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Mactra

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Description

Mactra is a genus of medium-sized marine bivalve mollusks or clams, commonly known as trough shells or duck clams. Mactra is the type genus within the family Mactridae.

From Wikipedia article at https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mactra, which is released under the Creative Commons Attribution-Share-Alike License 3.0.

Source Data

Source	ID	Link
Global Biodiversity Information Facility ID (GBIF)	2286381	https://www.gbif.org/species/2286381
PaleoBioDB ID (PBDB)	17859	https://paleobiodb.org/classic/checkTaxonInfo?taxon_no=17859

Rank

genus

Taxonomy (GBIF)

Life : Animalia : Mollusca : Bivalvia : Venerida : Mactridae : Mactra

Taxonomy (PBDB)

Life : Animalia : Mollusca : Bivalvia : Veneroidei : Mactridae : Mactra

Taxonomic Status (GBIF)

accepted

Classification
(PBDB,GBIF)

Rank	Name	Author
-	Eukaryota
-	Opisthokonta	Cavalier-Smith 1987
kingdom	Animalia
-	Bilateria
-	Eubilateria	Ax 1987
-	Protostomia	Grobben 1908
-	Spiralia
superphylum	Lophotrochozoa
phylum	Mollusca	Linnaeus 1758
class	Bivalvia	Linnaeus 1758
-	Eubivalvia	Carter 2011
subclass	Autobranchia
infraclass	Heteroconchia
-	Cardiomorphi	Ferussac 1822
-	Cardioni	Ferussac 1822
-	Cardiidia	Ferussac 1822
-	Cardiata	Ferussac 1822
superorder	Cardiiformii	Ferussac 1822
order	Cardiida	Ferussac 1822
suborder	Cardiidina	Ferussac 1822
-	Veneroidei
-	Veneroitei	Gray 1854
superfamily	Mactroidea
family	Mactridae	Lamarck 1809
subfamily	Mactrinae	Lamarck 1809
genus	Mactra	Linnaeus 1767

Scientific Name

Mactra Linnaeus, 1767

Name Published In

Linnaeus, Carolus. 1767. Systema naturae sive regna tria naturae, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis. Laurentii Salvii, Holmiae. Vol. I, No. 2, Edito duodecima, reformata: 533-1327,.

Opinions (PBDB)

Name	Rank	Opinion	Evidence	Author
Mactra	genus	belongs to Mactridae	stated with evidence	Deshayes, 1857
Mactra	genus	belongs to Mactrinae	stated without evidence	Glenn, 1904
Mactra	genus	belongs to Mactrinae	stated with evidence	Packard, 1916
Mactra	genus	belongs to Mactridae	stated without evidence	Olsson, 1931
Mactra	genus	belongs to Mactrinae	stated without evidence	da Silva Forti, 1969
Mactra	genus	belongs to Mactrinae	stated with evidence	Vokes, 1980
Mactra	genus	belongs to Mactridae	stated with evidence	Gazdzicki and Pugaczewska, 1984
Mactra	genus	belongs to Mactridae	implied	Lamprell and Whitehead, 1992
Mactra	genus	belongs to Mactridae	stated with evidence	Frassinetti and Covacevich, 1995
Mactra	genus	belongs to Mactrinae	stated without evidence	Matsubara, 2002
Mactra	genus	belongs to Veneroida	second hand	Sepkoski, 2002
Mactra	genus	belongs to Mactrinae	stated with evidence	Beu, 2006
Mactra	genus	belongs to Mactrinae	stated without evidence	Bouchet et al., 2010
Mactra	genus	belongs to Mactrinae	stated with evidence	Signorelli and Carter, 2016

Status (PBDB)

extant

Taxon Size (PBDB)

Extant Size (PBDB)

16 (29%)

First Recorded Appearance

199 - 191 Ma
Early Jurassic

Motility

facultatively mobile

Vision

blind (based on Bivalvia)

Diet

suspension feeder

Ecospace Comments

LIFE HISTORY: IS, MA, UN, SU according to Todd (2001).

Taphonomy

aragonite (based on Bivalvia)

Primary Reference (PBDB)

J. J. Sepkoski, Jr. 2002. A compendium of fossil marine animal genera. Bulletins of American Paleontology 363:1-560

Wikipedia

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mactra

External Images

Fossil Distribution

Subtaxa

Name	Status	Common Name(s)	Fossil Occurrences	Oldest	Youngest
Mactra (Barymactra) ✝ subgenus	listed (PBDB)		1	38.0 Ma Eocene	38.0 Ma Eocene
Mactra (Electomactra) subgenus	listed (PBDB)
Mactra (Electromactra) ✝ subgenus	listed (PBDB)		8	16.0 Ma Miocene	5.33 Ma Miocene
Mactra (Heteromactra) subgenus	listed (PBDB)		2	23.0 Ma Miocene	0 Ma Extant
Mactra (Mactra) subgenus	listed (PBDB)		11	23.0 Ma Miocene	0 Ma Extant
Mactra (Mactrella) subgenus	listed (PBDB)				0 Ma Extant
Mactra (Maorimactra) subgenus	listed (PBDB)		12	61.6 Ma Paleocene	0 Ma Extant
Mactra (Nannomactra) subgenus	listed (PBDB)
Mactra abbreviata species	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Mactra achatina ✝ species	accepted (GBIF) listed (PBDB)		1	0.13 Ma Pleistocene	0.13 Ma Pleistocene
Mactra aequisulcata species	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Mactra albirupiana species	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Mactra alta species	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Mactra amygdalina species	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Mactra angulata species	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Mactra antiqua species	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Mactra antiquata species	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Mactra aphrodina species	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Mactra araucana species	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Mactra arenaria species	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Mactra artensis species	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Mactra artopta ✝ species	accepted (GBIF) listed (PBDB)		1	5.33 Ma Miocene	5.33 Ma Miocene
Mactra aspenana species	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Mactra auca ✝ species	accepted (GBIF) listed (PBDB)
Mactra austeniana ✝ species	accepted (GBIF) listed (PBDB)		1	23.0 Ma Miocene	23.0 Ma Miocene
Mactra australis species	accepted (GBIF) listed (PBDB)		1	0.13 Ma Pleistocene	0.13 Ma Pleistocene
Mactra axiniformis ✝ species	accepted (GBIF) listed (PBDB)		1	16.0 Ma Miocene	16.0 Ma Miocene
Mactra bignoniana species	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Mactra canonensis species	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Mactra carteri species	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Mactra carteroni species	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Mactra censoriensis species	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Mactra chinensis species	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Mactra chipolana species	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Mactra chrydaea species	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Mactra clathrodon species	doubtful (GBIF) listed (PBDB)		8	23.0 Ma Miocene	23.0 Ma Miocene
Mactra coalingensis species	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Mactra constricta ✝ species	accepted (GBIF) listed (PBDB)		1	3.60 Ma Pliocene	3.60 Ma Pliocene
Mactra cordiformis species	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Mactra crossei species	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Mactra cumingii species	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Mactra cuneata species	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Mactra cygnus species	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Mactra cymata species	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Mactra darwinii ✝ species	accepted (GBIF) listed (PBDB)
Mactra deluta species	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Mactra deshayesi species	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Mactra dissimilis species	accepted (GBIF) listed (PBDB)
Mactra eburnea species	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Mactra emmonsi species	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Mactra erebea species	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Mactra eximia species	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Mactra formosa species	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Mactra fuegiensis species	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Mactra gaviotensis species	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Mactra gibbsana ✝ species	listed (PBDB)
Mactra gigas species	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Mactra glabrata species	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Mactra glauca species	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Mactra gracilus species	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Mactra grandis species	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Mactra grateloupi species	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Mactra guidoi species	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Mactra hamiltonensis ✝ species	accepted (GBIF) listed (PBDB)
Mactra holmesi species	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Mactra huerfanensis species	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Mactra inaequalis species	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Mactra inaequilateralis species	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Mactra inaequipartita species	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Mactra incarnata species	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Mactra incerta species	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Mactra incomatensis ✝ species	accepted (GBIF) listed (PBDB)
Mactra incompta species	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Mactra insularum species	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Mactra iridescens species	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Mactra irizari ✝ species	accepted (GBIF) listed (PBDB)		12	56.0 Ma Paleocene	5.33 Ma Miocene
Mactra isabelleana species	accepted (GBIF) listed (PBDB)		5	0.13 Ma Pleistocene	0 Ma Extant
Mactra jacksonensis species	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Mactra kanakina species	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Mactra largillierti species	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Mactra levesquei species	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Mactra lignaria species	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Mactra lilacea species	accepted (GBIF) listed (PBDB)		2	0.13 Ma Pleistocene	0.13 Ma Pleistocene
Mactra luzonica species	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Mactra maculata species	accepted (GBIF) listed (PBDB)
Mactra maia species	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Mactra marcida species	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Mactra marplatensis species	accepted (GBIF) listed (PBDB)		5	0.01 Ma Pleistocene	0 Ma Extant
Mactra marwicki species	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Mactra matronensis species	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Mactra mekranensis ✝ species	accepted (GBIF) listed (PBDB)
Mactra mera species	listed (PBDB)		3	5.33 Ma Miocene	0 Ma Extant
Mactra mississippiensis species	accepted (GBIF) listed (PBDB)		1	33.9 Ma Oligocene	33.9 Ma Oligocene
Mactra mitis species	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Mactra nipponica species	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Mactra nitidula species	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Mactra oblonga ✝ species	accepted (GBIF) listed (PBDB)		2	23.0 Ma Miocene	20.4 Ma Miocene
Mactra ochracea species	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Mactra olorina ✝ species	accepted (GBIF) listed (PBDB)		8	56.0 Ma Paleocene	47.8 Ma Eocene
Mactra opposita species	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Mactra ordinaria species	accepted (GBIF) listed (PBDB)		1	0.78 Ma Pleistocene	0 Ma Extant
Mactra ovalis species	listed (PBDB)		6	5.33 Ma Miocene	0 Ma Extant
Mactra patagonica species	accepted (GBIF) listed (PBDB)		18	23.0 Ma Miocene	0 Ma Extant
Mactra paulucci species	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Standella pellucida species	accepted (GBIF) listed (PBDB)
Mactra pervetus species	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Mactra petitii species	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Mactra piscinasina species	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Mactra plana species	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Mactra procrassa ✝ species	accepted (GBIF) listed (PBDB)		1	3.60 Ma Pliocene	3.60 Ma Pliocene
Mactra profragilis species	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Mactra protoreevesii species	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Mactra pulchella species	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Mactra pura species	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Mactra pusilla species	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Mactra pusilla ✝ species	doubtful (GBIF) listed (PBDB)		4	23.0 Ma Miocene	20.4 Ma Miocene
Mactra quadrangularis species	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Mactra quadricentennialis species	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Mactra queenslandica species	accepted (GBIF) listed (PBDB)
Mactra quirosana species	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Mactra radiata species	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Mactra rochebrunei species	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Mactra rupellensis species	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Mactra sammamishensis species	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Mactra sauliana species	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Mactra semistriata species	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Mactra sericea species	accepted (GBIF) listed (PBDB)
Mactra sincola species	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Mactra siouxensis species	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Mactra sirena species	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Mactra solida species	listed (PBDB)		3	3.60 Ma Pliocene	0 Ma Extant
Mactra solidissima species	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Mactra stantoni ✝ species	accepted (GBIF) listed (PBDB)
Mactra stultorum species	accepted (GBIF) listed (PBDB)		4	5.33 Ma Miocene	0 Ma Extant
Mactra substriatella species	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Mactra subtriangula species	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Mactra tenuissima ✝ species	listed (PBDB)		2	66.0 Ma Late/Upper Cretaceous	66.0 Ma Late/Upper Cretaceous
Mactra texana species	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Mactra thaanumi species	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Mactra trampasensis species	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Mactra tripartita ✝ species	accepted (GBIF) listed (PBDB)
Mactra truncata species	listed (PBDB)		2	3.60 Ma Pliocene	0 Ma Extant
Mactra tumbezia species	accepted (GBIF) listed (PBDB)
Mactra tumida ✝ species	accepted (GBIF) listed (PBDB)		1	38.0 Ma Eocene	38.0 Ma Eocene
Mactra turgida species	accepted (GBIF) listed (PBDB)
Mactra umbonalis species	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Mactra undula species	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Mactra utahensis species	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Mactra violacea species	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Mactra vitaliana species	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Mactra warrenana species	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Mactra westralis species	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Mactra willcoxii species	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Mactra zorritensis species	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB

Obsolete Names

Name	Source	Taxon Rank	Taxonomy
Nannomactra Iredale, 1930	GBIF	genus	Animalia : Mollusca : Bivalvia : Venerida : Mactridae : *Nannomactra*
Colorimactra Iredale, 1929	GBIF	genus	Animalia : Mollusca : Bivalvia : Venerida : Mactridae : *Colorimactra*
Trigonella da Costa, 1778	GBIF	genus	Animalia : Mollusca : Bivalvia : Venerida : Mactridae : *Trigonella*
Deikea Mayer-Eymar, 1872	GBIF	genus	Animalia : Mollusca : Bivalvia : Venerida : Mactridae : *Deikea*
Macra Fabricius, 1823	GBIF	genus	Animalia : Mollusca : Bivalvia : Venerida : Mactridae : *Macra*
Telemactra Iredale, 1929	GBIF	genus	Animalia : Mollusca : Bivalvia : Venerida : Mactridae : *Telemactra*

Synonymy List

Year	Name and Author
1767	Mactra Linnaeus p. 1125
1854	Mactra gabiotensis Conrad p. 194 figs. pi. 7, fig. 3
1857	Mactra Deshayes
1904	Mactra Glenn p. 285
1916	Mactra Packard p. 278
1931	Mactra Olsson p. 66
1935	Mactra Oostingh p. 195
1939	Mactra Mukerjee p. 14
1944	Mactra Durham p. 151
1969	Mactra da Silva Forti p. 90

Year	Name and Author
1980	Mactra Vokes p. 135
1983	Mactra Gliozzi and Malatesta p. 98
1984	Mactra Gazdzicki and Pugaczewska p. 102
1992	Mactra Lamprell and Whitehead p. 76
1995	Mactra Frassinetti and Covacevich p. 54
2002	Mactra Matsubara p. 141
2002	Mactra Sepkoski, Jr.
2006	Mactra Beu p. 225
2010	Mactra Bouchet et al.
2016	Mactra Signorelli and Carter p. 209 figs. Table 1

References

Sepkoski, Jr. J. J. (2002) A compendium of fossil marine animal genera, Bulletins of American Paleontology 363, 1-560

Deshayes G.P. , Description des Animaux sans Vertébres découverts dans le Bassin des Paris 1 2, 81-392

Glenn L. C. (1904) Pelecypoda, Maryland Geological Survey Miocene Text, 274-401

Packard E. L. (1916) Mesozoic and Cenozoic Mactrinae of the Pacific Coast of North America, University of California Publications, Bulletin of the Department of Geology 9 16, 261-360

Olsson A. A. (1931) Contributions to the Tertiary Paleontology of Northern Peru: Part 4, The Peruvian Oligocene, Bulletins of American Paleontology 17 63

Oostingh C. H. (1935) Die Mollusken des Pliozäns von Boemiajoe (Java), Dienst van den Mijnbouw in Nederlandsch-Indië Wetenschappelijke Mededeelingen 26, 1-247

Mukerjee P. N. (1939) Fossil fauna from the Tertiary of Garo Hills, Assam, Palaeontologia Indica 28 1, 1-101

Durham J. W. (1944) Megafaunal zones of the Oligocene of northwestern Washington, University of California Publications in Geological Sciences 27, 101 -212

da Silva Forti I. R. (1969) Cenozoic Mollusks from the drillholes Cassino and Palmares do Sul of the Coastal Plain of Rio Grande do Sul, Iheringia Geologia 2, 55-155

Vokes H. E. (1980) Genera of the Bivalvia: a systematic and bibliographic Catalogue, Genera of the Bivalvia: a systematic and bibliographic Catalogue

Gliozzi E., Malatesta A. (1983) I molluschi del Paleocene di Baixa Chinhauanine nel bacino del Rio Massintonto (Maputo - Mozambico), Geologica Romana 22, 85-145

Gazdzicki A, Pugaczewska H (1984) Biota of the "Pecten Conglomerate" (Polenez Cove Formation, Pliocene) of King George Island (South Shetland Islands, Antarctica), Studia Geologica Polonica 79, 59-120

Lamprell K., Whitehead T. (1992) , Bivalves of Australia 1

Frassinetti D., Covacevich V (1995) Moluscos del Plioceno Superior marino de Isla Guamblín Archípelago de los Chonos, sur de Chile, Revista Geológica de Chile 22 1, 47-73

Matsubara T. (2002) Molluscan fauna of the "Miocene" Maéjima Formation in Maéjima Island, Okayama Prefecture, southwest Japan, Paleontological Research 6 2, 127-145

Beu A. G. (2006) Marine Mollusca of oxygen isotope stages of the last 2 million years in New Zealand. Part 2. Biostratigraphically useful and new Pliocene to Recent bivalves, Journal of the Royal Society of New Zealand 36 4, 151-338

Bouchet P., Rocroi J.-P., et al (2010) Nomenclator of Bivalve Families with a Classification of Bivalve Families, Malacologia 52 2, 1-184 doi:10.4002/040.052.0201

Signorelli J. H., Carter J. G. (2016) The Anatinellidae and Kymatoxinae: A reassessment of their affinities within the superfamily Mactroidea (Mollusca, Bivalvia), American Malacological Bulletin 33 2, 204-211

Aphia2006 - via The Interim Register of Marine and Nonmarine Genera

CoL2006 - via The Interim Register of Marine and Nonmarine Genera

Nomenclator Zoologicus. A list of the names of genera and subgenera in zoology from the tenth edition of Linnaeus, 1758 to the end of 2004. Digitised by uBio from vols. 1-9 of Neave (ed.), 1939-1996 plus supplementary digital-only volume. http://ubio.org/NomenclatorZoologicus (as at 2006). - via The Interim Register of Marine and Nonmarine Genera

Sepkoski, J. J., Jr. (2002). A compendium of fossil marine animal genera. Bulletins of American Paleontology. 363, 1-560. - via The Interim Register of Marine and Nonmarine Genera

Syst. Nat., ed. 12, - via The Interim Register of Marine and Nonmarine Genera

WoRMS (Mar 2013) - via The Interim Register of Marine and Nonmarine Genera

SN2000/Boss, 1982 - via The Interim Register of Marine and Nonmarine Genera

Vaught, K.C.; Tucker Abbott, R.; Boss, K.J. (1989). A classification of the living Mollusca. American Malacologists: Melbourne. ISBN 0-915826-22-4. XII, 195 pp. - via World Register of Introduced Marine Species (WRiMS)

International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature. Opinion 94 Twenty-two Mollusk and Tunicate names placed in the Official List of Generic Names.Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections 73(4), 12-13 (1926) - via Official Lists and Indexes of Names in Zoology

Gofas, S.; Le Renard, J.; Bouchet, P. (2001). Mollusca. in: Costello, M.J. et al. (eds), European Register of Marine Species: a check-list of the marine species in Europe and a bibliography of guides to their identification. Patrimoines Naturels. 50: 180-213. - via World Register of Introduced Marine Species (WRiMS)

Linnaeus, C. (1767). Systema naturae per regna tria naturae: secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis. Ed. 12. 1., Regnum Animale. 1 & 2. Holmiae, Laurentii Salvii. Holmiae [Stockholm], Laurentii Salvii. pp. 1-532 [1766] pp. 533-1327 [1767]. - via World Register of Introduced Marine Species (WRiMS)

Data courtesy of: PBDB: The Paleobiology Database, Creative Commons CC-BY licenced. , GBIF: the Global Biodiversity Information Facility, various licences, iDigBio, various licences, and EOL: The Encyclopedia of Life (Open Data Public Domain). Because fossils are made of minerals too!

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