Forging a Legacy: The Jambiya, Yemen’s Iconic Weapon

For many cultures and societies across the globe, arms and armour played an important role off the battlefield, particularly as markers of social status, military rank, courage, and wealth. In Yemen, this tradition continues to prevail with a dagger known as the jambiya or janbīyyah (Arabic: جنبية), which is derived from the Arabic word for ‘side’. On a larger scale, the weapon embodies centuries of tribalism and honour; on a smaller scale, it represents manhood, social prestige, and family identity. So impactful is the jambiya on Yemeni culture that its presence echoed throughout regions of the Islamic world, from Morocco to India, inspiring regional versions of the weapon. Yet, despite its iconic status, there has been little scholarly attention paid to it. This article serves an introduction to the jambiya, examining its history, function, production, and enduring legacy that is laced with both challenges and controversies.

Generally, the jambiya is characterized by a short, broad, double-edged, curved blade that gradually tapers to the tip, with a raised midrib that runs down the length (Fig. 1). The hilt is typically baluster-, I-, or T-shaped. The earliest representation of the weapon seems to be on a statue of a Sabaean king that dates to about 500  and is currently in the National Museum of Yemen in Sana’a (Gracie, 2018, p. 20). It is shown with an I-shaped hilt and is tucked into the ruler’s waist sash. While this ancient weapon may have played a role in the evolution of the jambiya, Stephen Gracie, an Australian collector who owns the largest repository of jambiyas outside of Yemen, believes that external influences shaped the creation of the weapon as it is known today, which developed sometime between the 15th and 17th centuries (Gracie, 2018, p. 22). He theorizes that the curved, double-edged blade was introduced to the region through the Ottoman Turkish conquest and occupation of Yemen (1538–1630), as well as through trade with Iran and India (Gracie, 2018, p. 22). These regions were part of incredible networks of exchange between the 15th and 17th centuries, which included not only commodities but also technology, knowledge, and culture. So entwined were these connections that it can be challenging to trace the origins of ideas and items like the jambiya.

Fig. 1 Dagger (jambiya) with sheath
Yemen; 19th century
Steel, wood, brass, silver, gold, copper, brass wire; 33.7 x 7.3 cm (with sheath)
Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York; Bequest of George C. Stone, 1935
Photo © Metropolitan Museum of Art

Fig. 2 Folio depicting weapons, from the Ain-i-Akbari by Abu’l Fazl
India; Mughal period (1526–1858), 1621
Opaque watercolour, ink, and gold on paper
British Library, London
Photo © British Library

A plausible theory is that the weapon is connected to India. In Ain-i-Akbari ‘The Administration of Akbar’, a text about the government of the Mughal emperor Akbar (r. 1556–1605), penned by his court historian and biographer, Abu’l Fazl (1551–1602), there is a section on the Mughal arsenal that illustrates some weapons from India (Fig. 2). The dagger in the centre of the second row from the top is labelled as a ‘jambhwa’ (Fazl, 1873, p. 110), which seems to be an alternate spelling for ‘jambiya’ (Lord Egerton of Tatton, 2002, pp. 22–23). The jambiya’s blade strongly resembles that of the ‘jambhwa’: both are short, broad, double-edged, and curved. It is possible that the ‘jambhwa’ was introduced to Yemen through its centuries-old trade relationship with India. The 14th century Berber Maghrebi scholar and explorer, Abu Abdullah Muhammad ibn Battuta (1304–69), even called Yemen’s city of Aden the ‘port of the merchants of India’ (Ibn Battuta, 1962, p. 72). If this is the case, then the weapon was clearly adapted to include the jambiya’s distinct curve in the blade, as seen in Figure 1, as well as the raised midrib that provides overall strength. Additionally, tribes from different parts of Yemen made further changes to suit their use, taste, and heritage. While this seems plausible, there are still many gaps, uncertainties, and unanswered questions, including whether the ‘jambhwa’ originated in India or whether it too was a product of trade. In addition, the lack of visual evidence compounds tracing the origins and evolution further. However, it unquestionably existed by 1763, when the German explorer (in the service of Denmark), Carsten Niebuhr (1733–1815), was gifted a jambiya as part of a set of traditional garments by al-Mahdi ‘Abbas, the imam of Yemen (Niebuhr, 1792, p. 417), which is visually documented in his book, Rejsebeskrivelse fra Arabien ‘Travelogue from Arabia’ (Fig. 3).

The Yemeni jambiya was an ideal weapon for its semi-nomadic and rural population, who primarily used it in defence. The short, curved blade provided several advantages for the wielder. First, when worn at the waist, it allowed for mobility and comfort while travelling—or even fighting—on horse or camel (Gracie, 2018, p. 19). Second, like most curved knives and daggers, the blade bends towards the opponent, eliminating the need to angle the wrist, thus providing more ease and stability as a stabbing weapon than a straight-edged blade. Third, it allowed for more agile movements, including cutting and twisting upwards. It should be mentioned that the blade’s heaviness was also significant for combat; it made it possible to inflict deeper wounds than a standard knife, as it could cut through muscle and bone.

Fig. 3 Carsten Niebuhr in traditional Yemeni garb with jambiya 
(After Carsten Niebuhr, Reisebeschreibung nach Arabien und andern umliegender Ländern,
Copenhagen, 1774–78, Tab. LXXI)

Fig. 4 Dagger (jambiya) with scabbard
Saudi Arabia, Medina; 1876–1909
Steel, silver, wood, gold; 32.4 cm (with scabbard)
Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York; Rogers Fund, 1931
Photo © Metropolitan Museum of Art

However, the advent of firearms in the early to mid-16th century changed not only combat for Yemen and the rest of the Arabian peninsula but also the jambiya’s role within it. It slowly transitioned from an instrument of war and defence to a symbol of honour, identity, status, power, and masculinity. Returning to the Niebuhr image, we see that by the mid-18th century the jambiya was well adapted into traditional dress. Men who were affiliated with a tribe or had tribal origins would wear it to represent their right to bear arms through centuries-ingrained codes of honour that required one to defend one’s tribe, heritage, and family name. Boys are presented with their first jambiya to mark their passage into manhood. In some parts of Yemen, they are given one after their circumcision ceremony. Young boys are sometimes given diminutive versions to participate in ceremonies and celebrations. The jambiya is stored in a J-shaped sheath that is made from wood and covered with cloth, leather, or metal. It is worth noting that the shape has a practical purpose: the hook would catch in one’s belt so that it was not pulled along with a suddenly drawn weapon. The jambiya is tucked into a belt or waist sash of a robe or placed within the top of a ma’awaz, a wrap-around skirt. While some men wear their jambiya at all times, it is commonly worn for weddings, celebrations, Muslim holidays like Eid, and dances (bara’a). The weapon is also used as a means of arbitration during individual and tribal disputes, dispensing justice (adl) and working through reconciliation (alfara’a). As it is still considered a functional weapon, there are both societal and religious protocols one must follow. For example, the dagger must remain in its sheath, only to come out in extreme cases of dispute or conflict; otherwise, the weapon’s owner risks bringing dishonour and defamation to himself and his family.

Fig. 5 Thomas Edward Lawrence, 1919
Photo: Public domain via Wikimedia Commons

Fig. 6 Dagger (jambiya) with sheath
Yemen; 19th century
Steel, wood, gold, silver, textile, leather, brass; 34.3 x 7.1 cm (with sheath)
Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York; Bequest of George C. Stone, 1935
Photo © Metropolitan Museum of Art

There are about seven basic styles of the jambiya, five of which are discussed here. The first, and the most common, is what Gracie calls the ‘tribal’ jambiya (Gracie, 2018, p. 119). Worn by most Yemeni tribes, with decorative flourishes to distinguish them, the dagger is tucked vertically into a belt or waist sash in front of the stomach, despite the origins of its name. The second is the thouma, which is worn by judges and the Sayyids, descendants of the Prophet Muhammed, and is worn angled on the right side. The third is the abdi, named for the family that first introduced the style. Primarily worn by tribal members from the coastal city of Hadhramaut, as well as the Hejaz region of western Saudi Arabia, it is notable for its T-shaped hilt and silvered sheath. While the ‘tribal’ jambiya is the most popular in Yemen, the abdi is better known in the West, particularly as the ‘Mecca’ jambiya, since not only was this jambiya popular there (both Mecca and Medina are located in Hejaz) but also most of the surviving examples are often associated with the Muslim pilgrimage to the holy city. A fine example is in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York (Fig. 4). Inscribed on the sheath locket (the protective fitting at the top) is an Ottoman Turkish inscription, stating, ‘In Medina al-Munawarra, belonging to al-Hajj Shaykh Ali Effendi’. It suggests that the weapon was manufactured in Medina, with ‘al-Munawarra’ being an epithet for it, meaning ‘bright city’ or ‘illuminated city’. The title of ‘Effendi’ indicates that the owner of the weapon was Turkish. The term ‘Hajj’ refers to the fact that the owner fulfilled his religious duty of making the pilgrimage to Mecca (Alexander, 2015, p. 227). The blade is inscribed with lines of poetry in Arabic, as well as ‘work of Izzet’, which could refer to the smith or the decorator of the blade. The scholar David Alexander notes that the epigraphy and the ornamentation is similar to work produced in 19th century Turkey (Alexander, 2015, p. 227). However, he also points out that this does not mean that the work was executed in Turkey following the owner’s return; it could have been produced in either Medina or even Mecca, as both were home to Muslims from throughout the Islamic world, including a significant population of Ottoman Turks (Alexander, 2015, p. 227). However, the abdi’s recognition in the West can most likely be credited to the British archaeologist, army officer, and diplomat, T. E. Lawrence (1888–1935), popularly known as Lawrence of Arabia, who famously wore this style (Fig. 5). The fourth form is the hadhramiya (Fig. 6), which refers to Hadhramaut, where it was popular amongst members of the elite. It is notable for its radically curved sheath. The final one is the sabiki (Fig. 7a), a short sword-like type of the jambiya. Worn at an angle and across the front of the body (Fig. 7b), it was popular in northwestern Yemen and the Asir and Jizan regions of Saudi Arabia.

Fig. 7a Dagger (jambiya) with sheath and belt
Yemen; 19th century
Steel, silver, wood, leather, iron; 52.4 x 6.4 cm (with sheath)
Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York; Bequest of George C. Stone, 1935
Photo © Metropolitan Museum of Art

Fig. 7b ‘People from Hejaz, the “Western Province” of Saudi Arabia’
By Pascal Sebah (1823–86)
(After Imperial Ottoman Commission, 'Exposition Universelle', Les costumes populaires de la Turquie, Vienna, 1873)

The very same trade and exchanges that influenced the creation of the Yemeni jambiya also allowed for the weapon to then spread throughout the Arabian peninsula and into other parts of the Islamic world, such as Oman, Morocco, Turkey, Iran, and India, where locals created their adapted versions of it. For example, the Omani jambiya (Fig. 8), which is known as a khanjar, a generic Arabic term for ‘dagger’, generally bears the same shape as its Yemeni counterpart. However, the distinction lies with its sheath, which is L-shaped and has four rings in the front that are bound together by wire. The Moroccan jambiya (Fig. 9) is characterized by a very slender, double-edged blade that begins to delicately curve about three-quarters down the length. Like the Yemeni version, the blade also has a lengthwise midrib. Its distinct hilt bears a large, flat, spade-like pommel, and the sheath is long, slender, and J-shaped. Ottoman Turkish, Persian, and Indian jambiyas generally share the same qualities, which include a baluster- or I-shaped hilt and a long blade that can vary in both curvature and width. Persian examples are often embellished just below the hilt, which include vignettes of animals, hunting scenes, and animals in combat (Fig. 10).

The most important aspects of the Yemeni jambiya are the materials and the decoration, which collectively denote the status and wealth of the owner and his family. Those who could afford it would have blades forged from strong, high-quality steel. Blades were traditionally forged from iron mined locally from the Sa’da and Hadhramaut regions. By the 19th century, Yemen’s iron supplies needed to be supplemented by imported iron from India, which, due to its high quality, was notably costly and reserved for wealthier clientele. Today, blades are still manufactured in Dhamar and Sana’a (Gracie, 2018, p. 201) and continue to be imported from India, as well as China and Japan. However, with the high prices of steel, blacksmiths have had to become industrious, some even using remnants of missiles fired by Saudi-led coalition jets (Michael, 2018).

While blades are not typically embellished, the sheaths and the hilts can be heavily decorated. Sheaths that are covered in silver, gold, or copper alloy (a relatively inexpensive substitute for gold) can feature highly intricate metalwork designs that include piercing, chiseling, etching, and granulation. Often semi-precious stones are also inlaid into the sheath, enhancing the beauty of the weapon and the status of the owner. It is important to note that, in Islam, it is forbidden for men to wear gold jewellery. However, as the jambiya is a weapon, it is an exception to this rule.

Fig. 8. Dagger (jambiya) with sheath
Oman; 19th century
Steel, wood, silver, gold, copper foil, pigment, paper, glue; 34 x 6 cm (with sheath)
Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York;
Bequest of George C. Stone, 1935
Photo © Metropolitan Museum of Art

Fig. 9 Dagger (jambiya) with sheath
Morocco; 19th century
Steel, wood, silver, brass, gold, niello; 42.7 x 26 x 5.7 cm (with sheath)
Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York; Bequest of George C. Stone, 1935
Photo © Metropolitan Museum of Art

The most important part of the jambiya is the hilt; it reveals the owner’s status since it is what an observer would immediately notice. Thus, much care goes into its creation and decoration. Standard hilts are often made from the horns and bones of cows, goats, or water buffalos; the hooves or bones of camels; metal; or wood. Men of distinction opt for more exotic and precious materials, including agate, jasper, red and yellow amber, silver, and elephant or walrus ivory. However, the most coveted material was, and still is, rhinoceros horn (Fig. 11). It is considered a prestigious material for a variety of reasons, in addition to its aesthetic qualities: it comes from an exotic creature, it takes notable time and resources to procure, it is imported from Africa, and it is durable. According to Gracie, the cost of a rhinoceros hilt is calculated much in the same way as diamonds; factors that influence its price, which can go up to $1,500 USD per kilogramme, are quality, cut, colour, and age (Gracie, 2018, p. 191). The most coveted form of rhinoceros hilt is known as al-saifani, known for its distinctive brown-yellow colour that apparently clears and glows with age. The production of the Yemeni jambiya markedly contributed to the poaching of the African rhinoceros and the sharp decline in its population; not only is the horn still greatly sought after but also the manufacturing of the hilt is highly wasteful, with nearly 60 percent of the horn lost in the carving process (Ellis, 2013, p. 98). Sadly, there remains a high demand for rhinoceros horn, despite Yemen banning its use in the 1980s, ongoing conservation efforts, and global bans on the poaching of rhinoceros and the importing and exporting of their horns.

While the creation and evolution of the Yemeni jambiya remains unclear, its impact is certainly doubtless. As a weapon, it provided protection for the wielder, his family, his tribe, and his livelihood, and it fostered independence, courage, and manliness. The jambiya continues to represent these sentiments as it has transitioned into a symbol that is worn proudly by Yemeni men. For them, it serves not only as a marker of status but also as a reminder of their family, their heritage, and the codes of honour they uphold within their society. What makes the Yemeni jambiya so captivating is that its status is so powerful and impactful, that it inspired versions in different regions of the Islamic world, and that—despite the great influx, movement, and circulation of trade and people throughout the centuries, and despite modernization and contemporary challenges—it carries on as an anchor and living evidence of Yemen’s cultural and societal pride.

Fig. 10 Dagger (jambiya)
Iran; Qajar period (1789–1925), 19th century
Steel, gold; 39.1 x 0.8 x 3 cm
Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York; Collection of Giovanni P. Morosini, presented by his daughter Giulia, 1932
Photo © Metropolitan Museum of Art

Fig. 11 Dagger (jambiya) (detail)
Yemen; 19th century
Rhinoceros horn, iron mounts, damascened gold and silver; 41 cm
Mengdiexuan Collection
Photo © Mengdiexuan Collection

Rachel Parikh is the Marguerite S. Hoffman and Thomas W. Lentz Curator of Islamic Art at the Dallas Museum of Art.

Selected bibliography

David Alexander, with Stuart W. Pyhrr and Will Kwiatkowski, Islamic Arms and Armor in The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, 2015.

Ibn Battuta, The Travels of Ibn Battuta, 1325–1354, vol. II, translated by H. A. R. Gibb, Cambridge, 1962.

Lord Egerton of Tatton, Indian and Oriental Arms and Armour, New York, 2002.

Richard Ellis, Tiger Bone and Rhino Horn: The Destruction of Wildlife for Traditional Chinese Medicine, Washington, DC, 2013.

Abu’l Fazl, Ain-i-Akbari, vol. I, translated by H. Blochmann, Calcutta, 1873.

Stephen Gracie, Jambiya: Daggers from the Ancient Souqs of Yemen, Sydney, 2018.

Maggie Michael, ‘Yemeni Smiths Beat Missiles into Knives, Not Ploughshares’, Associated Press (AP) News, 9 October 2018, https://apnews.com/article/middle-east-yemen-cairo-ap-top-news-edd36a23605c430cbc3d09f8f1237952.

Carsten Niebuhr, Travels through Arabia and Other Countries in the East, vol. I, translated by Robert Heron, Edinburgh, 1792.

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