Strategy for the Conservation and Sustainable Use of the Palms of Madagascar SUD EXPERT PLANTES DEVELOPPEMENT DURABLE

Mijoro Rakotoarinivo

Twenty-six native palm species of three genera were identified for Vohibe Forest, eastern Madagascar. In addition, two introduced (Cocos nucifera L., Elaeis guineensis Jacq.) and one native/possibly introduced species (Raphia farinifera (Gaertn.) Hyl.) are cultivated in the area. Local participants of an inventory on palm species and uses mentioned seven native species of two genera, including two folk species, but no plants could be found and no vouchers were collected. This makes Vohibe one of the richest palm hotspots in Madagascar. Palms play an important role in the life of the local population in Madagascar, providing food, material for utensils, medicine, and construction, but reports on palm use have been rare. Over 95% of the species are endemic to Madagascar. The use of palms is often destructive and possibly threatens some important species. In Vohibe Forest, nine local and three introduced species were used as resource by the population.

Madagascar has a highly distinctive flora and is one of the world biodiversity hot spots. There are more than 170 species of palms, the majority of which are vulnerable, endangered or critically endangered endemics. Palms are utilized for many human uses, many of which lead to plant death or seed harvesting. Combined with reduced populations resulting from extensive forest clearing, those species which are harvested from the wild are under additional threat of extinction. Species recovery programmes have the potential to save some of the most iconic species before it is too late. This study documented the current known populations of the critically endangered palm Beccariophoenix madagascariensis, a species utilized for both local and international purposes. The study specifically investigated the genetic diversity and inbreeding within populations and the potential differentiation between populations and with the newly described species B. alfredii. We found that despite critically small population sizes there was considerable genetic diversity within populations. We also found that ecologically and or geographically distinct populations were genetically distinct. Populations within 3 km of each other exhibited considerable gene flow, probably owing to seed dispersal. The populations were inbred but reproductive viability had been maintained. Conservation and recovery options are discussed. © 2007 The Linnean Society of London, Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society, 2007, 154, 589–608.

Mijoro Rakotoarinivo, Sylvie R. Andriambololonera, Henk J. Beentje, Thomas L.P. Couvreur, Verohanitra M. Rafidison, Volatiana Rahanitriniaina, Lolona Ramamonjisoa, Solo H.J.V. Rapanarivo, Robert D. Turk, William J. Baker & John Dransfield Strategy for the Conservation and Sustainable Use of the Palms of Madagascar Document published with the support of the programme SUD EXPERT PLANTES DEVELOPPEMENT DURABLE Strategy for the Conservation and Sustainable Use of the Palms of Madagascar Mijoro Rakotoarinivo Department of Plant Biology and Ecology, Faculty of Sciences, University of Antananarivo, Madagascar. Sylvie R. Andriambololonera Madagascar Programme, Missouri Botanical Garden, Antananarivo, Madagascar. Henk J. Beentje Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, United Kingdom.. Thomas L.P. Couvreur Institut de Recherche pour le Développement, Ecuador. Chair of Palms Specialist Group, Species Survival Commission – International Union for the Conservation of Nature. Verohanitra M. Rafidison Department of Plant Biology and Ecology, Faculty of Sciences, University of Antananarivo, Madagascar. Lolona Ramamonjisoa Direction of Protected Areas, Natural Ressources and Ecosystems, General Direction of Environmental Governance, Ministry of the Environment and Sustainable Development, Madagascar. Volatiana Rahanitriniaina Direction of Protected Areas, Natural Ressources and Ecosystems, General Direction of Environmental Governance, Ministry of the Environment and Sustainable Development, Madagascar. Solo H.J.V Rapanarivo Parc Botanique et Zoologique de Tsimbazaza, Madagascar. Robert D. Turk Ranomafana Arboretum and Fruits, Vegetables and Environmental Education Program of the Church of Jesus Christ in Madagascar William J. Baker Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, United Kingdom. John Dransfield Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, United Kingdom. 2020 Sud Expert Plantes Développement Durable (SEP2D) Cover photo : Dypsis decipiens in Itremo massif, photo : M. Rakotoarinivo. This document contains information obtained from authentic and verified sources. Reasonable efforts have been made for this publication. To obtain permission to use the electronic material in this work, please contact the "Sud Expert Plantes Dévéloppement Durable, SEP2D". http://www.sep2d.org Preface Madagascar is not exempt from the threats that humans are currently posing to the entire planet. Many species are threatened with extinction or overexploitation, including Malagasy palms, more than 90% of which are endemic, i.e. found nowhere else in the world. In addition, human activities, overexploitation of species and destruction of environments, are compromising the diversity of palm trees that is the pride of Madagascar. Today it becomes a priority to react to these threats by developing and implementing strategies for the conservation and sustainable management of endemic plant species in the different phytogeographical divisions of Madagascar. The project "Establishment of an Action Plan for the Conservation of Palms in Madagascar" (AAP3-21) has developed strategies for the conservation of species of the Palm family. This work summarizes the botanical and phytogeographical knowledge of this plant family. It also highlights the threats to the species, in the form of unsustainable harvesting, but also the over-exploitation of their habitats, especially forests. Confronted by multiple challenges, a conservation strategy must be implemented within the overall conservation framework for all species in Madagascar, so that the objectives of safeguarding biodiversity are compatible with the needs of the Malagasy population. Indeed, we can only protect what we know, especially if the products of the species to be conserved are known and appreciated by all. The Sud Expert Plantes Développement Durable (SEP2D) program is proud to have supported this project for the elaboration of a conservation strategy for Malagasy Palms, the quality of which will undoubtedly be an example for other intertropical countries where palms are important for their biodiversity and multiple uses. SEP2D's contribution to the strategies is just as essential as their collaboration in implementing the recommendations contained in the strategies. But strategies are only effective if the recommendations they propose are implemented! This is the challenge we all face today: scientists, government officials, conservationists, teachers, NGOs, rural communities and the general public. It is the responsibility of all of us to ensure that the recommendations are integrated into the broader framework of the sustainable management of our country's ecosystems and implemented for the good of all! In conclusion, I am honored to pay tribute to the project leader, and to all those who have contributed to the development of this strategy, with a special mention to the team of the Executive Secretary of the SEP2D program and all the financial partners of the program. Pr Hery Lisy Ranarijaona, Focal Point of SEP2D Indian Ocean. Foreword This document is the result of a research project on the conservation and sustainable use of palms in Madagascar, carried out by a consortium of researchers from the Department of Plant Biology and Ecology of the University of Antananarivo, the Parc Botanique et Zoologique de Tsimbazaza and the Ranomafana Arboretum. For the preparation of this strategic document, researchers from these three institutions worked together with experts and professionals in the field of botany and biodiversity conservation from the following institutions: the Royal Botanic Gardens Kew, the Missouri Botanical Garden, the Institute of Research for Development and the Directorate of Protected Areas, Natural Resources and Ecosystems of the Ministry of Environment and Sustainable Development of Madagascar. The research was funded by the "Sud Expert Plantes Développement Durable, SEP2D", a program financed by the Agence Française pour le Développement, the Fond Français pour l'Environnement Mondial, the Ministère de l’Europe et des Affaires Etrangères of the French Government, the Institut de Recherche pour le Développement and the Musée National d'Histoire Naturelle de Paris. The SEP2D was established in order to create a network of expertise around plant biodiversity in the South, by supporting research projects, herbarium collections and specific training. The content of this document is inspired by the guide of the International Union for Conservation of Nature - IUCN - on the Elaboration of Strategies for Species Conservation. Three aspects related to research and conservation biology are thus developed in this report: (1) to provide objective scientific information on the diversity of palms, their habitats and the threats to the different species; (2) to identify the highest priority actions for conservation, and (3) to address information and recommendations to natural resource managers, decisionmakers and others whose actions are important for the preservation of biodiversity. Palms, with their majestic architecture, often dominate the landscapes of Madagascar, both in the eastern and western regions. Palms also provide many of the essential elements for human life. The conservation of the different species is therefore of great importance, not only for biological and ecological reasons, but above all for economic reasons in a country where the majority of the population still depends on natural resources for survival. Acknowledgements This Madagascar Palm Conservation Strategy is a collaborative effort that has involved a number of people who have generously given of themselves and their time, expertise, and data. Each contribution is greatly appreciated. Special thanks go to the program Sud Expert Plantes Développement Durable - SEP2D - for its support in the research that enabled us to collect the information necessary for the publication of this document. Our sincere thanks to the SEP2D managers, in particular Hery Lisy Ranarijaona - Indian Ocean Regional Focal Point, Jean-Pierre Profizi - Technical Assistant, Stephanie Ardila Chauvet - Executive Secretary and Anshuman Rana Technical Assistant Partnerships, for helping to develop the scope of the document through their comments and the various training and professional development opportunities offered during the project. We are grateful to Hary-Liva Ravelonjatovo of the Institut de Recherche pour le Développement in Antananarivo for her valuable assistance in managing the project. We thank the collaborators at the botanical gardens for their active participation in the successful ex situ conservation of palm trees in Madagascar: Franck Rakotonasolo, Letsara Rokiman and Julien F. Razafindramaro of the Parc Botanique et Zoologique de Tsimbazaza; Jean Gilbert Tsehenoharizaka, Rolland Razafiarison and Germain Andrianaivoson of the Ranomafana Arboretum. Many researchers helped in the compilation of the data; we are grateful for their collaborations: Alison Shapcott, Lauren Gardiner, Hoby Gloria Andriamanohisoa Raveloson, Chris Birkinshaw, Chantal Misandeau, Besoa R. Ramananirina, Maminjato Andriatahiana and Radoniaina B. Rakotomanandriana. Finally, we would like to sincerely thank all the people who participated in the different stages of this strategy, devoting their time and sharing their knowledge and experience in the field of conservation in Madagascar, especially the staff of Madagascar National Parks, Kew Madagascar Conservation Centre, Missouri Botanical Garden and the Association for the Defense of the Ambodiriana Forest for their warm welcome and cooperation during the field work. The staff of the Directorate General of Environmental Governance, attached to the Ministry of Environment and Sustainable Development provided valuable advice for the policy framework of this document: Eric Robsomanitrandrasana, Sahoby I. Randriamahaleo, Pascaline Ranivoarisoa, Seheno Manantsoa, Tefinirina Rajerisoa and Liva Raoelina. Glossary Action plan: a set of specific measures, tasks or activities to be undertaken to complete a project. Arborescent : which has the form and appearance of a tree. Ariary : official monetary unit of the Republic of Madagascar. Dioecious : refers to a species whose unisexual male (stamen) and female (pistil) flowers are carried by different plants. Dwarf palms: a small sized palm, generally not exceeding 2m in height and colonizing the undergrowth of the forests. Endemic : refers to an animal or plant species whose range is limited to a given region. Indigenous a taxon or population whose presence in a given region is the result of natural processes, without human intervention. Monoecious: refers to a species whose unisexual male (stamen) and female (pistil) flowers are carried on the same plant. Monotypic : refers to a taxon that has only one immediately subordinate sub-taxon. For example, a genus is qualified as monotypic if it includes only one species. Palm heart The central part of the stem of palm trees. It mainly comprises the developing leaves surrounding the terminal meristem. It is made up of whitish-colored plant tissues, tender but quite firm, and edible. Piassava : robust fibres from palm trees, extracted from the leaf sheath. Taxon : a conceptual entity that is intended to encompass all living organisms that share certain well-defined taxonomic or diagnostic characteristics. A taxon can thus be any taxonomic level such as species, genus, family, etc. Abbreviations and Acronyms AZE : Alliance for Zero Extinction CBD : Convention on biological Diversity CITES : Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species FAO : Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations FAPBM : Fondation pour les Aires protégées et la biodiversité de Madagascar GBIF : Global Biodiversity Information Facility MNHN : Musée National d’Histoire Naturelle, Paris NBSAP: National Biodiversity Strategies and Action Plans IPNI : International Plant Name Index IRD : Institut de Recherche pour le Développement IUCN International Union for Conservation of Nature MBG : Missouri Botanical Garden MEEF : Ministère de l'Environnement, de l'écologie et des Forêts. PBZT : Parc Botanique et Zoologique de Tsimbazaza RBG Kew : Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew REBIOMA : Réseau de Biodiversité de Madagascar SSC : Species Survival Commission SEP2D : Sud Expert Plantes Développement Durable UNEP- WCMC : United Nations Environment Program World Conservation Monitoring Centre. WWF : World Wildlife Fund Content INTRODUCTION 1 I. 5 STATE OF KNOWLEDGE ON PALMS IN MADAGASCAR I.1 - Taxonomy and diversity II. 6 I.2 - Present distribution and demographics 10 I.3 - Biology and Ecology 15 I.4 - Use and values of palms 18 I.5 - Threats and problem analysis 27 I.6 - Protection and conservation measures 32 I.7 - Policy and Strategic Context 37 ACTION PLAN 40 VISION 41 MISSION 41 OBJECTIVES 41 Objective I: To understand, to document and to recognize the diversity of palms of Madagascar 41 Objective II: To conserve the diversity of palm species in Madagascar 42 Objective III: Palms are used sustainably and equitably 44 Objective IV: To promote education and awareness of plant diversity, its role in sustainable livelihoods and its importance for all life on earth. 46 Objective V: To build the capacity and public commitment required for the implementation of the strategy 46 CONCLUSION 47 LITTERATURE CITED 48 INTRODUCTION Dypsis dransfieldii in Vinanivao, East Masoala, photo: W. Baker 1 tropics" (Broschat et al., 2017). Unfortunately, many species are in danger of extinction due to direct or indirect pressures from human activities. Palm conservation at the national level in Madagascar is a tremendous challenge because of the need to maintain diversity and achieve sustainable development, especially considering that 83% of known species have been declared endangered or threatened with extinction (Rakotoarinivo et al., 2014). The publication of this statistic of threatened Malagasy palm species has alarmed the world (Figure 1). The level of extinction threat facing Madagascar’s palms is particularly high compared to the global trend for vascular plants, where the rate of threatened species is estimated at 27% (IUCN, 2020) and compared to palms on the African continent where only 10% of the species are threatened according to IUCN red list criteria (Cosiaux et al., 2018). Areas with high biodiversity richness are often those most affected by the species extinction crisis. The case of Madagascar is a concrete example of this. Having lost a large majority of its diversity of fauna and flora in recent decades (Ganzhorn et al., 2001; Godfrey et al., 2019; Hanski et al., 2007), the decline in species diversity on the island has led to ecosystem disruption resulting in various environmental, biological and ecological problems and sometimes the accentuation of the effects of climate change (Herrera, 2017). Madagascar is a global priority for biodiversity conservation (Goodman and Benstead, 2005; MEEF, 2016). The uniqueness of its flora is often reflected in a high rate of endemism, either at the specific level or at the level of higher ranked taxa (Callmander et al., 2011). This is the case for the palm family or Arecaceae. Today, 208 indigenous species are recorded as native on the island (Govaerts et al., 2020); of these, 98% are endemic and these often represent distinct evolutionary lineages (Kissling et al., 2012). Despite the low number of species compared to other large families of flowering plants such as Rubiaceae, Asteraceae and Orchidaceae (Callmander et al., 2011), the palm family is an important and emblematic element of the vascular flora of Madagascar. Habitat loss has often been cited as the most frequent reason for the decline of different palm species in Madagascar (Rakotoarinivo et al., 2014). As a consequence of deforestation, about 21% of the island's area has been lost since 2000 (Global Forest Watch, 2020). Forests are often cleared for "tavy" or slash-and-burn agriculture (Muttenzer, 2010), a fallow system where indigenous people abandon a plot of land after only two years of exploitation to clear another (Figure 2). The situation is especially worrying for Malagasy palms because the Palms are among the most well-known and popular plants in the world and are considered a "symbol of the Figure 1. Examples of international press headlines revealing to the world the high risk of extinction of Madagascar's palms in 2012. 2 Even though considerable efforts have been made to ensure the management of forests and protected areas, conservation programmes in Madagascar still need to be improved. The unsustainable use of its biodiversity and the loss of ecosystem services are a major threat to the achievement of conservation strategies related to its forest management policies (Rabarison et al., 2016). Protected areas do not always guarantee effective protection as the majority of species present there are still considered threatened and pressures on biodiversity persist in these areas (Borrini-Feyerabend & Dudley, 2005; Rogers et al., 2010). majority of these species live in primary vegetation, particularly in tropical rainforests (Couvreur et al., 2011; Rakotoarinivo et al., 2013), which are constantly deteriorating and being reduced in terms of the occupied surface area (Vieilledent et al., 2018; Figure 3). In addition, the island risks losing 30% of its fauna and flora species, mainly forest species, by the end of the 21st century if the exploitation of natural resources continues at the current rate (WWF, 2016). According to predictions, the island could even lose all its original vegetation by 2067 (Global Forest Watch, 2020). Figure 2. Impact of the practice of tavy in the forests of Ambodiriana, Soanierana Ivongo. The clearance of an entire hill of natural forest is the most common reason for logging activities and gives way to a field of crops for the people living near the forests. Figure 3. Evolution of deforestation between 1953 and 2014 in Madagascar. The forest cover decreased by 44% over the period 1953-2014. Natural forests covered 8.9 Mha in 2014 (15% of the country). Since 2005, the annual deforested areas have increased in Madagascar to reach 100,000 ha/year, i.e. a deforestation rate equal to 1.1%/year. (Source: Vieilledent et al., 2018). 3 local level, the strategies discussed in this document are generally enough to provide a conceptual framework for action, regardless of the species being considered. In Madagascar, as in the rest of the world, the species richness and number of endemic species are the most frequently used parameters for defining biodiversity conservation priorities (Kremen et al., 1999; REBIOMA, 2016; Rogers et al., 2010). The conservation strategy is intended to make it easier for decision-makers such as government officials and development professionals to understand the contributions of biodiversity to achieving sustainable development goals (Schultz et al., 2016). Many environmental conservation actors have noted that in order to maintain the ecosystem services provided by a plant, sustainable management of forests and protected areas urgently requires the participation of different stakeholders (Worah, 2008). People are part of the problem; education and public awareness will be part of the solution. Effective education and public awareness are essential to promote conservation policy: build wellinformed citizens and change people's behaviour (Jacobson et al., 2015). Purpose of the book The main objective of this document on the conservation strategy for the palms of Madagascar is to ensure that the conservation of this group of plants is promoted by a wide range of people and organizations in order to mitigate the rate of extinction of the different species. At a time when most researchers deplore the effects of habitat and species loss, there is not enough action being taken on the ground to stop the loss of palm diversity. The IUCN Species Survival Commission has recognised that the simple publication of information on species is not sufficient to ensure conservation success, and therefore recommends that action plans include "priority recommendations specifically designed for key stakeholders" (IUCN/SSC, 2008). It is therefore important to establish a national framework for priority actions in line with the global strategic plan for biological diversity (UNEP & WCMC, 2013), the 2030 Agenda for sustainable development (Schultz et al., 2016) and the national priorities identified for the management of biodiversity in Madagascar, the National Biodiversity Strategies and Action Plans, NBSAP, (MEEF, 2016). This strategic plan is based on the premise that sound interdisciplinary scientific information should underpin decisions and policies related to palm diversity. There is a need to develop more rigorous criteria not only to identify, rank and prioritize sites that are important centres of plant diversity, but also to ensure that conservation actions in these areas are those that are most appropriate. The structure of this document follows the structure suggested by IUCN/SSC (2008) for the conservation strategy of threatened species or taxa. The document is divided into two parts: a review of the current knowledge of palms in Madagascar is presented in the first part of this book which, together with this introduction, provides useful background information to understand the ultimate goal of this strategy document. The second part details the priority action programmes to achieve palm conservation. This section gives a general summary of the actions needed and is illustrated by an outline of specific priority projects that should be implemented. It is expected that this conservation strategy will be completely revised six years after its publication, and that the activities recommended here will form the basis for further activities to conserve palms. Conservation work (from basic ecological research to practical management) is an ongoing process and must build on previous work; all have a common goal that no other species should become extinct, and the conditions that allow species to maintain their continual evolution must be preserved. The process of preparing the conservation strategy A conservation strategy is essential and necessary to draw attention to conservation priorities, to stimulate the necessary actions and to raise public awareness. Although palm conservation practices should be considered at the 4 I. STATE OF KNOWLEDGE ON PALMS IN MADAGASCAR Ravenea sp. "kona", Ankerana, Ampasimanolotra, (photo: M. Rakotoarinivo) 5 I.1 - Taxonomy and diversity Current knowledge of the diversity of palms in Madagascar remains far from complete. Over the last two decades, visits to unexplored or poorly studied sites throughout Madagascar have led to the discovery of numerous taxa, including a new genus, Tahina (Dransfield et al., 2008a) and about 40 new species (e.g. Baker et al., 2016; Rakotoarinivo & Dransfield, 2010). Discoveries of new taxa continue; several taxa remain undescribed, in herbaria or in the wild, due to a lack of sufficient botanical samples for delimitation and publication. The palm flora (family Arecaceae) of Madagascar is exceptionally rich in the global context of the distribution pattern of this plant family in the world (Figure 4, Dransfield et al., 2008; Eiserhardt et al., 2011). Madagascar has a very diverse palm flora, consisting of 208 indigenous species within 17 genera (Govaerts et al., 2020), with representatives of four of the five recognized subfamilies of the family Arecaceae; only the monotypic subfamily Nypoideae, endemic to the Indo-Pacific zone, is absent (Dransfield et al., 2008b). With its 208 species (Appendix I), Madagascar on its own holds nearly 8% of the global palm flora. This rate of diversity contrasts sharply with continental Africa where about 68 species belonging to 18 genera are recorded (Cosiaux et al., 2018; Stauffer et al., 2017). Of the 208 species indigenous to Madagascar, only four are not endemic: Borassus aethiopum, Elaeis guineensis, Hyphaene coriacea and Phoenix reclinata. In addition, Cocos nucifera, the coconut palm, with a possible origin in the Western Pacific, has become naturalized in Madagascar (Gunn et al., 2011). A recent survey of Raphia throughout the African continent and Madagascar suggested that the Malagasy taxon, currently known as Raphia farinifera, may actually be endemic to the island (Helmstetter et al., 2020) although the species was previously considered to be introduced (Dransfield and Beentje, 1995). At the generic level, eight of the 17 genera present in Madagascar are endemic (Table 1). Of these, four genera are monotypic (Satranala, Bismarckia, Tahina and Voanioala), three have only two species each (Lemurophoenix, Masoala and Marojejya) and one has three species (Beccariophoenix). The remaining genera have representatives outside Madagascar, although the genera Dypsis and Ravenea are overwhelmingly Malagasy. The high level of endemism, both at the generic and species level, is reflected in the fact that Madagascar has representatives of 12 different evolutionary lineages of palms (Dransfield et al., 2008b). These different evolutionary lines may represent independent immigration events to Madagascar or alternatively the evolution at the level of tribes or subtribes on the island. . Figure 4. Distribution range of Palm family in the world. Palms are distributed in tropical and subtropical environments. The circles indicate natural occurrences; their sizes vary according to the specific richness of the territory. (Source : Eiserhardt et al. 2011). 6 Table 1. The taxonomic composition of palms in Madagascar and their endemism. Data on the number of species in each genus are from Govaerts et al. (2020) and the taxonomic arrangement according to the classification of Dransfield et al. (2008b). Subfamily CORYPHOIDEAE CALAMOIDEAE CEROXYLOIDEAE ARECOIDEAE Genus (total number of species in the world in brackets) Number of species found in Madagascar (endemic in brackets) Bismarckia (1) Borassus (5) Hyphaene (8) 1(1) 2(1) 1(0) Phoenix (14) 2(0) Satranala (1) Tahina (1) Raphia (21) Ravenea (22) Beccariophoenix (3) Cocos (1) Dypsis (171) Elaeis (2) Lemurophoenix (2) Marojejya (2) Masoala (2) Orania (28) Voanioala (1) 1(1) 1(1) 1(0) 20(20) 3(3) 1(0) 168(168) 1(0) 2(2) 2(2) 2(2) 3(3) 1(1) Distribution range of the genus Madagascar Tropical Africa and Madagascar, India to New Guinea. Africa and Madagascar, Arabian Peninsula and India Canary Islands, Cape Verde, Mediterranean Region, Africa, Madagascar, Middle East, India to Southeast Asia. Madagascar Madagascar Central and South America, Africa and Madagascar Madagascar and Comoros Madagascar Pantropical Madagascar, Comoros et Tanzania Tropical Africa and Tropical America Madagascar Madagascar Madagascar Madagascar, Southeast Asia to New Guinea. Madagascar Subfamily CORYPHOIDEAE the northern coastal plain of Madagascar (Figure 5b); B. madagascariensis occurs in a few fragmented sites between Port-Bergé and Ivohibe, while B. aethiopum is restricted to the Sambirano region, between Nosy Be and Maromandia. In Madagascar, Coryphoideae subfamily consists mainly of tree palms from dry climatic zones with the exception of Satranala, which is found in the eastern perhumid zone (Figure 5). The subfamily is represented by six genera, all characterized by costapalmate leaves except for Phoenix, which has pinnate leaves. Hyphaene is represented only by the non-endemic H. coriacea in Madagascar (Figure 5c). It is a palm of the warm and dry areas of the lowland region between Vohémar, Antsiranana and Toliara, on low-nutrient poorly drained soils, near rivers or marshes. This species is also common in coastal sand. The genus Phoenix is represented by the non-endemic species, Phoenix reclinata. Its presence in Madagascar could be due to dispersal from Africa as a result of its fruits being eaten by various animals (Lim, 2012). Phoenix reclinata which sometimes forms dense clumps in seasonally flooded sites, such as the edges of swamps, lakes and rivers, also occurs in forests, grasslands, wooded grasslands, and on open rocky slopes in the coastal plain of northern and southwestern Madagascar (Figure 5a). Bismarckia is represented by the single endemic species, B. nobilis. It is a majestic fan palm of the western grasslands and pastures, often occurring in large stands (Figure 5d). Satranala is a rare palm in the humid forest of northeastern Madagascar, scattered in a few sites between Pointe à Larée and the Masoala Peninsula. There is only one species for this genus, S. decussilvae. Being the only palm with fan leaves in the island's rainforest, it differs from other taxa in this biome type (Figure 5e). Borassus has two species in Madagascar. The systematic review by Bayton (2007) concluded that the species B. sambiranensis, formerly considered as endemic, does not differ from the African species B. aethiopum and is therefore considered to be a synonym of the latter. The genus occurs in the grasslands of the western region and 7 Figure 5. Representative palms of the subfamily Coryphoideae in Madagascar. a) A colony of Phoenix reclinata in a small depressed area in the grassland near Vohémar (photo: S. Rakotoarisoa), b) A group of Borassus aethiopum in the floodplain of Maromandia (photo: M. Rakotoarinivo), c) A clump of Hyphaene coriacea in the grassland of Analalava (photo: M. Rakotoarinivo), d) A colony of Bismarckia nobilis in the grassland near Boriziny (photo: M. Rakotoarinivo), e) Satranala decussilvae in the humid forest near Soanierana Ivongo (photo: M. Rakotoarinivo), f) Tahina spectabilis in the grassland of Analalava (photo: M. Rakotoarinivo). will have to be carried out to confirm the status of this species in Madagascar. Tahina is endemic to northwestern Madagascar. It is monotypic, comprising only T. spectabilis, a giant palm tree found at two sites in the Analalava district (Figure 5f). This species is taxonomically isolated with its most closely related taxa, Chuniophoenix, Kerriodoxa and Nannorhops, endemic to Southeast Asia and Arabia (Dransfield et al., 2008). Subfamily CEROXYLOIDEAE The subfamily Ceroxyloideae is represented in Madagascar by the nearly endemic genus Ravenea. Of the 22 currently recognized species, 20 are endemic to Madagascar; the species R. hildebrandtii and R. moorei are restricted to the Comoros archipelago. The presence of Ravenea in Madagascar in relation to the range of Ceroxyloideae, South America and Australia, can be explained by the hypothesis of long-distance dispersal during the Eocene (Trénel et al., 2007). Subfamily CALAMOIDEAE This sub-family is represented by a single species: Raphia farinifera, a palm that is widespread throughout the island, and is also present in East Africa. Raphia farinifera is a palm tree very closely associated with human activity, hence its immense ethnobotanical importance for the Malagasy (Bussmann et al., 2015). As this species is never present in primary forest and usually grows near villages, it has been considered to be non-native and introduced to the island (Dransfield & Beentje, 1995). However, a preliminary molecular phylogeny study supports the hypothesis that individuals of Raphia in Madagascar could represent a species distinct from R. farinifera on the African mainland (Helmstetter et al., 2020). More detailed studies Palms of this genus are dioecious and generally monocaulous (Figure 6), ranging from dwarf palms to huge palms in the canopy (Dransfield & Beentje, 1995). The discovery of the species R. delicatula, a branched and clumping palm (Rakotoarinivo, 2007), represents an unexpected morphological diversity for this genus (Figure 7). 8 The genus Beccariophoenix includes three species of tree palms, all endemic to eastern rainforests or riverine habitats in the highlands (Figure 9). These species are among Madagascar's most sought-after palms in horticulture. Figure 6. Ravenea sambiranensis in the littoral forest of Manompana, Soanierana Ivongo. An arborescent palm of 7 m tall emerging from the canopy of the forest (photo : M. Rakotoarinivo). Figure 8. Orania trispatha surviving in a cleared patch of forest in Vinanivao, East Masoala, (photo: W. Baker). Figure 7. Ravenea delicatula. A shrub palm, currently the only known species with clustering and slender stems within the genus Ravenea (photo : M. Rakotoarinivo). Subfamily ARECOIDEAE The majority of the palms of Madagascar belong to this subfamily: 182 species belonging to 9 genera. The presence of Orania in Madagascar constitutes a disjunct distribution of the genus which is also found in Thailand and Malesia (Dransfield et al., 2008). Of the 30 currently recognized species, three are endemic to Madagascar. These latter species occur in the humid forests of the east, with a wider range for O. longisquama compared to the other two species, O. ravaka and O. trispatha, which are remarkable for their distichous leaves, occurring in a single plane (Figure 8) like the leaves of Ravenala madagascariensis (Strelitziaceae). Figure 9. Beccariophoenix fenestralis surviving after the clearing of its natural habitat at Ranomafana Est, Ampasimanolotra (Brickaville photo: M. Rakotoarinivo). 9 The two genera Marojejya and Masoala are relatively similar in appearance as they are rather short-stemmed but stocky and often litter-trapping palms (Figure 12). Each of these two genera has two species; they are endemic to the Northeast with the exception of Masoala kona, distributed between Ifanadiana and Vondrozo. Voanioala gerardii, the only species of the genus, is a tree palm distributed in a few fragmented sites around the Bay of Antongil. The genus Dypsis comprises more than three-quarters of the island's palm flora with 168 endemic species. It is a complex and variable genus with habit (Figure 10) varying from tree palm to dwarf and acaulescent palms and even climbing palms. In some species, the trunk branches. I.2 - Present distribution and demographics Lemurophoenix is a giant palm tree of the rainforest, up to 40m high. Two species are now known for this genus: L. halleuxii is distributed in the Bay of Antongil region (Figure 11); L. laevis, recently described from a palm tree grown in Hawaii, has not yet been found in the wild (Dransfield & Marcus, 2018). Palms are mainly found in primary vegetation; the eastern humid forests harbour most of the island's flora (Figure 13, Appendix I) with about 90% of the known species (Rakotoarinivo et al., 2013). The richest palm sites, in terms of taxonomic diversity, are found in the perhumid northeastern part of the island, between Toamasina and Marojejy, where 41-65 species can be counted on a 0.25° Figure 10. Morphological diversity within the genus Dypsis. a) Dypsis prestoniana, a giant canopy palm of the south-eastern humid forests, in Vondrozo, b) D. fibrosa, a shrub palm in the understrey of humid forests, in Manombo Farafangana, c) D. faneva, an undergrowth palm in the forests of Ambanizana, Masoala, d) D. beentjei, an acaulescent palm, without obvious aerial stem, in Antanambe, Mananara Avaratra, e) D. andilamenensis, one of the two climbing species currently identified in Madagascar, here in the Andilamena montane forests photos: M. Rakotoarinivo). 10 grid area, i.e. about 27 km × 27 km surface (Figure 14). Overall, the rate of diversity decreases as seasonality and drought increase and average temperature drops. Palms are generally absent in the subarid zones of the southwest; their presence in these sites depends on the presence of moister microclimates such as that of Dypsis decaryi at Ranopiso (Figure 15) or in the Ranotsara depressions for Ravenea xerophila. Figure 13. Current distribution pattern of palms of Madagascar. Background map adapted from Madagascar Vegetation Atlas (Moat & Smith, 2007). Vegetation formations are grouped into four categories here: primary forests correspond to all types of forests that are still natural, humid, sub-humid, dry and xerophytic thickets; the category 'secondary forest' consists of all secondary forms of natural forests; the grasslands includes all areas dominated by grasses, with or without woody plants. Cultivation is for area controlled by human for crops production. Figure 11. Lemurophoenix halleuxii, a giant palm tree from the Sahavary forest, North of Maroantsetra (photo: M. Rakotoarinivo). Figure 14. Predictive model of the specific richness of the palms of Madagascar. The colour variation represents the changes in species diversity in palms on a 0.25° grid area, i.e. an area of 27 km × 27 km (source: Rakotoarinivo et al., 2013). Figure 12. Marojejya darianii, a species distinct from other palms by its large, almost entire leaves, with very little dissection of the blade; Befanjana Soanierana Ivongo (photo: M. Rakotoarinivo). 11 - Dypsis fibrosa, D. nodifera, D. pinnatifrons and Ravenea sambiranensis are very common in the lowland rainforests of the East but they are able to survive in the mountains, sometimes up to 1300m altitude, between Antsiranana and Taolagnaro (Fort-Dauphin). - Dypsis baronii, D. catatiana, D. heterophylla, D. procumbens, Ravenea madagascariensis and R. robustior are common species in mountain forests between 7001800m, generally in a continuous range on the eastern slope of the Highlands between Antsiranana and Taolagnaro, but may also occur in sheltered sites on the Western Slope. In addition, these species can also descend intermittently at low altitude in sites with steep geomorphology. - Bismarckia nobilis and Hyphaene coriacea are constantly present in the western part of the island between Antsiranana and Betioky Atsimo. Figure 15. Dypsis decaryi in the dry spiny forest of Ranopiso, Andohahela National Park. One of two species adapted to xerophytic conditions in Madagascar (Photo: J. Dransfield). The flora of a given site often differs from that of other localities by the presence of species with restricted distribution, often endemic at the local or regional level. The richness of palm trees in some sites such as Marojejy, Makira, Masoala, Mananara Avaratra or Zahamena is explained by the presence of many rare species whose range is frequently restricted to only a small area. For example, Dypsis cookei and D. pumila are endemic to the summit area of Marojejy (Figure 16). The forests around Vinanivao in eastern Masoala, for example, have at least six species confined to this area Dypsis acaulis, D. metallica, D. mijoroana, D. reflexa, D. ovojavavy and D. rabepierrei. The biogeographic study of palms in Madagascar has shown that the trend of current species richness is controlled by the stability of palaeo-precipitation during the Pleistocene (between 27,000 and 21,000 years ago), abundant annual rainfall, high evapotranspiration and lack of seasonality (Rakotoarinivo et al., 2013). Furthermore, the high diversity in the Northeast coincides with sites that were identified as refuges during periods of Pleistocene climate instability (Vences et al., 2009). The age of the humid forests in this region, existing since the Eocene (5634 million years ago) coupled with its stability during geological periods despite climatic disturbances during the last ice ages of the Pleistocene (Wells, 2003) would have allowed the evolutionary radiation of the genus Dypsis and the strengthening of speciation of certain taxa such as Lemurophoenix, Marojejya, Masoala, Orania and Voanioala, the majority of whose species are restricted and endemic to this area. The relative abundance of each species seems to depend primarily on its role and dominance in the plant community. Common rainforest species such as Dypsis fibrosa have an average density of 103 mature individuals per hectare, but in some sites, juveniles are missing from the population (Byg & Balslev, 2001). In the absence of disturbance, the regeneration capacity of these species could be maximal, as for D. baronii in Zahamena with 240 individuals/ha (Rakotonavalona, 2004). For rare palms, the density is relatively low, around 30 mature trees/ha, as observed for Masoala kona and Ravenea dransfieldii in the Ifanadiana region (Ramamonjy, 2006). The small population size for these species is compensated by the abundance of seedlings and juveniles, suggesting a good chance of regeneration if the population is left undisturbed. Of all the palms in Madagascar, Ravenea sambiranensis is the most widespread species as it occupies almost all types of habitats recorded in the eastern region, from 02100 m elevation and in a few sites in the western region. An analysis of the range of all the species shows that 12 of them have a very wide range, not being limited to a single phytogeographical territory according to the classification of Humbert (1955): 12 Figure 16. Dypsis pumila, known only from the summit of Mount Marojejy. Its distribution range is restricted to the altitudinal gradient between 1900-2100m elevation (photo: W. Baker). population genetics of the three species of the genus Beccariophoenix (B. alfredii, B. fenestralis and B. madagascariensis) showed that the genetic pool is significantly diversified not only between the three species but also between individuals of the same population. There are distinctive genes and a rather considerable genetic distance between the southern (Vondrozo and Taolagnaro) and northern (Mantadia) populations of B. madagascariensis. The use of population genetics is also proving to be a fundamental tool for the conservation of rare species as it allows the possibility that the species could still subsist in places not yet located thanks to the presence of alleles not allied to the currently known genetic heritage. Population genetic studies of Voanioala gerardii (Shapcott et al., 2012) and Tahina spectabilis (Shapcott et al., 2020) concluded that knowledge of their current range is still incomplete. Abundant species are sometimes the dominant elements of a vegetation community, giving a particular aspect to the local landscape. At some sites, Bismarckia nobilis is often the only arborescent species in the grassland of the western plain (Figure 17). Similarly, Ravenea rivularis and Beccariophoenix alfredii (Figure 18) form dense colonies along rivers; the canopy consists exclusively of these species in some areas of gallery forest Fluctuations in the abundance of a species could also depend on anthropogenic pressures. For example, the density of D. ampasindavae in the Ampasindava Peninsula varies according to the location of the sites in relation to the protected area. In the buffer zone, the plants of this species have almost disappeared; the density is only 1.2 individuals/ha compared to 82 individuals/ha in the core area (Razafimandimby, 2017). Morphological variations can be observed at the level of a species or genus throughout its range, reflecting its genetic diversity. The study by Shapcott et al. (2007) on the . 13 Figure 17. Individuals of Bismarckia nobilis scattered in the grassy savannah on the edge of Isalo National Park (Photo: J. Dransfield). Figure 18. Local dominance of Beccariophoenix alfredii. Hundreds of individuals occupy valley bottoms along a river and totally dominate the canopy of the underlying gallery forest; the population is thus the only plant species seen from the outside; west of Antsirabe (photo: M. Rakotoarinivo). 14 I.3 - Biology and Ecology Morphologically, the palm flora is dominated by species of small size (Figure 19); less than 1.5 m high and with a small diameter stem, i.e. undergrowth palms, dwarf palms, acaulescent palms and climbing palms. These biological types constitute a total of 65% of the known species, while arborescent palms, taller than 3m, constitute nearly 35% of the species in Madagascar. 1% 27% 16% 2% Climbing Palms Dwarf palms acaulescent Palms Small Palms of the understorey Medium-sized Palms Tree palms 19% 35% Figure 20. Dypsis decipiens, a species characterized by the swollen trunk at the centre, giving a bottle-like appearance to the palm, Itremo (photo: M. Rakotoarinivo). Figure 19. Diversity of biological forms for the palms of Madagascar. Six growth types have been identified for all species: tree palms) giant palms or palms of the canopy, stem more than 10m high, over 10cm in diameter; medium-sized palms) arborescent palms, often palms of the undergrowth, stem between 3-10m high, above 5cm in diameter; small palms of the understorey) between 1.5m and 5m high but with slender stem, less than 5cm in diameter ; dwarf palms) short stem, the maximum size of the palm does not exceed 1-1.5m in height; acaulescent) no visible stem on the ground surface, the palm has rosette leaves; climbing palms) with a particularly flexible stipe which uses other plants such as trees but also other vertical supports, to climb towards the canopy. The stem is usually cylindrical. The diameter remains uniform and constant but in some species such as Dypsis decipiens (Figure 20) or Ravenea krociana, the trunk is bottle-shaped due to the swelling of its middle part. The trunk is usually solitary and unbranched but, in some cases, there is dichotomy (D. fibrosa, D. crinita, Figure 21) or simple aerial branching (D. oreophila, D. serpentina). Branching can also be subterranean, from a short rhizome, hence the clumping aspect of many species (e.g. D. lutescens, D. baronii, D. decipiens). Figure 21. Bottom view of the branched trunk of Dypsis fibrosa, Soanierana Ivongo (Photo: C. Wattier). Leaves can be exceptionally large such as those of Tahina spectabilis with a blade up to 5m in diameter or those of Raphia farinifera which can reach over 6m in length. The large leaves are usually pinnate but those of 15 Marojejya darianii are almost entire, with very few segments or completely undissected. Entire leaves are found mainly in some species of dwarf palms or shrub palms of the undergrowth in the genus Dypsis. Palms have a slow growth rate making the first flowering in the natural environment only after decades for tree palms; estimated to be around 29 years for Beccariophoenix madagascariensis (Rakotoarinivo, 2005), 40 years for dryland palms such as Dypsis decaryi (Ratsirarson et al., 2009) or Borassus aethiopum (Johannsmeier, 2016) or even up to 80 years for Tahina spectabilis (Shapcott et al., 2020). In cultivation, however, tree palms such as Beccariophoenix madagascariensis, D. carlsmithii, D. robusta or Lemurophoenix laevis began to flower at the age of 12-14 years in gardens outside Madagascar (Dransfield, 2002; Dransfield & Marcus, 2018; Hodel et al., 2005). Floral biology depends on the taxonomic position. Malagasy members of Arecoideae are protandrous (Dransfield et al., 2008); male flowers arrive at maturity before the females so that pollination is always crosspollinated between two distinct inflorescences, either from the same or different plants. An inflorescence like that of Dypsis fibrosa, about 120cm wide, has on average 7500 female flowers and up to 24,000 male flowers (Andriatahiana, in prep.). For dioecious palms as in the genus Ravenea (Ceroxyloideae) and in the majority of Coryphoideae in Madagascar; the plants are unisexual, being either male or female. Very few sex ratio studies have been undertaken so far at the population level of these dioecious palms, but based on existing data, trends could vary from one species to another. The population density of R. madagascariensis in the Manambolo forest, Andringitra is skewed to being more male: 9 males versus 5 females on an area of one hectare (Ranantenainasoa, 2000). For Bismarckia nobilis, the population in the grassland of Maintirano is dominated by females; 74 females versus 24 males/ha (Rabefarihy, 2007). Figure 22. Mature Tahina spectabilis in senescent stage. The leaves have all already fallen, the plant ensures only the ripening of the thousands of fruits produced by the single flowering event. As soon as the fruits dispersal by barochory is completed, the floral stalk breaks down, causing the trunk of the palm to collapse (photo: M. Rakotoarinivo). Bees, Apis mellifera, are the most widely observed pollinators (Ratsirarson & Silander, 1996) although there are other visiting and pollinator insects such as flies, wasps and beetles (Dransfield & Beentje, 1995). In several species of the genus Dypsis, the flowers produce fragrant odors and a small amount of nectar (Rudall et al., 2003). Studies on floral biology have shown that about 9% of female flowers turn into fruit (Ratsirarson & Silander, 1996). Flowering may occur at any time of the year but the majority of species flower in the hot and humid season, during which two peaks of anthesis can be observed (Figure 23): between October and November (46 species), and in March (88 species). Palms in low altitude humid forests (e.g. Dypsis fibrosa, D. lastelliana, Ravenea sambiranensis) mostly flower between October and May, while palms in the western region start flowering towards the end of the dry season, between August and September. Montane palms are often in full anthesis between May and August (e.g. D. baronii, D. ceracea, D. coursii, D. humbertii). Overall, fruit development and ripening take place two to three months after flowering. All the species are pleonanthic except for Raphia farinifera and Tahina spectabilis. The two latter species are hapaxanthic palms that flower a single time during their life when all axillary buds at the stem tip are transformed into inflorescences when the plant reaches maturity. Once the hundreds or thousands of fruits produced have ripened, the plant dies (Figure 22). 16 soil composed of organic matter called "fongo" from the Eucalyptus forests and sand in a ratio of 1:1 or 1:2, without any prior treatment. Dormancy of the seeds is broken from 5 to up to 309 days after sowing. The delay in break of dormancy of some species seems to be related to climatic conditions; some seeds were sown at the beginning of the cool season (e.g. Dypsis mananjarensis, D. pinnatifrons and D. scandens). The young plants of some species such as Dypsis lutescens, D. prestoniana and Ravenea robustior grew quite fast so that they were ready to be transplanted in the garden after 18 months in the nursery. December November October September August July June May Fruits April March February Flowers January 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 All types of soils in Madagascar are colonized by palm trees, with the exception of mangrove soils. According to the FAO soil classification (2020), ferralsol is the substrate type with the highest number of species, since it occupies almost 80% of the island's surface and is found mainly in the eastern region. Apart from the main soil types colonised by the majority of species (Table 3), some species have specialised in rather spatially restricted soil categories. For example, Tahina spectabilis occurs only on fluvisols, soils of young alluvial deposits. Similarly, Dypsis onilahensis has a preference for leptosols, a shallow (sometimes gravelly) substrate on very hard bedrock. Some species such as those of the coastal plains or very low altitude areas are restricted to surface substrates with permanent Figure 23. Monthly variation in the number of species in flowering and fruiting throughout the year. Palm seeds require a reasonable amount of humidity and high temperatures, between 29-35°C, to germinate (Broschat et al., 2017). Germination studies in some Ravenea species have shown that dehydration of seeds below 5% of moisture results in loss of viability (Rakotondranony et al., 2006). Germination tests on 19 species (Table 2) carried out at the Ranomafana Arboretum concluded that the germination rate varies from 16-90% for the surveyed species. These seeds were sown directly in a Table 2. Summary of the palm seed germination trial carried out in the Ranomafana Arboretum between 2018-2020. Number of sown seeds Germination rate (%) Break dormancy (number of days after sowing). Beccariophoenix fenestralis 100 81.0 38 Dypsis basilonga 200 16.5 226 Dypsis concinna 330 33.9 5 Dypsis decipiens 25 80.0 5 Dypsis forficifolia 66 63.6 30 Dypsis lutescens 200 71.0 38 Dypsis madagascariensis 104 45.2 232 Dypsis mananjarensis 580 61.2 211 Dypsis pachyramea 71 76.1 54 Dypsis pinnatifrons 1095 76.1 203 Dypsis prestoniana 500 27.6 170 Dypsis procumbens 500 67.6 224 Dypsis robusta 1050 3.4 197 Dypsis scandens 267 89.1 215 Hyphaene coriacea 70 7.1 115 Phoenix reclinata 400 49.8 45 Ravenea dransfieldii 38 78.9 54 Ravenea robustior 300 55.0 7 Ravenea sambiranensis 1278 88.4 6 Species 17 Table 3. Main types of soils inhabited by the palms of Madagascar. Type of soil (according to FAO, 2020) Arenosol : sandy soils with very little or no development Cambisol : soils in the mid-formation stage with low differentiation of horizons Ferralsol : deep, heavily weathered soils with chemically poor but physically stable subsoil Gleysol : soils with permanent or temporary moisture near the surface Nitisol : a well-drained, deep, red soil with a clay content of more than 30% and a bouldery structure Régosol : a soft bedrock that has been slightly altered Characteristics Texture : sandy Drainage: excessive pH = 6.4 Texture: silt-clay-sand to clayey Drainage: medium pH = 4.9-7.2 Texture: sandy-clay to clay Drainage: moderate pH = 4.8-5 Texture: loamy or loamy-clay. Drainage: poor pH = 5.1-5.6 Texture: loamy-clay Drainage: moderate pH = 5.9-6.2 Texture: finely silted Drainage: moderate pH = 4.9-5.4 Number of species Examples 48 Dypsis aquatilis, D. arenarum, D. bosseri, D. carlsmithii, D. psammophiila, D. soanieranae 74 150 29 88 28 Dypsis ambanjae, D. andilamenensis, D. decaryi, D. gautieri, D. leptocheilos, D. pusilla, D. tsaratananensis, Lemurophoenix halleuxii, Ravenea delicatula Beccariophoenix fenestralis, Dypsis acaulis, D. ankaizinensis, D. baronii, D. ovombontsira, D. perrieri, Ravenea nana, R. sambiranensis. Borassus madagascariensis, Dypsis lutescens, D plurisecta, Marojejya darianii, Orania ravaka, O. trispatha, Ravenea musicalis Dypsis albofarinosa, D. culminis, D. dracaenoides gronophyllum, Masoala kona, Ravenea glauca, R rivularis, Beccariophoenix alfredii, Dypsis ambositrae, D. oropedionis herbaceous layer, dwarf palms are, however, sciaphilous; direct sunlight rarely reaches the forest floor (Rakotonavalona, 2004). moisture content, as in the case of Borassus madagascariensis, Dypsis lutescens, Marojejya darianii or Ravenea musicalis (Figure 24). Highland palms are adapted to a type of substrate with fine soil, or growing directly on bedrock, such as Dypsis decipiens, D. ambositrae or D. oropedionis. I.4 - Use and values of palms Palms are among the most useful groups of plants for human beings, after grasses and legumes (Govaerts et al., 2020). As sources of non-wood forest products, palms are vital in poor countries such as Madagascar because they play a substantial economic role at the level of rural villages or for populations dependent on forest resources (Dransfield & Beentje, 1995). Of the 208 species indigenous to Madagascar, 150 species have been reported as having at least one type of use and are thus exploited by humans (Appendix II). Palms provide multiple resources such as materials for construction or weaving, food, medicine and ornamental plants (Figure 25) Studies of palm habitat in humid forests (e.g. Rakotonavalona, 2004; Ramamonjy, 2006) have shown that the most frequently associated plants are the species belonging to the genera Cyathea (Cyatheaceae), Dracaena (Asparagaceae) and Pandanus (Pandanaceae). Habitats are also often characterized by the presence of moss carpets and epiphytic ferns. Palms are more abundant where forest canopies are usually discontinuous but species diversity within the forest seems to be correlated with dense undergrowth (Rakotonavalona, 2004). The majority of palms in humid forests are mesophilous. Confined to the 18 Figure 24. The rheophytic palm Ravenea musicalis, restricted to swamps and rivers of the coastal plain north of Taolagnaro. Religion Basketry Housetools Food Medecine Horticulture Decoration House construction 0 20 40 Number of species 60 Number of utilisation types . Figure 25. Various forms of palm uses in Madagascar 19 80 100 Beentje, 1995) have revealed that all parts of the plant, except for the roots (Table 5), are exploited by the local population. These include the leaves for thatching (Figure 26), trunks to extract the edible heart, and fibres as a source of rope. Even trunks left rotting in the wild can provide food after about 3 months, as edible weevil larvae that have developed in the decaying fibres of the trunk are collected there (Byg & Balslev, 2001). In addition, the piassava from Madagascar (fibres of D. fibrosa) was once valued at twice the cost of raffia fibre from West Africa (Dransfield & Beentje, 1995). Multiple-use species (Table 4) are often those with relatively wide ranges and high local abundance. Their exploitation methods may vary from one area to another; some forms of utilisation are shared, while others are siteor region-specific. In the majority of cases, exploitation by local communities is often traditional and sustainable, although some activities, such as felling trunks to gain access to the edible heart or extracting the sap to make local wines, can be fatal to the palm. Studies on the traditional knowledge of the species Dypsis fibrosa through the eastern humid forest (e.g. Bussmann et al., 2015; Byg & Balslev, 2003; Dransfield & Table 4. The most utilised palms by indigenous people in Madagascar. The data presented in this table come from the compilation and recapitulation of the information present in the literature and from the responses to direct surveys carried out during field visits. Species Habitat Number of utilisation forms 1- Dypsis fibrosa Eastern humid forest, low and mid altitude 32 2- Bismarckia nobilis Western grassland 21 3- Ravenea sambiranensis Eastern humid forest, low and mid altitude 18 4- Dypsis lastelliana Eastern humid forest, low altitude 17 5- Dypsis pinnatifrons Eastern humid forest, low and mid altitude 17 6- Dypsis lutescens Eastern humid forest, low altitude 14 7- Hyphaene coriacea Western grassland 14 8- Dypsis madagascariensis Subhumid and dry forests of the west 12 9- Dypsis nodifera Eastern humid forest, low and mid altitude 11 10- Borassus madagascariensis Western grassland 10 Table 5. Main uses of Dypsis fibrosa across the eastern region of Madagascar. Plant parts Leaves Fibre (piassava of the leaf) Stem Pith (terminal bud) Inflorescence Fruits/ seeds Main utilisation form Thatching Decoration: festivity at the village community or at church Fibres were formerly harvested as a source of income and were sold to the furniture industry (for upholstering). Rope Maintenance of household equipment Mattress filling Salt, extracted from the infusion of the heart of the palm, used in cough treatment; formerly also used as a seasoning. Extraction of weevil larvae, served cooked or fried. Medicine, eaten raw or cooked, used to treat coughs Cooked and eaten as a rice accompaniment. Household broom Horticulture 20 Figure 26. A house with a roof made of leaves from Dypsis fibrosa in Ifanadiana region. a) seen from the outside, the wall of the house is composed of wood and the roof is built with hundreds of overlapping palm leaves, one on top of the next; b) placement of the leaves for the roof, seen from inside the house. 21 In general, the utilisation of each species depends on the form, density and durability, or the flavor of the organ if it is edible: In the western region, Bismarckia nobilis is essential to the daily life of local people. This species is used for subsistence but also to generate income (Table 6). According to studies carried out in the north of Morondava, 40-52% of the individuals of this palm are exploited (Rabefarihy, 2007). In the Maintirano rural area, up to 65% of the houses in the village of Betanatanana have roofs made from leaves of B. nobilis (Ratoavimbahoaka, 2006). Raw materials from B. nobilis are even exported to the cities. For example, some hotels in Morondava have chosen to use the leaves of this palm tree for their roofing, not only for aesthetics but also for energy savings. The temperature inside bungalows covered with B. nobilis leaves is reduced by about 4-5°C compared with the outside temperature (Ratoavimbahoaka, 2006). A hotel can consume up to 100,000 leaves every 5 years for general roof renewal in their bungalows. In all cases, a leaf is purchased at a price ranging from 50 to 100 Ariary at the extraction sites. (a) Traditional houses are often constructed with different parts of palms: trunk boards, whole trunk or with leaves (Table 7). About 50 species of palm tree or shrub are exploited for this practice, whose importance and place in the house depend respectively on the structure and durability of the part used (Figure 27). Leaves with fairly large dimensions such as those of Dypsis fibrosa or Bismarckia nobilis are used for roofing. The stems of tree palms are split open and flattened usually to form floors but sometimes also for walls. For example, a floor made of Ravenea sambiranensis planks for a 4m × 6m house in Tampolo (Fénerive-Est) requires 6-8 stems (Rakotoarinosy, 2018). In addition, the stems of undergrowth palm trees are used to support the roof, to insert into the gaps between the walls of the house or also to fence off the property. Table 6. Uses and economic values of Bismarckia nobilis in western Madagascar (sources: Rabefarihy, 2007; Ratoavimbahoaka, 2006). Type of utilisation Used parts Product and required quantity Estimated cost of the product (in Ariary) Leaves Roof (3m x 5m): 2000 leaves; lifespan = 7 years. A leaf is sold at 50-80 Ariary. House construction Trunk Basketry Leaves Household utensils Trunk For a house of 2m x 4m, 60 boards of 3.5m are needed (a trunk can supply up to 4 boards); lifespan = 7-8 years. 1.5m x 2m mat; life span = 8-15 months Basket Hat Pot of flowers about 40cm high (a hollowed trunk of 3m provides about 8 pots) Trunk Sora (wine): a hole in the trunk at its apex to extract sap. The fermentation of the sap then constitutes an alcoholic drink. Pith To be given directly to pigs when there is a shortage of bran or to be processed into flour called "kabija". Food 22 Lethality of the activity in relation to the survival of the palm no yes 7000 Ariary 500 Ariary per unit 1l of sora is worth 800 Ariary; one trunk provides an average of 68 litres of sap. No Yes Yes, the palm tree dies after a month of extraction. Yes, felling of the stem. Table 7. Examples of uses and lifespan of the raw palm materials in the construction of traditional houses. Lifespan of Used parts Species/ locality Required quantity the product in Source the house Trunk : planks Leaves Bismarckia nobilis/ Betanatanana, Maintirano Dypsis ampasindavae / Ambanja Ravenea madagascariensis/ Manambolo, Andringitra Ravenea sambiranensis / Tampolo, Fénerive-Est Dypsis arenarum/ Tampolo, Fénerive-Est Dypsis fibrosa/ Manompana, Soanierana Ivongo 30 individuals to make planks 3-3.5m in length, to cover the wall of a house of 46m in size 6 to 9 stipes for supplying 4m boards for the flooring of a house of 4m × 6m. 4 to 6 stipes of 4m long boards, for the ceiling of a surface of 4m × 4m. 6-8 trunks to supply boards of 4m length to cover a floor of a house of 4m × 6m. Trunks of 3-4m long are sectioned lengthwise in quarters to support the roof. Leaves about 2.5m long, to be arranged in groups of 3 and stacked across the roof; 400 leaves for the roof of a 4m × 3m house 7-8 years Ratoavimbahoaka (2006) 5-7 years Razafimandimby (2017) 15 years Ranantenainasoa, (2000) 5-6 years Rakotoarinosy, (2018) 6-9 years Rakotoarinosy, (2018) 7-8 years Rakotomanadriana, in prep. and Ravenea dransfieldii have been identified for this practice. Products woven from the leaflets of Ravenea lakatra are very popular and are sold at a fairly high price in the Ifanadiana market (Figure 28). For example, a 'lakatra' hat for an adult costs 4,500 Ariary each, compared to 2,0002,500 Ariary for a hat made of rushes or reeds. In the Bay of Rigny area (Antsiranana), a monthly collection of 120-160 leaves of Hyphaene coriacea allows women to make 60-80 baskets; generating an income of at least 43,000 Ariary (Rakotonandrasana et al., 2015). c) Some household tools are made from various parts of palms, especially for the species Raphia farinifera (Figure 29). Apart from ‘hafotra’ fibres (bark of Dombeya spp. and Grewia spp. - Malvaceae) or from sisal fibres (Agave sisalana - Agavaceae), rope used by local populations also comes from the piassava from young leaves of "Vonitra" (Dypsis fibrosa, D. crinita and D. utilis). In addition, household brooms (Figure 30) in areas surrounding the eastern lowland or mid-altitude humid forests often consist of the inflorescences of different species of "Anivona" (Ravenea spp.)" or "Vonitra". In the western region, the petioles of Borassus madagascariensis, B. aethiopum, Bismarckia nobilis and Hyphaene coriacea are cut into several small pieces and then gathered together to form the so-called brush "kifafa satrana". This type of brush is usually intended for urban use and sold at markets in the capital or in large cities throughout the country. In the highlands the leaflets of Dypsis decipiens are also used to make brooms (Rakotomanadriana, in prep.). Figure 27. Traditional house made mainly from materials from palm trees in Vinanivao, Masoala. The roof is made of leaves of Dypsis fibrosa, the ridge is covered by leaves of Satranala decussilvae, while the floor is made of planks of arborescent palms. The rest of the house is a mixture of timber, planks of Ravenala and leaves of Pandanus. (b) Basketry is a regular source of income for indigenous peoples. The species used for this type of activity have tough but workable leaflets that do not degrade easily. A total of 18 species including Beccariophoenix madagascariensis, Bismarckia nobilis, Hyphaene coriacea 23 Figure 28. The importance of Ravenea lakatra for the local people in the Ifanadiana region. (a) The leaflets of the young leaves are harvested from the wild and taken to the weekly market in the town of Ifanadiana to be sold as raw material to basket makers. These leaflets are then prepared in the workshops for processing into various products such as hats (b) or mats (c) [photos : R. Rakotomanandriana. Figure 29. Everyday equipment and tools made from Raphia farinifera (left). The Raphia palm represents a multipurpose plant in rural areas of Madagascar. In addition to fibres that are exploited in basketry, various organs are also used to make household materials: a) vanilla packing basket, woven from the fibres; b) stool with a sitting part made from rolled up raffia leaflets; c) a winnowing basket for rice, made from pieces of the petiole; d) fish trap, made from pieces of the petiole (photo : R. Rakotomanandriana). Figure 30. Remnants of the inflorescence of Dypsis fibrosa used as a broom in houses bordering the forests around Manompana, Soanierana Ivongo (below, photo : R. Rakotomanandriana). d) Some palms such as D. lastelliana, D. nodifera, D. andrianatonga and D. nodifera have been used in the past 24 to extract salts 1 for seasoning (Dransfield & Beentje, 1995); such practice is still carried out in remote sites on the edge of natural forests, far from shops and grocery stores. Physico-chemical analyses of the vegetable salt of D. nodifera have shown a significant amount of mineral nutrients such as magnesium, manganese, calcium and iron (Randriamanantenasoa, 2010). As the presence of these elements even in very low doses gives salt some curative properties, the traditional use of palms as medicinal remedies in the form of salt or pith decoction reinforces these results. In Zahamena, D. nodifera salt is used to treat coughs, malaria and pancreatic problems (Byg & Balslev, 2001). Similarly, D. andrianatonga is a remedy for coughs around Manongarivo (Dransfield & Beentje, 1995). Recently, the chemical compound 'isovitexin' has been found in the leaves of D. lutescens; this type of flavonoid has anti-cancer properties (Chiduruppa et al., 2018). However, only about ten palm species in Madagascar have so far been indicated as having medicinal properties; a number probably underestimated (Gruca et al., 2016). the Ambositra region, the inhabitants claimed that a "kapaoka 3" of D. decipiens seeds is sold to collectors for 3,000 Ariary. Whole plants, usually juveniles, are frequently sold along the national roads. Prices vary from 20,000 – 40,000 Ariary for tree palms or medium sized palms such as D. ambositrae, D. baronii or D. lutescens, compared to 5,000-10,000 Ariary for dwarf palms such as D. hildebrandtii, D. nodifera or D. louvelii. Such rural trades are often carried out illegally; the palms are removed from their natural environment without prior authorization. In Antananarivo, at the nurseries of approved horticulturists, a young palm such as of B. nobilis or D. lutescens costs at least 60,000 Ariary; the price can even go up to 800,000 Ariary for large individuals. In the last 20 years, cultivation of endemic palms as ornamental plants has been gaining popularity in Madagascar. For example, the plantation of Bismarckia nobilis along the Avenue de l'Indépendance in Analakely, Antananarivo. Some other species commonly planted in Madagascar include Dypsis baronii, D. lutescens, D. decaryi and Dypsis madagascariensis. Other species deserve a much larger planting in public places, schools, and hotels such as Dypsis lastelliana in the east, Beccariophoenix alfredii in the centre, and Borassus madagascariensis in the west. Many palms grown in Madagascar are exotic, such as Livistona chinensis, Roystonea regia (royal palm), and Washingtonia spp. (Dransfield & Beentje 1995). e) The majority of tree palms and some of the shrub palms are felled for their edible palm hearts 2 or palm cabbage. The latter is collected to be eaten raw, on the premises, for shrub species such as Dypsis baronii, D. oreophila and D. pinnatifrons. On the other hand, the extraction of hearts from tree palms such as D. tsaravoasira, D. pilulifera, Masoala madagascariensis and Voanioala gerardii is intended for cooking for rice accompaniment or as a staple food (Byg & Balslev, 2001, 2003; Dransfield & Beentje, 1995). A palm is harvested for its heart if ithas a relatively sweet, non-bitter taste and does not require the addition of salt for cooking (Dransfield & Beentje, 1995). In relation to these criteria, the most sought-after species for their hearts are Dypsis tsaravoasira, D. pilulifera, D. perierri and Ravenea albicans. f) Palms are ideal horticultural plants. The taxonomic diversity present on the island is reflected in the great range of morphological diversity, some of which such as Bismarckia nobilis, Dypsis lutescens, Ravenea rivularis or Tahina spectabilis are very popular worldwide. Seeds of some species such as Ravenea rivularis are exported from Madagascar in large quantity and are available on the international market. Trade data within Madagascar is very poorly documented despite the fact that many species are overexploited. During a survey on the use of palm trees in The majority of indigenous palm trees are illegally cut and collected for self-consumption. Trade at the local scale is quite scarce and only intended for the elderly or those who cannot collect for themselves. Compared to other groups of plants, palms constitute a material of choice because of the toughness and longevity of the finished products. For example, rice storage houses are built with planks of Ravenea madagascariensis in Manambolo, a peripheral area of Andringitra, because its "wood" is very hard and cannot be gnawed by rats (Ranantenainasoa, 2000). In the humid and subhumid regions, Ravenala madagascariensis (Strelitziaceae) has multiple uses comparable to those of palms but generally has a shorter life span except for the stipe boards (Rakotoarivelo et al., 2014). For example, a roof made of leaves of Ravenala can be kept for an average of 3-4 years, compared with at least 7 years for a roof made of Dypsis fibrosa or D. ampasindavae. 1 3 Palm salt consists of the ashes of the pith after it is burnt. The heart of the palm or palm cabbage corresponds to the apical meristem of the palm; the terminal bud having been extracted from the crown of the leaves at the top of the trunk, after the palm has been felled. A Kapaoka is equivalent to the volume of 25 cl, this is a common measure in Madagascar, from a can of condensed milk. 2 25 animal species, but the study by Andreone et al. (2010) shows, for example, that three species of amphibians exclusively use the fallen leaves of three Dypsis (D. hovomantsina, D. lastelliana, and D. tsaravoasira) as their habitats in Betampona and Ambatovaky. Palms are thus an example of framework species because their loss in the wild may lead to a decline in the population of other species dependent on them Palms can also provide ecosystem services for the benefit of the environment. Fruits constitute food sources for different types of animals (Table 8), including lemurs and birds. Palms can also provide habitats for animals. The crowns are often home to small invertebrates such as insect larvae; some species of birds also build their nests on the leaves of palms and some geckos lay their eggs directly inside the crown (Figure 31). Documentation is still lacking on the importance or correlation of these associations with Table 8. Compilation of existing literature on the dispersion of palms by animals in Madagascar Palm species Disperser Type of animal Locality(localities) Source(s) Dypsis arenarum Hapalemur griseus griseus Lemur Tampolo, Fénerive-Est Rakotoarinosy (2018) Eulemur macaco Lemur Lokobe, Nosy Be Birkinshaw (2001) Eulemur macaco Lemur Birkinshaw (2001) Eulemur cinereiceps Lemur Rattus rattus, Eliurus webbi Rodents Eulemur cinereiceps Lemur Eulemur cinereiceps Lemur Lokobe, Nosy Be Manombo, Farafangana Agnalazaha, Vangaindrano Sainte Luce, Taolagnaro Agnalazaha, Vangaindrano Agnalazaha, Vangaindrano Eulemur fulvus collaris, Cheirogaleus sp. Lemurs Sainte Luce, Taolagnaro Bollen (2003) Coracopsis nigra, Streptopelia picturata, Hypsipetes madagascariensis Birds Sainte Luce, Taolagnaro Bollen (2003) Pteropus rufus Bat Sainte Luce, Taolagnaro Bollen (2003) Eulemur fulvus collaris Lemur Sainte Luce, Taolagnaro Bollen (2003) Pteropus rufus Bat Sainte Luce, Taolagnaro Bollen (2003) Eulemur fulvus collaris Lemur Sainte Luce, Taolagnaro Bollen (2003) Eulemur fulvus collaris Lemur Sainte Luce, Taolagnaro Bollen (2003) Rattus rattus, Eliurus webbi Rodents Sainte Luce, Taolagnaro Bollen (2003) Coracopsis vasa, Alectroenas madagascariensis Birds Manambolo, Andringitra Ranantenainasoa, (2000) Dypsis pinnatifrons D. ampasindavae D. fibrosa D. mananjarensis Dypsis prestoniana Dypsis nodifera Dypsis saintelucei Ralainasolo et al., (2008) Andriamaharoa et al. (2010) Bollen (2003) Andriamaharoa et al. (2010) Andriamaharoa et al. (2010) Dypsis scottiana Ravenea madagascariensis 26 Figure 31. Eggs of Phelsuma sp. in the crown of Dypsis brevicaulis; Sainte Luce, Taolagnaro (Photo: F. Hogg). I.5 - Threats and problem analysis According to the IUCN Red List (2020), nearly 84% of palm species in Madagascar are threatened with extinction (Figure 32). Observations on the status of natural populations since 1995 have highlighted the reduction in the number of mature individuals for many species (Rakotoarinivo et al., 2014). The high number of species categorized as Critically Endangered and Endangered (Figure 31, Appendix II) illustrates the ongoing decline that palms are facing in relation to their conservation status at the local or national level. The loss of palm habitats is the result of the production of annual and perennial non-timber crops including crops for food, fodder or industrial products. Overall, 112 species have lost part of their habitats due to this type of threat; some of them are currently in a critical state as the number of their mature individuals at the local level is below the minimum threshold necessary for a viable population. For example, one of the last habitats of Dypsis ambositrae around the town of Ambositra was lost (Figure 33) within 16 years due to the continuous clearing of the Ambatofitorahana mountain forest. The site was logged to produce charcoal (Figure 34); such activity resulted in the complete clearing of the forest to make way for cultivated fields. Figure 32. Summary of IUCN Red List assessments on palms from Madagascar. The numbers correspond to the species assigned to each category of threat defined by the Red List during the assessment of the conservation status in 2012. Of the 9 Red List categories (IUCN, 2020), 7 have been assigned to Madagascar palms: LC for Least Concern, NT for Near Threatened, VU for Vulnerable, EN for Endangered, CR for Critically Endangered and DD for Data Deficient. 27 Figure 33. Loss of habitat for Dypsis ambositrae at Ambatofitorahana, Ambositra. The forest fragment was still considered almost intact in 2003 (Photo: J. Dransfield) where about 10 mature and many regenerating individuals were recorded for this species. Unfortunately, a visit to this site in 2019 revealed the impact of deforestation on the population structure of this palm tree. The natural habitat has been completely cleared and some mature stands of this species have been spared; only a few seedlings remain in the secondary plant formations. 28 Figure 34. Impact of habitat destruction on the local survival of Dypsis ambositrae in Ambatofitorahana, Ambositra. The destruction of a portion of the mountain forest of Ambatofitorahana for the local charcoal production from forest species has caused the habitat loss of D. ambositrae. In 2012, the forest was cleared (a); the trees were felled for use as wood chips while the charcoal oven was set up on the site (b). Such activity resulted in the total loss of the forest fragment by 2019. 2018), has reduced primary forests to less than 25% of their original extent (Moat & Smith, 2007). This situation implies an increased risk of extinction of biota restricted to primary forests such as palms. Palms are particularly vulnerable to changes in ecological conditions, especially degradation of humid forests. Survival and population dynamics are reduced for many species when habitat quality declines (Dransfield & Beentje, 1995) or when habitats have become fragmented (Scariot, 1999). Changes in habitat quality greatly affect the survival of many species with small ranges. Some of their adults persist in degraded habitats (Figure 39) while young individuals cannot survive in conditions of high solar radiation (Dransfield et al. 2008) due to their requirements for shade. Thus, young palm individuals such as those of Dypsis baronii, D. lastelliana and D. fibrosa, which are relatively common in moist forests, rarely survive in adjacent secondary formations. Therefore, the loss of primary habitat in the only known collection sites for certain species explains the failure to observe them in the wild over the last several decades. For example, three species from the Bay of Antongil region, Dypsis lucens, D. monostachya and D. plurisecta have not been seen in the wild since 1930; their habitats would correspond to the coastal plain currently converted into cultivated fields around the town of Maroantsetra. Despite recent expeditions to the forests around this town, and to Masoala National Park and Makira Natural Park, these species remain to be rediscovered. Habitat loss caused by forest or bush fires is a major factor in the decline of palms in savannah, sub-humid and dry forests. Although adult individuals can sometimes survive, juvenile individuals suffer and perish (Figure 35). Often the population structure is disturbed due to mortality of regeneration individuals and loss of viable seed stock in the soil (Rakotoarinivo & Rajaovelona, 2013; Ratoavimbahoaka, 2006). Threats associated with the use of biological resources concerns the harvesting of terrestrial plants, particularly for use as food (palm hearts) and for access to the seeds (horticultural palms) (Figure 36). These collecting activities result in the loss of reproductive stems, and particularly the decline in the population of single-stemmed species. Similarly, the exploitation of Bismarckia nobilis and Borassus madagascariensis for the production of "sora", a kind of local wine, in western Madagascar is a factor contributing to the rapid decline of these two species. In Morondava, approximately 2,250 individuals of B. nobilis have been affected by this activity in one year; these individuals do not recover and die after only one month of sap extraction (Figure 37, Ratoavimbahoaka, 2006). Logging, land clearing and timber harvesting are also major threats to the decline of natural populations. In these cases, palms are not the primary target but may become threatened due to collateral damage (Figure 38). The extensive degradation of Madagascar's rainforests, following an estimated deforestation rate of 0.5-0.94% of the island's surface area for 2005-2013 (i.e. an area of 4,400-4,500 ha of forest lost per year - Gardner et al., 29 Figure 35. A group of Dypsis decipiens injured by fire in the Itremo grassland. The fire seems to have been intense, consuming even the leaves located at more than 8m above the ground. While the adults can often survive in this type of situation, as long as the terminal bud remains intact, the younger individuals often perish by being completely burned by the fire. Figure 36. Remnants of Voanioala gerardii after an adult tree was cut down to access its edible heart, Rantabe, Mananara Avaratra. (photo : M. Rakotoarinivo) 30 Figure 37. Remains of Bismarckia nobilis after the extraction of sap for the production of a local wine, Morondava region (Photo: Ratoavimbahoaka). Figure 38. Use of palm leaves to make temporary huts in the forests. In Masoala National Park, illegal loggers of precious woods have felled many palm trees to make temporary huts from their leaves. The exploitation of palm trees is not the primary objective of poaching; however, the diversity of palm trees at the local scale is affected. 31 than 7m in height in order to access the mature leaves. In Morondava, the felling rate for this purpose represents around 1% per year of adults in the natural environment (Rabefarihy, 2007). Despite the natural abundance of this species, such a rate of exploitation could cause local extinction of the species within a few decades. I.6 - Protection and conservation measures Compared to current pressures and threats, much of Madagascar's biodiversity is unlikely to be able to survive if species are not present in protected areas (BorriniFeyerabend & Dudley, 2005). The Malagasy government's effort to increase the size of protected areas to 6 million hectares, including Madagascar's National Park network, Key Biodiversity Areas and Madagascar's Protected Areas System, has been globally beneficial for palm conservation. Altogether, 9 species remain outside of in situ conservation measures (Table 9, Appendix II); these species have been seen in natural formations but their often-restricted ranges are outside the perimeters of existing protected areas. Conversely, palms such as Dypsis ankaizinensis, D. commersoniana, D. canescens, D. heteromorpha, D. ligulata, D. monostachya, D. plurisecta, and D. soanieranae have not been seen in the natural environment for the last three decades despite the fact that their area of occurrence should coincide with existing protected areas. Figure 39. A group of Ravenea sambiranensis left untouched after the clearing of their natural habitat (photo: M. Rakotoarinivo). Many threatened species assessed as Critically Endangered according to the IUCN Red List (Rakotoarinivo et al., 2014) are restricted to small forest fragments or areas at high risk of degradation outside protected area networks. For example, Dypsis ifanadianae and D. scandens are only known from degraded forests in Ifanadiana; Ravenea musicalis is restricted to the wetlands of the Mahatalaky plain, north of Taolagnaro. The only known site of two endemic palms in the Andilamena forests, D. andilamenensis and Ravenea delicatula, has no form of protection; miners have already started to make excavations in the ground to search for rubies and quartz crystal (Rakotoarinivo, 2007). Table 9. List of species whose known range does not coincide within the networks of existing protected areas in Madagascar. Species Locality Beccariophoenix alfredii Dypsis andilamenensis Betafo Andilamena Taolagnaro, recensée sur la zone périphérique de la NAP de Tsitongambarika. Ifanadiana, Mont Vatovavy et Andrambovato Ifanadiana, dans certains vestiges forestiers le long de la route nationale 25. Andilamena Ifanadiana Andilamena Taolagnaro Dypsis aquatilis Dypsis basilonga Dypsis ifanadianae Dypsis pulchella Dypsis scandens Ravenea delicatula Ravenea musicalis Direct forms of exploitation of the species might progressively lead to the local extinction of the species. In the Maintirano region, the use of leaves in house roofs requires on average 59,900 individuals of Bismarckia nobilis every 5 years (Ratoavimbahoaka, 2006); a healthy individual produces 7-8 exploitable leaves per year. Sustainable leaf extraction does not cause the death of the palm but threats increase when there is a shortage of harvestable leaves at the time of collection. People will exploit the young leaves, which can quickly decay; or they will cut down large palms, those with stem more Given their size and their geographical positions, protected areas such as Marojejy, Makira, Masoala, Mananara Avaratra, Ambatovaky, Zahamena-Ankeniheny Corridor, Fandriana-Vondrozo Corridor and Andohahela contribute greatly to the conservation of the habitats and natural populations of many species. For example, 32 68 species are recorded in Masoala National Park; about ten of these species occur only in this protected area and are confined to different parts of the peninsula. In addition, some of the protected areas identified as "Alliance for Zero Extinction 4" sites (Table 10) contribute significantly to the maintenance of rare and locally endemic species. Some species occur only in these sites. world. Some species, very popular and emblematic of Madagascar such as the Bismarck palm (Bismarckia nobilis), the golden palm or cane palm (Dypsis lutescens), the triangle palm (Dypsis decaryi) and the majesty palm or river ravenea (Ravenea rivularis, Figure 40), are cultivated and constitute living collections in more than 60 botanical gardens (Table 11). Table 10. Unique species in protected areas identified as AZE sites in Madagascar. Alliance for Zero Extinction site NAP Daraina - Loky – Manambato Reserve Naturelle Intégrale Tsaratanàna and extension Marojejy National Park Masoala National Park Anjanaharibe-Sud Marojejy – Makira corridor Mananara Avaratra National Park AnkenihenyZahamena Corridor Species restricted to the site Dypsis gautieri Dypsis ankaizinensis, D. montana, D. tsaratananensis Dypsis cookei, D. mirabilis, D. pumila Dypsis acaulis, D. caudata, D. dransfieldii, D. furcata, D. metallica, D. mijoroana, D. minuta, D. ovojavavy, D. rabepierrei, D. reflexa, D. vonitrandambo Dypsis andapae, D. brittiana, D. humilis, D. makirae, D. monostachya, D. plurisecta, D. rakotonasoloi Dypsis antanambensis, D. beentjei, D. ovobontsira Ravenea louvelii Palms are an important component of horticulture, providing many species that are harvested and traded around the world. Horticulture contributes to the preservation of many rare palms from around the world that are at risk of extinction (Broschat et al., 2017). A significant number of palm species are now being represented by more individuals in cultivation or outside Madagascar than are found in the wild. For example, the species Dypsis lutescens has been able to naturalize in territories such as the Andaman Islands, Reunion, El Salvador, Cuba, Puerto Rico, Canary Islands, South Florida, Haiti, Dominican Republic, Jamaica, Solomon Islands and the West Indies (Chiduruppa et al., 2018). Figure 40. Mature trees of Ravenea rivularis cultivated in the Stan Walkley's Garden, Brisbane, Australia. (Photo W. Baker). According to GBIF (2020), the botanical gardens with the most species in their living palm collections are Wilson Botanic Garden in Costa Rica, Fairchild Tropical Garden, Florida, USA and Hawaii Tropical Garden, USA (Table 12). Inside Madagascar, the Botanical and Zoological Park of Tsimbazaza, Antananarivo, the Ranomafana Arboretum, Ifanadiana and the Ivoloina Park (Figure 41), Toamasina stand out from other botanical gardens for their floristic richness in native palms. The morphological and taxonomic diversity of palms in Madagascar has led to the success of some species as ornamental or indoor plants. It is difficult to have a complete list of palms present and cultivated abroad, but according to Beech et al. (2020), at least 142 species of palms from Madagascar benefit from ex situ conservation measures in botanical gardens around the 4 Alliance for Zero Extinction (AZE) sites contain the entire population of one or more species listed as Endangered (EN) or Critically Endangered (CR) on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 33 Table 11. List of the most represented palms of Madagascar in botanical gardens around the world (Source GBIF). Number of ex situ places Species 1. Bismarckia nobilis 87 2. Dypsis lutescens 82 3. Dypsis decaryi 73 4. Ravenea rivularis 60 5. Dypsis leptocheilos 32 6. Dypsis madagascariensis 26 7. Tahina spectabilis 24 8. Beccariophoenix madagascariensis 23 9. Ravenea glauca 23 10. Dypsis decipiens 18 11. Ravenea xerophila 18 12. Dypsis lastelliana 16 13. Beccariophoenix alfredii 15 14. Dypsis baronii 13 15. Dypsis ambositrae 12 Figure 41. Juvenile of Marojejya darianii in Ivoloina Park, Toamasina. The plant was obtained from a sowing of seeds in 2005 (photo: C. Birkinshaw). Table 12. The three botanical gardens outside of Madagascar with the most species of Malagasy palms in their collection of living plants. Botanical garden Number of species Wilson Botanical Garden, Costa Rica 18 Fairchild Tropical Garden, USA 15 Hawaii Tropical Botanical Garden 12 Horticulture has greatly contributed to the knowledge and conservation of the palms of Madagascar, but it can also be an element in the loss of genetic and specific diversity at the local level: Species Beccariophoenix madagascariensis, Bismarckia nobilis, Dypsis ambositrae, D. arenarum, D. baronii, D. decaryi, D. decipiens, D. fibrosa, D. lastelliana, D. madagascariensis, D. mananjarensis, D. nodifera, D. rivularis, D. scottiana, D. utilis, Marojejya insigins, Ravenea rivularis, R. xerophila Beccariophoenix madagascariensis, Bismarckia nobilis Borassus madagascariensis, Dypsis carlsmithii, D. crinita, D. decaryi, D. leptocheilos, D. lutescens, D. madagascariensis, D. malcomberi, D. utilis, Ravenea glauca, R. rivularis, R. xerphila. Tahina spectabilis Beccariophoenix alfredii, B. fenestralis, Bismarckia nobilis, Dypsis leptocheilos, D. lutescens, D. madagascariensis, D. paludosa, D. pinnatifrons, Marojejya darianii, Ravenea rivularis, Tahina spectabilis. (a) Many localities of extremely threatened palms or even the discovery of new species have been highlighted by horticulture, sometimes from unexpected sites or in areas where palms are generally rare or absent. For example, the occurrence of the rare species Lemurophoenix halleuxii and Voanioala gerardii in southern Makira was reported by a seed collector from Maroantsetra. Field checks at this site noted that the population size of each of the populations of these two species is significantly larger than those initially known from the Masoala Peninsula (Shapcott et al., 2012). One species, Beccariophoenix alfredii, has been located and described based on information provided by seed collectors (Rakotoarinivo et al., 2007). In addition, six species have been identified and described from specimens grown outside Madagascar (Table 13); these plants are obtained from seeds collected in situ, with uncertain scientific names at the time of export, but clearly from undescribed species when their individuals matured and began to flower in gardens (e.g. Dransfield & Marcus, 2018; Hodel & Marcus, 2004). To date, all species described from cultured samples have been located in the wild (figure 42) except for Lemurophoenix laevis, Dypsis leucomalla and D. plumosa. 34 Table 13. List of palms presumed to be native to Madagascar but described from samples collected in cultivation. Species Year of description and origin of the holotype 5 Dypsis albofarinosa Dypsis carlsmithii Dypsis leptocheilos 2004, Hawaii 2002, Hawaii 1993, Tahiti Dypsis leucomalla Dypsis plumosa Dypsis robusta Dypsis rosea 2013, Hawaii 2009, Hawaii 2005, Hawaii 2014, Hawaii Lemurophoenix laevis 2018, Hawaii First observation of the species in Madagascar 2010, Andringitra 2005, Masoala In 1906, Perrier de la Bâthie collected a palm tree that had long remained unidentified. The species was properly described in 1993, knowing that it was one of the most exported species at the time. The first botanical collection for this species took place in 2007 in the Maevatanana region even though seed exporters had already reported its presence (still kept in secret) at different sites in the west of the island. Not yet located in the wild but probably in the Toamasina region. Not yet located in Madagascar 2011, Ranomafana Arboretum Marojejy, the illustration used for Dypsis pinnatifrons by Dransfield and Beentje (1995) in the book "The Palms of Madagascar" (p. 338) corresponds in fact to this species (Dransfield et al., 2014). Not yet located in Madagascar in Madagascar. Between 2008 and 2016, only 13 species have been legally applied for commercial export to the Madagascar CITES Scientific Authority for Flora (Table 14), while there are at least a few dozen species whose seeds are on sale in retail stores around the world. The majority of palms originating from Madagascar and currently present in horticulture are so far derived from seeds coming from the natural environment. Nearly 32 tons of seeds have been exported from Madagascar for R. rivularis over 10 years. It is also worth noting the 68 kg of Dypsis seeds not identified at the species level that have been commercialized, explaining thus the discovery of new species on palms grown outside the island (see Table 13). At present, nine species are listed in the Appendices of the convention (CITES, 2002): Dypsis decipiens in Appendix I and Beccariophoenix madagascariensis, D. decaryi, Lemurophoenix halleuxii, Marojejya darianii, Ravenea louvelii, R. rivularis, Satranala decussilvae and Voanioala gerardii in Appendix II. While these species have been proposed to the Convention (CITES, 2010, 2002) in order to conserve their often small, fragmented and locally threatened natural populations, export of their seeds continue and the quantity demanded is constantly increasing. For example, the quantity of seeds exported of R. rivularis ranged from 1,500 to 6,550 kg/year between 2002 and 2011; an annual quota of seeds to be exported equal to 4,500 kg was defined in 2014 in order to preserve the regeneration of natural populations (UNEP and WCMC, 2014). Figure 42. The only known mature plant in Madagascar of Dypsis robusta, Ranomafana Arboretum. The species was described from plant samples grown in a palm nursery in Hawaii. The individual in the Ranomafana Arboretum was only identified once it reached its mature stage (photo: M. Rakotoarinivo). (b) Many endangered palms are traded internationally while their seeds still come from their natural populations In botany, a holotype is a herbarium specimen from which a new species has been described for the first time; it is thus the reference element attached to the scientific name. 5 35 Table 14. List of palms legally exported, having been the subject of a legal request to the Madagascar CITES Scientific Authority for Flora between 2008 and 2016 Quantity of Species exported seed (kg) Beccariophoenix madagascariensis 40 Bismarckia nobilis 500 Dypsis baronii 20 Dypsis decaryi 836 Dypsis sp. 68.5 Dypsis fanjana 0.4 Dypsis lutescens 30 Dypsis onilahensis 100 Lemurophoenix haleuxii 25 Ravenea glauca 42 Ravenea rivularis 31,971 Ravenea sambiranensis 30 Tahina spectabilis 25 Figure 43. Animated media presentation in the Maharitrafo radio station of Mangataboahangy, Itremo, to raise awareness on environmental protection and the conservation of the Dypsis decipiens palm tree. Conservation efforts at the local level are among the most effective actions to reduce the risk of extinction of many rare and endangered species. One example is the project for the conservation of two palms in the Itremo Massif, Dypsis ambositrae and D. decipiens, in 2012 by the Kew Madagascar Conservation Centre. During the course of this project 320 seedlings of D. ambositrae and 642 seedlings of D. decipiens were produced, half of which were reintroduced into their natural environment. To strengthen the implementation and impact of this project, various activities were carried out with local populations, including conservation workshops with local communities, an awareness program in the Maharitrafo radio station of Mangataboahangy (Figure 43) and environmental actvities in the primary schools of Itremo and Amborompotsy. At these schools students of the fourth grade classes participated in a drawing competition on their perception of palm tree conservation in the Itremo Massif (Figure 44). In addition to the ecological capacity building acquired by the pupils, the renovation of the vegetable gardens of the two public schools enabled them to raise funds from the sale of vegetables sold at the market. This income was then used to continue the activities of the vegetable garden and to organize an excursion for the students to the Itremo forests (Rakotoarinivo & Rajaovelona, 2013). Figure 44. Winning illustrations from the drawing competition on palms and their environments in primary schools around the Itremo Massif. In 2008, shortly after its discovery and description as a new genus and species, a careful controlled harvest of seeds of Tahina spectabilis was made, with seed widely distributed in Madagascar and a significant legal export of seed to Europe, where the batches of seeds were distributed to botanical gardens and palm growers worldwide. The sale of these seed batches generated significant income that was repatriated to Madagascar, to the villagers near to the at-the-time only known site. These funds were used to establish fire breaks and fencing to protect the palm population and to improve the village school buildings and purchase agricultural equipment for 36 human population. For this strategy, the support of all stakeholders is expected by 2025 to reduce biodiversity loss and degradation in Madagascar. The implementation of the NBSAP is fundamental to the conservation of Madagascar's palms given the irreplaceable economic and social value of many species across the island. The guidelines for actions in response to biodiversity loss must be a joint decision between the competent authorities and all stakeholders; an essential element to ensure citizen awareness and sustainable development (Schultz et al., 2016). the use of villagers. Thus, villagers realised the value of conserving this extraordinary palm. Since then, the palm has been discovered in a few other sites. In 2017, the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew worked on the implementation of sustainable management of Tahina spectabilis by setting up an action plan for the conservation of the species (Gardiner et al. 2017). The action plan includes the following activities: - Creation and maintenance of firebreaks; - Erection and maintenance of fences to prevent zebu trampling seedlings; - Community monitoring and reporting on Tahina population demographics, initiation of flowering, possible harvesting activity, and presence of pests; - Education and awareness raising of local people, and especially children, about the species and its importance; - Dissemination of a protocol for seed collection and sustainable sales after future fruiting events; - Creation of an ex situ population in the Anjajavy Protected Area; The conservation and sustainable use of palms is organized around five strategic objectives recognized in the NBSAP: - Raising awareness about the value of biodiversity, the causes of its impoverishment and the consequences of its destruction in ecological, economic and cultural terms (awareness raising, communication and education of stakeholders, sharing of knowledge and the biodiversity science base to guide decision making and to generate investment for biodiversity conservation). - Minimizing direct pressures on biodiversity: sustainable use through good governance, sound management and reduction of loss or degradation of habitats and ecosystems. - The need to improve and enhance the status of biological diversity by safeguarding ecosystems, species and genetic diversity such as the creation and management of terrestrial protected areas. - The strengthening of the benefits derived from biological diversity for all and the services provided by ecosystems in the framework of sustainable management of biodiversity (restoration of at least 15% of degraded areas, the fight against desertification, implementation of the Nagoya Protocol). - Strengthening the implementation of participatory planning, knowledge management and capacity building, and the establishment of systems to protect. - Population demographics and genetic study of the species across all sites and species distribution modelling carried out to better understand the biology and future of this species. I.7 - Policy and Strategic Context The Government of Madagascar made a commitment to prioritize a number of key elements to achieve the National Environment Program, particularly in terms of raising public awareness and involving citizens in changing their behavior and attitudes towards the environment. The effectiveness of the measures taken in this forestry policy is ensured by a legal and regulatory framework in which the activities implemented by all stakeholders are guided by joint action plans for the conservation of Madagascar's biodiversity. I.7.1 - Implementation of environmental policy As a signatory of the CBD, Madagascar had to develop a national strategy for plant conservation, but to date, this has not yet been done. The last report on the implementation of the NBSAP (Randriamahaleo, 2018) stated that traditional knowledge on plants is documented and protected but remains very disparate as it comes mainly from conservation sites. This report recommends the need for capacity building and training in the field, more specifically in the following areas: - the strengthening of the institutional framework for the implementation of actions, - improving the quality and availability of the human resources needed to carry out priority actions, and, In relation to the conservation of palm diversity and the preservation of their phytogenetic resources, the following treaties and framework documents are of particular importance: a) Convention on Biological Diversity, CBD: In line with the Aichi objectives (UNEP & WCMC, 2013) suggested by the CBD, Madagascar has developped the document "National Biodiversity Strategies and Action Plans, NBSAP" (MEEF, 2016) in order to ensure the continuity of ecological functions and ecosystem services provided by biodiversity in the well-being and socio-economic development of the 37 this global framework and consistent with the Environment Code (Law No. 2015 - 003), the Forest Policy (Politique Forestière, POLFOR) has been developed with a global vision that "all stakeholders should work together to ensure that Malagasy forest resources are protected and developed in a sustainable, rational and responsible manner" (MEEF, 2016). Thus, the strategy for the conservation and sustainable management of palm trees contributes to the achievement of the objective of this forestry policy "to ensure the sustainable and efficient management of Madagascar's forest assets". The efforts to be undertaken to conserve and preserve the palms of Madagascar will particularly strengthen the: - raising the awareness of the general public, particularly those who, in their profession or daily life, are users of biodiversity. (b) Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora, CITES: The level of exploitation of endemic palms as horticultural plants in Madagascar is quite high. To date, nine species of palms are included in the list of taxa regulated by CITES; this list needs to be updated in relation to the exploitation data available at the level of the CITES Management Authority. Exploited quantities are also governed by the concept of nondetriment findings (ACNP) to ensure sustainable exploitation and survival of natural populations. ACNP is issued by the CITES Scientific Authority after an intensive study of the population dynamics and reproductive biology of the species concerned. The quota determines the maximum number of specimens that may be exported in a given year without negatively affecting the survival of the species (CITES, 2016). For the moment, only Ravenea rivularis among the 9 species of palms from Madagascar listed in the CITES Appendices, has an annual exploitation quota set at 4,500 kg (UNEP & WCMC, 2014). - " Forest restoration/afforestation ", by advocating restoration actions with indigenous species, of which some palm species are part, - "Forestry exploitation, valorization and marketing of woody and non-woody forest products of plant origin", providing information on the methods of exploitation of palm trees and the quantities extracted in the natural environment. Madagascar is one of the 28 African countries that have officially committed to AFR100 (African Forest Landscape Restoration Initiative) with an initial pledge to implement the restoration of 4 million hectares by 2030 (MEEF, 2017). Endemic palms may be candidates among the taxa used in forest restoration. c) Protected Areas: Madagascar has decided to develop its natural assets and promote the sustainable use of natural resources for poverty reduction. In 2003, the government launched the "Durban Vision" by extending the size of terrestrial protected areas on the island to 6 million hectares. This process led to the creation of the protected area system, which currently includes 126 conservation areas managed by Madagascar National Parks and nature conservation NGOs. Covering major habitats capable to sustain viable populations of flora and fauna, Madagascar's terrestrial protected area networks aim to maintain biological diversity and ecological processes essential to life by allowing the genetic exchanges necessary for species stability (FAPBM, 2015). I.7.2- Gaps related to the conservation of palms In recent years, considerable progress has been made in studies and research on the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity in Madagascar. However, Madagascar faces many constraints for the implementation of its commitments towards the conservation and sustainable use of its biological resources. As far as palm conservation is concerned, the main problems are: Since some threatened palm species and populations are found only within a few protected areas (see Table 10), the implementation of the development and management plan for each of these conservation areas is essential to preserve the extinction of species that are mainly threatened by non-rational uses or illegal exploitation. The lack of forest or park agents influences the quality of control or patrols in natural forests; this favours the development of illegal harvesting of forest resources, often leading to the loss of mature individuals. This is the case of rare palms that are in great demand locally or in horticulture, such as Beccariophoenix alfredii, Voanioala gerardii and Dypsis tsaravoasira. d) General State Policy: This document constitutes a general policy framework for the inclusive and sustainable development to combat against poverty, vulnerability and precariousness (République de Madagascar, 2014). Within Reforestation faces investment problems. It does not yet compensate for degradation, since it generally only covers around 0.40% of the total annual area destroyed or damaged by fire, exploitation or clearing (Global Forest 38 The absence of a specific law on the protection and management of threatened or vulnerable plant species makes it difficult to combat illegal logging, particularly for rare but highly prized palms in horticulture. The collection of these species is often done in an irrational way: cutting down adult plants to gain access to seeds or uprooting regeneration individuals. Many palm seedlings are sold in local markets or along national roads without the merchants having certificates of origin or authorization to Watch, 2020). However, within the framework of AFR100, the State is implementing the restoration of degraded natural forests through the principle of reforestation for enrichment with local natural species (MEEF, 2017). Logging companies are rarely professionals and behave like operators concerned above all with short-term profit. This is why the means and methods of exploitation that they implement do not integrate any concern for the sustainability of natural resources. sell these species. Felling techniques have repercussions on palm trees and their habitats. Sometimes even palm trees are felled to provide them with food or temporary shelter (hut). 39 II. ACTION PLAN Palms seedlings in the shadehouse of the Parc Botanique et Zooologique de Tsimbazaza (photo: M. Rakotoarinivo) 40 Objective I: To understand, to document and to recognize the diversity of palms of Madagascar VISION "By 2025, Madagascar's great richness in palm species is properly managed (conserved and sustainably used) by all relevant stakeholders, including local populations". The implementation of the conservation measures for species and their habitats requires first of all that the species concerned are well defined and accepted: an unresolved basic taxonomy means that measures taken at the species level cannot effectively address the taxa most in need of conservation. MISSION To achieve this vision, it is important to explore, conserve and explain the importance of Madagascar's palms by setting as mission "to stop the factors implying the decline in palm diversity through the conservation and sustainable use of all species and the restoration of their endangered habitats". Target 1: An online flora of all known species. Initiatives to be undertaken This strategy is intended to promote the sustainable management of palms with concrete and participatory actions for the conservation and sustainable use of species diversity. - To combine, share scientific knowledge and coordinate research efforts on the palms of Madagascar. - To revise the taxonomic classification of the palms of Madagascar: the ongoing phylogenetic analyses of the palms of Madagascar (MadClades project of RBG Kew) will allow to solve the taxonomic problems concerning the identification of certain species or genera. - To produce an identification key at the specific level so that the public can synthetically recognize the characters that distinguish one species from another. The Xper3 6 platform, an online interactive identification key, is an example of a tool for presenting and using descriptive data on palms to the general, non-specialized public. For the next years, it is crucial to: - Work with all stakeholders (people, NGOs, public and private sectors) to advance ideas and innovations in implementing conservation efforts, - Reduce pressures on species (direct pressures and/or pressures on habitats), - To ensure that the benefits arising from the use of genetic resources are shared in a fair and equitable manner, - Integrate the conservation capacities of all stakeholders based on sound science and the processes required by national legislation on the use of natural resources. Reasons For a better conservation of the palms of Madagascar, it is essential to have access to scientific data so that the public can improve their knowledge of the species, the ecosystems and what threatens these species. Several studies on taxonomy, ecological preferences and species biology have already been carried out but there are still many fields of research that are still insufficiently explored such as plant-animal relationships or ecosystem services provided by palms. A new update of the monograph of palms is needed and the basic information indispensable for the identification of palms such as illustrations and detailed scientific information should be systematically available to the public, thus to be included in taxonomic websites such as Palmweb 7 and Tropicos - Catalogue des Plantes de Madagascar 8 . In addition, nomenclatural data are constantly updated on sites such as "IPNI 9" and "The PlantList 10". The existence of scientific publications is often OBJECTIVES In relation to the strategic goals of the Aichi objectives (UNEP & WCMC, 2013), five strategic goals are to be considered for the sustainable conservation of palms while taking into account their positive consequences and contributions to sustainable development. These goals provide a general framework for the implementation of the Convention on Biodiversity and compliance with the Nagoya Protocol in order to achieve the objectives of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development (Schultz et al., 2016), and national priorities identified in the NBSAP (MEEF, 2016). 6 Xper3, La plateforme collaborative de gestion de données de biodiversité : http://www.xper3.fr 7 Palmweb – Palms of the world online : http://www.palmweb.org 8 Tropicos : Catalogue of the Plants of Madagascar: http://www.tropicos.org/Project/Madagascar 9 International Plant Names Index : https://www.ipni.org 10 The plant list: http://www.theplantlist.org 41 ignored by the public, so it is important to make them more visible and accessible to biodiversity professionals. Target 3: The conservation of palms is guaranteed through effective management of their natural habitats. The data compiled online will make it possible to report on the different threats and conservation issues for each species, particularly for little-known species and in unexplored regions. Botanists or field agents could potentially locate these plants during their expeditions. Actions to be undertaken To provide to the forestry administration the biological and ecological information necessary for supporting the relevant information for the proposal of a legal framework to protect declared threatened plants and their natural habitats. To establish research or conservation programmes promoting the survival of threatened or vulnerable species and the protection and management of existing habitats, and the restoration of deteriorated habitats. Target 2: An updated assessment of the conservation status of native species. Action to be undertaken - (Re)Assess the extinction risk of each species according to the IUCN Red List criteria and categories (2012). Reasons In addition to the designation of protected areas, legal frameworks that are specifically designed to conserve endangered species must be created. Priority should be given to conserving endemic species where they grow, and this may include urban landscapes and production areas, natural as well as semi-natural habitats. Reasons The IUCN Red List is not just a registry of names and associated threat categories. Its true value lies in the fact that it is a rich collection of information on the ecological and geographical requirements of species while highlighting the types of threats to be addressed and the challenges to their conservation (IUCN, 2020). It will be useful to develop individual species cards for those species encountered in protected areas or in a particular region to facilitate monitoring of species populations in reserves and the precise identification of sites colonized by palms. Such tool will include information on the nomenclature of the species (scientific name and vernacular name), illustrations and a summary of distinctive features that will allow instant recognition of the species. The last assessment of the majority of Madagascar's palms according to the IUCN Red List criteria was made in 2012. Species newly described after this date have not yet been formally assessed. As the IUCN (2017) suggests, the category of each species should be re-evaluated every 5 years if possible, or at least every 10 years. The information collected since 2012 should provide more refined assessments for many species, given the new data on occurrence but also on the outbreak of certain types of threats to the species. The Madagascar Plant Specialist Group (MPSG), as the Red List authority in Madagascar with its national partners and with the support of specialists of this taxon could take the lead in the new re-evaluation. The latter is particularly important for species listed in the CITES Appendices in order to have tangible scientific data for the setting of export quotas. Palm species should be considered in conservation targets in protected areas. Usually, visitors to these sites, both national and international, are aware of the wildlife; plants are rarely considered. Target 4: Important areas of palm diversity are identified and integrated into the conservation process. Actions to be undertaken - To use the scientific knowledge currently available and to be generated in the future on palms in Madagascar for supporting the conservation rationale that is shared in the national biodiversity reports. - To continue explorations for locating new populations for rare and threatened species. Objective II: To conserve the diversity of palm species in Madagascar With the reduction and fragmentation of the remaining natural areas, it is becoming increasingly important to understand the ecological and evolutionary dynamics of small populations in protected areas in order to preserve them for a period when future restoration of natural areas may allow for expansion of their range. 42 In order to better understand the diversity of palms and to be able to provide measures adapted to each species, it is important to continue botanical explorations aimed at locating new populations. Field experiments over the last two decades have concluded that poorly explored and sheltered forests are often the last habitats of rare or extremely threatened species. Based on the current knowledge trend, future efforts to catalog Madagascar palms should focus on certain key biodiversity areas where rare and infrequent palm populations may still persist (Table 15). Reasons Fundamental research on palms is among the most advanced studies carried out on groups of plants in the flora of Madagascar. The information currently available is of vital importance for the management of biodiversity in Madagascar. The majority of the sites recognized as species-rich (Rakotoarinivo et al., 2013) already benefit from protection measures following the extension of Madagascar's protected areas system since 2007. This makes it possible to maintain natural evolutionary processes and thus generate new variations in the gene pool that will help species adapt to changing environmental conditions. Table 15. Key areas of biodiversity not yet explored or little studied but considered a priority for cataloguing the diversity of palms in Madagascar. Region Key Biodiversity Area Potentially rare palms Dypsis andapae, D. curtisii, D. heteromorpha, D. montana, tsaratananensis, Ravenea nana Bemanevika and Bealanana DIANA SAVA/Analanjirofo Corridor Marojejy – Tsaratanana (COMATSA) Makira Natural Park (north part, corridor with Anjanaharibe-Sud) Analanjirofo Makira Natural Park (south part) Analanjirofo Classified forest of Bezavona-Bidia Analanjirofo/ AlaotraMangoro Corridor Ankeniheny – Zahamena (northeast part) Corridor Ankeniheny – Zahamena : south part Ankeniheny – Lakato Littoral forest of the north of Pangalanes. Classified forest of Onive & Corridor Fandriana – Marolambo Corridor Fandriana-Vondrozo : between Ranomafana and Andringitra Alaotra-Mangoro Atsinanana Haute-Matsiatra Dypsis ankaizinensis, D. curtisii, D. heteromorpha, Ravenea nana Dypsis andapae, D. ankirindro, D. brittiana, D. humilis, D. makirae, D. minuta, D. rakotonasoloi, Ravenea nana Dypsis brittiana, D. ceracea, D. makirae, D. monostachya, D. rakotonasoloi, Lemurophoenix halleuxii, Satranala decussilvae, Voanioala gerardii Dypsis andilamensis, D. ceracea, D. curtisii, D. humbertii, D. jeremiei, D. lanuginosa, D. linearis, D. pulchella, D. soanieranae, D. turkii, Ravenea delicatula. Dypsis anjae, D. canaliculata, D. ceracea, D. humbertii, D. remotiflora, D. sancta, D. schatzii, D. turkii, Ravenea lakatra Beccariophoenix madagascariensis, Dypsis lutea, D. pilulifera, Ravenea julietiae, R. latisecta, R. louvelii Dypsis angusta, D. lutea, D. pilulifera, D. thiryana, Ravenea lakatra Dypsis ambilaensis, D. arenarum, D. psammophila, D. saintelucei Dypsis pulchella, D. sahanofensis, D. thyriana, Ravenea latisecta Dypsis angusta, D. basilonga, D. robusta, D. thermarum, Ravenea lakatra, R. nana Beccariophoenix madagascariensis, D. dracaenoides, D. culminis, D. elegans, D. eriostachys, D. gronophyllum, D. mcdonaldiana, D. nauseosa, D. saintelucei, D. simianensis, D. tanalensis, D. tenuissima, Ravenea beentjei, R. hypoleuca, R. julietiae, R. krociana High Mnanara : south of Vondrozo Atsimo-Atsinanana Protected areas of Vohipaho & Ankarabolava-Agnakatriky (Vangaindrano) Anosy Massif of Beampingaratsy Bongolava Melaky Tsinjoarivo Kasijy Dypsis angusta, D. digitata, D. elegans, D. integra, D. simianensis Beccariophoenix madagascariensis, Dypsis brevicaulis, D. culminis, D. elegans, D. henrici, D. lilacina, D. malcomberi, D. mcdonaldiana, D. pustulata, Ravenea declivium, R. hypoleuca, R. krociana, R. nana Dypsis oropedionis, D. onilahensis Borassus madagascariensis, Dypsis leptocheilos, Ravenea rivularis 43 Target 5: At least 75% of threatened species are conserved in situ Reasons The implementation of an ex-situ conservation strategy in parallel with an in-situ strategy is advantageous especially for very rare species that may become extinct in the wild. The efforts already undertaken at the Tsimbazaza Botanical and Zoological Park, the Ranomafana Arboretum and the Ivoloina Park should be continued and extended. The cultivated palm trees will be used as mother plants for the collection of seeds for restoration and reintroduction activities in the natural environment (Target 7) and for planting in schools and other public places. Actions to be undertaken - To produce field guides or data cards on local species for sites particularly rich in palm trees in order to strengthen the capacities of forestry agents, environmental technicians and local populations in the monitoring of rare and endangered palms. - To promote science that involves local communities in the collection of information useful for the implementation of a management and conservation plan for endangered species. - To prepare and disseminate locally technical manuals for the management of natural regeneration of palm trees and artificial propagation in nurseries for their reintroduction into natural habitats. Target 7: Threatened species are included in recovery and reintroduction programs in the wild. Actions to be undertaken - To collect seeds from mature palm trees cultivated in urban areas or botanical gardens to provide seedlings for the restoration and enrichment of natural populations of endangered species, - To study the ability of species and the chances of survival of seedlings produced in culture to re-establish or acclimatize quickly in the original habitats. Reasons In situ conservation often appears to be the best option for preserving some species because their survival depends mainly on particular ecological conditions. These are the cases for high mountain species such as Dypsis pumila (Marojejy peak, 2100m altitude) or Ravenea nana (on exposed peaks between Tsaratanana and Fianarantsoa). The lack of information on threatened palms in each conservation site is a major obstacle to achieving this goal. Collaboration with each site manager is strongly recommended to achieve this target, particularly by providing basic information for the methods of identification of the different species. Reasons The propagation of cultivated endangered species can contribute significantly to preserving the diversity of palms. However, this alone is not a viable alternative because limited resources and facilities (laboratories, greenhouses, trained horticulturists, etc.) and unavoidable genetic changes due to genetic drift and random selection in artificial environments can make it difficult to re-establish cultivated strains into the wild. Initiatives undertaken at ex situ sites such as the Ranomafana Arboretum, the Parc Botanique et Zooologique de Tsimbazaza, and the Ivoloina Park to multiply rare and endangered species must continue. The experiences and capacities acquired during the last three years are to be popularized and shared with anyone wishing to work on the restoration of the palms of Madagascar. The involvement of local communities around in situ conservation is accomplished by combining together information on the law with the restriction of the rights allowing the sustainable exploitation (right of use), or the legal creation of "community reserve" managed by the local communities. Target 6: At least 50% of threatened species are conserved ex-situ. Objective III: Palms are used sustainably and equitably Actions to be undertaken - To sample and to cultivate species from poorly known areas and clades in order to better represent genetic diversity in cultivation, - To give guidance on the knowledge of the flora of the palms of Madagascar in botanical gardens, - To promote the use of endemic palms in reforestation and in public places and schools in order to raise public awareness about the diversity and value of endemic species. Target 8: No indigenous palms are threatened by the trade Actions to be undertaken - Collaborate with the CITES Plants Committee in Madagascar to inform decisions to be taken for the in situ conservation of species threatened by international trade, 44 by providing the quotas of exploitable seeds, the knowledge on the conservation status of the species and its role in the ecosystem, - To provide training to CITES officers and forestry administration officers in the regions or at the level of customs controls so that they can recognize the diagnostic characteristics of each species in the seeds or other plant material likely to be exported. - Prioritize, at the national level, the ex situ propagation of palms in order to reduce pressure on species in the wild. collection sites, encourage fair and equitable benefit sharing and the participation of local communities, - To promote collaboration between the various NGOs and concerned stakeholders to undertake an inventory and evaluation of useful palm products and exploited by local populations or in urban areas, and raw and processed exported palm products (e.g. raffia fibers and handicrafts). Reasons As non-timber forest products, palms are exploited by people who rely on natural resources for their livelihoods (Bennet, 2011). For their own subsistence, these communities have developed preferences for the products to be harvested on the basis of their traditional history of extraction and use. In many cases, however, using these products to generate income has led to the loss of many palms at the local level, which is particularly problematic for rare and endangered species. Extraction methods are often destructive and unsustainable, through the cutting down of reproductive adults. The recent declines of some species of tree palms such as Dypsis tsaravoasira, Marojejya insignis or Voanioala gerardii are unfortunately attributed more to the consumption of their edible heart than to other types of threats related to habitat or horticulture. Reasons The trade of palms taken from the wild has increased to the extent at which a certain number of species have been harvested to near extinction. According to the CITES Convention (1983), an export permit can only be issued by the State Scientific Authority if the export will not be detrimental to the survival of the species. Today, the biological and ecological information, essential for making decisions on export applications for different species, exists but is not compiled to be properly exploited. The Madagascar Palm Seed Guide published by the Scientific Authority (Rakouth & Roger, 2011) is an indispensable tool in this field. However, it would be necessary to revise the book by including more species, including those that have been the most commercialized and exported over the last decade. The process of behavior change begins with the transmission of information that motivate people to participate in conservation. Creating an enabling environment for people to understand and explore the world around them can lead to positive conservation behavior. While recognizing the country's right to trade wild specimens sustainably, it is important to give priority to the ex situ propagation of palms. Artificial propagations will reduce pressure on wild populations as fewer plants will be taken from them. Many cultivated species introduced into cultivation two or three decades ago have now flowered and yielded viable seeds. This will increase the quality and quantity of specimens on the national and international market, making competition with trade in wild-collected specimens more economically viable. Target 10: Indigenous practices and traditional knowledge associated with plant resources are maintained or enhanced to support sustainable livelihoods. Actions to be undertaken Economic operators who wish to export seedlings or young plants abroad will not be able to have collected them from the wild. These palms must come from propagation in their own gardens or greenhouses and this must be verified by the competent authorities before the export permit is issued. - To strengthen the support to local communities in maintaining their intellectual heritage against globalization and to achieve sustainable development, - -To encourage the competent authorities to integrate an ecosystem approach of traditional knowledge in national sustainable development policies. Target 9: All products from wild harvested palm are obtained in a sustainable way. Reasons Gaps in ethnobotanical data on palms represent not only the potential loss of traditional local knowledge, but also the loss of information that could provide important information for biodiversity and ecosystem management. Actions to be undertaken - To ensure that supply chain practices for palm products integrate the social and environmental aspects of 45 Traditional knowledge is now being integrated into biodiversity conservation management projects such as in the framework of the Intergovernmental Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES). Traditional knowledge about palms has the potential to advance medicine, food security and agricultural practices. essential to integrate biodiversity issues into development projects aimed at improving sustainable living conditions. Objective V: To build the capacity and public commitment required for the implementation of the strategy However, despite organized efforts to preserve traditional knowledge, many traditional practices and lifestyles are being abandoned or forgotten as a result of globalization. Indigenous knowledge holders should be equitably compensated when their knowledge is accessed and when commercial research is conducted in their communities. Target 12: To increase the management capability of organizations involved in the propagation and collection of palms. Actions to be undertaken - To increase the number of technicians that are able to reproduce and multiply palms in botanical gardens, - To engage other development sectors, such as agriculture, industry, education, forestry, water management and local communities in the promotion of ex-situ palm multiplication and conservation. - To share and exchange palm seedlings between different botanical gardens and conservatories across the island. Objective IV: To promote education and awareness of plant diversity, its role in sustainable livelihoods and its importance for all life on earth. Rural, urban and business people will each have a different relationship with plants. Few people live without at least a few plants at their fingertips. Palms provide various services to man: food, daily tools, or raw materials. Once this awareness has been acquired, it becomes possible to build on the empathy created by the smallest awakening of interest. Reasons Botanical gardens and their scientific associates should serve as repositories for collections of living palms. By building up a complete collection, with the necessary staff and materials, each botanical garden should specialize in the cultivation of palms that grow well in their climatic conditions to be used as an ex situ gene pool. Target 11: The importance of plant diversity and the need for its conservation through communication, education and public awareness programs. Gardens should systematically collect seeds produced from their plants, or cross-breed their plants to increase their genetic base, and then collaborate with horticulturists with the necessary facilities to germinate the seeds and then distribute the seedlings to a large number of ex situ conservation institutes or public gardens. Such activities will be of great importance in terms of disseminating information to the public on the existence and importance of Madagascar's rare palms. A network of public and private gardens and specialized horticulturists should be created in order to: Actions to be undertaken - To reorient the environmental education strategy to address the livelihoods, products, and ecosystem services provided by palms for sustainable development at local, regional, and national levels. - To raise awareness of the importance of conserving palm diversity in national documents or strategies related to climate change or resource management. - stimulate collaboration between them, possibly with the support of the BGCI 11, - to integrate them into initiatives aimed at the general public (especially schools) or tourists, both national and international. Reasons Communication, education and awareness are important tools for the success of a plan for long-term conservation and sustainable use. However, simply telling people about the diversity of palms and what is happening to them is not enough to ensure that they change their habits. The success of palm conservation at the local and national level will only be achieved with the transfer of knowledge and skills related to plant conservation. It is The government should stimulate the active participation of botanical gardens in the implementation of CITES and the conservation of palms. Botanic Gardens Conservation International, whose Africa Chapter is based in Nairobi. 11 46 Conclusion reserves. Operations targeting rare and economically important species often continue in remote and poorly monitored sites. The erosion of biodiversity affects the diversity of palm trees in Madagascar because many species persist locally in juvenile form after some mature plants have been cleared with the forest. Declining species can regain strength if a threshold of habitat quality is maintained. Without adequate protection and management, these threatened populations are at risk of disappearing in the future because habitat disturbance and fragmentation provide suitable conditions for the development of invasive secondary species, which have negative impacts on endemic species by reducing the growth rate at different stages of their life cycle. In addition, some priority sites for palm conservation, usually remote or landlocked forest fragments, are not included in the current protected areas network. For example, the only known locality of Beccariophoenix alfredii is found in small, intact forest patches; its population could be very sensitive to environmental stochasticity and local extinction. The protection of this forest is an urgent priority to conserve this isolated and endemic species. On the other hand, some small fragments are included in Madagascar's network of protected areas, such as the area of about 2 km² of degraded coastal plain forest in Analalava (near Foulpointe) north of Toamasina, which is an exceptional area with 25 species of palms. This small fragment is managed locally by Missouri Botanical Garden staff who promote the site by combining conservation and ecotourism. The high risk of extinction faced by palms in Madagascar calls into question the effectiveness of previous conservation measures taken on the island. In a period of increasing human population density and pressure on biodiversity, the long-term success of protected areas is at the heart of potential solutions for palm conservation. The most recent extension of the surface area of Madagascar's protected areas has been essential for the protection of palms as many species have been able to benefit from new forms of protection for their habitats. 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Rapport Planète Vivante. https://wwf.panda.org/wwf_news/?282696/Madaga scar-subira-une-perte-de-30-de-ses-espces-avant-lafin-du-XXI-sicle-si-lhomme-poursuit-son-entrepriseau-rythme-actuel (accessed 24/06/2020). 52 Appendix I (continued) Appendix Appendix I: List of indigenous and native palms of Madagascar. Species names follow the accepted nomenclature according to the "World Checklist of Palms" by Govaerts et al (2020). The distribution range encompasses the general distribution pattern of the species according to the major geomorphological and geographical subdivisions of the island. The site concept in this table corresponds to a distinct locality not adjacent to any other known occurrence of the species within a radius of 5km. The altitudinal gradient of the species has been rounded to 100m intervals. Species Endemic Distribution range Number of known site(s) Beccariophoenix alfredii Beccariophoenix fenestralis Beccariophoenix madagasc ariensis Bismarckia nobilis Borassus aethiopum Borassus madagascariensis Yes Yes Highland: Betafo East: Ampasimanolotra 1 1 1000-1200 0-300 Humid forest Humid forest Yes East: Mantadia - Taolagnaro 5 0-1300 Humid forest Yes No West: Antsiranana - Isalo Sambirano: Nosy be - Analalava 30 30+ 0-800 0-100 Grassland Grassland Yes West: Antsohihy - Ivohibe 5 0-800 Grassland 7 Dypsis acaulis Yes 1 0-100 Humid forest 8 Dypsis acuminum Yes 4 0-1900 Humid forest 9 Dypsis albofarinosa Yes 1 1000-1200 Humid forest 10 Dypsis ambanjae Yes 2 600-1200 Humid forest 11 Dypsis ambilaensis Yes 5 0-900 Humid forest 12 13 Dypsis ambositrae Dypsis ampasindavae Yes Yes 3 2 1400-1700 0-500 Humid forest Subumid forest 14 Dypsis andapae Yes 3 400-800 Humid forest 15 16 Dypsis andilamenensis Dypsis andrianatonga Yes Yes 1 8 800-900 100-1000 Humid forest Humid forest 17 Dypsis angusta Yes 3 0-1000 Humid forest 18 Dypsis angustifolia Yes 7 0-1100 Humid forest 19 20 21 22 23 Dypsis anjae Dypsis ankaizinensis Dypsis ankirindro Dypsis antanambensis Dypsis aquatilis Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes 1 1 3 1 2 600-800 1800-2000 300-800 200-500 0-200 24 Dypsis arenarum Yes 4 0-100 25 Dypsis aurantiaca Yes 1 600-700 Humid forest Humid forest Humid forest Humid forest Coastal swampy areas Littoral forest, coastal swampy areas Humid forest 26 Dypsis baronii Yes 28 400-1700 Humid forest 27 28 29 30 31 Dypsis basilonga Dypsis beentjei Dypsis bejofo Dypsis bernieriana Dypsis betamponensis Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes 3 1 5 7 1 200-1100 200-400 200-700 100-800 300-500 Humid forest Humid forest Humid forest Humid forest Humid forest 32 Dypsis betsimisarakae Yes 6 200-1200 Humid forest 33 Dypsis boiviniana Yes 5 0-300 Humid forest 34 35 36 37 Dypsis bonsai Dypsis bosseri Dypsis brevicaulis Dypsis brittiana Yes Yes Yes Yes 4 2 4 1 400-900 0-50 0-400 800-1000 38 Dypsis canaliculata Yes 3 300-700 39 Dypsis canescens Yes East: Masoala North: Daraina - Massif Tsaratanana Highland: Andringitra North: Daraina - Tsaratanana Mountain East: Toamasina Ampasimanolotra Highland: Ambositra - Itremo Sambirano: Nosy Be -Ambanja East, Highland: Marojejy Mandritsara Est : Andilamena North: MaNogarivo - Sambava East: Ranomafana Farafangana East: Toamasina - Anosibe an'Alal East: Zahamena North: Massif de Tsaratanana East: Makira - Masoala East: Mananara Avaratra East: Taolagnaro East: Sainte Marie Ampasimanolotra East: Vondrozo Est & Highland: Marojejy Midongy Atsimo East: Mananjary - Ikongo East: Mananara Avaratra East: Masoala - Toamasina Est : Masoala - Mananjary East: Betampona Est : Soanierana Ivongo Anosibe an'Ala East: Masoala - Soanierana Ivongo East: Marojejy - Zahamena East: Fenerive Est - Toamasina East: Taolagnaro East: Makira North & East: Ambanja Brickville Sambirano: Ambanja 1 0-100 Humid forest Humid forest Humid forest Humid forest Subumid forest, Humid forest Subumid forest 1 2 3 4 5 6 Elevation (m) Vegetation type(s) Appendix I (continued) Species Endemic Distribution range 40 Dypsis carlsmithii Yes 41 Dypsis catatiana Yes 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 Dypsis caudata Dypsis ceracea Dypsis commersoniana Dypsis concinna Dypsis confusa Dypsis cookei Dypsis coriacea Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes 49 Dypsis corniculata Yes 50 Dypsis coursii Yes 51 Dypsis crinita Yes 52 Dypsis culminis Yes 53 Dypsis curtisii Yes 54 Dypsis decaryi Yes 55 Dypsis decipiens Yes 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 Dypsis delicatula Dypsis digitata Dypsis dracaenoides Dypsis dransfieldii Dypsis elegans Dypsis eriostachys Dypsis faneva Dypsis fanjana Dypsis fasciculata Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes 65 Dypsis fibrosa Yes 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 Dypsis forficifolia Dypsis furcata Dypsis gautieri Dypsis glabrescens Dypsis gronophyllum Dypsis henrici Dypsis heteromorpha Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes 73 Dypsis heterophylla Yes 74 Dypsis hiarakae Yes 75 Dypsis hildebrandtii Yes 76 Dypsis hovomantsina Yes 77 78 79 Dypsis humbertii Dypsis humilis Dypsis ifanadianae Yes Yes Yes 80 Dypsis integra Yes 81 82 83 Dypsis intermedia Dypsis interrupta Dypsis jeremiei Yes Yes Yes 84 Dypsis jumelleana Yes 85 Dypsis laevis Yes 86 Dypsis lantzeana Yes Est : Masoala - Toamasina Sambirano, Est & Highland: Ambanja - Taolagnaro East: Masoala East: Andapa - Toamasina East: Taolagnaro East: Makira - Ifanadiana East: Masoala - Ifanadiana East: Marojejy East: Masoala - Vavatenina East: Mananara Avaratra Toamasina East: Sambava Ampasimanolotra Sambirano & East: Manongarivo - Ampasimanolotra East: Vondrozo - Taolagnaro North & East: Tsaratanana Soanierana Ivongo Sud: Amboasary Atsimo Taolagnaro Highland: Andilamena Fianarantsoa East: Toamasina East: Manajary - Vangaindrano East: Vondrozo East: Masoala East: Mahanoro - Taolagnaro East: Mananjary - Taolagnaro East: Masoala - Toamasina East: Masoala - Zahamena East: Sambava - Ranomafana Sambirano & East: maNogarivo Taolagnaro East: Sambava - Toamasina East: Masoala - Mahanoro East: Daraina East: Sambava - Toamasina East: Vondrozo East: Taolagnaro North: Tsaratanana - Marojejy Est & Highland: Sambava Ambositra Sambirano & East: MaNogarivo Midongy Atsimo East: Zahamena - Ifanadiana East: Masoala - Soanierana Ivongo East: Ambatovaky - Zahamena East: Makira East: Ifanadiana East: Soanierana Ivongo Midongy Atsimo East: Farafangana East: Ifanadiana - Farafangana East: Ambatovaky East: Ambatondrazaka Vatomandry East: Farafangana East: Andapa - Soanierana Ivongo Number of known site(s) Elevation (m) 2 0-100 23 100-1900 1 5 2 16 14 1 5 0-100 400-1200 0-100 300-1200 0-1200 900-1600 200-1100 Humid forest Subumid forest, Humid forest Humid forest Humid forest Humid forest Humid forest Humid forest Humid forest Humid forest 5 0-900 Humid forest 5 200-1900 Humid forest 13 200-800 Humid forest 2 100-700 Humid forest 3 300-1700 Humid forest 2 100-500 Dry spiny forest 11 1000-1600 Grassland 1 3 1 1 5 3 6 9 17 200-500 0-100 500-700 0-100 0-700 400-800 0-300 0-900 0-1200 Humid forest Humid forest Humid forest Humid forest Humid forest Humid forest Humid forest Humid forest Humid forest 30+ 0-1100 Humid forest 16 2 1 5 1 1 2 0-1500 0-300 900-1100 0-600 500-600 0-400 1600-1900 Humid forest Humid forest Humid forest Humid forest Humid forest Humid forest Humid forest 24 400-1500 Humid forest 5 300-1000 Humid forest 14 0-1500 Humid forest 6 0-600 Humid forest 4 1 1 300-1300 100-200 200-600 Humid forest Humid forest Humid forest 7 0-800 Humid forest 1 3 1 0-100 0-600 900-1000 Humid forest Humid forest Humid forest 12 500-1300 Humid forest 1 0-100 Humid forest 11 0-900 Humid forest Vegetation type(s) Appendix I (continued) Distribution range Number of known site(s) Elevation (m) Vegetation type(s) 2 300-500 Humid forest 23 0-900 Humid forest 4 *** 1 1 4 3 9 1 5 0-200 Species Endemic 87 Dypsis lanuginosa Yes 88 Dypsis lastelliana Yes 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 Dypsis leptocheilos Dypsis leucomalla Dypsis ligulata Dypsis lilacina Dypsis linearis Dypsis lokohoensis Dypsis louvelii Dypsis lucens Dypsis lutea Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes East: Soanierana Ivongo Mahanoro Sambirano & East: MaNogarivo, Daraina – Ampasimanolotra West: Ambilobe - Maintirano *** North: Ambilobe East: Taolagnaro East: Soanierana Ivongo East: Marojejy - Masoala East: Moramanga - Ifanadiana East: Maroantsetra East: Masoala - Vatomandry 98 Dypsis lutescens Yes East: Daraina - Vangaindrano 17 0-600 99 Dypsis madagascariensis Yes West : Antsiranana - Morondava 10 0-1000 100 101 102 Dypsis mahia Dypsis makirae Dypsis malcomberi Yes Yes Yes 1 1 4 0-100 600-1000 400-1200 103 Dypsis mananjarensis Yes 10 0-800 Humid forest 104 Dypsis mangorensis Yes 3 0-200 Humid forest 105 Dypsis marojejyi Yes 2 600-1200 Humid forest 106 107 108 109 110 Dypsis mcdonaldiana Dypsis metallica Dypsis mijoroana Dypsis minuta Dypsis mirabilis Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes 3 1 1 1 1 0-600 0-100 100-200 200-300 0-200 Humid forest Humid forest Humid forest Humid forest Humid forest 111 Dypsis mocquerysiana Yes 11 0-1000 Humid forest 112 113 Dypsis monostachya Dypsis montana Yes Yes 2 1 500-900 600-1200 Humid forest Humid forest 114 Dypsis moorei Yes 2 0-500 Humid forest 115 116 117 118 Dypsis nauseosa Dypsis nodifera Dypsis nossibensis Dypsis occidentalis Yes Yes Yes Yes 4 30+ 1 5 0-600 0-1700 0-400 400-1700 Humid forest Humid forest Humid forest Humid forest 119 Dypsis onilahensis Yes 24 300-1400 Subumid forest 120 Dypsis oreophila Yes 5 600-1700 Humid forest 121 Dypsis oropedionis Yes 2 1100-1500 Humid forest 122 123 124 Dypsis ovobontsira Dypsis ovojavavy Dypsis pachyramea Yes Yes Yes 1 1 7 200-400 100-200 0-400 Humid forest Humid forest Humid forest 125 Dypsis paludosa Yes 6 0-600 Humid forest 126 Dypsis perrieri Yes 7 0-900 Humid forest 127 Dypsis pervillei Yes 2 300-400 Humid forest 128 Dypsis pilulifera Yes 6 300-1000 Humid forest 129 Dypsis pinnatifrons Yes 24 0-1300 Humid forest 130 131 132 Dypsis plumosa Dypsis plurisecta Dypsis poivreana Yes Yes Yes East: Farafangana East: Makira East: Midongy Atsimo - Befotaka East: Ampasimanolotra Taolagnaro East: Mananara Avaratra Mahanoro East: Marojejy - Anjanaharibe Sud East: Vondrozo - Taolagnaro East: Masoala East: Masoala East: Masoala East: Marojejy East: Antalaha - Soanierana Ivongo East: Maroantsetra - Andilamena North: Tsaratanana East: Masoala Ampasimanolotra East: Ifanadiana - Vondrozo East: Daraina - Taolagnaro Sambirano: Nosy Be North: MaNogarivo - Marojejy Ouest & Highland: Antsiranana Amboasary Atsimo East: Sambava - Andilamena Highland: Ankazobe Tsiroanomandidy East: Mananara Avaratra East: Masoala East: Masoala East: Masoala Ampasimanolotra East: Masoala Ampasimanolotra East: Soanierana Ivongo Toamasina Sambirano & East: MaNogarivo Ampasimanolotra Sambirano & East: MaNogarivo, Daraina - Taolagnaro *** East: Masoala East: Fenerive Est - Toamasina Forêt suhumide Humid forest Forêt suhumide Humid forest Humid forest Humid forest Humid forest Humid forest Humid forest Watercourse edge, coastal swampy areas Dry forest, Subumid forest Humid forest Humid forest Humid forest *** 1 2 0-100 0-100 Humid forest Humid forest Humid forest 0-100 400-500 400-900 0-1200 100-1100 400-500 0-1100 Appendix I (continued) Number of known site(s) Elevation (m) Vegetation type(s) Species Endemic Distribution range 133 Dypsis prestoniana Yes 7 0-600 Humid forest 134 Dypsis procera Yes 13 0-600 Humid forest 135 Dypsis procumbens Yes 27 0-1800 Humid forest 136 137 138 Dypsis psammophila Dypsis pulchella Dypsis pumila Yes Yes Yes 8 2 1 0-600 300-900 1900-2100 Humid forest Humid forest Mountain thicket 139 Dypsis pusilla Yes 3 0-400 Humid forest 140 141 142 143 144 Dypsis pustulata Dypsis rabepierrei Dypsis rakotonasoloi Dypsis ramentacea Dypsis reflexa Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes 1 1 1 1 1 300-700 100-200 900-1000 0-100 0-100 Humid forest Humid forest Humid forest Humid forest Humid forest 145 Dypsis remotiflora Yes East: Mahanoro - Taolagnaro East: Antalaha Ampasimanolotra Sambirano & East: Manongarivo, Marojejy - Taolagnaro East: Vohemar - Taolagnaro East: Andilamena - Mahanoro East: Marojejy East: Masoala - Mananara Avaratra East: Taolagnaro East: Masoala East: Makira East: Mananara Avaratra East: Masoala East: Ampasimanolotra Farafangana 2 0-900 Humid forest 146 Dypsis rivularis Yes West: Ambanja - Marovoay 3 100-800 147 148 Dypsis robusta Dypsis rosea Yes Yes 1 1 700-800 500-800 149 Dypsis sahanofensis Yes 4 200-1400 Humid forest 150 Dypsis saintelucei Yes 4 0-600 Humid forest 151 152 153 Dypsis sancta Dypsis sanctaemariae Dypsis scandens Yes Yes Yes 1 1 2 500-600 0-100 500-600 Humid forest Humid forest Humid forest 154 Dypsis schatzii Yes 2 300-700 Humid forest 155 Dypsis scottiana Yes 5 0-800 Humid forest 156 Dypsis serpentina Yes 4 200-600 Humid forest 157 Dypsis simianensis Yes 5 0-600 Humid forest 158 Dypsis singularis Yes 2 0-200 Humid forest 159 160 161 162 163 164 165 166 Dypsis soanieranae Dypsis spicata Dypsis subacaulis Dypsis tanalensis Dypsis tenuissima Dypsis thermarum Dypsis thiryana Dypsis thouarsiana Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes 1 6 1 2 2 2 11 1 0-100 400-1200 100-200 100-700 500-700 400-1300 200-1300 Humid forest Humid forest Humid forest Humid forest Humid forest Humid forest Humid forest Humid forest 167 Dypsis tokoravina Yes 2 400-800 Humid forest 168 169 170 171 172 173 174 Dypsis trapezoidea Dypsis tsaratananensis Dypsis tsaravoasira Dypsis turkii Dypsis utilis Dypsis viridis Dypsis vonitrandambo Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes 1 2 10 3 5 8 1 200-500 1100-2200 0-1200 400-1000 0-1000 100-700 0-100 Humid forest Humid forest Humid forest Humid forest Humid forest Humid forest Humid forest 175 Hyphaene coriacea Yes 25 0-900 Grassland 176 Lemurophoenix halleuxii Yes 3 200-600 Humid forest 177 Lemurophoenix laevis Yes --- --- Humid forest 178 Marojejya darianii Yes 6 0-500 Humid forest 179 Marojejya insignis Yes East: Ifanadiana East: Marojejy East: Ampasimanolotra Mananjary East: Ampasimanolotra Taolagnaro East: Zahamena East: Sainte Marie East: Ifanadiana East: Toamasina Ampasimanolotra East: Farafangana - Taolagnaro East: Daraina - Mananara Avaratra East: Soanierana Ivongo Vangaindrano East: Farafangana Vangaindrano East: Soanierana Ivongo East: Marojejy - Andilamena East: Taolagnaro East: Vohipeno - Vondrozo East: Vondrozo - Taolagnaro East: Ifanadiana East: Marojejy - Anosibe an'Ala East: Sainte Marie East: Masoala - Mananara Avaratra East: Mananjary North: Tsaratanana East: Daraina - Ampasimanolotra East: Andilamena - Vavatenina East: Vavatenina - Manakara East: Maroantsetra - Toamasina East: Masoala West: Antsiranana - Betioky Atsimo East: Masoala - Mananara Avaratra *** East: Masoala Ampasimanolotra East: Daraina - Taolagnaro Dry forest, Subumid forest Humid forest Humid forest 20 0-1200 Humid forest Appendix I (continued) Species Endemic Distribution range 180 181 Masoala kona Masoala madagascariensis Yes Yes 182 Orania longisquama Yes 183 Orania ravaka Yes 184 185 Orania trispatha Phoenix reclinata Yes Yes 186 Raphia farinifera No 187 Ravenea albicans Yes 188 189 195 190 191 192 193 Ravenea beentjei Ravenea declivium Ravenea delicatula Ravenea dransfieldii Ravenea glauca Ravenea hypoleuca Ravenea julietiae Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes 194 Ravenea krociana Yes 196 197 Ravenea lakatra Ravenea latisecta Yes Yes 198 Ravenea louvelii Yes 199 Ravenea madagascariensis Yes 200 Ravenea musicalis Yes 201 Ravenea nana Yes 202 Ravenea rivularis Yes 203 Ravenea robustior Yes 204 Ravenea sambiranensis Yes 205 Ravenea xerophila Yes 206 Satranala decussilvae Yes 207 Tahina spectabilis Yes 208 Voanioala gerardii Yes East: Ifanadiana - Vondrozo East: Sambava - Toamasina Sambirano & East: MaNogarivo, Antalaha - Taolagnaro East: Masoala - Soanierana Ivongo East: Masoala - Farafangana West: Vohemar - Toliara East, Highland, Sambirano and West East: Antahala Ampasimanolotra East: Vondrozo East: Taolagnaro East: Andilamena East: Marojejy - Ifanadiana Highland: Andringitra - Isalo East: Vondrozo - Taolagnaro East: Masoala - Vondrozo East: Ampasimanolotra Taolagnaro East: Masoala - Farafangana East: Moramanga East: Moramanga Ampasimanolotra Est & Highland: Marojejy Befotaka East: Taolagnaro Est & Highland: Marojejy Taolagnaro West: Namoroka - Zombitse Sambirano, Est & Highland: Manongarivo, SambavaTaolagnaro Sambirano, Est & Highland: Manongarivo, SambavaTaolagnaro Sud: Bekily - Andohahela East: Masoala - Soanierana Ivongo West: Analalava East: Masoala - Mananara Avaratra Number of known site(s) Elevation (m) Vegetation type(s) 2 8 400-600 0-500 Humid forest Humid forest 13 0-600 Humid forest 6 0-600 Humid forest 9 22 0-400 0-500 Humid forest Humid forest 30+ 0-1400 Swampy areas 7 0-800 Humid forest 1 1 1 10 2 2 10 500-600 200-300 800-900 0-700 600-1900 200-600 0-900 Humid forest Humid forest Humid forest Humid forest Humid forest Humid forest Humid forest 6 400-1000 Humid forest 9 2 0-900 900-1100 Humid forest Humid forest 2 800-1200 Humid forest 28 0-1600 Humid forest 2 0-100 Humid forest 5 400-1600 Humid forest 5 400-900 Subumid forest 24 0-1700 Humid forest 30+ 0-1900 Humid forest 5 100-700 Dry spiny forest 5 0-600 Humid forest 2 0-100 Humid forest 3 400-600 Humid forest Appendix II (continued) Appendix II. The state of traditional knowledge, types of use and conservation measures for the different species of Palms of Madagascar. Vernacular names and types of utilization have been compiled from miscellaneous literature sources; main threats and conservation areas have mainly been extracted from the Red list IUCN webpage (www.iucnredlist.org). The IUCN status gives the current extinction risk of the species according to the Red list categories: LC Least Concern – NT Near Threatened – VU Vulnerable – EN Endangered – CR Critically Endangered – DD Data Deficient – NE Not Evaluated. Species Vernacular name(s) Main threat(s) Zina Type(s) of utilisation Horticulture Beccariophoenix alfredii Beccariophoenix fenestralis Beccariophoenix madagascariensis Bismarckia nobilis Satrana, Satra, Satrabe, Satrana, Satrapotsy Borassus aethiopum Dimaka Borassus madagascariensis Befelatanana, Dimaka, Marandravina overcollection, fire IUCN status VU Maroala Horticulture overcollection, NE Manara, Manarano, Maroala, Sikomba Horticulture, basketry, house construction, food food, house construction, horticulture, basketry food, house construction habitat loss, mining, overcollection fire, overcollection, habitat loss, mining, fire, overcollection, habitat loss, mining overcollection, fire, mining Mantadia, Vondrozo & Tsitongambarika VU Daraina, Ankarana, Baie de Baly, Kirindy, Sahamalaza, Lokobe LC Lokobe LC Ankarafantsika EN habitat loss Masoala EN horticulture habitat loss Manongarivo, Marojejy EN horticulture overcollection Andringitra CR horticulture overcollection, habitat loss overcollection, habitat loss overcollection, habitat loss, mining overcollection, habitat loss Daraina, Tsaratanana CR habitat loss food, house construction, horticulture Dypsis acaulis Dypsis acuminum Lafaza Dypsis albofarinosa Dypsis ambanjae Lafa Dypsis ambilaensis horticulture Dypsis ambositrae hovotra horticulture Dypsis ampasindavae Lavaboka, Lavaboko Dypsis andapae Tsingovatra, Tsingovatrovatra food, house construction, horticulture horticulture Dypsis andilamenensis Dypsis andrianatonga Dypsis angusta Tsirika andrianatonga Dypsis angustifolia medicine horticulture Dypsis anjae Dypsis ankaizinensis Dypsis ankirindro Hovotra, Laboko, Lavaboka, Lavaboko Dypsis antanambensis Dypsis aquatilis Dypsis arenarum food horticulture EN Itremo CR Ampasindava, Lokobe, Manongarivo CR Marojejy EN habitat loss, mining habitat loss Manongarivo, Marojejy VU habitat loss Manombo EN habitat loss Betampona EN habitat loss Zahamena CR overcollection, habitat loss habitat loss Tsaratanana DD Makira NT overcollection Mananara Avaratra CR CR habitat loss Hirihiry house construction, horticulture, basketry overcollection, , habitat loss Dypsis aurantiaca Dypsis baronii Conservation area(s) Farihazo, Tongalo food, horticulture overcollection, habitat loss CR Tampolo CR Masoala NE Ambatovaky, AndasibeMantadia, Itremo, Marojejy, MarolamboFandriana, Manongarivo, Midongy Atsimo, Ranomafana, Zahamena LC Appendix II (continued) Species Vernacular name(s) Dypsis basilonga Madiovozona Dypsis beentjei Type(s) of utilisation food, horticulture Main threat(s) Bejofo, Hovotraomby Dypsis bernierana Ambosa Dypsis betamponensis Dypsis betsimisarakae Dypsis boiviniana Volon-bodironga Tsirika Talanoka, Tsingovatra Dypsis bonsai horticulture overcollection habitat loss, habitat loss Ambatovaky, Betampona, Makira, Masoala Betampona, Mangerivola, Masoala, Mananara Avaratra, Zahamena Betampona VU habitat loss Mananara Avaratra EN horticulture habitat loss, fire Makira, Marojejy, Masoala, Zahamena Analalava (Foulpointe) VU habitat loss, mining habitat loss Tsitongambarika CR Makira CR overcollection, habitat loss Manongarivo, Zahamena CR food, house construction food, horticulture Sinkara, Sinkaramboalavo, Varoatra Dypsis caudata horticulture overcollection, habitat loss habitat loss horticulture Lafaza Dypsis commersoniana Dypsis concinna Dypsis confusa Sinkara, Tsimikara, Tsinkara Dypsis cookei food, house construction overcollection, habitat loss horticulture habitat loss house construction, horticulture overcollection, habitat loss horticulture Dypsis coriacea Dypsis corniculata horticulture habitat loss Dypsis coursii Dypsis crinita Vonitra, Vonitrandrano house construction, horticulture, medicine, household tools overcollection, habitat loss Dypsis culminis Dypsis curtisii Dypsis decaryi Lafa Dypsis decipiens Betefaka, Manambe, Sihara, Sihara lehibe Dypsis delicatula EN DD Dypsis carlsmithii Dypsis ceracea VU VU Dypsis canescens Dypsis catatiana VU Mangerivola horticulture Lopaka, Monimony CR habitat loss Dypsis brittiana Dypsis canaliculata Mananara Avaratra house construction horticulture Dypsis bosseri Dypsis brevicaulis IUCN status CR overcollection, habitat loss horticulture Dypsis bejofo Conservation area(s) food, house construction, horticulture food, house construction, horticulture horticulture Analalava (Foulpointe), Masoala Andasibe-Mantadia, Andohahela, FandrianaMarolambo, Marojejy, Midongy Atsimo, Ranomafana, Zahamena Masoala CR Ambatovaky, Betampona, Marojejy, Zahamena Andohahela EN Analamazaotra-Mantadia, Fandriana-Marolambo, Ranomafana, Zahamena Betampona, Mangerivola, Mananara Avaratra, Masoala,Ranomafana, Zahamena Marojejy NT Makira, Mananara Avaratra, Masoala Betampona, Mananara Avaratra, Zahamena Marojejy NT Ambatovaky, Betampona, Makira, Mananara Avaratra, Mangerivola, Manongarivo, Masoala, Zahamena Tsitongambarika NT LC CR DD NT CR EN LC EN Ambatovaky, Tsaratanana EN overcollection, habitat loss Andohahela VU overcollection, fire Ambohitantely, Itremo VU Betampona VU Manombo CR Dypsis digitata habitat loss Dypsis dracaenoides habitat loss CR Appendix II (continued) Species Vernacular name(s) Dypsis dransfieldii Type(s) of utilisation horticulture Dypsis elegans Main threat(s) Masoala habitat loss Dypsis eriostachys horticulture habitat loss horticulture habitat loss Dypsis fanjana Sinkiara maventy, Tsinkiara mavinty Fanjana Dypsis fasciculata Sinkiara house construction, horticulture overcollection, habitat loss Dypsis fibrosa Ravimbontro, Vonitra, Vonitra antanety food, house construction, horticulture, medicine, household tools overcollection, habitat loss horticulture overcollection, habitat loss Dypsis faneva Dypsis forficifolia habitat loss Dypsis furcata Conservation area(s) Manombo, Tsitongambarika Midongy Atsimo, Tsitongambarika Mananara Avaratra, Masoala, Zahamena Masoala, Mananara Avaratra, Zahamena, Betampona Ambatovakty, Betampona, Mananara Avaratra, Mangerivola, Masoala, Ranomafana, Zahamena Ambatovaky, Analalava (Foulpointe), Analamazaotra-Mantadia, Andohahela, Betampona, Daraina, Corridor Ankeniheny-Zahamena, Corridor FandrianaVondrozo, FandrianaMarolambo, Makira, Mananara Avaratra, Mangerivola, Manombo, Manongarivo, Marojejy, Masoala, Midongy Atsimo, Ranomafana, Tsitongambarika, Zahamena Ambatovaky, Makira, Mananara Avaratra, Masoala habitat loss Dypsis gautieri Dypsis glabrescens horticulture Dypsis gronophyllum Dypsis henrici Hovomantsina food, horticulture Dypsis humilis LC EN habitat loss habitat loss Makira CR habitat loss Dypsis hovomantsina Dypsis humbertii LC DD habitat loss Tsirika NT Anjanaharibe Sud, Marojejy, Tsaratanana Analamazaotra-Mantadia, Fandriana-Vondrozo, Marojejy, Tsaratanana, Zahamena, Masoala, Ambatovaky Mananara Avaratra, Manongarivo, Masoala, Makira Ambohidray, Analamazaotra-Mantadia, Corridor AnkenihenyZahamena, FandrianaMarolambo Ambatovaky, Mananara Avaratra, Masoala Zahamena habitat loss Dypsis hildebrandtii EN EN horticulture house construction, horticulture horticulture EN VU horticulture Sinkiara, Tsirika CR Betampona, Mananara Avaratra Corridor FandrianaVondrozo Andohahela habitat loss Dypsis hiarakae CR Daraina habitat loss habitat loss Dypsis heteromorph a Dypsis heterophylla IUCN status NT overcollection, habitat loss Dypsis ifanadianae horticulture habitat loss Dypsis integra horticulture habitat loss Dypsis intermedia horticulture Dypsis interrupta horticulture CR DD NT VU NT CR VU CR CR habitat loss, fire Ambatovaky, Mananara Avaratra, Manombo, Midongy Atsimo Manombo habitat loss, fire Manombo CR CR Appendix II (continued) Species Vernacular name(s) Type(s) of utilisation Main threat(s) Tsirika horticulture habitat loss Dypsis jeremiei Dypsis jumelleana Ambatovaky Dypsis laevis habitat loss, fire Dypsis lantzeana horticulture habitat loss horticulture habitat loss food, house construction, horticulture, medicine, household tools overcollection, habitat loss Dypsis leptocheilos horticulture overcollection, habitat loss Dypsis leucomalla horticulture Dypsis ligulata food Dypsis lanuginosa Dypsis lastelliana Conservation area(s) Menavozona, Ravin-tsira, Sira IUCN status CR Analamazaotra-Mantadia, Angavo, Zahamena Manombo VU Makira, Mananara Avaratra, Masoala Ambatovaky VU Ambatovaky, Analalava (Foulpointe), Anjanaharibe Sud, Betampona, Daraina, Makira, Mananara Avaratra, Mangerivola, Manongarivo, Marojejy, Masoala, Tampolo, Zahamena Beanka LC CR CR CR NE Dypsis lilacina overcollection, habitat loss habitat loss Dypsis linearis habitat loss DD Tsitongambarika NE EN Dypsis lokohoensis horticulture habitat loss Marojejy, Masoala VU Dypsis louvelii horticulture overcollection, habitat loss Ambohidray, Analamazaotra-Mantadia, Corridor Ankeniheny Zahamena, Zahamena VU Dypsis lucens DD Dypsis lutea horticulture Dypsis lutescens Lafahazo, Lafaza, Rehazo Dypsis madagascariensis Hirihiry, Farihazo, Kindro, Kizohazo, Madiovozona overcollection, habitat loss, mining overcollection, habitat loss Mantadia, Masoala EN Daraina, Manombo, Masoala, Tampolo NT overcollection, habitat loss Lokobe, Manongarivo, Baie de Baly, Namoroka, Bemaraha Manombo LC Makira VU overcollection, habitat loss overcollection, habitat loss, fire Andohahela, Midongy Atsimo Manombo, Midongy Atsimo, Andohahela EN habitat loss Mananara Avaratra CR VU horticulture habitat loss Anjanaharibe Sud, Marojejy Andohahela horticulture habitat loss Masoala CR habitat loss Masoala NE food, house construction, horticulture food, house construction, horticulture Dypsis mahia habitat loss, fire Dypsis makirae Tsingovatra horticulture Dypsis malcomberi Rahosy, Vakaka food, horticulture Dypsis mananjarens is Ovodafa, Lafa, Lakatra food, house construction, horticulture, basketry horticulture Dypsis mangorensis Dypsis marojejyi Menamoso beratiraty Dypsis mcdonaldiana Dypsis metallica horticulture Dypsis mijoroana Dypsis minuta horticulture Dypsis mirabilis Dypsis mocquerysiana horticulture Dypsis monostachya Dypsis montana Dypsis moorei CR NT EN Masoala VU habitat loss Marojejy EN habitat loss, mining Masoala, Nosy Mangabe, Makira, Mananara Avaratra. NT DD horticulture Maroala Tsaratanana VU Mangerivola, Masoala EN Appendix II (continued) Species Vernacular name(s) Dypsis nauseosa Lafa, Rahoma, Mangidibe Dypsis nodifera Bedoda, Ovana, Sinkara, Tsinkara, Tsingovatra, Tsirika Type(s) of utilisation food, house construction, horticulture house construction, horticulture, household tools Main threat(s) Conservation area(s) overcollection, habitat loss Manombo overcollection, habitat loss Ambatovaky, Analalava (Foulpointe), Analamazaotra-Mantadia, Andohahela, Betampona, Daraina, Corridor Ankeniheny-Zahamena, Corridor FandrianaVondrozo, FandrianaMarolambo, Makira, Mananara Avaratra, Mangerivola, Manombo, Manongarivo, Marojejy, Masoala, Midongy Atsimo, Ranomafana, Tsitongambarika, Zahamena Lokobe LC Anjanaharibe Sud, Marojejy, Tsaratanana Isalo, Makay VU Makira, Marojejy, Tsaratanana Ambohitantely VU Mananara Avaratra CR Dypsis nossibensis habitat loss Dypsis occidentalis habitat loss Dypsis onilahensis Kindro, Sihara horticulture, food Dypsis oreophila Fitsiriky, Kindro, Lafaza, Tsirika food, horticulture, household tools horticulutre Dypsis oropedionis Dypsis ovobontsira Ovobontsira overcollection, habitat loss, fire overcollection, habitat loss overcollection, habitat loss horticulture Dypsis ovojavavy IUCN status CR CR VU CR Masoala NE Dypsis pachyramea horticulture habitat loss Masoala, Nosy Mangabe LC Dypsis paludosa horticulture habitat loss VU food overcollection, habitat loss Ambatovaky, Makira, Mananara Avaratra, Masoala Makira, Marojejy, Mangerivola, Masoala, Mananara Avaratra. horticulture habitat loss food, horticulture overcollection, habitat loss overcollection, habitat loss Dypsis perrieri Besofina, Menamosona, Kase Dypsis pervillei Dypsis pilulifera Dypsis pinnatifrons Hozatanana, Lavaboka, Lavaboko, Ovomamy Ambolo, Hova, Ovatsiketry, Tsingovatra, Tsingovatrovatra, Tsobolo Dypsis plumosa house construction, horticulture VU LC DD habitat loss Dypsis poivreana Hovoka horticulture habitat loss Dypsis prestoniana Babovavy, Bobovavy, Tavilo food, horticulture overcollection, habitat loss, mining habitat loss Dypsis procera CR Marojejy, Zahamena, Mantadia & Mangerivola. Ambatovaky, Analalava (Foulpointe), Analamazaotra-Mantadia, Andohahela, Betampona, Daraina, Corridor Ankeniheny-Zahamena, Corridor FandrianaVondrozo, FandrianaMarolambo, Makira, Mananara Avaratra, Mangerivola, Manombo, Manongarivo, Marojejy, Masoala, Midongy Atsimo, Ranomafana, Tsitongambarika, Zahamena horticulture Dypsis plurisecta VU DD Analalava (Foulpointe), Tampolo (Fenerive Est) Midongy Atsimo EN Masoala, Mananara Avaratra et Ambatovaky VU VU Appendix II (continued) Species Vernacular name(s) Dypsis procumbens Ambolo, Ovana, Sinkara, Sirahazo, Tsirikabidy Dypsis psammophila Dypsis pulchella Lafazovombona Main threat(s) Conservation area(s) overcollection, habitat loss Manongarivo, Marojejy, Makira, Zahamena, Mantadia, Ranomafana, Midongy Atsimo et Andohahela. horticulture overcollection, habitat loss habitat loss, mining horticulture Dypsis pumila Dypsis pusilla Type(s) of utilisation house construction, household tools horticulture Vonitra horticulture Dypsis pustulata overcollection, habitat loss habitat loss EN CR Marojejy CR Mananara Avaratra, Masoala Tsitongambarika VU Dypsis rabepierrei CR NE Dypsis rakotonasoloi Dypsis ramentacea horticulture Dypsis reflexa Dypsis remotiflora Dypsis rivularis IUCN status NT Madiovozona, Sarimadiovozona habitat loss Makira CR habitat loss Mananara Avaratra CR habitat loss Masoala CR horticulture habitat loss Mangerivola CR horticulture habitat loss EN Dypsis robusta horticulture Ankarafantsika and Manongarivo Ranomafana Arboretum Dypsis rosea horticulture Marojejy NE Dypsis sahanofensis Dypsis saintelucei horticulture habitat loss CR food, horticulture, household tools overcollection, habitat loss habitat loss Mangerivola, Mont Vatovavy Corridor FandrianaVondrozo Zahamena Dypsis sancta Dypsis sanctaemariae Dypsis scandens CR EN CR horticulture habitat loss CR Olokoloko Basketry, household tools horticulture overcollection, habitat loss overcollection CR Raosy, Sinkara overcollection, habitat loss, mining Dypsis serpentina house construction, horticulture horticulture Dypsis simianensis horticulture habitat loss Dypsis schatzii Dypsis scottiana Dypsis singularis Dypsis soanieranae habitat loss Sinkara, Tsinkara Dypsis spicata horticulture habitat loss horticulture habitat loss Dypsis subacaulis Dypsis tanalensis Matitana, Matitanana Dypsis tenuissima Fanikara Dypsis thiryana Sinkiara, Sinkarambolavo, Taokonampotatra horticulture, household tools horticulture EN Andohahela, Midongy Atsimo VU Mananara Avaratra, Makira Mananara Avaratra, Zahamena, Manombo Manombo VU Marojejy, Makira LQ NE habitat loss CR overcollection, habitat loss overcollection, habitat loss Corridor FandrianaVondrozo, Andohahela Ranomafana EN Marojejy, Masoala, Makira, Mananara Avaratra VU VU DD Tokoravina Dypsis trapezoidea Dypsis tsaratananensis CR DD Dypsis thouarsiana Dypsis tokoravina EN habitat loss habitat loss Dypsis thermarum Betampona, Mangerivola horticulture overcollection, habitat loss Mananara Avaratra, Masoala, Analalava (Foulpointe) habitat loss Kindro CR CR Tsaratanana DD Appendix II (continued) Species Vernacular name(s) Type(s) of utilisation food, horticulture Main threat(s) Conservation area(s) Dypsis tsaravoasira Hovotravavy, Lavaboka, Tsaravoasira overcollection, habitat loss Sinkiaramboalavo horticulture Vonitra, Vonitrandrano food, household tools overcollection, habitat loss, mining overcollection, habitat loss Daraina, Marojejy, Masoala, Makira, Mananara Avaratra, Ambatovaky, Zahamena, Mangerivola. Zahamena, Ambatovaky Dypsis turkii Dypsis utilis horticulture habitat loss Dypsis viridis Dypsis vonitrandambo Elaeis guineensis Tsingilo Hyphaene coriacea Satrana, Satra Lemurophoenix halleuxii Lemurophoenix laevis Marojejya darianii Hovitra vari mena Ravimbe horticulture Marojejya insignis Beondroka, Besofina, Betefoka, Fohitanana, Hovotralanana, Kona, Mandanozezika, Maroalavehivavy, Menamoso Kona, Kogne food, horticulture Masoala madagascariensis Orania longisquama Hovotralanana, Kase, Mandanozezika Anivona, Sindro, Ovobolafotsy, Vakapasy food, horticulture, basketry horticulture Orania ravaka horticulture habitat loss Orania trispatha Sindro, Ovobolafotsy, Vapakafotsy Anivo, Sindro overcollection, habitat loss Phoenix reclinata Dara, Taratra, Taratsy Raphia farinifera Rofia, Rafia Ravenea albicans Hoza-tsiketra house construction, horticulture food, house construction, horticulture food, house construction, horticulture, household tools horticulture horticulture habitat loss, mining Masoala kona habitat loss food, house construction food, horticulture, household tools, basketry horticulture Zahamena, Analamazaotra-Mantadia, Ranomafana, Corridor Fandriana-Vondrozo Mananara Avaratra, Zahamena Masoala overcollection Ravenea beentjei EN VU CR overcollection, fire Daraina, Ankarana, Baie de Baly LC overcollection, habitat loss Masoala EN NE overcollection, habitat loss overcollection, habitat loss overcollection, habitat loss overcollection, habitat loss overcollection, habitat loss Masoala EN Marojejy, Masoala, Mananara Avaratra, Ambatovaky, Mantadia Betampona, Andohahela. Corridor FandrianaVondrozo Marojejy, Masoala, Mananara Avaratra Manongarivo, Masoala, Mananara Avaratra, Analalava (Foulpointe), Manombo. Masoala, Makira and Mananara Avaratra Masoala, Mananara Avaratra, Manombo LC fire overcollection habitat loss EN CR LC VU VU NE Marojejy, Anjanahribe-sud, Makira, Masoala, Mananara Avaratra, Namoroka, Ankarafantsika Masoala, Makira, Mananara Avaratra, Zahamena, Mangerivola Corridor FandrianaVondrozo Ravenea declivium LC EN CR NE Ravenea delicatula Anivona Ravenea dransfieldii Anivo, Lakabolavo, Lakatra, Ovotsarorona Ravenea glauca Anivo, Sihara Ravenea hypoleuca EN LC horticulture horticulture IUCN status VU food, horticulture, house construction, basketry horticulture horticulture habitat loss, mining overcollection, habitat loss, mining CR Marojejy, Masoala, Makira, Mananara Avaratra, Mangerivola, Betampona EN overcollection Andringitra, Isalo VU habitat loss Tsitongambarika CR Appendix II (continued) Species Vernacular name(s) Ravenea julietiae Anivona, Sata, Satra, Satrana, Sindro madiniky, VakaPasy Ravenea krociana Vakakabe Ravenea lakatra Lakatra, Manara, Tsilanitafika Type(s) of utilisation house construction, horticulture horticulture house construction, horticulture, basketry Main threat(s) Conservation area(s) overcollection, habitat loss Masoala,Mananara Avaratra, Ambatovaky, Manombo Mangerivola, Midongy Atsimo, Andohahela Masoala, Makira and Andasibe overcollection, habitat loss overcollection, habitat loss Ravenea latisecta Ravenea louvelii Lakamarefo, Siraboto horticulture Ravenea madagascariensis Anivo, Anivokely, Anivona, Tovovoko house construction, horticulture Ravenea musicalis Torendriky house construction, horticulture Ravenea nana overcollection, habitat loss overcollection, habitat loss IUCN status EN EN CR Analamazaotra CR Anlamazaotra CR Marojejy, Zahamena, Ambohitantely, Mantadia, Analamazaotra, Ranomafana, Andringitra, Ivohibe, Midongy Atsimo LC overcollection, CR habitat loss Marojejy EN overcollection, habitat loss overcollection, habitat loss VU EN Ravenea rivularis Bakaly, Gora, Malio, Vakaka horticulture Ravenea robustior Anivo, Anivona, Bokombio, Kona, Lafa, Lakabolavo, Loharanga, Manara, Monimony, Retanana, Tanave, Vakabe, Vakaboloka food, house construction, horticulture Ravenea sambiranensis Anivo, Anivona, Mafahely, Ramangaisina, Sindro food, house construction, horticulture habitat loss Ravenea xerophila Ahaza, Anivo, Anivona, habitat loss Satranala decussilvae Satranala overcollection, habitat loss Mananara Avaratra, Masoala Tahina spectabilis Dimaka horticulture, basketry house construction, horticulture horticulture Namoroka, Isalo, Makay, Zombitse - Vohibasia Ambatovaky, Analalava (Foulpointe), Analamazaotra-Mantadia, Andohahela, Betampona, Daraina, Corridor Ankeniheny-Zahamena, Corridor FandrianaVondrozo, FandrianaMarolambo, Makira, Mananara Avaratra, Mangerivola, Manombo, Manongarivo, Marojejy, Masoala, Midongy Atsimo, Ranomafana, Tsitongambarika, Zahamena Ambatovaky, Analalava (Foulpointe), Analamazaotra-Mantadia, Andohahela, Betampona, Daraina, Corridor Ankeniheny-Zahamena, Corridor FandrianaVondrozo, FandrianaMarolambo, Makira, Mananara Avaratra, Mangerivola, Manombo, Manongarivo, Marojejy, Masoala, Midongy Atsimo, Ranomafana, Tsitongambarika, Zahamena Andohahela Voanioala gerardii Voanioala food, horticulture overcollection, habitat loss overcollection, habitat loss NT LC VU CR Masoala CR Appendix II Abstract Madagascar is one of the most important areas in the world in terms of species diversity for palms, the family Arecaceae. Out of the approximately 2500 species recognized in the world, the island alone has 208 indigenous species, of which more than 98% are endemic, found naturally nowhere else. Some taxa are unique from a biological point of view because they represent distinct evolutionary lines in classification of palms unique to Madagascar. Palms constitute a significant component of Madagascar's flora. In addition to taxonomic diversity, palms often characterize the natural landscapes of the island. Nearly 90% of the species are confined to the humid forests of the East and North-West, but palms are also distinctive in the West by dominating the grasslands or certain moist valleys, forming in some cases dense and monospecific stands. Because of their abundance, palms constitute a considerable source of non-timber forest products for many rural communities which are often dependent on the exploitation of natural resources for their subsistence. About ¾ of the currently known species have been reported to be useful to humans. In rural areas, many species have immense utilitarian value in the construction of traditional buildings, in food, in domestic tools, in religious ceremonies and in the treatment of certain diseases. In urban areas, palm trees are cultivated as ornamental plants for their majestic habit. However, the recent destruction and degradation of natural habitats, together with non-sustainable forms of use, have increased the risk of extinction of many palm species. According to the latest IUCN Red List assessment, 83% of Madagascar's indigenous palms are threatened with extinction. The loss of these species will have a direct impact not only on the economy but also on the ecosystem services provided by these palms. In order to prevent extinction and to promote their sustainable use, the strategy for the conservation and sustainable use of palms in Madagascar is based on four objectives: study of the diversity and spatial distribution of palms, study of the ways in which local populations use palms, reduction of the risk of extinction of species in the natural environment, and, finally, education for sustainable development and raising awareness of the need to protect nature. By highlighting priority activities for efforts to be undertaken to restore natural populations, this strategic document will be a reference tool for actions to conserve the palms of Madagascar. Funding Partners 67

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Strategy for the Conservation and Sustainable Use of the Palms of Madagascar SUD EXPERT PLANTES DEVELOPPEMENT DURABLE

Strategy for the Conservation and Sustainable Use of the Palms of Madagascar SUD EXPERT PLANTES DEVELOPPEMENT DURABLE

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