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ADefenseofLibertyAgainstTyrants(1579)
[VINDICIAECONTRATYRANNOS]
STEPHENJUNIUSBRUTUS
TRANSLATEDANONYMOUSLYFROMTHELATIN,1648.SPELLINGANDPUNCTUATION
HAVEBEENMODERNIZED.

OBEDIENCETOPRINCESORTOGOD?

This question happily may seem at the first view to be altogether superfluous and unprofitable, for that it
seemstomakeadoubtofanaxiomalwaysheldinfallibleamongChristians,confirmedbymanytestimonies
inHolyScripture,diversexamplesofthehistoriesofallages,andbythedeathofalltheholymartyrs.Forit
may be well demanded why Christians have endured so many afflictions, but that they were always
persuadedthatGodmustbeobeyedsimplyandabsolutely,andkingswiththisexception,thattheycommand
notthatwhichisrepugnanttothelawofGod.Otherwise,whyshouldtheapostleshaveanswered,thatGod
mustratherbeobeyedthanmen,andalsoseeingthattheonlywillofGodisalwaysjust,andthatofmen
may be, and is, oftentimes unjust, who can doubt but that we must always obey Gods commandments
withoutanyexception,andmenseverwithlimitation?

Therearenoestateswhichoughttobeesteemedfirmandstable,butthoseinwhomthetempleofGodis
built,andwhichareindeedthetempleitself,andthesewemaytrulycallkings,whichreignwithGod,seeing
thatitisbyhimonlythatkingsreign:Onthecontrary,whatbeastlyfoolishnessitistothinkthatthestate
and kingdom cannot subsist if God Almighty be not excluded, and his temple demolished. From hence
proceed so many tyrannous enterprises, unhappy and tragic death of kings, and ruins of people. If these
sycophantsknewwhatdifferencethereisbetweenGodandCaesar,betweentheKingofKingsandasimple
king,betweenthelordandthevassal,andwhattributesthislordrequiresofhissubjects,andwhatauthority
hegivestokingsoverthosehissubjects,certainlysomanyprinceswouldnotstrivetotroublethekingdom
of God, and we should not see some of them precipitated from their thrones by the just instigation of the
Almighty, revenging himself of them, in the midst of their greatest strength, and the people should not be
sackedandpillagedandtroddendown.

Itthenbelongstoprincestoknowhowfartheymayextendtheirauthority,andtosubjectsinwhattheymay
obey them, lest the one encroaching on that jurisdiction, which no way belongs to them, and the others
obeyinghimwhichcommandsfurtherthanheought,theybebothchastised,whentheyshallgiveanaccount
thereof before another judge. Now the end and scope of the question propounded, whereof the Holy
Scriptureshallprincipallygivetheresolution,isthatwhichfollows.Thequestionis,ifsubjectsbeboundto
obeykings,incasetheycommandthatwhichisagainstthelawofGod:thatistosay,towhichofthetwo
(God or king) must we rather obey, when the question shall be resolved concerning the king to whom is
attributedabsolutepower,thatconcerningothermagistratesshallbealsodetermined.

First, the Holy Scripture does teach that God reigns by his own proper authority, and kings by derivation,
God from himself, kings from God, that God has a jurisdiction proper, kings are his delegates. It follows
then,thatthejurisdictionofGodhasnolimits,thatofkingsbounded,thatthepowerofGodisinfinite,that
ofkingsconfined,thatthekingdomofGodextendsitselftoallplaces,thatofkingsisrestrainedwithinthe
confinesofcertaincountries.InlikemannerGodhadcreatedofnothingbothheavenandearththereforeby
goodrightHeisthelord,andtrueproprietor,bothoftheoneandtheother.Alltheinhabitantsoftheearth
holdofHimthatwhichtheyhave,andarebutHistenantsandfarmersalltheprincesandgovernorsofthe
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worldareHisstipendiariesandvassals,andareboundtotakeandacknowledgetheirinvestituresfromHim.
Briefly, God alone is the owner and lord, and all men of what degree or quality soever they be, are His
servants, farmers, officers and vassals, and owe account and acknowledgement to Him, according to that
whichHehascommittedtotheirdispensationthehighertheirplaceis,thegreatertheiraccountmustbe,and
according to the ranks whereunto God has raised them, must they make their reckoning before His divine
majesty,whichtheHolyScripturesteachininfiniteplaces,andallthefaithful,yea,andthewisestamongthe
heathenhaveeveracknowledged.

Nowifweconsiderwhatisthedutyofvassals,weshallfindthatwhatmaybesaidofthem,agreesproperly
tokings.Thevassalreceiveshisfeeofhislordwithrightofjustice,andchargetoservehiminhiswars.The
kingisestablishedbytheLordGod,theKingofKings,totheendheshouldadministerjusticetohispeople
anddefendthemagainstalltheirenemies.Thevassalreceiveslawsandconditionsfromhissovereign.God
commandsthekingtoobservehislawsandtohavethemalwaysbeforehiseyes,promisingthatheandhis
successorsshallpossesslongthekingdom,iftheybeobedient,andonthecontrary,thattheirreignshallbe
ofsmallcontinuance,iftheyproverebellioustotheirsovereignking.Thevassalobligeshimselfbyoathunto
his lord, and swears that he will be faithful and obedient. In like manner the king promises solemnly to
command,accordingtotheexpresslawofGod.Briefly,thevassalloseshisfee,ifhecommitafelony,and
bylawforfeitsallhisprivileges.Inthelikecasethekingloseshisright,andmanytimeshisrealmalso,ifhe
despiseGod,ifhecomplotwithhisenemies,andifhecommitfelonyagainstthatroyalmajesty.Thiswill
appearmoreclearlybytheconsiderationofthecovenantwhichiscontractedbetweenGodandtheking,for
GoddoesthathonortoHisservantstocallthemHisconfederates.Nowwereadoftwosortsofcovenantsat
theinauguratingofkings,thefirstbetweenGod,thekingandthepeople,thatthepeoplemightbethepeople
of God. The second, between the king and the people, that the people shall obey faithfully, and the king
commandjustly.

Briefly, even as those rebellious vassals who endeavor to possess themselves of the kingdom, do commit
felonybythetestimonyofalllaws,anddeservetobeextirpatedinlikemannerthoseareasreallyguilty
which will not observe the divine law, whereunto all men without exception owe their obedience, or who
persecute those who desire to conform themselves thereunto, without hearing them in their just defenses:
nowforthatweseethatGodinvestskingsintotheirkingdoms,almostinthesamemannerthatvassalsare
invested into their fees by their sovereign, we must needs conclude that kings are the vassals of God, and
deservetobedeprivedofthebenefittheyreceivefromtheirlordiftheycommitfelony,inthesamefashion
asrebelliousvassalsareoftheirestates.Thesepremisesbeingallowed,thisquestionmaybeeasilyresolved
forifGodholdtheplaceofsovereignLord,andthekingasvassal,whodaredenybutthatwemustrather
obeythesovereignthanthevassal?IfGodcommandsonething,andthekingcommandsthecontrary,what
isthatproudmanthatwouldtermhimarebelwhorefusestoobeytheking,whenelsehemustdisobeyGod?
But,onthecontrary,heshouldratherbecondemned,andheldfortrulyrebellious,whoomitstoobeyGod,or
whowillobeytheking,whenheforbidshimtoyieldobediencetoGod.

Briefly,ifGodcallsusontheonesidetoenrolusinHisservice,andthekingontheother,isanymanso
voidofreasonthathewillnotsaywemustleavetheking,andapplyourselvestoGodsservice:sofarbeit
fromustobelieve,thatweareboundtoobeyaking,commandinganythingcontrarytothelawofGod,that,
contrarily,inobeyinghimwebecomerebelstoGodnomorenorlessthanwewouldesteemacountrymana
rebelwho,forthelovehebearstosomerichandancientinferiorlord,wouldbeararmsagainstthesovereign
prince, or who had rather obey the writs of an inferior judge than of a superior, the commandments of a
lieutenant of a province, than of a prince to be brief, the directions of an officer rather than the express
ordinancesofthekinghimself.IndoingthiswejustlyincurthemaledictionoftheprophetMicah,whodoes

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detestandcurse,inthenameofGod,allthosewhoobeythewickedandperverseordinancesofkings.Bythe
law of God we understand the two tables given to Moses, in the which, as in unremovable bounds, the
authorityofallprincesoughttobefixedThefirstcomprehendsthatwhichweowetoGod,thesecondthat
whichwemustdotoourneighborsbriefly,theycontainpietyandjusticeconjoinedwithcharity,fromwhich
thepreachingofthegospeldoesnotderogate,butratherauthorizeandconfirm.Thefirsttableisesteemed
theprincipal,aswellinorderasindignity.Iftheprincecommandstocutthethroatofaninnocent,topillage
andcommitextortion,thereisnoman(providedhehassomefeelingofconscience)whowouldexecutesuch
acommandment.

LAWFULRESISTANCETOPRINCESINDEFENSEOFDIVINELAW

Thisquestionseemsatthefirstviewtobeofahighanddifficultnature,forsomuchastherebeingsmall
occasiontospeaktoprincesthatfearGod.Onthecontrary,therewillbemuchdangertotroubletheearsof
thosewhoacknowledgenoothersovereignbutthemselves,forwhichreasonfewornonehavemeddledwith
it,andifanyhaveatalltouchedit,ithasbeenbutasitwereinpassingby.Thequestionis,ifitbelawfulto
resistaprinceviolatingthelawofGod,orruinatingthechurch,orhinderingtherestoringofit?Ifwehold
ourselvestothetenureoftheHolyScriptureitwillresolveus.For,ifinthiscaseithadbeenlawfultothe
Jewish people (which may be easily gathered from the books of the Old Testament), yea, if it had been
enjoined them, I believe it will not be denied, that the same must be allowed to the whole people of any
Christiankingdomorcountrywhatsoever.

But who may punish the king (for here is question of corporal and temporal punishment) if it be not the
wholebodyofthepeopletowhomthekingswearsandobligeshimself,nomorenorless,thanthepeopledo
totheking?WereadalsothatkingJosias,beingoftheageoftwentyandfiveyears,togetherwiththewhole
people,makesacovenantwiththeLord,thekingandthepeoplepromisingtokeepthelawsandordinances
ofGodandeventhenforthebetteraccomplishingofthetenureofthisagreement,theidolatryofBaalwas
presentlydestroyed.IfanywillmoreexactlyturnovertheHolyBible,hemaywellfindothertestimoniesto
thispurpose.

ButIseewell,herewillbeanobjectionmade.Whatwillyousay?Thatawholepeople,thatbeastofmany
heads,musttheyruninamutinousdisorder,toorderthebusinessofthecommonwealth?Whataddressor
directionisthereinanunrulyandunbridledmultitude?Whatcounselorwisdom,tomanagetheaffairsof
state?

Whenwespeakofallthepeople,weunderstandbythat,onlythosewhoholdtheirauthorityfromthepeople,
towit,themagistrates,whoareinferiortotheking,andwhomthepeoplehavesubstituted,orestablished,as
it were, consorts in the empire, and with a kind of tribunitial authority, to restrain the encroachments of
sovereignty,andtorepresentthewholebodyofthepeople.Weunderstandalso,theassemblyoftheestates,
which is nothing else but an epitome, or brief collection of the kingdom, to whom all public affairs have
specialandabsolutereferencesuchweretheseventyancientsinthekingdomofIsrael,amongstwhomthe
highpriestwasasitwerepresident,andtheyjudgedallmattersofgreatestimportance,thoseseventybeing
firstchosenbysixoutofeachtribe,whichcameoutofthelandofEgypt,thentheheadsorgovernorsof
provinces. In like manner the judges and provosts of towns, the captains of thousands, the centurions and
otherswhocommandedoverfamilies,themostvaliant,noble,andotherwisenotablepersonages,ofwhom
wascomposedthebodyofthestates,assembleddiverstimesasitplainlyappearsbythewordoftheholy
scripture. At the election of the first king, who was Saul, all the ancients of Israel assembled together at
Ramah.InlikemannerallIsraelwasassembled,orallJudahandBenjamin,etc.Now,itisnowayprobable,
thatallthepeople,onebyone,mettogetherthere.Ofthisrankthereareineverywellgovernedkingdom,the
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princes,theofficersofthecrown,thepeers,thegreatestandmostnotablelords,thedeputiesofprovinces,of
whomtheordinarybodyoftheestateiscomposed,ortheparliamentorthediet,orotherassembly,according
tothedifferentnamesusedindiverscountriesoftheworldinwhichassemblies,theprincipalcareishad
bothforthepreventingandreformingeitherofdisorderordetrimentinchurchorcommonwealth.

ForasthecouncilsofBasleandConstancehavedecreed(andwelldecreed)thattheuniversalcouncilisin
authority above the bishop of Rome, so in like manner, the whole chapter may overrule the bishop, the
Universitytherector,thecourtthepresident.Briefly,he,whosoeverheis,whohasreceivedauthorityfroma
company,isinferiortothatwholecompany,althoughhebesuperiortoanyoftheparticularmembersofit.

Acombinationorconjurationisgoodorill,accordingastheendwhereuntoitisaddressedisgoodorilland
perhapsalsoaccordingastheyareaffectedwhoarethemanagersofit.Wesaythen,thattheprincesofJudah
have done well and that in following any other course they had failed of the right way. For even as the
guardianoughttotakechargeandcarethatthegoodsofhispupilfallnotintolossanddetriment,andifhe
omits his duty therein, he may be compelled to give an account thereof, in like manner those to whose
custodyandtuitionthepeoplehavecommittedthemselves,andwhomtheyhaveconstitutedtheirtutorsand
defendersoughttomaintainthemsafeandentireinalltheirrightsandprivileges.Tobeshort,asitislawful
for a whole people to resist and oppose tyranny, so likewise the principal persons of the kingdom may as
headsandforthegoodofthewholebody,confederateandassociatethemselvestogetherandasinapublic
state,thatwhichisdonebythegreatestpartisesteemedandtakenastheactofall,soinlikemannermustit
besaidtobedone,whichthebetterpartofthemostprincipalhaveacted,briefly,thatallthepeoplehadtheir
handinit.

KINGSMADEBYTHEPEOPLE

WehaveshownbeforethatitisGodthatdoesappointkings,whochoosesthemwhogivesthekingdomto
them: now we say that the people establish kings, put the scepter into their hands, and who with their
suffrages, approve the election God would have it done in this manner. To the end that the kings should
acknowledge, that after God they hold their power and sovereignty from the people, and that it might the
ratherinducethemtoapplyandaddresstheutmostoftheircareandthoughtsfortheprofitofthepeople,
without being puffed with any vain imagination, that they were formed of any matter more excellent than
othermen,forwhichtheywereraisedsohighaboveothersasiftheyweretocommandourflocksofsheep,
orherdsofcattle.Butletthemrememberandknow,thattheyareofthesamemoldandconditionasothers,
raisedfromtheearthbythevoiceandacclamations,nowasitwereupontheshouldersofthepeopleunto
their thrones, that they might afterward bear on their own shoulders the greatest burdens of the
commonwealth.Diversagesbeforethat,thepeopleofIsraeldemandedaking.Godgaveandappointedthe
law of royal government contained in the seventeenth chapter, verse fourteen of Deuteronomy, when says
Moses,thouartcomeuntothelandwhichtheLordthyGodgiveththee,andshallpossessit,andshaltdwell
therein,andshaltsay,Iwillsetakingovermelikeasallthenationsthatareaboutme,thoushaltinanywise
sethimwhomtheLordthyGodshallchoosefromamongstthybrethren,etc.Youseehere,thattheelection
ofthekingisattributedtoGod,theestablishmenttothepeoplenowwhenthepracticeofthislawcamein
use,seeinwhatmannertheyproceeded.

The elders of Israel, who presented the whole body of the people (under this name of elders are
comprehended the captains, the centurions, commanders over fifties and tens, judges, provosts, but
principallythechiefsoftribes)cametomeetSamuelinRamah,andnotbeingwillinglongertoendurethe
government of the sons of Samuel, whose ill carriage had justly drawn on them the peoples dislike, and
thereby persuading themselves that they had found the means to make their wars hereafter with more
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advantage,theydemandedakingofSamuel,whoaskingcounseloftheLord,hemadeknownthatHehad
chosen Saul for the governor of His people. Then Samuel anointed Saul, and performed all those rights
which belong to the election of a king required by the people. Now this might, perhaps, have seemed
sufficient,ifSamuelhadpresentedtothepeoplethekingwhowaschosenbyGod,andhadadmonishedthem
alltobecomegoodandobedientsubjects.Notwithstanding,totheendthatthekingmightknowthathewas
establishedbythepeople,SamuelappointedtheestatestomeetatMizpah,wherebeingassembledasifthe
businesswerebutthentobegin,andnothinghadalreadybeendone,tobebrief,asiftheelectionofSaul
weretheonlytobetreatedof,thelotiscastandfallsonthetribeofBenjamin,afteronthefamilyofMatri,
andlastlyonSaul,bornofthatfamily,whowasthesamewhomGodhadchosen.Thenbytheconsentofall
thepeopleSaulwasdeclaredking.Finally,thatSaulnoranyothermightattributetheaforesaidbusinessto
chance or lot, after that Saul had made some proof of his valor in raising the siege of the Ammonites in
JabishGilead,someofthepeoplepressingthebusiness,hewasagainconfirmedkinginafullassemblyat
Gilgal.YouseethathewhomGodhadchosen,andthelothadseparatedfromalltherest,isestablishedking
bythesuffrageofthepeople.

Briefly,forsomuchasnonewereeverbornwithcrownsontheirheads,andsceptersintheirhands,andthat
nomancanbeakingbyhimself,norreignwithoutpeople,whereasonthecontrary,thepeoplemaysubsist
ofthemselves,andwere,longbeforetheyhadanykings,itmustofnecessityfollowthatkingswereatthe
firstconstitutedbythepeopleandalthoughthesonsanddependentsofsuchkings,inheritingtheirfathers
virtues,mayinasortseemtohaverenderedtheirkingdomshereditarytotheiroffsprings,andthatinsome
kingdoms and countries the right of free election seems in a sort buried yet, notwithstanding, in all well
orderedkingdoms,thiscustomisyetremaining.Thesonsdonotsucceedthefathers,beforethepeoplehave
first,asitwere,anewestablishedthembytheirnewapprobation:neitherweretheyacknowledgedinquality,
asinheritingitfromthedeadbutapprovedandaccountedkingsthenonly,whentheywereinvestedwiththe
kingdom, by receiving the scepter and diadem from the hands of those who represent the majesty of the
people. One may see most evident marks of this in Christian kingdoms, which are at this day esteemed
hereditaryfortheFrenchking,heofSpainandEngland,andothers,arecommonlysacred,and,asitwere,
put into possession of their authority by the peers, lords of the kingdom, and officers of the crown, who
representthebodyofthepeople.

THEPEOPLEABOVETHEKING

Now,seeingthatthepeoplechooseandestablishtheirkings,itfollowsthatthewholebodyofthepeopleis
abovethekingforitisathingmostevident,thathewhoisestablishedbyanother,isaccountedunderhim
who has established him, and he who receives his authority from another, is less than he from whom he
derives his power. Potiphar the Egyptian sets Joseph over all his house Nebuchadnezzar, Daniel over the
province of Babylon Darius, the six score governors over the kingdom. It is commonly said that masters
establish their servants, kings their officers. In like manner, also, the people establish the king as
administratorofthecommonwealth.Goodkingshavenotdisdainedthistitleyea,thebadonesthemselves
haveaffecteditinsomuch,asforthespaceofdiversages,noRomanemperor(ifitwerenotsomeabsolute
tyrant,asNero,Domitian,Caligula)wouldsufferhimselftobecalledlord.Furthermore,itmustnecessarily
bethatkingswereinstitutedforthepeoplessake,neithercanitbethatforthepleasureofsomehundredsof
men,andwithoutdoubtmorefoolishandworsethanmanyoftheother,alltherestweremade,butmuch
ratherthatthesehundredweremadefortheuseandserviceofalltheother,andreasonrequiresthathebe
preferredabovetheother,whowasmadeonlytoandforhisoccasion:soitis,thatfortheshipssail,the
ownerappointsapilotoverher,whositsatthehelm,andlooksthatshekeephercourse,norrunnotupon
anydangerousshelfthepilotdoinghisduty,isobeyedbythemarinersyea,andofhimselfwhoisownerof

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thevessel,notwithstanding,thepilotisaservantaswellastheleastintheship,fromwhomheonlydiffersin
this,thatheservesinabetterplacethantheydo.

Inacommonwealth,commonlycomparedtoaship,thekingholdstheplaceofpilot,thepeopleingeneral
areownersofthevessel,obeyingthepilot,whileheiscarefulofthepublicgoodasthoughthispilotneither
isnoroughttobeesteemedotherthanservanttothepublicasajudgeorgeneralinwardifferslittlefrom
otherofficers,butthatheisboundtobeargreaterburdens,andexposehimselftomoredangers.Bythesame
reason also which the king gains by acquist of arms, be it that he possesses himself of frontier places in
warringontheenemy,orthatwhichhegetsbyescheatsorconfiscations,hegetsittothekingdom,andnot
tohimself,towit,tothepeople,ofwhomthekingdomiscomposed,nomorenorlessthantheservantdoes
for his master neither may one contract or oblige themselves to him, but by and with reference to the
authorityderivedfromthepeople.Furthermore,thereisaninfinitesortofpeoplewholivewithoutaking,
butwecannotimagineakingwithoutpeople.Andthosewhohavebeenraisedtotheroyaldignitywerenot
advanced because they excelled other men in beauty and comeliness, nor in some excellency of nature to
governthemasshepherdsdotheirflocks,butratherbeingmadeoutofthesamemasswiththerestofthe
people,theywouldacknowledgethatforthem,they,asitwere,borrowtheirpowerandauthority.

TheancientcustomoftheFrenchrepresentsthatexceedingwell,fortheyusedtoliftuponabuckler,and
salutehimkingwhomtheyhadchosen.Thatiswhyitissaid,Iprayyou,thatkingshaveaninfinitenumber
ofeyes,amillionofears,withextremelonghandsandfeetexceedingswift?Isitbecausetheyareliketo
Argos,Gerien,Midas,anddiversotherssocelebratedbythepoets?No,truly,butitissaidinregardtoallthe
people,whomthebusinessprincipallyconcerns,wholendtothekingforthegoodofthecommonwealth,
their eyes, their ears, their means, their faculties. Let the people forsake the king, he presently falls to the
ground,althoughbefore,hishearingandsightseemedmostexcellent,andthathewasstrongandinthebest
disposition that might be yea, that he seemed to triumph in all magnificence, yet in an instant he will
become most vile and contemptible: to be brief, instead of those divine honours wherewith all men adore
him,heshallbecompelledtobecomeapendant,andwhipchildrenintheschoolatCorinth.Takeawaybut
the basis to this giant, and like the Rhodian Colossus he presently tumbles on the ground and falls into
pieces.Seeingthenthatthekingisestablishedinthisdegreebythepeople,andfortheirsake,andthathe
cannotsubsistwithoutthem,whocanthinkitstrange,then,forustoconcludethatthepeopleareabovethe
king?

Nowthatwhichwespeakofallthepeopleuniversally,oughtalsotobeunderstoodofthosewhoinevery
kingdomortowndolawfullyrepresentthebodyofthepeople,andwhoordinarilyare(oratleastshouldbe)
calledtheofficersofthekingdom,orcrown,andnotofthekingfortheofficersoftheking,itishewho
placesanddisplacesthemathispleasure,yea,afterhisdeaththeyhavenomorepower,andareaccountedas
dead. On the contrary, the officers of the kingdom receive their authority from the people in the general
assembly of the states (or, at the least were accustomed so anciently to have done) and cannot be
disauthorized but by them, so then the one depends of the king, the other of the kingdom, those of the
sovereign officer of the kingdom, who is the king himself, those of the sovereignty itself, that is of the
people,ofwhichsovereigntyboththekingandallhisofficersofthekingdomoughttodepend,thechargeof
theonehasproperrelationtothecareofthekingspersonthatoftheother,tolookthatthecommonwealth
receivenodamagethefirstoughttoserveandassisttheking,asalldomesticservantsareboundtodoto
theirmasterstheothertopreservetherightsandprivilegesofthepeople,andtocarefullyhindertheprince,
that he neither omit the things that may advantage the state, nor commit anything that may damage the
public.

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Briefly,theoneareservantsanddomesticsoftheking,andreceivedintotheirplacestoobeyhispersonthe
other,onthecontrary,areasassociatestotheking,intheadministrationofjustice,participatingoftheroyal
powerandauthority,beingboundtotheutmostoftheirpowertobeassistinginthemanagingoftheaffairs
of state, as well as the king, who is, as it were, president amongst them, and principal only in order and
degree.

WHYKINGSWERECREATED

Now,seeingthatkingshavebeeneverestablishedbythepeople,andthattheyhavehadassociatesjoined
withthem,tocontainthemwithinthelimitsoftheirduties,thewhichassociatesconsideredinparticularone
byone,areundertheking,andaltogetherinoneentirebodyareabovehim:Wemustconsequentlyseewhy
kingswerefirstestablished,andwhatisprincipallytheirduty.Weusuallyesteemathingjustandgoodwhen
itattainstotheproperendforwhichitisordained.

Inthefirstplaceeveryoneconsents,thatmenbynaturelovingliberty,andhatingservitude,bornratherto
command,thanobey,havenotwillinglyadmittedtobegovernedbyanother,andrenouncedasitwerethe
privilege of nature, by submitting themselves to the commands of others, but for some special and great
profitthattheyexpectedfromit.ForasAesopsays,Thatthehorsebeingbeforeaccustomedtowanderat
hispleasure,wouldneverhavereceivedthebitintohismouth,northerideronhisback,butthathehopedby
that means to overmatch the bull. Neither let us imagine, that kings were chosen to apply to their own
proper use the goods that are gotten by the sweat of their subjects for every man loves and cherishes his
own. They have not received the power and authority of the people to make it serve as a pander to their
pleasures:forordinarilytheinferiorshate,oratleastenvy,theirsuperiors.

Letusthenconclude,thattheyareestablishedinthisplacetomaintainbyjustice,andtodefendbyforceof
arms, both the public state, and particular persons from all damages and outrages, Which is why Saint
Augustinesaid,Thoseareproperlycalledlordsandmasterswhoprovideforthegoodandprofitofothers,
asthehusbandforthewife,fathersfortheirchildren.Theymustthereforeobeythemwhoprovideforthem
although,indeed,tospeaktrulythosewhogoverninthismannermayinasortbesaidtoservethosewhom
theycommandover.

For, as says the same doctor, they command not for the desire of dominion, but for the duty they owe to
provideforthegoodofthosewhoaresubjectedtothem:notaffectinganylordlikedomineering,butwith
charityandsingularaffection,desiringthewelfareofthosewhoarecommittedtothem.

Senecaintheeightyfirstepistlesays,Thatinthegoldenage,wisemenonlygovernedkingdomstheykept
themselveswithintheboundsofmoderation,andpreservedthemeanestfromtheoppressionofthegreatest.
They persuaded and dissuaded, according as it advantaged or disadvantaged the public profit by their
wisdom,theyfurnishedthepublicwithplentyofallnecessaries,andbytheirdiscretionpreventedscarcity,
bytheirvalorandcouragetheyexpelleddangers,bytheirmanybenefitstheyincreasedandenrichedtheir
subjectstheypleadednottheirdutyinmakingpompousshows,butinwellgoverningtheirpeople.Noman
madetrialwhathewasabletodoagainstthem,becauseeveryonereceivedwhathewascapableoffrom
them,etc.

Thereforethen,togovernisnothingelsebuttoprovidefor.Theseproperendsofcommanding,beingforthe
peoples commodity, the only duty of kings and emperors is to provide for the peoples good. The kingly
dignitytospeakproperly,isnotatitleofhonor,butaweightyandburdensomeoffice.ltisnotadischargeor
vacation from affairs to run a licentious course of liberty, but a charge and vocation to all industrious
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employments,fortheserviceofthecommonwealththewhichhassomeglimpseofhonorwithit,becausein
those first and golden ages, no man would have tasted of such continual troubles, if they had not been
sweetened with some relish of honor insomuch as there was nothing more true than that which was
commonly said in those times, If every man knew with what turmoils and troubles the royal wreath was
wrappedwith,nomanwouldtakeitup,althoughitlayathisfeet.

When, therefore, that these words of mine and thine entered into the world, and that differences fell
amongst fellow citizens, touching the propriety of goods, and wars amongst neighboring people about the
rightoftheirconfines,thepeoplebethoughtthemselvestohaverecoursetosomeonewhobothcouldand
shouldtakeorderthatthepoorwerenotoppressedbytherich,northepatriotswrongedbystrangers.

Nor as wars and suits increased, they chose someone, in whose wisdom and valor they reposed most
confidence.See,then,whykingswerecreatedinthefirstagestowit,toadministerjusticeathome,andto
beleadersinthewarsabroad,andnotonlytorepulsetheincursionsoftheenemy,butalsotorepressand
hinderthedevastationandspoilingofthesubjectsandtheirgoodsathomebutaboveall,toexpelanddrive
awayalldevicesanddebauchmentsfarfromtheirdominions.

AREKINGSABOVETHELAW?

We must here yet proceed a little further: for it is demanded whether the king who presides in the
administrationofjusticehaspowertoresolveanddeterminebusinessaccordingtohisownwillandpleasure.
Must the kings be subject to the law, or does the law depend upon the king? The law (says an ancient) is
respected by those who otherwise condemn virtue, for it enforces obedience, and ministers conduct in
warfaring,andgivesvigorandlustertojusticeandequity.PausaniastheSpartanwillanswerinaword,that
itbecomeslawstodirect,andmentoyieldobediencetotheirauthority.Agesilaus,kingofSparta,saysthat
allcommandersmustobeythecommandmentsofthelaws.Butitshallnotbeamisstocarrythismattera
little higher. When people began to seek for justice to determine their differences, if they met with any
private man that did justly appoint them, they were satisfied with it. Now, for so much as such men were
rarelyandwithmuchdifficultyfound,andbecausethejudgmentsofkingsreceivedaslawswereoftentimes
found contrary and difficult, then the magistrates and others of great wisdom invented laws, which might
speaktoallmeninoneandthesamevoice.

Thisbeingdone,itwasexpresslyenjoinedtokingsthattheyshouldbetheguardiansandadministrators,and
sometimesalso,forsomuchasthelawscouldnotforeseetheparticularitiesofactionstoresolveexactly,it
waspermittedthekingtosupplythisdefectbythesamenaturalequitybywhichthelawsweredrawnand
forfearlesttheyshouldgoagainstlaw,thepeopleappointedthemfromtimetotimeassociates,counselors,
ofwhomwehaveformerlymademention,wherebythereisnothingwhichexemptsthekingfromobedience
whichheowestothelaw,whichheoughttoacknowledgeashisladyandmistress,esteemingnothingcan
becomehimworsethanthatfeminineofwhichJuvenalspeaks:Sicvolo,sicjubeo,sicprorationevoluntas.I
will, I command, my will shall serve instead of reason. Neither should they think their authority the less
because they are confined to laws, for seeing the law is a divine gift coming from above, which human
societiesarehappilygovernedandaddressedtotheirbestandblessedestendthosekingsareasridiculous
andworthyofcontemptwhoreputeitadishonortoconformthemselvestolaw,asthosesurveyorswhothink
themselvesdisgracedbyusingofarule,acompass,achainorotherinstruments,whichmenunderstanding
the art of surveying are accustomed to do, or a pilot who had rather fail, according to his fantasy and
imagination, than steer his course by his needle and seacard. Who can doubt, but that it is a thing more
profitableandconvenienttoobeythelaw,thanthekingwhoisbutoneman?Thelawisthesoulofagood
king,itgiveshimmotion,senseandlife.Thekingistheorganandasitwerethebodybywhichthelaw
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displays her forces, exercises her function, and expresses her conceptions. Now it is a thing much more
reasonabletoobeythesoul,thanthebodythelawisthewisdomofdiversesages,recollectedinfewwords,
butmanyseemoreclearandfurtherthanonealone.Itismuchbettertofollowthelawthananyonemans
opinion,beheneversoacute.Thelawisreasonandwisdomitself,freefromallperturbation,notsubjectto
bemovedwithcholer,ambition,hate,oracceptancesofpersons.

For,ifthewelfareofthekingdomdependsontheobservationofthelaws,andthelawsareenthralledtothe
pleasureofoneman,isitnotmostcertain,thattherecanbenopermanentstabilityinthatgovernment?Must
it not then necessarily come to pass, that if the king (as some have been) be infected with lunacy, either
continually,orbyintervals,thatthewholestatefallinevitablytoruin?Butifthelawsbesuperiortotheking,
as we have already proved, and that the king be tied in the same respect of obedience to the laws as the
servantistohismaster,whowillbesosenseless,whowillnotratherobeythelawthanthekingorwillnot
readilyyieldhisbestassistanceagainstthosewhoseektoviolateorinfringethem?

SUBJECTSNOTTHEKINGSSLAVES

For truly neither are the subjects, as it is commonly said, the kings slaves, or bondmen: being neither
prisonerstakeninthewars,norboughtformoney.Butasconsideredinoneentirebodytheyarelords,aswe
haveformerlyprovedsoeachoftheminparticularoughttobeheldasthekingsbrothersandkinsmen.And
to the end that we think not this strange, let us hear what God Himself says when He prescribes a law to
kings:Thattheyliftnottheirheartabovetheirbrethrenfromamongstwhomtheywerechosen.Whereupon
Bartolus,afamouslawyer,wholivedinanagethatbredmanytyrants,didyetdrawthisconclusionfromthat
law,thatsubjectsweretobeheldandusedinthequalityandconditionofthekingsbrethren,andnotofhis
slaves. Also king David was not ashamed to call his subjects his brethren. The ancient kings were called
Abimelech,anHebrewwordwhichsignifies,myfathertheking.ThealmightyandallgoodGod,ofwhose
great gentleness and mercy we are daily partakers, and very seldom feel His severity, although we justly
deserveit,yetisitalwaysmercifullymixedwithcompassionwherebyHeteachesprinces,Hislieutenants,
thatsubjectsoughtrathertobeheldinobediencebylove,thanbyfear.

But,lesttheyshouldexceptagainstme,asifIsoughttoentrenchtoomuchupontheroyalauthority,Iverily
believeitissomuchthegreater,byhowmuchitislikelytobeoflongercontinuance.For,saysone,servile
fearisabadguardian,forthatauthoritywedesireshouldcontinueforthoseinsubjectionhatethemthey
fear,andwhomwehate,wenaturallywishtheirdestruction.Onthecontrary,thereisnothingmoreproperto
maintaintheirauthoritythantheaffectionoftheirsubjects,onwhoselovetheymaysafelyandwithmost
securitylaythefoundationoftheirgreatness.Andthereforethatprincewhogovernshissubjectsasbrethren,
may confidently assure himself to live securely in the midst of dangers: whereas he who uses them like
slaves,mustneedsliveinmuchanxietyandfear,andmaywellberesembledtotheconditionofthatmaster
whoremainsaloneinsomedesertinthemidstofagreattroopofslavesforlookhowmanyslavesanyhas,
hemustmakeaccountofsomanyenemies,whichalmostalltyrantswhohavebeenkilledbytheirsubjects
have experienced. Whereas, on the contrary, the subjects of good kings are ever as solicitously careful of
theirsafety,asoftheirownwelfare.

AUTHORITYBASEDONCONTRACT

Wehaveshownalreadythatintheestablishingofthekingthereweretwoalliancesorcovenantscontracted:
thefirstbetweenGod,theking,andthepeople,ofwhichwehaveformerlytreatedthesecond,betweenthe
kingandthepeople,ofwhichwemustnowsaysomewhat.AfterthatSaulwasestablishedking,theroyal
law was given him, according to which he ought to govern. David made a covenant in Hebron before the
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Lord,thatistosay,takingGodforwitness,withalltheancientsofIsrael,whorepresentedthewholebodyof
thepeople,andeventhenhewasmadeking.JoasalsobythemouthofJohoiadathehighpriest,enteredinto
covenantwiththewholepeopleofthelandinthehouseoftheLord.Andwhenthecrownwassetonhis
head,togetherwithitwasthelawofthetestimonyputintohishand,whichmostexpoundstobethelawof
GodlikewiseJosiaspromisestoobserveandkeepthecommandments,testimonies,andstatutescomprised
inthebookofthecovenant:underwhichwordsarecontainedallwhichbelongstothedutiesbothofthefirst
and second table of the law of God. In all the beforeremembered places of the holy story, it is ever said,
thatacovenantwasmadewithallthepeople,withallthemultitude,withalltheelders,withallthemenof
Judah:totheendthatwemightknow,asitisalsofullyexpressed,thatnotonlytheprincipalsofthetribes,
butalsoallthemilleniers,centurions,andsubalternmagistratesshouldmeettogether,eachoftheminthe
name,andfortheirtownsandcommunalties,tocovenantandcontractwiththeking.Inthisassemblywas
thecreatingofthekingdeterminedof,foritwasthepeoplewhomadetheking,andnotthekingthepeople.

It is certain, then, that the people by way or stipulation require a performance of covenants. The king
promisesit.Nowtheconditionofastipulatorisintermsoflawmoreworthythanofapromisor.Thepeople
asktheking,whetherhewillgovernjustlyandaccordingtothelaws?Hepromiseshewill.Thenthepeople
answer,andnotbefore,thatwhilehegovernsuprightly,theywillobeyfaithfullyThekingthereforepromises
simply and absolutely, the people upon condition: the which failing to be accomplished, the people rest
accordingtoequityandreasonquitfromtheirpromise.

Inthefirstcovenantorcontractthereisonlyanobligationtopiety:inthesecond,tojustice.Inthat,theking
promisestoserveGodreligiously:inthis,torulethepeoplejustly.Bytheoneheisobligedwiththeutmost
of his endeavors to procure the glory of God: by the other, the profit of the people. In the first, there is a
conditionexpressed,ifthoukeepmycommandments:inthesecond,ifthoudistributejusticeequallyto
everyman.Godistheproperrevengerofdeficiencyintheformer,andthewholepeoplethelawfulpunisher
ofdelinquencyinthelatter,ortheestates,therepresentativebodythereofwhohaveassumedtothemselves
theprotectionofthepeople.Thishasbeenalwayspracticedinallwellgovernedestates.

Iwouldaskhere,whyamandoesswear,ifitbenottodeclarethatwhathedelivershesincerelyintends
from his heart? Can anything be judged more near to the law of nature, than to observe that which we
approve? Furthermore, what is the reason the king swears first, and at the instance, and required by the
people,buttoacceptaconditioneithertacitorexpressed?Whyisthereaconditionopposedtothecontract,
ifitbenotthatinfailingtoperformthecondition,thecontract,accordingtolaw,remainsvoid?Andiffor
want of satisfying the condition by right, the contract is of no force, who shall dare to call that people
perjured,whichrefusestoobeyakingwhomakesnoaccountofhispromise,whichhemightandoughtto
have kept, and willfully breaks those laws which he did swear to observe? On the contrary, may we not
ratheresteemsuchakingperfidious,perjured,andunworthyofhisplace?Forifthelawfreethevassalfrom
his lord, who dealt feloniously with him, although that to speak properly, the lord swears not fealty to his
vassal, but he to him: if the law of the twelve tables does detest and hold in execration the protector who
defrauds him that is under his tuition: if the civil law permit an enfranchised servant to bring his action
againsthispatron,foranygrievoususage:ifinsuchcasesthesamelawdeliverstheslavefromthepowerof
his master, although the obligation be natural only, and not civil: is it not much more reasonable that the
people be loosed from that oath of allegiance which they have taken, if the king (who may be not unfitly
resembledbyanattorney,sworntolooktohisclientscause)firstbreakhisoathsolemnlytaken?Andwhat
if all these ceremonies, solemn oaths, nay, sacramental promises, had never been taken? Does not nature
herselfsufficientlyteachthatkingswereonthisconditionordainedbythepeople,thattheyshouldgovern
well: judges, that they should distribute justice uprightly captains in the war, that they should lead their

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armiesagainsttheirenemies?If,sothecontrary,theythemselvesforageandspoiltheirsubjects,andinstead
ofgovernorsbecomeenemies,astheyleaveindeedthetrueandessentialqualitiesofaking,soneitherought
thepeopletoacknowledgethemforlawfulprinces.Butwhatifapeople(youwillreply)subduedbyforce,
becompelledbythekingtotakeanoathofservitude?Andwhatifarobber,pirate,ortyrant(Iwillanswer)
with whom no bond of human society can be effectual, holding his dagger to your throat, constrain you
presently to become bound in a great sum of money? Is it not an unquestionable maxim in law, that a
promiseexactedbyviolencecannotbind,especiallyifanythingbepromisedagainstcommonreason,orthe
lawofnature?Isthereanythingmorerepugnanttonatureandreason,thanthatapeopleshouldmanacleand
fetterthemselvesandtobeobligedbypromisetotheprince,withtheirownhandsandweaponstobetheir
ownexecutioners?Thereis,therefore,amutualobligationbetweenthekingandthepeople,which,whether
itbecivilornaturalonly,whethertacitorexpressedinwords,itcannotbyanymeansbeannihilated,orby
anylawbeabrogated,muchlessbyforcemadevoid.Andthisobligationisofsuchpowerthattheprince
whowillfullyviolatesit,isatyrant.Andthepeoplewhopurposelybreakit,maybejustlytermedseditious.

RESISTANCETOTYRANTS

Hitherto we have treated of a king. It now rests we do somewhat more fully describe a tyrant. We have
shownthatheisaking,wholawfullygovernsakingdom,eitherderivedtohimbysuccession,orcommitted
tohimbyelection.Itfollows,therefore,thatheisreputedatyrant,which,asoppositetoaking,eithergains
a kingdom by violence or indirect means, or being invested therewith by lawful election, or succession,
governs it not according to law and equity, or neglects those contracts and agreements, to the observation
whereofhewasstrictlyobligedathisreception.Allwhichmayverywelloccurinoneandthesameperson.
Thefirstiscommonlycalledatyrantwithouttitle:thesecondatyrantbypractice.Now,itmaywellsocome
topass,thathewhopossesseshimselfofakingdombyforce,togovernjustly,andheonwhomitdescends
byalawfultitle,toruleunjustly.Butforsomuchasakingdomisratherarightthananinheritance,andan
officethanapossession,heseemsratherworthyofthenameofatyrant,whounworthilyacquitshimselfof
his charge, than he who entered into his place by a wrong door. In the same sense is the pope called an
intruderwhoenteredbyindirectmeansintothepapacy:andheanabuserwhogovernsillinit.

Pythagorassaysthataworthystrangeristobepreferredbeforeanunworthycitizen,yea,thoughhebea
kinsman.Letitbelawfulalsoforustosay,thataprincewhogainedhisprincipalitybyindirectcourses,
providedhegovernaccordingtolaw,andadministerjusticeequally,ismuchtohepreferredbeforehim,who
carrieshimselftyrannously,althoughhewerelegallyinvestedintohisgovernmentwithalltheceremonies
andritesthereuntoappertaining.

For seeing that kings were instituted to feed, to judge, to cure the diseases of the people: Certainly I had
ratherthatathiefshouldfeedme,thanashepherddevourme:Ihadratherreceivejusticefromarobber,than
outragefromajudge:Ihadbetterbehealedbyanempiric,thanpoisonedbyadoctorinphysic.Itweremuch
moreprofitableformetohavemyestatecarefullymanagedbyanintrudingguardian,thantohaveitwasted
anddissipatedbyonelegallyappointed.

Now,atthelastwearecomeasitwerebydegreestothechiefandprincipalpointofthequestion.Wehave
seenhowthatkingshavebeenchosenbyGod,eitherwithrelationtotheirfamiliesortheirpersonsonly,and
afterinstalledbythepeople.Inlikemannerwhatisthedutyoftheking,andoftheofficersofthekingdom,
howfartheauthority,power,anddutybothoftheoneandtheotherextends,andwhatandhowsacredare
thecovenantsandcontractswhicharemadeattheinaugurationofkings,andwhatconditionsareintermixed,
both tacit and expressed finally, who is a tyrant without title, and who by practice, seeing it is a thing
unquestionable that we are bound to obey a lawful king, which both to God and people carries himself
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according to those covenants whereunto he stands obliged, as it were to God Himself, seeing in a sort he
represents his divine Majesty? It now follows that we treat, how, and by whom a tyrant may be lawfully
resisted,andwhoarethepersonswhooughttobechieflyactorstherein,andwhatcourseistoheheld,that
the action may be managed according to right and reason. We must first speak of him who is commonly
called a tyrant without title. Let us suppose then that some Ninus, having neither received outrage nor
offense,invadesapeopleoverwhomhehasnocolorofpretension:thatCaesarseekstooppresshiscountry,
and the Roman commonwealth: that Popiclus endeavors by murders and treasons to make the elective
kingdomofPoloniatobecomehereditarytohimandhisposterity:orsomeBruniehildedrawstoherselfand
herProtadiustheabsolutegovernmentofFrance,orEbronius,takingadvantageofTheodericksweakness
andidleness,gainstheentireadministrationofthestate,andoppressesthepeople,whatshallbeourlawful
refugeherein?

First, the law of nature teaches and commands us to maintain and defend our lives and liberties, without
whichlifeisscantworththeenjoying,againstallinjuryandviolence.Naturehasimprintedthisbyinstinctin
dogsagainstwolves,inbullsagainstlions,betwixtpigeonsandsparrowhawks,betwixtpullenandkites,and
yet much more in man against man himself, if man become a beast: and therefore he who questions the
lawfulnessofdefendingoneself,does,asmuchasinhimlies,questionthelawofnature.Tothismustbe
added the law of nations, which distinguishes possessions and dominions, fixes limits, and makes out
confines, which every man is bound to defend against all invaders. And, therefore, it is no less lawful to
resistAlexandertheGreat,ifwithoutanyrightorbeingjustlyprovoked,heinvadesacountrywithamighty
navy,aswellasDiomedesthepiratewhoscourstheseasinasmallvessel.ForinthiscaseAlexandersright
isnomorethanDiomedesbutonlyhehasmorepowertodowrong,andnotsoeasilytobecompelledto
reasonastheother.Briefly,onemayaswellopposeAlexanderinpillagingacountry,asathiefinpurloining
acloakaswellhimwhenheseekstobatterdownthewallsofacity,asarobberwhoofferstobreakintoa
privatehouse.

Thereis,besidesthis,thecivillaw,ormunicipallawsofseveralcountrieswhichgovernthesocietiesofmen,
bycertainrules,someinonemanner,someinanothersomesubmitthemselvestothegovernmentofone
man,sometomoreothersareruledbyawholecommonalty,someabsolutelyexcludewomenfromtheroyal
throne,othersadmitthemtheseherechoosetheirkingdescendedofsuchafamily,thosetheremakeelection
ofwhomtheyplease,besidesothercustomspracticedamongseveralnations.If,therefore,anyoffereither
byfraudorforcetoviolatethislaw,weareallboundtoresisthim,becausehewrongsthatsocietytowhich
weoweallthatwehave,andwouldruinourcountry,tothepreservationwhereofallmenbynature,bylaw
andbysolemnoath,arestrictlyobliged:insomuchthatfearornegligence,orbadpurposes,makeusomit
this duty, we may justly be accounted breakers of the laws, betrayers of our country, and contemners of
religion.Nowasthelawsofnature,ofnations,andtheCivilcommandsustotakearmsagainstsuchtyrants
so, is there not any manner of reason that should persuade us to the contrary neither is there any oath,
covenant,orobligation,publicorprivate,ofpowerjustlytorestrainusthereforethemeanestprivateman
mayresistandlawfullyopposesuchanintrudingtyrant.ThelawJulia,whichcondemnstodeaththosewho
raiserebellionagainsttheircountryorprince,hasherenoplaceforheisnoprince,who,withoutanylawful
titleinvadesthecommonwealthorconfinesofanothernorhearebel,whobyarmsdefendshiscountrybut
rathertothishadrelationtheoathwhichalltheyouthofAthenswereaccustomedtotakeinthetempleof
Aglaura,Iwillfightforreligion,forthelaws,forthealtars,andforourpossessions,eitheralone,orwith
othersandwilldotheutmostofmyendeavortoleavetoposterityourcountry,attheleast,inasgoodestate
as I found it. To as little purpose can the laws made against seditious persons be alleged here for he is
seditious who undertakes to defend the people, in opposition of order and public discipline but he is no

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raiser,butasuppressorofsedition,whorestrainswithinthelimitsofreasonthesubverterofhiscountrys
welfare,andpublicdiscipline.

On the contrary, to this has proper relation the law of tyrannicide, which honors the living with great and
memorable recompenses, and the dead with worthy epitaphs, and glorious statues, that have been their
countrysliberatorsfromtyrantsasHarmodiusandAristogitonatAthens,BrutusandCassiusinRome,and
AratusofSycione.

We must remember that all princes are born men, and therefore reason and passion are as hardly to be
separatedinthem,asthesoulisfromthebodywhilethemanlives.Wemustnotthenexpectprincesabsolute
inperfection,butratherreputeourselveshappyifthosewhogovernusbeindifferentlygood.Andtherefore,
althoughtheprinceobservenotexactmediocrityinstateaffairsifsometimespassionoverrulehisreason,if
somecarelessomissionmakehimneglectthepublicutilityorifhedonotalwayscarefullyexecutejustice
withequality,orrepulsenotwithreadyvaloraninvadingenemyhemustnotthereforebepresentlydeclared
atyrant.Andcertainly,seeingherulesnotasagodovermen,norasmenoverbeasts,butisamancomposed
of the same matter, and of the same nature with the rest: as we would questionless judge that prince
unreasonablyinsolent,whoshouldinsultoverandabusehissubjects,asiftheywerebrutebeastssothose
people are doubtless as much void of reason, who imagine a prince should be complete in perfection, or
expect divine abilities in a nature so frail and subject to imperfections. But if a prince purposely ruin the
commonwealth, if he presumptuously pervert and resist legal proceedings or lawful rights, if he make no
reckoningoffaith,covenants,justicenorpiety,ifheprosecutehissubjectasenemiesbriefly,ifheexpress
allorthechiefestofthosewickedpracticeswehaveformerlyspokenofthenwemaycertainlydeclarehima
tyrant,whoisasmuchanenemybothtoGodandmen.Wedonotthereforespeakofaprincelessgood,but
of one absolutely bad not of one less wise, but of one malicious and treacherous not of one less able
judiciously to discuss legal differences, but of one perversely bent to pervert justice and equity not of an
unwarlike,butofonefuriouslydisposedtoruinthepeople,andransackthestate.

Forthewisdomofasenate,theintegrityofajudge,thevalorofacaptainmayperhapsenableaweakprince
togovernwell.Butatyrantcouldbecontentthatallthenobility,thecounselorsofstate,thecommandersfor
thewars,hadbutoneheadthathemighttakeitoffatoneblow:thosebeingtheproperobjectsofhisdistrust
andfearandbyconsequencetheprincipalsubjectsonwhomhedesirestoexecutehismaliceandcruelty.A
foolishprince,although(tospeakaccordingtorightandequity)heoughttobedeposed,yetmayheperhaps
insomesortbebornewith.Butatyrant,themoreheistolerated,themorehebecomesintolerable.

Furthermore,astheprincespleasureisnotalwayslaw,somanytimesitisnoexpedientthatthepeopledo
allthatwhichmaylawfullybedoneforitmayoftentimeschancethatthemedicineprovesmoredangerous
thanthedisease.Thereforeitbecomeswisementotryallwaysbeforetheycometoblows,touseallother
remediesbeforetheysuffertheswordtodecidethecontroversy.Ifthenthosewhorepresentthebodyofthe
peopleforeseeanyinnovationormachinationagainstthestate,orthatitbealreadyembarkedintoacourse
ofperditiontheirdutyis,firsttoadmonishtheprince,andnottoattendthatthediseasebyaccessionoftime
andaccidentsbecomesunrecoverable.Fortyrannymaybeproperlyresembleduntoafeverhectic,thewhich
at the first is easy to be cured, but with much difficulty to be known but after it is sufficiently known it
becomesincurable.Thereforesmallbeginningsaretobecarefullyobserved,andbythosewhomitconcerns
diligentlyprevented.

If the prince therefore persist in his violent courses, and contemn frequent admonitions, addressing his
designs only to that end, that he may oppress at his pleasure, and effect his own desires without fear or
restrainthethendoubtlessmakeshimselfliabletothatdetestedcrimeoftyranny:andwhatsoevereitherthe
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law,orlawfulauthoritypermitsagainstatyrant,maybelawfullypracticedagainsthim.Tyrannyisnotonlya
will,butthechief,andasitwerethecomplementandabstractofvices.Atyrantsubvertsthestate,pillages
thepeople,laysstratagemstoentraptheirlives,breakspromisewithall,scoffsatthesacredobligationsofa
solemn oath, and therefore is he so much more vile than the vilest of usual malefactors. By how much
offences committed against a generality, are worthy of greater punishment than those which concern only
particularandprivatepersons.Ifthievesandthosewhocommitsacrilegebedeclaredinfamousnay,ifthey
justly suffer corporal punishment by death, can we invent any that may be worthily equivalent for so
outrageousacrime.

Furthermore, we have already proved that all kings receive their royal authority from the people, that the
wholepeopleconsideredinonebodyisaboveand,greaterthanthekingandthatthekingandemperorare
onlytheprimeandsupremegovernorsandministersofthekingdomandempirebutthepeopletheabsolute
lordandownerthereof.Itthereforenecessarilyfollowsthatatyrantisinthesamemannerguiltyofrebellion
against the majesty of the people as the lord of a fee, who feloniously transgresses the conditions of his
investitures,andisliabletothesamepunishment,yea,andcertainlydeservesamuchgreateronethanthe
equityofthoselawsinflictsonthedelinquents.ThereforeasBartolussays,Hemayeitherbedeposedby
those who are lords in sovereignty over him, or else justly punished according to the law Julia, which
condemnsthosewhoofferviolencetothepublic.Thebodyofthepeoplemustneedsbethesovereignof
thosewhorepresentit,whichinsomeplacesaretheelectors,palatines,peersinother,theassemblyofthe
general estates. And, if the tyranny have gotten such sure footing, as there is no other means but force to
removehim,thenitislawfulforthemtocallthepeopletoarms,toenrollandraiseforces,andtoemploythe
utmostoftheirpower,anduseagainsthimalladvantagesandstratagemsofwar,asagainsttheenemyofthe
commonwealth,andthedisturberofthepublicpeace.Briefly,thesamesentencemaybejustlypronounced
against him, as was against Manlius Capitolinus at Rome. Thou wast to me, Manlius, when thou didst
tumbledowntheGaulesthatscaledthecapital:butsincethouartnowbecomeanenemy,likeoneofthem,
thoushaltbeprecipitateddownfromthesameplacefromwhencethouformerlytumbledthoseenemies.

The officers of the kingdom cannot for this be rightly taxed of sedition for in a sedition there must
necessarilyconcurbuttwoparts,orsides,thewhichpreemptorilycontesttogether,sothatitisnecessarythat
theonebeintheright,andtheotherinthewrong.Thatpartundoubtedlyhastherightontheirside,which
defends the laws, and strives to advance the public profit of the kingdom. And those, on the contrary, are
questionless in the wrong, who break the laws, and protect those who violate justice, and oppress the
commonwealth.Thosearecertainlyintherightway,assaidBartolus,whoendeavortosuppresstyrannical
government,andthoseinthewrong,whoopposelawfulauthority.Andthatmusteverbeaccountedjust,
whichisintendedonlyforthepublicbenefit,andthatunjust,whichaimschieflyatprivatecommodity.That
iswhyThomasAquinassays,Thatatyrannicalrule,havingnoproperaddressforthepublicwelfare,but
only to satisfy a private will, with increase of particular profit to the ruler, cannot in any reasonable
construction be accounted lawful, and therefore the disturbance of such a government cannot be esteemed
seditious,muchlesstraitorousforthatoffensehasproperrelationonlytoalawfulprince,whoindeedisan
inanimated or speaking law therefore, seeing that he who employs the utmost of his means and power to
annihilatethelaws,andquelltheirvirtueandvigor,cannowaysbejustlyinstitutedtherewith.Soneither,
likewise,canthosewhoopposeandtakearmsagainsthim,bebrandedwithsonotoriousacrime.

Also this offense is committed against the commonwealth but for so much as the commonwealth is there
onlywherethelawsareinforce,andnotwhereatyrantdevoursthestateathisownpleasureandliking,he
certainlyisquitofthatcrimewhichruinsthemajestyofthepublicstate,andthosequestionlessareworthily

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protectors and preservers of the commonwealth, who, confident in the lawfulness of their authority, and
summonedthereuntobytheirduty,docourageouslyresisttheunjustproceedingsofthetyrant.

Andinthistheiraction,wemustnotesteemthemasprivatemenandsubjects,butastherepresentativebody
of the people, yea, and as the sovereignty itself, which demands of his minister an account of his
administration.Neithercanweinanygoodreasonaccounttheofficersofthekingdomdisloyal,whointhis
manneracquitthemselvesoftheircharge.

Thereisever,andinallplaces,amutualandreciprocalobligationbetweenthepeopleandtheprincetheone
promisestobeagoodandwiseprince,theothertoobeyfaithfully,providedhegovernjustly.Thepeople
thereforeareobligedtotheprinceundercondition,theprincetothepeoplesimplyandpurely.Therefore,if
theprincefailinhispromise,thepeopleareexemptfromobedience,thecontractismadevoid,therightof
obligationofnoforce.Thenthekingifhegovernunjustlyisperjured,andthepeoplelikewiseforswornif
theyobeynothislawfulcommands.Butthatpeoplearetrulyacquitfromallperfidiousness,whopublicly
renouncetheunjustdominionofatyrant,orhe,strivingunjustlybystronghandtocontinuethepossession,
doconstantlyendeavortoexpulsehimbyforceofarms.

Itisthereforepermittedtheofficersofakingdom,eitherall,orsomegoodnumberofthem,tosuppressa
tyrantanditisnotonlylawfulforthemtodoit,buttheirdutyexpresslyrequiresitand,iftheydoitnot,
theycanbynoexcusecolortheirbaseness.Fortheelectors,palatines,peers,andotherofficersofstate,must
notthinktheywereestablishedonlytomakepompousparadoesandshows,whentheyareatthecoronation
oftheking,habitedintheirrobesofstate,asifthereweresomemasqueorinterludetoberepresentedoras
iftheywerethatdaytoactthepartsofRoland,Oliver,orRenaldo,andsuchotherpersonagesonastage,or
tocounterfeitandrevivethememoryoftheknightsoftheroundtableandafterthedismissingofthatdays
assembly, to suppose they have sufficiently acquitted themselves of their duty, until a recess of the like
solemnity. Those solemn rites and ceremonies were not instituted for vain ostentation, nor to pass, as in a
dumbshowtopleasethespectators,norinchildrenssports,asitiswithHorace,tocreateakinginjestbut
thosegrandeesmustknowthataswellforofficeandduty,asforhonor,theyarecalledtotheperformanceof
those rites, and that in them, the commonwealth is committed and recommended to the king, as to her
supremeandprincipaltutorandprotector,andtothemascoadjutorsandassistantstohim:andtherefore,as
thetutorsorguardians(yea,eventhosewhoareappointedbywayofhonor)arechosentohavecareofand
observetheactionsandimportmentsofhimwhoholdstheprincipalrankinthetutorship,andtolookhow
hecarrieshimselfintheadministrationofthegoodsofhispupil.Solikewisearetheformerordainedtohave
aneyetothecoursesoftheking,forwithanequivalentauthority,astheothersforthepupil,soaretheyto
hinder and prevent the damage and detriment of the people, the king being properly reputed as the prime
guardian,andtheyhiscoadjutors.

In like manner, as the faults of the principal tutor who manages the affairs are justly imputed to the
coadjointsinthetutorship,ifwhentheyoughtandmight,theydidnotdiscoverhiserrors,andcausehimto
bedespoiled,especiallyfailinginthemainpointsofhischarge,towitinnotcommunicatinguntothemthe
affairs of his administration in dealing unfaithfully in his place, in doing anything to the dishonor or
detrimentofhispupil,inembezzlingofhisgoodsorestate,orifhebeanenemytohispupil:briefly,ifeither
inregardoftheworthlessnessofhisperson,orweaknessofhisjudgment,hebeunablewelltodischargeso
weightyacharge,soalso,arethepeersandprincipalofficersofthekingdomaccountableforthegovernment
thereof, and must both prevent, and if occasion require, suppress the tyranny of the prince, as also supply
withtheircareanddiligence,hisinabilityandweakness.

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Princes are chosen by God, and established by the people. As all particulars considered one by one, are
inferiortotheprincesothewholebodyofthepeopleandofficersofstate,whorepresentthatbody,arethe
princes superiors. In the receiving and inauguration of a prince, there are covenants and contracts passed
between him and the people, which are tacit and expressed, natural or civil to wit, to obey him faithfully
whilehecommandsjustly,thatheservingthecommonwealth,allmenshallservehim,thatwhilehegoverns
accordingtolaw,allshallbesubmittedtohisgovernment,etc.Theofficersofthekingdomaretheguardians
andprotectorsofthesecovenantsandcontracts.Hewhomaliciouslyorwillfullyviolatestheseconditions,is
questionlessatyrantbypractice.Andthereforetheofficersofstatemayjudgehimaccordingtothelaws.
And if he support his tyranny by strong hands, their duty binds them, when by no other means it can be
effectedbyforceofarmstosuppresshim.

Oftheseofficerstherebetwokinds,thosewhohavegenerallyundertakentheprotectionofthekingdomas
a constable, marshals, peers, palatines, and the rest, every one of whom, although all the rest do either
connive or consort with the tyranny, are bound to oppose and repress the tyrant and those who have
undertaken the government of any province, city, or part of the kingdom, as dukes, marquesses, earls,
consuls, mayors, sheriffs, etc., they may according to right expel and drive tyranny and tyrants from their
cities,confines,andgovernments.

But particular and private persons may not unsheathe the sword against tyrants by practice, because they
werenotestablishedbyparticulars,butbythewholebodyofthepeople.Butfortyrantswhowithouttitle
intrude themselves, for so much as there is no contract or agreement between them and the people, it is
indifferentlypermittedalltoopposeanddeposethemandinthisrankoftyrantsmaythoseberanged,who,
abusingtheweaknessandslothofalawfulprince,tyrannouslyinsultoverhissubjects.

Finally,astherehaveeverbeentyrantsdistressedhereandthere,soalsoallhistoriestestifythattherehave
beenneighboringprincestoopposetyranny,andmaintainthepeopleintheirright.Theprincesofthesetimes
by imitating so worthy examples, should suppress the tyrants both of bodies and souls, and restrain the
oppressorsbothofthe commonwealth, and of the church of Christ: otherwise,theythemselves,maymost
deservedlybebrandedwiththatinfamoustitleoftyrant.

Andtoconcludethisdiscourseinaword,pietycommandsthatthelawandchurchofGodbemaintained.
Justicerequiresthattyrantsanddestroyersofthecommonwealthbecompelledtoreason.Charitychallenges
therightofrelievingandrestoringtheoppressed.Thosewhomakenoaccountofthesethings,doasmuchas
inthemliestodrivepiety,justice,andcharityoutofthisworld,thattheymaynevermorebeheardof.

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