the same properties throughout Always contain the same ratio of its component atoms Has different properties throughout PLASMA MENET Old Road, Sinkor, Monrovia, Liberia/231-886-639-675/231-555-649-040/231-777-933-255 Email:mediamarketingnetworkinc@gmail.com A 3-days workshop: career counselling and high school journalist training (i)Background The Media and Marketing Network Incorporated was established July 26, 2012 in response to the challenges confronting high school students, interested in pursuing the field of journalism and career in other advanced disciplines. The Media and Marketing Network was founded to provide training opportunities for high school students, such as developing students for college life or career of interest and promoting high school journalists through the establishment of press clubs in schools and implementing capacity building programs to advance students in their academic pursuits .Since its founding, Media and Marketing Network has been engaged in such venture in collaboration with private and public schools in 5 of Liberia’s 15 counties. The Media and Marketing Network is registered under the Liberian Business law through the Liberia Business Registry and a legal media organization has been incorporated into civil society by the Liberian Government after its Article of Incorporation and by-laws and constitution were regularized. As a non-governmental organization, Media and Marketing Network is governed by a five-member board, who meet twice in a year to plan and direct the policy direction of the organization. The day-to-day activities of the organization are run by the secretariat, headed by the Executive Director who is secretary to the board. MISSION AND VISION The mission of Media and Marketing Network is to recruit high school students and train them in their career counselling program, while providing training opportunity for less unfortunate and people with disability to be independent. MENET’s vision is to see the institutions become vibrant and play a pivotal role in the lives of the lives of many who are seeking careers in their field of preferment and other disciplines that will empower them and enable them to meet up with many challenges ahead, and seek the welfare of the disabled and orphans. Media and Marketing Network has designed the first quarter of the 2016 high school’s career counselling training and High school press clubs as a national strategic media Development plan that recognizes areas, such as intensive training in writing, photography, broadcast, online media and reporting that need to be enhanced. This project is therefore designed to improve the availability and reliability of basic media data collection, storing and dissemination, acknowledging students about what they intend doing as a career. The journalism aspect which thus take digital media skills to the next level, with special emphasis on sharpening the skills of young journalists in design, writing, photography, leadership , web and multimedia skills up to the limit with hands-on instruction and work time. This project builds upon lessons learned from the past training programs which were conducted specifically for young journalists who want to enter the field and so had been trained to cope with technological challenges. The project will be executed by MENET in collaboration with high schools in District#15, Montserrado County. (ii) Relationship to the strategic Framework used by MENET to build the capacity and develop the skills of students in journalism and provide career counseling. (iii) Objective: To establish press clubs in high schools, train young journalists, provide career counseling and conduct training that will advance students in their studies. (iv) Expected accomplishments The expected outcome of MENET‘s high school journalists and career counseling training course is to get participants or students to produce effective tools such as: (v) Indicators of achievement IA 1.1 Improve and advance the concept of news writing and reading, editorial, column and review writing, sports reporting and. IA 1.2 Helping students understand the basics of what they intend doing at the college or university after high school. (vi) Main activities A1.1 News writing Understand when to use inverted pyramid and when to use other styles. Define and practice writing basic news lead. Classify leads based on key facts of who, what, when, where, why and how to apply each type appropriately. Learn about mechanics of journalism writing including nut graph. A1.2 Editorial, Column and Review Writing Understand how editorial, column and review writing is different than news and feature writing. Learn how first, second and third person can be used in journalistic writing. Learn about different types of reviews. Understand the elements of satire and its use in student media A1.3 Sports, Reporting and Writing Learn information needed for sports news. Identify the best types of sports news stories for student media. Generate story ideas related to sports. Understand the mechanics of sports writing. (vii)Detailed Description for each budget line Facilitation 2 facilitators from media institution (US$50.00 per day) US$300.00(Media Training) 4 facilitators from 3 universities (US$50.00 per day) US$600.00(Career Counseling) HALL RENTAL One (1) hall used for 3 days (US$40.00 per day) US$120.00 MEAL Breakfast and lunch/refreshment for participants (US$3.00 PER PERSON * 60) US$180.00 TRANSPORTATION Transport reimbursement for participants (US$5.00*60 persons) US$300.00 PA SYSTEM ------US$50.00 SIXTY (60) T-shirts (US$18.00 per dozen *4) US$72.00 THREE (3) Banners (US$40.00 per piece *3) US$120.00 OPERATING EXPENSES (US$1.784.00) Communications Scratch cards/internet (US$40.00) SUPPLIES Stationary --------US$200.00 PRESS COVERAGE Newspaper--------US$100.00 Radio---------------US$50.00 Television----------US$100.00 GRAND TOTAL: US$2,033.784.00 Signed Amb. Momoh B. Siryon Executive Director MENET MEDIA AND MARKETING NETWORK SURVEY REPORT NO. NAMES CLASS OR STATUS SCHOOL SEX AGE WERE YOU IN SCHOOL LAST YEAR? ADDRESS 1 Rejoice James K-2 Glorious Kids F 6yrs. YES OLDROAD 2 Promise Mulbah 4th grade Rebecca J. Wilson F 13yrs. YES OLDROAD 3 Naomi Morgan 2nd grade Maggie Kids F 10yrs. YES OLDROAD 4 Bendu Kollie K-2 F 6yrs. NO OLDROAD 5 Kebbeh Kollie 2nd grade F 10yrs. NO OLDROAD 6 Blessing Sherman 3rd grade Early Child Foundation F 12yrs. YES OLDROAD 7 Marion Sandolo 5th grade Bridge of Hope F 9yrs YES OLDROAD 8 Ruth Debah 3rd grade Maggie Kids F 12yrs. YES OLDROAD 9 Tarnue McGill 8th grade Good ridge M 15yrs. YES OLDROAD 10 Elijah Karl K-2 Early Child Foundation M 6yrs. YES OLDROAD 11 Louise Sheriff K-1 Early Child Foundation F 5yrs. YES OLDROAD 12 Hawa Tamba 5th grade Sarah Bryant F 9yrs. YES OLDROAD 13 Abraham Dorley 2nd grade Independent Bethlehem Baptist M 7yrs YES OLDROAD 14 Princess Blackie 4th grade Sarah Bryant F 11yrs. YES OLDROAD 15 Yassah Gray 1st grade Sarah Bryant F 7yrs. YES OLDROAD 16 Jolie Dennis K-2 Early Child Foundation F 6yrs. YES OLDROAD 17 Sonie Garley 5th grade Early Child Foundation F 12yrs YES OLDROAD 18 Faustina Page 3rd grade Early Child Foundation F 10yrs. YES OLDROAD 19 Bendu Bafaley 1st grade Children Assistance F 6yrs YES OLDROAD 20 Fatu Kollie 6th grade Clayton High F 13yrs. YES OLDROAD 21 Stephen Sumo 2nd grade Maggie Kids M 9yrs. YES OLDROAD 22 Timotheus Wilson 1st grade Early Child Foundation M 8yrs. YES OLDROAD 23 Cyrus Dobson 6th grade Bethany Mission M 16yrs. YES OLDROAD 24 Marie Dobson 1st grade Bethany Mission F 7yrs. YES OLDROAD 25 Jacqueline Tarr 3rd grade Sarah Bryant F 13yrs. YES OLDROAD 26 Laurina Aaron K-2 Liberia Evangelical school F 6yrs. YES OLDROAD 27 Junior Scott 1st grade Liberia Evangelical School M 7yrs. YES OLDROAD 28 Charles Konneh 3rd grade Mason Memorial School M 8yrs. YES OLDROAD 29 Prince David 3rd grade People’s Institute M 9yrs. YES OLDROAD 30 Elijah Kennedy 1st grade People’s Institute M 7yrs. YES OLDROAD 31 Hawah Kollie 4th grade F 13yrs. YES OLDROAD 32 Faith Pello 6th grade M 16yrs. YES OLDROAD 33 Christian Kakai 4th grade M 15yrs. YES OLDROAD 34 Wonder Akai 2nd grade M 9yrs. YES OLDROAD 35 Princess Kromah 3rd grade Liberia Evangelical School F 8yrs. YES OLDROAD 36 Angel Samgloh 5th grade ,, F 10yrs. YES OLDROAD 37 Javey Susay 3rd grade ,, M 9yrs. YES OLDROAD 38 Gilwea Gbahay 6th grade Early Child Foundation M 12yrs. YES OLDROAD 39 Peterline Davis 1st grade ,, F 6yrs. YES OLDROAD 40 Lincoln Carter K-1 ,, M 4yrs YES OLDROAD 41 Clearance Karl 1st grade ,, M 7yrs YES OLDROAD 42 Jones Morris 5th grade ,, M 7yrs. YES OLDROAD 43 Stephen Hopkins 3rd grade ,, M 8yrs. YES OLDROAD 44 Milfred Jarbo K-2 ,, M 6yrs. YES OLDROAD 45 Sartina Jarbo 4th grade ,, F 9yrs YES OLDROAD 46 Robertline Barrolle 4th grade ,, F 11yrs. YES OLDROAD 47 Jennredd Hallay 4th grade ,, F 9yrs. YES OLDROAD 48 Melvin Page 2nd grade ,, M 7yrs. YES OLDROAD 49 Emmanuelin Sherman K-2 ,, F 5yrs YES OLDROAD 50 Favor Washington K-2 ,, F 6yrs. YES OLDROAD 51 Tina Peters 3rd grade People’s Institute F 9yrs. YES OLDROAD 52 Janet Tarr 3rd grade ,, F 8yrs. YES OLDROAD 53 Eric Turley 5th grade ,, M 13yrs. YES OLDROAD 54 Jeanpierre Richardson 3rd grade ,, M 8yrs YES OLDROAD 55 Blessing Yango 2nd grade Maggie Kids F 9yrs. YES OLDROAD 56 Wesseh T. Wesseh K-1 Early Child Foundation M 5yrs YES OLDROAD 57 Isaacline Innis 5th grade Maggie Kids F 10yrs. YES OLDROAD 58 Romeo Fahnbulleh 7th grade Amaghashie school M 15yrs YES OLDROAD 59 Tutu Blackie 1st grade M 8yrs NO OLDROAD 60 Cyrus Blackie 3rd grade M 13yrs. NO OLDROAD 61 Blessing Smith 3rd grade Maggie Kids M 12yrs YES OLDROAD 62 Tenneh Kiawu 4th grade Haven Academy F 13yrs YES OLDROAD 63 Emmanuel Dorley 4th grade Haven Academy M 12yrs. YES OLDROAD 64 George Kolubah 4th grade Amaghashi M 11yrs. YES OLDROAD 65 Victoria Mma 4th grade Amaghashi F 12yrs. YES OLDROAD 66 Eric Kolley K-2 Maggie Kids M 6yrs. YES OLDROAD 67 Ruth Sackie K-1 Maggie Kids F 5yrs YES OLDROAD 68 George Kollie K-1 Independent Bethlehem Baptist M 5yrs. YES OLDROAD 69 John Kollie K-2 Independent Bethlehem Baptist M 6yrs. YES OLDROAD 70 Charles Urey 3rd grade ,, M 9yrs. YES OLDROAD THE MEDIA AND MARKETING NETWORK DISTRIBUTION REPORT AUGUST 26, 2016 The Media and Marketing Network is an organization that base its consideration and activities on creating avenues for the less fortunate to acquire the necessary educations and training. In this light, the organization has made it a banding duty over the past three (3) years to collaborate with donors partners so as to create the means for scholarships and other educational materials for school going children, also provide scholarship for a limited number of children whose parents cannot afford to have them in school. In this pre-school 2016/2017,our first project have been very successful with the help of the KIDS’ EDUCATIONAL ENGAGEMENT PROJECT(KEEP) who was very instrumental in providing 20 boxes or dozens of 200 pages copy books, the total of 240 copy books. The said amount of copy books were distributed to over 70(seventy) school going children from low income homes , some of whom were not in school last year due to financial constraints. The Media and Marketing Network is pleased to extend thanks and appreciation to the KIDS’ EDUCATIONAL ENGAGEMENT PROJECT (KEEP) for its support. Attached to this report is a copy of the names of students who benefitted from the distributions. BACTERIAL CELLS 5 – Skeletal System - Class Lecture Notes Section 5.1 - Overview I. Introduction The skeletal system includes connective tissues such as bone, cartilage, tendons, and ligaments. These tissues are combined with the various types of muscle tissue to form the Musculo-Skeletal System. 1) Bone itself has five functions, including: Movement Support Calcium Storage Production of Red Blood Cells Protection 2) Cartilage serves as the fetal template for bone formation, and covers the ends of bone, most especially at the joints, or points of articulation. 3) Tendons connect muscles to bone 4) Ligaments connect bone to bone II. Bone Biology 1) Bone is composed of organic material (mostly collagen, a spongy protein), within an inorganic matrix called hydroxyapatite (mostly calcium and potassium). 2) Bone tissue consists of three specialized cell types, osteoblasts, osteocytes, and osteoclasts a. Osteoblasts are bone-forming cells, which line the surface of a bone’s structure. b. Osteocytes are bone cells and are found within the bone’s structure. c. Osteoclasts are cells that resorb bone trough a degradation process. 3) Process of Bone Formation At birth, most of the skeletal system is composed of cartilage, which over time is replaced by bone. By the early twenties, most bone growth is complete, although bone is remodeled throughout life. Through the process of remodeling, osteoclasts circulate throughout the bone and look for old or damaged osteocytes to break down, which are then replaced by osteoblasts which lay down new bone tissue. This breakdown and buildup occurs throughout the bone, but is most visible at the growth plates of the bone which form at the junction of the epiphysis (bone ends), and the diaphysis (bone shaft). This junction is called the epiphyseal plate, located towards the end of the bone shaft. Finally, some growth occurs in the periosteum, which is a thin sheaf of tissue that covers the outside of the bone surface. The periosteum also serves as an intake of nutrition and gasses. III. Bone Anatomy 1) There are approximately 206 bones in the human body 2) They can be classified into four main classes a. Long bones: main components of limbs, include the femur, humerus, radius and ulna, tibia and fibula. b. Short Bones: include metacarpals of hands and metatarsals of feet c. Flat Bones: includes cranial bones, innominates and scapula, offer protection and large muscle attachments d. Irregular Bones: includes vertebra, carpals (hand) and tarsals (feet), many of the cranial bones. These bones are generally complex in design and serve specialized purposes 3) The skeleton can also be divided into two parts, the axial skeleton, and the appendicular skeleton. a. The axial skeleton includes the skull or cranium, the vertebral column, and the ribs. b. The appendicular skeleton includes the pelvic and pectoral girdles, as well as the upper and lower limb bones. i. The pectoral girdle includes the scapula and clavicle, and forms the shoulder ii. The pelvic girdle includes innominate or hip bones. iii. The upper limbs include the humerus, radius, ulna, carpals, metacarpals, and hand phalanges. iv. The lower limbs include the femur, tibia, fibula, patella, tarsals, metatarsals, and foot phalanges. Bacteria are unicellular and most multiply by binary fission. Bacterial species are differentiated by morphology, chemical composition, nutritional requirements, biochemical activities, and source of energy. The Size, Shape, And Arrangement Of Bacterial Cells Most bacteria are 0.2 um in diameter and 2-8 um in length. The three basic bacterial shapes are coccus (spherical), bacillus (rod-shaped), and spiral (twisted), however pleomorphic bacteria can assume several shapes. Arrangement of cocci Cocci may be oval, elongated, or flattened on one side. Cocci may remain attached after cell division. These group characteristics are often used to help identify certain cocci. Cocci that remain in pairs after dividing are called diplococci. Cocci that remain in chains after dividing are called streptococci. Cocci that divide in two planes and remain in groups of four are called tetrads. Cocci that divide in three planes and remain in groups cube like groups of eight are called sarcinae. Cocci that divide in multiple planes and form grape like clusters or sheets are called staphylococci. Bacilli Since bacilli only divide across their short axis there are fewer groupings. Bacillus is a shape (rod shaped) but there is also a genus of bacteria with the name Bacillus. You wouldn't confuse the two, since you know the rules for writing the genus and species names of organisms, right???? Most bacilli appear as single rods. Diplobacilli appear in pairs after division. Streptobacilli appear in chains after division. Some bacilli are so short and fat that they look like cocci and are referred to as coccobacilli. Spiral bacteria Spiral bacteria have one or more twists. Vibrios look like curved rods. Spirilla have a helical shape and fairly rigid bodies. Spirochetes have a helical shape and flexible bodies. Spirochetes move by means of axial filaments, which look like flagella contained beneath a flexible external sheath. Other shapes Stella are star-shaped. Haloarcula, a genus of halophilic archaea, are rectangular. 1. Overview 2. Prokaryotes: Morphology 3. Prokaryotes: External Structures 4. Prokaryotes: The Cell Wall 5. Prokaryotes: Internal Structures 6. Eukaryotic Cells Endosymbi Elizabeth K. Jones Old Road, Sinkor Monrovia, Liberia Phone #: 0888241730/0776773520 Email address: elizabethbkollie@gmail.com July 1, 2016 Human Resource Manager Action Contre La Faim-Liberia Monrovia, Liberia I am writing this letter to apply for the position of a Nutrition Community Mobilizer at your organization. I saw an open call for the application on the emansion website. I am familiar with the job and wish to work with your organization. Moreover, I am very pleased to find out about this employment possibility, since I perceive your organization as one of the leading organizations in Nutrition. I believe that my strong educational background make me an appropriate candidate for the advertised position. Furthermore, I am a good communicator, accurate in working and fluent in speaking. I perceive this employment opportunity as a significant advancement in my career, since your organization is the leading organization in the field. I believe that working in your organization can be a good environment to show off my full potential and utilize my skills and knowledge. In this line, I am looking forward to your call for an interview. As requested, I am enclosing my Resume where you can find details information on my experience and skills. References are available on request, or you can contact the reference persons listed below on your own. If you need additional information or document, feel free to call me on 0888241730 or 0776773520 or send me an email on elizabethbkollie@gmail.com. Yours faithfully Elizabeth K. Jones 0888241730/0776773520 RESUME PERSONAL INFORMATION Name : Elizabeth K. Jones Date of Birth : November 15, 1984 Place of Birth : Montserrado County Nationality : Liberian Marital Status : Married Health Status : Excellent PERSONAL SUMMARY I am a graduate of the University of Liberia with a Bachelor of Science Degree in Biology and Chemistry. In January 2016, I contracted with the National Malaria Control program as a data entry clerk in Gbarpolu, Bomi, Grand Cape Mount and Montserrado Counties. I have taught several high schools for years. I also attended a nutritional workshop with Oxfam GB located in Divine Town, Oldest Congo Town. I fluently speak, clearly understand and freely communicate in English and Vai. EDUCATIONAL BACKGROUND 2008-Present : BSc (Biology & Chemistry) University of Liberia Fendell Campus Montserrado County 2006-2007 : Certificate Computer Software Cheale Vocational Training Institute Congo Town 2001-2005 : Diploma Haywood Mission Institute Old Road, Monrovia WORKING EXPERIENCE 2016 : Data Entry Clerk National Malaria Control Program Ministry of Health Capitol Bye-Pass, Monrovia 2013-2016 : Instructor Independent Bethlehem Baptist High School Keyhole, Old Road Monrovia, Liberia 2010-2013 : Supervisor Kailondo Service Station Congo Town, Liberia 2008-2010 : Instructor Sarah Bryant School Tweh-Johnsonville Community Old Road, Monrovia REFERENCES Mr. Victor S. Koko Supervisor National Malaria Control Program Ministry of Health Cell#: 0886677760 Rev. A. Walter Lee III Senior Pastor Global Evangelical Ministries Old Road, Monrovia Cell#: 0888991730 Mr. Emmanuel M. Zehum Community Head Richardson Community, Old Road Cell#: 0886308650

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Elizabeth K. Jones

Elizabeth K. Jones

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