Section XIII: Political Liberalism and Nationalism, Contemporary Civilization (Ideas and Institutions

1815-1871 of Western Man)

1958

1. The Era of Metternichian Conservatism,

1815-1848
Robert L. Bloom
Gettysburg College

Basil L. Crapster
Gettysburg College

Harold A. Dunkelberger
Gettysburg College

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Bloom, Robert L. et al. "1. The Era of Metternichian Conservatism, 1815-1848. Pt. XIII: Political Liberalism and Nationalism,
1815-1871." Ideas and Institutions of Western Man (Gettysburg College, 1958), 1-15.

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1. The Era of Metternichian Conservatism, 1815-1848
Abstract
Before either political liberalism or nationalism could become institutionalized, the Continent passed through
a period of conservative reaction. Taking their cue from Edmund Burke, who "as early as 1790 strove to
discredit France's great experiment by associating it with the excesses of reason and revolution, many people
blamed liberalism for the quarter century of war, and chaos that followed. The "Reign Terror" in France, under
the sway of Madame Guillotine, gave a connotation of horror to the slogan of "liberty, equality, and fraternity,"
Conservativeminded folk tended to regard the abstract ideas of freedom, brotherhood, and a society without
class distinctions as mere will-o'-the=wisps leading inevitably to anarchy. In the interests of orderly
government, the sacred rights of property, and the very existence of Western Civilization itself, they therefore
set their faces resolutely against any doctrine which carried the liberal taint. [excerpt]

Keywords
Contemporary Civilization, Conservatism, French Revolution, German government

Disciplines
European Languages and Societies | History | Law | Political Science | Public Affairs, Public Policy and Public
Administration

Comments
This is a part of Section XIII: Political Liberalism and Nationalism, 1815-1871. The Contemporary
Civilization page lists all additional sections of Ideas and Institutions of Western Man, as well as the Table of
Contents for both volumes.

More About Contemporary Civilization:

From 1947 through 1969, all first-year Gettysburg College students took a two-semester course called
Contemporary Civilization. The course was developed at President Henry W.A. Hanson’s request with the
goal of “introducing the student to the backgrounds of contemporary social problems through the major
concepts, ideals, hopes and motivations of western culture since the Middle Ages.”

Gettysburg College professors from the history, philosophy, and religion departments developed a textbook
for the course. The first edition, published in 1955, was called An Introduction to Contemporary Civilization and
Its Problems. A second edition, retitled Ideas and Institutions of Western Man, was published in 1958 and 1960.
It is this second edition that we include here. The copy we digitized is from the Gary T. Hawbaker ’66
Collection and the marginalia are his.

Authors
Robert L. Bloom, Basil L. Crapster, Harold A. Dunkelberger, Charles C. Glatfelter, Richard T. Mara, Norman
E. Richardson, and W. Richard Schubart

This book chapter is available at The Cupola: Scholarship at Gettysburg College: https://cupola.gettysburg.edu/
contemporary_sec13/2
 1. T h e E r a of M e t t e r n i c h i a n C o n s e r v a t i s m , 1815-1848

B e f o r e e i t h e r p o l i t i c a l l i b e r a l i s m or n a t i o n a l i s m could be-
c o m e i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d , the C o n t i n e n t p a s s e d t h r o u g h a p e r i o d m e f
 XIII p. 3

conservative reaction. T a k i n g t h e i r cue from E d m u n d B u r k e , w h o

"as e a r l y as 1 7 9 0 s t r o v e to d i s c r e d i t F r a n c e ' s g r e a t e x p e r i m e n t
by a s s o c i a t i n g it w i t h the e x c e s s e s of r e a s o n and r e v o l u t i o n ,
m a r i v p e o p j e b l a m e d l i b e r a l i s m for the q u a r t e r c e n t u r y of war, and
cnaos"T*5at f o l l o w e d . T h e " K e i g n o i T e r r o r " in F r a n c e , u n d e r the
sway of M a d a m e G u i l l o t i n e , g a v e a c o n n o t a t i o n of h o r r o r to t h e
s l o g a n of " l i b e r t y , e q u a l i t y , and f r a t e r n i t y , " Conservative-
m i n d e d f o l k t e n d e d to r e g a r d the a b s t r a c t i d e a s of f r e e d o m ,
b r o t h e r h o o d , and a s o c i e t y w i t h o u t c l a s s d i s t i n c t i o n s as m e r e
w i l l - o ' - t h e = w i s p s l e a d i n g i n e v i t a b l y to a n a r c h y . In the inter-
e s t s of o r d e r l y g o v e r n m e n t , the s a c r e d r i g h t s of p r o p e r t y , and
the v e r y e x i s t e n c e o f W e s t e r n C i v i l i z a t i o n i t s e l f , they t h e r e -
fore s e t t h e i r f a c e s r e s o l u t e l y a g a i n s t any d o c t r i n e w h i c h car-
ried the liberal taint.

E a r l y n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y conservatism^, h o w e v e r , w a s not_
a l t o g e t h e r negative^ isn^ chajrac^tj&i- its a a n e f e n t s argued._fpr_an
"organic s o c i e t y w n i c h s t r e s s e d w i s d o m , c o n t i n u i t y , and the
s u p e r i o r i t y of s u c h t i m e - t e s t e d i n s t i t u t i o n s as the c h u r c h and
the a r i s t o c r a c y . T o m a n y , a n e s t a b l i s h e d r e l i g i o n s e e m e d to
b e the o n l y a u t h o r i t y s t r o n g ejiough to resjfit thff fllgturHnrr
"claims of d e m o c r a c y and' nat;nnal|gsni o n o i n e h a n d , or, fh_e e q u a l l y
u n a c c e p t a b l e ^ m a j a d s _ o f _ m i i i t a r y d i c t a t o r s h i p o n the o t h e r .
L a n d , s t i l l the b a s i s o f ~ w e a l t h and p o l i t i c a l p o w e r in m o s t of
E u r o p e , r e m a i n e d in the ^ P ^ - - - t h p o l d a r i s t o c r a c y and e n a b l e d
that c l a s s to w i e l d d i s p r o p o r t i o n a t e i n f l u e n c e . W e a r y of lib-
e r a l c r u s a d e s , e x h a u s t e d by i d e o l o g i c a l w a r s , and r e p e l l e d by
a g i t a t i o n w h i c h s e e m e d s u b v e r s i v e of t r a d i t i o n , E u r o p e found
m u c h in c o n s e r v a t i s m that w a s a t t r a c t i v e . R o m a n t i c w r i t e r s and
p h i l o s o p h e r s c o n t r i b u t e d to the c o n s e r v a t i v e a p p e a l , a l t h o u g h
t h e i r l i t e r a t u r e w a s m o r e a n t i r a t i o n a l i s t than a n t i n a t i o n a l i s t .

All this explains, perhaps, why after 1815 conservatives

w e r e a b l e to g a i l y E u r o p e a n pejzpjjes _of all c l a s s e s around"!the
st^ndaxd^aX^l ftgi.timafiX, a principle w h i c h , among other conten-
t i o n s , h e l d that t h e l o c u s of s o v e r e i g n t y in the w e l l - o r d e r e d
s t a t e s h o u l d r e s i d e in t h o s e r o y a l and a r i s t o c r a t i c f a m i l i e s
w h i c h h a d g o v e r n e d in p r e - R e v o l u t i o n a r y times. Legitimacy also
c a m e to m e a n that as m u c h as p o s s i b l e E u r o p e a n s t a t e s s h o u l d
t u r n b a c k the c l o c k and adopt a g a i n the s o c i a l i n s t i t u t i o n s of
the old regimes. S u c h a c r e e d f o r m e d the b a s i s for the p o l i t i -
cal s e t t l e m e n t a r r a n g e d at the c e l e b r a t e d C o n g r e s s of V i e n n a
(1814-1815).

R e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of the w a r t i m e c o a l i t i o n that h a d van-

q u i s h e d N a p o l e o n (Great B r i t a i n , A u s t r i a , P r u s s i a , and R u s s i a ) ,
a u g m e n t e d by an e m i s s a r y from d e f e a t e d F r a n c e , g a t h e r e d at the
A u s t r i a n c a p i t a l to d e c i d e the f u t u r e of E u r o p e . A c t u a t e d by
m u t u a l s u s p i c i o n , a d e s i r e to c o m p e n s a t e t h e m s e l v e s for l o s s e s
s u f f e r e d in the w a r , and by a g e n u i n e d e s i r e to r e s t o r e p e a c e
o n a p e r m a n e n t b a s i s , the d e l e g a t e s s o u g h t to e s t a b l i s h an
e n d u r i n g s t a t u s quo. T o p r e v e n t any r e v i v a l of J a c o b i n i s m and
B o n a p a r t i s m , b o t h o f w h i c h they i d e n t i f i e d w i t h l i b e r a l i s m and
/ffy^ n a t i o n a l i s m , they a g r e e d to c o o p e r a t e in the m a i n t e n a n c e o f an
XIII p. 2
 XIII p. 4

international balance of power.

The Vienna settlement created a series of buffer states

a r o u n d c o n q u e r e d J r a n c e , to w h i c h w a s r e s t o r e d its a p p r o x i m a t e
b o u n d a r i e s o f 1789. S i n c e s e l f - d e t e r m i n a t i o n w a s not an a r t i c l e
ofr~~the C o n g r e s s ' f a i t h , the d e l e g a t e s did not b o t h e r to c o n s u l t
the p o p u l a t i o n s c o n c e r n e d . T o s u c h v a c a n t t h r o n e s as t h o s e of
F r a n c e and S p a i n they r e s t o r e d the l e g i t i m a t e d y n a s t i e s . Ac-
c e p t i n g as final the d e m i s e o f the H o l y R o m a n E m p i r e , the C o n -
g r e s s f o r m e d G e r m a n y i n t o a l o o s e c o n f e d e r a t i o n of t h i r t y - n i n e
s e m i - i n d e p e n d e n t s t a t e s w i t h A u s t r i a as the d o m i n a n t p a r t n e r .
A f e d e r a l D i e t w a s to sit at F r a n k f u r t , but w i t h o u t e x e c u t i v e
authority. Its p u r p o s e w a s m e r e l y to g u a r d G e r m a n y a g a i n s t
F r e n c h i n t e r f e r e n c e from w i t h o u t and a g a i n s t l i b e r a l i n f l u e n c e s
from w i t h i n . I t a l y , w h i c h the C o n g r e s s h a d d i s m i s s e d as " m e r e l y
a g e o g r a p h i c e x p r e s s i o n , " w a s p a r c e l e d o u t to a c o l l e c t i o n of
p r i n c e s and d u k e s , all o f w h o m w e r e u n d e r A u s t r i a n i n f l u e n c e .
In n o r t h e r n Italy e i t h e r the A u s t r i a n H a p s b u r g s or t h e i r r e l -
a t i v e s e x e r c i s e d r e a l c o n t r o l ; in the c e n t e r the P a p a l S t a t e s
s t i l l g i r d l e d t h e I t a l i a n b o o t ; a n d in the K i n g d o m o f the T w o
S i c i l i e s to the s o u t h the o l d d y n a s t y w a s r e s t o r e d .

T h e m o s t i n f l u e n t i a l p e r s o n a g e at the C o n g r e s s of V i e n n a
w a s t h e A u s t r i a n f o r e i g n m i n i s t e r , P r i n c e K l e m e n s v o n jtfptte-c-.
nifih ( 1 7 7 3 - 1 8 5 9 ) . A shrewd and d e t e r m i n e d a d v o c a t e of j^gjj"^
jjHafijz., M e t t e r n i c h p e r s o n i f i e d the c o n s e r v a t i v e a t m o s p h e r e p r e -
v a i l i n g in 1815. S u s p i c i o u s of political an,fl s o d aJL c h a n g e and
r e g a r d i n g the F r e n c h R e v o l u t i o n as a n u n m i t i g a t e d d i s a s t e r , he
l a b o r e d s u c c e s s f u l l y to i m p r e s s h-fs y i m w c on th« a s s e m b l e d
diplomats. O n l y by a b r o a d r e p u d i a t i o n of the R e v o l u t i o n ' s
l i b e r a l and n a t i o n a l i s t t e n e t s , h e f e l t , c o u l d E u r o p e a v o i d the
p i t f a l l s of p o l i t i c a l a n a r c h y .

T h e A u s t r i a n E m p i r e w a s a s p e c i a l case. Some fourteen

separjfte^ e t h n i c g r o u p s m a d e u p thenHap^o13f~ r e a l m , w i t h the
G e r m a n s d o m i n a n t in A u s t r i a and the M a g y a r s d o m i n a n t in H u n g a r y .
L e g i t i m a c y s e e m e d to b e t h e o n l y principj^e^which c o u l d h o l d the
m u l t i n a t i o n a l empire. t o g e t h e r . but the tilrbuTent tfuifio*s~nffi*a^te-~for
revolutionary agitation. M e t t e r n i c h w o r k e d to s u p p r e s s all dis-
s i d e n t e l e m e n t s w i t h i n the e m p i r e , to s t r e n g t h e n the m o n a r c h y ,
a n d to a s s e r t A u s t r i a ' s l e a d e r s h i p in E u r o p e a n a f f a i r s . He
a i m e d at a new s t a t u s q u o w h i c h w o u l d s t a n d u n c h a n g e d for the
foreseeable future.

A l t h o u g h s o m e o b j e c t i o n s to h i s p r o g r a m w e r e r a i s e d by the
de 1 egates~**at Vienna,, M e t t e r n i c h w a s a b l e to o v e r c o m e them. The
s e n t i m e n t a l i d e a l i s m o f the R u s s i a n t s a r , A l e x a n d e r I (1801-
1825), he ultimately guided into reactionary channels. He over-
s h a d o w e d a n d d o m i n a t e d the P r u s s i a n k i n g . In L o r d C a s t l e r e a g h
( 1 7 6 9 - 1 8 2 2 ) , the B r i t i s h r e p r e s e n t a t i v e , he found a c o n f i r m e d
T o r y , a m e m b e r of the p a r t y of r i g i d c o n s e r v a t i s m in the E n g l a n d
of 1815. O u t o f the V i e n n a d e l i b e r a t i o n s , therefore,camfiL_t
p o l i t i c a l and ,t"rra t"T"~i Q 1 g ^ r Q n f o m e n t a g a i n s t l i b e r a l i s m and
nationalism^ the "Mettexnich system^" which/fought a series of
 XIII p. 5

delaying actions until its final d e f e a t in midcejitury.

T h i s s y s t e m o p e r a t e d o n the a s s u m p t i o n of a c u l t u r a l u n i t y
in E u r o p e s u c h as the m e d i e v a l C h u r c h and the H o l y R o m a n E m p i r e
h a d e n d e a v o r e d to i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e , M e t t e r n i c h s o u g h t to r e r .
-saJj-e.. p r e s e n t and f u t u r e c o n f l i c t s aammoonngg tthhe e ^^sts attaefsT j Q g g U a E
a c o o p e r a t i v e a r r a n g e m e n t b e t w e e n the
;he r u l e r s oi the m a i o r p o w e r s .
m d e r the a e g i s o f t h i s s y s t e m E u r o p e h a d no m a j o r w a r s for a
c e n t u r y , a l t h o u g h as w e s h a l l s e e l a t e r in t h i s c h a p t e r , it d i d
not p r e v e n t i n n u m e r a b l e i n t e r n a l r e v o l t s .

In 1 8 1 5 , in an e f f o r t to g a i n any p o s s i b l e s u p p o r t for h i s
p r o g r a m , Me11ernLc^LSi~~JJ**i*'^^ a proposal initially advanced
by the i d e a l i s t i c A l e x a n d e r I, and s e c u r e d the a d h e r e n c e of m o s t
r u l e r s to the H o l y A l l i a n c e . By t h i s p a c t the s i g n a t o r y p o w e r s \
P l e d g e d t h e m s e l v e s " t o c o n t i n u e u n i t e d by the b o n d s of a true 1
A n d i n d i s s o l u b l e f r a t e r n i t y . . . to lend a s s i s t a n c e to e a c h o t h e r IJ
/(on all o c c a s i o n s and in all p l a c e s . .. [and to b e ] a n i m a t e d for J/M
V^the p r o t e c t i o n of r e l i g i o n , p e a c e and j u s t i c e . " The Holy A l l i r ^
ance never effectively served these aims. Metternich privately~&?rfj t
s c o r n e d its d e c l a r a t i o n s a s m e r e " v e r b i a g e , " a n d t h o s e w h o signed;*^*-**"'*
it a p p e a r to h a v e d o n e s o in p a r t o u t of d e f e r e n c e to A l e x a n d e r f ^ r ^ * ^ ^
Its m a i n e f f e c t w a s that it rema^ ned for s o m e y e a r s a s o u r c e of>
a p p r e h e n s i o n for t h o s e w h o s o u g h t to -estajb!jjjLJL*UBgS3L
mejits__ajid__afihieve nationaX~inde.pende T 'ce,

A m o r e i m p o r t a n t agenrm. for p r o t e c t i n g t h ^ i J e i K e r n i c h sys-

tem w a s the. .Qnadruplje^ M*| i, g "g° , a p o s t w a r r e n e w a l of the a n t i - ^ ^ ^ *
N^pojLeoni^c c o a l i t i o n w h i c h r e p r e s e n t s an eariy, anC.-j^nt^d.yjB.,.
experimpnlr"T"*~*'~ •" UT^rnnti'ffnwl -t^r~rnm^nt» 11 p r o v i d e d that e a c h
memnex-JSJLaJLe, w o u l d f u r n i s h t r o o p s in the e v e n T" Jfrance v i o l a t e
"the peace, t r e a t y imposed'on~1hgjg-. T h e allies" a l s o a g r e e d to
hold^^ijliJy rfflBPEI o n a 1 c o n g r e s s e s to c o n s u l t o n w a y s and m e a n s o f
c h e c k i n g any r e s u r g e n c e o f J a c o b i n i s m . France was soon rewarded
w i t h full m e m b e r s h i p in the p a c t w h i c h t h e n b e c a m e the Q u i n t u p l e
Alliance. B e t w e e n 1 8 1 8 and 1 8 2 3 , a s the r e s t i v e p e o p l e s of
I t a l y , S p a i n , a n d P o r t u g a l s t a g e d m i n o r r e b e l l i o n s , a s e r i e s of
these congresses convened. A t T r o p p a u in 1 8 2 0 , r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s
of the a l l i e d p o w e r s a g r e e d to i n t e r v e n e in any of t h o s e s t a t e s
" w h i c h h a v e u n d e r g o n e a c h a n g e of g o v e r n m e n t d u e to r e v o l u t i o n ,
the r e s u l t s of w h i c h t h r e a t e n o t h e r s t a t e s . . . b y p e a c e f u l m e a n s ,
o r if n e e d b e , by a r m s . "

S u c h i n t e r v e n t i o n b e c a m e n e c e s s a r y in s o u t h e r n Italy in
1 8 2 1 , w h e r e the p o p u l a c e r e b e l l e d a g a i n s t the u l t r a c o n s e r v a t i v e
k i n g of the T w o S i c i l i e s . D e s e r t e d by h i s t r o o p s , t h i s r u l e r
s u b s c r i b e d to a r e l a t i v e l y l i b e r a l c o n s t i t u t i o n . An alarmed
M e t t e r n i c h s u m m o n e d a c o n g r e s s to m e e t at L a i b a c h , and t h e r e
p e r s u a d e d the S i c i l i a n k i n g to r e p u d i a t e h i s g r a n t o f c o n s t i t u -
t i o n a l g o v e r n m e n t a n d to i n v i t e an A u s t r i a n a r m y to N a p l e s " t o
restore order." W i t h the a r r i v a l of A u s t r i a n t r o o p s the insur-
r e c t i o n c o l l a p s e d and the k i n g i m p o s e d o n h i s h a p l e s s s u b j e c t s
an even more reactionary rule. A r e v o l t in P i e d m o n t in n o r t h e r n
Italy in 1 8 2 1 w a s l i k e w i s e s p e e d i l y c r u s h e d by A u s t r i a n inter-
 XIII p. 6

In S p a i n , w h e r e a w e a k a n d c o r r u p t m o n a r c h s t r o v e to s t a m p
out l i b e r a l s e n t i m e n t s , r e s i s t a n c e b r o k e o u t in 1820. Under
d u r e s s , the r u l e r o f that u n h a p p y c o u n t r y p r o m i s e d to r e s t o r e
and s u p p o r t S p a i n ' s l i b e r a l c o n s t i t u t i o n o f 1812. Meanwhile,
h e i n t r i g u e d a g a i n s t the g o v e r n m e n t he h a d s w o r n to u p h o l d and
in the p o l i t i c a l c h a o s w h i c h f o l l o w e d , the C o n g r e s s of V e r o n a
(1822) a u t h o r i z e d the s e n d i n g of F r e n c h t r o o p s a c r o s s the
Pyrenees. T h e b a c k of the r e v o l t w a s b r o k e n by the e f f e c t i v e
s a v a g e r y of the F r e n c h s o l d i e r s , a n d the f a i t h l e s s S p a n i s h
monarch continued his reactionary policies. T h e e v e n t s in
Italy a n d S p a i n w e r e in a m e a s u r e r e p e a t e d in P o r t u g a l , a l t h o u g h
f o r e i g n t r o o p s w e r e not t h e r e e m p l o y e d to p r o t e c t the c o n s e r v a -
tive regime. E n c o u r a g e d by the s u p p r e s s i o n of l i b e r a l i s m in
I t a l y a n d S p a i n , P o r t u g u e s e c o n s e r v a t i v e s o v e r c a m e the r e b e l -
l i o u s f a c t i o n s at L i s b o n , and the r e s u l t i n g g o v e r n m e n t m a t c h e d
t h o s e e l s e w h e r e in r e a c t i o n .

W h i l e the i n t e r n a t i o n a l i n s t i t u t i o n s o i ^ c o j i S ^ a ^ j j y ^ m w e r e
t h u s d e v e l o p i n g , w i t h i n e a c h s t a t e it 1 ikewise„iion*feei[dg^j^th
l l b e r g J i ^ m and n a t i o n a l i s m . In R u s s i a a g l i m m e r o f l i b e r a l i s m
h a d a p p e a r e d u n d e r A l e x a n d e r I, w h o as the " r e f o r m i n g tSflT*"
g a v e p r o m i s e o f b e c o m i n g the m o s t e n l i g h t e n e d of E u r o p e a n m o n -
archs. The tsar and many of the younger nobility had been be-
g u i l e d by t h e i d e a l i s m of the E n l i g h t e n m e n t a n d the F r e n c h
Revolution. Alexander promoted public education, toyed with
the i d e a o f g r a n t i n g a w r i t t e n c o n s t i t u t i o n , a n d e v e n freed
s o m e of the s e r f s . At Vienna, however, he came increasingly
u n d e r the i n f l u e n c e of M e t t e r n i c h a n d , e n c o u r a g e d by r e a c t i o n -
ary m i n i s t e r s at h o m e , t u r n e d c o n s e r v a t i v e . By the t i m e of h i s
d e a t h in 1 8 2 5 h i s _ p o l i c y o f r i g i d c e n s o r s h i p h a d d r i v e n liberal^
theugh±_junde*gjicaiad. S e c r e t s o c i e t i e s c o m p o s e d of y o u n g n o b l e s ,
m a n y i n t e l l e c t u a l s ^ a ^ d ^u3me--Army-_of f i c e r s dedicated_j: h e m s e l v e s
to l i b e r a l a g i t a t i o n a n d r e v o l u t i o n .

W h e n A l e x a n d e r d i e d t h e s e societieA.uuoved.J;Q„_plaee--l»is
r e p o r t e d l y l i b e r a l b r o t h e r on the R u s s i a n t h r o n e . T h e y an-
n o u n c e d t h e i r i n t e n t i o n s in a m a n i f e s t o w h i c h c a l l e d for a free
p r e s s , r e l i g i o u s t o l e r a n c e , e m a n c i p a t i o n of the s e r f s , the
e q u a l i t y o f a l l c l a s s e s b e f o r e the l a w , a n d the r i g h t of an in-
d i v i d u a l to p u r s u e a n o c c u p a t i o n o f h i s o w n c h o o s i n g . This
m a n i f e s t o they p r o c l a i m e d in D e c e m b e r 1 8 2 5 — hence their name
in R u s s i a n h i s t o r y is the D e k a b r i s t i , o r D e c e m b r i s t s . Hampered
by the l a c k o f a c l e a r p l a n a n d a d e q u a t e p r e p a r a t i o n , a n d re-
p u d i a t e d by the p r i n c e w h o m they s u p p o r t e d for the t h r o n e , the
Decembrists failed utterly. Their leaders were either hanged
o r e x i l e d to S i b e r i a . T h e new t s a r , a n o t h e r o f A l e x a n d e r ' s
brothers, w a s Nicholas I (1825-1855). Haunted throughout his
r e i g n by the s p e ^ t e r ^ o f r e v o l u t i o n , h e c o n v e r t e d Riissia into^jt
h u g e m i l i t a r y c a m p u n d e r the s u r v e i l l a n c e of the s e c r e t p o l i c e .

G e r m a n o p p o s i t i o n to the V i e n n a s e t t l e m e n t found a h a v e n in
the h e a r t s o f y o u n g i n t e l l e c t u a l s a n d the m i d d l e - c l a s s e l e m e n t
o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n , b o t h of w h o m h a d b e e n d e e p l y s t i r r e d by the
preachments of Johann Gottlieb Fichte (1762-1814). A Romantic
 XIII p. 7

n a j ^ o n a l i s t , F i c h t e issueiL_a call tor G e r m a n u n i t y in h i s A d -

d r e s s e s to t h e G e r m a n N a t i o n ( 1 8 0 7 - 1 8 0 8 ) . He also declarecTin
t h e s e a d d r e s s e s that " a l l c u l t u r e h a s p r o c e e d e d from the p e o p l e
[volk]," and t h a t " f r e e d o m is the soil in w h i c h h i g h e r c u l t u r e
germinates." A s F i c h t e u s e d the t e r m , f r e e d o m m a i n l y m e a n t a
G e r m a n y free of f o r e i g n (then F r e n c h ) i n f l u e n c e s , b u t to m a n y
o f h i s f o l l o w e r s t h i s w a s p o s s i b l e o n l y if the o b s t a c l e s r a i s e d
by the M e t t e r n i c h s y s t e m w e r e c l e a r e d away.

O r g a n i z e d d i s c o n t e n t in G e r m a n y a p p e a r e d as e a r l y as 1 8 1 6
w i t h the e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f s t u d e n t l e a g u e s , or B u r s c h e n s c h a f t e n . .
Uniyjgxsity s t u d e n t s , jnany of~Cheir__professcxsT aad^^ome~ojr*the
r i e r p y p a r t i c i p a t e d fjj the a c t i v i t i e s of t h e s e leaguesT^and"—>
tlie*y"~"were s u p p o r t e d by xt^\\^rr^r^^-rma^ press. Conservatives
ilrtjfǤrmany"7'~*ya.rii erf LU'rinoil~aTltl~^lrarmedat t h i s " r e v i v a l of
Jacobinism," regarded these societies as subversive — an
o p i n i o n a p p a r e n t l y c o n f i r m e d by the e x t r e m i s t a g i t a t i o n o n the
p a r t of s o m e o f the m o r e r a d i c a l d i s s i d e n t s . In the v i e w o f
M e t t e r n i c h the u n i v e r s i t i e s w e r e p a r t i c u l a r l y c u l p a b l e , s i n c e
they w e r e g i v i n g e a r to d a n g e r o u s d o c t r i n e s . He called, there-
f o r e , a c o n f e r e n c e of r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of n i n e of the l a r g e r
G e r m a n s t a t e s to m e e t at C a r l s b a d in A u g u s t , 1819, It r e q u i r e d
l i t t l e p e r s u a s i o n to o b t a i n from the t i m o r o u s d e l e g a t e s an
a s s e n t to t h e r e p r e s s i v e C a r l s b a d D e c r e e s . In the s e l e c t i o n
gollowjjig—may_ b e s e e n t h e _ e x t e n t to w h i c h Met^EernTchisrir^was~
red to g o " t 6 C f a g g g a n y sentJjmejjt wh-Spfi nin\
;atus q u o in

1„ A s p e c i a l r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f t h e r u ^ e r o f ft*"—th s t a t e
shalj_he~ a p p o i n t e d for e a c h u n i v e r s i t y . w i t h a p p r o p r i a t e
i n s t r u c t i o n s a n d e x t e n d e d p o w e r s , a n d s h a l l r e s i d e in the
p T a c e w h e r e the u n i v e r s i t y is s i t u a t e d . This office may
d e v o l v e u p o n the e x i s t i n g c u r a t o r o r u p o n any o t h e r i n d i -
v i d u a l w h o m the g o v e r n m e n t m a y d e e m q u a l i f i e d .
T h e f u n c t i o n of t h i s a g e n t s h a l l b e to s e e to the
s t r i c t e s t e n f o r c e m e n t of e x i s t i n g l a w s and d i s c i p l i n a r y
r e g u l a t i o n s ; to o b s e r v e c a r e f u l l y the s p i r i t w h i c h is
s h o w n by the i n s t r u c t o r s in the u n i v e r s i t y in t h e i r p u b l i c
lectures and regular courses, and, without directly inter-
f e r i n g in s c i e n t i f i c m a t t e r or in t h e m e t h o d s o f t e a c h i n g ,
t o g i v e a s a l u t a r y d i r e c t i o n to the i n s t r u c t i o n , h a v i n g in
v i e w the f u t u r e a t t i t u d e of the s t u d e n t s . Lastly, he shall
d e v o t e u n c e a s i n g a t t e n t i o n to e v e r y t h i n g that m a y p r o m o t e
m o r a l i t y , £ o o d o r d e r , a n d o u t w a r d p r o p r i e t y a m o n g the
students....
2. T h e c o n f e d e r a t e d g o v e r n m e n t s m u t u a l l y p l e d g e them-
s e l v e s t o r e m o v e from the u n i v e r s i t i e s o r o t h e r p u b l i c
e d u c a t i o n a l i n s t i t u t i o n s a l l t e a c h e r s w h o , by o b v i o u s de-
v i a t i o n from t h e i r d u t y , o r by e x c e e d i n g t h e l i m i t s of
t h e i r f u n c t i o n s , or by t h e a b u s e of t h e i r l e g i t i m a t e in-
f l u e n c e o v e r the y o u t h f u l m i n d s , or by p r o p a g a t i n g h a r m -
ful d o c t r i n e s h o s t i l e to p u b l i c o r d e r o r s u b v e r s i v e o f
existing governmental institutions, shall have unmistak-
a b l y p r o v e d t h e i r u n f i t n e s s for the, i m p o r t a n t o f f i c e
 XIII p. 8

i n t r u s t e d to t h e m . ... -N.
/ N o t e a c h e r w h o s h a l l h a v e b e e n r e m o v e d in t h i s m a n n e r ]
s h a l l b e a g a i n a p p o i n t e d to a p o s i t i o n in any p u b l i c in- J
i s t i t u t i o n o f l e a r n i n g in a n o t h e r s t a t e o f t h e u n i o n . ^/
\ J S . T h o s e l a w s w h i c h h a v e for a l o n g p e r i o d b e e n d i -
r e c t e d a g a i n s t s e c r e t and u n a u t h o r i z e d s o c i e t i e s i n the
universities shall be strictly enforced. These laws
a p p l y e s p e c i a l l y to that a s s o c i a t i o n e s t a b l i s h e d s o m e
y e a r s s i n c e u n d e r the n a m e U n i v e r s a l S t u d e n t s ' U n i o n
( A l l g e m e i n e B u r s c h e n s c h a f t ) , s i n c e the v e r y c o n c e p t i o n of
t"5e s o c i e t y i m p l i e s the u t t e r l y u n a l l o w a b l e p l a n o f p e r -
m a n e n t f e l l o w s h i p and c o n s t a n t c o m m u n i c a t i o n b e t w e e n the

r
various universities. T h e d u t y of e s p e c i a l w a t c h f u l n e s s
in t h i s m a t t e r s h o u l d b e i m p r e s s e d u p o n the s p e c i a l a g e n t s
o f the g o v e r n m e n t .
T h e g o v e r n m e n t s m u t u a l l y a g r e e t h a t s u c h p e r s o n s as
s h a l l h e r e a f t e r be s h o w n to h a v e r e m a i n e d in s e c r e t o r
u n a u t h o r i z e d a s s o c i a t i o n s , or s h a l l h a v e e n t e r e d s u c h
a s s o c i a t i o n s , s h a l l not b e a d m i t t e d to any p u b l i c o f f i c e
4. N o s t u d e n t w h o s h a l l b e e x p e l l e d from a u n i v e r s i t y
by a d e c i s i o n of t h e u n i v e r s i t y s e n a t e w h i c h w a s r a t i f i e d
or p r o m p t e d by the a g e n t of the g o v e r n m e n t , or w h o s h a l l
h a v e left the i n s t i t u t i o n in o r d e r to e s c a p e e x p u l s i o n ,
s h a l l b e r e c e i v e d in any o t h e r u n i v e r s i t y , „ . .

1. So long as t h i s d e c r e e s h a l l r e m a i n in force n o p u b - ^
l i c a t i o n w h i c h a p p e a r s in t h e form of d a i l y i s s u e s , o r a s \
a s e r i a l not e x c e e d i n g t w e n t y s h e e t s of p r i n t e d m a t t e r , u
h a l l g o to p r e s s in any s t a t e of the u n i o n w i t h o u t t h e /
r e v i o u s k n o w l e d g e a n d a p p r o v a l o f the s t a t e o f f i c i a l s . /
W r i t i n g s w h i c h d o n o t b e l o n g t o o n e o f the a b o v e -
m e n t i o n e d c l a s s e s s h a l l b e t r e a t e d a c c o r d i n g to the l a w s
now in f o r c e , or w h i c h m a y b e e n a c t e d , in the i n d i v i d u a l
s t a t e s o f the u n i o n , „ . .
4. E a c h s t a t e of the u n i o n is r e s p o n s i b l e , not o n l y to
the s t a t e a g a i n s t w h i c h the o f f e n s e is d i r e c t l y c o m m i t t e d ,
b u t to the w h o l e C o n f e d e r a t i o n , for e v e r y p u b l i c a t i o n ap-
p e a r i n g u n d e r i t s s u p e r v i s i o n in w h i c h the h o n o r o r s e c u r -
ity o f o t h e r s t a t e s is i n f r i n g e d or t h e i r c o n s t i t u t i o n o r
administration attacked,„„,
6. T h e D i e t s h a l l h a v e the r i g h t , m o r e o v e r , to s u p p r e s s
on its own authority, without being petitioned, such writ-
ings i n c l u d e d in A r t i c l e 1, in w h a t e v e r G e r m a n s t a t e they
m a y a p p e a r , a s , in the o p i n i o n of a c o m m i s s i o n a p p o i n t e d
by it, are i n i m i c a l to the h o n o r of the u n i o n , the safety
o f i n d i v i d u a l s t a t e s , or the m a i n t e n a n c e o f p e a c e and
q u i e t in G e r m a n y . T h e r e s h a l l b e n o a p p e a l from s u c h d e -
c i s i o n s , a n d the g o v e r n m e n t s i n v o l v e d a r e b o u n d to s e e
that they a r e p u t i n t o e x e c u t i o n . . , .
7. W h e n a n e w s p a p e r or p e r i o d i c a l is s u p p r e s s e d by a
d e c i s i o n of t h e D i e t , the e d i t o r t h e r e o f m a y not w i t h i n a
p e r i o d o f f i v e y e a r s e d i t a s i m i l a r p u b l i c a t i o n in any
s t a t e of the u n i o n . *

* Q u o t e d in J a m e s H a r v e y ~ ^ o ^ i n s o n 7 " R e a d i n g s in E u r o p e a n Histor"y~
(Bostons G i n n & C o . , 1 9 0 6 , 1 9 3 4 ) l T 7 547-"54F7 U s e d w i t h p e r m i s s i o n ,
 XIII p. <

Iji^the~year~-fjcdJjowing- the p r o m u l g a t i o n o f t h e s e d e c r e e s
M e t t e r n i c h p e r s u a d e d the G e r m a n s t a t e s to limit the s u b j e c t s
w h i c h m i g h t be d i s c u s s e d in t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e -parliaments w h e r e
s u c h e x i s t e d and to p e r m i t the f e d e r a l a u t h o r i t y to i n t e r v e n e
in any o f t h e s t a t e s w h e r e l i b e r a l i s m t h r e a t e n e d to g a i n c o n -
trol. F o r the twenty y e a r s in w h i c h the d e c r e e s w e r e in f o r c e ,
German liberalism w a s effectively silenced. W i t h heavy sar-
casm the p o e t G o e t h e r e m a r k e d that the G e r m a n p e o p l e c o u l d not
h a v e a r e v o l u t i o n b e c a u s e the p o l i c e w o u l d not p e r m i t it.

Th^jyje_tternjch sysjLeiiL^-.however,--.could notHPJit-aiowji-alJL

challenges so easily. T h e first g r e a t f i s s u r e in the C o n c e r t
of E u r o p e c a m e in 1 8 2 0 , w h e n G r e a t B r i t a i n d e f e c t e d from the
Quintuple Alliance. T h e B r i t i s h h a d n e v e r s a n c t i o n e d indis-
c r i m i n a t e i n t e r v e n t i o n in the i n t e r n a ] a ? f g j j ^ j ? f i n d e p e n d e n t
s t a t e s , h o l d i n g t h a t a c t i o n of t h i s s o r t w a s iustif_ied_ pniy— in
*%he e v e n t o f a c l e a r a n d p r e s e n t t h r e a t to E u r o p e a n pea,ce.
B"riTish p o l i c y w a s p a r t i a l l y i n f l u e n c e d by the d e s i r e o f B r i t i s h
m e r c h a n t s to r e t a i n the p r o f i t a b l e c o m m e r c i a l t i e s e s t a b l i s h e d
w i t h S p a i n ' s A m e r i c a n p o s s e s s i o n s d u r i n g the y e a r s the I b e r i a n
p e n i n s u l a w a s w r a c k e d by w a r a n a r e v o l u t i o n . Spain agpjxgA-to
r e g a i n c o n t r o l of h e r l o s t A m e r i c a n colonies, w i t h ^ R e al**T*of
"le H o l y A l l i a n c e , a m o v e whidbu, if success***"****", w o u l d "end the
t r a d e a d v a n t a g e s e n j o y e d by B r i t i s h c o m m e r c e , B r i t a i n tried to
i n d u c e t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s to j o i n in a b i l a t e r a l w a r n i n g o p p o s i n g
the r e s t o r a t i o n of S p a n i s h a u t h o r i t y in A m e r i c a . W i s h i n g to
a v o i d " e n t a n g l e m e n t s , " the A m e r i c a n g o v e r n m e n t i s s u e d the M o n r o e
D o c t r i n e (1823), a u n i l a t e r a l p r o c l a m a t i o n a g a i n s t S p a n i s h am-
bitions. S p a i n did not s u c c e e d in r e p o s s e s s i n g her f o r m e r col-
o n i e s , and it w a s c l e a r that the i n t e r e s t s of G r e a t B r i t a i n ,
w i t h o u t w h o s e s u p p o r t S p a i n ' s h o p e s w e r e f u t i l e , r a n c o u n t e r to
t h o s e o f the o t h e r m e m b e r s of the a l l i a n c e . It w a s a l s o c l e a r
that thfi-Xongrcon p y s t o m T and w i t h it the C o n c e r t of E u r o p e , Jiad
collapsj

T h e s t a t u s q u o w a s f u r t h e r s h a k e n bv the G r e e k u p r i s i n g )
/ a g a i n s t the O t t o m a n T u r k s i n the y e a r s b e t w e e n l"M2i ahtt 1 8 2 9 /
' A l t h o u g h t h e T u r k i s h E m p i r e w a s n o t a m e m b e r of the s e v e r a l
a l l i a n c e s , the C o n g r e s s p o w e r s c o u l d h a r d l y i g n o r e the l e g i t -
i m a c y o f the s u l t a n ' s t i t l e to r u l e in G r e e c e . If the p o l i t i c a l
and t e r r i t o r i a l a r r a n g e m e n t s o f 1 8 1 5 w e r e to be m a i n t a i n e d , in-
s u r r e c t i o n o f any k i n d s h o u l d b e d i s c o u r a g e d . However, wide-
s p r e a d s y m p a t h y e x i s t e d for the G r e e k p e o p l e t h r o u g h o u t the W e s t ,
E u r o p e a n s r e g a r d e d them as a C h r i s t i a n p e o p l e w a g i n g a n e p i c
s t r u g g l e to t h r o w o f f M o s l e m o v e r l o r d s h i p a n d r e s t o r e the l o n g -
lost i n d e p e n d e n c e o f a h i s t o r i c c o m m u n i t y . B e s i d e s , R u s s i a and
A u s t r i a h a d t h e i r o w n t e r r i t o r i a l a m b i t i o n s in the B a l k a n s .
W h e n it a p p e a r e d that the r e b e l l i o n m i g h t f a i l , G r e a t B r i t a i n ,
F r a n c e , and R u s s i a d r o p p e d all p r e t e n s e of n e u t r a l i t y , and d e -
s p i t e the o u t s p o k e n o p p o s i t i o n of M e t t e r n i c h , c a m e to the aid
of t h e G r e e k s . In 1 8 2 9 , the i n t e r v e n t i o n i s t p o w e r s r e c o g n i z e d
Greek independence. W h i l e this p o l i c y r e f l e c t e d p o p u l a r o p i n i o n
in E u r o p e , it a l s o m a r k e d a s i g n a l v i c t o r y for p o l i t i c a l s e l f -
d e t e r m i n a t i o n at the e x p e n s e of the s t a t u s quo.
 XIII p. 10

Hardly had Greek independence been achieved w h e n another

b r e a c h a p p e a r e d in the M e t t e r n i c h i a n e d i f i c e , this time in
France. T h e r e s t o r e d B o u r b o n g o v e r n m e n t t h e r e r e s t e d o n a con-
stitution which guaranteed certain fundamental liberties under
a parliamentary system. B u t it h a d a l s o p r e s e r v e d the forms of
h e r e d i t a r y p r i v i l e g e and r o y a l a b s o l u t i s m . T h e r e i g n of L o u i s
X V I II_ ( 1 8 1 4 - 1 8 2 4 ) w a s an u n e a s y b a l a n c e b e t w e e n liheralism and
CO*h*SOrvatism. Howeve"?*"*" hi"""r~yo1inp-e-E,_hrnfhor , Pnai-Tps X (1824-
1 8 3 0 ) , w a s an u l t r a c o n s e r v a t i v e w h o d e s i r e d to r e e s t a b l i s h ab-
solutism and privilege. Charles initiated repressive measures
a g a i n s t the p r e s s and u n d e r m i n e d r e p r e s e n t a t i v e g o v e r n m e n t .
W h e n h e a l s o d i s f r a n c h i s e d a b o u t t h r e e - f o u r t h s of the e l e c t o r -
ate he a l i e n a t e d m a n y of the b o u r g e o i s i e , w h o f e a r e d that w h a t
r e m a i n e d of the g a i n s w o n s i n c e 1789 w e r e in d a n g e r of b e i n g
lost. W h e n t h e i r p r o t e s t s a v a i l e d them n o t h i n g , b o u r g e o i s
l e a d e r s in J u l y 1830 led the i n f u r i a t e d p e o p l e to the b a r r i -
c a d e s t h r o w n u p in the s t r e e t s of P a r i s .

L o s i n g the s u p p o r t o f the a r m v . C h a r l e s s u r r e n d e r e d his

t h r o n e and_jfle^_ija±o__exile. A s h i s s u c c e s s o r , the r e v o l u t i o n -
a r i e s c h o s e L o u i s P h i l i p p e ( 1 8 3 0 - 1 8 4 8 ) , a m e m b e r o f the O r l e a n -
ist b r a n c h o f the B o u r b o n . f a m i l y . The new k i n g r e p u t e d l y h a d '
f o u g h t for the r e p u b l i c in j£79Jj), and as a r e s u l t of th,e jjjjly
R e v o l u t i o n (as it w a s s u b s e q u e n t l y c a l l e d ) w a s r a i s e d to the
"Throne as " K i n g of the F r e n c h , " r a t h e r t h a n " K i n g of F r a n c e . "
H e w a s m o r e p o p u l a r l y d u b b e d the " C i t i z e n K i n g . "

A s in the 1 7 9 0 " s , the J u l y R e v o l u t i o n in F r a n c e t r i g g e r e d

i n s u r r e c t i o n a r y a c t i v i t y e l s e w h e r e o n the C o n t i n e n t . "Gentle-
m e n , s a d d l e y o u r h o r s e s , " c r i e d N i c h o l a s I in St. P e t e r s b u r g ,
" F r a n c e is in r e v o l u t i o n a g a i n ! " S u i t i n g a c t i o n to h i s w o r d s ,
N i c h o l a s m o v e d a g a i n s t the P o l e s w h o h a d b e e n e n c o u r a g e d by the
F r e n c h e x a m p l e to r i s e a g a i n s t t h e i r R u s s i a n m a s t e r s . "Poland"'s
n a t i o n a l indeirendeffiCeTiad b e e n d e s t r o y e d in the p r e v i o u s century
in a p i e c e m e a l p a r t i t i o n o f the c o u n t r y at the h a n d s of R u s s i a ,
P r u s s i a , and A u s t r i a . A l t h o u g h A l e x a n d e r I h a d g r a n t e d a rel-
a t i v e l y l i b e r a l c o n s t i t u t i o n to the P o l e s in h i s d o m a i n (1815),
they b i t t e r l y r e s e n t e d the p r e s e n c e of R u s s i a n s in t h e i r m i l -
itary and c i v i l p o s t s . Exjaecting aid from l i b e r a l s a b r o a d ,
P o 1 i s h p a t r i o t s r e b e l l e d , b u t the f a i l u r e o f t h i s aid to a r r i v e
e n a b l e d N i c h o l a s , w h o h a d no s y m p a t h y for l i b e r a l i s m i n g e n e r a l
"and P o l i s h n a t i o n a l y e a r n i n g s in p a r t i c u l a r , to crush them w i t h -
out m e r c y . The tsar abrogated Alexander's liberal constitution
a n d i n c o r p o r a t e d P o l a n d as a p r o v i n c e o f the R u s s i a n E m p i r e .

In B e l g i u m , p a t r i o t s h a d n e v e r r e c o n c i l e d t h e m s e l v e s to
the D u t c h r u l e u n d e r w h i c h t h e V i e n n a s e t t l e m e n t h a d p l a c e d
them. In 1 8 3 0 , the p r o - D u t c h p o l i t i c a l , e c o n o m i c , and r e l i -
g i o u s p o l i c i e s p r e c i p i t a t e d a r e b e l l i o n that w a s in e s s e n c e
both liberal and national. A l s o i n s p i r e d by the s u c c e s s o f the
P a r i s i a n i n s u r r e c t i o n , +*^° P o 1 g ' g n a prnr*1 " m o H thaix jnHopond-
e n c e from H o l l a n d . T h e B r i t i s h p e r s u a d e d F r a n c e to j o i n them
in r e c o g n i z i n g B e l g i a n i n d e p e n d e n c e , and the s e p a r a t i o n of
B e l g i u m and H o l l a n d w a s e f f e c t e d in 1831. T h i s d e v e l o p m e n t , it
C. //f9 - ^4l6lJiA£^^ • (fate#**zfafeya-^
 XIII p, 11

s h o u l d b e n o t e d , m a r k e d the first r u p t u r e in the s p e c i f i c ter-

r i t o r i a l a r r a n g e m e n t s o f the C o n g r e s s of V i e n n a ,

J"MEejity.-fhree~^af^he G e r m a n s t a t e s in 1 8 3 4 e n t e r e d into a
c u s t o m s u n i o n , the Z o l l v e r e i n (of w h i c h m o r e l a t e r ) , a . s t e p
t o w a r d n a t i o n a l u n i f i c a t i o n and thus, a n o t h e r .threat to the
s t a t u s quo_ set,,.by ...the -Congress--oiJS*jLanaaw M e t t e r a i c h i s m , "it
w a s e v i d e n t , w a s r a p i d l y l o s i n g its h o l d o n the l o y a l t i e s of
the p e o p l e of E u r o p e , a l t h o u g h it w a s s t i l l s t r o n g e a s t of the
Rhine. If o n the s u r f a c e the p o l i t i c a l c u r r e n t s of the f o r t i e s
w e r e c a l m , u n d e r n e a t h d i s s i d e n t e l e m e n t s w e r e p r e p a r i n g for
t h e i r a n t i c i p a t e d day of o p p o r t u n i t y . In the Metternich, s y s t e m
b o t h l i b e r a l a n d n a t i o n a l i s t a d v o c a t e s c o n f r o n t e d a c o m m o n foe,
a f a c t w h i c h h a d in m a n y i n s t a n c e s l e d t h e m t o form a m u t u a l
alliance.

T w o d e v e l o p m e n t s o c c u r r e d d u r i n g the 1 8 4 0 ' s w h i c h h e l p ex-

p l a i n ^ t h e ^ r e g r o w t h of .r^Y^lMtijOJaary,.^£er.voj>t» In the-4LJjr.sj p l a c e .
the s y s t e m of harsh__repression i m p o s e d by g o v e r n m e n t a l a u t h o r -
i t i e s trans^o>me^d_jianlL-memher.s of" the m i d d l e c l a s s — lawyers,
journalists, business m e n , and professors — frjM-J*aild.xeijBrm-
e r s to p o t e n t iai.„..rj^^ r S e c o n d l y , an e c o n o m i c de-
p r e s s i o n in t h e m i d d l e of this d e c a d e r p l u s a s e r i e s of b a d
h a r v e s t s , s q u e e z e d the m a s s e s b e t w e e n u n e m p l o y m e n t and h i g h
p r i c e s for b r e a d . In a d d i t i o n , t h o s e g a i n s w h i c h up to now h a d
b e e n w r u n g from the c o n s e r v a t i v e g o v e r n m e n t s h a d f a v o r e d the
b o u r g e o i s i e e x c l u s i v e l y , a n d the c o m p l a i n t s of the i n d u s t r i a l
proletariat: h a d b e e n l a r g e l y i g n o r e d .

A l t h o u g h the first r e v o l u t i o n a r y u p h e a v a l s of 1,848 b e g a n

e l s e w h e r e , it w a s the F r e n c h w h o , as in 1 7 8 9 and 1830, g a v e
i m p e t u s to the__r_evoT~s that aMJajM* >VP all o v e r the E u r o p e a n
c^n^TnejitT^^rne^regime o f L o u i s P h i l i p p e , d o m i n a t e d oy oour-
g e o i s " I n t e r e s t s , h a d f a i l e d to b r i n g i n t e r n a l p e a c e to F r a n c e .
Its p o l i c y w a s m a i n l y to r i d the n a t i o n of the a b s o l u t i s t p r o -
c l i v i t i e s of the B o u r b o n s and t h e i r r o y a l i s t s u p p o r t e r s , w h i l e
at the s a m e t i m e g u a r a n t e e i n g o r d e r a n d p r o p e r t y a g a i n s t d e m o c -
racy a n d r e p u b l i c a n i s m . A s a r e s u l t , it p a i d l i t t l e h e e d to
the d e v e l o p i n g g r i e v a n c e s of F r a n c e ' s u r b a n i n d u s t r i a l w o r k i n g
class. O p p o s i t i o n to t h e new g o v e r n m e n t e m e r g e d a l m o s t from
t h e b e g i n n i n g a n d s p r e a d as L o u i s P h i l i p p e p r o v e d s c a r c e l y m o r e
liberal than his predecessor had been. T h e g o v e r n m e n t sup-
p r e s s e d c r i t i c a l n e w s p a p e r s , j a i l e d and fined t h e i r e d i t o r s ,
a n d c u r b e d the a c t i v i t i e s of all g r o u p s s u s p e c t e d of h o s t i l i t y .
T h e a p p e a l s of the m a s s e s for l i b e r a l i z a t i o n of the f r a n c h i s e
were rejected, " I f y o u w o u l d h a v e a v o i c e in the g o v e r n m e n t ,
9
e x c l a i m e d o n e of, t h e k i n g ' s m i n i s t e r s , " g e t rich 0 ."

W e a r y of the g o v e r n m e n t ' s m i d d l e - c l a s s b i a s and s t a t i c

p o l i c y in the face of F r a n c e ' s c o m p l e x s o c i a l a n d p o l i t i c a l
p r o b l e m s , l i b e r a l g r o u p s t r i e d to c i r c u m v e n t the a u t h o r i t i e s '
i n t e r d i c t o n o p p o s i t i o n a c t i v i t y by s p o n s o r i n g " p o l i t i c a l b a n -
quets," A t t h e s e a f f a i r s o r a t o r s r e g a l e d the b a n q u e t e e r s con-
c e r n i n g t h e a l l e g e d e v i l s t h a t p e r m e a t e d the r e g i m e . So popular
 XIII p. 12

w e r e the b a n q u e t s that they s o o n p r o v e d h i g h l y e m b a r r a s s i n g to

the g o v e r n m e n t . A h u g e b a n q u e t , s c h e d u l e d in F e b r u a r y 1 8 4 8 ,
drew a flat b a n w h i c h r e k i n d l e d the f i r e s of r e v o l t . Parisians
a w o k e the n e x t m o r n i n g to find t h e i r s t r e e t s o n c e m o r e b l o c k e d
by b a r r i c a d e s . A l t h o u g h the p r i m e m i n i s t e r r e s i g n e d and the
king tardily offered concessions, France's patience w a s ex-
hausted. L o u i s P h i l i p p e f o l l o w e d jjjjS- p r e d e c e s s o r i n t o e x i l e
and this F e b r u a r y R e v o l u t i o n r e s u l t e d in a c o a l i t i o n of r e p u b -
licans and socialists seizing control.

T h e r e v o l u t i o n , h o w e v e r , d i d not e n d h e r e , A growing class-

consciousness" o n the p a r t of the F r e n c h i n d u s t r i a l w o r k e r s h a d
t u r n e d them to the m o r e r a d i c a l d e m a n d s and l o f t i e r d r e a m s of
visionary leaders. O n e o f the m o r e v i g o r o u s and p e r s u a s i v e of
these leaders w a s Louis Blanc (1811-1882), a socialist who
u n d e r s t o o d and s y m p a t h i z e d w i t h w o r k i n g - c l a s s g r i e v a n c e s . Blanc
m a d e hims£l-f-~tae~ f e a r l e s s champion,., o f J J b g — f o x g o J t e n m a s s e s i n
the i n d u s t r i a l a r e a s , The provisional government, which had
a s s u m e d a u t h o r i t y f o l l o w i n g the d e p a r t u r e o f L o u i s P h i l i p p e ,
d e c r e e d the e l e c t i o n of a N a t i o n a l A s s e m b l y to b e c h o s e n by
d i r e c t and u n i v e r s a l m a n h o o d s u f f r a g e , a m e t h o d of s e l e c t i o n
w h i c h w a s a r a d i c a l i n n o v a t i o n in itself. The provisional gov-
ernment also enacted some hasty measures of social and political
reform, but worker interests were still largely neglected. See-
ing the f r u i t s o f t h e r e v o l u t i o n e l u d i n g t h e m , p a r t i c u l a r l y w h e n
the N a t i o n a l A s s e m b l y b e g a n to adopt a p o l i c y of c o n s e r v a t i v e
republicanism, the Parisian w o r k e r s and their socialist comrades
o n c e a g a i n r e s o r t e d to i n s u r r e c t i o n . In the t e r r i b l e " J u n e Days"
(June 2 4 - 2 6 , 1 8 4 8 ) w h i c h f o l l o w e d , r e p u b l i c a n s w e r e r a n g e d
a g a i n s t s o c i a l i s t s in s a n g u i n a r y s t r e e t f i g h t i n g . The outnum-
bered proletarian forces were speedily subdued,

F r a n c e h a d d e c i d e d to forego, m o n a r c h y - l a factor~-~oJLAjmoder-__
ate S e c o n d R e p u b l i c that w a s p o l i t i c a l l y l i b e r a l but e c o n o m i c -
ally a n d s o c i a l l y .conservative. T h e TJajMona] Assemhiy made up
mainly of clericals, business men, some aristocrats, and peas-
a n t s , f o r m e d a c o n s t i t u t i o n w h i c h p r o v i d e d for a p o p u l a r l y
elected legislature.and.president, The s u c c e s s f u l a s p i r a n t in
the firsi_.president.ial e l e c t i o n w a s L o u i s N a p o l e o n ( 1 8 0 8 - 1 8 7 3 ) ,
n e p h e w of the g r e a t B o n a p a r t e , jtouis Napj_leen h a d r e c e n t l y r e -
t u r n e d from e x i l e p r o m i s i n g all t h i n g s to e v e r y f a c t i o n . Al-
m o s t i m m e d i a t e l y he u s e d his o f f i c e \o s t r e n g t h e n h i s control,
o v e r the m a c h i n e r y oi goyerjamje,n.t. and l a b o r e d to bjHid « p a p e r -
sonal following. T h e b a s i c d i s o r d e r i m e s s o i p o l i t i c a l life
w i t h i n the S e c o n d R e p u b l i c , p l u s the m a g i c n a m e of N a p o l e o n ,
played into his hands. In 1851 f by a C O U P d ' e t a t r h e a f ^ * m o d _ a
t e m p o r a r y m i l i t a r y d i c t a t o r s h i p . J. p l e b i s c i t e a u t h o r i z e d him to
p r e p a r e a new c o n s t i t u t i o n - U n d e r the b r o a d a u t o c r a t i c p o w e r s
w h i c h it g a v e h i m , he s p e n t the n e x t y e a r c o n s o l i d a t i n g h i s h o l d
o n the m a s s e s . A s e c o n d p l e b i s c i t e r e s u l t e d in h i s b e i n g p r o -
c l a i m e d " N a p o l e o n III, E m p e r o r of the F r e n c h " (1852), The
Rejvojruti*c~rQf 1 8 4 8 in F r a n c e a l t h o u g h c o m m e n c e d in the n a m e of
l i b e r t y , t h g g Q " " e d w i t h t h e n r n a t i n n o f t h e " j p r n n r i TT.tnpi T»e.
D u r i n g its e i g h t e e n y e a r s of e x i s t e n c e the e m p i r e f u n c t i o n e d as
 XIII p. 13

a mixture of authoritarian government with spasmodic gestures

toward parliamentary institutions and popular demands,

German libexaJ—naiionaj?sm l i k e t h a t e l s e w h e r e in E u r o p e ,
wag_e,nr-o*|1'»"'a-gfid foy the e v e n t s in F r a n c e . Economic forces were
d r a w i n g the G e r m a n p e o p l e t o g e t h e r d e s p i t e the s e p a r a t i o n i s t
a r r a n g e m e n t f i x e d by t h e V i e n n a C o n g r e s s , In the Z o l l v e r e l n
c e r t a i n German, s t a t e s a g r e e d to r e m o v e t h e T a r i f f n"aW^q~fe
w h i c h h a d obstructed... the f r e e f l o w o f c o m m e r c e w i t h i n G e r m a n y .
T h e s u c c e s s of t h i s p u r e l y e c o n o m i c a r r a n g e m e n t e n c o u r a g e d m a n y
G e r m a n b u s i n e s s m e n t o l o o k to c l o s e r p o l i t i c a l u n i o n as a m e a n s
of b r i n g i n g a d d e d t r a d e a d v a n t a g e s . The revolutionary movement
ijT_Germaiay as it d e v e l o p e d gfrs *J**gawjpJEoagad— A m o n g the l o w e r
c l a s s e s it c o n s t i t u t e d a d r j v e m a i n l y to estah1ish~-Tt^nTrTTr--p7i'-
I T E T c a i f o r m s a n d s e c o n d a r i l y to a c h i e v e n a t i o n a l u n i f i c a t i o n .
T h e G e r m a n u p p e r _ c l a s s e s w h o sought c h a n g e w e r e i n t e r e s t e d
e q u a l l y i_n^*tt!*e*ralism and n a t i o n a l i s m for t h e i r "country, fn
1 8 4 8 a n "assembly o f m o d e r a t e l i b e r a l s a n d n a t i o n a l i s t s , m a d e u p
of l a w y e r s , judges,, b u s i n e s s m e n , civil s e r v a n t s , p r o f e s s o r s ,
a n d c l e r g y m e n , c o n v e n e d at F r a n k f u r t to p r e p a r e a c o n s t i t u t i o n
for a f e d e r a t e d " G B f m & n c o m m o n w e a l t h . O u t o f the del i h p r ^ t ^ " ° "
df~thiT"s~FL*ailkrurt A s s e m b l y jcjjae a c o n s t i t u t i o n w i t h a b i l l o f
r i g h t s ("The FiiiTtdamajBl-al Piprhtr of thA irAVUl^p Ueople" » w h i c h w a s
mild^~Tegalistic,, a n d l i b e r a l „

In c o n t r a s t to that w h i c h c o n f r o n t e d l i b e r a l s in F r a n c e
a n d E n g l a n d , t h e F r a n k f u r t A s s e m b l y h a d a m u c h h a r d e r t a s k •—
to form a new . G e r m a n s t a r e "and m a k e it l i b e r a l . "The d e l e g a t e s
d e b a t e d w i t h o u t l e a c h i n g a g r e e m e n t two k n o t t y q u e s t i o n s . TEe"
first. i n v o l v e d the g e o g r a p h i c a l e x t e n t o f the new G e r m a n u n i o n .
S h o u l d it i n c l u d e — U German, s t a t p s £pa'f-'l^**'IJ.lg:'**j^AHsJt^lg-) o r
not? T h e s e c o n d q u e s t i o n c o n c e r n e d the n a t u r e o f the p r o p o s e d
g o v e r n m e n t ,^~Bh*ould it b e a r e p m h i i c o r a c o n s t i t u t i o n a l m o n -
archy? B o t h q u e s t i o n s w e r e a t l e n g t h s e t t l e d bv the R e f u s a l o f
A u s t r i a , t o h a v e any p a r t of t h e p r o j e c t e d c o m m o n w e a l t h and py ~
the"refm r sal o f jhp p w " e c ^ " "^ "fT f ? "' t '?Bi l 't W o 'ag^mNY tlftd fff-
fered t ^ e ^ r e r m a n Throne., t ^ flccent "a r^own from f*l° g a r t e r . "
For more tnan a year, until the popular revolutionary fervor
w a s well spent, the assembled delegates debated these issues.
In the e n d , they c o u l d s h o w a l m o s t n o t h i n g o f v a l u e for t h e i r
e f f o r t s e x c e p t that t h e i r e x p o s i t i o n o f " f u n d a m e n t a l r i g h t s "
r e m a i n e d a n o t a b l e e x a m p l e o f t h e p o l i t i c a l p h i l o s o p h y h e l d by
the m i d - n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y b o u r g e o i s l i b e r a l . Since Germany
h a d r,o p a r l i a m e n t a r y t r a d i t i o n l i k e that o f E n g l a n d , n o r a
r e v o l u t i o n a r y t r a d i t i o n l i k e that o f F r a n c e , aad e s p e c i a l l y
s i n c e the s e v e r a l p r i n c e s a n d t h e i r l o y a l a r m i e s w e r e o v e r t l y
h o s t i l e to it, t h e p r o p o s e d c o n s t i t u t i o n h a d l i t t l e c h a n c e o f
adoption.

D e s p i t e t h e p r e c a u t i o n s o f M e t t e r n i c h the r e v o l u t i o n a r y
virus of 1848 also entered the Austrian Empire. It i n f e c t e d the
m i d d l e c l a s s , s t u d e n t s in the u n i v e r s i t i e s , w o r k e r s in the
c i t i e s , and e v e n a r i s t o c r a t s in the e m p e r o r ' s o w n c o u r t , "To
c h e c k t h e torrent is no longer w i t h i n the p o w e r o f m a n , "
 XIII p. 14

p l a i n t i v e l y wrote, M e t t e r n i c h , a d d i n g " "And I do not know how

to s t e e r a m i d d l e c o u r s e , " D e m o n s t r a t i o n s i n t h e s t r e e t s o¥
V i e n n a precipitated his resignation and the emperor w a s forced
to m a k e c o n c e s s i o n s to h i s r e b e l l i o u s s u b j e c t s , b o t h i n V i e n n a
and in the outlying provinces, Hungarian liberal nationalists
t o o k a d v a n t a g e o f t h e t u r m o i l i n V i e n n a to d e m a n d v i r t u a l h o m e
rule for Hungary. A l t h o u g h t h i s m o v e m e n t f o u n d e r e d o n the in-
ability of the M a g y a r and Slav p o p u l a t i o n s in Hungary to resolve
their traditionally b i t t e r conflicts and on the extremist pol-
icies of the H u n g a r i a n leader, L o u i s K o s s u t h (1802-1894), the
Hapsburg Empire tottered on the brink of collapse. Similar
u p r i s i n g s occurred among the Slavic and Italian subjects of the
empire. A new emperor came to the throne and w i t h the aid of
R u s s i a n and loyal A u s t r i a n troops defeated the various rebel
f o r c e s , r e p u d i a t e d t h e l i b e r a l c o n c e s s i o n s g r a n t e d by h i s p r e d e -
cessor, and reestablished authoritarian rule. The utter fail-
u r e o f t h e r e v Q j t JJI—AuRtria " n t l M ^ d thtflt Stat**, in th,e, en,T**"l'i**'P*
vearSj^to enioy the dubious honor of remaining safely conserva-
X lvc •

T h e s u r v i v a l o f t h e Hapshtirg a u t o c r a c y i n A u s t r i a doomed.
f r o m t h e s t a r t e f f o r t s to c h a n g e t h e s t a t u s q u o s o u t h o f t h e
Alps._" I n p o i n t o i t i m e , ^Italian r e s t i v e n e s s i n 1 8 4 8 e r u p t e d
into defiance earlier than elsewhere on the Continent, After
t h e 1830"s~7~Italians o f a l l p o l i t i c a l f a i t h s , r e s e n t i n g t h e
territorial divisions of the Congress of Vienna, entertained
h i g h h o p e s for ending A u s t r i a n domination and its autocratic
rule in Italy. B u t t h e p e o p l e w e r e n o t u n i t e d o n m e a n s . JLQT
w e r e t h e y c l e a r as~TcTspecif-*y fiPH" Some looked to the lead-
e r s h i p of the liberal P o p e P i u s IX (1846-1878). Others placed
their hopes in the King of S a r d i n i a - P i e d m o n t , C h a r l e s Albert
(1831-1849). Still o t h e r s followed the liberal and republican
visionary, Guiseppe Mazzini (1805-1872),

In s o m e r e s p e c t s M a z z i n i ' s e n d s w e r e i d e n t i c a l w i t h t h o s e
of his famous sixteenth century compatriot, Machiavel—i» But
t h e s e two I t a l i a n s d i f f e r e d w i d e l y a s to m e a n s , Mazzini grew
up in the turbulent atmosphere that pervaded post-Napoleonic
Europe. D i s i l l u s i o n e d at t h e f a i l u r e o f I t a l i a n r e s i s t a n c e
m o v e m e n t s in 1820 and 1830, he turned w i t h r o m a n t i c enthusiasm
t o a career of agitation and propaganda. To this end he organ-
i z e d L a G i o v i n a Italia ("Young Italy"), a secret society ded-
icatecTto promoting Italian unity and republicanism.

It w a s M a z z i n i a n e n t h u s i a s t s w h o t o u c h e d o f f r e v o l t i n
I t a l y w i t h an_uprisiuig_in_S.icilv i n 1 8 4 8 T Rebellion spread
rapidly. C h a r l e s A l b e r t h e a d e d o f f t r o u b l e i n h i s realm~D"y
granting a liberal constitution and declaring w a r against
Austria. City after city in northern Italy rose against their
A u s t r i a n g a r r i s o n s and p r o c l a i m e d their independence of the
Hapsburgs. Although Charles Albert received some early support
f r o m t h e k i n g o f t h e T w o S i c i l i e s a n d t h e p o p e , e x c e s s e s by t h e
r e v o l u t i o n a r i e s lost him such favor. In 1 8 4 9 , A u s t r i a n t r o o p s
a g a i n i n v a d e d I t a l y in f o r c e , d e f e a t e d t h e S a r d i n i a n a r m y , a n d
 XIII p.
15
•5*7
c o m p e l l e d C h a r l e s A l b e r t to c o n c l u d e a h u m i l i a t i n g p e a c e . Revo-
l u t i o n a r i e s in the P a p a l S t a t e s , r e n d e r e d d e s p e r a t e by t h e s e
s e t - b a c k s to t h e i r c a u s e , now r e s o r t e d to e x t r e m i s t tactics.
A f t e r P i u s IX h a d fled in fear of h i s l i f e , they p r o c l a i m e d a
R o m a n r e p u b l i c u n d e r the l e a d e r s h i p of M a z z i n i , In r e s p o n s e to
p l e a s of F r e n c h C a t h o l i c s , L o u i s N a p o l e o n s e n t F r e n c h t r o o p s
to the P a p a l S t a t e s , a n d t h e i r i n t e r v e n t i o n r e i n s t a t e d the p o p e
in a u t h o r i t y . In N a p l e s , the S i c i l i a n k i n g r e p u d i a t e d the
l i b e r a l c o n s t i t u t i o n w h i c h h e had g r a n t e d in an i m p u l s e of r e v o -
lutionary enthusiasm. By the s u m m e r of 1 8 4 9 , Italy w a s o n c e
more under autocratic control.

N o t e w o r t h y m a n i f e s t a t i o n s of r e v o l u t i o n a r y l i b e r a l i s m ap-
p e a r e d in E n g l a n d , tftp N e t h e r l a n d s D e n m a r k , and in o t h e r K n r g -
pgah'"STg£~sT~'~5it a ff*^'l-H Q ~~~£~~»-t ~j"fg~g~ o f i RAR-JRAO m*^y_
E u r o p e a n s concTydfifj ,f;"aa+ ^ ^ " I ^ T °*n* n a + ^ o n a i i s m c^u1'* ""+
^ g ^ h e r e f f e c t i v e l y c h a l l e n g e the s t a t u s nun. Besides losing
g r o u n d xor o t h e r r e a s o n s , the l i b e r a l s now l o s t the s u p p o r t of
n a t i o n a l i s t s w h o t u r n e d to c o u r t the c o n s e r v a t i v e s . Neverthe-
l e s s , e v e n w h e r e the a u t h o r i t a r i a n r e g i m e s h a d s u r v i v e d , they
g r a n t e d in a n u m b e r of i n s t a n c e s c o n s t i t u t i o n s w h i c h p r o v i d e d
government somewhat more liberal than before. It is p e r h a p s
s a f e to g e n e r a l i z e that in the long r u n the f o r c e s Of c o n s e r v a -
tism w e r e a f t e r 1 8 4 9 •f^Rhtji.Pg-**1 reax5~S~jfl bat if