HOAJ Biology
ISSN 2050-0874
Research
Open Access
Sarcoglycan complex formation is involved in regulation of EGFR
signaling during Drosophila eye development
Reina Hashimoto1,2, Hideki Yoshida1,3, and Masamitsu Yamaguchi1, 3*
Abstract
Background: Mutations of some components of the Dystrophin Glycoprotein Complex (DGC) are known to cause Muscular
Dystrophy in humans. An innovative approach to the further understanding of pathological mechanisms and physiological roles of the DGC has been recently made using several non-mammalian animal models, using species such as Caenorhabditis elegans, Xenopus laevis, and zebrafish. The mammalian DGC is in most part conserved in Drosophila, with respect
to the amino acid sequence. However, detailed comparisons of the characteristic properties of each DGC components
between mammals and Drosophila have yet to be made.
Methods: In the present study, we analyzed mutual binding ability of Drosophila Sarcoglycans in order to address the possibility of complex formation, a characteristic of the mammalian counterparts.
Results: In vitro binding assays showed that Drosophila Sarcoglycans could mutually bind to each other. Moreover,
β-Sarcoglycan and δ-Sarcoglycan could directly associate with Epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) via the EGF-like
consensus sequences of their C-terminus regions.
Conclusions: In vitro data in combination with immunohistochemical data for sarcoglycan knockdown fly retinae, we propose that Sarcoglycan complex formation is required for eye development. Notably, the direct binding of β-Sarcoglycan
and δ-Sarcoglycan to EGFR might be critical for the proper regulation of EGFR signaling during eye development in Drosophila.
Keywords: Sarcoglycan, Drosophila, EGFR, muscular dystrophy, eye development.
Background
The Dystrophin Glycoprotein Complex (DGC) stabilizes the plasma
membrane structure, especially during cell movement, by linking
the internal cytoskeleton and the extracellular matrix. It is basically
a heterogeneous large complex consisting of various combinations
of Dystrophin, Utrophin, Dystroglycan, Sarcoglycans, Syntrophins,
Dystrobrevins and Sarcospan in mammals [1]. The six forms of
Sarcoglycan (α-,β-,γ-,δ-,ε- and ζ-Sarcoglycan) in mammals
are each encoded by independent gene loci [2-7]. Mutations in α-,
β-, γ- and δ-sarcoglycan are reported to cause limb girdle muscular
dystrophies (LGMD) [8,9]. Elucidation of human and fly genomic
sequences has revealed Drosophila melanogaster to possess fewer
redundant orthologues of most human DGC components, with the
exception of sarcospan, where Drosophila α-Sarcoglycan (dScgα),
β-Sarcoglycan (dScgβ), and δ-Sarcoglycan (dScgδ) correspond to
α-/ε-Sarcoglycan, β-Sarcoglycan and γ-/δ-/ζ-Sarcoglycan in human,
respectively [10,11]. δ-Sarcoglycan deficient mutant flies have been
described to show progressive muscle dysfunction, mobility defects
and reduced life span [12].
Correspondence: myamaguc@kit.ac.jp
1
Department of Applied Biology, Kyoto Institute of Technology,
Sakyo-ku, Kyoto 606-8585, Japan.
Full list of Author’s information is available at the end of the article
One of the proposed functions of the Sarcoglycan complex is to
stabilize DGC itself by interacting with other constitutive proteins
[13-16]. The β-/δ-Sarcoglycan core is known to interact with the
C-terminus of dystrophin [13]. Biochemical preparations from
sarcoglycan mutant muscle have revealed less tightly adherent
α-dystroglycan subunits suggesting abnormal interaction in the
absence of Sarcoglycan [15-17]. However, from other studies [18],
one can suggest that Sarcoglycans might also have non-mechanical
functions, for example functionally compensating for integrins
in muscle. It has also been reported that sarcoglycans associate
with integrins and nNOS, indicating a potential role in signaling
transduction. In fact, we reported possible interactions between
dScgβ and Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor (EGFR) signaling
in Drosophila, from genetic screening and immunohistochemical
analyses of dscgβ knockdown pupal retina [19].
Despite relatively conserved homology based on amino acid
sequence comparisons [10], concrete evidence confirmed by
experimental results of characteristic and functional similarities of
DGC components between mammals and Drosophila is still missing.
Therefore, in this study, we performed in vitro binding assays of
three Drosophila Sarcoglycans, dScgα, dScgβ and dScgδ. In practice,
complex formation of Sarcoglycan subunits is necessary to exert its
contribution to the biological roles of the DGC in mammals [13,20].
© 2012 Yamaguchi et al; licensee Herbert Publications Ltd. his is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of Creative Commons Attribution License
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0). his permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
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It is commonly assumed that defects in a single Sarcoglycan bring
about severe impairment of the appropriate assembly. In turn, the
generation of aberrant protein aggregation interferes with the normal
function [21]. Our in vitro binding assays demonstrated that all the
Sarcoglycans in Drosophila are able to bind to each other, suggesting
the potential to form a sub-complex, as observed in mammals.
In our previous report, over-activation of EGFR signaling was
detected in dscgβ knockdown fly retina, presumably due to ectopic
expression of rhomboid, encoding the protease that activates
positive EGFR ligands [19]. In the present study, we demonstrated
that knockdown of other Sarcoglycan family genes, dscgα and dscgδ
also induced ectopic expression of rhomboid in the pupal retinae as
observed in the knockdown flies of dscgβ. Moreover, in vitro binding
assays of recombinant Sarcoglycans and EGFR revealed direct
associations via the highly conserved EGF-like consensus sequences
present in the C-termini of dScgβ and dScgδ. Collectively from our
findings, we propose that: (1) characteristic functions of Sarcoglycans
in terms of the complex formation are conserved between Drosophila
and mammals; (2) Sarcoglycan complex formation is required for
negative control of EGFR signaling; and (3) direct association of
dScgβ and dScgδ with EGFR plays a significant role in the regulation
of EGFR signaling during Drosophila eye development.
Methods
Cloning of target genes into the pETDuet-1 vector
For co-expression of two target genes in Escherichia coli (E. coli), we
used the pETDuet-1 vector which contains two multiple cloning sites
(Novagen). 6×His was tagged for one of the expressed proteins while
Flag tag was designed for another. All the genes inserted into the
pETDuet-1 vector were amplified by PCR using KOD plus (Toyobo).
doi: 10.7243/2050-0874-1-7
The primer pairs and the DNA resources for the PCR reactions, and the
restriction enzymes used for the cloning into the pETDuet-1 vector
are summarized in Table 1. cDNAs containing EST clones, RH11377
and RE40051, were obtained from Berkeley Drosophila Genome
Project, and cDNAs derived from an Oregon R adult female were
obtained from mRNA with polyA tails by RT-PCR. For the cloning
into multiple cloning site 1 (His-tag) of the pETDuet-1 vector, the
PCR products obtained from the cDNA resources were directly
inserted at the distinct restriction enzyme sites of a blank pETDuet-1
vector. For cloning of Flag-tagged target genes into the multiple
cloning site 2 of the pETDuet-1 vector, the initial PCR products from
the cDNA resources were first sub-cloned downstream of the flag
tag sequence in a modified pUAST vector in order to add a Flag
tag. Then, the target genes with flag sequences were amplified by
secondary PCR reactions using the sub-cloned pUAST vectors as DNA
templates and inserted into the multiple cloning site 2 of the plain
pETDuet-1 vectors or vectors carrying His tagged counterpart target
genes to obtain the final objective constructs. Notably, no tag was
added to Lamin, since a well-working antibody against Lamin was
commonly available from the Developmental Studies Hybridoma
Bank (DSHB). A 1677 base pair (bp) fragment encoding 1-559 amino
acids of Drosophila EGFR PA was chosen for the truncated form of
Drosophila EGFR (Egfr1-559), while a 942bp fragment encoding 1-314
amino acids of dScgβ and a 1131bp fragment corresponding to 1-377
amino acids of dScgδ were employed for the EGF consensus sequence
deletion forms of dScgβ (dScgβΔEGF-like) and dScgδ (dScgδΔEGF-like),
respectively. The obtained protein products concerning Sarcoglycans
in this experiment are schematically represented with rectangular
bars in Figure 1. All the constructs were verified by nucleotide
sequencing before use.
Table 1-Cloning into pETDuet
vector.
All the used primer pairs, restriction enzymes and DNA resources
of the generated constructs for in
vitro binding assay using pETDuet vector are listed. F’ and R’
respectively represent forward and
reverse primers. he sequences of
the used restriction enzyme sites
are underlined.
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TritonX-100) and the obtained lysate was centrifuged at 16,000×g
for 5 min at 4oC. Then, while a part of the supernatant was stored
as an Input sample, an equivalent volume from the rest of the
supernatant containing 5 mg of total protein was applied for reaction
with 100μl of Ni-NTA agarose gel (Qiagen). After incubation for
4h at 4oC, the gels were thoroughly washed with Wash buffer and
the binding proteins were separated from the gel with Elution
buffer (20mM Tris-HCl, pH 8.0 containing 10% glycerol, 0.5M NaCl,
250mM Imidazole, 20mM β-mercaptoethanol, and 0.5% Tween-20,
0.5% TritonX-100). The Input samples and the elution fractions
were applied to 10% sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel
electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) followed by Western immunoblot
analysis. The proteins were transferred to polyvinylidene difluoride
membranes (Bio-Rad) after SDS-PAGE, and the blotted membranes
were blocked with TBS-T containing 2% blocking reagents for
1h at 25oC followed by incubation with mouse anti-His (Invitrogen)
at 1:2,000 dilution, mouse anti-Flag (Sigma) at 1:4,000 dilution, or
mouse anti-Lamin (DSHB) at 1:8,000 dilution for 16h at 4 oC. After
washing, the membranes were incubated with HRP-conjugated
secondary antibodies (GE healthcare) at 1:100,000 dilution for
1h at 25oC. Detection was performed with ECL Western blotting
detection reagent (GE healthcare) and images were analyzed with
a Lumivision Pro HSII image analyzer (Aisin seiki).
Fly stocks
Fly stocks were maintained at 25oC on standard food containing
0.7% agar, 5% glucose, and 7% dry yeast. Canton S was used as the
wild type. An enhancer trap line carrying the lacZ marker rhoX63
(rhomboid) was obtained from Y. Hiromi, while others carrying lacZ
markers spis3547 (spitz) and argos05845 (argos) and rhove-1 were obtained
from the Bloomington Drosophila stock center. Establishment of
lines carrying GMR-GAL4 was described earlier [22].
Figure 1-he employed constructs and alignment of the conserved EGF-like consensus sequences.
(A) Diagrams of the target region of the constructs for the
generation of RNAi lies and for the recombinant proteins for
in vitro binding assays. Rectangular bars show the obtained
recombinant proteins. Gray areas of the bars represent the EGFlike consensus region. (B) Details of amino acid sequences of the
conserved EGF-like sequences are highlighted in gray and the
essential cysteine and glycine residues in black in panel B. X can
be any arbitrary amino acids. In the C-terminus region, dScgβ
and dScgδ possess an EGF-like consensus sequence, which is
characteristic of EGFR ligands such as human TGFα and Spitz
(Drosophila homologue of TGFα). his sequence is also conserved in mammalian Sarcoglycans except α- and ε-Sarcoglycan.
he numbers written below the black-highlighted cysteine (C)
indicate the amino acid numbers counted from the N-terminus.
Establishment of transgenic lies
In order to establish transgenic fly lines applicable for knockdown,
two independent regions for each sarcoglycan were designed
to construct plasmids with hairpin-loop structures. The plasmid
constructs were named αi1, αi2 for dscgα knockdown, βi1, βi2 for dscgβ
knockdown and δi1, δi2 for dscgδ knockdown, respectively. Notably,
since we have already established transgenic flies carrying UASInverted Repeated (IR)-dscgβ whose target region corresponds
to βi1 in our previous work [19], we used these original lines for
UAS-IR-βi1 in this study. Therefore, concerning dscgβ knockdown,
we only generated transgenic flies carrying UAS-IR-dscgβi2 whose
target region is not overlapped with UAS-IR-dscgβi1 in this study.
The employed target regions are schematically shown in Figure 1
for easy comparison and the cloning information is summarized in
detail in Table 2. All the genes inserted into the pWIZ vector were
In vitro protein binding assay
obtained from EST clones or cDNAs derived from Oregon R adult
Expression of the target genes was induced by 1mM isopropyl-β- females by PCR using KOD plus (Toyobo). NheI/ XbaI sites were
D-thiogalactopyranoside (Wako) with incubation for 2 h at 37oC employed for insertion of target genes into multiple cloning site 1,
in E. coli BL21DE3. The E. coli were then sonicated in Wash buffer while NheI/ EcoRI fragments were used for compatible cloning into
(20mM Tris-HCl (pH 8.0) containing 10% glycerol, 0.5M NaCl, 50mM AvrII/ EcoRI sites of multiple cloning site 2. Thus we constructed
Imidazole, 20mM β-mercaptoethanol, and 0.5% Tween-20, 0.5% αi1-IR, αi2-IR, βi2-IR, δi1-IR, and δi2-IR plasmids head to head. The
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Table 2. Cloning into pWIZ vector.
All the constructs for the establishment of the knockdown lies, the used primer pairs, restriction enzymes and DNA resources are
listed. F’ and R7 respectively represent forward and reverse primers. he sequences of the used restriction enzyme sites are underlined.
constructs were verified by sequencing and then injected into
embryos to obtain stable transformant lines carrying UAS-IR-dscgαi1,
UAS-IR-dscgαi2, UAS-IR-dscgβi2, UAS-IR-dscgδi1, and UAS-IR-dscgδi2.
P element-mediated germ line transformation was carried out as
described earlier [23] and F1 transformants were selected on the
basis of white eye color rescue [24]. The established transgenic
strains are summarized in Table 3. Five, four, eleven, eight and
thirteen transgenic strains carrying UAS-IR-dscgαi1, UAS-IR-dscgαi2,
UAS-IR-dscgβi2, UAS-IR-dscgδi1, and UAS-IR-dscgδi2 were established,
respectively. To drive expression of the double-stranded RNAs of
dscgα, dscgβ or dscgδ in animals, we crossed the transgenic flies
with the GMR-GAL4 line. Not all the strains showed a similar extent
of the rough eye phenotype, probably due to differences in RNAi
efficiency, but at least three strains for each construct displayed a
consistent rough eye phenotype.
Scanning electron microscopy
To assess the eye phenotype, adult flies were anesthetized, mounted
on stages, and observed under a scanning electron microscope
(SEM) VE-7800 (Keyence) in the low vacuum mode.
mRNA preparation and semi-quantitative RT-PCR
Total RNA was isolated from the third instar larvae by TRIzol
(Invitrogen) followed by DNaseI treatment. mRNA was purified
using an OligotexTM-dT30 <super> mRNA purification kit (Takara).
Then, cDNA was obtained using oligo (dT) primer and PrimeScript®
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Table 3.he established transgenic strains.
P-element plasmid, the established strains and their chromosome
linkages are shown.
Figure 2. In vitro binding assays using recombinant Drosophila Sarcoglycans.
(A) Diagrams of the obtained constructs for the production of recombinant
proteins. he numbers written below the rectangular bars represent the
amino acid numbers counted from N-terminus of respective proteins. (B)
Western blots of both Input and Elution samples with anti-His or anti-Flag
antibodies are shown. Binding between dScgα and dScgβ (I), dScgα and
dScgδ (II), dScgβ and dScgδ (III) was tested. Binding between dScgα and
lamin was also examined as a negative control to exclude the possibility of
non-speciic binding (IV). 5 mg of total protein in the E. coli extracts was
applied for a 100 μl volume of the Ni-NTA agarose gel and eluted with 100
μl bufer. 20 μl of each sample was loaded for SDS-PAGE.
RTase (Takara). The following primers were used for the gene
amplification. : For dScgα, 5’-AGTTCAGGGTCTAAAGTTGCA-3’ eyes were incubated with diluted primary antibodies in PBST and
a n d 5’- A A AG C TG CCC ACG TG G AC A AT- 3 ’, f o r d S c g β , 10% normal goat serum for 16 h at 4 oC. Mouse anti-LacZ (1:500)
5’-CACCAGGGACGCAACACG-3’ and 5’-TGCGGAAGACGCGCACAT-3’, (Promega) and rat anti-Elav (1:200) (DSHB) antibodies were used.
f o r d S c g δ , 5 ’ - A T T T C G C A T A A A C G A C A C C A A - 3 ’ Eyes were washed three times with PBST and then incubated with
a n d 5 ’ - T C T G C A G A C C G T G G A AT C AT C- 3 ’, a n d f o r secondary antibodies labeled with either Alexa546 or Alexa488
r p 4 9 , 5 ’ - A T G G C A A C A A G C G C C A A A C T G - 3 ’ a n d (Invitrogen) at 25oC for 2h. After three washes in PBST, eyes were
5’-TCAGAAGCCCTTCTCCTTGAG-3’.
mounted in mounting medium (Bio-Rad) and analyzed by confocal
laser scanning microscopy with a Zeiss LSM510.
Immunohistochemistry of pupal retinae
For immunohistochemistry, staged eyes were dissected, fixed
in 4% formaldehyde, and blocked with 10% normal goat serum
in PBST (PBS containing 0.15% Triton X-100). After blocking, the
Results
Drosophila and Mammalian Sarcoglycans
Since it is well known that mammalian Sarcoglycans form functional
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Figure 3-Rough eye phenotype of the sarcoglycan knockdown lies.
Scanning electron micrographs of adult compound eyes.
(A)GMR-GAL4/+;+;+ (B)GMR-GAL4/+;UAS-IR-dscgαi1/UAS-IR-dscgαi1;+ (C)GMR-GAL4/+;UAS-IR-dscgαi2/UAS-IR-dscgαi2;+ (D)GMR-GAL4/+;+;UASIR-dscgβi1/UAS-IR-dscgβi1 (E)GMR-GAL4/+;UAS-IR-dscgβi2/UAS-IR-dscgβi2;+ (F)GMR-GAL4/+;+;UAS-IR-dscgδi1/UAS-IR-dscgδi1 (G)GMR-GAL4/
UAS-IR-dscgδi2 (strain8441);+;UAS-IR-dscgδi2(strain8545)/+ (H)GMR-GAL4/+;UAS-IR-dscgαi2/+;+ (I)GMR-GAL4/+;UAS-IR-dscgβi2/+;+ (J)GMRGAL4/+;+;UAS-IR-dscgδi1/+ (K)GMR-GAL4/+;UAS-IR-dscgαi2/UAS-IR-dscgβi2;+ (L)GMR-GAL4/+;UAS-IR-dscgβi2/+;UAS-IR-dscgδi1/+ (M)GMRGAL4/+;UAS-IR-dscgαi2/+;UAS-IR-dscgδi1/+ (N) Reduction of dscgα, dscgβ or dscgδ mRNA levels in larval tissues. rp49 mRNA was used as an internal
control. he graph shows the ratio of knockdown ly values to the wild type. Error bars show standard deviations (n=3). mRNAs were prepared from the
knockdown lies in which the expression of each sarcoglycan double strand RNAs was induced by Act5C-GAL4. (Cont)Act5C-GAL4/+ (αi1)UAS-IRdscgαi1/+;Act5C-GAL4/+ (αi2)UAS-IR-dscgαi2/+;Act5C-GAL4/+ (βi1)UAS-IR-dscgβi1/Act5C-GAL4 (βi2)UAS-IR-dscgβi2/+;Act5C-GAL4/+ (δi1)UAS-IRdscgδi1/Act5C-GAL4 (δi2)UAS-IR-dscgδi2/Act5C-GAL4 (O) Western blots of extracts from third-instar larvae of control (Cont), βi1 and βi2 knockdown
lies were probed with anti-dScgβ and anti-αTubulin antibodies. (Cont)Act5C-GAL4/+ (βi1)UAS-IR-dscgβi1/Act5C-GAL4 (βi2)UAS-IR-dscgβi2/+;Act5CGAL4/+
hetero-tetramer [13,20], we examined the in vitro binding ability
between dScgα and dScgβ, dScgα and dScgδ, or dScgβ and dScgδ
by exploiting the pETDuet-1 co-expression system of two target
genes in E. coli (Figure 1A). In this experiment, the specific binding
between His tag and Ni agarose was utilized for precipitation, and
co-precipitation of the counterpart protein containing Flag tag was
analyzed by Western immunoblotting.
As shown in Figure 2 with input sample treated with anti-His and
anti-Flag antibodies (Figure 2B, lanes i-iii and vii-ix), we confirmed
the presence of all the target proteins whose cDNAs were carried by
the distinct pETDuet-1 vectors in the supernatant after sonication
of E. coli and centrifugation of protein extracts. Both His-dScgα
and Flag-dScgα were detected at 52kDa by Western blotting
(Figure 2B-I, II and IV), consistent with the expected molecular
weight of dScgα 50.7kDa according to ExPASy (http://us.expasy.
org/tools/pi_tool.html). The apparent molecular weights of HisdScgδ and Lamin were 41kDa and 72 kDa (Figure 2B-II, III and
IV), respectively. These are also in accordance with the calculated
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molecular weights, 42.6kDa for dScgδ and 71.3kDa for Lamin. On
the other hand, we found slightly larger apparent molecular weights
of Flag-dScgβ (Figure 2B- I and III) and His-dScgβ (Figure 6B-II) at
48.0 kDa than the estimated molecular weight of dScgβ of 38.1kDa.
The slightly slower migration of dScgβ on SDS-PAGE is consistent
with our previous report [25]. Exogenously over-expressed dScgβ
with Flag tag in flies also exhibited a molecular weight of 48.0 kDa
[25]. Since both Flag tagged and His tagged dScgβ showed slower
migration on SDS-PAGE, this behavior of dScgβ is likely due to
intrinsic properties of the dScgβ amino acid sequence.
We also ensured that His-tagged target proteins, His-dScgα and
His-dScgδ, bind to Ni agarose gels as detected in the elution samples
with anti-His antibodies (Figure 2B, lanes iv and vi). Flag-tagged
dScgβ was detected by anti-Flag antibodies as co-precipitation
products with His-tagged dScgα, indicating binding between dScgα
and dScgβ (Figure 2B-I, lane xii). According to the quantification of
the visible band by Lumivision Pro HSII image analyzer, approximately
12.4% of Flag-dScgβ in the input sample was eluted with His-dScgα.
Similarly, we observed binding between His-dScgδ and FlagdScgα, and between His-dScgδ and Flag-dScgβ (Figure 2B-II and
III, lane xii). 12.5% of Flag-dScgα and 31.8% of Flag-dScgβ in the E.
coli soluble lysate were eluted with His-dScgδ. On the other hand,
Lamin, which shares similarities with Sarcoglycans as both are
transmembrane proteins but which is not supposed to interact with
any Sarcoglycans considering differences in sub-cellular localization,
was undetectable on elution as expected (Figure 2B-IV, lane xii).
These data suggest that the observed binding between dScgα
and dScgβ, dScgα and dScgδ, and dScgβ and dScgδ was specific in
each case (Figure 2B-I, II and III). Collectively, here we suggest that
Drosophila Sarcoglycans can form heterologous complexes as with
mammalian homologues, supporting the idea that so far identified
Drosophila Sarcoglycans share characters with their corresponding
mammalian counterparts.
Alteration in EGFR signaling in knockdown lies for
sarcoglycans
In a previous report, we demonstrated that knockdown of dscgβ
(βi1) caused severe morphological aberrancy in the adult compound
eyes accompanied by ectopic expression of rhomboid (rho) and
consequently increased activation of EGFR signaling in pupal retinae
as evidenced by phosphorylation of ERK [19]. In the present study,
initially in order to address the off-target effects which are frequently
encountered with the RNAi technique, we have newly established
and examined fly lines with dscgβ knockdown (βi2), whose target
region for the inverted repeat sequence has no overlap with the
previously tested construct (βi1) (Figure 1A). βi2 knockdown flies
by GMR-GAL4 displayed a mild rough eye phenotype by SEM
(Figure 3E). Both RT-PCR and Western blot analyses revealed less
reduction of mRNA and protein levels of dScgβ in the βi2 knockdown
flies than in βi1 knockdown flies (Figure 3N). βi2 knockdown flies
showed reduction of mRNA level to 68% and reduction of protein
level to 72% of those of the control flies, while βi1 knockdown flies
exhibited 89% decrease in mRNA and 80% in protein (Figure 3N).
The data could explain the weaker rough eye phenotype in βi2 than
βi1 (Figure 3, panels D and E). However, although the extent of
Figure 4-Expression of rhomboid in 35-hour APF retinae.
Knockdown lies for any sarcoglycans showed ectopic expression
of rhomboid in two unknown cells of each ommatidium. Red and
green indicate anti-lacZ and anti-Elav signals, respectively. he
white arrowheads indicate examples of cells ectopically expressing
rhomboid. Although the level of the luorescence difers in each
sample, it does not simply relect the diferences in the expression
level as this is mainly due to technical diiculties.
(A)GMR-GAL4/+;+;+/X63 (B)GMR-GAL4/+;+;UAS-IR-dscgβi1/
X63 (C)GMR-GAL4/+;UAS-IR-dscgβi2/+;X63/+ (D)GMRGAL4/+;UAS-IR-dscgαi1/+;X63/+ (E)GMR-GAL4/+;UAS-IRdscgαi2/+;X63/+ (F)GMR-GAL4/+;+;UAS-IR-dscgδi1/X63 (G)
GMR-GAL4/+;+;UAS-IR-dscgδi2/X63
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Figure 5-Scanning electron micrographs of adult compound eyes.
(A)GMR-GAL4/Y;UAS-IR-dscgαi1; + (B)GMR-GAL4/Y;UAS-IR-dscgαi1; rhove-1/+
(C)GMR-GAL4/Y;UAS-IR-dscgδi1/CyO;+ (D)GMR-GAL4/Y;UAS-IR-dscgδi1/
CyO;rhove-1/+ (E)GMR-GAL4/Y; UAS-IR-dscgαi1;+ (F)GMR-GAL4/Y;UAS-IRdscgαi1;rhove-1/+ (G)GMR-GAL4/Y;UAS-IR-dscgδi1/CyO;+ (H)GMR-GAL4/Y;UASIR-dscgδi1/CyO;rhove-1/+
Figure 7. Expression of Spitz and Argos in 35-hour APF pupal retinae.
Red signals indicate expression of spitz (let panels) or argos (right panels),
visualized by anti-lacZ antibody staining, whereas green signals indicates antiElav signals in photoreceptor cells. he white arrowheads indicate examples
of the two extra cells per each ommatidium, showing expression of spitz (let
panels) or argos (right panels) in the control (upper panels) or dscgβ knockdown (lower panels) lies.(let, upper) GMR-GAL4/+;spik05808/+;+ (let, lower)
GMR-GAL4/+;spik05808/+;UAS-IR-dscgβi1 strain72)/+ (right, upper) GMRGAL4/+;arg05845/+;+ (right, lower)GMR-GAL4/+;arg05845/+;UAS-IR-dscgβi1
strain72)/+
Figure 6. In vitro binding between Drosophila Sarcoglycans
and EGFR.
(A) Diagrams of the obtained constructs for the production
of recombinant proteins. he numbers written below the
rectangular bars represent the amino acid numbers counted
from the N-termini of the respective proteins. (B) Western
blots of both Input and Elution samples with anti-His or
anti-Flag antibodies are shown. Binding between the extracellular soluble form of Drosophila EGFR (Egfr1-559) and variants
of Sarcoglycans was examined. 5 mg of total protein in the
E.coli extract was applied for a 100 μl volume of the Ni-NTA
agarose gel and eluted with 100 μl bufer. 20 μl of each sample
was loaded for the SDS-PAGE. While no binding of Egfr1-559
with dScgα was seen (I-lane 12), dScgβ and dScgδ demonstrated binding to Egfr1-559 (II and IV-lane 12). Furthermore,
neither dScgβ nor dScgδ, lacking any EGF-like consensus
sequence, showed binding to Egfr1-559 (III and V-lane 12), suggesting that the binding between dScgβ and Egfr1-559, dScgδ
and Egfr1-559 is mediated by the EGF-like consensus sequence
in the C-terminus regions of dscgβ and dScgδ.
8
Yamaguchi et al. HOAJ Biology 2012,
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roughness in the adult compound eyes examined by SEM apparently
differed between βi1 and βi2 knockdown flies, immunostaining data
of 35 hour After Puparium Formation (APF) pupal retinae showed
similar molecular alteration in terms of ectopic expression of rho in
both βi1 and βi2 knockdown flies (Figure 4B and C). These phenotypic
similarities of βi1 and βi2 knockdown flies ruled out off-target effects.
We also investigated knockdown effects of dscgα and dscgδ with
GMR-GAL4 in order to determine whether the above-described
phenotypes were induced by functional disorder of dScgβ itself or
by the defects in the stability of the whole Sarcoglycan complex
provoked by a single Sarcoglycan family protein depletion.
Also here, two independent fly lines, whose target regions for
inverted repeat constructs were not overlapping, have been
established and tested to take into account the off-target problem
(Figure 1A). RT-PCR data showed 79% reduction of mRNA level in
αi1, and 61%, 81%, and 69%, respectively in αi2, δi1 and δi2 knockdown
flies compared to control flies. Although knockdown flies carrying
one copy of distinct transgenes (αi1, αi2, δi1 and δi2) showed no
obvious rough eye phenotype (Figure 3H-J), an enhanced rough
eye phenotype was observed in the knockdown flies with two copies
of each transgene (Figure 3B, C, F and G). In addition, synergistic
enhancement was also evident in the double knockdown flies
carrying inverted repeat sequences of two different sarcoglycans
(Figure 3H-M). All the combinations of Sarcoglycans, dScgα-dScgβ,
dScgβ-dScgδ and dScgα-dScgδ exhibited an enhanced rough
eye phenotype. Furthermore, we detected ectopic expression of
rhomboid gene in the 35-hour APF pupal retinae of both dscgα
and dscgδ knockdown flies as well as in dscgβ knockdown flies
(Figure 4B-G). In addition, half dose reduction of the rho-1 gene
significantly suppressed the rough eye phenotype induced by
knockdown of dscgα or dscgδ (Figure 5), as observed with the dscgβ
knockdown [19]. These results suggest that all three Sarcoglycans,
dScgα, dScgβ and Scgδ are necessary for proper level of EGFR
signaling to form normal compound eyes in adults.
Interactive mechanism of the Sarcoglycan complex and
EGFR signaling
Although we indicated that Sarcoglycan complex could negatively
regulate EGFR signaling in a physiological state [19], we still had no
idea of how Sarcoglycan complex affects activation or inactivation
of EGFR signaling. In order to address whether it is conducted by
direct interaction with EGFR signaling molecules or via an indirect
pathway, we performed an immunohistochemical expression pattern
analysis of the major components in the EGFR signaling pathway
like rho (Figure 4). In pupal retinae, only rhomboid showed different
expression patterns between control and dscgβ knockdown flies
(βi1) (Figure 4). Since Rho is known as a rate limiting protease of EGFR
signaling and once EGFR signaling is activated, rho expression is
further induced due to positive feedback regulation [26], Sarcoglycan
complexes may regulate an upstream factor for Rhomboid. We also
focused on the intriguing finding that dScgβ and dScgδ retain EGFlike consensus sequences in their C-terminus regions, and these
sequences are well conserved between Drosophila and mammals
(Figure 1B). Therefore, dScgβ and dScgδ might directly interact with
doi: 10.7243/2050-0874-1-7
EGFR via the EGF-like consensus sequences and thus negatively
regulate EGFR signaling.
In order to assess this hypothesis, we investigated binding
between Drosophila EGFR (CG10079) and dScgβ or dScgδ in vitro
(Figure 6). The soluble version of the human EGFR extracellular
domain, comprising amino acid residues 1-501, has been reported
to show strong binding affinity with well-known EGFR ligands such
as human EGF or TGFα [27]. Therefore, for in vitro binding assays,
we generated a truncated and soluble form of Drosophila EGFR
(Egfr1-559) composed of amino acid residues 1-559, which correspond
to the human EGFR extracellular domain (Figure 6A).
On Western blot analysis, Egfr1-559 appeared at 63kDa, consistent
with the estimated molecular weight 62.9kDa (Figure 6B). While
no band was detectable by anti-Flag antibody in the elution
sample of the binding assay between dScgα and Egfr1-559 (Figure
6B-I, lane xii), Flag tagged Egfr1-559 bands were detected as coprecipitated products with His tagged full lengths of dScgβ or dScgδ
(Figure 6B-II and IV, lane xii). 5.3% of Flag-dScgβ and 22.3% of
Flag-dScgδ in the Input extracts were eluted. For further analysis,
we tested the binding between Egfr1-559 and truncated forms of
dScgβ or dScgδ lacking EGF-like consensus sequences, namely
dScgβΔEGF-like and dScgδΔEGF-like. Neither was detectable in the coprecipitated fraction with Egfr1-559 (Figure 6B-III and V, lane xii),
indicating that dScgβ and dScgδ directly associate with the EGFR
extracellular domain via their EGF-like consensus sequences. Taking
into account the finding that knockdown of all three sarcoglycans
in each case caused alteration in rhomboid expression in pupal
retinae (Figure 4), we conclude that Sarcoglycans work as a whole
complex in negative regulation of EGFR signaling through direct
association of the EGF consensus sequences in dScgβ and dScgδ
with the extracellular domain of EGFR in Drosophila.
Argos and spitz expression in the pupal retinae
Both Spitz and Argos are known as regulatory proteins of EGFR
signaling in Drosophila. While Spitz is a positively acting ligand,
Argos acts in negative regulation by interrupting the association
of Spitz with EGFR [27].
Intriguingly, we detected both Argos and Spitz in the two
extra cells per each ommatidium, which apparently showed
ectopic expression of rhomboid in dscgβ knockdown flies [19]
(Figure 4), both in the control flies and in the knockdown flies
(Figure 7). Notably for Spitz, expression was detected only in these
two cells but not in photoreceptor cells. Knockdown of Sarcoglycans
may therefore trigger secretion of an activated form of Spitz in
these two cells presumably as a consequence of primary defects in
the proper inactivation of EGFR. This could abnormally accelerate
over-activation of EGFR signaling by positive-feedback mechanism.
Discussion
In recent years, there are increasing number of the reports suggesting
the cross talk between DGC and EGFR. For instance, genetic modifier
screening using the visible wing vein phenotype of dystrophin and
dystroglycan RNAi flies identified two genes, argos and kekkon-1
which both encode negative regulators of EGFR signaling [27-30].
9
Yamaguchi et al. HOAJ Biology 2012,
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doi: 10.7243/2050-0874-1-7
Both dystrophin and dystroglycan mutants suppressed the posterior as reduction of Dystroglycan levels in normal cells does not induce
crossvein defective phenotype [30]. Moreover, EGFR signaling has tumor formation [39,41] and none of the DGC related muscular
been reported to regulate expression of dystroglycan in Drosophila dystrophies is reported to be linked with remarkable increase in tumor
oocytes [31]. We have also proposed in a previous report that dScgβ occurrence in human patients. However, Dystroglycan at least appears
interacts with EGFR signaling in Drosophila [19]. The data suggested to act as a tumor suppressor since re-expression of dystroglycan in
a close relationship between DGC and EGFR signaling in a variety of breast cancer cells, in which dystroglycan expression was originally
tissues. However, the molecular mechanisms have remained elusive. decreased, significantly reduced tumor size [42]. Furthermore, it
Our present in vitro binding analysis of Drosophila Sarcoglycans and is well known that EGFR signaling is over-activated and/or missEGFR provides evidence of the linking mechanism.
regulated in many solid tumors [43]. Abnormal activation of EGFR
EGFR signaling needs to be controlled precisely throughout signaling triggers processes that promote tumor cell proliferation,
animal development [32]. Especially, it is well known that the control migration, and angiogenesis. It is of interest that, also with respect
of the proper level of EGFR signaling is vital for eye development in to tumor genesis, the DGC and EGFR signaling present reciprocal
Drosophila since either hyperactive or hypoactive EGFR signaling actions. Further elucidation of interplay between DGC and EGFR
causes abnormalities [33]. Hence, in order to adjust levels strictly, signaling during tumor progression might shed light on novel
EGFR signaling receives complex modulation by multiple regulatory strategies for better management of cancer therapy by exploiting
mechanisms, which must be coordinated [33,34]. In fact, there are DGC activity against EGFR signaling [43].
a variety of ligands with distinct properties and interactions exist
between EGFR signaling and other signaling pathways, such as Conclusions
the Notch pathway, Insulin receptor/Target of rapamycin kinase In vitro data in combination with immunohistochemical data for
pathways, and the Frizzled/PCR pathway [35-37]. Sarcoglycans sarcoglycan knockdown fly retinae, we propose that Sarcoglycan
dependent negative regulation is also likely from the data presented complex formation is required for eye development. Notably, the
in this report. Sarcoglycans appear to work for inactivation of EGFR direct binding of β-Sarcoglycan and δ-Sarcoglycan to EGFR might
via direct association in pupal retinae (Figures 4 and 6). dScgβ be critical for the proper regulation of EGFR signaling during eye
and dScgδ, both of which retain EGF-like consensus sequences development in Drosophila.
in their C-termini, showed binding to EGF binding region of EGFR
(Figure 6B-II and IV). In contrast, dScgα, which carries no EGF- Competing interests
like consensus sequence, did not display binding (Figure 6B-II). The authors declare that they have no competing interests.
Furthermore, the truncated forms of dScgβ and dScgδ lacking Authors’s contribution
RH participated in designing experiments, carried on in
the EGF-like consensus lost the binding ability (Figure 6B-III and
vitro binding assays and immunostaining experiments.
V). These EGF-like consensus sequence in dScgβ and dScgδ may MY carried out establishment of transgenic flies. HY
competitively inhibit Spitz binding to EGFR. Therefore, we suggest carried out genetic interaction analyses. RH, HY and
that the negative regulation of EGFR signaling is, at least in part, MY participated in writing the manuscript.
Authors’s information
controlled by direct association of EGFR with dScgβ and dScgδ.
It has been reported that ectopic expression of dystroglycan is HY is assistant professor and
full professor at the 1Department of Applied Biology and
induced in both egfr mutant clone cells and in null mutant clone MY
3
Insect Biomedical Research Center, Kyoto Institute of Technology.
cells of Ras in posterior follicle cells, whereas, mis-expression of RH was a post-doc at 2Venture laboratory,
the constitutively active form of EGFR caused down-regulation of Kyoto Institute of Technology.
dystroglycan expression in anterior follicle cells. Both observations Acknowledgements
are consistent in suggesting that EGFR signaling regulates expression The authors are grateful to Dr. Y Hiromi for kindly providing
of dystroglycan during oogenesis [31]. Dystroglycan plays a role in fly stocks, Dr. S Taketani for advice in using pETDuet-1 system,
determining cellular polarity and in axis formation during oogenesis Mr K. Ogata and Mr T. Ito for technical assistance and Dr. M.
Moore for comments on the English manuscript. This study
[31,38]. An adequate level of Dystroglycan expression controlled was supported in part by a Venture Laboratory grant in Kyoto
by EGFR signaling and a gradient in Dystroglycan expression could Institute of Technology and Grants-in-Aid from the Ministry of
be required to establish the anterior-posterior axis in oogenesis Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology of Japan.
[31]. Feedback regulation from the DGC side to cause up-regulated The Elav monoclonal antibody developed by Rubin, G.M.
EGFR signaling might contribute to maintaining this gradient and the Lamin monoclonal antibody contributed by Fisher,
P.A. were kindly supplied from the Developmental Studies
of Dystroglycan expression. In the eyes, the breakdown of the Hybridoma Bank developed under the auspices of the NICHD
DGC induced by knockdown of sarcoglycans might stimulate the and maintained by The University of Iowa, Department of
feedback effect and lead to over-activation of EGFR signaling as Biology, Iowa City, IA 52242. We also acknowledge Bloomington
stock center for supplies of the mutant fly lines, and Berkeley
observed in this study.
Interestingly, several published studies have shown that no or Drosophila Genome Project for the cDNA containing EST clones.
reduced expression of α-dystroglycan or β-dystroglycan frequently Publication history
occurs in human cancers [38-40]. Alteration of dystroglycan Received: 21-May-2012 Revised: 13-June-2012
expression is unlikely to be the primary reason for tumorigenesis Accepted: 09-July-2012 Published: 27-July-2012
10
Yamaguchi et al. HOAJ Biology 2012,
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doi: 10.7243/2050-0874-1-7
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Citation:
Hashimoto R, Yoshida H and Yamaguchi M:
Sarcoglycan complex formation is involved in
regulation of EGFR signaling during Drosophila
eye development. HOAJ Biology 2012, 1:7.
http://dx.doi.org/10.7243/2050-0874-1-7
12