Index

OCCASIONAL PAPER NO.
1'92
RECORDS OF THE
ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA
Indian Seashells
(part-I)
POLYPLACOPHORA AND GASTROPODA
N. V. SUBBA RAO
Zoological Survey ofIndia, M Block, New Alipore, Kolkata-700 053
Edited by the Director, Zoological Survey ofIndia, Kolkata
Zoological Survey of India

Kolkata
CITATION
SUBBA RAo, N. V. 2003. Indian Seashells (Part-I) : Polyplacophora and Gastropoda, Rec. zool. Surv.
India, Occ. Paper No. 192: i-x, 1-416. (Published: Director, Zoo I. Surv. India, Kolkata)
Published: January, 2003

ISBN 81-85874-72-7
© Government of India, 2003
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FOREWORD
Taxonomical study is the comer stone at the Zoological Survey of India. One of its primary
objectives is to survey, identify and prepare an inventory of faunal diversity in India. During this
pmcess it has built up strong capabilities in several groups. Mollusca is one such group. Since its
inception in 1916 the Survey has assiduously cultivated a rich tradition in the field of malacology.
Agenda 21 of Convention on,s iodiversity stresses the need for conservation of marine coastal
habitats. Marine biomes have become priority areas for conservation. Zoological Survey of India has
been focussing its attention on biodiversity and it is in the process of strengthening marine research
in the country. The large coastline and the vast Exclusive Economic Zone of India offer ideal habitats
for molluscs. They commonly occur in all the four major coral reef areas and rocky coasts of India.
Molluscs constitute about 30 percent of marine faunal diversity in India. There is a need to develop a
good taxonomic database on marine biodiversity. It isMen heard that lack ofreadily available literature
discourages a student to opt for Taxonomy. I am glad that ZSI is partly fulfilling one of its primary
objectives by publishing this book on Indian Seashells. A ready reference book like this, I hope,
would catalyze the study of molluscs in India.
Mollusa is too large a phylum to deal with in one single volume. The present volume, therefore, is
devoted to only two classes n~mely, Polyplacophora and Gastropoda. These together account for 20
percent of faunal species estimated to occur in the nlarine ecosystems of India. About 530 species
belonging to 80 families are dealt in this bookoj>.rhis is the first book of its kind on Indian molluscs.
The author of this book is a well-known malacologist with four decades of research background in
molluscs. He had already contributed a volume on Freshwater Molluscs of India. The present book
will go a long way in meeting the demand in India and abroad for an authentic taxonomic study on
marine molluscs of India. I hope and believe that this book, Indian Seashells 1. Polyplacophora and
Gastropoda, will serve as a valuable reference book for students of Indian universities and all those
interested in the study of molluscs.
Dr. J. R. B. Alfred
Director
PREFACE
The phylum Mollusca is very large consisting of thousands of species commonly known as shells.
This numerically abundant and common biota of seas around India has not received any special
treatment and no single comprehensive volume is available on marine molluscs of India. There are
however, a few publications on the regional molluscs, especially of southeast coast of India that deal
with only a few species. At the current I~vel of interest in marine biodiversity there is a need for a ready
reference book on Mollusca. This prompted the author to undertake the task of preparing a volume on
marine molluscs of India. Initially it was contemplated to deal with some common marine molluscs in a
single volume. Since the utility of such a book will be very much limited, it was subsequently planned
to include as many species as possible to help a serious~ worker in identifying his or her collections.
But as the ~ork progressed it was seen that it would not be possible to do justice for all classes of
Mollusca in a single volume. It was therefore decided to deal with two classes namely, Polyplacophora
(Chitons) and Gastropoda (Snails and Slugs) in this volume. There are several species reported from
India whose identity has to be con finned to make the list up to date. In many cases it became a time
consuming exercise, as there are no revisionary studies on Indian molluscs.
The first two chapters provide general background information on the phylum Mollusca su.ch as
classification, general organization, abundance, distribution, size and diversity. The values ofmoHuscan
diversity are explained bringing out their importance as 'objects of aesthetic, commercial, food and
biomedical nature and role in marine biodeterioration. The references at the end of the chapter would
provide additional infonnation and help in further research. Thus the format of the book has been so
devised ·to facilitate both a beginner and also a serious worker with some knowledge of Mollusca.
Chapter 3 deals with the Systematic Account of Polyplacophora and Gastropoda consisting of as
many as 530 species belonging to 80 families. Under each Class and Family and some subfamilies
important diagnostic characters are given. Each species is described giving salient sheH characters
and also illustrated so as to, facilitate easy identification. Based on the collections available and also
literature recQrds·, distribution of each species in India and elsewhere given. When a species is known
to occur at many localities only the name of state is mentioned. Wherever possible additional infonnation
on the status, habitat etc. of the species are indicated. At the end of some families a few important
references are cited.
Although all the references are not available to the author, a selected bibliography is given containing
references on marine molluscs of India and also revisionary works of Indo-Pacific molluscs which also
reflect the past and current level of interest in molluscs of India.
In accordance with the objective of this book to give a over-view of Indian sea shells, in addition
to common molluscs, a few of the families, which are less known from India, such as
Di-alidae,Pyr~midellidae, Turridae etc. are also dealt with. As far as possible names of several species
reported from India are up-dated. S'ome species are reported herein for the first time from India.
vi
The book of this nature has to base essentially on collections for descriptions and ilJustrations.
The rich National Zoological Collection were made available to me through the kind courtesy of
Director, Zoological Survey of India. I am obliged to Dr. J. R. B. Alfred, Director, Zoological Survey of
India for the facilities and encouragement. lowe special thanks to my colleagues in the Malacolgy
Division, Mr. K. V. Surya Rao, Scientist- SE (Retired), Mr. S. C. Mitra, Officer-in-charge of Mollusca
Section, Dr. A. Dey and Mr. S. Barua and other friends. My special thanks are due to the Ministry of
Environment and Forests, Government of India for the sanction of Emeritus Scientist Scheme under
which major part of this work was completed. My good friend Mr. Fred Pinn, London, who started as
an amateur shell collector and later turned into a serious malacologist, gave me some important
photographs. Prof. A. V. Raman, Department of Zoology. Andhra University readily gave me his
collections and photographs of molluscs from Visakhapatnam coast. Dr. D. R. K. Sastry, Ofticer-in-
charge, Andaman & Nicobar Regional Station, Zoological Survey of India, has assisted me in editing
the manuscript. lowe a deep sense of gratitude to all these and many other friends who helped me in
the preparation of this book.
In the preparation of this book lowe an intellectual debt to several malacologists from whose
publications I have drawn some general information. The publications by Dr. K. ok Boss, Dr. W. O.
Cernohorsky provided some useful data. Dr. R. N. Kilburn, Natal Museum, South Africa gave me
useful hints on the family Turridae, which is less known in India. I am very much obliged to them. They
are however, not responsible for lapses ir"any in the ·presentation of data.
My thanks are due to Dr. W.F.Ponder, Western Australian Museum, Sydney; Dr.A.R.Kabat, Museum
of Comparative Zoology, Harvard; Dr.R .. G.Moolenbeek, Amsterdam;Dr.AJ.i<ohn, University of
Washington for sparing me their valuable reprints: to Dr.K. V.Lakshminarayana (Now Retired),Southem
Regional.Station,Zoological Survey oflndia,Chennai, and Dr.K.Venkataraman, Andaman & Nicobar
Regional Station, Port Blair, now at Marine Biological Station, Chennai for their help and various
courtesies in the preparation of this book.
My special thanks are due to Mr. A.Simhachalam, who assisted me in making the manuscript and
plates press-ready, to Mr. Rathi Ram, Publication Production Officer and the press Ms. for neatly and
promptly executing the job of printing.
My special thanks are due to the following:
Prof. A. L. N. Sanna, Regional College of Education, Mysore for pert'litting me to reproduce the
figures of bivalve gastropods; Shri B. K. Halder, Kolkata for the black and white photographs; to Shri
Kalyan Dey, Kolkata for some coloured photographs; Prof. R. Kasinathan, Centre for Advanced
Study in Marine Biology for the photograph of Conlls figlliinus; Shri S. K. Roy and Shri Nikhil
Bhowmick, Kolkata for the line drawings; Shri A. Simhachalam, Port Blair for assisting me in making
the manuscript press-ready; Shri Rati Ram, Publication Production Officer, Zoological Survey of
India and to Shri Dipanjan Mondal of East India Photo Composing Centre for neatly executing the
job of printing.
N. V. SUBBA RAo
Zoological Survey ofIndia
Records of the
Occasional Paper
No. 192 2003 Pages 1-416
CONTENTS
FOREWORD 111
PREFACE v
I GENERAL INTRODUCTION
1.1 Classification 3
1.2. G-eneral Organization and Function 5
1.2.1 Molluscan Skin and Subdermal Tissues 6
1.2.2. Mantle and Shell 6
1.2.3. Digestive System 10
J.2.4. Circulatory System 12
1.2.5. Reproductive Systelu and Breeding 13
1.3. Abundance and Distribution J3
1.4. Size and Diversity 14
2. VALUES OF MOLLUSCAN DIVERSITY 20

2.1 Aesthetic Value 20
2.1 1 Geometrical Symmetry-Nautil us 21
2.1.2. Cones 22
2. I .3. Cowries 23
2.2. Commercial Value 24
2.2.1. Raw Material for Shell Craft 24
2.2.2. Source of Calcium and Litne 32
2.2.3. Pearls 34
2.3. Shellfish of Gastronomic Value 39
2.4. Biomedical Value 40
2.5. Marine Biodeterioration 42
viii
3. SYSTEMATIC ACCOUNT 46
3. 1. Class POLVPLACOPHORA 46
Order NEOLORICATA
Suborder ISCHNOCHITONINA
Family Chitonidae 50
Family Ischnochitonidae 55
Suborder ACANTHOCHITONINA
Family Acanthochitonidae 56
Family Mopaliidae 57
3.2. Class GASTROPODA 60
Subclass PROSOBRANCHIA
Order ARCHAEOGASTROPODA
Famiiy Haliotidae 61
Family Fissurellidae 64
Family Acmaeidae 69
Family Lottiidae 70
Family Patellidae 71
Family Trochidae 74
Family Stomatellidae 92
Family Cyclostrematidae 94
Family Turbinidae 95
Family Phasianellidae 102
Family Tricoliidae 103
Family Neritidae 104
Family PhenacolepadidCJe 117
Order MESOGASTROPODA
Family Littorinidae 118
Family Planaxidae 122
Family Modulidae 124
Family Cerithiidae 125
Family Dialidae 134
Family Potamididae 135
Family Fossariidae 139
Family Turritellidae 140
Family Siliquariidae
142
Family Vennetidae
144
it
Family Strombidae 145

Family Hipponicidae 154
Family Vanikoridae 156
Family Crepidulidae 158
Family Capulidae 160
Family Xenophoridae 161
Family Cypraeidae 164
Family Triviidae 176
Family Ovulidae 178
Family Lamellariidae 182
Family AtJantidae 183
Family Naticidae 184
Family Tonnidae 194
Family Ficidae 198
Family Cassidae 201
Family Ranellidae 205
Family Bursidae 212
Family Epitoniidae 216
Family lanthinidae 220
Order NEOGASTROPODA
Family Muricidae 223
Family Corall iophil idae 248
Family Buccinidae 251
Family Columbe1lidae 260
Family Nassariidae 264
Family Melongenidae 273
Family Fasciolariidae 276
Family Volutidae 283
Family Vasidae 285
Family Olividae 290
Family Marginellidae 295
Family Harpidae 298
Family Mitridae 300
Family Cancellariidae 309
Family Conidae 311
Family Turridae 324
Family Terebridae 335
x
Subclass HETEROBRANCHIA 340

Superorder ALLOGASTROPODA
Family Architectonicidae 340
Family Pyramidell idae 343
Family Amathinidae 346
Subclass OPISTHOBRANCHIA
Order CEPHALASPJDEA
Family RingicuJidae 347
Family Hydatinidae 349
Family Scaphandridae 350
Family Philinidae 351
Family Bullidae 352
Fami Iy Hamineidae 353
Family Retusidae 356
Order SACOGLOSSA
Family Juliidae 357
Order APLYSIOMORPHA
Family Aplysiidae 361
Order NOTASPJDEA
Family Umbraculidae 365
OrderTHECOSOMATA
Family Cavoliniidae 366
Subclass PULMONATA
Order ARCHAEOPULMONATA
Family Ellobiidae 369
Order BASOMMATOPHORA
Family Siphonariidae 372
Family Amphibolidae 374
Order SYSTELLOMMATOPHORA
Family Onchidiidae 375
4. SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
378
5. GLOSSARY
387
6. TAXONOMIC INDEX
394
7. ADDENDUM
415
1. GENERAL INTRODUCTION
The phylum Mol1usca cannot be easily defined or comprehended on the basis of a single
character, since there is no such easily observable character that finds expression in all the
molluscs. The phylum includes an apparently heterogeneous assemblage of organisms (Fig. 1).
An oyster looks strikingly different in structure from a squid or from a snail or slug. But all
the molluscs are built on a basic organisational plan. A mollusc has to be recognised on the
basis of a combination of traits or characters. Majority of the molluscs can be recognised by
the shell.
The phylogeny of Mollusca has been a subject of controversy. Molluscs have been
considered as derived from Platyhelminthes (Morton and Yonge 1963). Lemche (1961)
considered MoJlusca as a rather primitive group to be placed immediately above the Coelenterata
(= Cnidaria). From moJ1uscan-like ancestors Annelida and Arthropoda have evolved
independently. According to Russell-Hunter (1968), Mollusca were directly derived from
Turbellaria-like animal and had no connection with stock or stocks that gave to the annelid-
arthropod phyla.
Comparative anatomical and embryological evidences suggest phylogenetic interrelationships
among flatworms, molluscs, annelids and arthropods. Fossil record draws a blank as far as their
interrelationships are concerned. Soft-bodied flat worms did not occur in the fossil state. Annelids
were represented by a few fossils in the Precambrian period, during which no fossils of other
groups were represented. The major classes of molluscs were already distinct by the Caqtbrian
period, when the molluscan fossils were known. It is therefore inferre,d that the ancestral mollusc
might had occurred in Precambrian period. This led some malacologists to conceptualize artificial
and ancestral molluscan model or archetype. Each of the several molluscan traits as we know
them to-day are combined into this archetype. The reconstruction of molluscan evolution and
phylogeny has been an intellectual exercise.
Of all the invertebrate phyla, there is a striking similarity between Annelida and Mollusca.
Both exhibit spiral cleavage and identical trochophore larvae. The discovery of a living
monoplacophoran, Neopilina, in 1952, added further points in support of annelid mollusc
relationship. Neopilina displays an apparent metameric plan of structure in the replication of its
parts. This prompted some to propose that mollusc arose from annelids.
Many zoologists are of the opinion that annelids and molluscs arose from a free-living flat
worm-nemertine stock (Vagvolgyi, 1967; Harry, 1969; Stasek, 1972). Their ancestor, which
might have looked like a smaIJ, ciliated vermiform organism had a through gut, a trochophore-
like larva and pseudometamerism. The last mentioned character had got regularized in annelids,
which developed more harmonious metamerism as an adaptation to the burrowing habit.
REC. ZOOL. SURV. INDIA. OCC. PAPER No. 192
2
o 7
Fig. t. Representatives of different classes of Mollusca.

I. Chnctodcrmll, 2 & 3. Neomcnin-Aplncophoro, 4. Ncopilinia-Monoplacophora, S. Chiton-Polyplacopho~
6. Gnstrodod8, Pro Proboscis, F. Foot, 7. Dcntalium, A. Anterior, P. Posterior, V. Ventral, D. Drosal-Scaphopoda,
8. Bivalve, F. Foot, S. Siphon, 9. Squid, 10. Octopus-Cephalopoda.
SUBBA RAO : INDIAN SEA SHELLS: POL YPLACOPHORA AND GASTROPODA 3
The molluscs, however, exhibit pseudometamerism in som~ primitive forms, e.g. mono-
placophorans and chitons but abandoned this tendency to metamerism in other classes. The two
groups diverged from the common ancestor prior to the pronouncement of either molluscan or
annelidan characters. Just as in the Turbellaria, molluscan foot exhibits backwardly directed
waves during its locomotion. It is suggested that this rhythmic contraction of the flatworm
became confined to the ventral surface of a mollusc and the dorsal parts became visceralised
covered by a mantle and shell.
The theory proposed by Lang in as early as 1896, and developed recently by Stasek (1972)
unfolds the molluscan framework in four stages; ancestral form, transitional turbellariform stage,
transitional molluscan stage, and advanced molluscan stage.
The ancestral form was an inhabitant of the Precambrian period. It crawled about on the
rocks or other hard substrate of oceans. It had a complete gut and had the ability to secrete
abundant mucus, which acted as a protective cover and also as a smooth locomotory track.
In the transitional turbellariform stage, a radula and cuticle had developed. Once the skin
got thickened with cuticle a ciliary respiratory mechanism had been innovated. To supply blood,
a haemocoel consisting of sinuses and a dorsal heart with pericardium had come into being, the
last one by modification and enlargement of the gonoducts.
The transitional molluscan stage had gills contained in an incipient mantle cavity underlying
the edges of the mantle. In the advanced Inolluscan stage, the shell in the form of a calcified
cuticle has developed dorsally; gills became pedal retractors.
Thus according to Stasek (1972) secretion of a cuticle over the dorsal body surface together
with an increase in size had brought in its evolution the broad distinguishing features of the
phyluln Mollusca.
t. t Classification
Linnaeus (1758) adopted the name, Mollusca, a term which was in fact proposed by Johnston
(1650), but without developing any real concept of the phylum. Cuvier (1795) had shown better
understanding of the group, and his concept 'approximates to modern ideas' (see Hyman, 1967
for full references). In the beginning several other groups such as barnacles, brachiopods and
other shelled forms were classified together with the molluscs.
Pelseneer (1906) classified phylum Mollusca into five classes, namely Amphineura,
Gastropoda, Scaphopoda, Lamel1ibranchia (Pelecypoda) and Cephalopoda. The present day
classification is only a slight deviation and it had further split the class Amphineura.
Naef (1926) divided Mol1usca into two subphyla, namely Amphineura and Conchifera, the
former including Aplacophora and Polyplacophora and the latter all the other classes. At present
three subphyla namely Aculifera, Placophora and Conchifera are recognised. Although there is
some consensus with regards to subphyletic division there is still a difference of opinion on the
4 REC. ZOOL. SURV. INDIA, OCC. PAPER No. 192
status of some classes and their division into orders. Salvini.. Plawen (1969), who contributed
much to the knowledge on primitive molluscs, treated Solenogastres (=Neomeniamorpha)
and Caudofoveata (=Chaetodermamorpha) as two distinct classes since the two have
evolved independently. But Scheltema (1978) and Ivanov (1981) are in favour of giving these
two the status of subclasses under the class Aplacophora, as they had closely linked origin
and the variation seen in their body plan is not sufficient enough to elevate them to the level
of classes.
Based on the respiratory organs Milne Edwards (1848) divided the class Gastropoda into
Prosobranchia, Opisthobranchia and Pulmonata that have been accepted traditionally. The one
that was proposed by SpengeJ (1881) stressed the importance of the nervous system. He divided
Gastropoda into Streptoneura and Euthyneura, which has been discontinued now. The
euthyneurous condition of the nervous system has been attained in different ways in
opisthobranchs and pulmonates. In the former it has been due to detorsion and in the latter it is
the result of concentration of the anterior loop of the figure 8 into the head region. This single
ring that innervated the visceral mass is in effect the posterior loop of the figure 8. Hence many
malacologists have not favoured the division based on nervous system. Recently Bieler (1992)
made an excellent review of the gastropod phylogeny and concluded 'any attempt to present the
classification of Gastropoda at this point would be premature'
The t\VO classes Scaphopoda and Cephalopoda are not subjected to many changes. Three
names namely, Bivalvia, Lamellibranchia and Pelecypoda have been used for the other major
class of Mollusca. The term Bivalvia was first used by Linnaeus in the 13 th edition of Syslema
Na/urae. It was later adopted by Hass (1929) and accepted by Newell () 969). The old term
Lamellibranchia is now used to designate a subclass.
According to many malacologists Mollusca is divided into two subphyJa, Aculifera and
Conchifera, the former is primitive and includes Polyplacophora and Aplacophora. They have
diverged much earJier in the molluscan evolution. nle Conchifera includes Gastropoda, Bivalvia,
Scaphopoda and Cephalopoda and have probably arisen from Monoplacophora (Runnegar and
Pojeta, 1974; Yochelson, 1978).
Stasek () 972) proposed three separate lines of evolution within the phylum and distinguished
three subphyla. One line i.e. Aculifera included Aplacophora, which is closest to the stem group
and gave rise to Solenogastres and Caudofoveata. The second line includes Placophora
represented by a single class Polyplacophora. It has all the salient features of the molluscan
framework. The third line is that of Conchifera which includes three successful stocks of the
phyluln, namely the Gastropoda, Bivalvia and Cephalopoda. Of the other two classes, only
Scaphopoda shows saIne signs of advancement while Monoplacophora is considered to be
nearer to the origin of this line.
Following Seed (1983), the classification of phylulTI Mollusca is given below:

Phylum MOLLUSCA Cuvier, 1795
Subphylum ACULIFERA Hatschek, 1891

Class 1. APLACOPHORA von Jhering, 1876
Subphylum PLACOPHORA von Jhering, 1876

Class 2. POLYPLACOPHORA de Blainville, 1816
Subphylum CONCHIFERA Gegenbaur, 1878
Class 3. MONOPLACOPHORA Wenz, 1940
Class 4. GASTROPODA Cuvier, 1795
Class 5. BIVALVIA Linnaeus, 1758
Class 6. SCAPHOPODA Bronn, 1862
Class 7. CEPHALOPODA Cuvier, 1795
The relationship of classes within the phylum Mollusca is a subject of divergent opinions.
Based on the embryology and evolution of shell the Cephalopoda were considered by some to
have evolved independently from Coelenterata. Bivalves, scaphopods and gastropods have
retained tetracyclomeric symmetry as in cephalopods. But it does not seem possible to derive
bivalves from gastropods or vice versa (Lemche, 1961).
Scaphopods and bivalves have some similarity in their shells and also in not possessing a
distinct head (Seed, 1983). In the early gastropods there was a planospiral shell, which was also
found in primitive cephalopods. Both the groups have a distinct and well-developed head. From
the parasitological point of view or rather from a 'flukes' eye view, Wright (1971) suggests
close relationship among Gastropoda, Scaphopoda and Bivalvia and separates Cephalopoda
from these.
According to Harry (1969) a prochiton stock gave rise to the Polyplacophora, which in. true
were ancestors to the Aplacophora. All other molluscs arose through a separate line, the
Proconchifera. MonopJacophora is the earliest derivative of this branch. Proconchifera further
gave rise to a group called Mesoconchifera, which in its turn gave rise to Probivalvia and
Metaconchifera. The former gave rise to Bivalvia and Scaphopoda, and from the latter arose
separately Gastropoda and Cephalopoda. The last mentioned two classes only have nledian
dorsal mantle cavity. It is believed that the character has been derived from a remote promollusc.
1.2 General Organisation and Function

A mollusc has a soft unsegmented body with a slender slippery skin protected usually by a
calcareous shell of different shapes and colours. The molluscan body is divisible into head,
foot, and a dorsal hump-like visceral region covered by a shield-like nlantle. The head and foot
6 REC. ZOOL. SURV. INDIA, acc. PAPER No. 192
are so combined that together it is known as head-foot region. Majority of the species can be
identified on the basis of shell characters. But this typical shell may be absent in many forms.
The shell which usually is external may be univalve (gastropods and scaphopods) or with two
valves (bivalves) or eight valves or plates (chitons). In some gastropods and cephalopods
excepting Nautiloidea, the shell is interna1. General form and functions of the molluscan body
are given below.
1.2.1 Molluscan Skin and Subdermal Tissues: The skin is composed of epithelium, which
harbours ciliated columnar cells and goblet cells. The distribution and shape of the epithelial
cells vary depending on the region of the body.
Dennal secretions, which consist of mucus, are important physiological phenomena of the
mollusc. The nature of these secretions that are secreted by the goblet cells is dependent on the
part of the body from where these originate. The secretions of body surface and mantle contain
fluorescent substances, which are absent in the foot-sole mucus of pulmonates. The mucus
secreting cells whose secretions act as repellents and protect the mollusc are abundant in the
foot-sole region of gastropods. The periphery of foot and mantle contain glandular cells whose
secretions act as repellants and protect the mollusc predators or pathogens such as miracidia,
especially in the freshwater.
1.2.2 Mantle and Shell : These are the two important structures that distinguish Mollusca
from all other phyla. The major function of mantle is to secrete a protective shell. The mantle
encloses a cavity. known as mantle cavity. which is primarily a respiratory chamber. Within the
mantle cavity are situated the ctenidium, osphradium, and the hypobranchial or mucus gland.
Excreta from the anus or renal opening are dischnrged into it. It also houses the female genital
organ. The mantle cavity thus serves for respiration, excretion, defecation and reproduction.
In terrestrial molluscs (pulmonates and some prosobranchs) the gills are absent and the
mantle cavity with a rich supply of blood vessels serves as a lung. The mantle cavity is lined
with ciliated epidermal cells that create currents by their movements. These ciliary currents
assist in the oxygenation of water reaching ctenidia and in the removal of waste products. In
sedentary gastropods and bivalves, collection of food is done through ciliary filter feeding
mechanism.
The mantle edge bears three folds, namely the outer, middle and inner. The outer fold is
involved in the secretion of the shell. The inner surface of the outer fold secretes the periostracum,
whereas its outer surface secretes the outer calcareous layer. The inner calcareous layer is secreted
by the entire mantle surface.
The shell is an important character of a mollusk and useful in the identification of species. It
is thick or thin, heavy or light, opaque or translucent, usually colourful and ornamented with
different types of sculpture. The sculpture may consist of spines, scales, varices, ridges, ribs,
grooves, pits or threads.
3
2 4
1
6
5 7
9 11 12
10
Fig. 2. Some shell shapes in gastropods.

I. Haliotid shape; 2. Patelliform or limpet like; 3. Trochiform: 4. Conic-biconical; 5. Conic-obconic;
6. Sphaerical; 7. Turbiniform; 8. Turreted; 9. Solute-uncoiled shell; 10. Fusiform; II. Cypraeoid and
12. l3ulloid.
8 REC. ZOOL. SURV. INDIA, ace. PAPER No. 192
The shell has many conceivable shapes, spherical, cone, limpet-like, turretiform, turbiniform
bulloid etc (Fig. 2). A shell may have successive turns, \vhich are called whorls. The largest or
the last formed is the body whorl. All other whorls together constitute the spire. The top of the
spire is the apex and consists of a few nuclear whorls. The number of whorls may vary from a
few as in neretids to tnany as in Terebra and may decrease gradually or abruptly. Periphery of
the whorl may be rounded, angular or keeled. The line where one whorl meets with the other is
the suture, which may be indistinct, sha1l0w or deep.
In many molluscs the shell possesses a covering known as periostracum, which often peels
offwhen dried exposing the colour pattern of the shel1. In some Inolluscs such as olives, cowries,
naticids the shell does not have a periostracum and when alive the shell is covered by the mantle
folds.
Two types of spiral coil ing are seen in gastropod molluscs. When a shell is held in hand with
the apex pointing above the aperture facing the observer will be on the right hand side in a
dextral form, and it will be on the left in a sinistral form. The latter are of rare occurrence in
Indian gastropods.
The opening at the anterior end of the body whorl is the aperture. It has an inner lip and an
outer lip farthest from the imaginary ~is of the shell. Sometimes the columella bears a deposit
known as columellar callus. The central axis of the shell opens through a small depression, or
opening near the columella. It is known as the umbilicus and shell with an umbilicus is described
as perforate and without it is ilnperforate. In some, the aperture Inay have a small canal at the
posterior end and a broad canal at the anterior end. The former is known as posterior or anal
canal and the latter anterior siphonal or siphonal canal.
Gastropods are broadly classified as operculates and non-operculates based on the
presence or absence of operculum respectively. In the majority of prosobranchs operculum
is present, attached to the foot. The operculum may be corneous or calcareous. On the inner
surface in some, it has peg-like projection known as apophysis for firmly inserting into the
muscle. The outer surface has a few increasing whorls and varies from smooth to granular.
It is useful as an additional character in the taxonomic identification of certain families,
genera and species (fig.3). Based on the nature of \vhorls it is described as paucispiral or
multispiral.
The molluscan shell consists of three layers, namely an outer most organic and uncalcified
structure known as periostracum, a Iniddle calcareous layer and the innermost nacreous or mother-
of pearl layer. The periostracum is cOlnposed of a number of layers, which are more in freshwater
gastropods than in the Inarine species. The second layer is the main structure of the shell and it
is usually composed of calciuln carbonate crystals. The innermost nacreous layer, found in
several falnilies of molluscs. is unique to this group. The calcareous layer may consist of entirely
aragonite or calcite crystals. These crystals are like bricks, which are united by the conchiolin
3
1 2
7 8
5 6
4
10
Fig. 3. Types of opercula.

I. Multispiral with a central nucleus~ 2. Paucispiral with subccntral nucleus: J. Coralliophila with marginal nudcus~
4. with apical nuclells~ 5. Geniculate type: Fascioloria 6. Strombus lentigenous: 7. '\trnn1bus gibberullls~ 8. Strombus listcri;
9. Nerita-outcr and inner views. ap : apophysis and) O. Chicoreus. l11uricid-outcr and inner views.
10 REC. ZOOL. SURV. INDIA. oee. PAPER No .• 192
matrices, which correspond to concrete. The organic components ofnacreolls conchiolin consist
of a linear network of extrenlely thin inter-lamellar sheets held together by transverse bridges.
The nacreous conchiolin Inatrices vary in their structures in different groups. These structural
patterns were statistically characteristic at the level of class.
Hitherto molluscan shell is considered to consist of three layers as mentioned above, but
recently a calcareolls layer (nlosaicostraculn) was discovered bet\veen the periostracum and
outer calcareous layer. Ultra structure of the mosaicostracum is a potential tool for specific
identification and for the study of evolution.
1.2.3 Digestive system: The digestive systcln converts food into a physical and chemical
state suitable for proper absorption and utilisation by the numerous cells of the body. It includes
the Inouth, buccal cavity. oesophagus. stolllach, digestive gland and intestine. Externally the
Inouth is surrounded by horny 'lips' and ·jaw' in gastropods. a pair of fleshy palps in bivalves,
and hard nlandibles in cephalopods.
The buccal cavity contains hvo inlportant structures. odontophore and radula. The latter is a
ribbon-like structure bearing a number of teeth. It scrapes the food from the substratum or cuts
down solid objects into finer particles to facilitate their easy handling by the system. The radula
is Inoved by the Inllscles of the buccallnass, which are supplied with haemoglobin. It is present
in all molluscs except in Bivalvia. Typically, a radula consists of several transverse ro\vs of
teeth arranged in a longitudinal series. Each ro\v consists ofa central tooth also called rachidian,
flanked on either side by laterals" and marginals. )n the pimitive gastropods there are numerous
marginals. Primitive gastropods have rhipidoglossate radula with one central tooth, five laterals
and nun1erous Inarginals. In majority of prosobranchs the radula is taenioglossate with one
central, one lateral and hvo. three or no 111arginals. Highly specialized neogastropods possess a
stenoglossatc radula with one central and one lateral on either side. The number, shape, size and
position of the teeth and CllSpS on different teeth are important characters for identification of
genera and species. Depending on the food habit of the snail the radular teeth are Inodified. The
following are different types of radula (Fig. 4) fOllnd in gastropods:
Rhipidoglossatc (L-5-1-5-L). one central or rachidian, five laterals and numerous marginals
on either side. Found in lnost of the archaeogastropod families, like Haliotidae, Neritidae ( L-4-
1-4 .. L), Trochidac. Turbinidae etc.
Docoglossatc (3-1-4-1-3) or (2-0-1-0-2) Multiple central, one lateral and three marginals.
Patellidae. Lepetidae (2-0-1-0-2), AClllaeidae (2-1-0-) -2).
Tacnioglossatc (2 .. 1- J.. 1.. 2). One Central, with one lateral and two nlarginals on either side.
Alnlost all the Mcsogastropod HlInilies t Littorinidae, Potamididae, Cypraeidae, Tonnidae, Ficidae,
Cymatiidae. Bursidae etc.
SllBBA RAO : INDIAN SEA SHELLS: POL YPLACOPIIORA AND GASTROPODA II
~~~~~~~~W f~ff~~f~fff(J
c
o
E
F
~ " .
Fig. 4. Di ftcrcnt types of Radula.

A. Docoglossate, B. Tacnioglossatc. C. Ptcnoglossate. O. Rachiglossatc. F. lo:\oglossall.:. F. ro:\oglossatL'-
rVluricid. G. Toxoglossate-Conidae.
Modified taenioglossate with the formula 0-2-1-2-0 occurs in Architectonicidae.

Ptcnoglossate: No central, lateral and marginals not distinguishable. Epitoniidae, Janthinidae.
Stenoglossatc: (I -1-1 ). One central and a lateral on either side. Majority of the Neogastropod
falnilies Muricidae, Buccinidae, Melongenidae, Olividae, Harpidae etc. In Columbellidae, Central
teeth may be absent (1-0-)), in Marginellidae and Cancellariidae only central present (0-1-0)
Rachiglossatc has the saIne formula as stenoglossate (1-1-1) but the latera) elongate bearing
nUlnerous denticles.
Toxoglossate (1-0-1). Central absent or sometimes present, marginal teeth modified and
harpoonlike. Conidae, Turridae and Terebridae
There is a pair of salivary glands opening into the dorsal surface of the buccal cavity. The
secretions from the salivary glands serve as lubricants for the radula in its movement. The
muclis secretions from these glands contain proteolytic enzymes and amylases. The mucus
entangles the food particles, which form into strings. These strings of food pass froln the buccal
cavity into a tubular oesophagus, from \vhere they Inove into the stomach.
The stomach is an important and complex organ in the digestive systeln of a mollusc. It is
the site of extracellular digestion and into this open the digestive gland and intestine. The stomach
consists of a style sac, which secretes a rod-like structure known as style. This crystalline style
is present in some gastropods and bivalves. The style rubs against the thickened gastric shield
of the stolnach and breaks down in bits releasing various enzymes into the stomach. These
include alnylases. some times glycogenases and oxidases. In many herbivorous gastropods,
especially basommatophoran snails. the anterior part of the stomach is modi lied as crop or
gizzard and contains sand grains to assist in the grinding of food particles.
The digestive gland fonns a major part of the anilllal. It receives food particles from the
stomach. The digestion in the gland Inay be either intra or extracellular or a combination of
both. Extracellular digestion is highly developed in the carnivorous prosobranchs. Undigested
food passes from the digestive gland back into the stomach and thence into the intestine. In
Inolluscs the intestine has no l11ajor absorptive function. It helps in rolling the faecal matter into
pellets of chains.
1.2.4 Circulatory System: The vascular system may be open as in majority of Inolluscs or
closed as in cephalopods. The closed systeln has capillaries connecting the arterial and venous
systclns. \\'hereas open SystClll has sinuses to transport blood.
Prirnitive gastropods have retained two auricles and the circulatory plan of the ancestral
111011 usc. In all other gastropods the right auricle is either vestigial or totally absent. Bivalves
have hyo auricles enclosing a nledian ventricle. Gastropods also possess an auricle and a single
ventricle. After vertebrates, Cephalopoda is the only class to possess a fully enclosed high-
pressure blood SYStClll, consisting of well-established arterial and venous systems. The blood is
carried to all parts of the body by a single aorta, arising from the ventricle, dividing into an
anterior and posterior artery. In many gastropods and bivalves there are two aortae nalnely
posterior and anterior, the former supplying the visceral mass and the latter head and foot.
1.2.5 Reproductive System and Breeding: The sexes are separate in al1 the three minor
classes, also in Scaphopoda, Cephalopoda, in majority of the bivalves, and in higher prosobranch
gastropods. Only in certain gastropods and bivalves one species may be dioecious while its
related species may be hennaphroditic. Archaeogastropods, atnong prosobranchs and
opisthobranchs are protandric hermaphrodites, while pulmonates are simultaneous
hermaphrodites. A few freshwater prosobranchs, i.e. thiarids are parthenogenic.
In many hermaphroditic species, Inainly in the opisthobranch and pulmonate gastropods
and in the bivalves, the change of sex is a general rule. Hermaphroditism is supposed to have
arisen due to influence of ecological factors, and species that encounter difficulties for their
reproductive activity, such as land molluscs, have developed hermaphroditism. In hermaphrodites
the male and female galnetes are produced either in-separate follicles or from different areas of
the saine follicle. There is a comlnon hermaphroditic duct, which divides into a separate spenn
duct, and an oviduct for discharging out the male and felnale gametes respectively.
In the primitive archaeogastropods the gametes pass from the gonad through the genital duct
into the right nephridium and finally into the mantle cavity. The genital duct consists of two
parts, the gonoduct proper and the right nephridium. The fertilization is external and there is no
need for copulatory organ. In all the other gastropods the right nephridium has degenerated
leaving only fhe part that function as a gonoduct. It consists of the nephridial part of the gonoduct,
the gonoduct proper and the pallial duct. The pallial pal1 of the gonoduct is Inodified to store
sperm and to secrete the egg Inembrane. A copulatory organ had developed to transfer the
sperm into the female. The pulmonates and opisthobranchs have cOlnplex reproductive systelns,
which exhibit a number of variations. In these hvo subclasses details of reproductive system,
including the structure of penis, are important in the systematics.
Many of the molluscs lay eggs and sOlne like cowries even tend them after laying. Eggs
hatch and release free-swimming larvae that can survive for long periods and swim long distances.
Two types of larvae are seen in gastropod development, namely trochophore in pritnitive
gastropods and veliger in others. A free-swimming larva is absent in some Inarine prosobranchs~
slIch as neogastropods and in almost all pulmonates, where a tiny snail emerges out of the egg
at the time of hatching.
1.3. Abundance and Distribution

Estimates of the number oftnolluscan species vary between 80,000 and 1,00,000. This figure
is purely provisional as taxonomy of many families of molluscs is still in a confused state. It is
\vell known that there are 'Iumpers' and 'splitters' alnong taxonolnists and depending on their
14 REC. ZOOL. SURV. INDIA, DCC. PAPER No. 192
approach the nlllnbers of species may decrease or increase as the case may be. Some times
revisionary studies of families may also bring down the number of species in the changed
species concept. For exalnple in a recent revision of a freshwater family Lymnaeidae by
I-Iubendick the number of species have been reduced from 1000 to 40.
Estilnates of species vary from 35,000 (Boss, 1982) to 100,000 (Goetting, 1974) in gastropods,
15,000 (or 20,000) of bivalves, 600 cephalopods, 300 scaphopods and 635 species of other
classes (Polyplacophora 500, Aplacophora 130 and Monoplacophora 5). Although molluscs
occur in all possible habitats excepting aerial, these are abundant in the marine environment,
which account for Illore than half of the known species. Of the seven recognised classes five,
nanlely Aplacophora, Polyplacophora, Monoplacophora, Scaphopoda and Cephalopoda are
exclusively marine. The two large classes viz. Gastropoda and Bivalvia are the most successful
in adapting to different marine and freshwater habitats and include 94 per cent of the species of
molluscs. The former has successfully colonised terrestrial habitats, whereas the latter could not
overcome their filter feeding habit and hence had not been able to invade land.
Molluscs constitute an impol1ant component of marine biodiversity of India on the East and
West Coasts and the islands of Lakshadweep and Andaman and Nicobar. Some important
localities frolll where sampling was made are shown in Fig. 5. Five major classes, namely
Polyplacophora. Gastropoda" Scaphopoda, Bivalvia and Cephalopoda are represented in India.
Against a total of about 586 falnilies in the \\'orld, an estiJnated 279 families occur in the Indian
region (Subba Rao, 1998). These include 5042 species in all of which 3271 are Inarine, 1487
are land and 284 are freshwater. The estitnates of land and freshwater species are based on the
actual data, since these have been systelnatically \vell worked out. But the same cannot be said
about the Inarine molluscs of \vhich our knowledge is far from satisfactory.
Molluscs are found in various habitats (Fig. 6) froln the deep sea (3600 m) off Andaman and
Nicobar Islands to higher elevations (about 5000 In) in the Himalaya Mountains. But these are
found in abundance in the rocky intertidal zone along nlainland coast and in the coral reef
ccosystenl ofGulfofMannar. GulfofKachchh. And8lnan and Nicobar Islands and Lakshadweep.
In comparison. sandy coasts support less molluscan fauna that include mostly burrowing and
interstitial fOflns.
Marine nlolluscs are nurnerically abundant as individuals and as species. Majority of the
kno\vn species arc frolll the littoral region and search in the offshore and deep waters Inay
re\vard one with ne\v records and new species.
1.4. Size and Diversity

World size records of shelled molluscs are available in Wagner and Abbott's Standard Catalog
of Shells. As far as the Indian l110lluscs are concerned no authentic records are maintained on
the slllallest or largest shell of India. However, based on the National Zoological Collections in
the Zoological Survey of India an idea of size range anlong Indian fauna is given. Excluding the
Gutf
at Kachchh
Sunderbans
Mahanadi Estuary
Bhubaneswar
Chilka Lake
Mumbai
Visakhapatnam
~
o
r
~
Panaji o
""
r
:>
(J
o
Mangalore
""::r::o
it'
Pulicat lake
Bay of Bengal
»
:>
z
o
lit ••
~, Cl
0-" • >-
en
o • -i
:::t'
Kavaratti o
c ""0
o
"'
E
CO
• o
»
\J
.,.... . ~ Great Nicobar
Fig. 5. Map of India showing important coastal localities.

1. Coral Reefs
Predators, herbivores, infauna; bioeroders, epifauna. Commercially exploitable

resources. High species diversity. Coralliophilidae, Drupel/a, Lithophaga, Cypraea,
Conus, Drupa, Barbatia, Septifer, Spondylus, Trapezium, Tridacna etc
2. Mangroves
Predators, herbivores, infauna; bioeroders, epifauna. Commercially exploitable

resources. Species diversity moderate and populations abundant. Littorina,
Littoraria, Cerithiidae, Putamididae, Crassestrea, Teredo, Bankia etc.
3. Seagrass Beds
On plants, on substratum or attached to coral boulders. Only a few species; about

15 to 20 gastropods and bivalves. Cypraea, Conus, Cerithium, Tellinidae,
Veneridae, Lucinidae etc
4. Tidal Flats and Muddy Shores
Burrowers and epifauna on substratum. Only a few species; mainly bivalves,

Gastropods represented by carnivores, Nassarius, Pugilina etc.
5. Sandy Shores
Infauna, intertidal : A few species. Meiofauna represented by 5 species.

Macrofauna mostly bivalves with abundant populations: Donax, Tel/ina etc.,
Gastropods : Oliva, Bullia, Babylonia, Terebra etc.
6. Rocky Shores
Cryptic, epifauna, mostly herbivore gastropods : Littorina, Littoraria, Cel/ana,

Diodora, Purpura etc., chitons and a few byssate bivalves. Infauna consists of
two species of bivalves.
Fig. 6. Coastal Ecosystems and Habitats of Molluscs.

SUBBA RAO : INDIAN SEA SHELLS: POL YPLACOPHORA AND GASTROPODA ]7
meiofauna, smallest specimens are from the marine genus Cyclostrema and the freshwater g~nus
Gyraulus, which measure 0.75 mm and 4.0 mm respectively. Charonia triton is , measuring 35
cm and collected from Nicobars is the largest Indian gastropod. The world size record for the
same species, collected from Pacific, is 48.26 cm. Among bivalves the smallest size specimens
are found in the freshwater genus Pisidium in which P. annandalei measures 3 mm. The largest
bivalve in the National Zoological Collection is Tridacna maxima measuring about 37 cm
occurring in the littoral zone of Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Specimens of T. maxima
measuring around 100 cm occur in the Kamorta Island (where these sheHs are used as containers
by the nicobarese for feeding their pigs). The largest clamshell, Tridacna gigas measuring
136.87 cm and weighing 230 kg was collected off Sumatra. Architeuthis (Gk. Chief squid), the
giant squid is believed to be world's largest invertebrate and grows to a length of21 to 24 m. It
has very large eyes of the size of a dinner plate. Recently the New Zealanders caught two
females (7 m and 4 m long) and a male (6 m long) at a depth of about I DOOm in the Chatham
Rise in the South Pacific Ocean.
Not only in size but also in shel1 shape, sculpture and colouration molluscs exhibit significant
diversity. It is more pronounced in marine molluscs, which display flamboyance in colour and
in form within and between species. In comparison, freshwater and land mollusks are Jess
colourful.
Diversity is also evident in mollusc feeding habits. There are herbivores, carnivores,
scavengers and deposit feeders, suspension feeders, commensals and parasites. The only
carnivorous land snail of India, Gulella (Huttonella) hieolor has been reported to feed on garden
snaiL All the freshwater forms are either herbivores or suspension feeders. It is the marine
molluscs, which occupy diverse habitats and exhibit diverse feeding habits.
REFERENCES
Bieler, R. 1992. Gastropod Phylogeny and S:;stematics. Ann. Rev. Ecol. Sysl., 23: 311-338.
Boss, K. J. 1982. Mollusca. In : Synopsis and classification ofliving organisnls (Sybil P. Parker
ed.). p. 945-1155. McGraw Hill Book Co.
Goetting, K. J. 1974. Malakozoologie: Grundriss der Weichtierkunde. 320 pp. Stuttgart.
Harry, H. W. 1969. An alternate view of the phylogeny of the MoJlusca. Proc. SYJ11p. Mollusca.
1: 170-187. Marine Biological Association of India, Cochin.
Hyman, L. H. 1967. The Invertebrates Volume VI Mollusca 1 792 pp. McGraw-Hill Book
Company.
Ivanov, D. L. 1981. Caudofoveatus tetradens as a generic and specific term, and the diagnosis
of taxa in the subclass Caudofoveata (Mollusca, Aplacophora). Zool. Journal, 60: 18-28.
Lemche, H. 1959. Molluscan phylogeny in the light of Neopilina. Proc. 15 th Int. Congo Zool.
pp. London.
Lemche, H. 1961. The place of Mollusca among invertebrates. Proc. Second European
Malacological Congress. p. 7-10.
Milne-Edwards, H. 1848. Note sur la classification naturelle des mollusques gasteropodes. Annals
Sci. Natur. Zool. Ser 3, Vol. 9.
Morton, J. E. 1963. The molluscan pattern: evolutionary trends in a modern classification.
Proc. Linn. Soc. Lond., 174: 53-72.
Morton,1. E. 1979. Molluscs. 5th Edition, Hutchinson University Library, London.
Morton, J. E. and Yonge, C.M. 1964. Classification and structure of the Mollusca. In: Physiology
o/Mollusca (K. M. Wilbur and C. M. Yonge, eds.), Vol. 1: 1-58.
Naef, A. 1926. Studien zur generellen Morphologie der Mollusken. 3. Teil Die Typischen
Bezietung der Weichtier-Klassen untereinander lind das Verhaltnis inner Urformes zu
anderen Coelomaten. Ergeb. lI. Fortschr. d. Zool., 6 : 27-124.
Newell, N. D. 1969. Classification of Bivalvia. In: Treatise on Invertebrate Palaeontology

CR. C. Moore, ed.) Part N. Vol. 2, Mollusca 6, Bivalvia, p. N205-N224.
Pelseneer, P. 1906. Mollusca. In: A Treatise on Zoology (E. R. Lankester ed.), 5 : 355 pp.
Adams & Black, London.
Runnegar. B. and Pojeta, J. 1974. Molluscan Phylogeny: the palaeontological viewpoint. Science
(Washington D.C. ), 186: 311-317.
Russell-Hunter, W. D. 1968. A Biology 0/ Lo'wer Invertebrates. pp. Collier Macmillan,

London.
Salvini-Plawen. L. 1969. Solenogastres und Caudofoveata (Mollusca: Aculifera) : organisation

und phylogenische Bedeutung. Malacologia, 9(2) : 191-216.
Scheltema, A. 1978. Position of the class Aplacophora in the Phylum Mollusca. Malaeologia,
17: 99-109.
Seed, R. 1983. Structural organization, Adaptive radiation, and Classification of Mollusca. In:
The Alollusca. (Peter W. Hochachka ed.), Vol. 1: I-54. Academic Press, N.V
SpengeJ, J. 1881. Die geruchsorgane und das Nerven system der Mollusken. Zietsehr. Wissenseh.
Zool. 35 :
Stasek, C. R. 1972. The molluscan framework. In: Chemical Zoology (M. Florkin and B. J.
Scheer, eds.), vol. 3: 1-44, Academic Press, N.V
Subba Rao, N. V 1998. Mollusca. In: Fallnal Diversity in India, p. 103-1 17. Envis Centre,
Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta.
VagvoJgyi, 1. 1967. On the origin of Mollusca, the coelom, and coelomic segmentation. Syst.
Zool., 16: 153-168.
Wright, C. M. 1971. Flukes and Snails. 168 pp. George Allen and Unwin Ltd., London.
Yochelson, E. L. 1978. An alternative approach to the interpretation of the phylogeny of ancient
mollusks. Malacologia, 17: 165-191.
2. VALUES OF MOLLUSCAN DIVERSITY
The association of molluscs and man has been very old, dating back to prehistoric times.
Heaps of discarded shells were found in the kitchen middens and in the excavations of stone-
age cultures. There are evidences to show that shell trade existed in protohistoric Iran and
Southern Asia (Durante, 1979). Shells have fascinated man from the time he came in contact
with molluscs. The shells were strange and rare objects for the primitive man. Attracted by the
beauty of the shells the primitive man picked them up on the sea beach and the wandering tribes
carried theln inland. The people of inland who never saw a sea, could not even imagine such
objects and hence viewed them with respect and curiosity. These natural objects were taken as
mysterious and marvelous creations of nature. As the association grew man attributed magical
and mythical powers to shells and had also started manufacturing various articles out of them.
The primitive man came in contact with the mollusc through its shell, which is an important
character of the group. Shell and mantle or skin are the two important characters, which are
responsible for the development of a close bond between molluscs and man. Mantle is a unique
structure to molluscs and one of its main function is the secretion of shell, a protective covering
to the soft animal. Each shell stands as a monument to the miraculous and mysterious system of
creation. These shells have become invaluable resource materials, based on which man has
developed industries with promising returns.
The ilnportance of the molluscs to man can be broadly treated under the following heads:
I. Aesthetic value
2. Commercial value
A. Raw material for shellcrafts
B. Source of calcium and lime
C. Pearls
3. Gastronomic value
4. Biomedical value
5. Marine biodeterioration.
2.1. Aesthetic Value

Aesthetic appeal of a shell is due to its colourful exterior and the perfection of its shape,
which in the majority consists of a spiral curve. Although there are seven classes of molluscs
only two, namely Gastropoda and Bivalvia and Nautilus in Cephalopoda have developed such
external shells, which appeal to human eye. Of these, gastropod shells have attracted man from
the beginning.
A snail's shell is cited as an example of mathematical perfection and what is mathematically

perfect is also considered as an object of perfect beauty. Beauty evokes an immediate sensuous
pleasure, which is a common human experience. The shell form is not only beautiful and regular,
but has also proved to be efficient and useful to its possessor. The growth of shells is an exatnple
of generating spiral curve. The shell grows with a constant increase in its size, but without any
change in its geometric proportions.
Mathematically speaking there are several forms of spirals of curves. But as far as mol1uscs
are concerned there are two important spirals, namely the equable spiral or spiral of Archimedes
and the equiangular spiral or logarithmic spiral. The former is not as common in nature as that
of equiangular. When a rope of uniform thickness is coiled tightly on a horizontal surface the
spiral of Archimedes is formed. In this type of spiral each whorl is of the same breadth as the
one preceding and the one following it and the radius of the coil increases in arithmetical
progression. This type of spiral is seen in the opercula of Trochus and a few other shells.
In the logarithmic type of coil the whorls continuously increase in breadth at a steady
and unchanging ratio. In 1638, the French philosopher Descartes called it the equiangUlar
spiral, and in 1691, Jacques Bernoulli called it the logarithmic spiral, while others preferred
to call it the geometrical spiral. The fundamental mathematical property of the equiangUlar
spiral' corresponds precisely to the biological principles that govern the growth of the molluscan
shell.
2.1.1. Geometrical Symmetry-Nautilus: Geometrically perfect and aesthetically

appealing is the shell of Nautilus, which gets washed ashore on the coasts of Andaman and
Nicobar Islands. There are as many as 38 chambers in a fuJI-grown Nautilus. The first four
chambers are formed when the young Nautilus is still within the egg and new chalnbers are
added at the rate of one every 2 or 3 weeks. The successive chambers of Nautilus are built on a
framework of logarithmic or equiangular spir~1. As the shell grows to accommodate the growing
animal, the size of chambers correspondingly increases, but the shape remains unchanged. The
increase in length is balanced by a proportional increase of radius so that its form remains
unchanged.
The shell of Nautilus with its colourful exterior of reddish-brown flame markings on a creamy
white background is an object of aesthetic value and of commercial importance. About one-
lakh shells of nautilus are collected and exported annually from the Philip·pines. A polished
shell reveals its lustrous mother-of-pearl layer, which is cut and engraved into table lamps, and
other ornamental items like spoons, ear-rings, studs, spoons, cups and saucers.
Thus we can cite a number of shells, which have fascinated man with their marvelolls and
geometrical symmetry; The spiral coiling can take on many shapes. In abalone or ear shell
(Baliotis) the generating curve grows very rapidly and the last whorl becolnes suddenly large
but maintaining ~he spiral curve. In the sundial shell (Archilectonica) the whorls may increase
in breadth very slowly, almost to the point of simulating an Archimedes spiral.
2.1.2. Cones: Some of the shells have become important not simply because of their shape
or beautiful colour, but because of their rarity in nature. Cones, considered as molluscan
aristocrats, are one such group. From the beginning when the shell collection has developed
into a hobby cones are much sought after by the collectors. Although there are about 400 species
of cones, a few only are considered as pride possessions by any collector. There are a few
cones, whose discoveries have created quite a sensation. The two rare cones that made history
are 'Glory of the Sea', Conus g/oriamaris Chemnitz, 1777, and 'Glory of India', Conus
milneedwardsi Jousseaume, 1889.
The famous cone shell, 'Glory of the Sea' was believed to be the most rare shell until
September) 969, when the aqualung divers discovered a number of live specimens off the north
coast ofGuadal canal, Solomon Islands. The first specimens of this cone appeared in an auction
in 1757. No body knew who gave it the now well-known title and from where the specimen was
collected.
The first authentic collections (two live specimens) of C. g/oriamaris were made by Hugh
Cuming, prince of shell collectors, on an island north of Mindanao in the Southern Philippines.
Only a few specimens were known to collectors till middle of 20th century. The craze for this
cone was so much that it has been made a central theme ofa Victorian novel, titled Glory ofthe
Sea. published in 1887 by Francesca M. Steele. The shell has created such an irresistible
telnptation that it has lead to the theft of a specimen in 1951 by breaking open an exhibition
showcase in the Museum of Natural History. In 1957 one shell of C. gloriamaris.was sold for $
2000. The popularity or value of this shell has been mainly due to its rarity, since the shell does
not offer any excellent shape or colour. The shell, which bears some resemblance to textile cone
«(' textile). is tapering with fawn to russet coloured tent markings on a creamy background.
The other rare shell, which is one of the most sought after shells of today, is the 'Glory of
India' cone. In 1890, F. W. Townsend collected some specimens off the Bombay coast while
laying Telegraph cables. Later in 1903, another specimen was collected from near Bombay and
is deposited in the National Museum of Wales. Subsequent collections in 1930 and 1960 from
Mauritius have brought the total specimens to about a dozen. But in the later part of 1960 more
specimens were collected by deep trawling from a depth of 150 fathoms otT Mozambique, East
A frica and three of these specimens were sold in the United States for a sum of $ 2400 (Saul,
1974).
While the above mentioned two cones are considered as pride possessions by shell collectors,
there arc other 27 species of cones which are important because of their poisonous nature. If
picked up alive a poisonous cone is capable of shooting a tiny but deadly dart into the person's
SUBBA RAO : INDIAN SEA SHELLS: POLYPLACOPHORA AND GASTROPODA 23
hand. The dart carries a poison that is almost as virulent as that of a cobra. Although there are no
records from the Indian seas of the poisonous cones, there are many records from the Great
Barrier Reef. In India there are five species of venomous cones viz. Conus geographus
(Geography Cone), C. aulicus (Princely Cone), C. marmoreus (Marble Cone), C. tulipa (Tul ip
Cone), and C. textile (Textile Cone) occurring in the reefs of Andaman and Nicobar Islands,
Gulf of Mannar and Lakshadweep. The first mentioned is the most dangerous.
2.1.3. Cowries : Considered as jewels of the sea, cowries have a longer association with
man than any other shells. Their utility to man has been in three basic ways, as aesthetic or
ornamental objects; as charm, amulets or talisman; and money.
Two basic needs - food and procreation - dominated the life of primitive man. When he
picked up a cowry on the shores of the Red Sea, he found a fanciful resemblance between the
sexual parts ofa woman, and the shape, colour and form of the 'aperture ofa cowry. He believed
that an object, which appeared similar to a part of human body, could magically influence the
same part. Thus, he attributed vital and magical powers to the cowry (Saul, 1974). This led to
the belief that the cowry has the power of conferring fertility and it became the symbol of
womanhood. Woman in several parts of Europe and Japan used to wear cowry shells as pendants,
girdles and bracelets in the belief that they conferred fertility and assisted in the process of
parturition.
Cowries are imbued with talismanic or magical properties. They were often used as charms
against the evil eye. Often rural folk in India tie cowries to the horns of bulls or camels. Some
have suggested that the resemblance of the apertural side of the cowry to the half closed human
eye is the basis for this belief.
Cowries were used as currency in many parts of the world. Of the 200 species of cowries
known, only two were used commonly as currency: the Gold-ringed cowry, Cypraea annulus
and the Money cowry, Cypraea moneta. Even till recently, these were used as currency in
central New Guinea and Africa.
Cowries were used in the preparation of ornaments like purses and ladies' handbags. These
were collected in large numbers from various places in the Indo-Pacific region, where they are
abundant in the coral reefs. During the middle ages and in the years of the Dutch and Eng} ish
East India Companies cowries were fished near Maldives and Sri Lanka. From here they were
shipped to the European Countries such as the Netherlands, England, Portugal and others in
barrels or sacks. From the records it is known that Maldives alone exported 1000 million cowry
s,hells in the year 1800. From various such export figures Dr. M. Schilder calculated that if all
the cowries exported are joined in one chain, it would go 37 times around the earth at the
equator and reach four times the distance from the earth to the moon (Cernohorsky, 1967). This
explains how popular the cowries were.
According to recent Indian foreign trade statistics, 45 tons of cowries were exported in
1977, of which U.S.A. alone imported 12 tons. To meet the demands of Indian shell crafts
industry a few species of cowries are imported to India; 17 tons from the Maldives and 22 tons
from Tanzania were imported in 1976. Seven species of cowries are involved in this trade: tiger
cowry, Cypraea tigris, C. lynx, C. caputserpentis, C. ch inens is, C. diluculum, C. erosa and C.
vitellus.
2.2. Commercial Value

Seashells are known for their beauty and there is a growing business in seashell export. The
collections usually are classified into commercial shells and collector's sheHs or specimen sheHs.
Shells that have an aesthetic appeal are collected or purchased by hobbyists or members of shell
clubs, which are popular in U.S.A. and Europe. Such shells are preserved intact as natural
history specimens. Commercial shells are ground, polished and cut into various sizes and used
in shell craft industry.
Seashell exports from India have risen from 20 tons in 1969 to 466 tons in 1979
(Wells, 1981), when the main importing countries were U.S.A., Bahrain and Kuwait. There is
increasing demand for seashells in U.S.A., Japan and Europe. The Philippines is the leading
exporter of seashells with around 80 per cent followed by South Korea, Thailand, Taiwan and
Mexico. India has a 5 per cent share in world market but expected to exceed 10 per cent in a few
years.
Shells are collected off Tamil Nadu coast, Kerala, Andaman and Nicobar Islands and of late
from Orissa. It was reported that one Shell Craft Industry in Bombay processes around 1200
tons of seashells annually. Of this about 200 tons are thrown away since the shells do not
conform to certain standards of colour, shape and size.
2.2.1. Raw Material for Shellcraft : In addition to their exploitation to meet the demands
of international she)) trade, seashells are also needed in Jarge quantities by the domestic shell
craft industry. Seashells are used in the preparation of ornaments and household articles such as
table lamps, ashtrays, agarbatti stands, door hangings etc. These are also used in the lime industry,
poultry feed additives and the fine lime obtained from the shells is used in pottery glazes,
toothpaste etc. Some of the shells are commercially important because of their nacre,
commercially known as mother of pearl, which is used in decorative inlay work. The number of
shells put to industrial use are more than those used in ornamental shell trade.
Puri is a major centre for collecting, processing and marketing of seashells. The Govt. of
Orissa has a Seashell Handicrafts Training Centre, at Puri, which trains young boys and girls in
the art of shell craft. The finished products from the artisans are purchased by the Orissa
Handicrafts Corporation, and Khadi and ViJlage Industries Commission, and sent to Calcutta,
Bombay, Madras and Delhi to be exported to foreign countries. Shells are used in jewellary
S BBA RAO : I DIAN EA SHELLS: POLYPLACOPI lOR AND GASTROP ·OA 25
'ag. 8. Display ofjweUery out of Top she ll.

2 .Z L R o. 92
. ,autilus ' bl lamp. spid r n"h an

& LJ~J L.lU : P YPL->IO.~~PH RA ~ D 27
Fi . 12. A rnirror decorated with bi al .

·Z . URV. [N [ . PAP o. 192
Fig. '13. Nautilus Table lamp in the center flanked by shells in their natural colour.
· UBBA RAO : INDIAN SEA SHELLS : PO YPI ACOPIIOR/\ ANT) (j/\STROPODA 2'9
F.ig. 15. 1. Indian Sacred ,chank Turbinella PYl'UI11 iitsliS and ,exotic sinistral shdL
2. Busycon contraium sold as substitute for sinistral chank.
items, curios, wall hangings, door scr,eens etc. Besides anany marine bivalves, shens of Pugilina,
Murex, and of Kjng shell, Achatina and Lamellidens are also used by the artisans of Puri.
Preparation of Sankha bhasJna froln ,a marine bivalv,e is used in Ayurvedic tnedicine. Golden
cowry was a symbol offertihty and designs are tnade with it to ward off,eviL Cowries arranged
in a particular fashion ar,e hung on a waH on the 6~h day of new,ly born baby.
There are cottage industries in Ramanathapuram dist.., Tamil Nadu, which Inanufacture
beautiful curios and several utility articl'es with lnoHuscan shells. Many families of fishermen
are profitably engaged in the collection and trading of shells. A survey by Radhakrishnan
Nair et af. (1976) showed that there were nearly 25 small establishments dealing exclusively
with shells and shell articles. We do not have proper statistics, but there are small shellcraft
units in Kanya Kumari (Cape Comorin), Madras, Hyderabad, Puri, Digha, Calcutta, Port Blair
and other places, which draw natural, raw shells from the Gulf of Mannar, Andaman and Nicobar
Islands. The finished shell products from these units are sold in local market, and transported to
inland cities of India and a few exported to U.S.A., Europe and Japan.
Garlands, chains, necklaces and other ornamental articles are made out of Pyrene, Oliva,
Umbonium, Planaxis, Nassa, Iittorinids, cones, cowries, Placenta placenta (Windowpane Oyster)
etc. Household articles such as table lamps are made out of shells of Turbo marmora/us (Green
Snail), Trochus niloticus (Top Shell), Nautilus, Chicoreus ramosus, Lalnbis lanlbis (Spider
Shell) and Alelo nlelo (Beggar's Bowl) (Figs. 7-13).
Chanks, Turban Shells, and Top Shells are the most popular among shell traders because of
their large size and glittering surfaces when pol ished. The ITIOSt valuable commercial mother of
pearl is obtained from Turbo nlarmoratlls, Trochus nitotjclls, Turbinella pyrum and Pinetada
(ucata, the Indian pearl oyster.
2.2.1 a. Chank: Sacred chank has established an inseparable relationship with humanity
from times immemorial. Ornaments made out of chank were found in excavations of Mohenjadaro
and Harappa. The importance of the chank in Hindu religion and life are portrayed in several
legends. Chank shell was favoured as a trumpet in the olden days. The BhagavadgUa refers to
different chanks namely Paneha Janya (by Sri Krishna), Ananta Vijaya (by Yudhishtira),
Paundra (by Shima), Devadatta (by Arjuna), Sughosha (by Nakula) and Manipushpaka (by
Sahadeva), which were used as trumpets in the battlefield of Kurukshetra. Lord Vishnu is
portrayed as one holding a sinistral chank, which was obtained from the 'Ocean of Milk' at the
tirne of churning for divine nectar. Chanks have been associated with Buddhist deities also.
Chank blowing is a usual custonl to announce any auspicious, religious or sacred event. In
Bengal the custom of chank blowing during marriages is very common .
., May Ganges water and sea-chank betide
Enduring bliss to bridegroom and bride"
is the hyrnn recited during marriage. Chank bangles are worn by married women.
In South India, chank is blo\vn in all Hindu religious rituals including last rites. According
to Tarnil literature an important chank cutting industry had existed nearly 2000 years ago. But
the industry in south had gradually declined. It was later revived in Bengal, \vhere a well-
flourished chank industry exists at present. According to recent reports, in West Bengal there
are 5000 families dependent on conch shel1 industry. The industry has artisans spread over in
the districts of Ho\vrah, Bankura, Burdwan, 24 Parganas and Calcutta.
According to the Sankha Silpi Sangha, the market for conch shell products, especially bangles,
has improved considerably over the years since women in Bihar and Orissa also started using
these bangles as an alternative to the usual commercial ones.
In West Bengal alone there is a demand for 2.4 million conch shells but so far the annual
average supply has been in the region of l.9 million shells. Besides the domestic demand,
chanks are also in demand mainly in Italy, Spain, France and the U.S.A. Chanks, which occur
at a depth from 30 to 45 m in the Gulf of Mannar and at lesser depth in the Gulf of Kachchh are
fished at intervals. The rights for fishing are leased out by the respective state Governments.
Chank is restricted in its distribution, because of the absence of a free-swimming veliger
stage in its development and inability of adults to swim to new territories. Overexploitation
automatically leads to decline in their stocks. A survey tnade in 1910 sho\ved that there was a
severe decline in the numbers of shells collected due to overfishing in the preceding years.
During the first half of the previous century four to five million shells were said to have been
collected annually from the Gulf of Mannar alone. The depletion has led to serious crisis in the
domestic industry and also to reduction in the export trade; the export of chank shells has fallen
from 55 tons in 1976 to 18 tons in 1977 (Wells, 1981). The chank shellcraft industry often faces
serious problems because the Talnil Nadu Fisheries Departlnent is either holding up or not able
to supply the required quantity to West Bengal Handicrafts Corporation, the nodal agency,
which receives the raw shells and distributes theln to different artisans in the State. Since India
is not able to supply the chank shells, Bangladesh is importing raw shells from Sri Lanka.
Recent data indicate that there is an increase in the landings of sacred chank in the Gulf of
Mannar. There is a 34% of increase in the production from ] 990-91 to 1991-92. The average
catch per a diver increased from 1.3 chanks in 1990-91 to 22 chanks in 1991-92.(Anon, 1993).
But the details of chanks fished (Peer Mohalned Pers. Comm.) do not indicate any substantial
increase. During the year] 989-90 a total of 84496 nos. of good quality chanks and 73150 nos.
of wonn-eaten and undersized chanks were fished in the season (November to March), which
included 98 diving days. In 1990-91 chank diving was held for 120 days yielding a total of
162675 chanks of which 99943 were of good quality. Next year (1991-92) during 27 days of
diving 36448 chanks were collected of which 20881 were of good quality.
A sinistral chank is a rarity in nature and it is deeply venerated by devout Hindus. During
recent years unscrupulous businessmen are out to exploit the sentiments of ignorant people.
Left handed Lightning Whelk, BUSyCOI1 contrarium, which is very common in Gulf of Mexico,
West Florida, is imported to India and sold as a sacred chank thus playing to the religious
sentiments of the people (Fig. 14). It is one of the very few naturally sinistral marine species
that grows to 40 cm length, whereas the Indian sacred chank nonnally is a dextral species. Large
specimens of Busycon are sold in pilgrim centres on the west and east coast of India and Inany
have found their place into Calcutta and Port Blair tnarkets also. Large speciInens of this exotic
species are now seen in many Hindu houses and telnpJes along with the true sacred chank.
2.2. t b. Trochus and Turbo: Trochus niloticus and Turbo marnJoratus are two commercially
important gastropods. Both the species are distributed in the coral reefs of Andaman and Nicobar
Islands and occur up to 20 m depth. Trochus is exploited since 1900 and the introduction of new
techniques by the Japanese divers in 1929 has depleted the stocks rapidly. Continued commercial
fishing of T. nilolicZls in Andamans has reduced quantities of shells fished from 500 tons to less
than 40 tons in one season. In 1933, an hour-long search by a diver could yield 20 shells, which
had fallen to two to three by 1935 (Rao, 1937). During the years 1939-45 commercial fishing
was stopped and the beds were allowed to recover. Growth of Trochus is quite fast for the first
2-3 years (8 cm base diameter). A ten year old attains the size of 12 cm. Even a landing of 1000
tons has the risk of causing sharp drop in the next year. As per the recent estimates the annual
production of rrochus ranges from 400 to 500 tons (at @ Rs. 65,000 per ton) and that of Turbo
from 100 to 150 tons (at @ Rs. 90,000/- per ton). Both the species are overexploited in the
Islandas. Turbo is commercially extinct and Trochus is collected in a few kilograms. Between
1994-95 and 1998-99 an average of 1825 kgs. of Trochus per year were collected, with the
highest quantity of 4382 kg. in 1996-97 and the lowest of 450 kg. in 1995-96.During the same
period Turbo averaged 80 kg. with maximum catch of 210 kg in 1994-95 and a minimum catch
of 20 kg. in 1998-99.
In the international shell trade there is an annual demand of 6000 tons of raw Trochus shells
(Bouchet and Bour, 1980). New Caledonia and New Guinea are the two important centres from
where Trochus are fished in large quantities.
1.2.2. Source or Calcium and Lime: The molluscan shell forms one of the important raw
material for many calcium/ calcium carbonate based industries, since 33 to 40 per cent of the
shell is calcium, 90 to 98 per cent of which occurs as calcium carbonate. Tooth powder from
edible oyster shells has been perfected at Render (Surat) laboratory of the Gujarat Fisheries
Aquatic Science Research Institute. Shell grit also fonns an important ingredient in the preparation
of dental cream, talcum powder and in carbide industry.
An organised lime burning industry exists in a number of villages on the east and west
coasts of India. Huge quantities of shells are collected along Kerala coast, Tamil Nadu, Andhra
Pradesh and Orissa for use in the preparation of slaked lime and poultry feed. Shells playa
prolninent role in the economy of local fishennen at Kakinada. Andhra Pradesh and at Ashtamudi
Lake, Kerala. According to Narasimham (1973) fishermen belonging to 15 villages exploit the
molluscan fishery resources of the Kakinada Bay.
The molluscan fisheries of the Kakinada Bay include the following species:
Bivalves : 1. Placenta placenta - Windowpane oyster, important and most valuable
2. Anadara granosa - Granular ark shell
3. Meretrix meretrix - Bay clam
4. Marcia opinla (Kotelysia opima) -Inflated clam
5. Paphia malabarica - False clam or short neck clam
6. Dona-r cunea/us - Donax shell
Gastropods: 7. Umboniunt vestiarium - Button shell

8. Cerithidea cingulata - Cerithid snail
9. Pugilina cochlidium - Spiral melongena
10. Telescopium telescopium - Telescope snail
Every year a few hundred tons of shells are collected by about 300 licensed fishing boats.
An estimated catch· of 6020 tons (fresh weight) valued at Rs. 1,95,000 was landed in 1968, the
value of which would increase when converted into Jime.
Shell lime is popular in Orissa and it comes mostly from the coastal villages in Baleshwar
(Balasore) and Ganjam districts. In Berhampore to\vn there are eight bhatties (lime . . burning
kilns) in Kamapally area. In lime manufacture bivalves are preferred over gastropods. In
Berhampore, venerid bivalves are mostly used and Cerithidea cingulata is the only gastropod
used in lime making. The cerithids are collected from the nearby Gopalpur creek and other back
waters. As the local collectors are not able to meet the demand of lime tnanufacturers, shells are
transported in trucks from Balacheruvu, near Visakhapatnam.
Shells are also collected from Pallur~ Ganjam, Gopalpur, Golabanda, Markandi, Ratnyapatna
and Sonapur. There are subfossil shell deposits in the neighbourhood of Rambha and in Bahuda
riverbed near Surla.
Forty-five tins (each of 15 litres) of shells and 45 to 50 tins of coal are used in one operation
in a kiln. The shells are burnt for 3 ~ hours. About 75 kg of lime is obtained in one operation.
The kilns are active for about 6 months in a year with a peak activity in October. In one season,
that lasts from October to Decetnber the kilns are operated for about 20 times in a tnonth, but
during off season it is five or six times in a month.
At Surla, Sonapur and Pattisonapur there is an extensive bed of edible oysters covering a
total area of about ] 62 ha, which is annually leased out by the Department of Fisheries,
Government of Orissa.
The shell trade at the border of Orissa and West Bengal is mainly centred on one pal1icular
species, the Bay clam Meretrix nzeretrix.
The trade is distributed over the following points:
1. Collecting or shell-picking centre
2. Stocking centre or transporting centre
3. User agencies
1. Kirtania situated on Subarnarekha River is the main collecting centre of shells, where the
collecting.activity extends over most of the year, without any restrictions or closed seasons.
But in general the collectors avoid picking young shells. The examination of huge stocks
of sheJls piled at Talsari, a border village near Digha, had revealed that the smallest shell
measured 13.7 x 8.3 mm while the larger ones \verc 29.5 x 23.2 lnm.
2. Traders purchase shells from the collection centre and transport these in boats to Talsari
from where the shells are supplied to various user agencies. Raw shells with flesh intact
are priced at Rs. 4/- per quintal. These are loaded into boats, which carty about 60 quintals.
From the information available there are about 30 to 35 boats engaged in this shell trade.
At the time of our visit in 1998 we could count 14 heaps of shells stocked at Talsari.
Taking the costs involved i.e. labour, transport and other incidentals the cost of one
quintal of shells comes to around Rs. 151-, by the time it is ready to be dispatched to user
agencies, to which they add their own profit and sell at Rs. 20/- a quintal.
3. From Talasari shells are transported to various destinations in West Bengal such as Port
Canning. Diamond Harbour and Midnapore. Every month about 20 truckloads, each
truck carrying 12 tons, are distributed from Talasari. Although the supply of shells
continued throughollt the year, it was brisk during summer. Thus annually about 2500
tons of shells, mainly of bay clam are exploited.
As per the information given by the local people there are more than 1000 persons (of all
ages) thriving on the shell trade from collection to transporting inland to user agencies. These
shells are ground and utilised as poultry feed additives. Paphia malabarica is exported in large
quantities from Kerala.
2.2.3. Pea rls
What is a pearl? : A pearl is more or less a round concretion of skeletal material. It implies
that animals, which are capable of secreting some sort of skeleton, can also secrete pearls. Thus
one may find rarely in nature chitin pearls in insects, horn pearls on horns of certain mammals.
Pearls, which are popular as gelns are secretions by Inolluscs. All those mollusks, which possess
shell have the potential to produce pearls. These nacreous pearls may be secreted in nature by
different kinds of molluscs such as pearl oysters, mussels, abalones, turbans, nautilus etc. All
these molluscs have one feature in common, nalnely the possession of a layer of mother-of-
pearl on the inner surface of their shells. Pearls in trade are the products secreted mainly by
marine pearl oysters.
Pearl is nothing but a biochclllical product of mollusc. It is produced by the accidental
entrance of a foreign body inside the shell or by accidental wound inside tissue of mollusc.
Pearl is secreted by the mantle. the membranous covering of soft parts, which also secretes
the shell.
The pearl consists of a central nucleus surrounded by a series of pearly nacreous matter. Its
substance is essentially the same as that which lines the interior of many shells, known as
lnother-of-pearl. The nucleus varies and it may be any foreign body, such as sand-grain, a
parasitic worm or anything that acts as an irritant to the mollusc. The pearl consists of an outer
coating of aragor.ite, calcium carbonate with distinct crystalline structure, which is cemented
together by 'conchiolin', an organic substance and water. The whole thing is nacre. Some pearls
may have a different crystalline structure called 'calcite' which differs from aragonite.
SURBA RAO : INDIAN SEA SHELLS: POL YPLACOPHORA AND GASTROPODA 35
The molluscan shell consists of three layers, namely an outer organic layer of conchin, and
two inner calcareous layers, nalnely prismatic and nacreous. The pearls may be built up of a
single calcareous layer, two of them in any cOlnbination, or all three layers or repeated sequences
of same layer.
Pearls lnay be produced in a natural way or by artificially inducing the mollusc to secrete
nacreous matter around an inserted nucleus. The fonner are called natural pearls. These are
formed due to natural processes or disturbances in the environment where the oyster lives. The
latter category is produced by human interference and is known as a cultured pearl. Cheap
imitations made of plastics that have artifical lustre are known as artificial pearls.
The chelnical composition of pearl is given below (Alagarswami, 1986) :
Water 3.97%
Organic matter 3.83%
Calcite and aragonite 91.53%
Loss 0.61%
Quality of the pearl is detertnined by its keratin content and colour. The latter is influenced
by the colour of the shell of donor mollusc from which palliuln (graft tissue) had been taken and
the part from where it is extracted and implanted. The quality pearl has a specific gravity of
2.63 to 2.68 and that of inferior quality pearl is lower.
Pearl oysters and their distribution: Commercial pearls are produced by pearl oysters,
which occur in seas around India. The following are the species distributed in India.
Pinctada anolnioides (Keeve, 1857)
Bombay, Madras harbour, Tuticorin, and Andamans. Elsev/here: Aden, Sri Lanka, Myanmar
(Mergui Archipelago) and Indonesia.
Pinetada atropllrpurea (Dunker, 1852)

Madras harbour and Andamans. Elsewhere: Sri Lanka, Myanmar (Mergui Archipelago)
and the Philippine Islands.
Pinctada chemnitzi (Philippi, 1849)

Madras harbour, Tranquebar, Palk Bay, Tuticorin (GulfofMannar), and offBalasore (Orissa).
E1sewhere: Aden, Sri Lanka, Myanmar (Mergui Archipelago), Penang, Hong Kong, China
Sea, Japan, Philippines, Indonesia and Austral ia.
Pinctada filcata (Gould, 1850)

Common Indian Pearl oyster. Gulf of Kachch and Gulf of Mannar, rare in Andaman and
Nicobar Islands. Elsewhere: ~ed Sea, Persian Gulf, Sri Lanka and Western Pacific Ocean.
Pine/ada margarilifera (Linnaeus, t 758)

It is widely distributed in the Indo-Pacific region, sparse on Indian coasts and common in
Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Pearl fisheries exist in the Persian Gulf, Red Sea, Southwest
Indian Ocean and Pacific.
Pinetada sUgillata (Reeve, 1857)

Gujarat, Tuticorin, Madras harbour (Rao, 1970, new record) and Andamans. Elsewhere:
Myanmar, Indonesia and Australia.
The Indian pearl oyster, Pinetada Jueata is well known for the production of ornamental
pearls of good colour and luster.
Although pearl oysters are distributed in various parts of India as given above, pearl fishery
existed only in Gulf of Mannar and on a smaller scale in the Gulf of Kachchh. The pearl oyster
beds of Gulf of Mannar are locally known as 'paars' The pearl banks extend from Kilakkari to
Cape Comorin. The central sector between Kayalpatnam and Vaippar is most productive and
the fisheries are operated with the base at Tuticorin. Pearl oysters live by attaching themselves
to the corals or other substrata with their byssus threads. The fisheries are irregular in nature
and the fishing season lasts a month or two between January-May depending on weather
conditions and oyster populations. In the Gulf of Mannar there are about 60 well known oyster
beds, which extend in a ]60 km. longitudinal stretch parallel to the coast. The beds cover a total
area of about 2000 sq. kin. and lie at a depth of 10 to 29 meters at a distance of I t to 16 km. from
the shore. The Tolairam paar near Tuticorin is the most extensive and productive. In the Gulf of
Kachchh there are 42 oyster beds (locally known as 'Khaddar').
Pearl culture: There are five stages in the culture of pearl oyster leading to production of
pearls.
Juvenile pearl oysters or spats are collected from the natural beds. These are then put to rest
in shallow water allowing them to recover from the 'disturbance' caused to them. These are
then placed in steel-wire baskets. Inner side of the basket is provided with synthetic matting or
small size mesh to prevent the juvenile oyster from falling out. As the shells grow mesh size is
also changed. A growth of 4.5 em height is achieved after one year. It takes two years for the
oyster to grow to the size of the Inother \veighing slightly over 30 gm.
During the process called conditioning the grown-up oysters are put in menthol mixed
seawater. The valves get open slightly and wooden wedges are inserted inside to keep the
valves open. A healthy shell of 2-4 year old is opened by cutting the muscles. A strip of mantle
along its edge is cut into pieces of 2-3 sq. mm. This graft tissue, in the form of pieces, is dipped
in mercurochrome, which acts as an antibiotic and prevents any disease causing germs entering
the recipient.
In graft operation an incision is nlade near the foot and a piece of mantle with a nucleus
(3.7 mm diameter) is inserted in the gonad. Implantation may also be done in mid-gut-gland
or intestine. It must be ensured that the outer layer ufthe mantle is in contact with the nucleus.
Often two or three nuclei are itnplanted in one oyster. These seeded oysters are given two to
three weeks time to recuperate from the operation. These are then returned to layer of rafts for
post-operative rearing.
When the oysters are presumed to be ripe they are brought to the shore and examined or
some times even X-rayed. After a dip in an antibiotic bath, a new sphere is inserted and the
oysters are returned to the raft. Pearls so collected are washed and later polished with a soft
cloth, to add more shine.
Each oyster can produce three or four pearls in its life span of about 15 years. The productive
period begins at the age of three or four and lasts up to ten. Eighty percent of the pearls extracted
are classified 'good to average' Freshwater pearl culture has been in practice in China and
Japan, in mussels Crista/aria pUcata and Hyriopsis schleegalai respectively.
In freshwater pearl culture the mussels are conditioned in cement or plastic tubs for 5 to 7
days without feeding so as to render them supple for surgery. Shell beads are preferred as nuclei;
locally made ceralnic beads are also used. The operated mussels are stacked in nylon cages and
set on the pond bottom at a depth of 1.0 to 1.5 m. Pearls are harvested after 2 to 3 years.
Preparation of host shell: In nature pearls may be fonned in different regions of the body
namely near the region of adductor muscles, nlantle margin, pall ial zone etc. The best site for
pearl production is considered to be the gonadial region. Spent individuals Le. individuals whose
gonads are devoid of gametes, serve as good hosts. Nucleus is inserted in the gonadial region.
Nucleus insertion: It involves selection of a suitable donor shell or any other object for
obtaining the nuclear material and donor oyster or mussel for obtaining graft tissue. Nuclei are
obtained from shell of sacred chank, ceramic beads etc.
Graft tissue has to be obtained from the pallial zone of a selected oyster or lnussel. This
operation has to be conducted very carefully without causing much injury to the bivalve
concerned. In P. fuca/a, 2 to 3 sq mm pieces of graft tissue are obtained. The size of the nucleus
determines the size of the graft tissue. Usually 2 to 3 mm-size nuclei are used in marine pearl
culture.
After obtaining the nucleus and graft tissue the recipient oyster will be operated upon and
the nucleus is implanted in the gonadial region. The time and number of nuclei to be itnplanted
will be determined in advance.
Convalescence: After operation the mussels are allowed to recover from the disturbance
caused. The oysters are kept in cages consisting of 68 x 60 x 30 cm heavy wire frames covered
with fine wire-mesh.
Pearl formation: The graft tissue on the nucleus grows into a pearl sac. The epithelial cells
of the pearl sac deposit nacreous layer around the nucleus, which ultimately leads to the formation
of a pearl. In pearl oysters it takes three to four years for pearls of commercial value to develop.
In freshwater mussel pearls are harvested 2-3 years after implantation.
l'arvesting : Oysters or mussels with pearls are brought to the laboratory. The valves are
opened and the fleshy parts are extracted out. The pearls are obtained by pulverising the extracted
part.
Processing of pearls : Soon after their separation from the meat, pearls are washed with
water to retnove the mucilaginous matter and maintain the luster. The pearls are then graded
according to size.
Quality of pearls : The quality pearl has luster and is free from spots or marks. Nearly
rounded pearls are valued high and find ready market. Baroque or teardrop shaped pearls fetch
less prize. Pearls come in different shades - deep blue, gray, pink-yellow, orange and white, but
creamy white is regarded as the best colour. Black pearl is rare and it is much sought for.
An itnitation pearl, which usually consists of a mother-of-pearl bead coated with fish scales
or plastic, will feel smooth if we rub it gently on our front teeth. A real pearl weather they are
cultured or natural will feel slightly rough, though it may look and feel smooth on our fingers.
If the pearls are to Jast long they should be wiped carefully with a soft cloth after each wear.
Occasionally it should be washed with soft detergent, rinsed in water and dried gently.
Pearls of medicinal value are obtained from windowpane oyster, Placenta placenta in the
Gulf of Kachchh. These are small and known as seed pearls. These are used in the preparation
of Ayurvedic medicine called Mukta bhasnJa. Large beds of windowpane oyster occur in the
Balapur Bay and Pindara Bay of Gulf of Kachchh.
Use of pearls: Pearls had seized the imagination of creative artists and writers. These are
'classics' for fashion minded people. Diamonds are the costliest of all gems. But in the beginning
of the last century pearls were popular because of their scarcity. In the earlier days pearls were
practically the exclusive preserve of the rich and royal families. During fifties of the last century
pearls became part of the routine wearing of genteelly reared upper and middle class women.
110llywood actresses Grace Kelly wearing a string ofpearls in the film' High Society' and Audrey
Hepburn sporting pearls in 'Breakfast at Tiffany' have influenced a number of women to imitate
them. Depending on their place of provenance pearls have been sold at unimaginably higher
prices. Elizabeth Taylor purchased 'La Peregrine' in New York in 1969 for $ 37000. The pearl
necklace was originally presented by Phillip -II of Spain to Mary Tudor in 1554. Cultured black
pearls in the world market cost from $ 1700 or $ J 0000 to $ 13000 depending on the size and
quality of the pearl. Ciro is one of London's most prominent pearl retailers. Its manager Jane
Da\vson says 'n10st popular is the single short row of pearls between 9 and 15 mm in diameter.
Princess Diana for instance used to wear 10 mm pearls. Fashionable women are buying 15 mm
and a lot ofwolnen inspired no doubt by Barbara Dush are buying three stmnd chokes'
In her exhaustive manual, Elegance, Gallavieve Antoina Dariaux comments 'The ideal
necklace, the most universally becoming piece of jewellery ever created, and an indispensable
accessory in every wotnan's wardrobe, is a string of pearls. Every wOlnan should own a single-
strand pearl necklace and a second one of three or five strands. If she is a grand dalne of a
certain age. she can even wear seven or nine strands. Like roses in a vase, an odd number is
more elegant than even one' Fashion-conscious western wOlnen are going in for pearls. In
India too pearls are popular among \VOlnen folk. It is the second largest ilnporter of pearls in the
world only after Lebanon.
Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute has done very good work on pearl culture in
India. For further and Inore detailed infonnation on pearl oysters and pearl culture one may
refer to Alagarswam i (] 986).
2.3. Shellfish of Gastronomic Value
Several species of marine and a few of freshwater and land tnolluscs are eaten in many parts
of the world and in India too. There is a regular fishery of sOlne of the Inarine species and even
culture techniques have been developed to auglnent their production in India. Among 111arine
molluscs, oysters, clams, mussels, and cephalopods are considered as gastronomer's delight.
According to FAO Year Book of Fishery Statistics, 1970, Inolluscs constitute 5. )4 per cent and
crustaceans 2.30 per cent of the average annual world fishery production. In India mollusks
constitute about four to five per cent of the fish landings (Appukuttan, 1996).
The value of any edible resource depends on its nutritive content, popularity among the
people, harvesting facility and the quantum of yield.
The nutritive value of different edible lnolluscs is calculated on the basis of the chelnical
composition if its flesh, which is as given below (Alagars\vami, 1973).
'Vater Content Protein Fat Carbohydrate Ash

Clams 75.28 10.33 2.10 3.75 2.06
Oysters 76.85 11.18 1.97 8.00 2.02
Cockles 89.01 5.32 0.35 2.05 -
Blood clams 76.30 12.30 1.40 7.20 2.80
Scallops 80.30 14.80 0.1 3.4 1.4
Mussels 84.20 8.70 1.1 4.1 1.9
Pearl oysters 74.00 ]9.80 2.5 2.5 2.0
Froln the analysis it is clear that Inollllscs are a valuable source of protein and some are
known to contain vitamins and Ininerals.
2.3. t. Popularity: Molluscs as food are popular in Japan, Europe and U.S.A. Snail is a
delicacy in France, which is the single largest consumer accounting for 67 per cent of EEC's
global ilnports. In India molluscs are not as favourite a food as fish or crustaceans. Molluscs are
eaten by poor people living along the coastal belt. l-lowever lnarine molluscs are very ITIuch
relished by the aborigin tribes of Andaman and Nicobar Islands. In sOlne parts of northern and
eastern India freshwater molluscs are eaten. Molluscs have nutritional advantage because of
their easy digestibility and high content of Ininerals and vih~lnins.
40 REe. ZOOL. SURY. INDIA, DCC. PAPER No. 192
2.3.2. Methods of Harvest : Capture of molluscs is simple and since many of these
molluscs, except cephalopods, are sedentary and live close to the shore harvesting becomes
easy.
2.3.3. Production: Squids, octopuses and cuttle fishes constitute about one third of the
total production ofmolluscs. The average annual production of cephalopods in India from 1962
to 1971 is only about 780 tons. These are caught along with other fishes and no specific capture
fishery exists for these molluscs. Although many species of cephalopods are involved, the main
c6mmercial species in the Gulf of Mannar is the Palk Bay Squid, Sepioteuthis arctipinnis.
Clams, mussels and oysters are the most abundant resources of our country and their
production levels can be increased by simple transplantation experiments and culture techniques.
CMFRI has started culture of molluscs at Vizhinjam, Tuticorin, Mandapam, Madras and
Visakhapatnam, which has shown promising results. Qasim et. al., (1977) had shown that the
technique of rope culture in case of mussels could yield 480 tons per hectare per year.
The edible mollusks include mainly bivalves such as edible oysters, mussels and clams, and
a few species of gastropods namely Babylonia spirata, B. zeylanica, Chicorells virgineus,
Pleuroploca trapezium etc. The gastropods are exploited rnainly for meeting the export market
of Southeast Asia (Appukuttan, ]996).
2.4. Biomedical Value

Molluscs have been used in the preparation of ayurvedic and homeopathic medicines from a
long time. Extracts are prepared from powdered oyster shell (C,.assostrea sp.) and also from
cowry shell (Monetaria moneta and others) for use in homeopathic medicines. Operculum of
Pugilina cochlidillnl is lIsed in the preparation of certain Unani drugs. Sankha bhasma, Mukta
bhasnlQ and other mollusc preparations are used in ayurvedic drugs. Sankha bhasma is used
against ailments ranging froln skin diseases to rickets and asthma. Chank powder in short is a
panacea for diverse illnesses like jaundice, cough and general debility. Dried visceral mass of
chank is thought to be efficacious for enlarged spleen.
A large number of marine invertebrates are known to provide leads to some biologically
active compounds. Among these, molluscs have been considered as one important group. In the
dynamic and complex marine ecosystem, molluscs are under co.nstant struggle for securing
food, for procreation and for their very survival. To meet these challenges, molluscs have
developed various devices and defensive adaptations, of which chemical armament in the form
of secretions is significant. Biolnedical potential of molluscs lies in their secretions, which may
originate frorn the dennal region or from internal glands.
Muclls is secreted in different parts of molluscan body, such as in the pedal region, in the
body surface and in glands. The secretion from Onchidillm verruculatunl, of marine habitat, on
screening was found to have antimicrobial activity. The secretions from chiton, lschnochiton
comptlls have yielded bioactive compounds, which have shown antifertility activity.
Secretions in many prosobranchs, especially in the carnivorous species belonging to the

families Muricidae, Buccinidae, Conidae and others contain toxic compounds. These secretions
from the hypobranchial glands contain prominently choline esters (Endean, 1972).
Sea hares have been found to be potential sources of valli able biomedical compounds. Aplysia
benedicti and Aplysia dactylomela are two species occurring off Indian shore. The digestive
gland secretions of these species display hypoglycemic activity. Halogenated Inetabolites are
obtained from their secretions. Brominated indoles are known for their antimicrobical activity.
The possibility of using dolstatins in the secretions of sea hare as anticancer compounds is
under investigation. The sea hare secretes an unstable red dye called aplysiopurpurin, which
contain chronl0protein. It is secreted in the Blochmann's gland in the mantle shelf. A large
amount of mucus is also secreted along with the dye. This purple secretion is joined by the
secretions from an opaline gland (poison gland) located in the floor of the Jnantle cavity. The
toxin froln the Blochmann's gland of two exotic seahares (Ap/ysia vaccaria and A. californica)
is water and acetone soluble. The toxin causes muscular \veakness and death in Inice and chicks
(Winkler, 1961 in Russell, 1965).
Cones are \vell known poisonous JnOIlllscs. Cases of hUlnans getting affected by the conus
venom were reported froln several parts of the Indo-Pacific, like Great Barrier Reef, West
Pacific and frOITI the Red Sea (First record in 1978). Ho\vever, there are no such records froln
India. The latest studies on the chemical nature of conus venonl reveal that the active principles
are peptides. Paralysis of prey organism is probably due to the direct effect of poison on nerves,
lnainly of the peripheral nervous systelTI (Kahn, 1983). The toxicity of the Ven01TI varies with
the species and also with the part of the duct from where the secretions originate (Russell,
1965). Biochemical properties of cone poison were studied (Endean and Rudkin. 1963; Cruz et
ale ] 976, 1978). The effect of poison of Conus an1adis on fish was studied in India (Rajendran
and Kasinathan, 1987).
Conus venom contains a \vide variety of cOJnplex neurotoxins. Genes controlling the toxins
looked very different and they had been changed by fairly recent Inutations. Cone snails have
the fastest evolving genes known. "The rapid evolution probably leads to substantial variation
in venom effectiveness against particular prey" (Anon, (999).
Recently an Australian researcher froln Wollongong University had isolated a new antibiotic
from the eggs of common dog whelk (Nassarilfs sp.). The new antibiotic \vas found to be
effective against Inarine bacteria and against hlllnan pathogens including Staphylococcus,
Entanloeba coli candida and the bacteria that cause pneulnonia. Reserachers believe that there
are other ITIolluscs, \vhich Inay have powerful anticancer and antiviral properties (Anon, 2000).
The secretions froln the posterior salivary glands of dibranchiate cephalopods are toxic to
some crustaceans and fishes. The secretion appears to be a tnixture of several substances such
as biologically active alnines, enzylnes and non-enzYlnatic polypeptides (Boucaud Camou and
Boucher Rodoni, 1983). The biologically active cOlnponent of the cephalopod toxin is identified
as cephalotoxin, a glycoprotein (Fisher el al. 1956b; Ghiretti, 1959). The venom of the blue
ringed octopus Hapalochlaena nlaculosa, \vhose bite is lethal to man, [ontains maculotoxin,
identified as tetrodotoxin (Sheumack et al .. 1978).
The secretion from the ink gland of cephalopod is used in hOlneopathic preparations. The
secretion is a colourless fluid containing a suspension of dark brown or black particles. It contains
the pigment 'sepia', which is a typical melanin possibly conjoined to protein. In India the source
is mainly from Sepioteuthis arctipinnis (the Palk Bay squid).
Vitamin A was reported fronl nine species of marine bivalves (e.g. Mylilus edulis, Ostrea
edulis, Mya arenaria etc.), eighteen species of gastropods and cephalopods. It was concentrated
mainly in the digestive gland or in the visceral nlass in the case of gastropods and bivalves, and
in the liver of cephalopods (Inainly as ester) (Cariello and Zanetti, 1977).
Recent investigations had sho\vn that nonvenolnous bivalves were also potential sources of
important bioactive cOlnpounds. They \vere found to be potential sources of anticancer drugs
(Endean. 1972). Antimicrobial substances \vere isolated by Li (] 960) froln some marine bivalves
and anti-cancer cOlnpound nalncd Inercenaria was obtained from a venerid claln . Mercenaria
mercena,.;a (Schmeer el al. 1966). Glandular extracts from Perna canaliclilatus and other species
of Mytilacea were used for arthritis treatment. There are two species of Perna distributed along
our coast and also a number of species ofvenerid clams, \vhich on investigation may turn out to
be sources of pharmacologically active substances. Recent interest in the exploration of drugs
from the sea has focused attention on a nlllnber of marine invertebrates including molluscs.
Screening of these Jnarine organislns for bioactive substances was carried out at various centres
in India viz. National Institute of Oceanography (Goa), Central Drug Research Laboratory
(Lucknow). Bose institute (Calcutta). Andhra University (Visakhapatnaln) and Regional Research
Laboratory (Bhubaneshwar) of Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (Parulekar, 1990).
2.S. Marine Biodeterioration
A number of marine bivalves bore into hard substances, such as wood, rock, etc. They
enter these substances as young larvae by boring a canal and settle there. As the larva grows in
size it widens the canal. They get lodged inside the substance, as they cannot quit the wood or
rock anymore, as the exterior opening is too sinall. The boring is facilitated by the rough exterior
of the shell. Where the boring bivalves attack man made structures they cause considerable
damage.
India has a vast coastline, and a number of \vooden structures like jetties. piles etc. are
erected in coastal waters. Besides. catmnarans, fishing vessels. boat building yards and several
installations of the Indian Navy are constructed Ollt of wood. All these structures and even the
living mangrove vegetation are prone to attack by the foulers and borers. The losses incurred
due to damage by marine borers are cnorlnous. It is estimated that the fishing industry alone
suffers a financial loss of more than 120 l11illion rupees annually. The magnitude of the problem
of biodeterioration is such that in spite of several years of research it has not been possible to
SUBBA RAO : INDIAN SEA SIIELLS : POL YPLACOPHORA AND GASTROPODA 43
totally eradicate or control these foulers or bores. The establishlnent ofa Wood Biodeterioration
Centre (Marine) under the Institute of Wood Science and Technology (Indian Council of
Forestry Research and Education) points to the significance of this probleln of 111arine
biodeteri orati on'.
There are several anilnal groups that form the comlllllnity of Inarine foulers and borers.
Molluscs are ilnportant constituents of this comnlunity. Bi,:alve Inolluscs are the Inost successful
as foulers and borers. Fouling 1110lluscs include Inost of the byssus-bearing bivalves like mytilids,
dreissenids and epifaunal forms like oysters, anonlids etc. Perna viridis. Perna indica, Saccoslrea
clicullafa, Crassoslrea clll1ackensis and Mylilopsis adalnsi arc sOlne of the species found along
Ollr coast. The last mentioned species is an introduced one. It is reported from BOlnbay
(= MUlnbai) Visakhapatnaln harbour and Kakinada port area.
Marine \vood borers include 30 species of shipworms (Teredinidae) and nine species of
piddocks (PhoIadidae) and crustaceans. The piddocks are capable of boring into soft or
sand stone or even into brick\vorks. They occur in typical Inarine habitat extending into
brackish waters also. The follo\ving are the comll10n and \videly distributed species of India
(Santha Kumaran, 1994): Bankia campanellata. Bankia carina/a, Bankia ruchi, Dic)'CI/hifer
nlanni, Nallsitora hedley;, Lyrodus pedicellalus, Teredo clappi, Teredo /urcifera. and Marlesia
striata.
There are peanut shells (Lithophaginae), which bore into corals and cause danlage in the
coral reef ecosystem (Appukuttan, 1974).
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Saul, M. ] 974. Shells. 192 pp. Doubleday & Coman, Inc., Garden City, Ne\v York.
Schmeer, M.R., Horton, D. and Tanimura, A. ] 966. Mercene, a tUlnor inhibitor froln Mercenaria,
purification and characterisation studies. Life Sci., 5: 1169-1178.
Sheulnack, D. D., J-Io\vlen, M. E. H., Spence, I. and Quinn, R. J. 1978. Maculotoxin, a neurotoxin
from the venom glands of the octopus Hapalochlaena Inacll/sa identified as tetradotoxin.
Science (Washington D.C.), 199 : 188-189.
Wells, S. M. 1981. International Trade in ornamental shells 22 pp. IUCN Conservation
Monitoring Centre, Calnbridge, U. K.
3. SYSTEMATIC ACCOUNT
Class: POLYPLACOPHORA
These are commonly known as chitons or 'Coat of Mail' shells. The animal is bilaterally
sYlnmetrical and dorso-ventrally flattened. The body is shielded dorsally by eight articulating
shell plates or valves arranged in an overlapping series. The shell facilitates a chiton to roll into
a ball \vhen disturbed. The shell plates are surrounded by a girdle or peritoneum. The girdle
may be smooth or coverel. .vith calcareous scales or spines. A strong, broad and flat muscular
foot is present on the ventral side. The foot is used in creeping locomotion or in attaching to
substrate. Foot is bordered laterally by a pallial groove enclosing a variable number of double
feathered gills or ctenidia. Anteriorly the mouth opens in front of the foot. The head is not quite
distinct. There are no eyes or tentacles. There is a well-developed radula with 17 transversely
placed teeth. The intestine is coiled and opens posteriorly through a terminal anus.
The sexes are separate and \vithout any external differentiation. There is a pair of gonoducts
without connection to the pericardium. A pair of nephridia extends from the pericardium to the
gill-bearing groove. A free-s\vimming larva emerges out of the egg.
Chitons are exclusively marine, and mainly tropical, with a few species in the temperate
seas. These are mainly shallow water herbivores grazing on algae and living attached to rocks,
empty shells or other hard objects. A few species extend into great depths. A total of 500-600
species are estitnated globally. In India about 30 species are reported so far. These were reported
111ainly from Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Lakshadweep, Gulf of Mannar, Palk Bay, Gujarat
coast and Visakhapatnam on Andhra coast. Chitons in India have size ranging from 15 mm to
100 Inm in length.
Chitons are identified by the external characters of body and shell. The nature of girdle, shell
valves and the arrangement of gills are itnportant taxonomic characters that distinguish the
species. The outennost layer of the shell is periostracum, beneath which is found the tegmentum.
The innennost layer is articulanlentum. The outer ends of the articulamentum that lie under the
lateral triangles arc tenned insertion plates as they attach the valves to the Inantlc. The insertion
plates bear a ntllnber of teeth. The first and last shell valves differ from the intennediate valves
in shape and also in sculpture. The anterior Inost or first valve has a semicircular base and a
straight posterior Inargin. It does not possess any apophysis. The posterior most or tail valve is
selnicircular to half elliptical. It has a top, called Inucro, the position of \vhich is variable. A
diagonal line or elevated ridges radiate froln the Inucronal area dividing the valve into distinct
areas. The intcnnediatc valves are quite distinct froln the anterior and posterior valves. The
valve is differentiated into a central area and lateral areas, \vhich have distinct sculpture. Each
valve bears t\VO apophyses separated by ajugal sinus. The surface area is generally differentiated
GIRDLE
CALCAREOUS
SPINES ---.,f.f':n~
RADIALLY RIBBED
SUTURAL INSERTION PLATE

TUff -~,...,.~
INTERl\·IEDIATE TEETII
SPICULOSE VALVE
" LATERAL AREA
RADIALLY
NODULOSE
IJEADVALVE
SCALY DIVARICATING
LINES
3
JUGUM
GRANULES PLEURAL AREA
CENTRAL AREA SUTURAL LAMINAE
MUCRO
TAIL VALVE
1 SLIT
MOUTH
HEAD 4
INTERMEDIATE VALVE
FOOT
PALLIAL
GROOVE
SINUS
MANTLE
GILL
SPICULES
GONOPORE
5
NEPIIR IDIOPORE
TAIL VALVE
LAPPET
ANUS
Fig. 16. Chiton: External characters.

I. Dorsal View; 2. Ventral View; 3. Head Valve; 4. Intermediate Valve and 5. Tail Valve.
48 REC. ZOOL. SURV. INDIA, oce. PAPER No. 192
1
2
~---a,-.---.;....3
~?i~r---""- 4 1
5 i=\..---\--"- 2
~~::::r--3
6
7
6-~~\
B
9
10
~t\'fI~..."L---11
12
A
Fig. 17A. Chiton : Internal organs

1. Buccal mass; 2. Oesophagus; 3. Stomach; 4. Dorsal blood vessel; S. Kidney; 6. Intestine; 7. Liver;
8. Gonad; 9. Auricle; 10. Ventricle; II. Rectum and-12. Anus.
Fig. 17D. Chiton : Nervous system
I. Mouth; 2. Buccal commissure; 3. Subrodular commissure; 4. Gills; S. Anus; 6. Pallia visceral nerve cord;
7. Pedal nerve cord and 8. Cerebral commissure.
suaBA RAO : INDIAN SEA SHELLS: POL YPLACOPHORA AND GASTROPODA 49
into a Inedian and two lateral:tri-angles by the pr~n~e of a diagonal line or rib. The median and
lateral triangles bear distinct sculpture. The girdle encircles the shell yalves and varies in width
in different families. Dorsally it may bear calcareous spines, spicules or scales.
The arrangement, number and size of the gills are useful in the identification of species.
These are arranged in a longitudinal row in the pallial groove. These may extend from the
anterior to the posterior end or may be restricted to the posterior region only. The former condition
is described as holobranchial and the latter as merobranchia1. The size may increase from
anterior to posterior end and the two rows _of gil1s on either side Inay be separated from
each other and the anus by a space. In some, t~·e gt~-~s-may decrease in size towards the posterior
end. The former arrangement is described -as abanal and the latter adanal. The presence or
absence of space in relation to anus is described as ababa} with interspace and adabal without
interspace.
There has been some consistency in the classification of class Polyplacophora, although
with slight variations above the family level. Boss (1982) classified all the living chitons under
the subclass Neoloricata and divided it into three orders, nalnely Lepidopleurida (3 families),
Ischnochitonida (9 families) and Acanthochitonida (1 falnily). Kaas and Van Belle (1985), in
their revision of chitons, relegated Neoloricata to the level of an order and the three orders
mentioned above to suborders. We have followed the latter in the present treatment and all the
three suborders are represented in India.
Key to families
1. Insertion plates absent, or when present not slit into teeth ....... LEPTOCHITONIDAE *
- Insertion plates present on all valves ............................................................................. 2
2. Insertion plates finely grooved on the outside ......................................... CHITONIDAE
- Insertion plates not grooved but with variable number of slits ..................................... 3
3. Girdle with specialised tufts of spinelets but never scaly, gills not extending the full
length of the foot .................................................................. ACANTHOCHITONIDAE
- Girdle smooth to spinose but not arranged in tufts ........................................................ 4
4. Insertion plates sharp edged with several slits, girdle scaly or hairy ... ISCHNOCHITONIDAE
- Insertion plates thick, with a few slits, girdle with setae or scaly ................................. 5
5. Insertion plates thick, with a few slits, girdle hairy or bristles of varying lengths, but
never with scales, without eyes .............................................................. MOPALIIDAE
- Insertion plates with 6-10 slits, rows of large eyes along the ribs of valves, girdle with
scales ....................................................................................... SCHIZOCI-IITON lDA E *
* Not dealt in this book

Order NEOLORICATA
Suborder ISCHNOCHITONINA
Family CHITONIDAE
Animals small to large, sometimes attain about 100 mm length, sculptured with concentric
or radial ribs, valves with or without true eyes, sutural plates separated by a sinus that has
notches along the edge, insertion teeth pectinate, i.e. subdivided into smaller teeth, valve second
to seventh with one or three slits, and with we)) developed apophyses, girdle naked and
leathery, or has well developed, solid, rounded and closely overlapped scales, or with spines or
spicules.
There are numerous species in tropical and subtropical waters. Three genera and about eight
species are reported from India. Only those species, for which collections are available, are
treated in this book. Tonicia forlilirata (Reeve) was reported from Krusadai Island, but in the
absence of any material we are unable to establish the status of the species.
Seven species of the genus Chiton were reported from India but only four for which collections
available are dealt here.
Clliton granora(/;atus Leloup, 1937

(Fig. 19.1)
Shell small, up to 30 mnl in length, yellowish with brown tinge, sides of plates stretched out
and gradually sloping down. Girdle whitish, leathery with numerous small, oval, and slightly
convex, milky-white tubercle-like imbricating scales. Head valve slightly larger than the tail
valve, and bears about forty regular, close-set, slightly flattened and finely granulose radiating
riblcts with narrow interstices between them. Tail valve slightly concave, bearing lesser number
of riblets (about thirty) than the head valve, mucro or beak median, anterior end depressed.
Intermediate valves with we1l delnarcated median and lateral areas, the former bears about
eighteen to twenty regular, well arranged short, broad, prominent, close-set and fineJy granulose
longitudinal riblets running parallel to the jugum; lateral areas raised and look like isosceles
triangles, each bearing five to seven very large, broad, flattened, rather distantly placed, finely
and profusely granulose and anastamosing radiating ridges or costae, interstices slightly wide
and shallow.
India: Maharashtra : Bombay; Tamil Nadu : Tuticorin; Andhra Pradesh: Visakhapatnam;
Andaman and Nicobar Islands, attached to rocks in the intertidal region.
Spawning behaviour of the species was studied in laboratory (Nagabhushanam and Murti,
1969). Spawning extended from March to July. No spawning was observed in nature and there
seemed to be no illlpact of lunar changes. It may have a semi-annual reproductive cycle.
SUBBA RAO : INDIAN SEA SHELLS: POLYPLACOPH'ORA AND GASTROPODA 51
Association of mature individuals of both the sexes, salinity (32,.60% to 35.53%) and tetnperature
(270 C to 29.8 Q ,C) w'ere the possible factors to Induce spawning.
Synonym: Chiton (uticortensis Ray and Roychowdhury, 1968.
Chiton hululensis (Smith,1906)

(Fig. 19.2)
Terminal valves concentrically ridged. Intermediate valves with smooth 'median areas and
with undulating ridge-like structures on the lateral areas.
India: Lakshadweep, Andamans,. Elsewhere: Red Sea, Maldives. Hulule Islands; Indonesia.
Fig. 18. Acanthopleura spiniger on rock, Chidiatapu. S. Andaman.
Chiton pulch,e rrimus Sowerby, 1841

(Fig. 19,.3)
Shell small, up to 20 mm, a beautitiul speci,es. lntermediate valves with somewhat angularly
raised median area and with nodulose ribs prominently radiating on the lateral areas. Ant'erior
most valve with radiating lines of granules, last valve with depression in the middle and with
radiating granules posteriorly. Girdle with typically fine and smooth scales.
India: Nicobars. Elsewhere: Vietnam, Australia, Philippines.
Chilon ialricus Winckworth, 1930

(Fig. 19.4)
Animal large, up to 65 mm in length, oblong oval. Shell with subdued sculpture, a marked
ridge separates the lateral areas from the median area, anterior margins of the valves with well
marked growth Jines, the head valve with eight slits and tail valve with about twelve slits,
sutural laminae strong and the sinus pectinate. Colour reddish brown with dark red markings on
a yellowish fawn background, the same two colours alternate in bands on the girdle, but in
preserved specimens seen as distinct bands on the girdle.
India : Gujarat : Port Okha, Porbander and Veraval. It has Umited range in distribution
extending from Gujarat to Karachi (Type-locality) in,Pakistan..
Chiton imitator Nierstrasz, 1905

(Fig. 20.7)
Shell small, up to 25 nun in 'length. Anterior most valve semicircular, an~ with three transverse
rows of granules anteriorly. The second valve slightly larger than other valves, rough and without
any demarcation ofareas and also without sculpture. Rest ofthe middle valves narrow. Posterior-
most valve slightly depressed. Girdle narrow and covered by small, ovate, closely arranged
scales and gills extending the whole length.
India: Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Elsewhere :' Indonesia, N. W. Australia, Timor, Indo-
China.
Tonlcm p~ctlnoldes Sykes, 1903

(Fig. 20.5)
Shell small, moderately broad and surrounded by a narrow girdle. Lateral areas of the valves
distinct and elevated, valves sculptured with broad and strongly developed longitudinal ribs on
the central areas and on anterior part of the valve, interstices between these ridges traversed by
minute transverse riblets, anterior head valve, posterior part of the anal valve and lateral areas
of intermediate valves with rows of flattened nodules, the number fewer and more widely
separated on the intermediate valves, insertion plates with well developed slits, colour pale
yellowish brown on the valves and tinged with green in the girdle.
India: Tamil Nadu : Krusadai Island. Elsewhere: Sri Lanka.
Ti
I
I
~
I
1
l.
r
1
i
J.
Fig. 19. Chitons. Different species of Chitons.

I. Chiton granoradiatus x7; 2. Chiton hululensis x7; 3. Chiton pu/cherrimus x7; 4. Chiton ;atr;cus x2;
5. Ischnochiton alatus x2; 6. lschnochiton houry; x7; 7. Ischnochiton comptus x8; 8. lschnochiton
winckworthi x 7.
54 REC. Za~L. SURV. iNolA, acc. PAPBR No. 192
4
I I
2m",
....
Fig. 10. Chitons. Different species of chitons.

1. Plaxiphora tricolor, 2. Acanthoplellra sp;n;ger; 3. 4canlho chitona mahensis x8, 4. Craspedochiton
laqueatus, 5. Toricia peclinoides, 6. Cryptoplax larvae/ormis and 7. Squamopleura imitator x6.
Acanillopleura spil1iger (Sovverby, 1840)

(Figs. 18 and 20.2)
Thorny Chiton, largest of Indian chitons, up to 70-75 min in length. Girdle with numerous
curved spines. Shell large and rounded, with thick and heavy valves, sculpture on the valves
obsolete.
India: Andaman and Nicobar Islands, COlnmon, attached to rocks in the intertidal region.
Widely distributed in the Indo-Pacific.
Falnily ISCHNOCHITONIDAE
Anilnal small to medium in size, not more than 60 Inln in length. Tegmentum of the valves
2-7 usually divided into lateral and central areas by a diagonal rib. Lateral areas usually Inarkedly
elevated, shell sculpture variable, reticulate and costate. First and last valves have lnultiple-
slitted insel1ion plates, the intermediate valves have either a single slit or in some group two or
more sl its in each side.
Two genera Ischnochiton and Stenopla"'( are reported here. The former has coslnopolitan
distribution with more than 100 species, lateral areas raised and sculptured, tail valve with a
wel1-developed pointed projection or mucro. Girdle has ilnbricated and generally striated
scales.
/SC/1I1ocltilon bouT,.ri Dupuis, 1917

(Fig. 19.6)
Anima) oflTIoderate size. All the valves of equal width, tegnlentuln grayish bro\vn in colollr,
anterior most valve selni-ovaL \vith a broadly V-shaped posterior margin, surface granular,
intermediate valves hexagonal, vvith ahnost straight posterior ITIargin, lateral areas raised,
unifonnly granular, tail valve semi-oval, well developed mucronal area with a distinct post
mllcronal area. Girdle narro\v. Gills holobranchial and abanal.
India: Gujarat : Gulf of K.achchh; Tamil Nadu : Gulf of Mannar; Andalnans. Indo-Pacific.
Synonyms: Ischnochiton aeqlligranula!lIs von Knorre. (Satyatnurti, 1952)
IscllllOCltiloll (Hap/up/ax) compilis (Gould, 1859)
(Fig. 19.7 and 19.8)
Anitnal of moderate size, length 9.5 to 11.5 lnnl~ Inaxitnutn width 6.5 to 7 Innl, oblong ovate
and some\vhat flattened. Valves differentiated into central and lateral areas, central area with
56 REC. ZOOL. SURV. INDIA, oec. PAPER No. 192
minute, regular granulations, lateral area with radiating ridges broken into tubercles. Anterior
head valve and posterior tail valve distinctly sculptured. Dorsal surface of the intermediate
valves bears three distinct bands in the centre. OiJls holobranchial and abanal. Girdle with
closely packed scales.
India : Tamil Nadu : Gulf of Mannar (Shingle Island); Andamans. Lives attached to dead
shells or other hard objects. Indo-Pacific.
Synonym : lschnochilon lvinckworthi Leloup, 1936
Stenoplax (Slenoplax) alala (Sowerby, 1841)

(Fig. 19.5)
Animal of moderate to large size, length 25.5 to 37.5 mm, maximum width 12.5 to 16.2 mm.
All valves of equal width and \vithout beak, tegmentum grayish brown in colour. Anterior-nl0st
valve semi-oval, ''lith a deeply V-shaped posterior margin. Intermediate valves hexagonal, valve
as long as wide. Anterior and posterior valves concentrically ridged. The intermediate valves
with lateral and central areas demarcated by oblique ridge like elevation, lateral areas with
longitudinal ridges. Well-developed mucronal area and a well demarcated post mucronal area.
Articulamentum \"eakly developed. Girdle wide. Arrangement of gjlls holobranchial and abanal.
India: Tamil Nadu : Gulf of Mannar; Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Indo-Pacific.
Synonyms: Ischnochilo17 herdmani Sykes (Satyamurti, )952)
Ischnochiton ala/us (Sowerby)
Suborder ACANTHOCHITONINA
Family ACANTHOCHITONIDAE
Mantle smooth or hairy but not scaly. Gills do not extend the full length of the foot. Insertion
plates slitted, number of slits 5 on the first valve, tegmentum absent.
Subfamily ACANTHOCHITONINAE
Acanl/.oc/.ilona mahensis Winckworth, )927

(Fig. 20.3)
Animal small, length 10.6 to 12.5 mm, width 4.1 to 8.5 mm, intermediate valves not well
demarcated into central and lateral area, uniformly granular but smooth in the centre, lateral
edges of the shell plate covered by the girdle, insertion plates slnall but with distinct slits. Girdle
fairly broad and extensive, about eighteen tufts of bristle-like spicules arranged at equal intervals
on the dorsal side~ ventral side of the girdle smooth. Valves pale pinkish in colour. Gills
holobranchial and ~banal.
India: Mahe, Tamil Nadu : Gulf of Mannar; Andhra Pradesh: Visakhapatnam; Orissa:
Gopalpur; Nicobars.
Craspedocllitoll laqlleatus (G.B. Sowerby, 1841)

(Fig. 20.4)
Animal broadly ovate. Valves not clearly differentiated into central and lateral areas,
weakly keeled along the middle line, unifonTIly coarse granulations on either side of the
median keel. Anterior valve with weak radiating ribs and granulations. Posterior valve slnall,
mucronal area feebly developed. Insertion plates slitted, number of slits 5 on the first valve,
tegmentuln absent. Girdle narrow, dorsally with numerous close-set processes, ventral margin
slightly thickened. Mantle smooth or hairy but not scaly. Gills do not extend the full length of
the foot.
India: Tamil Nadu : Gulf of Mannar.
Subfamily CRYPTOPLACINAE
Mantle stTIooth and gills do not extend the full length of the foot, anilnal of vermiform
shape, valves reduced and separated, only slightly exposed.
A single genus, C,yptoplax that includes nine species, is distributed in the Indo- Pacific
region. Three species are reported frolTI India.
Cryptoplax larvae/ormisf. occulatus (Quoy & Gaimard, 1834)

(Fig. 20.6)
Worm-like chiton, moderately large, length 31 to 32.5 mm, width 12.5 to 14.5 mm. Valves
very much reduced and narrow, embedded in a large fleshy and densely spiculose girdle, the
first four valves generally in contact, fifth a little separated and slightly slnalier than the foul1h~
the sixth further apart and very small, the seventh still further away but slightly larger, tail valve
close to the seventh but a little larger.
India: Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Indo-Pacific.
Family MOPALIIDAE
The valves are almost concealed by the girdle. The anterior valve has eight ribs corresponding
to eight ridges on the anterior margin. The insertion plates bear slits and the teeth are not pectinate.
The intermediate and posterior valve bear a single slit on each side. The posterior valve has a
58 REC. ZOOL. SURV. INDIA, OCC. PAPER No. 1'92
median sinus on the posterior side. The sculpture consists of distinct to indistinct radial 'and
longitudinal ribs. The girdle is 1110re or less hairy or with bristles but never with spines.
The family contains seven genera and about 50 species.
Plaxipltorll tricolor Thiele, ) 969

(Fig. 20.1)
Anianal small, 15 n1m in length and 10 mm in width. First valve sculptured with eight radiating
ribs, intermediate valves with distinct central and lateral areas, two radiating ridges on the
lateral area, girdle very narrow and with bristles.
India: Tamil Nadu : Royapuram beach, Madras, Cape Comorin (Karya Kumari); Kerala :
Varknlay.
LeJoup ( 1937) gave detailed description of the scales.
Synonym : Plaxiphora indica Thiele, 1964.
Selected Bibliography
Boss, K. J. 1982. Mollusca. In: Synopsis and ('Iassification of Living Organisms. (Sybil
P. Parker, ed.). p. 945-1166. McGraw Hill Book Co.
Iredale. T and I-Iull, A. F. B. 1925. A monograph of the Australian Loricates (Phylum Mollusca
and Loricata). V. AlISI!". Zool.. 4(2) : 75-) 11.
Kass, P. 1954. Report on a collection of Loricata from Manora Island, Karachi, with description
of three new species and a variety. Zool. Meded., 33(1) : 1-9.
Kaas . P. ) 976. Notes on Loricata. Description of a new AcanlhochilollQ species from the Bay of
Bengal. Basleria, 40 : 119.. 122.
Kaas, P. and Van Belie, R. A. 1985. Monograph of Living chitons (Mollusca: PoJyplacophora)
Volume 1. Order Neoloricata : LepidopJeurina. 240 pp. E. 1. Bri1l/Dr. W Backhuys, Leiden.
Kaas, P. and Van Belle, R. A. 1985. Monograph of Living chitons (Millusca : Polyplacophora)
Volume 2. Suborder Ischnochitonidae : Schizoplacinae, Callochitoninae &
Lepidochitoninae. 198 pp. E. J. Brill/Dr. W. Backhuys, Leiden.
Lelollp, E. 1933. Resultats Scientifiques du voyage aux Indes Orientales Nierlandaises.
3. Amphineures. AfenJ. Mils. R. flisl. Nal. Be/g., 11(13): 15-33.
Leiollp, E. 1937. Notes stir les Polyplacophores. Proc. nJalac. Soc. Lond, 22(4): 163-176.
Leloup, E. 1952. Polyplacophorcs de lirean Indian. Menl. Insl. V Sci. nal. Belg., 29(3) : 1-19.
SlJBBA RAO : INDIAN SEA SHELLS: POLYPLACOPHORA AND GASTROPODA 59
Nagabhushanam, R. and MUfti, K. O. K. 1969. Physiology of reproduction in Chiton

granoradiatlls Leloup. Proc. Syn1p. Mollusca, Part II, p. 580-583. Marine Biological
Association, Cochin.
Rajagopal, A. S. and Subba Rao, N. V. 1974. On a collection of chitons froln the Andalnan and
Nicobar Islands. J nlar. bioI. Ass. India, 16(2) ; 402.
Sykes, E. R. 1903. Report 011 the Polyplacophora collected by Pro.fessor Herdl11al1, at Cey/on,
in 1902. Report to the Government of Ceylon on the pearl oysterfisheries oj'the Gu(lof
A1al1l1ar. Supp. Rep. 4 (Roy. Soc. Lond.), p. 177-180.
Winckworth, R. ] 930. Description of a new chiton from Karachi. Proc. Inalac. Soc. Lond,
19 : 78-80.
Winckworth, R. 1933. A new chiton froln the Andaman Islands. Proc. 111 alae. Soc. Land.,
20 : 318.
Class GASTROPODA
Subclass PROSOBRANCHIA
Shell is al\vays present; no shell-less prosobranch has been reported from India. It is minute
to large and of diverse shapes, usually spirally coiled, sometimes litnpet-like. rarely tubular.
OperCUlUI11 is present in the majority. Head has a single pair of tentacles bearing eyes at their
bases. Foot is strong with a flat sole. There is a radula in the majority. Mantle cavity and its
organs are located in the anterior end near the head. It contains a pair of ctenidia, osphradia and
hypobranchial glands. Some have only one ctenidium, which is always in front of the heart.
Nervous systeln is streptoncurous with crossed cerebro-visceral connectives. The right part of
the loop passes over the intestine and the len one below. Sexes are separate in majority and
united in a few. Male usually has a copulatory organ.
In India, prosobranchs are kno\vn to occllr mainly in marine ecosystem, a few operculates
on land and a fe\v in freshwater. It is the largest subclass ,vith a total of about) 52 fanli1ies and
over 20,000 species. A total of 82 families and 1000 species are reported from India.
Order ARCHAEOGASTROPODA
These are primitive fonns \vith a spirally coiled shell in majority and patellifonn shell in a
fe,,,. SheH is mediunl to moderately large. Mantle cavity contains two bipectinate ctenidia, two
osphradia, two auricles and two kidneys. The reduction of organs on the primitive left side is
not complete in sonle. RaduJa is rhipidoglossatc \"ith numerous marginal teeth. Gonad does not
open out directly but opens into the right kidney. These are predominantly marine inhabitants
\vith a fe\v species occurring in coastal freshwater strcalns and on land.
Of the total 37 families known worldwide, 16 falnilies are reported in India. Of these two
are nonmarine.
Family HALIOTIDAE
Ear Shells or Abalones
The natne Ear Shell is due to the resemblance of the shape of shell to that ofa human ear and
abalone is a trade name used in shellfish l11arkets in Alnerica and else\vherc.
Ear Shells are flattened like lilnpets, with a distinct and more or less excentric spire on the
posterior end of the dorsal surfacc. Apcrture is large and oval and without an operculum. Outer
surface of shell is covered \vith a rough, horny periostraculn but inner surface is pearly iridescent.
Shell is well perforated with a spiral row of respiratory holes, the opened holes varying between
five and ten in number, on its left Inargin. The holes to\vards apex are closed. Tentacular gill
fi laments protrude through each open hole through which water circulates. The last perforation
PROTOCONCI)
POSTERIOR~
SPIRE
\VIIORL
SPIRAL RIBS
AXIAL OR POSTERIOR
CANAL
LONGITUDINA L-T-:~011\--~
RIBS -"'r-r-"\--......~~.;::
APERTURE ----~~~--~----~~
INNER LII' --~---~.
PLAITS ON COLUMELLA ---+-_-J
COLUMELLA ----b---~
ANTERIOR CANAL
ANTERIOR
Fig. 21. Typical gastropod shell and the terminology used.

62 REC. ZOOL. SURV. INDIA~ acc. PAPER No. 192
acts as an anal funnel to get rid off the wastes that acculnulate inside the shell. The snail
attaches to the substratUI11 \vith its strong and broad muscular foot. The anilnal bears two long
tentacles on its anterior end. Radula is of primitive type and bears numerous marginal teeth.
Gills are paired.
The family is slnall and Inonogeneric. There are about 70 living species world - wide and as
Jnany as six species in Indian \vaters. These snails are algal grazers and occlir in the littoral
zone, from 0-50 m depth, in the coral reef ecosystem of Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Gulf of
Mannar and Lakshad\veep.
Tropical species ofJ-laliotis are fewer in number and smaller in size than the temperate ones.
Indian species are smaller in size compared to the tetnperate ones. The largest Indian Ear Shell,
J-Ialiolis asinina measures 7 cm in length \vhere as the California abalone, II. I'ujescens gro\vs
to over 29 cln.
Although not eaten in India, abalones are valued highly as food in America and Japan. Foot
is the edible part but often the entire visceradfe eaten. In certain season swallo\ving viscera
Inay be poisonous to Inan. Due to their lustrous Inother-of-pearllayer shells were used in inlay
\vork. Large exotic abalone shells were used in the interior of the tomb of Saliln Chisti, a
Muhammadan Saint, in Fatehpur Sikri, near Agra. Pearls of inferior quality are sOlnetitnes
secreted by abalones.
Haliotis Ql';II;nll Linnaeus, 1758

(PI. I, fig. 1,2)
Shell large~ lip to 70 nlln in length, slender, long and half as wide. outer surface
slllooth except for growth striae and a few concentric ridges around the spire, spire slightly
elevated. Four concentric ridges between the holes and left edge of the shell. Holes seven,
broad~ not elevated and progressively decreasing in size from the anterior end. Surface green
and Inottled \vith dark green. Shell comparatively smaller than the animal and cannot cover it·
c0l11pletely.
Haliotis divers/color Reeve, 1846

(PI. I, fig. 5, 6)
Shell of mcdiunl size, 30 to 50 mm in length, broad and flat. Outer surface coarse with
unevenly Inarked ridges radiating froln the spire to the lip. Eight to nine perforations open,
nloderately broad and not raised. Dark olive green. splashed with light green.
India: Andmnan and Nicobar Islands. Indo-West Pacific.
H aliotis jacnensis Reeve, 1846

(PI. 1, fig. 3,4)
Shell of medium size, 30 to 48 mnl in length, narrow, spire elevated. Twenty to twenty two
spiral and scaly ridges arising from near the spire and terminating near the holes, two scaly
ridges between the holes and left edge. Ten perforations open, closely arranged, narrow and
tuberculated.
India: Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
Haliotis pulc/lerrima Gmelin, 1791

(PI. 1, fig. 9, 10)
Shell small, 15 mm in length, circular-ovate. Spire elevated, ribs prolninent and scabrous.
Eight perforations open, of equal size and not raised. Cream colour with reddish brown markings.
India: One example bearing the locality label 'South India', which may be from the Gulf of
Mannar. Elsewhere: restricted to Pacific.
Haliotis ovina Gmelin, 1791

(PI. 1, fig. 7, 8)
Shell small to medium in size, 20 to 40 Inm in length, oval. Outer surface coarse, ribs run
from apex to lip, with a concentric row of nodules to\vards the centre, apex slightly elevated.
Five to six holes open, tubular and elevated. Olive green colour.
Ilaliotis varia Gmelin, 1791

(PI. 1, fig. 11, 12)
Shell small to medium in size, 20 to 40 mm in length, thick and broadly ovate, apex depressed
or elevated. Outer surface coarse, with oblique rows of nodulose spiral cords. Perforations five
or six in number, moderately broad, elevated and tubular. Colour variable, the collection contains
olive green or marbled with green shells.
India: Tamil Nadu : Gulf of Mannar (Krusadai and Shingle Islands); Andaman and Nicobar
Islands. Indo- Pacific.
Commonly found attached to stones or corals in coral reefs.
Synonyms: Haliotis senlistriata Reeve

BaUo/is viridis Reeve
Family FISSURELLIDAE
False Limpets, Key-hole Limpets, Slit Limpets
These differ from True Limpets and other limpet-shaped forms in possessing either a
perforation at the apex of the shell, or a slit or notch in the anterior region.
Shell is depressedly conical, round, oval or oblong ovate and generally attenuated anteriorly.
External sculpture consists of radiating striations or ribs, with crenulated or smooth margin.
Perforation at the apex varies in size and shape but often defined by a circumscribed and elevated
callus. inside. Interior is smooth and not porcelaneous. Operculum is absent.
Animal has a short snout bearing a pair of cylindrical and pointed tentacles with eyes on
their outer basal portion. A large, oval and fleshy foot with fringed margin helps the animal
to cling to rocks or other substrata in the sea. A pair of symmetrical gills helps in the
respiration.
The family is widely distributed extending from shalJow to deep sea. It is distinguished into
three subfamilies on the basis of the position of the perforation, the shape of the callus margin
h\side and the shape of the muscle scars. All the three subfamilies, namely Fissurelljnae,
Emarginulinae and Diodorinae have their representatives in Indian Seas.
Subfamily FISSURELLINAE
Shell has apical perforation at or near apex. Callus margin is rounded on the inside! Muscle
scars are rounded at ends.
Lucapinella canalifera (G. & H. Nevill, 1896)

(PI. 2, fig. I, 2)
Shell small, up to 8 mm in length, thin, oblong ovate, narrow, crenulated at each end,
sculptured with 15 to 16 strong, radiating ribs crossed by distinct concentric striae, apex
subcentral, perforation large, callus oval inside, ribs seen as coloured bands inside.
India: Andalnans. Majority of the species of the genus Lucapinel/a were reported from the
A tlantic Ocean.
Lucapinella gaylordae Preston, 1908

(PI. 2, fig. 3)
Shell small, lip to 10.75 mm in length, oblong ovate, laterally contracted, posteriorly somewhat
elevated, surface sculptured with coarse, scaly radiate ribs and concentric grooves. Perforation
almost in the centre, large, oval and contracted near both ends, rim with thick callus and crenulated
within. Margin laterally blunt, acute at the ends. Colour greenish white with irregularly arranged
dark brown rays.
India: Andamans. Endemic.
Macroscllisma e/egans Preston, 1908

(PI. 2, fig. 4)
Shell small, up to 10 mm in length, oblong narrow, sculptured with concentric striae and
longitudinal ridges, the latter raised, about 20 in number extending from perforation to anterior
margin, concentric striae thin and obsolete, the whole surface looks cancellated. Perforation
long, triangular, wide end near posterior margin, a \vide shallow, white channel leading from
the perforation to the posterior margin. Peristome acute anteriorly, thick posteriorly and laterally.
Colour light yellowish.
India: Andamans. Indian Ocean.
Subfamily EMARGINULINAE
SheJl is conical or cap-shaped, apex not perforate but a slit present on the anterior margin,
when \vith a perforation a projecting shelf within replaces apex.
Clypi{/ina (Clypitlina) notala (Linnaells, ] 758)

(PI. 2, fig. 5, 6)
Shell small" up to 22.5 mm in length, thick, conical, sculptured \vith strong, dark radiating
ribs, interstices bet\veen the ribs with fine radiating striae. Apex central, not recurved, Inargin
smooth. Interior of the margin \vith dark coloured blotches.
India: Goa, Tamil Nadu : Gulf of Mannar (Tuticorin).
Emarginula c{vpea A. Adalns, 1851

(PI. 2, fig. 7)
Shell small, up to 16 mm in length, not very thick, oblong ovate., anterior end narro\ver than
the posterior end, slightly elevated surface sculptured with evenly-spaced \vavy ribs crossed by
thin concentric striae giving latticed appearance, apex subcentral. Slit narrow and extends ahnost
half the distance between apex and margin. Creatny white. Internally slnooth, radial ridges seen
on the interior margin giving indistinctly crenulated appearance.
India: Andamans. Else\vhere : Red Sea, Sri Lanka.
Emargillu/a exilllia A. Adalns, ) 851

(PI. 2, fig. 9)
Shell small, up to ] 2 mm in length, ovate, narrow, sculptured \vith eight widely spaced
radiating ridges, interspaces bet\veen the ridges with a radiating rib and distinct concentric
striae, apex towards the posterior end. Slit small, margin crenulated and the ridges extending
beyond the margin give the shell a polygonal shape. Internal surface sinooth, margin sinuous.
India: Andamans.
Emarginula fulgillea A. Adams, 185 J
(PI. 2, fig. 8)
Shell small, up to 12 mm in length, roundly ovate, sculptured with uniformly strong, closely
placed radial riblets and obsolete concentric striae, apex in the posterior half and inclined
backwards. Slit very small and squarish.
India: Andamans.
Emarginllia ObOl'(lta A. Adams, 1851
(PI. 2, fig. J 2, 13)
Shell small, lip to 12.5 mm in length, sculptured with numerous strong, ornamented radial
riblets crossed by concentric striae giving ahnost a cancellate appearance, shell margin crenulated,
apex in the posterior half and slightly inclined backwards. Slit long and narrow, extends to half
of the distance behveen the apex and the anterior margin. Shell uniformly pale brownish.
India: Andhra Pradesh: Visakhapatnam; Tamil Nadu : Gulf of Mannar.
Rimula exquisila A. Adams, 1851

(PI. 2, fig. tOa, b)
Shell smaH, up to J8.4 mm in length, thin, conical, apical \vhorls present, inclined to right,
sculptured with fine radiating striae, margin lightly crenulated. Perforation on anterior slope
without an internal septum.
India: Nicobars. Elsewhere: Sri Lanka.
Subfamily DIODORINAE
Shell is conical and with distinct sculpture, apex perforate, supported within by posteriorly
trtlncated callus, muscle scar open anteriorly and with hook-shaped terminations.
Diodora fUlliculata (Reeve, 1850)

(PI. 3, fig. 1)
Shell small, up to 22.5 Inm in length, thin, conical, anteriorly narrow, sculptured with widely
spaced strong spiral ridges with weaker ribs in interspaccs, crossed by fine concentric ridges.
Perforation nearly rounded and towards anterior end. Exterior cream white with reddish brown
rays, inner surface smooth, whitish and glossy, margin tinged and slightly wrinkled caused by
external ribs, white rim around perforation inside.
India: Gujarat : Gulf of Kachchh; Kerala, Talnil Nadu : Mahabalipuram, Gulf of Mannar,
Kanya Kumari. Elsewhere: Persian Gulf, Pakistan.
Diodora indliScic{1 (Reeve, 1850)

(PI. 3, fig. 2)
Shell small, up to 26 mIn in length, ovate, slightly elevated, subconical, sculptured with
irregular radiating ridges and crossed by concentric ridges giving an obtusely latticed appearance.
Perforation oblong, slightly contracted in the Iniddle. Greenish white with olive green rays.
India: Gujarat : Gulf ofKachchh; Tamil Nadu : Gulf ofMannar (Krusadai Island). Elsewhere :
Pakistan (Karachi).
Diol/ora /el1tigil1osa (Reeve, 1850)

(PI. 3, fig. 3, 4)
Shell slnall, up to 20 min in length, oblong ovate, concave, rather depressed, sculptured \vith
distinct radiating ridges crossed by raised concentric lines giving thickly latticed appearance.
Perforation in the anterior third, orbicularly ovate and longer than in other species. White \vith
irregular brown markings.
India: Andamans.
Diodora rupe/lii (So\verby, 1834)

(PI. 2, fig. 11)
Shell sma1l, up to 20 mm in length, deeply conical, thick, sculptured \vith stronger radial
ridges and concentric ridges forming nodules at intersections, perforation to\vards the anterior
end. Shell margin corrugated, internal rim of perforation posteriorly truncated. White with red
or brown coloured rays.
India: Andamans. Elsewhere: Red Sea, Aden, Mauritius.
Diodora singaporensis (Reeve, 1850)

(PI. 3, fig. 5, 6)
Shell small, up to 10 min in length, elongate, conical, compressed, rounded anteriorly and
posteriorly, but slightly narrower anteriorly, sculptured with moderately strong radial ridges
with fine riblets in the interspaces, crossed by weaker and crowded concentric ridges fonning a
mesh-like network. Perforation near anterior end, broader and nlore rounded than in other species.
Exterior white with brownish rays.
India: Maharashtra : Bombay; Tamil Nadu : Gulf of Mannar; Andhra Pradesh:
Visakhapatnam; Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Indo.. Pacific.
Synonym: Diodora bonlbayana (So\verby, 1862).
Diol/ora ticllonica (Reeve, J850)

(PI. 3, fig. 7, 8)
Shell sinall, up to 13 mm. in length, narrow and elongate, moderately elevated, apex near to
the anterior margin, area anterior to the apex concave and slopes down steeply, the posterior
area of the apex slopes gradually and somewhat convex, sculptured with strong, narrow, closely-
set radial ribs and concentric ridges, radial ribs alternately stronger and weaker. Perforation
narrow, elongate and oblong. Shell lnargin slightly excavated at sides in the middle. colour dull
white with bro\vn blotches.
India: Tamil Nadu : Gulf of Mannar (Krusadai Island).
ScutllS ling"" Linnaeus, 1758

(PI. 3, fig. 9, 10)
Shell of medium size, up to 32 mm in length, oblong, anterior region Inore or less truncated
and wavy, depressed and shield shaped, surface without any sculpture except concentric gro~h
striae, apex directed backwards. Without a slit, notch or perforation. Pure white outside and
within.
Animal proportionately larger than the shell exposing the entire foot below, edges of the
nlantle reflected over the margins of the shell.
India: Andhra Pradesh: Visakhapatnam; Talnil Nadu : Gulf of Mannar (Pamban, Krusadai
Island).
Moore, R. C. (Ed.) 1960. Treatise on Invertebrate Palaeontology 1. MolluSCQ, 1 : 222. .231.

Preston, H. B. 1908. Description of new species of land, marine and freshwater shells from the
Andaman Islands. Rec. Indian Mus, 2 : 187-209.
Satyalnurti . S. T 1952. The Mollusca of Krusadai Island (in the Gulf of Mannar) 1. Amphineura
and Gastropoda. Bull. Aladras GOll/. Mus., New ser., 1(2), pt. 6 : 1-202.
Fatnily ACMAEIDAE
True Limpets
Shell is conical and limpet shaped, oval, more or less depressed, sculptured \vith radiating
ribs or striae, apex towards the anterior end and inclined forwards. Aperture is \vith a well-
defined internal border. Interior is concave, saucer-like, Inuscle scar horseshoe or pear shaped,
open in front, porcelaneous but not iridescent as in PateJlidae. There is a free branchial plulne
on left above neck, no branchial cordon. Tentacles are long and cylindrical with eyes on the
upper part of the base. Proboscis is bordered with finger-like process.
Occur attached to rocks in the intertidal region. Herbivorolls.
The family includes a single genus with a few species dis~ributed in Indian Seas. Two genera,
namely PateI/o ida and Potanlacnlaea that were fonnerly placed under this falnily are now
treated under a separate family Lottiidae.
Acmaea acllates Reeve

(PI. 4, fig. 3)
Shell small, up to 15.5 mm in length, oval, not very thick, moderately conical, sculptured
with numerous close-set radiating riblets, apex acute, towards the anterior end. Dark gray with
numerous white bands, some uniformly dark brown on the rim interrupted by small white spaces.
India: Andamans. Elsewhere: Myanmar (Arakan).
Family LOTTIIOAE
Subfamily PATELLOIDINAE
True Limpets
Patel/oitla sacc/.arina (Linnaeus, 1758)

(PI. 4, fig. I, 2)
Shell of medium size, up to 42 mm in length, solid, sculptured with seven heavy, angulated
radiating ribs, interspaces between the ribs either smooth or with radiating striae. Grey coloured
exterior, with darker ribs. Interior white with yellowish- brown spatula bearing dark brown
spots" shell margin dark coloured with white interruptions in the area of the ribs.
India: Andalnans. Indo-Pacific, common in the Pacific.
Synonyms: Patelloida stellaris Quoy and Gainlard, 1843
Patel/oida saccharil10ides Habe and Kosuge, 1966
Potamacmaea flllviati/is (Blanford, 1868)

(PI. 4, fig. 4)
Shell small, up to 14.7 mm in length, oval, thin, apex anterior, sculptured with a number of
radiating striae, exterior olive brown.
Radula docoglossate, with 65 transverse rows of teeth, central absent, two pairs of lateral
teeth one behind the other" bearing six cusps each, three marginals on either side with 13 cusps
on each.
India: West Bengal: Gangetic Delta; Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Elsewhere: Myanmar
(Irawaddy Delta).
It is an estuarine form occurring in the crevices of bricks and wooden poles, and on Avicennia
plant up to one metre height above the ground.
Family PATELLIDAE
True Limpets
Limpet shape has been developed by a few other gastropods and hence it often becomes
difficult to identify specimens based on their shells. Anatomical details are necessary for
ascertaining the identity of limpet-shaped shells.
Shell is simple, oval or rounded, cap or saucer-shaped without any perforation or notch.
Apex is central or towards the anterior third. Shell exhibits variation in size, shape, colour and
sculpture depending on the habitat of the species. Exterior surface of the shell is sculptured with
radiating ribs and concentric striae. Limpets of this family are distinguished from the other
families of the superfamily Patellacea, namely Acmaeidae and Lottiidae, by the absence of
ctenidium and the presence ofa gil1 cordon on either side of the animal. It may be either continuous
or broken. Radula is long and narrow and in the genus Cellana it is four times longer than the
shell.
The family is widely distributed. It is represented by about 90 species in all seas, with about
five species in Indian waters. These are algal grazers and occur commonly in the intertidal zone
of rocky coasts ofVisakhapatnam, Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Lakshadweep, Andaman
and Nicobar Islands.
The family is divided into two subfamilies, nalnely Patellinae· and Nacellinae and can be
distinguished on the basis of radula. In the fonner it is shorter and folded, where as in the latter
it is fairly long and coiled in loops.
Subfamily PA TELLINAE
It is represented by a single species in Indian seas.
Patella flexuosa Quoy and Gaimard, 1834

(PI. 4, fig. 5-7)
Shell of medium size, up to 50 mm in length, rounded octagonal with irregular margin,

almost flat, thin or solid, apex nearly central, exterior densely sculptured, scabrous or spinose,
with eight or nine radial folds enclosing in between radiating scabrous ridges, all projecting at
the margin. Colour duJ] white, or with zigzag brown markings, interior porcelaneous, more or
less white, spatula dark brown.
India: Andamans. Elsewhere: Tropical Pacific, Indonesia to Tuamotu Archipelago.
Subfamily NACELLINAE
It includes two genera, namely Cellana and Nacella. The former genus, which is re::,!ricted
to the Indo-Pacific, is represented by two species along Indian coasts.
eel/ana radiala radiala (Born, 1778)

(PI. 4, fig. 8, 9)
Shell of medium size, up to 32 mm in length, thin, roundly ovate, anteriorly narrow, apex
generally towards the anterior third; numerous narrow, approximately equally flat-topped radial
rib lets separated by linear grooves, and conspicuous growth striae, underlying radial folds absent.
Exterior with purplish brown markings on a yellow background, often with whitish rays, interior
iridescent with irregular dark brown blotches on the margin.
India: East and West Coasts (common), Andamans. Indo-West Pacific.
Balaparameswara Rao (1975, 1976, 1978) and Balaparameswara Rao and Ganapati (1967,
1971 a,b, 1972, 1973) studied the biology and physiology of the species at Visakhapatnam
coast.
Cellana radiata enneagona (Reeve, 1854)

Although this species was reported from Andamans, no material is available with us for
study. The description is taken from Powell (1973).
Shell moderately large, narrowly ovate, shell margin irregular, apex between the centre and
anterior third; nine conspicuous, irregular broad folds crossed by concentric growth striae giving
the surface scabrous appearance. Interior variable colour, pale creamy with dark purplish brown
streaks.
India: Andamans. Indo-West Pacific.
Cellana lestudinaria (Linnaeus, 1758)

(PI. 4, fig. 10, 11)
Shell larger than in other species, up to 95 mm in length, thick, broadly ovate, conical apex
at anterior third. Shell almost smooth or with weak and almost obsolete radial riblets, with
concentric growth striae. Exterior dark greenish brown with dark brown markings along the
margin, interior bluish silvery, large elongated spatula grayish to white or yellowish brown,
shell margin with continuous or broken dark brown markings.
India: Andaman and Nicobar Islands, common in rocky intertidal zone. Indo-West Pacific,
Andamans to the Ryukyu Islands, North Queensland to New Caledonia.
REFERENCES
Balaparameswara Rao, M. 1975. Some observations on feeding, anatomy, histology of the
digestive tract and digestive enzymes in the limpet eel/ana radiata (Born) (Gastropoda:
Prosobranchia). Proc. malac. Soc. Lond., 41: 309-320.
Balaparameswara Rao, M. 1976. Studies on the growth of the limpet Cel/ana radiata (Born)
(Gastropoda: Prosobranchia). J. moll. Stud., 42: 136-144.
Balaparameswara Rao, M. 1978. Some observations on the spawning behaviour and larval
development in the limpet, eel/ana radiata (Born) (Gastropoda: Prosobranchia).
Hydrobiologia, 47(2) : 265-272.
Balaparalneswara Rao, M. and Ganapati, P. N. 1967. On the relationship of the radula fraction
and shell length to the tidal levels in the limpet eel/ana radiata (Born). Curro Sci., 36(3) :
76-77.
Balaparameswara Rao, M. and Ganapati, P. N. 1971 a. Ecological studies on a tropical limpet
eel/ana radiata. Marine Biology, 9(2) : 109-114.
Balaparameswara Rao, M. and Ganapati, P. N. 1971 b. Ecological studies on a tropical limpet,
eel/ana radiata. Structural variations in the shell in relation to distribution. Marine
Biology, 10(3) : 236-243.
Balaparameswara Rao, M. and Ganapati, P. N. 1972. Resistance of the limpet eel/ana radiata
(80m) to variations in temperature, salinity and desiccation. Proc. Indian nat. Sci.
Academy, 38 B : 335-349.
Balaparameswara Rao, M. and Ganapati, P. N. 1973. Sex phenomenon and reproductive cycle
in the limpet Cellana radiata (80m) (Gastropoda: Prosobranchia). J Exp. Mar. Bio!.
and Ecol., 12 : 263-278.
Powell, A. W. B. 1973. The Patellid limpets of the world (Patellidae). Indo-Pacific Mol/usca,
Vol.3,no 15 : 75-205.
Subba Rao, N. V., Dey, A. and Barua, S. 1992. Estuarine and Marine Molluscs. State Fauna
Series 3. Fauna of West Bengal, Part 9 : 129-268. Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta.
Family TROCHIDAE
Top Shell, Button Shell
Shell is small to large in size, conical, pyramidal or turbinate with a flat base and a distinct
spire, round aperture, ulnbilicus narrow or completely filled with callus deposit. Interior in
many iridescent. Inner and outer lips are in different planes. Operculum is thin, multispiral and
with a central nucleus.
Animal is brightly coloured, head bears two tentacles and two flattened palmettes in between
the tentacles, foot with a thick fold on each side bearing tendril-like processes on the epipodium,
foot dorsally ridged and ventrally longitudinally divided. There is a single left ctenidillm with
sym.metrical filaments. Radula is rhipidoglossate with a central tooth, mostly with five lateral
teeth and variable number of Jnarginals.
The snails generally occur in the intertidal zone and subtidally at a depth of a few metres.
Majority of the members feed by scraping the detritus and algae from hard substrate. There are
a few filter feeders, such as Un1honizlln and carnivores sllch 'as Callios t0111 a.
Based on shell characters the family is distinguished into seven subfamilies, namely Trochinae,
Margaritinae, Monodontinae, Gibbulinae, Calliostomatinae, Umboniinae, and Solariinae.
Another subfamily Halistylinae that however, does not have representation in India, is also
recognised (Boss, 1982). The subfamily Angariinae that ,vas included by some in this family,
treated as a separate family by some, is here considered under the famiJy Turbinidae.
Subfalnily TROCl-IINAE
Shell is conical, with considerable size range, nodosely ornamented, base not exactly flat
but excavated in the middle, aperture quadrangular. Columellar lip is straight, smooth, undulating
or toothed. Outer lip is sharp.
Three genera, namely 1)·ochus, reetz,s and ('Ianculus are represented in India.
Trocllus niloticus Linnaeus, 1767

(Frontis piece)
It is the comlnerciai Trochus and largest of the genus. Shell large, solid and pyramidal, with
8 flat-sided whorls, fluted at the sutures, base excavated in the middle. Sculptured with concentric
striae, sculpture varies \vith the age of the shell; juveniles with sculpture on all the whorls,
medium-sized adults ornalnentcd ,vith granose spiral cords and full-grown adults more or less
smooth except for the few apical \vhorls. Aperture quadrangular, umbilicus excavated, with a
callus coating, columellar lip separated by a gap froln outer lip and meets basal lip in a well . .
marked angle. Opercululn dark brown, horny, thin, circular and multispiral with a central nucleus.
Colour white with red bro\vn or flall1e like stripes.
Radula rhipidoglossate with a central or rachidian tooth, five larger and broader laterals and
nurnerous Jnarginals, one ctenidium on the left.
India: Andaman and Nicobar Islands only. Elsewhere: Widely distributed in the Indo-
Pacific from Andaman and Nicobar Islands to Samoa and from Lu Chu Islands in Japan to
Australia.
Biology
Sexes arc separate but cannot be distinguished externally. The two sexes occur in about
equal proportions. Mature adult specimens generally have Inaximllln shell dialneter of 7 cln.
However, maturity in the males occurs when the shells attain 6-7 cln maxitnuln diameter. Female
becomes sexually mature when it is three years old and its shell height 9 cln. Age at which the
snails attain maturity may vary with the habitat or location.
From various indirect evidences, Amirthalingam (1937) inferred that breeding is continuous
and that spawning probably begins in April. However, Rao (1937) observed that spawning
was not confined to any well-marked season and no correlation was established with the
temperature.
'rrochus grows fast during the first 2-3 years (up to a size of 8-9 cm base diameter) and then
it slo\vs down. It lnay take about 10 years for the snail to attain shell diameter of 12 cm.
It is an herbivore with a selective deposit feeding. It feeds, mainly by scraping brown and
green algae growing on rocks and coral masses. Its comlnonest food is Hypnea sp.
It is extremely slow in its movements but covers a large area during its foraging activity
and in search of shelter. The younger snails are more active than the older ones. In Andatnan
and Nicobar Islands it occurs in scattered condition in the coral reefs and crevices and
undersurfaces of rocks encrusted with brown and green algal growths in the littoral region up to
22 In depth. Sandy and muddy places are generally devoid of Trochus. It is abundant on open
coasts exposed to rough weather but rare in protected areas. It is more abundant in the Nicobar
Islands at depths up to 13 In and about 0.5 to 1.5 km fronl the shore. In Great Nicobar it was
more abundant on the eastern side of the Galathea Bay. In Andatnans large nutnber of these
shells are found on the" inshore reefs. Shells from Nicobars are lnore flat based than those fronl
Andalnans.
Under normal conditions an individual may live for over 10 years attaining a shell diameter
of about 12 cm. The growth ho\vever, is variable and depends on the availability of food and
maintenance of optimum conditions in snail's habitat. The snail has the capacity to withstand
unfavorable conditions such as nonavailability of food and desiccation. There arc no natural
enemies to Trochus and attacks by crabs, fish, molluscs etc. seem to be ahnost negligible. There
were no reports of any disease of significance. The Inortality was mainly due to senility.
Commercial Fishing
It is exploited on a large scale in Andaman and Nicobar Islands and New Caledonia. The
latter exported about 1900 tons of shells in 1978, which constituted more than 30 per cent of the
world production.
In Andamans the species is commercial1y exploited since 1900. From 1929 to 1939, Japanese
Fishery Company had engaged professional divers for collection of shells. In the early days of
fishing, shells were easily available in the shallow littoral region at depths ranging from 5 m to
10 meters. As the fishing progressed the number of shells collected had declined and the operation
was extended to 15 meters and more. There was a gradual decline in the catch and in one season
it had fallen from 500 tons to 40 tons (Rao, 1939). The rate of collection per diver per day had
also fallen from over 20 shells in 1933 to 2.3 in 1935. During the year 1939 to 1945 commercial
fishing was stopped to allow the natural beds to recover. At present the administration has
identified nine zones for shell fishing operations. As per the recent statistics the annual production
ofTrochus is about 400 - 500 tons fetching Rs. 45000/· per ton (Nayar and Appukuttan, 1983).
At the current market prices raw Trochus shells can fetch Rs. 60,000 to 65, 000 per MT.
The commercial value of shells is often reduced by certain mo))uscs and sponges, which
either bore into the nacreous layer or create deep impressions in the periostracal and nacreous
layers where they attach themselves. Rao (1937) reported the following as causing some damage
to the shell.
Boring bivalves: Lithophaga (Lilhophaga) nasuta (Philippi)
L. (L.) Iineata (Quoy and Gaimard)
Parapholas quadrizonata Spengler
Rocellaria sp.
Epifaunal gastropods: Saptadanta nasika Prashad and Rao
Patella (Patelloidea) lara Prashad and Rao
VermetZis (Spiroglyphlls) andamanicus Prashad and Rao
Sponge: Cliona sp.
No parasites were recorded from Trochus but a commensal copepod, Panaictis camerata
Stebbing occurs in its buccal cavity_
Commercial Use
The shell has a thick tnother of pearl layer, which is used in the manufacture of pearl buttons.
After grinding, entire shells are used in the preparation of table lamps, ashtrays, agarbatti stands
etc. The mother of pearl is also used in the manufacture of ornaments like earrings, pendants,
necklaces etc.
Conservation
Starrnuehlner (1983) estimated the global demand for unprocessed Trochus niloticus shells
to be of the order of about 6000 tons per annum. In New Caledonia shells are caught before they
reach maximum diameter of 9 cm. In some countries capture of Trochus is restricted to sizes
between 6 and 12 cm. Andaman and Nicobar Shell Fishing Rules, 1978 regulate the collection
of shells. A minimum size of 9 cm diameter was fixed in the case of Trochus niloticus.
Troclrus macu/atus Linnaeus, 1758

(PI. 5, fig. 1)
Shell of medium size, up to 50 mm in height, conical, solid and heavy, whorls concave or
convexly bulging, sculptured with spiral rows of strongly nodose ribs, lower rows of nodules
on each whorl stronger and more pronounced than others, base flatly concave, surface with
beaded spiral ridges, umbilicate. Aperture lirate, prominently dentate on edge, columella distinctly
denticulate. White or gray colour, sometimes with transpiral reddish bands, or uniformly light
brown. A highly variable species.
India: Andaman and Nicobar Islands, common. Indo-Pacific, widely distributed.
Synonym : Trochus tentorium Gmelin, 1791
Troc/lus (Infundibulum) radiatus Gmelin, 1791

(PI. 5, fig. 2)
Shell of medium size, up to 45 mIn in height, conical, a little broader than high, whorls
convex, surface sculptured with three regular, spiral rows of rounded tubercles, uppermost row
on each whorl broader than the rest, interstices obliquely striated, base rather flat, with strong
spiral ridges. Columella smooth and not denticulate. Pale yellowish colour with bright, broad,
transpiral, dark reddish bands, basal surface with irregular reddish spots.
India: Gujarat : Gulf of Kachchh; Tamil Nadu : Gulf of Mannar, Palk Bay; Andatnan and
Nicobar Islands, common in subtidal coral reefs, feeds on algae such as Centroceras. lndo-
Pacific.
Troc/lus (Infundibulum) oC/lroleucus Gmelin, 1791

(PI. 5, fig. 4)
Shell of medium size, up to 42 mm in height, solid, sides slightly arched giving a round
bulging shape to the shell, surface sculptured with spiral rows of granules. Columella straight,
denticulate, general1y with four denticles, basal part of aperture also denticulate but denticles
not as strong as on the columella. Surface ornamented with broad radial reddish bands.
India: Gujarat : Gulf of Kachchh, Lakshadweep, Tamil Nadu : Gulf of Mannar; Andaman
and Nicobar Islands, COJnmon in subtidal coral reefs but not as common as T. radiatus. Indian
Ocean.
Synonym : Trochus stellatus of authors.
Trocllus (Infundiblllum) pustulosus Philippi, 1849

(PI. 5, fig. 3)
Shell small, 24 to 28 mm in height, narrower than in al1 other species of Trochus, taller than
broad, evenly conical with straight sides, sculptured with closely arranged spiral rows of rounded
nodules on the upper part, with a swollen fillet or prominent open papillae on the lower part of
each whorl. base convexly flattened, its surface strongly and reticulately grained. Columella
denticulate. Colour dull brick red with narrow white streaks.
India: Tamil Nadu : Gulf of Mannar, common.
Troellus (Belangeria) seabrosus Philippi, 1850

(PI. 5, fig. 8)
Shell smallest of the genus, up to, min in height. thick, slightly broader than long, sculptured
with spiral rows of coarse nodules, sutures incised, body whorl keeled at periphery. Base rounded,
with concentric striae, umbilicus narrow; columella dentate; outer lip lirate inside and corrugated
at base. Yellowish-brown with zigzag grayish brown flames.
India: West Coast of India, especially Gujarat. Elsewhere: Arabian Gulf. Feeds on
Chaetomorpha and detritus.
Teetus fenestratus (Gmelin, 1791)

(PI. 5, fig. 5)
Shell small, up to 35 mm in height, conical, longer than broad, sculptured with coarse axial
ribs on the upper part of the whorl and granulose spiral cords below, base flat, with concentric
striae. Non-ulnbilicate, glazed small patch near columella, an arcuate spiral fold on the columella,
but not as strong as in T. pyralnis. Cream colour with an ornamentation of brown patches
behveen axial ribs.
India: Andalnan and Nicobar Islands, moderately common in intertidal reefflats. Elsewhere:
Pacific, not common.
Teetus mauritianlls (Gmelin, 1791)

(PI. 5, fig. 7)
Shell of medium size. up to 36 m1n. in height, elongately conical, solid, broader than in T.
fenestratus, whorls convexly sloping, sculptured with axial wrinkles and spirally arranged
SUBBA RAO : INDIAN SEA SHELLS: POL YPLACOPI lORA AND GASTROPODA 79
squamate tubercles, base concavely flattened, with concentric ridges in the middle. Columella
with a strong twisted callus, sometitnes with a fold on the interior of the aperture. Colour brownish
white, often variegated with faint red and green.
India: Andamans, not common. Elsewhere: Madagascar, Mauritius, Singapore.
Tectus pyramis (Born, 1778)

(PI. 5, fig. 6)
Shell moderately large, up to 70 min in height, solid, generally longer than broad, surface
finely striated and spiral rows of nodules becoming obsolete at the base of each whorl, slnall,
blunt nodules at the sutures becoming obsolete towards the base, base flat and spirally striated.
Non-umbilicate, columella with a strongly arcuate spiral fold, aperture with 4 to 5 strong teeth.
Colour dull grayish brown with axial streaks.
India: Lakshadweep, Andamans, shallow reefs. T. pyranlis var. noduliferus from Andatnans
only. Indo-West Pacific.
In some specimens the nodules on the sutures are \vell developed into tubercles. These are
referred to Teclus pyralnis var. noduliferus Lanlarck, 1822.
Clanculus clanguloil/es (Wood, 1856)

(PI. 6, fig. 3)
Shell small, up to 12 mm in height, solid, globose-conical, sculptured with closely set spiral
rows of beaded ridges, interstices between the ridges minutely transpirally striated, every second,
third . . or fourth rib ornamented with white and black spots arranged in twos or threes, body
whorl slightly deflected and rounded at the periphery, base convex. Aperture oblique, with a
false umbiliclls, columella with a broad trifid tooth, basal part of lip expanded, feebly denticulate,
outer lip ,vith a strong tooth in its upper part. Colour reddish brown, tnarked all over with
rectangular dark spots.
India: Tamil Nadu : Gulf of Mannar (Palnban, Krusadai and Shingle Islands); Andaman
and Nicobar Islands, subtidal, among weeds and rocks. Elsewhere: Central and West Pacific,
not common.
Synonym: Clanculus sagittarius
C/al1cu/us margaritarills Philippi, 1847

(PI. 6, fig. 4, 5)
Shell small, up to 15 mIn in height, solid, broader than long, whorls flat sided, base less
convex. Colour reddish orange, every second row of spiral granules on the early whorls and
every spiral row on the body whorl ,vith third or fourth granule bla(.k.
India: Andamans, subtidal rocks, not common. Else\vhere : Pacific, not cotnmon.
C/ancli/us micro(/on A. Adams, 1851

(PI. 6, fig. 2)
Shell slnaller than in the preceding two species, up to 10 mm in height, globose, relatively
depressed than in other species, whorls rounded, sculptured with beaded spiral ridges, stouter
ones alternate with the thinner ones, interstices between the ridges traversed by minute oblique
striae, basal part with uniformly strong spiral ridges. Ulnbilicus rounded and tapering below,
tnnbilical margin toothed. Aperture large, almost rounded, margin not toothed as in other species.
Colour dark brown with white spots and blotches.
India : Tamil Nadu : Gulf of Mannar (Pamban); Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Indian
Ocean, not common.
It resembles Cianclilus atropurpureus (Gould), however the colour is uniformly black and
without any spots.
Subfamily UMBONIINAE
Un,bollium vesliarium (Linnaeus, 1758)

(PI. 6, fig. 1a-f)
Shell small. up to 15.5 mm in height, much smaller than the commercial Top Shell, lenticular,
solid, depressed, glossy and smooth. Umbilicus filled by a large subcircular, white or dark gray
callus pad. Colour of the shell highly variable, white, pink or brown with dark gray or purple
markings, as many as t\venty-four colour morphs can occur in a population. Operculum circular,
brown and multispiral.
Sexes separate, ova and sperm released into water, fertilisation external, warmer months
favourable for breeding.
Button top, unlike Trochus, is a filter feeder. Its feeding activity is seen mainly during high
tide and at low tide it closes the aperture with the operculum and buries itself below the wet
sand.
Button shells are gregarious and occur in abundance on the wave-beaten, seaward side of
sand flats in the river rnouths along east and west coasts of India. It has a preference for sandy
substratum \vith mediuln sized grains.
Huge quantities of button tops are collected from the coast near the Kakinada Bay, Andhra
Pradesh and Port Novo, Tamil Nadu. At Kakinada they are used in the..-l'!1anufacture of lime.
Along Tamil Nadu these are used in the preparation of garlands, door hangings and in inlay
work. The flesh is also reported to be eaten in some parts and is sold in some markets of Bombay.
Its lise as a food is however, limited since the flesh part is very small.
India: East and West Coasts. Indian Ocean and East Indies. The snail prefers medium grade
sands. It is absent in sands mixed with mud.
Monilea (Monilea) callifera (Lamarck, 1822)

(PI. 5, fig. 9)
Shell slnall, up to 15 mm in \vidth, conical, spire elevated, sculptured with closely set, raised,
beaded spiral ridges, base convex. Sculptured with beaded spiral ridges, two closely arranged
coalescing with each other fol1owed by a single spiral ridge. Aperture roundly quadrate, shining
interior, ridged within. Colour creamy white with sparsely arranged bro\vn blotches.
India: Tamil Nadu : Palk Strait; Andaman and Nicobar Islands, intertidal rocks. Indo-West
Pacific.
Monilea (Monilea) masoni G. & H. Nevill, 1874

(PI. 5, fig. 10)
Shell small, up to 15 Inm in width, depressed, globosely conical, whorls six, angulated,
sutures canaliculated. Sculptured \vith closely set acute spiral ribs, at least one spiral cord on
each whorl gemmated, base convex, sculptured \vith closely set flat spiral cords. Ulnbilicl1s
deep and bordered by a broad and raised callosity, the callosity very closely, regularly and
convexly striated. Colulnella concave, margin very thick and callously indented. Crealny white
surface and cords densely spotted and lined with greenish brown, base greenish-brown and
sparsely spotted with creamy white.
India: Andamans. Elsewhere: Sri Lanka.
It resembles to some extent Monilea be/cheri (Philippi).
MOllilea (Mollilea) ,varlle!ordi (G. & H. Nevill, i 874)

(PI. 5, fig. 11)
Shell smaller than in the other species of the genus, up to 10 min in length and 14 mm in
width, flatly conoidal, whorls six, angular. Sculptured with distantly placed spiral ribs bearing
a little undulating costulations and a keel at the prriphery, shoulder of the body whorl with
c~ronations separated by wide interspace, base smooth or with flat superficial ribs. Apel1ure
quadrate, columella with a denticle and a smooth thickened callosity around the umbil icus,
interior of aperture with obsolete striations. Colour brown with irregular and minute white
reticulations.
India: Andamans (rare). Only type col iections.
82 REC. ZOOL. SURV. INDIA. acc. PAPER No. 192
Subfalnily MARGARITINAE
Shell is small to moderately large in size, thin, iridescent \vithin, ovate conical or conical
turbiniforln. Outer lip is thick or thin, peristolne not strongly prosocline, either interrupted or
continuous, inner lip generally toothless or with a tooth.
About 16 genera, but only two genera, namely Elichelus and Vacellchelus are so far known
from Indian Seas.
ElIcllelus alabastrum Reevc, 1857

(PI. 6, fig. 7)
Shell small, up to 20 mm in height, sculptured with prolninent carinate ridges- three on
spiral whorls and eight on body whorl, four \videly spaced and the lower ones closely set,
beaded and interspersed with scaly striations. Aperture ovate, interior lirate and iridescent. Colour
creamy white \vith dark brown blotches on ridges.
India: Orissa, Tamil Nadu, Pondicherry. Elsewhere: Malaysia, Penang.
ElIcllelul~ asperlls (Gmelin, 1791)

(PI. 7, fig. 1, 2)
Shell small, up to 28 mm in height, thick, whorls inflated with elevated spire, sculptured
with granular or closely beaded spiral ridges. Aperture round, columella with a strong tooth on
its base, outer lip thick and the ridges extending on to its margin give toothed appearance on its
external margin, interior of aperture iridescent and the ridges seen through it. Colour deep
bluish gray and marked \vith irregular patches of dark brown. Young shells with a well-developed
umbilicus, disappearing in full-grovvn specirnens.
India: West Coast of India, Talllil Nadu : Gulf of Mannar; Andhra Pradesh, Andamans.
Indo-Pacific.
SynonYlns: Euchelus indicus A. Adalns, 1854
Elicheills proxi/llllS A. Adalns, 1854
Ellc:lleills atratlls (GmeJin, )79])

(PI. 6, fig. 8, 9)
Shell small, up to 18 mm in height, globose conic, sculptured with densely beaded spiral
ribs, 12 on body \vhorl and 5 on the pcnultimate whorl, sutures deeply canaliculated. Aperture
circular, umbilicate, colulnclla \vith a tooth at base. Colour variable, marked by irregular,
obliquely transpiral ro\vs of purplish brown spots.
India: Tamil Nadu : Gulf of Mannar (Pamban); Andalnan and Nicobar Islands, intertidal
rocks. Indo-Pacific.
It resembles E. asperlls and E. circuiailis in general shape. It differs from the former in
being reddish brown and in possessing greater number of strong spiral ridges on the whorl. It
differs from E. circulatlls in having narrower and less strongly inflated whorls and in the circular
nature of rings on the spiral ribs.
Eucllelus circlilatus (Anton, 1848)

(PI. 7, fig. 3)
Shell small, up to 12 mm in height, ovately conical, sculptured with three prominent, elevated
and distantly placed spiral ridges on the penultimate whorl and nine on the body whorl, ridges
bear obliquely, transpirally elongated grains and distantly placed brownish Inarkings alternating
with white. Interstices with minute transverse granules, sutures canalicuJated. Aperture
semicircular, umbilicus general1y deep. Colunlella with a denticle at base. Interior pearly white
and grooved.
India: Andhra Pradesh: Visakhapatnatn; Tamil Nadu : Gulf of Mannar; AndaJnans.
Eucllelus Ilorritlus (Philippi, 1846)

(PI. 6, fig. 11)
Shell small, up to 13 mm in height, globosely conic, sculptured with three prolninent, raised,
granose spiral ridges. Colulnellar edge with a small denticle, umbilicus open, interior of apel1ure
iridescent silvery white. Colour red with brown and white maculations.
India: Maharashtra : BOlnbay; Talnil Nadu : Tuticorin; Orissa: Ganjam. Indo-Pacific.
Eucllelus qllatlricarillatus (Horten, )

(PI. 6, fig. ] 0)
Shell small, up to 20 mm in height, globosely conic, depressed, sculptured with three or fOllr
distinct, prominently beaded spiral ridges or lamellae on the body whorl, often these ridges Inay
be two in nunlber. Spire suppressed in the juveniles but elevated in adults, but not as much as in
E. asperus. Umbilicus closed in adults. In general it resembles E. asperus and considered as its
variety by many.
India: Gujarat : Gulf of Kachchh; Maharashtra : BOlnbay; Tamil Nadu : Gulf of Mannar~
Madras; Andhra Pradesh : Bheelnunipatnam. Indian Ocean.
Synonym: Euchelus tricarinatus (Lamarck, 1822).
Vaceucltelus angulatlls (Pease, 1868)

(PI. 6, fig. 6)
Shell minute, up to 5 mm in height, thick, ovate conical, whorls five, sculptured \vith widely
spaced and keeled spiral cords, seven on the body whorl and three on the penllititnate \vhorl,
interstices crossed by strong axial ribs giving a pitted appearance, umbilicus almost closed.
Aperture circular, columel1a smooth, outer lip giving crenulated appearan ~e due to the keeled
spiral cords. Colour white.
India: Andamans. Elsewhere: Gulf of Arabia, Sri Lanka.
Synonyms: Alinolia subplicala Nevill
Euchelus foveola/us (A. Adams, 1851)
Subfamily MONODONTINAE
Shell is of medium size, littoriniform or turbiniform, thick, smooth or with spiral ridges.
Outer lip is strongly prosocline, columellar lip either toothless or with one or more teeth.
The subfamily is represented by three genera in the Indian Seas.
Monot/onta (Monotlonta) australis Lamarck, 1799

(PI. 7, fig. 4)
Shell small, up to 23 mm in height, thick, globose, spire conical, apex acute, sculptured with
coarse spiral cords. Umbilicus closed, columella white with a single arcuate tooth and with a
plication below that. Aperture white and lirate, outer lip thick, with a number of plications
interiorly. Colour dark purple, \vith regularly arranged rectangular and dark brown spots separated
by \vhite interspaces.
India: Gujarat, Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Indo-West Pacific.
Monodollta (Monodonta) labia (Linnaeus, 1758)

(PI. 7, fig. 5)
Shell of medium size, up to 35 mm in height, thick, globose, spire conical, apex acute,
sculptured with nodulose spiral cords, sutural spiral cords with larger nodules than others.
Umbilicus closed, col!Jmella \vhite, \vith a single arcuate tooth. Aperture rounded, white
and Iirate, outer lip thick, crenulated within. Colour dark purple, a few nodules of light gray
colour.
Callt/,ar;tlus interrllptus (Wood, 1856)

(PI. 7, fig. 8)
Shell small, up to 9 rnm height. conical, higher than broad, apex pointed and straight, whorls
not inflated, straight \vith flattened sides, sculptured with evenly spaced spiral ribs, interstices
narro\v and groove like, lowel lnost ribs on each whorl stouter and more prominently raised
than the rest, interstices \vith minute obsolete transpiral striae. Umbilicus a shallow pit.
Aperture slightly squarish, columella thick and finely ridged. Colour cream, tessellated with
rusty brown patches or spots.
India: Tamil Nadu : Gulf of Mannar (Pamban); Andhra Pradesh: Visakhapatnatn.
Cllrysostoma paral/oxum (Born, 1780)

(PI. 8, fig. 1)
Shell small, up to 20 rnm in height, thick and shining, spire low, smooth, sutures shallow.
Columella with callous deposit, umbilicus closed. Aperture almost round, smooth, outer Jip
smooth and thickened, aperture golden-orange in colour. Shell colour creamy white, reticulated
with green network.
India: Nicobars, intertidal rocks. Indo-Pacific.
SubfaJnily : GIBBULINAE
Shell is generally small, turbiniform, surface either smooth or sculptured with spiral ribs,
peristotne interrupted. Columellar lip smooth or with a \veak tooth, outer lip strongly prosocline.
Three genera, namely Gibbula, Osilinus and Rubitrochus are reported to occur in Indian seas.
Gibbula (Gibbu/a) blanfortliana G. & H. Nevill, 1869

(PI. 7, fig. 6, 7)
Shell minute, up to 5 Inm in height, thick, conical, broader than high, sculptured with strong
spiral Brae separated by broad interspaces, body whorl angulated in the middle, a little convex
ventrally. Umbilicus nalTOW and deep, colulnel1a oblique ending in a tiny denticle, outer lip faintly
denticulate on the interior. Colour pinkish white and Inottled with radiating brown markings.
India: Tamil Nadu : Gulf of Mannar (Pam ban); Andamans. Elsewhere: Sri Lanka.
Gibbula (Gibbu/a) eoeni Preston, 1908

(PI. 8, fig. 2)
Shell minute, up to 3.5 mm in height, turbinately conical, whorls 5, shouldered above and
flat below, sculptured with coarse spiral striae crossed by axial striae giving a cancellate
appearance, sutures not well defined. Umbilicus broad and deep. Aperture subcircular, columella
simple, outer Jip thin and-smooth. CoJour yellowish gray.
India: Andamans, 13 to 18 m.
Osilinus kotse/lyi (Philippi, 1849)

(PI. 7, fig. 9)
Shell small, up to 20 mm in height, thick, taller than broad, whorls straight sided and stepped
below incised sutures, apex pointed, sculptured with nodulose spiral ribs and nodules prominent
below sutures, ribs smooth around umbilicus. Aperture squarish. UlnbiJicus narrow and deep,
COlUl11ellawith callous deposit, outer lip almost straight. Colour grayish white with blackish
axial streaks.
India: Gujarat : Gulf of Kachchh. Not reported from the East coast of India. Elsewhere:
Persian Gulf, Gulf of Olnan, Red Sea and Pakistan.
RlIbitroC/IIIS pulc/,errinlus (A. Adams, 1855)

(PI. 8, fig. 3)
Shell slnall, lip to 13 Inln in height, thick, as long as broad, whorls swollen, apex blunt,
sculptured with closely-set coarse spiral ridges, prominently beaded above suture and strongly
keeled on the shoulder of the body whorl, \vide]y spaced axial folds. Umbilicus broad and deep,
bounded by a strong keel. Aperture round, columella without any teeth, interior of aperture
crealnish \vhite with distinct spirallirae. outer lip not very thick and Inargin crenulated. Colour
cream" with dark brown spots just below the shoulder of the body whorl.
India: Andalnans, subtidal rocks. Elsewhere: Red Sea and Arabian Sea.
SynonYln : Gihbliia declivis (Forskal, 1775).
Subfamily CALLIOSTOMATINAE
Shell is sInall, conical or turbinifornl, base generally flattened, sculptured \vith spiral beaded
ribs or keels. Aperture is quadrangular, peristome discontinuous, columellar lip strongly
prosocline.
The genus ('al/ioSI0I710, known by several hundred species in the Atlantic, is represented by
a fe\v species in Indian Seas.
Cal/iosto",a scobillatus (A. Adams, 1854)

(PI. 8, fig. 6)
Shell small, up to 16 lnln in height, conical, taller than broad, whorls convex, sculptured
\vith granular, closely set spiral ridges. Base gradually declining with 6 to 7 granular spiral
ridges, the interspaces with thin granular spiral riblets. Aperture subquadrate, columella simple,
outer lip cOin pressed on the upper part, thin, colour dull brown.
India: Maharashtra : BOlnbay, probably endemic.
Col/iostonla speciosa (A. Adams, 1854)

(PI. 8, fig. 7)
Shell small. up to 14 mnl in height, conical, whorls convex" sculptured with four to five
granulated spiral ridges, the upper two sutural ridges more prominent than others, the lower
three or four spiral ridges enclosing a thin granulated spiral ridge between the two thick ridges,
SUBBA RAO: NO AN SEA SELLS: POLYPLACOPHORA AND GASTROPOD,A 87
base flat and ornamented with five strongly grained spiral ridges. Aperture subquadrate, outer
lip arcuate. 'Colour yellowish brown with red brown blotches.
India: Andamans. Elsewhere : Australia.
(al/iostoma sublaeve E. A. Smith, 1895
(PI. 8, fig. 9)
Shell small, up to 20 mm in height, ,conical, as broad as high, whorls flat sided, surface
smooth except for the double-spiral ridges along the suture with interspace marked by axial
striae, a faint spiral riblet above the suture, base flat, with three concentric striae near the
columellar region. Aperture subquadrate, columella simple with a rttle callus deposit, outer lip
simple and thin. Creamy white.
Ind ia : Andamans, Bay of B'engal.
Ca//iostoma tranquebarica (Roeding, 1798)
(Fig. 22, PI. ,8, fig. 8)
Shell sm,all, up to 6 mm in height, very ,coni,cal, bro.ader than high, whorls with straight
sides and sharply pointed .apex, shell smooth except for two spiral ridges just above the suture,
body whorl with a strongly angulated periphery, base flat, very feebly ridged. Umbilicus closed,
columella smooth,arcuate, aperture rhomboidal with pearly interior.
India: Orissa : Puri:; Andhra Pradesh: Visakhapatnatn; Talnil Nadu : Madras, Gulf of Mannar
(pam ban); Pondicherry. IndianOc _an.
Fig. 11. ,Cal/io3toma tranqueba.rica with animal, Pond i cherry.

88 REC. zaaL. SURV. INDIA, acc. PAPER No. 192
Subfamily SOLARIELLINAE
Shell is minute to small in size, conical. Aperture is almost round, umbilicus open.
The subfamily includes three genera of which two, namely Solariella and Minolia are
represented in the Indian Seas.
Solariella (Solariel/a) bel/ula Melvill and Standen,

(PI. 8, fig. 10)
Shell minute, up to 4 mm in height, broader than high, depressedly turbinate, whorls five,
sculptured with spiral striae, five to six on the body whorl and two to three on the penultimate
whorl, a beaded spiral cord just below the suture, spiral striae crossed by axial striae or cords,
base round and traversed by three spiral striae. Umbilicus broad ornamented by axial cords,
umbilical region white and surrounded by dark brown band. Aperture quadrate, columella thick,
outer lip thin. Colour brownish white with dark brown blotches.
India : Orissa : Puri.
Solariella (Solariella) deliciosa Preston, 1916

(not figured)
Shell minute, up to 2 mm in height, rather depressedly conic, whorls four, carinate and
angled above, body whorl with a strong keel at the periphery, the upper one tuberculated,
sculptured with very minute and close-set microscopic transverse striae, sutures impressed,
umbilicus moderately wide, ornamented round its margin with a broad ridge crossed by regular
transverse costulae. Aperture diamond shaped, columella simple with a sharply curved margin
outwardly expanded above into a wing like projection, outer lip acute., sharply angled at base
and at the top.
India : Tamil Nadu : Bnnur backwaters near Madras.
It is probably an young one of Solariella satparaensis Preston, 1914.
Soltlriella (Solariella) dulcissima Preston, ·1908

(PI. 9, fig. 1, 2)
Shell minute, up to 4 mm in height, depressedly conical, whorls 4 ~, sculptured with very
fine spiral striae crossed by axial striae giving a finely granular appe·arance, obtusely keeled,
sutures impressed. Umbilicus wide, bordered by two coarse whitish ribs, the lower one being
nodulose, aperture roundly ovate, columella simple, interior iridescent, with spiral striae. Colour
white with large blotches of crimson, base with rows of dark crimson dashes and flecked with
spots and blotches of lighter crimson colour.
India: Andamans, 13 to 18 m.
Solariella (Solaricida) infundibulum Watson,

(PI. 8, fig. 11)
Shell small, up to 16 mm in height, not very thick, globose with elongate spire, whorls
seven, rounded, sculptured with two rows of nodules on each whorl, base with indistinct axial
striae and four distinct spiral ridges. Umbilicus widely open, bordered by a beaded spiral ridge,
aperture quadrate, columella simple. Colour dull brown.
India: Andaman Sea, 210m.
Minolia holdsworthana (G. & H. Nevill, 1871)

(PI. 8, fig. 4)
Shell minute, up to 4.5 mm in height, turbinate, thin, higher than broad, spire elongate,
sculptured with a few distinct, widely spaced and raised spiral ribs, three on the penultimate
whorl and the body whorl, the lower one running on the shoulder of the latter gives it a keeled
appearance. Umbilicus open, bordered by spiral striae, aperture round and simple, columella
without any callus deposit, outer lip thin and crenulated. Coloured with dark green spots and
stripes.
India: Tamil Nadu : Gulf of Mannar (Pam ban ); Andamans. Elsewhere: Sri Lanka, Myanmar,
Singapore.
Minolia casta (G. & H. Nevill, 1874)

(PI. 8, fig. 5)
Shell minute, up to 4 mm in height, turbinate, thicker than in the preceding species, whorls
six, spire elevated, sculptured with distinct, closely-set spiral ribs, five on the penultimate whorl
and body whorl, three on the apical whorls, sutures channeled, base gradually sloping, smooth.
Umbilicus deep and narrow, bordered by two coarse spiral ribs traversed by obsolete axial
striae, aperture subquadrate, columellar lip simple and straight, outer lip a little thick and smooth.
Colour brownish white with dark brown blotches on the spire whorls and a dark brown spiral
band on the shoulder of the body whorl.
India: Tamil Nadu : Gulf of Mannar; Andamans.
Amirthalingam, C. 1932a. Breeding of Trochus and preservation of beds in the Andamans.

Curro Sci., 1 : 31.
Amirthalingam, C. 1932b. Correlation of sex and shell structure in a mollusc, Trochus niloticus.
Curro Sci., 1 : 72-73.
Amirthalingam, C. 1932c. Trochus niloticus Linnaeus in Andaman waters. Nature, London,

130 : 98.
Bour, W. 1990. The fishery resources of Pacific Island countries. Part 3. Trochus. FAO Fisheries
Technical Paper, 272.3 : 14 pp (MS). FAO, Rome.
Dam Roy, S., Raveendran, E. K. and Mustafa, ArifM. 1999. Coral reef management of Andaman
and Nicobar Islands with special reference to stock enhancement of Gastropod resources
(Trochus niloticus Linnaeus and Turbo marmoratus Linnaeus) associated with coral
reefs. (MS)
Dam Roy, S. and Soundararajan, R. 1998. Studies on maturity and spawning of top shell Trochus
niloticus (Linnaeus) in Andamans. J. Andaman Sci. Assoc., 14(1) : 34-40.
Herbert, D. G. 1987. Revision of the SolarieHinae (Mo])usca : Prosobranchia: Trochidae) in
Southern Africa. Ann. Natal. Mus., 28(2) : 283-382.
Herbert, D. G. 1992. Revision of the Umboniinae (Mollusca: Prosobranchia: Trochidae) in
Southern Africa and Mozambique. Ann. Natal. Mus., 33(2) : 379..452.
Herbert, D. G. 1993. Revision of the Trochinae-tribe Trochini (Gastropoda: Trochidae) of
Southern Africa. Ann. Natal Mus., 34(2) : 239-308.
Herbert, D. G. 1994. Trochus kotschyi, the first Indian Ocean record of the genus Osilinus
(Mollusca: Gastropoda: Trochidae). J. Zool. Lond., 233 : 344-357.
Heslinga, O. A. 1981 a. Larval development, settlement and metamorphosis of the tropical
gastropod, Trochus niloticus. Malacologia, 20(3) : 349-357.
HesJinga, G. A. 1981 b. Growth and maturity of Trochus niloticus in the laboratory. Proc. Fourth
Coral Ree/Symp; 1: 39-45.
HesJinga, G. A. and Hillmann, A. 198.1. Hatchery culture of the commercial top snail, Trochus
niloticus in Palau Caroline Islands. Aquaculture, 22( 1-2) : 35-43.
Heslinga, G. A., Orak, O. and Ngiramengior, M. 1983. Trochus reseeding for commercial
exploitation, Republic of Palau. Annual Report o/Pacific Tuna Development Foundation.
Micronesian Mariculture Demonstration Centre, Koror, 105 pp.
Hickman, C. S. ) 992. Reproduction and development oftrochacean gastropods. Veliger, 35(4) :
245-272.
Hickman C. S. and McClean, J. H.-Systematic revision and suprageneric classification of
trochacean gastropods. Science Series, Natural Hist. Mus. Los Angeles. 3S : 1-169.
Kalyana Sundaram, N., Ganti, S. S. and Karande, A. A. 1974. The habit and habitat selection
)
by Umbonium vestiarium L. Proc. Indian nat. Sci. Acad., 38 B (3&4) : 273-287 (1972).
Kamala, B. 1984. Studies on the ecobiology of a marine intertidal gastropod Euchelus asper,
inhabiting the Palm Beach Shingles. Ph. D. thesis. Andhra University, Waltair.
Nair, K. Nagappan and Appukuttan, K. K. 1983. Turbo and Trochus resources. Bull. cent.
mar.Fish. Res. Inst., 34 : 81-84.
Nash, W. J. 1988. Hatchery rearing of Trochus as a management tool. Aust. Fish., 47 (11) :
36-39.
f\
Nash, W. J. 1989. Hatchery production of Trochus (Trochus niloticus) in Vanuatu: review of
the existing facilities and a manual of rearing technique appropriate for a small-scale
hatchery. Rep. to FAO/ SPADA, Suva. Fiji. 38 pp.
Nash, W. J. 1990. Spawning and hatchery rearing of Trochus (Trochus niloticus) in Vanuatu,
with a discussion of the Vanuatu trochus fishery. Rep. to FAO/ SPADA, Suva, Fiji.
33 pp.
Rao, H. S. 1936. Observations on the rate of growth and longevity ofTrochus niloticus Linnaeus
in the Andaman Islands. Rec. Indian Mus., 38 : 473- 498.
Rao, H. S. 1937. On the habitat and habits of Trochus niloticus Linn. in the Andaman Sea. Rec.
Indian Mus., 39 : 47-82.
Rao, H. S. 1939. Consolidated Report 011 the shellfisheries in the Andamans 1930-35. 130 pp.
Delhi.
Rao, H. S. and Raja, K. C. K. E. 1936. A statistical study of the data of growth in shell of
Trochus niloticus in Andaman waters. Rec. Indian Mus., 38 : 499-502.
92 REC. zaOL. SURV. INDIA, acc. PAPER No. 192
Family STOMA TELLIDAE
Shell is small, either limpet- or ear-shaped with a few whorls and a low depressed spire.
Aperture is proportionately larger, obliquely elongate, without umbilicus. Operculum is present
or absent.
Pseudostomatella papyracea COrnelin, 1791)

(PI. 9, fig. 7)
Shell minute, up to 3.5 Inm in length, not very thick, whorls 3, spire short, last whorl
finely spirally striate. Aperture ovately rounded, some with a narrow umbilicus and an
extension of a narrow channel, operculum flat and multispiral. Surface dull brown with black
markings.
India : Andamans.
Stomatella sulci/era Lamarck, 1822

(PI. 9, fig. 5, 6)
Shell small, up to 23 mm in length, thick, narrow and elongate, body whorl large with fine
spiral striae. Aperture large and oval, without umbilicus, silvery white interior, without operculum.
Surface dark brown.
India: Andamans.
Stomatella asperulata A. Adams,

(PI. 9, fig. 3)
Shell small, up to 18 mm in length, thin, spire distinct, sculptured with fine spiral striae.
Aperture large and oval, without umbilicus, outer lip slightly thickened, interior dull white.
Surface gray coloured.
India: Andamans.
Broderipia rosea (Broderip, 1834)

(PI. 9, fig. 4)
Shell small, up to 23 mm in length, oval, limpet-shaped, surface smooth. Aperture large,

without operculum. Surface dark brown with white coloured rays.
India: Andamans. Else\vhere : Sri Lanka.
Stomatia (Stomatia) p/lymotis Helbling, 1779

(PI. 9, fig. 14)
Shell small, up to 20 mm in length, ear-shaped, thick, spire small, whorls plicate below
sutures, sculptured with several spiral ribs, shoulder of the body whorl with two spiral rows of
nodules, coarse and elevated axial ribs between the spiral cords. Aperture ovate triangular,
without umbilicus, interior silvery white, columella smooth and concave, no operculum. Surface
white in colour.
India: Andaman and Nicobar Islands, rare. Elsewhere: Japan to South West Pacific, not
common.
Family CYCLOSTREMATIDAE
SheJl is minute, usually not more than 3 mm in height, discoidal, often transparent, umbilicus
widely open. Aperture is rounded. Operculum is round, corneous and multispiral with a central
nucleus and tiny calcareous beads externally. Surface is sculptured with strong spiral ridges.
Radula has a strong central flanked by numerous delicate lateral teeth.
Cyclostrema eburnea G. & H. Nevill, 1875

(PI. 9, fig. 8-11)
Shell minute, usually not more than 2.5 mm in height, lenticular, whorls angulated, sculptured
uniformly with spiral striae.
India: Orissa: Puri (Type locality). Known by types only.
Cyclostrema micans A. Adams, 1850

(PI. 9, fig. 12, 13)
Shell minute, up to 2.5 mm in height, lenticular, whorls 4, sutures distinct, slightly raised
spire, aperture round with thickened lips, a deep umbilicus. Sculptured with three raised spiral
ribs crossed by axial striae, base of the body whorl with strong axial ribs.
India: Maharashtra : Bombay; Andamans.

SUBBA RAO : INDIAN SEA SHELLS: POLYPLACOPIIORA AND GASTROPODA 95
Family TURBINIDAE
Turban Shells
Shell is small to very large in size extending up to 200 mm in height, globose, strong
and solid with a few whorls and an elevated spire. Aperture is fairly large and nacreous
within. Columella is smooth and arched with callous deposit. It usually is without an umbiliclls.
Sculpture consists of spiral ribs or ridges. Operculum is a characteristic type. It is thick, solid,
flat on the inner side and convex externally. Its inner surface bears a thin, chitinous layer while
the outer surface may be slnooth or ornamented. It is multispiraI with a central or an eccentric
nucleus.
The animals resemble trochids in the possession of a pair oftentaculate processes or lappets
and elongate lateral cirri. Cephalic tentacles are long. Foot is large and truncate anteriorly.
Radula is rhipidoglossate with five lateral teeth. Sexes are separate. Fertilization is external and
free-swimming veliger larvae are released.
Turban shells have worldwide distribution. These are common in the intertidal region and a
few species occur in the sublittoral region of reef ecosysteln in wann telnperate and tropical
seas. They feed on algae.
The family is divided into five subfalniJies, namely Turbininae, Liotiinae, Angariinae,
Astraeinae and Homalapolnatinae, which include a total of about 500 species. The last l11entioned
subfamily is not reported from India.
Subfalnily TURBININAE
Turbo (Turho) pet/zoiatlls Linnaeus, 1758

(PI. 10, fig. 4)
Shell large, up to 75 mm in length, longer than broad, body whorl slightly inflated, spire
more or less high, totally smooth and shining except for the spiral growth striae. Apel111re large
and rounded, columella smooth, without ulnbiliclls. Colour brown or brownish green, ornamented
with dark chestnut spiral bands bearing white transpiral Inarkings often of arro\v-head shape,
spiral bands two to three on the spire whorls and about 5 or 6 on the body whorl, surface with
large irregular dark reddish-brown blotches. Aperture \vith silvery interior, colulnellar border
yellowish, outer lip border white. Operculum smooth and shining with bluish green centre and
brownish margins, inner face of oper-cululn flat.
India: Tamil Nadu : Gulf of Manna .. (Krusadai and Shingle Istands); Andaman and Nicobar
Islands. Elsewhere: Central and Western Pacific.
96 REC. Za~L. SURV. INDIA, acc. PAPER No. 192
Turho (Lullatica) marlnoratus Linnaeus, 1758

(PI. 10, fig. 5)
Shell largest in the fanlily, up to 200 mm in length, solid and heavy, broader than high . body
whorl very expanded and sculptured with one to three nodulose ridges and the rest of the surface
smooth. Aperture large. rounded with pearly interior, columella smooth and concave, with a
large, rough, wavy fasciole in adults, outer lip smooth and with a blunt knob externally, lip
below the columella with a shallow siphona) canal. Surface colour green or brownish-green
with spiral lines of light green or brown, often with dark brown, green or cream coloured blotches.
Operculum large, heavy, smooth and white in colour.
India: Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Indo-Pacific, west of the Fiji Islands, not common.
Turban Shell has become rare in the A & N Islands and is represented by sparse populations.
During the years 1994-95 and 1998-99 a total of 320 kg of shells ,vere colJected (approximately
350 numbers).
Turbo (Lllnel/a) cillerea (Born, 1778)

(PI. 9, fig. 15)
Shell of Inedium size, lip to 45 mm in length, thick, broader than high, spire depressed, body
whorl rounded, sculptured with fine, often indistinct spiral cords crossed by fine arcuate growth
striae. Apel1ure round, \vith deep umbilicus, colulnella with a callus deposit and produced into
a pointed lobe exteriorly. outer lip sharp, aperture silvery \vhite within. Surface colour gray,
marbled with dark green often with a cream coloured band on the body whorl. Operculum
finely pustulose all over, white coloured \vith black shade towards the labial edge.
India: Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Indo-Pacific, common.
Synonym: Lunella porphyrites Gmelin, 1791.
Tllrbo i"dicus E. A, Smith, 1894

(PI. 9, fig. 16-19)
Shell small, up to 23 mm in length, not very thick . spire small, sculptured with one spiral
carina on the apical whorl, two on the penultimate whorl and three on the body whorl, ''lith fine
spiral striae all over. Aperture round. \vithout ulnbilicus, coltnnella with callus deposit, interior
of aperture dull silvery white. Surface cream coloured. Operculum smooth, cream coloured,
convex, \vith a depression in the centre towards the columella.
India: Tamil Nadu : Gulf of Mannar, 1093 m. Sri Lanka Endemic.
SUBBA RAO : INDIAN SEA SIIELLS : POL YPLACOPHORA AND GASTROPODA 97
Tlirbo (Marmarostoma) argyrostoma Linnaeus, 1758

(PI. 10, fig. 3)
Shell large, up to 70 mm in length, longer than broad, whorls subangulate, sculptured \vith
unequal scabrous spiral ribs and ro\v of spines on its shoulder as \vell on its lower part, with
axial lirae. Aperture more or less rounded, columella with or without umbi licus, interior of
aperture silvery white, finely edged \vith green. Surface white coloured with chocolate bro\vn
streaks and green blotches on spiral ribs. Operculum white or greenish~ conspicuollsly pustulose
with striae on the margin.
India: Lakshadweep, Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Indo-Pacific. Usually found under
boulders and stones among coral reefs.
Synonym: Turbo nzargaritacells Linnaeus, 1758.
TlIrbo (Marmarostonla) brlll1eus (Roeding, 1798)

(PI. 10, fig. 7, 8)
Shell of medium size, up to 50 mm in length, thick, slightly longer than broad, apex pointed,
sculptured \vith uneven, raised, scabrous spiral ridges, shoulder of the body whorl keeled giving
a subangular look, spiral ridges finely and transpirally grooved. Aperture Inoderately large,
rounded, with a very nan·ow ulnbilicus~ lip below collllnella extends down\vards slightly, aperture
silvery \vhite with a pale greenish tinge. Shell crealn coloured \vith dark brown or black and
slightly wavy axial flames. Opercultlln finely granulate all over, dark purple on the coltllnellar
side and lighter towards the margin.
India: Maharashtra, Goa, Tanlil Nadu : Gulf of Mannar (Pamban, Krusadai and Shingle
Islands); Andhra Pradesh: Visakhapatnaln; Andalnan and Nicobar Islands. Indo-Pacific,
common. Feeds on algae, Caulerpa raCel11Sa, Graci/aria and Centroceras.
SynonYln : Turbo inlercostalis Menke, 1829.
Turbo (Marinarostonlll) crassus Wood, 1828

(PI. 10, fig. 1, 2)
Shell large, up to 70 nun in length, thick, spire propol1ionately stnall, whorls subangulate,
sculptured with spiral ridges separated by grooves, ridges crossed by longitudinal striae giving
a beaded appearance, shoulder of the body whorl with a prominent carina. Aperture roundly
ovate, \vith lllnbilicus, columella with sloping callus, lip belo\v the columella produced anteriorly,
outer lip thick and \vavy due to ridges on the surface, aperture silvery white within. Colour
creamy yellow with irregular blackish brown Inarkings. Operculum dark brown in the centre
and lighter towards margins, with granules all over.
India: Andamans. South\vest Pacific, west of Polynesia.
Tllrbo (Marmaroston,a) .fparverius Gmelin, 1791

(PI. 10, fig. 6)
Shell large, up to 80 mm in length, thick, spire elongate, sculptured with smooth, even-sized
spiral cords crossed by longitudinal striae, one of the spiral cord on the shoulder of the body
whorl slightly larger than others, without spiral grooves. Aperture ovate, \vithout umbiliclls,
colulnella \vith white callus and produced anteriorly as a flat lobe, outer lip thick and sharp,
aperture si Ivery white within. Colour light gray with black markings and fawn coloured
interspaces. Opercululn \vith lninute granules in the centre and striae on the margin, purple
bro\vn in the centre with green lnargins bordered by white.
India: Andamans. Mostly Southwest Pacific, not common.
Subfamily LIOTIINAE
Shell is relatively smaller than that in the other subfamilies, surface \vith distinct axial and
spiral sculpture, spire low. Umbilicus is present. Aperture is nacreous. Operculum is calcareous
on the outer surface and chitinous within.
Liotilla cidaris Reeve, 1843

(PI. 11, fig. 3, 4)
Shell small, up to 10 lnm in length, thick, broader than long, spire depressed, sculptured
with prominent axial ribs crossed by spiral ribs, the latter in groups of closely placed twos or
threes follo\ved by pits in the interspaces separated from other such group. Aperture rounded
\vith small deep umbilicus bordered by a rib. surrounded by distinct pits on the top, columella
with callus extending below into a distinct canal, outer lip thin supported by a varix. Colour
cream. Operculum not seen.
India: Tamil Nadu. Andamans. Elsewhere: Indonesia.
Liotina peron;; (K iener, 1839)

(PI. 11, fig. 1, 2)
Shell small, up to 16 lnln in length, solid, longer than broad, spire depressed, sculptured
\vith transpiral varicose ribs giving it prominently angulated or polygonal shape, interspaces
between the varices crossed by longitudinal ridges giving latticed appearance. Aperture rounded,
with widely open, funnel shaped umbilicus, bordered by a rib, colunle1la and outer lip thick.
Surface crealn coloured. Opercululn round, concave in the centre, \vith minute granules.
India: Tamil Nadu : Madras; Andamans. Mostly Pacific.
Synonym: L;o/;a var;cosa (Reeve, 1843) of authors.
SUBBA RAO: INDIAN SEA SHELLS: POLYPLACOPIIORA AND GASTROPODA 99
Subfamily ANGARIINAE
Shell is moderately large, spire low, surface with ro\vs of nodules or bran-ching spines.
Aperture is round or ovate, interior nacreous, either denticulate or striate, ulnbilicus wide.
Opercululn is horny and thin resembling that of Trochus.
Angaria (Angaria) delp"inus (Linnaeus, 1758)
(PI. t 1, fig. 5-8)
Shell large, up to 70 mm in width, solid, broader than long, spire depressed, sculptured \vith
irregular, coarse and squamose spiral cords \vith hollow spines on the shoulder row, spines
curved below, t\VO to three spiral cords below the suture, six rows of spines on the dorsal
surface of the body whorl separated by scaly interspaces. Aperture rounded, \vith a deep
ulnbilicus, silvery to golden colour, smooth within, columella extending below into a slnall
shallow siphonal canal, outer lip margin \-vavy. Surface gray in colour.
India: Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Indo-West Pacific, westward of Fiji Islands.
SynonYlns: Angaria atrata Reeve, 1843
Angaria laciniata (Lamarck, 1819)
Angaria (Allgaria) distorta Linnaeus, 1758
(PI. 11, fig. 9, ) 0)
Shell of medium siz, up to 40 mm in width, solid, heavy, slightly broader than long, spire
slightly elevated than in A. delphinlls, body \-vhorl large and of considerable width, angulated at
shoulders, with blunt knobs on the shoulder and flat area fronl suture to shoulder, sculptured
with coarse uneven spiral ridges, some with nodules. Aperture rounded, with deep \vide unlbilicus
bordered by rough and spinous ribs~ aperture \vhite within. Surface pale pink.
India: Andamans. Elsewhere: South China Sea.
Synonym: Angaria plicala (Kiener, 1838).
Subfamily ASTRAEINAE
Shell is conical, longer than broad, with Inore or less carinate periphery, base flattened.
sculptured \vith spiral striae and nodules or spines. Aperture is obliquely ovate, \vith or \vithollt
umbilicus. Operculum is oval and horny.
100 REC. ZOOL. SURV. INDIA9 acc. PAPER No. 192
4slra/illm semicoslala (P. Fischer, 1880)

(PI. 12, fig. 1-3)
Shell slnall, up to 24 mm in length, trochiform, elevated and conical, sculptured with oblique
axial nodulose cords, just above suture and on the shoulder of the body whorl with prominent
nodules, base ahnost flattened and sculptured with 10 to 12 beaded spiral cords separated by
thin grooves. Aperture obliquely ovate, without umbilicus, columella with a strong fold,
opercululn not seen.
India : Gujarat : Kathiawar; Maharashtra : Bombay; Lakshadweep, Tamil Nadu: Gulf of
Mannar; Andanlans. Indian Ocean.
Asra/illm rllodosloma (Lamarck, 1822)

(PI. 12, fig. 7, 8)
Shell of medium size, up to 30 tnm in length, thick, longer than broad, trochiform, body
whorl gradually leading to the spire whorls, sutures indistinct, sculptured with oblique axial
ribs, lower part of whorl with a spiral ro\v of hollo\v spines, followed by another row of erect
spines. Base flattened, sculptured with uneven foliated spiral cords. Aperture oval, without
utnbilicus, columella with callus deposit and channelled, outer lip thi~k and \vavy. interior of
aperture white in colour. Colour uniformly white. Opcrculunl oval shaped, white in colour,
Inargin ridged.
Aslra/il"n stel/tlre (Gmel't" 1791)

(PI. 12, fig. 4, 5)
Shell of medium size. up to 40 mm in length; trochifonn, thick and solid. Sculptured with
oblique spiral ribs and spiral rows of short spines. base flattened and sculptured with spiral
threads. Aperture obliquely ovate, without umbilicus. outer lip \vith a depression at the base.
Colour crealn.
India: Gujarat, Maharashtra~ Tamil Nadu. Elsewhere: Australia.
Boln,a girgylllls (Reeve, 1861)

(PI. 10, fig. 9)
Shell slllall~ up to 28 mm in length. turbiniform, as broad as long, sculptured with spiral

rows of granules crossed by thin~ \vavy axial threads, lower half of each whorl carry a spiral row
of hollow spines~ each other spine strengthened with 5 to 6 longitudinal ribs. base not flat but
sculptured with ten rows of spiral granules separated from each other by interspaces distinguished
by the presence of wavy transpiral threads. Aperture oval, without umbilicus, col1l111eila \vith
callus deposit, bordered by strong denticles and a depression giving the ilnpression of an
ulnbilicus, columella channeled below, outer lip thin, interior of apel1ure dull \vhite in colour.
Shell CrealTI coloured with dark brown markings. Opercliluin with granular surface and \vhite in
colour.
India: Andamans, 75 m. West Pacific, deep water, rare.
Oanapati, P. N. and Ramasastry, R. V. 1974. Oxygen COnSlllTIption and Inetabolic rate in relation
to body size in the intertidal gastropod, Turbo intercostalis (Menke). Proc. Indian. Natn.
Sci. Acad, 38(8) (5 & 6) : 355-359 (1972).
Chatroponyl, S. 1995. Green Turbo (Turbo nlQnnoralus Linnaeus) an endangered species in
Thailand. Phuket Marine Biological Centre, Special Publication, No. 15 : 39-40.
Family PHASIANELLIDAE
Shell is oblong ovate, spire elevated, longer than broad, smooth or \vith fine spiral sculpture
but not ribbed, without lllnbiJiclIs, with discontinuous peristome. Opercululn is smooth and
glossy, calcareous \vith eccentric nucleus. spirally ridged on the external surface.
Pllasianella nivosa Reeve, 1862

(PI. 12, fig. 6)
Shell small, up to 20 rnm in length, generally resembling that of a Httorinid, whorls six, body
\vhorl inflated, spire elevated, surface srTIooth, glossy and body \vhorl \\'ith broad spiral ribs
separated by narrow grooves. Shel) brown coloured, encircled by evenly spaced fine
discontinuous spiral \vhite lines alternating \vith bro\vn ones. Sometilnes with distinct spiral
row of dark bro\vn spots or Inarkings imlnediately below the suture.
India: Tamil Nadu : Gulf of Mannar (Krusadai and Shingle Islands). Indo-West Pacific.
Family TRICOLIIDAE
Shell is small, ovate, generally smooth but often with spiral ribs. Smaller specimens are with
umbilicus, columellar margin arched. Operculum is convex externally.
Trieolia indica Winckworth, 1940

(PI. 12, fig. 9)
Shell minute, up to 5 mm in length, thin, ovate, whorls five, rapidly increasing in size,
longer than broad, surface smooth, sutures distinct. Aperture oblong ovate, without umbilicus,
columellar margin produced below, outer lip thin. Operculum externally convex resembling
that of a turbinid, white. Colour dull brown with white flecks below the sutures, a white band on
the shoulder of the body whorl.
India: Maharashtra : BOlnbay; Kerala : Cochin; Tamil Nadu : Madras; Orissa: Puri.
REFERENCE
Robertson, R. 1985. Archaeogastropod biology and the systematics of the genus Tricolia
(Trochacea : Tricoliidae) in the Indo-west Pacific. Monograph Marine Mollusca; 3 :
1-103, pIs ]-96.
Family NERITIDAE
Shell is small to medium in size, mostly globose, thick, with a few whorls and a low spire,
sutures shallow or strongly indented. Body whorl is large, rounded and inflated. Aperture is
reduced to almost a D-shaped opening, its straight side bordered by the columellar edge.
Umbilicus is lacking. Outer lip may be thickened and toothed inside. Columella is also toothed
in many and has an extensive, flattened callus, whose surface is often tuberculated or irregularly
wrinkled. Surface usually is sculptured in marine forms with spiral ribs or striae and axial
growth striae. Colouration is highly variable. Operculum is generally calcareous, with an internal
appendage.
Head shows a definite pattern of pigmentation. A pair of long, contractile tentacles arises
from a tentacular base on the dorsal side of the head. From the outer base of each tentacle arises
an eyestalk with eye at its tip. Foot is strong, but small in marine forms and enlarged in freshwater
forms.
Buccal cavity consists of a long, ribbon-like radula with several rows of teeth. It is a
rhipidoglossate radula (ex :5: 1:5:cx:). Mantle cavity consists of a bipectinate ctenidium, a ridge-
like osphradium, kidney, hypobranchial gland and the terminal parts of digestive and reproductive
systems. Nervous system is typically streptoneurous in the majority.
Sexes are separate. Male has a penis and a prostate gland. Male gonoduct is an open, ciliated
groove. Female reproductive system is more complicated than in the male. Fertilisation is internal.
Egg capsules are deposited in shallow water-filled depressions on the surface of rock or
underneath rocks which afford some protection from the sun. Veligers have long planktotrophic
life.
The family has a cosmopolitan distribution, but majority of the species occur in the Indo-
Pacific region. These inhabit intertidal rocks, mangrove swamps and jetties. About 200 species
are known worldwide. Forty-two species are reported from marine ecosystem and freshwater
streams, mostly along coasts of India.
The characters of taxonomic value are as follows:
1. Shell shape, colouration and surface sculpture
2. Nature of columellar callus
3. Nature of outer lip
4. Structure of teeth in the radula
Nerita (Nerita) undata Linnaeus, 1758

(PI. 13, fig. 1-3 and PI. 18, fig. 2)
Shell small, up to 29 mm in height, thick and subglobose, whorls 3 Yl, slantingly convex,
spire a little exserted. Aperture with broad and thickened columellar callus bearing promiscuous
wrinkles, columella with two teeth in the middle, outer lip thickened and expanded, outer margin
slightly grooved, on the inner side with 14 to 16 faintly marked elongated teeth, first and second
teeth on the posterior end broader and club- shaped. Sculptured with 30 to 35 somewhat flat
slightly rounded distinct and oblique spiral ribs. Coloured ash-white, mottled and variegated
with gray olive, rarely three broad black spiral bands on the body whorl, aperture yellowish-
white, outer lip fringed with light gray or with sparse black specks.
India: Gujarat, Maharashtra, Goa. It is conspicuously absent from the East Coast and also
Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Indo-Pacific.
It occurs in the crevices of rocks near high water mark.
Nerita (Tlteliostyla) albicilla Linnaeus, 1758

(PI. 14, fig. 1-4 and PI. 17, fig. 3)
She)) of medium size, up to 33 mm in length, very thick, somewhat obtusely triangular,

whorls three, narrovi and gradually expanding towards the aperture, body whorl large and
expanded, spire Inarkedly depressed, scarcely reaching the upper extremity of the outer lip,
suture faintly impressed. Aperture broadly semilunar, columella \vith large callus deposit, with
fine and profuse granulations, those on the upper half larger than those on the lower half, inner
columellar margin slightly convex, with 4 to 6 fine teeth in the middle, outer lip thickened, with
18-19 fine and close-set teeth on the inner margin, the knob-shaped superior most and inferior
most teeth stronger than the rest. Sculptured with close-set spiral ribs diverging fan-wise towards
the expanded outer edge of the shel1. Colour variable, white, orange or yellow, with densely or
sparsely crowded, maculated or interrupted or irregular black bands with blotches of oraAge.
Operculum thick, externally flat, whitish and thickly granulated, internal surface light coloured
with a reddish-gray centre and white margin.
India : Gujarat, Maharashtra : Bombay; Goa, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh :
Visakhapatnam; Orissa: Paradip; Andaman and Nicobor Islands. Indo-Pacific, common from
Red Sea and South Africa to Japan and Australia, rare or absent in Polynesia.
It occurs in abundance on the rocky substrata in the shady and damp places in the lower
eulittoral region, occasionally extending into sublittoral region. Egg capsules \vere observed
from February to September.
Nerita (Theliostyla) chamaeleon Linnaeus, 1758

(PI. 14, fig. 8, 9 and PI. 17, fig. 4)
Shell small, up to 25 mm in height, solid and globose, whorls three, convex, spire low, but
pointed, suture faintly impressed. Aperture crescentic, slnall, deep, columella area thick, callus
traversed by irregular longitudinal ridges on the inner and outer halves with granulations in
between, columellar margin of outer lip thin and sharp, inner margin with a callosity bearing 10
to 12 distinct teeth, the first and second superior teeth knob-shaped and the inferior most tooth
stronger than others. Sculptured with variable number of crenulated spiral ridges crossed by
faint axial lines of growth. Coloured with blotches of black, green or yellowish-green, some
times with three broad, dark-brown or dark-green spiral bands, columella dull white, outer lip
fringed with black spots or with a thin black band. Operculum slightly convex, externally grayish,
almost regularly and finely granular, internally brownish-red in colour.
India: Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, West Bengal, Andaman and Nicobar Islands,
common. Gulf of Aden to Australia and Melanesia.
It exhibits remarkable colour variation.
Nerita (The/iosty/a) oryzarum Recluz, 1841

(PI. 14, fig. 10-13 and PI. 17, fig. 6)
Shell small, up to 28 mm in height, globose or obliquely oval, rather solid, whorls 3 ~ to 4,

spire obtuse, but slightly exserted. Aperture with not much expanded but sloping columellar
callus, granular in the middle and wrinkled in the upper half, columellar margin concave, with
three distinct teeth, outer lip thickened, inner side with 12 to 14 teeth, the superior two teeth
knob-shaped, broader than the rest, the first tooth separated by a gap from the rest, other teeth
longitudinally expanded. Sculptured with rather weak, small, and smooth spiral riblets numbering
30 to 35; riblets alternately strong and weak, often two weaker ones after a strong one, riblets
more numerous and crowded on the base of the body whorl. Usually slate coloured and peculiarly
mottled with zigzag maculations and sometimes an interrupted band of white, aperture white.
Operculum externally ash-gray with white nuclear spot and numerous broadly rounded granules,
those near the outer margin slnaller and closer, internal surface flesh-red, slightly grooved on
the inner margin and furrowed in the middle, apophyses strongly curved downwards.
India: Endemic to Maharashtra on the West Coast.
It occurs on rocks and stones between half and full tide marks.
Ner/la (The/iosty/a) patula Recluz, 1841

(PI. 13, fig. 4, 5 and PI. 18. fig. 3)
Shell small, up to 18 mm in height, obliquely semi-oval, a little triangular, whorls two, spire
minute, impressed. apex distinct but not pointed. Aperture broadly expanded, columella flatly
excavated, columellar callus moderately large, with numerous small and black granules in the
middle. with an oblique fold-like structure on the posterior side, columellar margin concave and
toothless, margin of outer lip not much thickened, anteriorly slightly expanded to fonn a fold,
inside with 19 to 20 black and longitudinally elongated teeth of equal size. Sculptured with
moderately flat, 30 to 40 uneven oblique ribs with narrow interspaces. Colour uniformly light
black with a mixture of pale yellow in the middle, outer lip white and fringed with light yellowish
gray. Operculum externally convex with numerous granules, ash-gray with whitish nucleus,
internally pale-yellow.
India: Andamans. Mainly Pacific, from Indonesia to the Philippines.
Occurs on small stones in bays with much less wave action.
Nerita (Tlreliosty/a) p/anospira Anton, 1839

(PI. 15, fig. 3, 4 and PI. 17, fig. 9)
Shell of medium size, up to 31 mm in height, angularly semiglobose, flattened above with

an obtuse shoulder angle, whorls three, narrow, compressed at the spire, broadly expanded at
the aperture, spire very small, flatly inlpressed, sutures not distinct. Aperture with even columellar
callus, granulated at the upper half and just below it a shallow depression bearing granules,
columellar margin with four broad based and unequal projecting teeth, a ridge-like elevation in
between the superior-most tooth and the posterior part of outer Jip; outer lip thickened and
broadly effused, slightly wavy in outline, inner side smooth with very faint indications of teeth.
Sculptured with 20 to 25 elevated, rounded and somewhat broader spiral ribs alternating
frequently with narrow, thread-like riblets. Colour yellowish-gray with maculations or zigzag
striations of brownish-black, aperture yellowish-white, colulnellar callus yellowish-white with
a long blotch of black on its upper half, outer lip fringed with black and an yellowish-white
interior. Operculum flat, smooth, purplish, white near the nucleus, internal surface flesh-red;
whitish, and pointed anterior end, yellowish and broader posterior end, the parietal margin
somewhat tucked in to accommodate the large columellar teeth.
India: Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Mainly Pacific.
It occurs adhering to roots and stems of coastal mangrove plants like Rhizophora sp. one or
two feet above the substratum. Not reported from the mainland India.
Nerita (Tlleliosty/a) squamulattl Le Guillou, 1841

(PI. 14, fig. 5-7 and PI. 17, fig. 5)
Shell small, up to 29 mm in height, suborbicular, broadly depressed, spire obtusely flattened,

only slightly raised above the level of the body whorl, whorls three, broadly expan~ed towards
the aperture. Aperture broadly effused, columella concave bearing three to fOllr minute but
distinct teeth in the middle, columellar surface concavely depressed, irregularly ridged on the
outer edge and finely tuberculated in the middle, outer lip outer margin thin, inner margin
thickened with 15 to 17 elongate and wide spaced teeth, the first two superior teeth broader and
longer than the rest. Sculptured with irregular and crowded spiral ribs, generally 12 to t 4 \veB
developed broad ribs enclosing in between weak and obsolete ribs, surface beset with short
scaly processes giving the shell scabrous appearance. Colour variable, black or opaque white
with obliquely wave-sprinkled minute gray dots or orange yello\v clouded with black, aperture
white, outer lip margin fringed uniformly black or with dots of black. Operculum slightly convex,
externally bro\vnish with a pink tinge, finely granular, internally yellowish-white, peg merely
an elevated portion with concentric ridges.
India: Talnil Nadu, Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Elsewhere: Singapore to Japan.
It occurs in abundance near Inangroves, crawling on muddy substratum. It is also found in
bays and jetties but very rarely adhering to rocks. It occupies a different ecological niche avoiding
mixing with the related Nerita chanlaeleon. The mantle is brownish gray with prominent black
\vavy lines in N. chamaeleon but dull white with black wavy lines in N. squamulata. The sculpture
on the shell and the shape of the aperture are also distinct in the two species. N. chamaeleon
occurs on rocks in the eulittoral zone and near the low water mark. N. squan2ulata breeds from
October to November.
Nerita (Tlleliostyla) textilis Gmelin, 1791

(PI. 15, fig. 7, 8 and PI. 17, fig. 2)
Shell of medium size, up to 36 mIn in height, ovately globose, thick, whorls three, gradually
expanding towards the aperture, spire flat. Aperture slightly thickened within and ridged,
columellar area flatly excavated, callus granular throughout, colulnellar margin concave with
two faintly marked teeth, outer margin of outer lip thickened, fimbriated, strengthened by ribs,
inner margin with 15 to 20 teeth. Sculptured with strong, rounded, rugose or somewhat nodose
spiral ribs, alternately broad and narrow, rather irregular. Coloured white and rather distantly
tessellated \vith black, apex and coJulnellar callus tinged with yellow, aperture yellowish.
Operculum thick and even, thickly granulated, ash-gray with \vhite nuclear area, internally
reddish-gray, the rib short and \vhite, the peg broad and pointed.
India: West Coast, especially Gujarat. East Coast of Africa to West Coast of India.
It occurs on rocks near high water mark.
Neriltl (Rilena) costala Glnelin, 179)

(Fig. 23, PI. t 6, fig. I, 2 and PI. 17, fig. 2)
Shell of medium size, up to 32 Inm in height, globose and solid, whorls 2 ~, spire obtusely
flattened, but with distinct conical apex, sutures indistinct. Aperture crescentic, small cOlnpared
to the size of the shell. colulnellar area convex, columellar callus dips steeply inwards towards
the aperture, surface wrinkled with ribs continuing on to the callus, columellar margin with four
strong and broad teeth, the central two more prolninent than the one on either side, outer lip
, EA SHELLS: POLYP o A 109
1. erita ostata ith ,egg ca s111e~ - hidi tapu, outh Andanlan.

thickened, slopes gradually inside, with seven strong teeth, the knob-shaped first upper tooth
stouter and stronger than the rest. Sculptured with 12 to t 6 regular, strong, round, broad and
conspicuously black spiral ribs with very thin axial striae, interstices neatly excavated and yellow.
Columellar area white often with an yel10wish tinge on the callus, inner side of outer lip glistening
white. Operculum somewhat thin, concave, externally gray, rib strong and curved, with striations,
peg reduced.
India: Lakshadweep, not common; Andaman and Nicobar Islands, common. It usually does
not occur on the mainland India, a small population noticed at Visakhapatnam was probably a
recent introduction. Mainly Pacific, Australia to Japan.
It occurs in the crevices of rocks in the upper littoral zone particularly at Mean High-water
springs. It is abundant on rocks along the seaward shoreline where these are directly exposed to
waves and less common or even absent in sheltered bays and lagoon shores. The snails breed
from September to November.
Nerita (Ritena) grayana Recluz, J843

(PI. 15, fig. 1, 2 and PI. 18, fig. 5)
Shell of medium size, up to 39 mm in height, ovately globose and thick, whorls 3~, rather
narrow, spire short but distinct and elevated, apex white and pointed. Aperture proportionately
larger, colume1lar callus slopes deeply inwards, with strong wrinkles - uninterrupted in the
upper halfbut shorter and scantly set in lower half-columellar margin concave with two to four
strong and blunt teeth, a ridge-like elevation on the posterior side, outer lip moderately thickened~
with a callosity on the interior bearing 19 to 20 small teeth, the first superior (posterior most)
knob-shaped and the rest 10ngitudinal1y elongated and moderately weak. Sculptured with strong,
exalted and crenulated spiral ribs, numbering 24 to 30, on the upper half of the whorl strong ribs
enclose thin ribs between them, interspaces broader than the ribs. Colour grayish black flecked
with white, apex white, aperture light yellow, outer lip tessellated and flecked with black.
Opercululn flat, thickly granulated, gray with white nucleus, internal surface also grayish, rib
strongly developed and furrowed.
India: Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Elsewhere: The Philippines.
It occurs on the roots and branches of mangroves along with Nerita planospira and was
observed to thrive well out of water even during high tide.
Nerita (Ritena) maxima Linnaeus, 1791

(PI. 15, fig. 5, 6 and PI. 18, fig. 1)
She)) largest among Indian neritids, up to 41 mm in height, obliquely oval, thick, solid, three
to four tilnes higher than broad, whorls 3 ~, narrow, body whorl large and somewhat compressed
' B 0 : INDIA SEA SHE L : PO , PLA OPH'ORA A ASTROPODA
Plate 1: Haliotid,ae
2. Halioti aSlnlna: Andamans." 3 4 H. jacknen i : Andaman ' 5, 6. H. div r, ieolor :

ndaman . 7 8., H ovina : Andaman ' 9 O. Halioti pulcherrtma : M1633/ 1.
11 12. H. aria: Gulfof _annar.
·Z . PAPER o. 92
la 2: ae
: fN ' HELL : P YPLA OP ORA AND GA TROPODA
P a 3: lida
. iodoraJuniculata:M 719/ 1 Gulfo Kaehchh' 2.Diodora ,lndu ica:M1704/ 1 ulf f ' .a ehh,'
I
, '. Diod ra I ntigino a: 1684/ 1. ndaman' 5 6. D,. ingapor. n i : 1409/4 21412/4

a aga Bay a,' 7 '_. Diodora ticaonica: Andaman' 9,10. cutu ungul: 1637/ 1
_ umb i
R RV. IN lA, 0 . P P R No. [92
late : ate '. _ae c_ aeidae
I ... . {',(If 'lloida .\',I " barillll ; A 'Ilia a a -11 .( ,; . P /, 111a, '" /hn i Iii; :
mucrb · ms ~ - 7. all'U 1./1 ~. '110;' I : '11 II r , di Iia r dial I_,pal ur,
101 I . " lIa'LI ( 'stu linaria : 19~7 n , ndanlan .
H : Pi L PLA PH RA A TR P D
Plat 5: roch·dae
l. Tro 'hus fnQ 'ulatu : ndaman ~ 2. Tro hus radiatu': 21 17/4 Vanthivu I- land ulf, fMannar
. Tro hlt 'PU tlllo ' u : M_ 16 14 4. T. 0 'hroieucli 375/ 1 ndaman ' 5. Tt. tusj~ 11 tratu'
. Tt. tu p_'lolni' 7. Te lu'nUluritionu' . rro hu ' cabro u ~ . Monil a 'alliiero .· to. MonU 0
Ina~ oni~ 11 , onil a lvarn jordi.
R '. 0 . I R . ( DJA .P R 0. 192
Pate 6 : Troch·dae
1 a-f. L"l1lhollholl '('sfiaril(1.11' -, -'/uu('ulll.' mic roc/OJl : ndaruans: 1. /llncu/U\- 'Iallf;uloul

4,5 , ( 'llIl.1 'u/IiS 11.1 " :~ari/a,,cll, ': 6. r Il /( ',el(e/te/us ungula!u.\' : xt· 7. ElIc",lll'- dab 1 'nllll : ~ . Eu h III
ufratus; 10. Euchclus quudricariJtu/II,': _~ 10') 1/4 ~ It. -uch 111\' hor,.id",- : 'lr Is and~ ull' f
~Ulllar,
B H L : P L PLA PH RA A GA TR P D
Pate 7 : I OC • dae
gUlna ach oa ' . Euclulus iI~ ulalu ,~ 4. MOIl( donta au Irati :

onod nta labia: ndanlan' 6,7 , ibbll/a bkll~Fn' lial1a: 221 14.
I I
f Mann r . Cantharidu illt, rruplu : M? I 31/4 Ran

kat ~ch.~ i : ujarat.
R b '. 00 ' ~\ ,I ,P PER 0. 192
Pia e 8 : ' chidae
I. 'III~\ " 'os101l1a purac!o,nuu: ,(lib/ ula 'O{ lIi: J, Ruhi(l'oclius pul 'herrill/us : M_67 11, ndatnan" ~
I
4. lil1o/ill holdsU'orfhtll1l1: 5, finolill c(1sla : .11~ Ol)( l-l. uticcrln, ,'lillil , adu ' 6, (allio, loma
s('ohinutu: 7. ('011;0.\'(01110 SIJ('('io ; 'o : x, 'olliosfa ma II'(,t llC{lIchlri '0 : T 'unquc nu,' ~ . al/iu,'/oma
suhlu{'\,{' : 19 J/ ~: 10, So/ariel/a bel/ula : I' uri: ~ I " .\'olaricl/a iuliol Iihult/JlI : ndmnans. 1R fins.
H LL : P I yp D _ TR P D
Plate 9 : T oc · ae" urbinidae, tomatiidae
1~2 . '{ari /la dul i ima' 3. Stomatella a perulata: M 391 / 1" 4. Broderipia rosea" 5 ,6.. tonlat I/a
ulc~fi. ra~ 7, P udo tomatella pap racea : M3407/ ' 8-11. yclo tr. rna eburnea : M27 5 1/ 1,
, yntypl -al bar 5rurn' 12 13 ,_ !oslrenlQ mican ~ I. tom alia phymoti ' : ndaman'
15 . Turbo cine", a~ 1 7.. Turbo indica: ul 0 1 Mannar 51 7 fin .' 1 19, Turbo indi a- Ho typ .
RE . Z RV. . P P R o. 192
P at 0: _~urbinid ,ae
1,,2. nl1'bo cras. lls: . Turbo aI, l 'I''OStO.l1IQ : Andanlan; 4. Turbo petholatll : Andamans~ 5 Turbo
fnarI110rCllu." : M214 8/4 Anda nan ~ 6,. Turbo parl erills : Andan an; 7 8. TfJrbQ brUntletl :
Andanl<lO' " 9. Bo""a , irg 'flus: M3002/ 1 tl' ndalnan .
:I H L : P L PL P RAA 0 A R P 0
Pate 11: ub·nid,a '
1.2. Liotina p r ni: 20426/3 Pulli I land annar;. Liolina cidaris: ri anka;
-' . n aria d /phinu ' : M 13059/2 ndaman .; 9 10. n aria di larla : M 1 541 n anI<..
R R No. 192
late 2: ur ·nidae, Pha "a
1-3 A. tralitl1n ~eI11ico , tata : M22140/4, ar and, ulf of Mannar; 4,5,. A' tralium stella/~e:
I
M21109/4, Vanthi u Id., ulf of Mannar~ 6. Phasianella nivosa : M21850/4 Ralne wara .
7 8. A~ trllhuln rhodo\'lvl1Ul : Anda(nans~ 9. Trico/ia i1ldica. h ngalput di trict, Tamil adu.
,6,J ...... :
& ....... P LYPL PHORA NO
1-3. erita (""erita) undata : Gujarat 4 5. Nerita (Theliostyla) patula : Andaman ; 6. P eudonerita
sulculo' a' 7 8. Nerita (Ritena) articulata' 9. P'eudonerita anloena' 10 11. Nerita (Ritena) inscu/pfa
: ndaman.
REC. ZOOL. SURV. INDIA, oce. PAPER No. 192
6
5
1 2
3 4
7
9
13
1 2
l ..4. Nerlla (Th lio tyla) albi ~ iJla : .~ ndanlan" 5-7. Nerita (Th lio ty/a) quamulata : Chidiyatapu
uth ndam n 9. Nerita (TIL lio t) laY , Ira,na leon ,: 0 vgad, Mahara btra' 10 13. Nerita
(Tit liostyla) 0'. zarun, : MUlnbai.
B : [N I N : P LY L C PH R NO , _ TR' P
Pate 5:
I 2. _nta I Ritena) gra ana" 3 4 , Nerita (Thelio tyla) plano pira' 5 6. Nerita (Ritena) rna ima :
hidiya tapu outh Andaman' 7.8. Nerita (Thelio tyla) textil ,Veraval 'G ujarat.
.Z L. R o. 192
Pate 6:
'0 t la: I r ,c ac _ a- . P. _udoll ,.ita a'1Io na' rita (Rit na p/i ata:
(; rita (Rit na) p lita : anwry~ , I . Ph nac /' pa crnulata: 001 /4
Man T.
SUBBA RAO : INDIAN SEA SHELLS: POL YPLACOPHORA AND GASTROPODA III
in the middle, spire scarcely exserted, concavely flattened, nuclear whorls smooth and glistening
white. Aperture broadly expanded, columellar callus smooth in the upper half but obscurely
wrinkled in the lower half, columellar margin concave, ,vith four stout teeth in the middle, outer
lip thickened and expanded, with 20 to 40 fine teeth of uniform size on the interior and on
either side with wide edentulous area. Sculptured with numerous flat spiral riblets separated by
much narrower grooves. Colour grayish- black, sparingly interrupted with ash white, callus
porcelaneous white, aperture white, outer lip flecked. Operculum pale gray with numerous
round granules on the outer surface, internal surface slTIooth, light flesh red with two gray,
somewhat broader bands parallel to the outer margin, apophyses well developed, anterior end
flat and pale yellow.
India : Tamil Nadu : Gulf of Mannar (Pamban, Shingle Island); Andaman and Nicobar
(slands. Indo-Pacific.
It occurs on rocks in shady and. damp places in the supratidal zone not much exposed to
waves. It occupies the highest landward zone among neritids. It is one of the common species in
the Andaman and Nicobar Islands but uncommon on the mainland coast.
Nerita (Ritena) plicata Linnaeus, 1758

(PI. 16, fig. 4-6 and PI. 17, fig. 8)
Shell of medium size, up to 33 mm in height, globose, whorls three, rounded, spire prominently
raised and clearly exserted beyond the level of the large, globular body whorl, apex pointed and
sharply defined, sutures not distinct. Aperture relatively snlaller and further narrowed by the
teeth protruding into it; columella with a callus deposit bearing longitudinally elongated wrinkle-
like ridges, some of the stouter ones produced below to form strong, widely set teeth on the
columellar edge towards the aperture, teeth three, outer lip thick, sloping inward, with five
teeth, the teeth at either end very strong and knob-shaped enclosing in between three or rarely
five teeth. Sculptured with very strong, raised spiral ribs separated by deep and well excavated
interstices, ribs generally weaker on the lower third of the body whorl. Colour mostly of uniform
yenowish-brown or absolute ,vhite, often with numerous irregular dark spots, columellar callus
glistening white. Operculum concave, yellowish-red with whi~e dots, smooth except for the
faintly granulated outer margin, which bear small dark membrane, internal surface slightly
convex, intense flesh red and highly polished, rib strong and curved, peg very faint.
India: Lakshadweep, Tamil Nadu : Tranquebar, Madras; Andaman and Nicobar Islands,
not known from the West Coast. Widely distributed in the Indo-Pacific.
It lives attached to rocks, pebbles or concrete pilings high on the shore. At some places the
vertical range of the species is as high as Iittorinids and receive only spray of breaking
waves.
Nerita (Ampllinerita) articulata Gould, 1847

(PI. 13, fig. 7, 8 and PI. 18, fig. 6)
Shell of medium size, up to 35 mm in height, oblong ovate, whorls 2 '12, rounded and rather
narrow, spire lateral, blunt and somewhat depressed. Aperture with smooth columellar callus
except for wrinkles on its upper lnargin, columella concave with three to four short teeth in the
middle, outer lip margin thin \vith a deep inward slope, inner side thickened with 17 to 20
longitudinally elongated teeth, the posterior most two teeth larger than the rest and knob-shaped,
a large edentulous gap between the upper limit of outer lip and the first tooth at the posterior
end. Sculptured with numerous (25 to 35) purplish-black, fine, oblique spiral ribs, which often
appear interrupted due to numerous white specks on the surface, interstices markedly broader
than the ribs. Colour dark reddish-gray, aperture yellowish-white, callus conspicuously stained
with yellow, outer lip margin fringed with black.
India: West Bengal: Port Canning, Sunderbans; Orissa: Mahanadi Estuary (Hukitola);
Andamans. Indo-Pacific. Sri Lanka to Fiji Islands.
The snails generally occur on the roots and branches of mangroves.
Ner;ta (Ampllinerita) polita Linnaeus, 1758

(Figs. 24 & 25, PI. 16, fig. 7, 8 and PI. 17, fig. I)
Shell of medium size, up to 38 Inm in height, obliquely ovate and thick, whorls three,
narrowly rounded, laterally compressed towards the aperture, body whorl large. Spire minute
and more or less completely depressed. Aperture lunate, porcelaneous and polished, columella
with thick and extensive callus, smooth and glossy, outer lip thickened, sloping steeply inwards,
smooth, polished and scarcely toothed. Shell deeply impregnated with pigment, colour highly
variable, greenish brown or yellowish brown, \vith two to three spiral bands of black or
narrow ashy black, or \vhite or reddish bands, columellar callus yellowish-white, outer lip fringed
with yellow. Operculum smooth and gray in colour, outer Inargin with chestnut-brown
zone traversed by numerous concentric ridges, rib strong with longitudinal striae, peg faint or
lacking.
India: Kamataka, Tamil Nadu, Pondicherry, Andhra Pradesh, Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
Widely distributed in Indo-Pacific.
The species occurs in the )o\ver and mid-littoral zone. It has preference for the sandy regions
of the coast where rocks also abound. It burrows into sand and spends the high tide period by
remaining buried in the sand at the base of a rock. When the water recedes the snail is seen
moving with sand over it. It is a highly polYlnorphic species.
SUSBA RAO : INDIAN SEA SHE LS : POLYP ACOPHORA AND GASTROPODA 11.3
Fig. 24. Ha itat ri(.a p lita Nan ow ,
Fig. 15. Habitat of Nerita polita, N.ancowry, Nicobars.

114 REC. Za~l. SURV. INDIA, acc. PAPER No. 192
Nerita (Heminerita) insculpta Recluz, 1841

(PI. 13, fig. 10, 11 and PI. 18, fig. 4)
Shell sma11, up to 24 mm in height, obliquely ovate, strongly arched, whorls three, rather
narrow, spire flatly impressed and small, apex blunt. Aperture semilunar, columella convex or
straight, with two to four feebly developed teeth in the middle, outer lip raised extending up to
the spire on the top, outer Inargin thin, sloping steeply inwards, inner side thickened, porcelaneous
white, generally smooth or rarely with two weak or stout and 10ngitudinal1y elongated teeth on
the posterior part. Sculptured with 22 to 32 ribs of equal size, but in the upper half weak and
strong ribs alternately arranged, interspaces densely cancellated with concentric striae. Colour
a mixture of bright gray, black and white in different stretches, often with three black spiral
bands. Opercu)unl flat, thick and finely granulated, reddish-gray with white nucleus, inner surface
dull gray.
India: Tamil Nadu, Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Sri Lanka to the Philippines, Australia
and Polynesia.
The snail seems to prefer stones in the supratidal zone, where it was found crawling on the
stones with algal encrustations. In many locations it co-exists with ellobiids and littorinids.
Pseudonerita amoena (Gould, 1847)

(PI. ] 3, fig. 9 and PI. 16, fig. 3a-f)
Shell small, up to 20 mm in height, ovate, thick, body whorl expanded, with scarcely raised
spire. Aperture proportionately large, colulnellar margin with 10 to 12 very small teeth, outer
lip thick, semicircular, projecting beyond columellar callus. Sculptured with spiral striae and
rugose, axial growth lines. Colour shining purple blue or reticulated pattern of jet blue-black
upon a cream or white base, aperture bluish-white or white tinged with ye1l0w, outer lip margin
fringed with black. Operculum smooth and dark gray, external Inargin fringed with brown
coloured membrane, internally white, rib and peg yellowish on tips.
India: Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh: Kakinada 8ay; Orissa: Rushikulya Estuary near Gopalpur;
Andamans, estuaries and backwaters. Indo-West Pacific, not common.
Pselit/fJnerita obtllsa (So\verby, 1841)

(not figured)
Shell small, lip to J 5 mm in height, transversely ovate, rather thin, whorls three, spire small,
a little exserted. Aperture orbicularly ovate, colull1ellar margin concave with 9 to 11 weak teeth,
outer lip slightly thickened. Sculptured with very fine spiral striae, narrow and decussate. Colour
greenish-olive, body \"horl often \vith a dark green spiral band. Operculum extemally brown,
~A RAO : INDIAN SEA SHELLS: POLYPLACOPHORA AND GASTROPODA 115
IIBb-red along the palatal margin, dark-gray along the parietal margin, finely striated dark red
membranous fringe, internal surface slnooth and dark brown, rib very oblique and blunt, orange
yellow with tip being lighter, peg sharp and yellow.
India: West Bengal: HugJi River near Calcutta; Andamans, estuaries and back\vaters.
Bllewhere: Myanmar.
Pseudonerita sulculosa (von Martens, 1879)

(PI. 13, fig. 6)
" Shell small, up to 8 mm in height, obliquely oval, almost hemispherical, whorls three, spire
lateral and projecting. Aperture obliquely elliptical, columellar callus even, smooth, colulnellar
margin concave with 9 to 11 strong teeth in the nliddle, teeth extended as ridges on to the
callous, outer lip broadly arched. Sculptured with numerous fine, deep, spiral striae crossed by
axial striae giving decussated appearance. Colour unifonnly dark greenish gray. Opercululn
brilliant gray with black margin on the outer region, internally whitish, rib flat and very oblique,
peg deeply depressed.
India: Orissa: Mahanadi estuary; West Bengal: HugJi River near Calcutta, Sunderbans.
Elsewhere: Indonesia.
It occurs in estuaries adhering to wood inside its bark and sometimes in the elnpty tunnels of
shipworms.
The species resembles P. obtusa but can be distinguished from it by the presence of strongly
arched coarse spiral striae, more projecting spire, broadly arched outer lip and bluish-gray
aperture.
Desai, B. N. 1962. A preliminary note on the eggs and larvae of sOlne Inarine molluscs of
Bombay. Curro Sci., 31(4) : 158-159.
Fretter, V. 1965. Functional studies of the anatolny of some neritid prosobranchs. J Zool., 147
46-74.
Fretter, V. 1966. Some observations on neritids. Malacologia, 5 : 79-80.
Govindan, K. and Natarajan, R. 1972. Studies on Neritidae (Neritacea : Prosobranchia) froln
Peninsular India. Proc. Indian Natn. Sci. Acad., 38 8(3&4) : 225-239.
Hill, Dennis S. 1980. The Ncritidae (MoJlusca : Prosobranchia) of I-Iong Kong. Proc. First
International Workshop 011 the Malacofauna of Hong Kong and Southern China
(B. Morton, ed.), p. 85-99 (1977).
Kabat, A. R. and Finet, Y 1992. Catalogue of the Neritidae (Mollusca: Gastropoda) described
by Constant A. Recluz including the location of type specimens. Revue Suisse Zool.,
99(2) : 223-253.
Komatus, S. 1986. Taxonomic revision of the neritid gastropods. Special Publication of the
Mukaishima Marine Biological Station, 69pp.
Mahdihassan, S. 1960. The cryptic colouration of Indian snail. Zool. Anz'J 165 : 377-388.
Natarajan. R. 1969. Cytological studies of Indian mollusks (Archaeogastropoda: Neritidae).
Maiacoiogia, 9 : 279-281.
Subba Rao, N. V. 1975. Studies on Indian Neritids (Mollusca: Gastropoda: Neritidae). 311 pp.
Ph. D. thesis. University of Calcutta, Calcutta.
Subba Rao, N. V. 1980. On a new record of neritid, Nerita (fheliostyla) palliia Recluz, 1841
(Mollusca: Gastropoda) from Andalnans with a note on the species. Rec. zool. Surv.
India, 77 : 71-74.
Subba Rao, N. V. 1981. On two rare species ofNeritidae (Mollusca: Gastropoda) from India.
Bull. zool. Surv. India, 2(2 & 3) : 159-162.
Family PHENACOLEPADIDAE
Shell is very small and may be up to 7 mm in length. It is limpet-like with the apex situated
towards the posterior region. Aperture is wide and rounded. Muscle scar is horseshoe
shaped with an anterior opening. Shell is porcelaneous and its surface is sculptured '.\lith
radiating ridges, which often may be nodulose due to the crossing of spiral cords. There is no
operculum.
Head bears long subulate tentacles with eyes at their bases. Edge of the mantle bears numerous
cirri. Mantle cavity consists of an elongate bipectinate ctenidium. Radula is rhipi90g10ssate
with one strong central tooth flanked on either side by five laterals and nUlnerous nlarginal
teeth. Sexes are separate. Male has a penis and the female has a spennatophore sac.
These are offshore forms occurring at moderate depths. It is a small family elnbracing two
genera and about 20 species. In India it is known by a single species.
PIlenacoiepas crenlliata (Broderip, 1847)

(PI. 16, fig. 9, 10)
Shell very small, up to 7 mm in height, white, thin, limpet-like, anteriorly arched convexly
and posteriorly slightly concave, apex obtuse, at anterior third and recllrveo. Surface with strong
radial ribs crossed by concentric threads fonning small nodules at the intersections. Ribs 1110re
pronounced, close-set and shorter at posterior portion. Aperture broadly ovate occupying the
whole ventral portion and with uneven margin. Interior of shell smooth with a finely grained
narrow rim near the margin, muscle-scar horse-shoe shaped, colour unifonnly crealny \vhite on
the exterior and white on the interior.
India: Tamil Nadu : Gulf ofMannar (Tuticorin, Krusadai Island, Mandapam). Indo-Pacific,
moderately common.
Synonym : Phenacolepas asperulata : Satyamurti, 1952.
Order MESOGASTROPODA
Shell is mostly porcellaneous and operculate. It usually is conical with a high spire or of
turreted shape. Mantle cavity has a 1nonopectinate left etenidium, a bipectinate osphradium and
usually a single hypobranchial gland situated on the right side. Radula is taenioglossate. Heart
has a single auricle and a ventricle. Sexes are separate or sometimes united and with a complex
reproductive system. Majority occurs in marine habitat with some on land or in fresheater.
It is the largest order embracing as many as 94 families. About 47 families are known to
occur in India, three of these on land and two in freshwater. Among the marine families, the
follo\ving COJnlnon and better-known ones are dealt with below.
Family LIITORINIDAE
Periwinkles
Shell is slnaH to medium in size, up to 40 mm in height, turbinate to ovate-conical or pyramidal

\vith a flattened or pointed spire, thin and light. Aperture is rounded to oval with a thickened
colunlclla and thin outer lip. Unlbilicus is absent. Sculpture consists of spiral cords and axial
gro\vth striae. Operculum is solid and chitinous, paucispiral with lateral nucleus.
J-Jead has a pair of tentacles with dark eyes situated at their outer bases. A short and broad
anterior snout with the mouth at its tip. Foot is moderately sized, subcircular in front and obtuse
behind. Mantle cavity has a vascularized roof and contain a small or reduced monopectinate
ctenidiuln and osphradilun. Radula is very long and taenioglossate (2-1-1-1-2). Digestive system
consists of esophagus with a pouch and an elongate stomach containing style sac and gastric
shield.
Sexes are separate. Male has a penis behind the right tentacle and the female has a well-
Inarked groove to receive the spenns. Fertilization is internal, oviparous or ovoviviparous.
Periwinkles are cosmopolitan and are among the commonest snails in the intertidal
zone, clinging to rocks or other hard substrate between the mid-tide and high tide lines. Some
even occur a little above high tide limit receiving only occasional splashes of the breaking
\vaves.
Although littorinids are comlnon the identity of many species was not clearly established tiJl
recently. The contribution tnade by Rosewater (1970, 1972) brought some stability in the
nOlncnclature oflittorinid species and provided background for further studies. The most valuable
studies on littorinids in recent years were by Reid (1986, 1989a, 1989b, 1992, 1998). Reid
(1986) eXJnined anatolnicat features of mangrove littorinids and revised a hitherto less known
genus Lilloraria. He recognized t\venty species from mangroves in the Indo-Pacific province
froln where three species were known earlier. Littorina scabra species cOlnptex has been divided
SUBBA RAO : INDIAN SEA SHELLS: POLYPLACOPHORA AND GASTROPODA
Plate 17 : Opercula of Neritids
Smm
1. Nerita poUta; 2. Nerita textiles; 3. Nerita albicilla; 4. Nerita chamaeleon; 5. Nerita squamulata;
6. Nerita oryzarum; 7. Nerita costata; 8. Nerita plicata; 9. Nerita planospira.
REC. ZOOL. SURV. INDIA, OCC. PAPER No. 192
Plate 18 Opercula of Neritids
1. Nerita nlaxbna; 2. Nerila undata; 3. Nerita patula; 4. Nerila insculpta; 5. Nerita grayana;
6. Nerita articulala.
: P LYP PHO D A TROPOD
a 9: Litto an,axide
I 2" Litlo~aria undulata' 3 4. odilittorina vidua: 3.4' 5 6. Nodilittorina trochoide ; 4'

7 . Littararia melana toma; 8. Littoraria cabra' 9 10. Nodilittorina quadricin la" 11. Planaxi
sui atu : M17254/2' 12 13. Angiola lineata : Lak hadw P' 14. Planaxi niger' 15. Planaxi
nicobarica.
R RV. [NDlA, C. P P R .1 92
Pate 20 : od .
I . Modulus te tum = Minic y Id' . _erithium tenellum : M208' 8/4

' lakkarai, ulf f Mannar· 20870/4 Tuticorin '
6. erithium nodulo_uln~ 7. el ithiLun cOraliU"';' . , rithium co/u,nna : Andaman . 9. Cerithium
I
traillii,' ( I . I 'P o'llorus batillaria ifo1*l'flj : M t · 9 Andaman . I _,12. erithiuln petro a genn ' i:
I
NeB I land Andaman . 1 14. rithhl1n hi/a cr fa bi/a _iata : M2129'j4 anle waram b ac
amil adu' 15, ~l'Peomoru purpuro tonla: _ar Nk bar.
:I . . . . ~,'-'_ .... ..., : P , PL PH' RA ND A TR P' 0
. Rhinoclavi ol'7didula' 2. Rhino la i vertagus: Andamans' 3. 4 . Rhinoclavis ko hi polita :

ootype M4016/1' 5. Rhinoclavis kochi ndaman' 6 7. Rhino la i a p ra : Andaman .
8. Rhino lavi ' inensi : Kru adai I land Gulf of Mannar 9 10. P eudov rtagu noblli
Andaman .
. PAP R 0.192
la ae
, 1.\'011(1
:P p TROPODA
I. Turritella attenuata: M20971 /4 : off _h nnai 6~ 7 fm ; 2 3. Turritella columnari :

dira pattinam alk Bay' 4. Hau tator tri ulcata: 2 142 14: etukkarai ulf annar'
5. _hi/kala imitatrix ' 6. Dia/a emistriata : M180341 ' 7-9, Turritella dup/i 'ala : oa and 'G ulf of
Kachchh.
R L. . P P R N . 192
1. Tell ~ odlls (llIguilla : tr ) alpu n ~ s· ~ . 14.'11 'g od" to 111". tT _lpur,

.5. nnegodlt: fro, 'hlt ,lri. : otT p,'llpur, d na, _4 frns: 6-' . 14.n odu IUllin ii :
nssa, ' fIlS .
into seventeen species. In India only three species namely, Littoraria seabra, Littoraria delieatula
and Litloraria melanosloma were reported from mangrove ecosystem. The collections of
littorinids from the mangroves in India are to be reexamined to establish their identity.
The family, which includes about 100 species, has been divided into five subfamilies namely,
Lacuninae, Littorininae, Tectariinae, Echiniinae and Bembiciinae. Only three subfamilies
Littorininae, Tectariinae and Bembiciinae have their representation in India. The first is a large
subfamily consisting of 13 genera, of which four genera namely, Littoraria, Nodilittorina, and
less known genera Peasiella and Mainwaringia, are reported from India. Tectariinae is
represented by Teelarius granularis and Teetarills malaeeanus, which occur abundantly on the
pillars of jetty in the Gulf of Mannar (Satyan arayan a Rao and Sundaram, 1972). The last
mentioned subfamily consists of Bembieiun1 and Cremnoconchus. The latter genus is endemic
to freshwater streams in Western Ghats, South India.
Subfamily LITTORINTNAE
Littoraria (Littoraria) undulata (Gray, 1839)

(PI. 19, fig. 1, 2)
Shell small to medium in size, up to 25 mm in height, conical and thin. Aperture semi-oval.
Sculptured with spiral cords. Shell cream coloured with dark or light brown dashes that form
axial flame marks; columella violet.
India: Gujarat, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Orissa, Andaman
and Nicobar Islands, common on intertidal rocks. Indo-Pacific.
Littoraria (Palustorina) melanostoma Gray, 1839

(PI. 19, fig. 7)
Shell small, up to 27 mm in height, conical and thin, with six to eight flat-sided whorls.
Aperture oval, columella weakly concave, glazed, with dark brown callus, outer lip often
narrowly shouldered. Surface covered with Jightly incised .spiral cords, angulated keel on the
body whorl. Colour pale yellowish, ornamented with clo~e)y spaced brown dashes arranged
axially or in zigzag fashion, outer lip and interior of aperture pale yellow, columella dark brown,
apex black.
India: West Bengal, Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Andamans. Elsewhere: Sri Lanka,
Myanmar, Singapore, Philippines.
It occurs on small plants near the sea or on stems and leaves of mangrove trees or grasses.
Unlike other littorinids, these are solitary in nature.
Littorina (Littorinopsis) seabra sea bra (Linnaeus, 1758)

(PI. 19, fig. 8)
Shell largest among Indian littorinids, up to 40 mm in height, conical, fairly thin, light-
weight, with seven to eight well rounded whorls, suture impressed. Aperture large, broadly
rounded, columeJla smooth. Sculptured with flat or elevated spiral cords and aXial lines, spire
with a carinated keel, body whorl occasionally subcarinate or carinate at the periphery. Colour
variable, pale gray or brown maculated with darker brown blotches below suture, columella
white, outer lip with a white band on the interior.
India: East and West Coasts, Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Indo-Pacific, common.
It occurs on the trunks and branches of mangrove trees, a little above high tide limit.
Nodi/ittorina (Nodi/ittorina) trochoides (Gray, 1839)

(PI. 19, fig. 5, 6)
Shell small, up to 20 mm in height, thick, pyramidal, flattened, crescent shaped area on base
adjacent to columellar callus. Sculptured with spiral rows of white nodules, one on each spiral
whorl, two on the body whorl, one on the shoulder and the other on periphery, additional
spiral cords present in the interspaces. Coloured bluish gray with .white nodules and chocolate
columella, aperture dark reddish brown with a narrow yellowish white band at the base of
columella.
India: Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Orissa. India to Marquesas
in the Pacific. It is common in crevices of rocks in the littoral region.
The species has been referred to as Nodilillorina pyramidalis in all Indian records. The
anatomical features and notes on ecology are given in Reid (1992).
Nodi/ittorina (Nodilittorina) quadricincta (Muhlfeldt, 1824)

(PI. 19, fig. 9, 10)
Shell smallest among littorinids, up to 16 mm in height, turbinate to elongate oval, base

slightly flattened, whorls five to six, body whorl rather flat-sided at its centre and shouldered
above. Aperture elongate oval, col umella strongly produced, with callous and a flattened crescent
shaped area at base. Surface sculptured with three low and well spaced spiral cords on the body
whorl, cords bearing elongate, white nodules separated by brown coloured spaces. Coloured
grayish white or brown, aperture with a white band at anterior junction.
India: Maharashtra, Goa, Tamil Nadu : Kanya Kumari, Gulf of Mannar (Mandapam,
Tuticorin), intertidal rocks. Elsewhere: Sri Lanka.
SUB~A RAO : INDIAN SEA SHELLS: POLYPLACOPHORA AND GASTROPODA 121
The species is often confused with the more common N. vidua but can be distinguished by
its slender shell, well developed shoulder on the body whorl, and also the pattern of nodules.
Synonym : Nodi/il/orina leucosticta (Phillippi, 1847)
Nodilittorina (Nodilittorina) vidlla (Gould, 1859)

(PI. 19, fig. 3, 4)
Shell small, up to 17 mm in height, subglobose, whorls five to six, sculptured with

raised, granulose spiral cords and fine, microscopic wavy spiral threads in the interspaces.
Colour grayish white, ornamented with reddish brown, flame-like axial blotches, columella
dark brown.
India : Maharashtra : Botnbay; Goa, Tamil Nadu, Pondicherry, Andhra Pradesh :
Visakhapatnam, intertidal rocks. Indo-West Pacific.
All the Indian records of Nodilittorina millegrana (Philippi, 1848) should be referred to this
species.
REFERENCES
Rosewater, J. 1970. The family Littorinidae in the Indo-Pacific. Part 1. The subfamily Littorininae.
Indo-Pacific Mollusca, 2 : 417-506.
Rosewater, J. 1972. The family Littorinidae in the Indo-Pacific. Part II. The subfamilies
Tectariinae and Echiniinae. Indo-Pacific Mollusca 2 : 507-533.
Reid, D. G. 1986. The littorinid mollusks of mangrove forests in the Indo-Pacific region.
xv + 228 pp. British Museum (Natural History), London.
'Reid, D.G. 1989a. Systematic revision of the Recent species of Peasiella Nevill, 1885
(Gastropoda: Littorinidae), with notes on the fossil species. The Nautilus t 03(2) : 43-69
Reid, D.G.1989b. The comparative morphology, phylogeny and evolution of the Gastropod
family Littorinidae. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, Series
8324 :1-110.
Reid, D.G. 1992. The gastropod family Littorinidae in Hongkong. In: Morton, B. (ed.).
Proceedings of the Fourth International Marine Biological Workshop: The maripe flora
and fauna of Hong Kong and southern China III. Hong Kong University Press, Hong
Kong, p. 187-210.
Reid, D.G. 1998. Additions and Corrections to the Taxonomy of the genus Peasiella Nevill,
1885 (Gastropoda: Littorinidae). The Nautilus, 1t 2( I) : 6-33.
Satyanarayana Rao and Sundaram. 1972. Please see Selected Bibliography (p. 385).
Family PLANAXIDAE
Shell is somewhat similar to that of littorinids, but more solid, thicker and heavier. It is
small to Inedium in size, up to 30 mm in height, conical and elongately ovate. Protoconch is
generally glossy and pointed. A fibrous periostracum covers the shell. Aperture is lirate
and angled above. Anterior canal is well developed. Posterior canal is also distinct and has a
thick spiral ridge running inwards from its inner side. Outer lip is thickened and has 8 to 10
internal spiral grooves. Umbilicus is absent. Surface is either smooth or with spiral cords or
grooves but without varices. Operculum is chitinous, almost smooth with subterminal, basal
nucleus.
Head bears a pair of subulate tentacles with eyes at their outer bases. Foot is simple. Radula
is taenioglossate. The snails are parthenogenic and lnales were not observed. Instead of pallial
gonoduct the female has a ciliated Inantle groove. Eggs are incubated in a special groove in the
'neck' region. There is a planktonic veliger larva.
Planaxids occur along with Iittorinids under rocks or in the rock crevices near high water
mark in the intertidal zone. Although Inajority of species are marine a few occur, elsewhere, in
freshwater also.
The family includes six genera, of which t\vo namely, Planaxis and Angio/a are represented
in India.
Planaxis niger QUoy and Gaimard, 1834

(PI. 19, fig. 14, IS)
Shell smaller than in P. sulcatlls, up to 15 mm in height, thick, conical-ovate, whorls five to

seven, protoconch consists of two sinooth and white whorls. Aperture lirate, outer lip thickened,
the inner edge prominently denticulate \vith 8 to 10 teeth, often in some old specimens teeth not
visible, with distinct anterior and posterior siphonal canals, columella concave, with smooth
callous .• Sculptured with obsolete spiral striae on the spire whorls and top of the body whorl,
base of the body whorl with three to six distinct, broad spiral cords. Colour dark brown throughout,
aperture and columella shining pale brown.
India: Maharashtra : Bombay; Orissa, Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Indian Ocean.
It occurs in clusters along with littorinids in the crevices of rocks and boulders in the
intertidal zone.
Synonyms: Planaxis aculus Krauss, 1848
Planaxis nicobariclls Frauenfeld, 1866.
Planaxis sulcatlls (Born, 1780)

(PI. 19, fig. II)
Shell of medium size, up to 30 mm in height, solid, conical, body whorl slightly angular
below. Aperture narrowly ovate, outer lip with distinct spiral ridges, columellar callus thick
above, but thin and lamina-like below, Ininutely striate, anterior canal V-shaped, posterior
canal a shallow groove. Surface sculptured with strong spiral cords separated by regular and
uniform spiral grooves and oblique axial growth striae. Colour purple brown, with light gray
spots on cords or oblique reddish brown stripes, outer lip edge and columellar base tinged with
brown.
India: Maharashtra : BOlnbay, Devgarh; Lakshadweep, Talnil Nadu : Madras, Gulf ofMannar;
Andhra Pradesh: Visakhapatnam; Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Indo-Pacific.
It was found abundantly in association with species of Nerita, Lillorina and CerithiuI11 in the
intertidal region. It is common on coral stores in the infralittoral fringe. It feeds on algae,
Chaelonl0rpha and Enterolnorpha C0l11pressa.
Angiolu lineala (da Costa, 1778)

(P1. 19, fig. 12, 13)
Shell small, not exceeding 10 mm in height, glossy, thick, conically ovate. Aperture ovate,
interior lirate, columella concave and smooth, with short and wide anterior canal. Sculptured
with fine striae and distinct, narrow, orange-coloured spiral bands.
India: Lakshadweep. Mostly tropical Pacific.
It occurs in shallow lagoons and bays.
REFERENCE
Houbrick, R. S. 1987. Anatomy, reproductive biology and physiology of the Planaxidae

(Cerithiacea : Prosobranchia). Snlithsonian Contributions to Zoology, No. 445 : 57 pp,
27 figs, 6 tables.
Family MODULIDAE
Shell is small to medium in size, turbinate bearing some resemblance to turban shells, with
only a few whorls, and conical or depressed spire. Body whorl is broadly expanded, rounded
and angu)ated at the periphery. Aperture is large, obJique to rounded. Columella is grooved,
with a tooth at its base and narrowly utnbilicate. Sculpture consists of spiral cords and axial
riblets, five strong spiral cords on the base. Operculum is chitinous, moderately thin, rounded
and multispiral.
Head bears long, cylindrical tentacles with eyes situated midway along their lengths. Foot is
truncate anteriorly and narrow posteriorly. Mantle margin is fringed with papillae. Radula is
taenioglossate and short. Alimentary system contains paired salivary glands, large hypobranchial
and oesophageal glands, and a crystalline style in the stomach.
Sexes are separate. Male has no penis. Sperm duct is open. Female is with a well developed
longitudinally open pallial gonoduct. Fertilization is internal with either direct or indirect
deve Iopment.
These occur in intertidal sands or offshore shallow waters and feed on diatoms,
microorganisms and plants. It is a monogeneric family with 6 species distributed worldwide.
A single species is known from India.
Modulus tectum (Gmelin, 1791)

(PI. 20, fig. 1)
Shell small, up to 14 mm in height and 15 mm in diameter, broader than high, solid, whorls
five, spire depressed, scarcely raised above the level of the body whorl, the latter broadly
expanded; suture deep. Aperture obliquely ovate, columella smooth with a ridge-like tooth at
its base, outer lip slightly expanded at its junction with the columella at the anterior end, posteriorly
in line with the body whorl, umbilicus a tiny depression, but in some completely covered by the
callus. Sculptured with coarse oblique folds on the angulated shoulder and irregular spiral ribs
on the rest of the surface. Colour creamy-white with brownish dots, often in the form of two
spiral bands on the body \vhorl.
India: Lakshadweep. Andamans, coral reefs. Indo-Pacific.
Family CERITHIIDAE
Horn Shells or Cerithid Snails
Shell is small to moderately large in size, generally not more than 80 mm in height but
occasionally growing up to 100 mm, narrowly elongate and turreted with tnany whorls, normally
as many as 9 to 16. Aperture may be small or large in comparison with the shell size and
smooth. Anterior canal is long or short, oblique or sharply recurved. Anal canal is a sharply
defined incision flanked in many by a posterior columellar plait. Columella is smooth, calloused
in many and often with a fold. Outer lip is generally thickened and crenulated, but smooth in
many and with lirations on the interior in some. Umbilicus is absent. Sculpture is highly variable,
with spiral cords, (Vdal ribs, nodules or varices. There is a high degree of intraspecific variability
among the species, especially in those belonging to the genera Cerithiunl and ClypeolnorZls.
Colour is also variable, white to dark brown. Operculum is horny, thin, brown, usually multispiral
with an eccentric nucleus.
Head bears two, long cylindrical tentacles with eyes at their outer bases. Foot is short and
broad. Mantle cavity contains a weak, monopectinate ctenidium, long thin and bipectinate
osphradium. Radula is taenioglossate. Digestive system consists of a pair of salivary glands, an
oesophageal gland, stolnach with a gastric shield, a style sac enclosing a large crystalline style.
Sexes are separate. Male has no penis but there are spermatophores to store sperms. Pallial
gonoduct is well developed and longitudinally open. Female has a sperm collecting pouch, a
receptaculum seminis, albumen and capsule glands. Fertilization is internal and development
may be planktotrophic or lecithotrophic.
Unlike potamidid snails, these occur in clear marine intertidal or shallow water on sand
rubble substrates as epifauna or partially burrowing around rocks. These are tnicrophagous
herbivores and some feed on algal detritus. A few occur in estuarine habitats.
The family is divided into two subfamilies, namely Cerithiinae and Orectospirinae
(monogeneric). The former, known by 20 genera, is represented in India by three widely
distributed genera. The family includes an estimated 200 species in all, of which 25 species
were so far reported from India.
Subfamily CERITHIINAE
Cerit/,jum balteatum Philippi, 1848

(PI. 20, fig. 2)
Shell small, up to 25 mm in height, turreted and acuminate, 9 to 12 well demarcated whorls.

Aperture ovate, columella with thin callus, outer lip thickened, and crenulated, with \veak,
elongate denticles on the interior, sometimes obsolete, anterior anal long and tubular, anal
canal short but well defined by the presence of parietal columellar ridge. Early whorls sculptured
with fine spiral striae, base of the body whorl deeply excavated, body whorl with six to eight
beaded spiral cords. Colour white or cream.
India: Tamil Nadu : Gulf of Mannar; Andamans. Mainly Pacific.
It occurs in sandy stretches in the reef ecosystem.
Synonym: Cerithium planunl Anton, 1833.
Cerithium columna Sowerby, 1834

(PI. 20, fig. 8)
Shell of medium size, up to 32 mm in height, turreted and fusiform, 9 to 13 whorls, rough

and ventricose, sutures distinct, body whorl wide. Aperture large, expanded, subcircular, anterior
canal long, tubular and reflected, anal canal short and bordered by parietal columellar plait.
Outer lip corrugated, thick with furrows on the interior, columella concave with heavy callus.
Sculptured with many rows of larger and smaller spiral cords with occasional chestnut or
chocolate dots and irregular transpiral undulations which bulge into-crest making whorls angular
in the Iniddle, a prominent varix opposite aperture. Coloured cream or pale yellow, mottled or
speckled with reddish brown, aperture and columella white.
India: Lakshadweep, Tamil Nadu : Gulf of Mannar; Andamans, not common. Red Sea to
Australia and Polynesia.
It occurs in the intertidal to subtidal zone of reef ecosystem.
Ceritllium cora/illm Kiener, 1841

(PI. 20, fig. 7)
Shell moderately large, up to 45 mm in height, elongate, turreted, with 13 to 18 straight

sided whorls, sutures deep. Aperture narrow and fusiform, with short and broad anterior canal,
and a deep anal canal bordered by columellar plait, columella with thick callus, outer Jip thickened
and crenulatcd with elongate denticles on the interior. Sculptured with two spiral cords on the
top spire whorls, three major beaded spiral cords on the other whorls. crossed by axial ribs,
body whorl with five or six beaded spiral cords, interspaces on all the whorls with fine spiral
striae, a strong varix opposite the aperture, varices randomly placed on other \vhorls. Coloured
dark bro\vn, beads dark, apel1ure white. Operculum corneous, dark brown, thick with excentric
nucleus.
India : Maharashtra : BOlnbay; Tamil Nadu : Vellar river mouth; Andhra Pradesh:
Visakhapatnam; Andal11ans : Port Blair. Indo-West Pacific, mangrove swamps.
Ceritllium nodulosum Bruguiere, 1792

(PI. 20, fig. 6)
Shell large, up to 100 mm in height and 45 mm in diameter, 14 to 18 whorls, heavy and

thick. Aperture large, with well developed anterior siphonal canal, oblique and slightly reflected
to left of shell axis, anal canal prominent and bordered inside by strong parietal columellar
plaits, outer lip thick, flaring, with a claw... like extension anteriorly on to the anterior canai, deep
spiral grooves on the interior, columella strongly concave, with narrow thick callus. Sculptured
with strong, swollen nodules, and smooth, narrow spiral cords, crossed by numerous axial riblets,
body whorl with a strongly excavated
.
base and sculptured with five spiral, nodulose cords, and
a distinct nodulose, subsutural spiral cord. Colour white or cream and mottled with dark brown,
.
aperture white.
India: Lakshadweep, Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Indo-West Pacific.

It occurs in the reef ecosystem on shoreward reef edge.
Cerithium scabritlum Philippi, 1848

(PI. 20, fig. 4, 5)
Shell small, up to 23 mm in height, slender and oblong, turreted, with 10 to 14 whorls and
distinct sutures. Aperture narrow and obliquely ovate, with short and wide anterior canal and
shallow posterior canal, flanked by strong columellar plait, outer lip thickened outside and
crenulated inside, columella concave with strong callus. Sculptured with two or three dominant
spiral cords crossed by strong axial ribs, nodular at intersection and flattened spiral lirae on
interspaces, body whorl with five nodulose spiral cords on the top and five to seven weakly
beaded spiral cords on the base, several irregularly arranged varices on the earlier whorls, a
prominent varix on the body whorl opposite the aperture. Colour white with reddish brown
spots on cords and nodules, aperture and columella white.
India: Tamil Nadu : Madras, Gulf of Mannar. Elsewhere: Red Sea and Persian Gulf.
I~ occurs in protected mid-littoral rocky shore habitats.
Synonym: Cerithium carnaticum Melvill and Standen, 1898 (Type-locality: Madras).
Cerit/lium tenellum Sowerby, 1855

(PI. 20, fig. 3)
Shell small, up to 18 mm in height, slender and thin, with 15 whorls. Aperture small and
rounded, wit~ short and wide anterior canal and a distinct anal canal bordered by parietal
columellar callus, outer lip thick, crenulated and strongly convex, columella with thick callus.
Sculptured with numerous irregular white varices, three spiral rows of equal sized nodules on
128 REC. ZaDL. SURV. INDIA, acc. PAPER No. 192
the upper part of the whorl at the periphery, connected by spiral cords, body whorl with five
main spiral cords and large varix opposite the aperture. CoI<;>ur white, nodules white chestnut or
chocolate coloured, often with one or more thin chocolate coloured spiral lines, aperture purple
brown.
India: Tamil Nadu : Gulf of Mannar, not common. Indo..West Pacific.
Its habitat seems to be sandy bottom of lagoons near reef ecosystem.
Cerithium traillii Sowerby, 1855

(PI. 20, fig. 9)
Shell of medium size, up to 37 mm in height, elongate and turreted, with 15 to 17 straight

sided whorls, pointed apex. Aperture ovate, outer lip rounded, expanded, thickened outside
and interior crenulated; short, tubular and oblique anterior canal and constricted posterior
canal. Sculptured with regular spiral rows of beaded striae alternating with fine thread-like
striae, body whorl with five beaded major spiral cords and a prominent varix opposite the
aperture. Colour white, beads chestnut or chocolate coloured; varices, early whorls and aperture
white.
India : Lakshadweep, Tamil Nadu : Gulf of Mannar; Andamans. Indo-West Pacific,
Lakshadweep to .Philippines, Australia and Fiji Islands. Common on the under surface of coral
stones in the infralittoral fringe.
Clypeomorus bati!!ariaeldtp,is Habe and Kosuge, 1966

(PI. 20, fig. 10)
Shell small, up to 26 mm in height, thick, with 10 convex whorls, suture slightly incised
and indistinct. Aperture ovate, columella with slight callus, outer lip thick, weakly crenulated,
lirate on the interior, anterior canal short, narrow and slightly reflected, anal canal deeply
incised groove flanked by columellar plait. Sculptured with nodulose spiral cords, four to
five on the penultimate whorl, nine to twelve cords on the body whorl, interspaces with fine
undulating spiral threads, nodules of unequal siz~; with one or more varices on whorls. Colour
light cream, spiral cords with alternating dark brown and white spots, aperture and columella
white.
India: Maharashtra : Bombay; Tamil Nadu : Gulf of Mannar (Rameswaram, Pamban,
Mandapam); Andhra Pradesh : Visakhapatnam; Andamans. Indo-Pacific, common; widely
distributed.
It occurs on hard substrate at the upper midtide level.
Synonym: Cerithium moniliferum Kiener, 1841.
Clypeomorus bifasciata bifasciata (Sowerby, 1855)

(PI. 20, fig. 13, 14)
Shel1 of medium size, up to 30 mm in height, slender and elongate, with 10 to 12 whorls.

Aperture small, oval, columella with slight callus, outer lip thick, often with Iirations on the
interior, anterior canal short but deep, anal canal notch-like bordered by parietal columellar
plait. Penuitinlate whorl sculptured with three equally spaced, spiral, beaded cords, enclosing
in between them fine spiral striae, body whorl with six or seven prominent, beaded spiral cords,
enclosing in between inconspicuous secondary threads. Colour variable, white with blotches of
brown or black, beads dark, aperture and columella white.
India: Maharashtra : Bombay; Goa, Karnataka : Devgad; Tamil Nadu : Gulf of Mannar,
Palk Bay; Andhra Pradesh: Visakhapatnam; Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Indo-Pacific, widely
distributed from Persian Gulf to Japan, Australia and Phoenix Bay.
It occurs on hard or loose rocky substrata near the high water mark. It is confined mostly
to the continental regions and high island groups of the Indo-West Pacific.
Synonytns : Cerithium morus Lamarck, 1822

Clypeomorus clypeomorus Jousseaume, 1888
Clypeomorus petrosa gennesi (Fischer and Vignal, 1901)

(PI. 20, fig. 11, 12)
Shell smal1, up to 22 mm in height, thick, whorls 11 to 12, elongate and pupiform, sutures
distinct. A perture ovate, small, with short and wide anterior canal, posterior canal a small incision
flanked by parietal columellar plait, outer lip not very thick, extends slightly below the anterior
canal. Sculptured with nodulose spiral cords, interspaces with smooth fine spiral striae, body
whorl with a large dorso-Iateral varix. Colour dull grayish white with darker nodes and white
aperture.
Clypeomorus purpurostoma Houbrick, 1985

(PI. 20 fig.I5)
Shell of moderate size, up to 25 mm in length and 10 mm width, turreted with 10-12 whorls,
pupifonn in outline, whorls moderately inflated, body whorl large, slightly over half of the
shell length, sculptured with beaded spiral cords, spiral Iirae and spiral lines, body whorl ""jth
a prominent subsutural spiral cord and large varix on right dorsal surface, an obsolete varix
opposite outer lip. Aperture oval and small, columella with narrow parietal callus, siphonal
canal short, slightly reflected, posterior canal indistinct and bordered by distinct columellar
fold, base of outer lip smooth bearing weak spiral Ii rae on the interior, base of outer lip extends
over anterior canal. Colour white ornamented with brown blotches and spiral brown dots, beads
dark brown. Aperture and columella purple coloured. Operculum thin, corneous with eccentric
nucleus.
India: Andamans, Indo-West Pacific; more common in the Pacific.
It occurs sympatrically in association with Clypeomorus bifasciata bifasciata, and
Clypeomorus batillariae form is, but at lower levels than these species in the intertidal zone.
Pseudovertagus (pseudovertagus) nobi/is (Reeve, 1855)

(PI. 21 fig. 9,10)
Shell largest among Indian cerithides, up to 100 mm in length and 35 mm in width, solid,
with 16 whorls. Body whorl smooth except for a few spiral cords on base, upper few whorls
sculptured with prominent and fine spiral cords and axial riblets, middle whorls smooth with
conspicuous varices. Aperture ovate, smooth, siphonal canal very long, narrow and tapering,
anal canal prominent with a conspicuolls columellar ridge, outer lip smooth, its base extends
over columella, columella smooth, with broad and raised columellar callus. Colour cream and
tinged with olive. Operculum not seen.
India: Andamans, rare represented by only a single specimen. It is a first record from India.
Indo-Pacific: It has a disjunct geographic range from a Mozambique and Zanzibar to Madgascar,
and in the Pacific from the Philippines and Mariana Islands to New Caledonia in the south
(Houbrick, 1978).
Rhinoclavis (Rhinoclavis) aspera (Linnaeus, ) 758)

(PI. 21, fig. 6, 7)
Shell moderately large in size, about 50 mm in height, narrowly elongate, whorls 12 to 14,
spire proportionately larger than the body whorl. Aperture obliquely oval, outer lip thick, smooth
but slightly fluted. Columella with callous deposit extending freely above, with a central fold,
anterior canal long and recurved, posterior canal short. Sculptured with strong almost continuous
angulated axial ribs crossed by five to six spiral cords on each whorl, but more on the body
whorl, periphery of the body whorl and below with three distinct beaded spiral cords. Colour
cream, ornamented with brown lines, aperture and columella glistening white.
India: Andamans, very rare. Indo .. Pacific, common.
It occurs in sandy areas near coral reefs.

SUBB,A RAO : INDIAN SEA SHELLS: POL YPLACOPHORA AND GASTROPODA 131
Rhinoclavis (Rllinoclavis) sinensis (Ornelin, 1791)

(PI. 21, fig. 8)
Shell moderately large in size, up to 52 mm in height, solid and heavy, whorls 13 to 14,
broader than in the other species of the genus, whorls angular, sutures not distinct. Aperture
squarish, outer lip simple and slightly expanded, columella with callous and a rounded flange
near the anterior canal, with a central fold on the inside, anterior canal long and recurved,
posterior canal rudimentary. Sculptured with spiral rows of nodules, the row just below the
suture larger than others, nodules regular and well spaced, rounded or often spinose, fine
axial and spiral threads in between the rows of nodules, body whorl with 10 to 15 nodulose
cords and obsolete lateral varix opposite the aperture. Colour creamish, with irregular spots of
purple brown, spiral cords ornamented with regular purple brown spots, aperture and columella
white.
India: Oujarat : Port Okha; Maharashtra : Bombay; Goa, Lakshadweep, Tamil Nadu : Gulf
of Mannar; Andhra Pradesh: Visakhapatnam, common. Indo-Pacific.
It generally occurs in sandy stretches near reef flats or under rocks in the intertidal zone.
Synonym: Cerithium obeliscus Bruguiere, 1792.
Rhinoclavis (Rhinoclavis) vertagus Linnaeus, 1767

(PI. 21, fig. 2)
Shell moderately large in size, up to 58 mm in height, solid and heavy, narrowing anteriorly,
12 to 13 whorls, sutures deep and uneven. Aperture narrowly ovate, outer lip thickened, smooth
and slightly expanded, columella with callus and a central fold, shallow groove around callus,
, anterior canal long and recurved, anal canal rudimentary. Sculptured with strong axial ribs and
spiral cords on the spire whorls except the protoconch and the first few whorls, ribs becolne
obsolete on the penultimate whorl and almost absept on the body whorl. Colour light to dark
brown, early whorls, aperture and columella white.
India: Andamans, very rare. Elsewhere: Northern Australia to New Hebrides and Ryukyu
Islands.
It occurs in sandy areas of shallow water lagoons.
Rllinoclavis (Proclavis) kochi (Philippi, 1848)

(PI. 21, fig. 3-5)
Shell smallest in the genus, up to 26 mm in height, solid and glossy, whorls 13 to 14,
sides straight. Aperture with reduced posterior canal and recurved anterior canal. Sculptured
with five to six spiral cords on all the whorls, but body whorl with more number, subsutural
cord on each whorl more prominent than others, an obsolete varix opposite the aperture.
Colour pale brown, often with fine brown spiral lines, top whorls light cream, columella
white.
India: Andamans, very rare. Widely distributed in the Indo-Pacific.
Rllinoclavis (Proclavis) sordidula (Gould, 1849)

(PI. 21 fig. 1)
Shell small, up to 25 mm in length, whorls 15-17 with a tapering spire. Aperture ovate, one
fourth the length of the shel1, outer lip crenulated, distinct anal canal and short anterior canal, a
weak columellar plait in the middle of the columella. Sculptured with three dominant spiral
cords and weak beaded spiral cord on each whorl, three to four indistinct spiral striae and fine
riblets between the cords, axial riblets cross over the spiral cords forming beads at the
intersections, body whorl with five strong beaded spiral cords and axial riblets on upper two
thirds and seven weak spiral cords on the lower part thus giving the shell reticulated and beaded
appearance. Operculum corneous, chestnut coloured, ovate, paucispiral with well developed
eccentric nucleus.
India : Andaman Islands. From Persian Gulf to Zanzibar, Malaysia and Indonesia. More
common in Pacific from Japan to Fiji.
The species is reported for the first time from India.
The following species were also reported from India.
1. Cerithium africanum Houbrick, 1992. Port Blair, Andamans
2. Cerithium caeruleum Sowerby, 1855. Okha, Gulf of Kachchh
3. Cerithium citrinum Sowerby, 1855. Tuticorin, Port Blair
4. Cerithium dialeucum Philippi, 1849. Port Blair, Long Island,
Andamans
5. Cerithium punctatum Bruguiere, 1792 Andamans
6. Cerithium roslratum Sowerby, 1855 Port Blair
7. Cerithium lorresi E.A. Smith, 1884 Bombay, Karwar, Tuticorin,
Andamans
8. Cerithium zonatum (Wood, 1828) Bombay
9. Clypeomorlls subbrevicliia (Oostingh, 1925) Visakhapatnam
10. Rhinoclavis (Rhinoclavis) !asciala Coromandal Coast,
(Bruguiere, 1792) Andamans
SUBSA RAO : INDIAN SEA SHELLS: POLYPLACOPHORA AND GASTROPODA 133
Houbrick, R. S. 1978. The Family Cerithiidae in the Indo-Pacific. Part 1: The Genera Rhinoclavis,
Pseudovertagus and Clavocerithium. Monograph Marine Mollusca, No.1: 1-130,
PI. 98.
Houbrick, R. S. 1985. Genus Clypeomorus Jousseaume (Cerithiidae : Prosobranchia).
Smithsonian Contributions to Zoology, 403 : 1-131, 62 figures.
Houbrick, R. S. 1992. Monograph of the genus Cerithium Bruguiere in the Indo-Pacific
(Cerithiidae : Prosobranchia). Smithsonian Contributions to Zoology, 510 : 1-211, 145
figures.
Kasinathan, R. and Govindan, K. 1975. Egg masses and development of Cerithium morus
Lamarck (Mesogastropoda : Mollusca) under laboratory conditions. Ind. J. mar. Sci.,
4(1) : 96 -97.
Melvill, J. C. and Standen, R. 1898. The Marine Mollusca of Madras and the immediate
neighbourhood. Journal o/Conchology, 9 : 30-48, pI. 1.
Rao, L. M. and Ramasarma, D. V. 1980. Spawning and larval Development of Clypeomorus
clypeomorus Jousseaume, 1888 in Waltair coast. 1. Moll. Studies, 46(2) : 186-191.
Rao, Y. P., Uma Devi, V. and Prasada Rao, D. G. V. 1987. Starvation Metabolism in the cerithiids
Cerithidea (Cerithideopsilla) cingulata (Gmelin) and Cerithium coralium Kiener. The
Veliger, 30(2) : 173-183.
Rao, Y P., Uma Devi, V. and Prasada Rao, D. G. V. 1988. Seasonal changes in the level and
content of different biochemical constituents in tropical cerithiids Cerithidea
(Cerithideopsilla) cingulata (Gmelin, 1791) and Cerithium coralium Kiener, 1841. Proc.
Indian A cad Sci. (Animal Sciences), 97(2): 151-160.
Family DIALIDAE
Shell is small, smooth and without anterior or posterior canal. Protoconch is smooth. A
chitinous operculum is present.
Generally found attached to weeds near coral reefs.
Diala semislriala (Philippi, 1849)

(PI. 23, fig. 6)
Shell minute, up to 2 mm in height, thin, narrowly elongate and glossy, sutures channeled,
protoconch consists of 1 Y2 whorls and smooth, surface smooth except for fine spiral threads at
the base, columella straight, umbilicus absent, cream coloured with brown and white spiral
band below sutures.
Houbrick, R. S. 1988. Cerithidean phylogeny. Mal. Rev. Suppl. 4 : 88-128.
Ponder, W. F. and Keyzer, R. 1992. A revision of the genus Diala (Gastropoda: Cerithioidea :
Dialidae).lnvertebr. Taxon., 6 : 1019·1075.
Family POTAMIDIDAE
Horn Shells
Shell is small to large, up to 140 mm in height, long, turreted and usually thick. The number
of whorls varies from 10 to 16 with a high spire. Aperture is rounded or oval with a rudimentary
anterior siphonal canal and in some a posterior siphonal notch, outer lip usually is thickened
and grows beyond the columellar base. Surface of the shell is generally sculptured with spiral
cords and axial ribs that are often broken into nodules. Operculum is horny, thin and pauci-to
multi-spiral. Nucleus is generally in the centre.
Head is broad with a prominent snout, which is wrinkled and highly contractile. A pair of
tentacles projects from the neck, with eyes situated at their outer bases. Tentacles may be spotted
or banded with red and black. Foot is Inassive, subcircular anteriorly and obtuse posteriorly.
Mantle cavity is very deep and consists of an elongate and prominent osphradium and a well-
developed monopectinate ctenidium occupying a considerable portion of the mantle cavity.
Radula is taenioglossate and the stolnach is quite large. Sexes are separate. Male does not
possess a copulatory organ. A spennatophore is formed to store the sperms and to transfer them
into the female. Pallial gonoducts are open. Eggs are laid in the form of mucus strings as long
coils.
Potamidids are detritus feeders and are abundantly common in estuaries, backwaters and
mangroves. Some can live out of water for days.
The family is divided into two subfamilies, nalnely Potamidinae and Batillariinae, which
differ in their shell and radular teeth characters.
Subfamily POTAMIDINAE
Ceritllitlea a/ata (Philippi, 1847)

(PI. 22, fig. I)
Shell small, up to 25 mm length, thick, whorls 12 to 13, sutures distinct, traversed by a

thread. Aperture elongate ovate, outer lip and inner lip meet posteriorly at a point beyond the
shell plane, siphonal sinus hollow and short, outer lip reflects over the sinus. Sculptured with
rounded, somewhat rectangular, close-set axial nodules, three on each whorl, on the body whorl
the nodules coalesce together forming broad, flattened raised interspaces separated by shallow
grooves. Colour grayish brown, interior of aperture, columella and outer lip white.
India: West Bengal: Sunderbans; Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Andamans. Indian Ocean.
The species bears resemblance to Cerilhidea cingu/ata in shell characters but can be easily
differentiated by its typically detached aperture and sculpture.
Ceritltit/ea (Ceritltideopsilla) cingulata (Gmelin, 1791)

(PI. 22, fig. 2)
Shell moderately large, up to 50 mm in height, elongate and thick, 13-15 flat-sided whorls
separated by shallow sutures. Aperture oval, columella almost straight, outer lip thick and
expanded broadly, anterior siphonal canal distinct and short with a varice-like bulge and blunt
rib above. Sculptured with prominent spiral ridges crossed by equally strong axial ribs fonning
rows of regular granular nodules. Colour dark brown, often with a whitish band above the
suture, nodules dirty white, interstices brown, interior of aperture white, lined with brown.
Operculum spherical with a central nucleus.
India: Very common in the estuaries and backwaters along East and West Coasts. Population
density can be as high as 12000/m 2• Indo-West Pacific, common.
The species prefers submersion and periodical exposure. Eggs are laid in capsules that form
a mass of filamentous threads. It has a planktotrophic veliger larva in its development.
Synonym: Cerithidea fluviatilis (Potiezeet Michaud).
Cerithidea (Ceritllidea) obtusa (Lamarck, 1822)

(PI. 22, fig. 5, 6)
Shell larger than that of C. (C.) cingulata, up to 60 mm in height, elongate and lightweight,
whorls 7 to 8, apex usu~lIy eroded (decollated), body whorl as broad as high. Aperture strongly
spherical and wide, with expanded and recurved outer lip, columella weak, basal end slightly
twisted, a short siphonal canal. Sculptured with about 6 to 7 spiral ridges and about 8 to 10 axial
ribs on each whorl. Colour pale pinkish, lip and columella white, aperture light brown and with
dark brown bands. Operculum circular with central nucleus and concentric growth lines, dark
brown. Head bears a pair of tentacles with alternating broad black and red bands.
India: West Bengal: Sunderbans; Orissa: Mahanadi Estuary; Andhra Pradesh: Godavary
Estuary; Tamil Nadu : Pitchavaram Mangrove; Nicobars ? mangrove ecosystem. Indo-West
Pacific.
The snail occurs near high tide mark and avoids submersion. During high tide the snail
climbs on to the plants and when the water recedes it crawls down to the mud flat. This species
is not as common as the preceding species.
Telescopium te/escopium (Linnaeus, 1758)

(PI. 22, fig. 3)
Shell very large, up to 120 Inm in height, shell elevated and strongly conical, heavy and
thick, with about 14 to 16 \vhorls, sutures not distinct. Aperture small and rounded, columella
solid, strongly twisted and channeled, outer lip thickened, extended anteriorly as a flare over
siphonal canal. Sculptured with four unequal, flat spiral ridges on each whorl, last whorl rounded
at base with one large and many small cords. Colour dark brown or black, interior shiny blue-
black, columella mauve-brown.
India: Gujarat, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Pondicherry, Andhra Pradesh, Orissa, West Bengal,
common in estuaries and mud flats. Indian Ocean and Australia.
The species is equally at ease with submersion and exposure. The population density along
East Coast of India is moderate. Eggs are laid in filamentous mass.
Terebralia palustris (Linnaeus 1767)

(PI. 22, fig. 4)
Shell very large, up to 130 mm in length, elongate, with about 14 flat-sided whorls. Aperture
with thickened lips, outer lip arched and curved over short siphonal canal, columella with
cal1us deposit, posteriorly thickened with rib-like callus, outer lip also with callus, interior of
aperture obsoletely grooved. Sculptured with deeply incised regularly spaced spiral grooves
separated by broad and flat interspaces, straight edged and flattened transpiral ribs in juveniles,
a humped varix on the body whorl anteriorly opposite columella. Colour dark brown, interior
purple brown, lip fawn coloured and colutnella chocolate brown with white shining area
posteriorly.
India : Lakshadweep, Tamil Nadu : Kundugal Point, Krusadai Island; Andhra Pradesh :
Godavary and Krishna Estuaries; Orissa, Nicobars, mangroves and backwaters. Indo-Pacific,
widely distributed in the tropical Pacific.
The species occurs along with Telescopiunl telescopium but is not as common as that. So far
it was not reported froln Sunderban mangroves (West Bengal) and Pitchavaram Mangroves
(Tamil Nadu).
Synonym: Pyrazus palustris of authors.
Pirenella layardi bombayana Sowerby

(PI. 22, fig. 7, 8)
Shell sma1l, up to 15 mm in length, slender with 11 to 12 rounded whorls, sutures distinct.

Aperture ovate, outer lip simple and thin, columella arched with a little broad and reflected
callus anteriorly, no siphonal canal. Sculptured \vith three spiral cords on each whorl, the
subsutural cord broken into round nodules, body whorl with three radiating cords at the base.
Colour dark brown, columella and aperture yellowish brown.
India: Maharashtra : Bombay. Indian Ocean.

Subfamily BA TILLARIINAE
Batillaritt anguli/era (Sowerby, 1866)

(PI. 22, fig. 9, 10)
Shell small, up to 25 min in length, slender and turreted, with distinct sutures, body whorl
slightly angular in the middle. Aperture obliquely subtrigonal, slightly produced anteriorly with
a shallow, truncated siphonal cana1. Sculptured with spiral ribs thrown into tubercles, more or
less evenly spaced giving a plaited appearance, tubercles weak at the base of the body whorl
below the angle, often a varicose elevation opposite the aperture. Colour dull brown, with dark
and light brown spiral bands, aperture dull white.
India: Tamil Nadu. Elsewhere: AustraHa.
Balaparameswara Rao, M. and Sukumar, R. V. 1981. The response of a tropical estuarine

gastropod, ("erithidea cingll/ala (Gmelin) to different types of substrata. Hydrobiologia,
78 : 191-193.
Balaparameswara Rao, M. and Sukumar, R. V. 1982. Distribution, zonation and habits of tropical
mud snail, Cerilhidea cingulala (Gmelin) (Mollusca: Gastropoda). Malaea/agio, 22 :
55j-558.
Ramamoorthi, K. and Alagaraja, K. 1969. A preliminary study of growth in Cerithidea
(Cerllhideopsi/la) jluvialilis (Potiez & Michaud) (Prosobranchiata - Gastropoda). Proc.
Symp. Mollusca, 2 : 418-421. Marine Biological Association of India, Cochin.
Ramamoorthi, K. and Natarajan, R. 1973. Spawning in Telescopium telescopium (Linnaeus)
(Potamididae : Gastropoda). Venus Jap. J. Nfalacol., 31(4) : 158-159.
Rao, H. S. ) 938. Observations on the growth and habits of the gastropod mollusc Pyrazus
palustris Linn. in the Andalnan \vater. Rec. Indian Mus., 40(2) : 193-206.
Rao, Y P. and Prasada Rao, D. G. V. 1983. Aerial respiration of Cerilhidea (Cerithideopsilla)
cingulata (Gmelin) and Cerilhiunl coralium Kiener in relation to body weight. Proc.
Indian Acad. Sci. (Anill1al Sci.), 92(5) : 381-386.
Sadasivan, V. 1948. The rate of growth of Cerilhidea cingliiaia Gmelin (Gastropoda-
Pectinibranchia). Proc. 35,11 Indian Science Congress, Abstract. 198.
Sewell, R. B. S. 1924. Observations on growth in certain mollusks and changes corre1ated with
growth in the radula of Pyrazus palus/ris. Rec. Indian Mus., 25 : 529-548.
Srinivasan. P. V. 1985. Studies on the Potamid snail. Cerilhidea cingliiaia (Omelin, 1790)
(Mollusca: Mcsogastropoda). Ph. D. thesis. Annamalai University, 267 pp.
Swaminathan, S. 1961. SOlne aspects of the anatomy and physiology of the estuarine gastropod,
Telescopiunl lelescopizllll (Linn.). M. Sc. thesis. Annamalai University, 176 pp.
Family FOSSARIIDAE
Shell is very small in size, usually not more than ] 5 mm in length, subglobose, turbinate,
with moderately high spire and a prominent, conical protoconch. Aperture is rounded, oblique
and entire, outer lip simple and occasionally undulate, columellar margin oblique to straight.
Umbilicus is present. Surface is sculptured with spiral cords crossed by transverse costulae.
Operculum is thin, corneous, paucispiral with an excentric nucleus.
There is a pair of elongate, filiform cephalic tentacles, which bear eyes at their outer bases.
Foot is rounded at both ends. Mantle edge is without processes. Radula is taenioglossate (2- ] -]-
1-2). Sexes are separate.
It is a poorly known family with six genera and about two-dozen species. In India the
monotypic genus Chilkaia is endemic to Chilka Lake.
Cllilkaia imitatrix Preston, 1915

(PI. 23, fig. 5)
Shell minute, up to 2.5 mm in height, oblong ovate, whorls 3, suture impressed, HIe body
whorl shouldered in the infrasutural region. Aperture oblique and rather elongately ovate, outer
lip arcuate, rather dilated below. Columella descending in a curve, \vith a thick parietal callus
posteriorly uniting it with the outer lip, umbilicus very narrow. Sculptured with fine and wavy
spiral striae crossed by distantly placed oblique transverse plications; covered with light reddish
periostracum, aperture white.
India: Orissa: Chilka Lake, endelnic, rare.

Family TURRITELLIDAE
Screw Shells
Shell is small to large, up to 100 mm long and attenuate with numerous whorls. Aperture is
proportionately small, rounded or angled at the top. Outer lip is thin with a convex outer margin.
There is no umbilicus. Sculpture consists of spiral striations or ridges. Operculum is chitinous,
circular, thin and rnultispiral with a central nucleus.
Head is large and bears long tentacles having eyes at their outer bases. Foot is short, truncate
anteriorly and narrow posteriorly, with a groove on the ventral side. It possesses a pedal gland
at the posterior end. Mantle margin is fringed and has a siphonal fold on the right side. Mantle
cavity consists of a monopectinate ctenidiunl and a string-like osphradium. Radula is
taenioglossate, 3-1-1-1-3. Digestive system contains small salivary glands, long and narrow
oesophagus and a large two-chambered stomach. Sexes are separate. Male is without a penis.
Some deposit eggs in stalked capsules, while some brood the young within the oviduct. Veliger
larva may be of short duration.
Majority of the species prefer muddy sands of tropical waters. These are detritus feeders and
occur from intertidal to offshore, mostly beyond the low tide line. It is a large family consisting
of five subfamilies embracing 18 genera and an estimated 150 species. In India two genera,
Turri/ella and Hallstator, belonging to the subfamily Turritellinae are reported. These ~e mainly
distributed along the continental shores.
Turritella attenuata Reeve, 1849

(PI. 23, fig. 1)
Shell large, up to 96 mm in height, elongate and attenuate with 15 to 16 rounded

whorls. Aperture sinuate. Sculptured with raised spiral striations of equal size on earlier
whorls, on later whorls, from 1Dth or 12th onwards, middle striation becoming stronger and
others getting gradually \veak and obsolete. Whorls strongly keeled in the lniddle, with sloping
upper part and curved lower part. Coloured I ight brownish or pinkish, upper part of whorls
tinged with blue.
India: West Bengal: Digha; Orissa: Puri; Talnil Nadu : Madras to Tranquebar; Pondicherry,
cornrnon. Elsewhere: Indonesia.
Turritella columnaris Kiener, 1840

(PI. 23. fig. 2, 3)
Shell large, up to 80 Inm in height, elongate, lanceolately turreted, with about 30 whorls,
suture excavated and not rnuch inflated, sometimes flattened in the middle, base strongly
angulated. Sculptured with t\VO strong spiral striations on the earlier whorls, others obsoletely
granulated, more or less with about 10 uniform spiral ridges. Coloured yellowish brown with
vertical brown stripes and blotches.
India: Orissa; Tamil Nadu : Madras, Adiramapatnam; Pondicherry, not common. Indian
Ocean.
Turritella duplicata (Linnaeus, 1758)

(PI. 23, fig. 7-9)
Shell large, up to 107 mm in height, about 18-20 whorls, the earlier whorls convex with
many fine spiral ridges, on other whorls two sharp ridges in the Iniddle, after the first six whorls
the central ridge becomes elevated into a strong keel, other spiral ridges becolne obsolete or
disappear, after about ten whorls another elevated ridge begins to appear and on the penultilnate
and body whorl both of these become less conspicuous. The whorls at both end rounded and
those in the middle sharply angular. The upper half of each whorl medium dark brown and the
lower pale cream brown.
India: Gujarat : Gulf of Kachchh; Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Pondicherry, Orissa, comlnon
in subtidal sand. Indo-Pacific.
Synonym: Turritella aClitangu/a (Linnaeus, 1758).
Haustator trisulcata Lamarck, 1822

(PI. 23, fig. 4)
Shell of moderate size, up to 48 mm in height, acuminately turreted. Aperture

subquadrangular, outer lip sinuous. Sculptured with three spiral ridges, intennediate grooves
concave and spirally striated. Coloured brown, often with chestnut to light brown spiral or
transpiral markings, apical whorls tinged with violet or blue.
India: Tamil Nadu: GulfofMannar (Mandapam Camp), common. Indian Ocean: Red Sea
to Mergui Archipelago.
Falnily SILIQUARIIDAE
Slit-worm Shells
It is a monogeneric fanli1y. Shell bears some resemblance to that of a vermetid. Early whorls
arc closely coiled and the later \vhorls grow haphazardly. A narrow slit or a series of holes runs
the length of the shell except at the flattened apex. These occur in clusters or solitarily. Little is
kno\vn about their biology and distribution.
The genus is represented by four species, mainly from Orissa.
Tellllgodll.rt (lllguina (Linnaeus, 1758)
(PI. 24, fig. 1)
Shell thick, irregularly t\visted and sculptured with spinose spiral ribs. Colour light bro\vn.
India: Orissa (55-70 m), found embedded in the sponge Spongorites topsenti Dendy,
Andanlans. Indo-Pacific.
Tellagotills cunlillgi Moerch, 1860
(PI. 24" fig. 6-8)
Shell narro\v, elongate. apex coiled, sculptured \vith fine spiral ridges except on either side
of siphonal slit.
India: Orissa. on the sponge Racodisclls scraptell~fera var. 'liprog/yplzi Annandale.

Elsc\vhere: Philippines, Japan.
Tellagodlls tostll.\' Moerch, 1860
(PI. 24, fig. 2, 3)
It rcsenlblcs T. cloningi in shell characters but can be distinguished by its larger diameter,
and hy thc presence of denticulate ridge on either side of the slit.
India: Orissa. Elsc\vherc : Philippines.
Tellago(/lis trochlearis Moerch, 1860
(PI. 24, fig. 4, 5)
Early part of the shell c0l11pactly coiled like a disc, tube thick with fine spiral striations,
scabrous, pro111incnt to\vards the posterior part.
India: ()rissa. Elsc\vhere : Philippines.
REFERENCES
Moerch, O. A. L. ) 860. Review of the genus Tenagodus Guettard. Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond.,
1860(3) : 400-4) 3.
Bieler, R. )992. Tenagodus or Siliquaria ? Unraveling taxonomic confusion in marine worm ..
snails (Cerithioidea : Siliquaridae). The Nautilus, 106(1) : 15-20.
Family VERMETIDAE
Worm Shells
It is a most puzzl ing group among gastropods and difficult to identify on the basis of beach-
worn specimens. Shell is an irregularly coiled long tube unlike in other gastropods, and varies
in size, which may reach a length of 100 mm and diameter 2 to 15 mm. Apex is evenly and
spirally coi led. Protoconch consists of 2 to 4 whorls. Adult whorls are coiled at a right angle to
the nuclear whorls. Surface consists of irregular cords. Operculum, when present is chitinous,
spiral and centrally thickened.
Shell is often confused with that of a t~be-building annelid worm. But the two can be easily
differentiated. The vermetid shell has three layers and the interior glossy, a tightly and spirally
coiled embryonic shell, whereas the annelid tube has a two-layered she)), dull interior and no
embryonic shell. In the latter the shell begins with a tubular chamber.
Head bears a pair of stout tentacles. Foot is reduced and has a glandular sale. Mantle cavity
consists of a ctenidium that bears triangular leaves and often cirri. A pair of pedal tentacles is
present. Proboscis is short. Radula is taenioglossate.
Sexes are separate. Male has no penis but there are pelagic spermatophores. Female is
ovoviviparous or viviparous and possesses an incubatory pOlich.
Worm shells are abundant in the intertidal zone and live attached to corals, rocks or other
shells. These are either solitary or colonial.
The family includes four genera; only the genera Serpu/orbis and Venne/us are reported
frorn India.
Serpulorbis sp.
Shell is yellowish brown. It is irregularly coiled. Surface is sculptured with spiral ribs. Aperture
circular. There is a single box in the National Zoological Collections labeled as Vermetidae. It
has not been possible to correctly identify shells up to species level.
India: Andamans : Peel Island. It is found attached to the coral, Pachyseris speciosa (Dana).
Annandale, N. 191 J. Sorne sponges associated with gregarious moJluscs of the family
Vermetidae. Rec. Indian Mus., 6(2) : 47-56.
Keen, A. M. t 961. A proposed reclassification of the Gastropod family Vermetidae. Bull. Br.
Mus. nat. His I. (Zool.), 7 (3) : 183-213.
Prashad, B. and Rao, H.S. 1933. Notes on the bionomics of Trochus niloticus Linn I. On a new
species of Spirog/yphus (Veflnetidae) from the Andamans. Rec. Indian Mus., 35(4) :
409-412.
Family STROMBIDAE
Winged Shells or Conch Shells
Shell is solid and small to large. It exhibits different shapes but has an en larged body whorl
and a low conical to turretiform spire. Aperture is long and narrow, with anterior and posterior
canals. The most distinguishing features of the shell are the development of a large, flaring and
thickened outer lip and the presence of a U-shaped notch or indentation on the edge of the lip
near the end. It is referred as a 'stromboid notch' and facilitates the protrusion of right eye.
Outer lip may be digitate and some times with inner plications. Umbilicus is lacking. Shell
surface may be smooth or may have axial and spiral threads, and varices. Operculum is long,
sharp, strong, chitinous and claw-like with a terminal nucleus. It assists in the leaping and
jumping locomotion and serves as a defensive weapon to ward off predators.
Head bears long and muscular eye peduncles, each one of which gives rise to a small short
tentacle a Httle below its distal end. Eyes are well developed and have colourful irises. Foot is
narrow, very muscular and is divided into an anterior prepodial sole and an elongate posterior
metapodium bearing the operculum. Mantle bears pallial tentacles and its cavity consists of a
long narrow osphradium. Proboscis is long and thin.
Radula is taenioglossate and short. Digestive systeln consists of long and thin salivary glands,
and a crystalline style in the stolnach.
Sexes are separate and sexually dimorphic, the shell in males being slightly smaller than in
the females and differently sculptured. Male possesses a long, open-grooved penis. Female has
an open gonoduct. The animals congregate at the titne of spawning. Eggs are laid in long, jelly-
like coiled tube. Larva is planktotrophic.
Winged shells are usually shallow water inhabitants common in the intertidal zone or beyond
the low water limit associated with algal-rich coral reefs. They may occur as epifauna on the
coral boulders or burrow into the sand in the reef area. They are either herbivores or detritus
feeders.
The family contains six genera and an estimated 100 species distributed in the tropical and
semi-tropical seas. As many as five genera and twenty species are so far reported froln Indian
seas.
Stromblls (Laevistrombus) conarium Linnaeus, 1758

(PI. 25, fig. 1)
Shell large, up to 70 tnm in height, solid, spire may be short and slnooth or high with angular
whorls, body whorl with the expanded outer lip proportionately broader, ahnost as broad as
high. Edge of winged outer lip rounded, stands at a considerable distance from the columella,
weak stromboid notch, very short siphona1 cana1. C01ume1la with glazed callus. Surface smooth,
apical whorls spirally grooved, apex with whitish remnants of varices, body whorl striated at
the base, smoothly rounded or with faint ridges, surface with close-set, wavy, transpiral orange. .
red lines, interior and columella white, parietal wall may often be metallic.
India: Andhra Pradesh. Tamil Nadu : Gulf of Mannar, Tuticorin; Andamans. India to Japan,
Australia and Melanesia.
It occurs on sandy mud from low tide line to a depth of about 6 m.
Strombus (Canorillm) erythrlnus eryll"inus Dillwyn, 1817

(PI. 25, fig. 2)
Shell of medium size, up to 45 mm in height, narrowly elongate. Aperture small, outer lip
slightly expanded, thickened, lirate internally, columella with callus and plaits at each end,
stromboid notch weak, siphonal canal short. Sculptured with axial riblets which form small
rounded knobs at the slightly angular Inid-sutural periphery, shoulder of the body whorl rounded
and with about 9 to 11 small, axially lengthened knobs, apertural varix swollen and crossed by
numerous spiral threads. Colour usually crealn and clouded with brown, often with two chocolate
bands on the middle of the body whorl; inside of outer lip, inner half and base of columella rich
dark purple brown, often a white band along the inner edge of the outer lip.
Strombus ·(Conarlum) lobiatus labiatus (Roeding, 1798)

(PI. 25, fig. 6)
Shell of medium size, up to 35 mm in height, solid and elongate, higher than broad. Outer lip
not much expanded and a poorly developed stromboid notch, columella narrow, glossy, weakly
lirate along its entire length, siphonal canal truncate below. Sculptured with strong axial ribs,
on the shoulder with 2 or 3 knobs. Colour variable, may be .brown or gray with yellowish
maculations, broken bands and axial streaks, columella orange to yellowish orange with darker
brownish orange stripes.
Stromblls (Conarium) mutabilLf Swainson, 1821

(PI. 25, fig. 10)
Shell small, lip to 26 mm in height, solid, smooth, quadrate in shape, spire whorls shouldered.
Aperture oblong. colulnella enameled, outer lip thickened, with a short blunt projection at the
posterior end, shallow stromboid notch, siphonal canal short and slightly recurved, columella'
and aperture lirate. Sculptured with rounded, blunt axial ribs becoming heavy knobs, three to' e
SUBRA RAO : INDIAN SEA SHELLS: POLYPLACOPHORA AND GASTROPODA 147
four at the shoulder on the dorsal side of the body whorl, faint spiral cords on base and near the
lip. Colour cream mottled and spotted in light or dark browns in axial streaks and often a few
spiral bands on the body whorl, columella and outer lip white or pink.
India: Tamil Nadu : Tuticorin; Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Indo-Pacific, not comlnon.
Intertidal, in coral sand or sandy mud.
Strombus (Conarium) morginatlls marginatus Linnaeus, 1758

(PI. 25, fig. 3)
Shell of medium size, up to 46 mm in height, ovately conical, spire short and depressed,
apex sharp. Aperture narrow, columella polished and with white callus, faintly wrinkled below,
outer lip thickened, its sharp edge ends posteriorly on keel of penultimate whorl, posterior canal
arching on to spire, siphonal canal short, stromboid notch shallow. Spire whorls sculptured
with varices or axial ribs and sharply angular shoulder, last two whorls without any ribs but
only a nodulose keel on the shoulder, body whorl with deeply incised sharp lines at its base.
Colour white, maculated with dark or light brown, four white broken spiral bands on body
whorl, also white, inside of outer lip lirate, white, aperture interior also white.
India: Tamil Nadu, Andamans. Indian Ocean.
Strombus (Canarium) marginatus succinctus Linnaeus, 1767

(PI. 25, fig. 11)
She1J of medium size, up to 34 mm in height, spire fairly high and acuminate. Aperture
elongate, white and spirally striated, outer lip sinuate and curled inward, posterior canal extends
straight up and adheres to 2 or 3 spiral whorls. Sculpture consists of nUlnerous axial riblets on
~pical whorls, with varices on post nuclear whorls, a single, rounded and distinct knob on the
shoulder of the body whorl dorsally. Colour yellowish-brown with fine reticulated arrow shaped
narrow, white spiral bands.
India: Tamil Nadu : Madras, Gulf of Mannar; Andamans, rare, restricted to Bay of Bengal.
Strombus (Doxantler) lister; T. Gray, 1852

(PI. 26, fig. 3, 4)
Shell large, up to 100 mm in height, rather thin but strong, with a high, pointed spire, long
and narrow body whorl. Outer lip a little quadrangularly expanded with the thickened edge
almost parallel to the columella, posteriorly forms a round ended projection extending almost
on level to the suture above the penultimate whorl; anterior canal well developed, strolnboid
notch very deep and U-shaped. Sculptured with many axial ribs and fine spiral cords in between
on the early whorls, lower whorls rather angulated at the shoulder and smooth for the major part
with spiral striae at the base dorsally. Colour white and brown covered with chestnut undulating
axial stripes, body whorl with four spiral rows of small, white, chevron-shaped marks f aperture
white, columella and interior tinged with brown.
India: West Bengal: Sand Heads; Andhra Pradesh: Visakhapatnam; Pondicherry. Gulf of
Oman to Myanmar and Thailand.
Strombus (Lentigo) lentiginosus Linnaeus, 1758

(PI. 26, fig. 1, 2)
Shell large, up to 90 mm in height, solid and heavy, spire short and pointed. Aperture narrowly
elongate, columella smooth with glazed parietal callus, extending almost as far as the apex,
swollen and projecting at the base, outer lip slightly flared, prominently thickened opposite the
callus, posterior canal distinct, curved and extended to join spire on suture above antepenultimate
whorl, stromboid notch deep, anterior canal short and recurved a little upward to the right.
Sculptured with spiral striae on the early \vhorls, axial ribs nodulose on shoulder, body whorl
with five rows of much smaller nodules, three other coarse ridges without nodules, coarse striae
at base. Colour white, heavily speckled with greenish gray or grayish brown, interior and
columella pink brown, parietal area a little metallic with zigzag pattern of soft browns.
India: Andamans. Indo-Pacific.
StrombllS (Gibherulus) gibberllius gibberulus Linnaeus, 1758

(PI. 26, fig. 5, 6)
Shell moderately large, up to 50 mm in height, solid, fusiform, spire moderately raised,

attenuated towards the base with whorls distorted, penultimate whorl expanded bulging over
suture dorsally on the body whorl. Columella smooth, white, flushed with violet, outer lip
expanded posteriorly reaches the body whorl well below suture, stromboid notch moderately
deep, anterior canal long and somewhat recurved, posterior canal short and dark bro~ at its
base. Sculptured with spiral cords on the spire whorls, body whorl smooth except for spiral
striae at the base near the columella. Colour white, conspicuously marked with broken light
brown axial lines with narrow dark tan spiral bands, inner edge of outer lip with a purple axial
band, columella pinky white, interior white with mauve tinge.
India: Lakshadweep, Tamil Nadu : Gulf of Mannar (Kundugal Point, Krusadai); Andaman
and Nicobar Islands. Indian Ocean.
Lambis (Lambis) lambis (Linnaeus, 1758)

(PI. 27, fig. 3-5)
Shell very large, up to 280 mm (including digitate processes), solid, heavy, covered with
thin, translucent tan periostracum, spire acuminate with about eight whorls. Aperture narrow,
IUBBA RAO : INDIAN SEA SHELLS: POLYPLACOPHORA AND GASTROPODA 149
Imeoth, polished, small ridge on columella and on the inside of outer lip posteriorly. Outer lip
flare widely, extends over up to apex and its edge forms six slender digitate processes which
may be short or long, anterior canal ITIoderately long and slightly twisted to the left, very deep
and wide stromboid notch, parietal callus covers half of body whorl and up to the apex, but not
contiguous with it. Sculptured with spiral and axial striae on the spire, small knobs on sharp
angular shoulders, body whorl with fine blunt knobs on the shoulder. Colour creamy white
heavily mottled with brown, columella, parietal area and interior flesh-pink.
Shells exhibit sexual dimorphism. In male the shell is smaller and the anterior three processes
are quite short and only slightly recurved, where as in female it is larger, and the digitations are
longer; almost twice the length and curved up, and also with a bilobed knob at the shoulder on
th' dorsum and with wide gap between the two posterior most digitations.
. India: Lakshadweep, Tamil Nadu : Gulf ofMannar; Andaman and Nicobar Islands, common.
Indo-Pacific, widely distributed from East Africa to Micronesia and Melanesia.
Abundant on sandy substrata in the weedy coral reef-flats.
Lambis (Lamhis) crocata crocata (Link, 1807)

(PI. 27, fig. 8, 9)
Shel1 large, up to 100 mm in height, spire moderate with about twelve whorls. Aperture
elongate and smooth, outer lip with six slender digitations, stromboid notch wide and deep,
anterior canal long and gracefully curved. Sculptured with spiral and axial cords on the spire, a
row of presutural beads, body whorl with three spiral rows of knobs, top spiral row of four
knobs, the last two large, two other rows below with four to six smaller knobs. Colour creamy-
white maculated with brown, aperture solid-orange.
India: Tamil Nadu : Gulf of Mannar; Andamans, rare. Indo-Pacific, moderately common in
the reef ecosystem.
Lambis (Millepes) scorpius indomaris Abbott, 1961

(PI. 27, fig. 6, 7)
Shell large, up to 100 mm in height, spire short. Aperture very narrow, elongate, with well-
developed spirallirae, outer lip curves round posteriorly to cover half of spire and forms rounded,
triangular flange on far side of first projection, with six digitations, three posterior digitations
long, three opposite the columella short and recurved towards posterior, stromboid notch deep
with scalloped edge, anterior canal long, curved and sealed distally. Sculptured with spiral cords
and smail knobs on angular shoulder, body whorl with four rows of knobs, upper ITIOSt with five
large knobs and the lower three with smaller knobs. Colour white and pale gray with brown
spots, aperture interior and interstices purple brown, aperture and columella with strong white
lirations, outer lip inner edge pink.
India: Andamans, not common. Western and Central Indian Ocean, coral reefs.
Lambis (Harpago) c!liragra c!liragra (Linnaeus, 1758)

(PI. 27, fig. 1)
Shell very large, up to 200 mm in height, spire low, with nine angulated whorls. Aperture
very narrow and sma1l, outer lip curved posteriorly over the top of columella covering almost
half of the spire, with six digitate processes pointing posteriorly, stromboid notch deep, columella
and inner edge of outer lip lirate, parietal area wide. Sculptured with spiral striae on the spire,
becoming coarse on body whorl, four rows of knobs on the body whorl, four large knObs on
the shoulder, the last two largest and almost fused, four other rows of knobs, the lowest
bearing weak knobs. Colour white, mottled with brown, outer lip, columella and aperture dirty
brown.
Male and felnale shells are different. The former has smaller shells, with strong white spiral
lirae over a purple coloured columella, five knobs on the body whorl. Female has a bigger shell,
whitish rosy aperture and smooth white columella.
India: Andamans and Great Nicobar Island. Eastern Indian Ocean to Eastern Polynesia.
Terehellum terebellum (Linnaeus, 1758)

(PI. 28, fig. 11, 12)
Shell moderately large, lip to 55 mm in height, narrowly elongate and smooth. Aperture
narrow and widening at the bottom, columella alm<?st straight and smooth, extending below the
level of outer lip, slightly thickened outer lip, stromboid notch absent. Shell surface without
sculpture, colour cream with rows of brown dots often arranged in bands.
India: Andalnans, rare. Indo-Pacific, East Africa to Japan, Australia and Samoa.
Rimella (Varicospira) cancellata Linnaeus, 1758

(Fig. 26, PI. 28, fig. 14)
Shell small, up to 20 Inm in height, solid, fusiform, spire acuminate, outer lip thickened,
crenulated, flanked by a deep furrow, extends towards apex covering two to three spire
whorls, columella with callus, extends over whole length of the body whorl and with the outer
lip forms a long anal canal, siphonal canal short, aperture and lip lirate. Sculptured with axial
ribs connected by pitted, spiral grooves giving it cancellate appearance and randomly placed
varices. Pale yellowish brown, outer lip edge and varices red brown, columella and- aperturt
white.
SUBBI\ RAO : INDIAN SEA SHELLS : POLYPLACOPHORA AND GASTROPOD.A 151
India: Andhra Pradesh: Visakhapatnam, Andamans, very rare. Sri Lanka to Amboina and
PhiHppines.
Fi~. 2(), /(JlJ1 l!llu cancel/ala with animal.. Visakhapatnam
Tibia llelicatula (Nevill., t 88) )

(PI. 25, fig. 8)
Shell moderately large, up to 67mm in height, more delicate and translucent than In other
spec'es, whorls ten, moderately convex. Aperture oval, not very large, anterior canal short and
pointed, posterior canal a small groove, ,colulnella with thick callus, smooth, outer lip thickened
with fo _r to fiv'e short digitate processes, protocone '1 slnooth, post nuclear who Is wit
inconspicuous regular striations, whIch become obsolete on I~ter whorls. Colour pal'e ochre
brown, body whorl with four to five narrow white~ands, each one tenninating at the digitations
on the outer lip, other whorls 'wIth a single white band in the 'middle.
India: Orissa, .A'ndhra Pradesh: Krishna Deita,; Pond"cherry. Indian Ocean
It occurs in the infralittor,a region of the B:ay of Bengal at and near the lOO-fathom contour,
Red Sea and Arabian Sea between 175 fms and 400 fms.
Tibia lusus (Linnaeus" 1758)

(P . 25, fig. 4)
Shell very large, up to 150 mm in height, sohd and stout, fllsiformly turreted, whorls l6 ..20,
spire acum"nate. Aperture wide and e.longate, columella arched, with caHus, outer lip slightly
expanded, bearing 4 to 6 very short blunt digitations on its lower half, anterior canal long and
slightly curved. Sculptured with axta ribs on the early whorls,.
India: Gujarat : Okha (18 m); Maharashtra : Bombay (18- 27 m); Kerala (82 m); Tamil
Nadu : Rameswaram; Pondicherry. Red Sea and Persian Gulf to Southeast Coast oflndia.
It is common and prefers muddy bottom.
Tibia pow;sii (Petit, 1842)

(PI. 28, fig. 13)
Shell moderately large, up to 60 mm in height, elongately fusiform, solid, whorls 12 to 13,

flatly rounded, spire acuminate. Columella with callus deposit, p~sterior canal very short and
curved, with dark brown tip, anterior canal rather short and slender,· outer lip thickened, with
five digitations, posterior most broader and blunt, separated by a wide gap from the anterior
four equidistantly arranged projections. First four or five whorls smooth, the rest closely
spirally ridged, the interstices or grooves densely cancellated with striae. Colour straw-tai~ted
brown.
India : Andamans (112 to 183 m). Elsewhere : China, East Savu Sea and north coast of
Sumbawa, moderately common.
Tibia insulaechorab curta (Souerby, 1842)

(PI. 25, fig. 5, 9)
Shell very large, up to 160 mm in height, fusifonn and slender, whorls 15 to 16, upper part
of each whorl concavely slanting, then rounded. Aperture rather small, columella arched and
with callus, posterior canal short and curved, flanked by parietal columellar ridge, anterior
canal very long and slender, outer lip with six digitations, posterior most of peculiar shape not
projecting and bordering the posterior canal, the one below it grooved at the base bearing a
tooth like swelling. First eight whorls with very closely set fine axial ribs, crossed by faint spiral
striae giving an indication of beaded appearance, the rest of the whorls smooth, body-whorl
with spiral striae at its base. Colour cream or pale brown, columella fulvous brown, outer lip
dark purple brown between the digitations.
India: Maharashtra : Bombay; Nicobars, very rare. Indo-Pacific, Red Sea to China Sea.
Abbott, R. T 1960. The genus Strombus in the Indo-Pacific. Indo-Pacific Mol/usca, 1(2):
33-146, 117 pIs.
Abbott, R. T 1961. The genus Lambis in the Indo-Pacific. Indo-Pacific Mollusca, 1(3):
147-174, 134 pis.
Jung, P. and Abbott, R. T. 1967. The genus Terebellum. Indo-Pacific Mollusca, 1(7) : 445-454.
Melvill, J. C. and Standen, .R. 1905. Rostellaria delicatula Nevill. Notes upon its distribution
and limits of variation. J. Conch. Lond.,11(6): 161-163.
Okutani, T 1965. Strombus (Euprotomus) lister; T. Gray. New Records, Anatomy. lndo- Pacific
Mollusca, 1(6) : 399-400. PIs. 295 & 296.
Subba Rao, N. V. 1971. On the collection ofStrombidae (Mollusca: Gastropoda) from Bay of
Bengal, Arabian Sea and Western Indian Ocean. 1 Genus Strombus. J. mar. bioi. Ass.
India, 12 (1&2) : 109-124, 3 pIs.
Subba Rao, N. V. 1982. On the collection ofStrombidae (Mollusca: Gastropoda) from Bay of
Bengal, Arabian Sea and Western Indian Ocean. 2 Genera Lamb;s, Terebellum, Tibia
and Rim ella. J. mar. bioi. Ass. India, 19(1): 21-34, 3 pIs., I fig. (1977).
Family HIPPONICIDAE
Shell is small, limpet-like and cap-shaped. Protoconch is neritoid and globose. Apex is a little
towards posterior end and pointed backwards. Aperture is irregularly rounded depending on the
substratum to which the snail attaches. There is a horseshoe shaped and anteriorly open muscular
scar on the interior. Surface is generally sculptured with radial riblets or striae. There is no
operculum.
Head bears a pair of long tentacles with sessile eyes at their outer bases. Foot secrets a shell
ventrally, which cements the animal to the substratum. Mantle cavity consists of a simple
ctenidium and osphradium. There is a ventrally incised proboscis. Radula is taenioglossate.
Digestive system consists of a simple and cylindrical salivary gland and a large stomach. Th~re
are no oesophageal pouches. These are protandrous hermaphrodites and have a short-lived
planktonic larval stage. In SOlne, the females carry small males.
These are sedentary forms and Jive attached by fixing themselves to the substrate with the
help of a ventral calcareous plate. These occur in the crevices of rocks, or on shells or corals etc.
These are either ciliary filter feeders or detritus feeders. Some of the species are parasitic on
gastropods.
The family includes about six recognised genera out of \vhich two namely, Hipponyx
Defrance, 1819 and Cheilea Modeer, 1793 are represented in India.
Hipponyx aCllla QUoy and Gaimard, 1834

(PI. 29, fig. 1, 2)
Shell small, up to 20 mm in height and 25 mm in diameter, almost round in shape, solid,

cap-shaped, apex recurved backwards. Surface sculptured with coarse, irregular, flattened
radial ribs indenting the margin. Colour dull gray, internally pale pinkish with yellowish muscle
scar.
India: Andamans, rare. Indian Ocean.
Clleiiea equestris (Linnaeus, 1758)

(PI. 28, fig. 7, 8)
Shell small, up to 15 mm in height and 21 mm in diameter, shell thick, bowl-shaped, apex

excentric with beak-like prominence directed posteriorly. Aperture more or less circular, funnel-
shaped calcareous internal septum freely suspended from just below the apex. Surface sculptured
with raised close-set, sharp radiating ridges, interstices with fine striae, lacks the coarse concentric
corrugations.
India: Tamil Nadu : Gulf of Mannar (Krusadai Island); Andamans. Indo-West Pacific.
SURRA RAO : INDIAN SEA SHELLS: POL YPLACOPHORA AND GASTROPODA 155
Cheilea unl/u/ata (Roeding, 1798)

(PI. 28, fig. 3, 4)
Shell larger than in the preceding species, up to 22 mm in height and 40 mm in diameter,

irregularly ovate, not so conical as in C. equestris, apex subcentral and blunt, internal septum
comparatively small. Surface striated giving wrinkled appearance because of the presence of
widely separated spiral grooves.
India: Tamil Nadu : Gulf of Mannar; Andamans. Elsewhere: Philippines.

Family VANIKORIDAE
Shell usually is small, not more than 25 mm in height, globose and not so thick. Protoconch
is small, conical and slnooth. Body whorl is large, inflated and rounded with a wide and somewhat
obJique aperture. Columella is arcuate and without any callous deposit. Outer lip is not much
thickened and discontinuous. An umbilicus is usually present. Surface is sculptured with fine
spiral and axial striae. The operculum is thin, chitinous and paucispiral with an excentric nucleus.
Head has a pair of well-developed tentacles with sessile eyes at their outer bases. Foot is
\vell developed. Mantle has smooth margin and encloses a large and broad mantle cavity that
contains an extensive ctenidium bearing triangular filaments. There is a well-developed proboscis
with a bilobed tip.
Radula is short, wide and taenioglossate. Alimentary system consists of a short and thick
salivary gland, narrow oesophagus, large and partitioned stomach, and long coiled intestine.
Sexes are separate. Male has a penis and closed sperm duct.
The family is monogeneric \vith a few species in tropical and subtropical seas. These generally
occur under coral, rubble or boulders near reef areas.
Vanikoro cancel/ata (Lamarck, 1822)

(PI. 29, fig. 5, 6)
Shell small, up to 23 Inm in height and 20 mm in diameter, thin, body whorl inflated,
spire depressed with the apex slightly exserted above the level of the body whorl. Aperture
very wide, almost rounded, outer lip extends over to the body whorl above the level of the
slightly arched columella, umbilicus may be narro\\' and deep or often closed. Sculptured with
raised. regular axial ribs crossed over by narrow primary spiral cords and three to four very fine
secondary spiral threads in between two primary cords. Colour cream ish, aperture and columella
white.
India: Lakshadweep, Tamil Nadu : Kanya Kumari; Orissa, Andamans, not common. Indo-
West Pacific.
Vanikoro plicata (Reciuz, 1844)

(PI. 29, fig. 3, 4)
Shell small. up to 13 mm in height and t t mm in diameter, thin, globose ovate, spire short
but elevated protruding above the body \vhorl, protoconch with two smooth whorls. Aperture
semicircular, colulnella straight, ulnbilicus broad and deep. Sculptured with very strong, widely
spaced, sharp and raised axial ribs, interspaces with close-set fine threads. Colour dull white.
India: Andamans. rare. Elsewhere: Gulf of Arabia.
Vanikoro rosea (Recluz, 1844)

(PI. 29, fig. 7, 8)
Shell small, up to 10 mm in height, thin, spire short but raises above the level of the body
whorl, suture distinct, body whorl angulated at the shoulder. Aperture large, semicircular, outer
lip thin and not extending above the level of the straight columella, umbilicus broad and deep.
Sculptured with crowded spiral threads on the body whorl and spire whorls, on the latter fine
axial threads cross the spiral threads. Colour dull yellowish, aperture white.
India: Maharashtra : Bombay; Andamans, not common. Indo-Pacific.
The shell of this species is somewhat similar to that of V. gueriniana (Recluz) but can be
differentiated by its sculpture.
Family CREPIDULIDAE (Calyptraeidae)
Slipper Limpets, Cup and Saucer Limpets
Shell is small to medium in size reaching up to 30 mm in diameter. It is limpet-like and cap-

shaped to conica1. Shape of the shell is often variable depending on the nature of substratum to
which it attaches. Apex is marginal or central with a spiral coil. Aperture is large occupying
major part of the shell ventrally. A characteristic feature of the family is the presence of an
internal shelf, which extends from the columella to cover partly or major part of the aperture.
Muscle scar is oval.to horseshoe shaped. Surface sculpture consists of radiating ribs and concentric
cords. Operculum is absent.
Head has cephalic lappets, which help in the collection of food. There is a pair of short and
subulate tentacles bearing eyes on their outer bases. Foot is short and rounded, and mainly helps
in clinging to the substratum. Mantle margin is thrown into a number of folds and bears
repungnatorial glands. Mantle cavity is elongate and consists of monopectinate ctenidium, a
bipectinate osphradium and a well-developed hypobranchial gland. Anteriorly the mantle is
bifurcated to form a pouch that leads the food into the mantle cavity.
Radula is taenioglossate, but short and reduced. Buccal mass is small and has reduced jaws.
There are elongate salivary glands but no oesophageal glands. Stomach consists of a crystalline
style enclosed in a sac.
These are protandrous hermaphrodites. Male has a penis that is connected to a short seminal
groove. Eggs are incubated inside the female. Larval stage is suppressed. It may be planktotrophic
or lecithotrophic. These are microphagous and feed by filter mechanism.
The family consists of three genera namely Crepidula, Calyplraea and Crucibulum and
several species. All the three genera have representative species in India. The genera and species
are distinguished on the basis of their shell charac-ters, such as the position of the apex, sculpture
and the nature of internal shelf.
Crucibulum extinclorium (Lamarck. 1836)

(PI. 29, fig. 8, 9)
Cup and Saucer Limpets. Shell small, up to 20 mm in height and 30 mm in diameter, shape
extremely variable, thin, usually orbicular to squarely ovate, conical, flat or elevated, apex
sharp, recurved and central. Internal shelf not flattened but folded and compressed, attached to
the polished side towards which the apex inclined. Surface sculptured with coarse spiral striae.
Coloured white or pale brown with or without pale pink radiating lines and chestnut spots.
India: Karnataka, Tamil Nadu : GulfofMannar(common on hard rocky and coral substrata);
Orissa, Andamans. Indo-West Pacific.
Crepitlula lvalslli Hernnannsen in Reeve, 1858

(PI. 28, fig. 9, 10)
Shell small, up to 9 mIn in height and 23 mIn in diameter, elongately ovate, flattened, spire
obsolete towards posterior edge, margins irregular, internal shelf flattened and partly covers the
aperture, arises from below the apex, attached at both ends. Surface with fine concentric striae
and coarse growth lines.
India: Gujarat, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Orissa. Indo-West Pacific, common.

Fatnity CAPULIDAE
She)) is limpet-like and cap-shaped. It can often be confused with that of Hipponicidae but
the spire whorls are prom~nently coiled and extend often beyond the posterior margin. Adductor
scar on the interior is horseshoe shaped or ovate. Aperture is large. Periostracum, when present
is generally fringed at the margin. Operculum is absent.
Head bears a pair of short tentacles with eyes at their outer bases. Foot is simple and
suborbicuJar, and in sOlne with a thin stretchable anterior part. There is a proboscis with mouth
at its base. Radula is taenioglossate. There are no oesophageal glands. Stomach contains a
crystalline style, a gastric·shield and a sorting typhlosole that helps in the ciliary feeding. These
are protandric hermaphrodites and do not possess a gonopericardial duct.
It is a small family with three genera and few species distributed in the tropical seas. These
Jive as commensals on bivalves. Of the three known genera, Capulus Montfort, 1810, Krebsia
Moerch, 1877 and Neojanacus Suter, 1907, only the first is known by a few species in India.
Capulusjragilis E.A. Smith, 1904

(PI. 28, fig. 5, 6)
Shell small, up to ) 0 mm in height and 8 mm in diameter, thin, cap-shaped, apex extends

beyond the posterior margin. Surface smooth except the growth striae. Colour brown, interior
white.
India: Bay of Bengal, 750 m, Laccadive Sea, 350 m, very rare.
Capulus irregularis E.A. Smith, ) 895

(PI. 28, fig. ), 2)
Shell small, up to 12 mm in height and 10 mm in diameter, thick, cap-shaped, ape,.

conspicuously coiled overhanging the posterior margin. Sculptured with concentric foliated
ridges. Colour cream with white apex and interior.
India: Gujarat : Saurashtra Coast, 60 m; Laccadive Sea, 66 to 80 m, very rare.
SURBA RAO : INDIAN SEA SHELLS: POLYPLACOPHORA AND GASTROPODA 161
Family XENOPHORIDAE
Carrier Shells
Shell usually is small to medium in size, occasionally up to 100 mm in diameter. It is trochoid

and broadly conical with a short spire and flattened concave base. Aperture is oblique, low and
wide. It may be imperforate or when umbil icus is present it may be partly obscured by the
columellar callosity. Operculum is roughly oval, with nucleus on the outer edge, outer surface
smooth, inner surface with an impression of the attachment and non-attached area.
Animal has a peculiar habit of attaching etnpty shells, coral pieces, pebbles or sand grains
and hence their popular name. Celnenting of foreign objects is carried out in a Inost tnethodical
way and often very specific. The objects are carefully selected and fixed with the help of secretion
froln mantle, which acts as glue. In most of the species attachment of foreign objects occurs
only in the juvenile stage but in some it continues throughout the snail's growth. These objects
are generally attached to the periphery or the peripheral flange.
Head bears a pair uf long, slender and cylindrical tentacles with eyes situated at their outer
bases. Foot is divided into two by a transverse fissure and helps in rapid Jeaping movetnent.
Operculum provides the necessary anchor during its movement. Mantle cavity, on its left consists
of a monopectinate ctenidiulTI . a long, thread like bipectinate osphradillln and a hypobranchial
gland. Buccal mass is very strong. Stomach contains a crystalline style in a sac.
Sexes are separate. In male there is a penis behind the right tentacle that possesses a lateral
process. A narrow pal1ial groove leads to the penis. Female has closed albumen and capsule
glands.
Carrier shells occur in shallow waters where dead and broken shells, pebbles etc. are easily
available. These are deposit feeders extending from 20 to 700 m. Some feed on microscopic
algae. Worldwide as many as 25 species under the genus Xenoplzora are known; seven species
are reported from India, but the follo\ving six are dealt below:
Xenopllora (Xenopllora) corrllgata (Reeve, 1842)

(PI. 30, fig. 11-13)
Shell of medium size, up to 48 Inm in height and 64 mm in diameter, conical but depressed,
sutures deep, usually covered with empty bivalve shells and stones on the edges of all \vhorls.
Umbilicus closed, base slightly concave, sculptured with oblique, strong spiral ribs crossed by
growth lamellae with nodules at intersections. Colour white or yellowish brown.
India: Kerala : Malabar coast; Tamil Nadu : Gulf of Mannar, Madras; Orissa : Gopalpur;
West Bengal: Sandheads off Calcutta. Indian Ocean. Persian Gulf and tropical east Africa.
Synonym: Xenophora caperata Philippi, 1855.
Xenopllora (Xenopllora) pa/lic/II/a (Reeve, 1842)
(PI. 30, fig. 7, 8)
Shell of medium to large size, up to 35 mm to 50 mm in height and 55 mm to 70 mm in

diameter, thick, trochoidal, base slightly concave. Attachment of shells and debris on all whorls,
largest radiate from the periphery of shells like wheel spokes. Aperture broad, umbilicus smaller
in proportion to the size of the she1l, columella partly obscures the umbilicus. Base sculptured
with wavy, oblique striae crossed by curved growth ridges, those in the centre granular, surface
covered with wavy riblets. Colour yellowish white.
India: West Bengal, Tamil Nadu, Andamans, offshore, about 100 m. Indo-West Pacific.
50-1050 m, mostly on the continental slope (Ponder, 1983).
Xenopllora (Xenopllora) solarioides soiariodes (Reeve, 1845)

(Pl. 30, fig. 5, 6)
Shell small, spire depressed, umbilicus deep and rather wide, with a subangulated border.
Whorls convex, sculptured with five, close wavy striae crosed by growth lines. Base flat to
lightly convex, sculptured with 3-6 spiral cords over inner half, umbilicus with several weak
spiral threads within. Dorsal surface obscured by relatively large foreign objects. Colour yellowish-
white, aperture white.
India: Karnataka, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh : VisakhapatnaJn; Andaman Islands; 48-90 m
depth. Indo-Pacific, Red sea to North Australia, 1-170 m depth (Ponder, 1983).
Xellopllora (Onll~(tus) indica (Gmelin, 1791)

(PI. 30, fig. 14-16)
Shell moderately large, up to 60 mm in height, thin, delicate and depressed with very faint
sutures. Attaches small pebbles or bits of shells only to first two or three whorls, the process is
discontinued in the adult stage. Base concave and deeply umbilicate, outer edge of aperture a
flat ridge and from here fine growth lines extend into the umbilicus, a thin, smooth, shiny
irregular skirt outside the ridge. Sculptured with close-set, fine, radial riblets crossed by oblique,
uneven striations. Cream coloured,. base white from ridge to umbilicus.
India: Orissa, Tamil Nadu, Pondicherry, Andamans. Indo-West Pacific.
Synonym: Onustus helvacea (Philippi, 1852)
Xellopllora (Steiiaria) cllinensis (Philippi, 1841)

(PI. 30, fig. 1, 2)
Shell of moderate size, 28 mm in height and 55 mm in diameter, almost twice as wide as

high. Umbilicus broad and deep. Foreign objects small, attached to only a few top whorls leaving
SUBBA.RAO: INDIAN SEA SHELLS: POL YPLACOPHORA AND GASTROPODA 163
most of dorsal surface exposed. Sculptured with rather close-set granular irregular ridges crossed
by undulating growth striae. Base sculptured with spiral and radial ridges forming beads at
intersections. Colour yellowish white, aperture white.
India: Andamans. Indo . . Pacific.
Xenopltora (Stellaria) so/aris (Linnaeus, 1764)

(PI. 30, fig. 9, 10)
Shell large, up to 70 mm in height and 90 mm in diameter, thin, orbicular, depressedly

conical, spire low and whorls convex with hollo\v blunt protruding spines at the periphery
obscuring the suture, tubular spines arise from a weakly scalloped ridge. Foreign objects attached
to only the first few whorls and sometimes lTIay be even absent. Aperture oval, base almost flat,
umbilicus broad and deep \vith strong, \vavy, uneven, nodulose, oblique radial cords. Co.lour
light brown, aperture slTIooth, shiny dark brown.
India: Maharashtra, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Orissa, West Bengal. Indo-West
Pacific.
Offshore form, moderately common at depths 25 to 100 m. The shells are usually collected
in trawl nets.
REFERENCES
Das, A. K., Mitra, S. C. and Mukhopadhyaya, S. 1981. Studies on some molluscan collections
by the 'Golden Crown' from Bay of Bengal with note on the camouflage habit of a
gastropod, Xenophora pallidula (Reeve). Proc. zool. Soc. Calculla, 32 : 79-87 (1979).
Ponder, W. F. 1983. A revision of the recent Xenophoridae of the world and of the Australian
fossil species (Mollusca: Gastropoda). Menloires Australian lv/useum, No. t 7 : 1-126.
Family CYPRAEIDAE
Cowries
These are most popular with man froln times ilnmemorial and are known as the jewels of
the sea. Unlike other gastropods, cowries have a dome-shaped and almost hemispherical shell,
which is small to large, up to 150 min in length. Juvenile shell is strikingly different from that of
an adult. A spiral shell is present in the early stage but on maturity the outer lip turns in, thickens
and teeth develop on it and the inner lip (columella). Adult shell is ovate pyriform, domed,
globular or hemispherical. Spire is very much reduced and cannot be easily noticed as in other
gastropods. Surface is smooth, highly polished with attractive colours. It has an elongate aperture
on its base and generally beset with teeth on the inner and upper lip. Posterior and anterior
canals are mere extensions of the aperture. Fossula is distinct, with the anterior margin edged
by a rib. Operculum is absent.
Mantle is also as colourful as the shell. It is bilobed and when extended the two lobes cover
the entire surface of the shell. The Ineeting point of the two iobes is indicated by a sinuous line
on the dorsuln of the shell. The margins of the Inantle are fringed and its surface may be smooth
or decorated with tubercles, papillae or branched filaments. When disturbed the mantle is
completely retracted inside.
There is a pair of long, filiform cephalic tentacles bearing eyes at their outer bases. Foot
is broad and extensible. Mantle cavity contains an arched ctenidium with several lanlellae,
a triradiate osphradium and a large hypobranchial gland. Radula is long and taeniogiossate
(2-1-1-1-2).
Sexes are separate and often can be distinguished on the basis of shell characters. Male
has a penis and the shell is usually slnaller than in female. Eggs are laid in capsules embedded
in l110re or less circular gelatinous mass deposited on hard substrate. Some species have the
habit of protecting their eggs within the mantle. Development may be direct or eggs hatch
in about one or hvo weeks releasing frec-swilnlning veliger larvae. Juvenile shells are quite
unlike the adult shells. Transformation of the shell from juvenile to adult stage is shown in
figs. 27 and 28.
Cowries are represented by about 200 species in all but maximum nunlber of about 140
species occur in the Indo Pacific region. Over 50 species are known froln Indian seas. Greatest
diversity is seen in the reefward edge and surf beaten zones in the coral reef ecosystem of
Andal11an and Nicobar Islands, Gulf of Mannar, Gulf of Kachchh and Lakshadweep. Majority
of the species inhabit shallow water, but a fe\v l11ay extend into the reef front that remains
unexposed even during spring tide. The family is represented by a single genus, which is divided
into nlore than 53 SUbgenera, sOlne of which are elevated to a generic status by many authors.
Abollt 13 subgenera embracing 29 species are described in this volume.
---
CQ"'.
I
oJ.
I
1 2
s.sp.- -
c.h. - ape
9 10
Fig. 27. Developmental stages in coury (after Ray. 1951)

1-4. Bulla-state (a. sp.-acuminate spire~ ap.-aperture~ c.b.-colour band; col.-columella; o.l.-outer lip. 5. Dorsal view
of second stage of growth showing sunken spire (5. sp.). 6. Dorsal view showing adult colouration, markings and
also thickening of margins and extremities. 7. Dorsal view with well-developed extremities. 8. Ventral view of
developmental stage (of 5), aperture becomes narrow, lips become thickened, rudimentary tccth (r.1.) appear.
m.gr. s.
/
II'"
!f.r. l.m.l.
#"
/
/ ~~~"H~IVII /
/
/ 2
r.m.l.
h.tr.l.
/
/
/
~ C.tr.
. . . ',. = :~•. ' .
."
f.r. " ape
6 7
Fif,!. 28. De\elopmcntal stages in coury (after Ray, 195 t)
1-3. lrivirostra orY/a-·I. Dorsal view. m.gr.-mcdian longitudinal groovc, tr.r.-transversc dorsal ribs. 2. Mantle
lohes covering the shell (r.ml.-right mantle lobe; I.ml.-len mantle lohe). 3. Vcntral view (i.I.-inner lip; o.l.-outer
lip: d.-denticulntiolls). -1-~. Cyprc1t.'lI cl1lI7IIIlI.'i. 4. Dorsal view (o.r.-orange ring~ h.trl.-fine transverse lines).
5. Vt. ntral view 6-7. ()1Jrcll'tI mOI1L:la. 6. Dorsal view (c.lr.-callolls dorsal tubcrcles: fr.-faint dorsal rib). 7. Vcnlrnl
\'Iew (np.-aperture; I.-teeth)
SUBBA RAO : INDJAN SEA SHELLS: POL YPLACOPJlORA AND GASTROPODA 167
Cypraea (Cyprllell) tigris (Linnaeus, 1758)

(P1. 3 1~ fig. 5 and PI. 32, fig. I! 2)
Tiger CO\vry. Shell one of the 1argest among co\vries, up to 65 Inln in length, ovate, solid
and heavy~ dorsunl creanl-\vhite, with purple black spots, often nlllnerous and close Inaking it
C0111plctely black~ extremities less prodllced~ sides nlore evenly rounded. Base broad, \vhite
with wide aperture . the obscure dark bro\vn blotch on the columella appearing quite snlall and
obsolete. Knob-like projection at the posterior end of the inner lip not so prominent, teeth coarse
and strong.
India: Talnil Nadu : Gulf of Mannar; Andaman and Nicobar Islands, coral reefs, comlnon.
Indo-Paci fico
Cypraea (At/usIa) ollyx atiustll (Lamarck, 1810)

(PI. 32, fig. 13, 14)
Shell of Inediuln size, up to 43 mm in length, pyriform, dorsuln uniformly dark chestnut

brown . extremities, sides and base of deeper shade though not jet black as in typical onyx. Spire
deeply umbilicated and three broad transverse zones on the dorsum distinctly separated from
one another by hvo narrow indistinct bands of lighter hue or crealn; anterior extrelnity constricted
and slightly margined; dorsal line rather indistinct to obsolete, teeth coarse and reddish bro\vn,
but not produced across the base; aperture \vide and greatly sinuolls behind.
India: Lakshadweep, Talnil Nadu : Gulf of Mannar; Nicobars. Indo-Pacific.
Cypraea (Errollell) cal/riclI (Linnaeus, 1758)

(PI. 32, fig. 11, 12)
Shell of medium size, up to 42 Innl in length, elongate, cylindrically ovate \vith depressed
dorsuln, crealn, freckled \vith tiny brown dots, ornalnented with three bluish bro\vn transverse
bands: sides markedly calloused and prolninently spotted \vith dark bro\vn spots, aperture
anteriorly wide, labial teeth very strong, base pale fa\vn to off-\vhite, tceth lighter, interstices
pale orange.
India: Lakshad\\'eep, Tamil Nadu : GulfofMannar, Madras; Andaman and Nicobar Islands,
not common. Red Sea to Polynesia.
Cypraea (Erronea) errol1es (LinnaclIs, 1758)

(PI. 32, fig. 5, 6)
Shell small, up to 30 mm in length, pyriformly elongated with narrow extrenlities, Inore or

less inflated and callus with sunken spire, dOrSlllTI bluish gray \vith three bro\vnish bands, fioeckled
with bro\vnish Inarks, occasionally with an irregular brownish blotch in the centre, apcrture
168 REC. ZOOL. SURV. INDIA. OCC. PAPER No. 192
wide anteriorly, sides and base uniforrnly white to creamy white in colour, columellar teeth
closer than the JabiaJ teeth.
India: Talnil Nadu : Gulf of Mannar, Madras: Andaman and Nicobar Islands" moderately
comlnon. Mauritius to Polynesia.
Cypraea (Erosaria) caputserpentis (Linnaeus, 1758)

(PI. 30, fig. J 2; PI. 32, fig. 7, 8)
Shell small, up to 30 Inm in length, polished, triangularly ovate, slightly gibbous on the
dorsum. central oval area adorned with numerous unequal white specks and reticulate markings
and bounded on the sides by a broad conspicuous, dark brown or chocolate or blackish brown
band. nlargins thickened, expanded on either side and distinctly angular, extremities mostly
obtusc and conspicuously blotched \vith rich orange or orange-brown or grayish blue. Upper
edges of base dark brown or chocolate and Iniddle part offwhite, teeth large and white, interstices
white.
India: Gujarat, Tamil Nadu : Gulf of Mannar; Andhra Pradesh: Visakhapatnam, Andaman
and Nicobar Islands. East Africa to Polynesia and Hawaiian Islands.
Cypraea (Erosar;a) erosa (Linnaeus, 1758)

(PI. 31 ~ fig. 13; PI. 32, fig. 9, 10)
Shell moderately large. up to 50 mm in length, solid, rather ovate oblong, dorsum fawn to
olive bro\vn and profusely freckled with numerous Ininute white specks and also sprinkled with
bro\vnish spots ocellated with grayish; extremities rather broad" produced and ridged" with "8
longitudinal slit and chest.. nut brown; sides white" usually thickened with calloui deposit, adorned
ahnost in the centre with broad conspicuous squarish livid brown blotches (one on each side);
teeth large and strong, Jabial teeth more so than the columellar ones and extending right across
the base. base whitish, with livid blotches at the upper margin; aperture mostly dilated in front
but slightly curved posteriorly; inner lip bluntly produced.
India: Tamil Nadu : Gulf of Mannar; Andaman and Nicobar IsJands, common in shallow
water reefs. Indo-Pacific.
Cypraell (Erosar;o) gang,enosa reentsi (Dunker, 1852)

(PI. 32, fig. 15, J6)
Shell sinall, oblong ovate or subdeltoidal, dorsum fulvous or fulvous grayish and marked
with fine \vhitish transverse striations and dark brown spots, terminal blotches larger, dark-
bro\vn, sides suffused more frequently with whitish enanlel, lateral spots less distinct.
India: Tamil Nadu : Gulf of Mannar; Andaman and Nicobar Islands, not common. Indo-
West Pacific.
SURDA RAO : INDIAN SEA SIIELLS : POL YPLACOPIIORA AND GASTROPODA 169
Cypraea (Erosaria) IIelvola (Linnaells, 1758)

(PI. 32, fig. 17, 18)
Shell small, up to 30 mm in length, ovate and broad, dorsuln with nUlnerous star-shaped
brown spots, lateral longitudinal bands chestnut to dark chestnut and sometimes much expanded
on either side making the central area on the top small and narro\v; extremities less blunt, lilac.
Base rich brown, teeth coarse, fossula generally shallow, with 1 to 4 denticles, aperture l110stly
dilated in frQnt.
India: Tamil Nadu : Gulf of Mannar, rare. Indo-West Pacific.
Cypraell (Erosaria) militlris (Gmelin, 1791)

(PI. 32, 1ig. 3'1 4)
Shell of medium size, up to 43 Inm in lenbrth, sOlne\vhat stout and high, oblong-pyrifonn,
pall ochre to olive or even olive yellow, with all the dorsal spots of different sizes pure white
but never ocellated, a distinct dorsal line; extrelnities produced and distinctly Iineated with
brown; margins angular, less broad, thickened with white callosity on each side and nlarked
conspicliously with close, sl11all and large brown spots. Base creanlY \vhite and slightly flattened;
aperture rather wide and Inuch curved behind, columellar teeth finer and long, while two anterior
most labial teeth more sharp and projecting than the rest, fossular denticles ] -3.
India : Gujarat : Gulf of Kachchh; Maharashtra : Bombay; Karnataka : Konkan Coast;
Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Indo-\Vest Pacific.
Cyprllea (Erosarill) poraric, (Linnaeus, 1758)

(not figured)
Shell small, up to 25 lnln in length, solid~ ovate to deJtoidat dorSllln brown and freckled
with numerolls white specks l1loStly encircled with conspicuous bro\vnish rings; lnargins \vith
slight callous thickenings and their upper edge sho\ving indistinct pits especially to\vards the
polterior end, sides and base pale purple, which on the base fades a\vay to \vhitish \vhen nearing
the aperture; aperture wider and more sinuous behind, teeth smaJl~ \vhite, close-set and slightly
produced across the base.
Intlia : Talnil Nadu : Gulf of Mannar, Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Indo-Pacific.
Cypraetl (Erosaria) ocellata (Linnaells, 1758)

(PI. 33, fig. 1, 2)
thell of medium size, lip to 32 Innl in Jenbrth, ovate or deltoidaJ, dorsum rich yellow ochre or
bright brick red and profusely sprinkled with nUlnerOliS slnall white rounded spots frequently
pupilled or ocellated with dark brown or black, occJlated spots a few in nUlnber; sides thickened~
170 RFC. ZOOL. SlJRV. INDIA. oce. PAPER No. 192
SOlne\vhat expanded. obscurely pitted and lineated. with bro\vn dots extending over a portion of
the \vhite base belo\v~ teeth strong. equal, distantly placed. partly produced and brown streaked,
outer ends ofternlinal ridges painted \\'itb brc)\\'Jl. aperture int~rior purplish; dorsal line not very
impressive. pale greenish and subcentral.
India: Gujarat : (Jul f of Kachchh. Port Okha. D\varaka. Porbander: Maharashtra : Ratnagiri;
Kerala : Quilon: Taillil Nadu : (,ulf or Mannar: Andhra Pradesh: Bhecl11Unipatnaln,
Visakhapatnarn; Andaillalls. C0l11111011 in Gujarat. Indo-Paciti~.
Cypraea (J~'ro.wlrill) ll1rtlll.\· W;IIckworlhi Schilder and Schilder. 1938

(PI. 33. fig. 3.4)
Shell lnodcrately large, up to 50 111111 in length. ovate or subdeltoidaL dorsunl fulvous to

greenish and profusely sprinkh:d ",ith sinai!. unequal fulvolls bro\\'n spots and dots 1110stly
asslIllling a dot lik~ pattern by contluence. Inargins s\vollen and angular, but hardly pitted;
extrel11itie<\ produced. crclllilated and often tinged \vith pink both above and belo\v; apel1ure
rather \vide. but curved hehind rather abruptly: base \vhitish and sparsely spotted ncar the upper
111argill. tceth coarse and distantly placed.
India: Gujarat : Port ()khJ. [)\varaka: Maharashtra : B0J11bay. Persian Glilfto West Coast of
India.
f)'l'rllea (lJ'ratiat/II.\'I([) lelltigil1o.\·(1 (Gray, 1825)

(PI. 23. fig. 17, 18)
Shell of 1l1cdiul11 size. up to 32 111111 in length. s0I11e\\'hat ovately pyrifonn. dorsulll hluish-
\vhitc. obscurely banded \vilh three intcrnett~d transverse ro\VS of bro\vnish zigzag 111arkings
and irregularly freckled all over "'ith IlLilnerOUS distinct Ininllte bro\vn specks (hence the na111C
Freckled ('o\\,ry); cxtrcll1ities a little produced, thickened and ornanlented \vith conspicuous
dark-bro\vn or blackish-bnnvn spots. sides l11argincd. sprinkled \vith dark-bro\\'11 or blackish-
bro\\'n spots and so also the Lipper Illargins of the \vhite base: aperture narro\v. teeth large.
strong. SOlllc\\'hat distant and nC;lrl) cqll~ll and slightly produced across the base, colulnellar
callus and fossula hoth very shallo\v.
India: GlIjarat : (,ui r or Kadlchh. Pnrbandcr. (jul f of Sucz to Sri Lanka.
()'PfllCtl ((,'rtililulll.\"/a) ptil/ida (G ray. t 824)

(PI. 33. fig. 5. 6)
Shell sl11all. up to 30 Inl11 in length. pyrifornl or ovate. dorsliin greenish-stra\v coloured \"ith
three obscurc bands. profusely fred,Jed throughout \\'ith lninute irregular fulvous hro\"n dots,
cxtrelnitil's slightly produced. painted Oil each side \"itll a conspicuolls bro\vn or purplish-hro\vl1
spot, thickened and rounded. ",hili,,)) with distinct purplish-hro\vn spots here and there: base
SUBUA RAO : INDIAN SEA SHELLS: POLYPLACOPIIORA AND GASTROPODA 171
white, slightly depressed and unspotted, columellar teeth sinall, close and confined to the rTIm'gin
of the lip~ coarse and thickened.
India: Maharashtra : BOlnbay; Talnil Nadu : Gulf of Mannar; Andhra Pradesh
Visakhapatnam, 13heemunipatnam; Andarnans. Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal.
Cypraell (LepllrO(vpraea) nlf1ppll (Linnael1s, )758)

(PI. 31, fig. 3)
Shell tnoderately large, up to 50 lnln in length, heavily inllated \vith characteristic dorsal
sulcus, dorsunl brown \vith darker reticulated pattern, Inargins thickened \vith darker indistinct
spots, base \vhite or rich pink, teeth white or orange coloured.
India: Andalnans, rare. Indo-West Pacific excluding Ha\vaii, Indonesia and Australia.
Cypraea (LYl1cil1a) argus (Linnaeus, 1758)

(PI. 31., fig. I., 2 and PI. 33 . fig. 7, 8)
Shell lnoderately large, lip to 50 Inln in length, cylindrical, dOrSll1l1 lighter fll\Vn, profusely
covered \vith irregular dark red-bro\vn rings of various sizes (Argus eycs)~ three to four darker
transverse bands, darkest at top, base fawn \vith t\VO dark bro\vn blotches on either side of \vide
aperture, often absent on the outer lip, teeth edged \vith thin bro\vn.
India: Andaman and Nicobar Islands, coral reefs, not comnl0n. Indo-Pacific.
()'prae(l (Lyncilla) (l'I1X (Linnaeus, 1758)

(PI. 31, fig. 4 and PI. 33, fig. 9, 10)
Shell of medhlln size, up to 40 mIn in length., oblong ovatc, incrassate~ bluish-\vhite to

brown~ dorsuln brown or orange~ decorated \vith s111all brovvn freckles and larger dark brown
spots, dorsal sulclls conspicuous; base convex, \vhitish, often 111arked with two sharply cut
longitudinal carinae~ one on each side both shclving to\vards the apel1ure~ sides \\'hitish~ thickencd
and pecu1iarly striated \vith irregular \vhitish hair lines extending even to the base and also
upwards, and adorned \vith a fe\\' scattered spots of dark blackish-brown, cxtren1ities Inostly
blunt, tipped with \vhite or pale yellow and nlarked \vith dark blackish bro\vn spots, aperture
rather narrow, teeth strong, interstices bright orange-red.
India: Maharashtra : BOlnbay; Tanlil Nadu Krusadai lsland; Andatnan and Nicobar Islands.
Indo-Pacific.
Cypraell (Lyncillo) vitelllls (Linnaeus, 1758)

(PI. 31, fig. 11 and PI. 33, fig. 13, 14)
Shell large~ longer and narro\ver than that of Tiger Co\vry, lip to 71 n1n1 in length~ ovate,
ventricose, solid, dorsllln often fulvOliS to fa\vn~ broadly obscurely divided into three zones by
transverse bands, ornamented with conspicuolls snow-white spots of varying sizes, extremities
less produced, anterior extrelnity slightly attenuated; sides thickened, rounded, arenaceous and
finely striated vertically. Base rather convex and white or pinkish-white, aperture rather wide
and slightly sinuolls behind" teeth \\lhite or pinkish-\vhite, labial teeth stronger and sometimes
nlore produced across the base.
India: Lakshadweep, Andalnan and Nicobar Islands. Indo-Pacific, from Red Sea to New
Zcaland and Hawaii, shallow coral reefs.
Cypraea (Pustll/aria) liellardi (Jousseaume, 1874)

(PI. 33, fig. 15, 16)
Shell slnall. up to 20 mm in length, ovate-globose, 1110stly rough, yellowish or creamy to

whitish. hUlnped" \vith thc subangular top placed further behind, granulations and dorsal
longitudinal sulcus very conspicllolls . the latter connecting produced and beak-Hke extrclnities,
a prolninent bro\vn central groove ncar the spire on the dorsllln, a depression near the posterior
extrcmity with a dark brown stain. Aperture narro\v and slightly curved on the posterior, teeth
cxtending to l11argins . light brown.
India: Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Indo-Pacific, from Red Sea to Polynesia and Hawaii,
shallow coral reefs.
Cyprllea (Pllstll/aria) glohll/IIS (Linnaeus, 1758)

(PI. 33, fig. 17, 18)
Shell slnall. lip to 22 min in length" globular, slnooth and dull yellow, dorsuln showing
evenly rounded gibbosity which contrasts with the asymlnetrical, posteriorly placed hump of C.
lien"rdi, and punctated \vith scattered brown dots. no granulations and no longitudinal sulcus,
cxtrcillities beaked" posterior extremity rather short" straight and marked with a wart-like callosity.
Base 1110stly unspotted but often \vith two pairs of brown spots on either side, teeth short, brown
and extends slightly on to the Inargins.
India: Tamil Nadu : Gulf of Mannar; Andalnan and Nicobar Islands. Indo-Pacific, coral
reefs.
Cyprllea (Mauri/ia) arabica (Linnaeus, 1758)

(PI. 33, fig. 6 and PI. 34, fig. I, 2)
Shell of mediulll size. up to 48 1l1ln in length, subcylindrical to cylindrical, heavy, broad

\vith tlattened base; dorsal sulcus plain, dorsllln bluish-white, decorated with a heiroglyphic
pattern of axial brown lincs interrupted by gaps or reticulations, margins with strong callus, white
cream or pale brown; base creamish, no dark blotch on the colulneJla, teeth large, outwardly
extended on to the base, pale or dark brown.
India: Maharashtra : BOlllbay; Talnil Nadu : Gulf of Mannar; Andhra Pradesh:
Bheemunipatnam; Andalnan and Nicobar Islands. Indo-Pacific.
Cypraea (Mauritia) mallrililll1l1 regillll (Linnaeus, 1758)

(PI. 34, fig. 5, 6)
Shell moderately large, up to 60 mm in length, heavy, solid, dorslun dark chestnut-brown or

dark blackish-brown and bluish tinged, with a deep mahogany dorsal line, spire short and hardly
projecting, strongly callous Inargins and a humped back; the anterior extrenlity dilated rather
than attenuated, aperture wider, longer and sinuolls behind, base and sides ahnost black and
teeth dark brown with \vhite interstices, labial teeth coarse and lnore produced.
India: Andanlan and Nicobar Islands. Indo-Pacific.
Cypraetl (Molletaria) annulus (Linnaeus, 1758)

(Fig. 28-4, 5. PI. 31, fig. 9)
Golden Ring Cowry. Shell slnaH, up to 25 Innl in length, ovoid and heavy, dorsuln slnoky-
white or light brown \vith usually a narro\v but sharply defined dorsal orange- yellow ring
around bluish central area. Base flattened or concavely depressed or even convex; aperture
rather narrow, but dilated anteriorly and slightly curved posteriorly, teeth coarse and short.
India: Lakshad\veep, Talnil Nadu : Gulf of Mannar; Andalnan and Nicobar Islands. Indo-
Pacific.
Cypraea (M()netaria) mOlleta (Linnaeus, 1758)

(Fig. 28-6, 7. PI. 31, fig. 10 and PI. 34, fig. 3, 4)
Money Cowry. Shell small to medium in size, up to 35 min in length, very strong and solid,
highly polished and enameled, pentagonal o\ving to the presence of curious nodules, dorsum
yellow or off-white, mostly marked with 1\\'0 or three narrow or slightly broad but obscure
greenish or slate-gray transverse bands widely separated froln one another, sOlnetilnes with
annular ring; raised and hUlnped central area separated fronl the swollen and rounded rnarginal
area by a well marked depression; extremities produced, sides \vhite and faintly yelJo\v. Base
mostly \vhite, teeth coarse, strong and InOre crowded than in C. annlllus, though not so nluch
produced.
India: Talnil Nadu : GulfofMannar; Andalnan and Nicobar Islands. Collections frorn Orissa
are dead shells and its occurrence there is doubtful. Indo-Pacific.
Cypraetl (Nucleoillritl) nuclells (Linnacus, 1758)

(PI. 34, fig. 9, 10)
Shell sinall, lip to 15 min in length, solid, and ovate, bulbously inflated, dorsum yeJlo\vi,sh
bro\vn or evenly ash-gray, \vith numerous raised, coarse and closely arranged nodules or pustules,
Hne transverse riblets connecting the pustules; extretnities produced and rostrate, constricted,
slightly recurved, dark orange brown; dorsal longitudinal groove quite deep and distinct in
adult shells. Base convex, pale brown and transversely numerous strong, conspicuous lines and
teeth bordered \vith reddish lines . aperture narrow and sOlnetimes more curved posteriorly,
labial teeth Inore nlilnerous, but unlike the columellar ones extending right across the base to
the outer margin, fossula shallow and denticulate.
India: Maharashtra : BOlnbay; Talnil Nadu : GulfofMannar; Andalnan and Nicobar Islands.
Indo-Pacific, Red Sea to Polynesia and Hawaii, shallow coral reefs.
Cypraea (Pondu) carneola (Linnaeus, t 758)

(PI. 23, tig. 11, 12)
Shell moderately large, up to 60 mnl in length, colour pale pink brown \vith fOllr broad
darker transverse bands on the dorsuln. Teeth bright purple with violet coloured interstices.
India: Lakshad\veep. Tanlil Nadu : Gulf of Mannar, Anda.nan and Nicobar Islands. Indo-
\-Vest Pacific.
Cypraea (Stapllylaea) stapllylaea (Linnaeus, 1758)

(PI. 32, fig. 19, 20)
Pustulose Cowry. Shell s.nall . lip to 25 Innl in length, subglobular or oblong ovate, dorsum
ashy blue or grayish bro\vn. ornamented \vith nlllnerOllS, tine. white, close and elevated pustules
or granulations, dorsal sulcus deep (hence also called the Groove-backed Cowry), extrenlities
dark orange-brown, the posterior one short, constricted and only rarely recurved. Base convex
and flllvOllS, teeth light bro\vn and produced across the base to the outer Inargins like transverse
ridges and bordered with tine reddish brown lines, fossula concave.
India: AndaJtlan and Nicobar Islands, coral reefs, not common. Indo-Pacific.
Cyprtleu (Ta/paria) talpa (Linnaeus, 1758)

(PI. 31, fig. 7, 8)
Shell moderately large. lip to 60 .nnl in length . narrow and elongate, light weight, dorsuln
\vith two broad golden brown bands on crealn coloured background, Illargins and extremities
with shades of dark brown to black, base blackish brown. Aperture narrow with numerous
linear teeth.
India: Indian Seas, Andamans. Indo-West Pacific.
Cypraea testullinaria
(PI. 34, fig. 7, 8)
Shell very large, up to 115 mm in length, one of the largest cowry, cylindrical and heavy,
dorsum with dark brown spots on creamy background, irregular light and dark brown blotches
on the margins and at the extremities, base cream coloured with light fawn coloured aperture
and teeth.
India: Tamil Nadu : Gulf of Mannar (Pamban), Great Nicobar : Galathea Bay. Indo-West
Pacific.
Burgess, C. M. 1970. The Living Cowries. 380 pp., 40 color pIs. A.S. Barnes & Co. Cranbury,
New Jersey.
Natarajan, A. V. 1954. On the breeding habits of the cowry, Erronea errones (Linn). Curro Sci.,
23 : 225-226.
Ray, H. C. 1949. Revision of Cypraeacea in the collections of the Zoological Survey of India
Pte l. The families Triviidae, Eratoidae and Pediculariidae. Rec. Indian Ivlus., 46(1-4) :
183-213.
Ray, H. C. 1951. Cowries (Mollusca, Gastropoda, Fam. Cypraeidae). J. B0l11hoy nal. His I. Soc.~
49 : 663-669.
Schilder, F. A. and Schilder, M. 1939. Prodrome of a monograph on Jiving Cypraeidae. Proc.
nlalac. Soc. Lond., 23 : 119-231.
Taylor, J. and Walls, 1. G. 1975. Cowries. 288 pp. Colour illus. Neptuno City, New Jersey.
Family TRIVIIDAE
Shell generally is small, Jess than 20 mm in length. It is cowry-like, with conical or globular
shape. Aperture is long and narrow, being more or less straight. Columel1a and outer lip are
with teeth. Anterior siphonal canal is short and deep but the posterior canal is shallow. Sculpture
consists of transverse striae or granulations, often with a distinct dorsal groove. Colour is variable
but not as conspicuous as in cowries. Operculum is absent.
Head bears a pair of small, dotted tentacles. Mantle is large extending laterally on the
shell, and possesses wart-like projections. Mantle cavity consists of an osphradium with
coarse lamella and a ctenidium with fine, narrow lamellae. Radula is taeniogiossate
(2-1-1-1-2). Proboscis is long. Sexes are separate. There is helicoidal echinospira larva in the
development.
These occur on compound ascidians on which they feed.
The family is divided into two subfamilies to accommodate about 13 genera and an
estimated 200 species. In India it is so far known only by a few species belonging to a single
subfamily.
Subfamily TRIVIINAE
Trivirostra /.ordacea (Kiener, 1843)

(PI. 35, fig. 1-3)
Shell lninute, up to 5 mm in length, subcylindrical, extremities slightly produced. Aperture

very narrow and a little off the centre. Outer lip with 25 denticles, columella with 19 denticles,
fossula broad and concave. Dorsally with fine transverse ribs on either side separated by a
distinct, long dorsal groove, interspaces finely crenulated, colour white.
India: Tamil Nadu : Gulf of Mannar; Andamans, shallow coral reefs, rare. Indo-Pacific.
Trivirostra oryza Lamarck, 1811

(Fig. 28. 1-3. PI. 35, fig. 4, 5)
Shell small, up to 6 mm length, broadly ovate. Aperture almost central, outer lip with 25
denticJes. coJlJlnelJa \vith J 7 denticles, fossula narrow protruding towards the labial wall. Surface
sculptured with raised transverse ribs separated by broad interspaces, dorsal groove not
interrupting the ridges, interstices minutely crenuJated. Colour white.
India: Andamans, Indian Seas, rare. Indo-Pacific.
Cate, C. N. 1977. A review of the Eratoidae (Mollusca: Gastropoda). Veliger, 19 : 341-366.

Cate, C. N. 1979. A review of the Triviidae (Mollusca: Gastropoda). San Diego Soc. Natur.
Hist. Mem., 10 : 5-126.
Ray, H. C. 1949. Revision of Cypraeacea in the collections of the Zoological Survey of India
1. The families Triviidae, Eratoidae and Pediculariidae. Rec. Indian Mus., 46 : 183-213.
Family OVULIDAE
False Cowries
Shell usually is small, not more than 25 mm in length. It is cowry-like and fusiform to
subpyriform with an involute spire, moderate thickness and not so polished surface. It is without
any attractive colours as in cowries. Aperture is wide, uSlially with a smooth columella and
denticulate outer lip. It is canaliculated at both the extremities and often the canals are long and·
drawn out. Surface usually is without any prominent sculpture, but in a few with distinct spiral
striations. Operculum is absent.
Head bears two tentacles and eyes at their outer bases. Mantle usually is smooth but often
may bear pustules or obsolete appendages. Mantle cavity contains a monopectinate ctenidium
with numerous smooth and broad lamellae, a triradiate osphradium with fine lamellae. RaduJa
is short and taenioglossate (2-1-1-1-2). Sexes are separate.
These occur mainly on corals, sea fans and alcyonarians and have wide distribution in tropical
and subtropical waters. The family includes a subfalnily Ovulinae. fOllr tribes and 39 genera
with an estimated 200 species. However, in India it is not well known as seen from a few
salnples representing only a fe\v species.
Subfamily OVULINAE
Ovula ovum Linnaeus, 1758
(PI. 36, fig. 4)
Shell large, up to 80 mm length, thick and solid. Aperture wide with an extended posterior
canal, columella smooth, outer lip coarsely ridged. Surface smooth, shiny white, interior chocolate
brown.
India: Andamans : Rutland Island, Ritchie's Archipelago. On soft corals in coral reefs at
6-10 m depth. Indo-West Pacific.
Pseudosinlnia (Diminovu/a) /ruticum (Reeve, 1865)

(PI. 35, fig. 6, 7)
Shell small, up to ) I mm in length, elongate ovate, extremities slightly produced. Aperture

wide anteriorly and narrow posteriorly, outer lip thick with about 18 prominent teeth extending
transversely to its outer margin giving it a serrate look, columella smooth, thickened at the
posterior end and with a prominent terminal ridge anteriorly. Dorsum with obsolete transverse
striae, colour uniformly white with three fawn transverse bands.
India: Maharashtra : BOlnbay, rare, Andamans, on soft corals. Red Sea to Fiji Islands.
Pseudosimnia (Diminovula) frumentum (Sowerby, 1828)

(PI. 35, fig. 12)
Shell minute, up to 5 mm in length, fusiform with produced extremities. Aperture narrow,

dilated anteriorly, outer lip rather angulated and flattened with conspicuous teeth extending on
to the margin, columella smooth and angulated at the margin, fistula steep, concave and crenate.
Dorsum humped at posterior halfwith a keel. Sculptured with close-set transverse striae at both
the ends leaving a smooth central part. Colour pink to purple with a transverse zone at the
hump.
India: Indian Seas, no specific locality, rare. Indo-Pacific.
Pseudosimnia (Diminovula) punctata (Duclos, 183 1)

(PI. 35, fig. 16, 17)
Shell minute, up to 5 mm in length, roundly pyriform with extremities produced. Outer lip
not much thickened and with about 20 teeth. Dorsum ornamented with three pairs of brown
blotches and close-set transverse striae.
India: Tamil Nadu : Gulf of Mannar (Mandapam), on soft coral, not common. Indo-Pacific.
Primovula singularis Cate, 1973

(PI. 35, fig. 10; 11)
Shell small, up to 12 mm in length and 5 mm in width, dorsum with numerous spiral striae.
Aperture straight, outer lip flattened and toothed, extremities produced, posterior one twisted.
Colour faded, one specimen pinkish.
India : Bombay. Indian Ocean.
Primovula striatula (Sowerby, 1828)

(PI. 35, fig. 13)
Shell small, up to 10' mm in length, cylindrically fusiform. Aperture narrow in the middle,
wider anteriorly, outer lip with 20 teeth, with a whitish band almost in the middle, with very
fine striations throughout. Colour indistinct since the collection is very old.
India: Maharashtra : Bombay, rare. Red Sea to Fiji Islands.
Volva sowerbyana Weinkauff, 1881

(pI. 35, fig. 8, 9)
Shell small, up to 16 mm in length, fusiform, extremities produced into short and slender
canals. Outer lip convex, thick and smooth, columella with about 20 oblique striae and posterior
180 REC,. ZOOL. SURV. INDIA, acc" PAPERNo.J '92
rib. Dorsum with numerous transverse striae. Colour light flesh pink with an obscure cream
band in the centre"
India: Maharashtra : Bombay, rar'e. Indo.. West P,acific.
Jlo./va volva Linnaeus, 1758

(Fig. 29)
Shell large, up to 75 mm in I,ength, dorsum gently arched, with fine transverse striae. Aperture
elongate, wide anteriorly, extrem'ties drawn into very long, slightly curved and obJiquely r,idged
canals, columella smooth" outer ip expanded and with thick margin. 'Colour flesh pink.
India: Lakshad\veep, TaJnil Nadu : Gulf of Mannar, Andaman and Nocobar Islands, occurs
on gorgonids~ unCOlnnlon . Indo-Pacific.
; j .... I 'nl '0 '0 1\'(1 (a) Venni L It) I (lr. ~ I.

Calpurnlls (Calpurnlls) verrucosus (Linnaeus, 1758)

(PI. 35, fig. 14, 15)
Shell small, up to 22 mm in length, cowry-like, ovately angulated. Aperture narrow, dilated

anteriorly, outer lip flat and broad with about 24 teeth extending on to the margin. Dorsum with
a prominent keel dividing the shell into posterior one-third and anterior two-thirds, rosy, wart-
like tubercles at extremities. Colour white, a little pinkish tinge at the extremities.
Cate, C. N. 1973. A systematic revision of the recent cypraeid family Ovulidae (Mollusca :
Gastropoda). Veliger SuppleJnent 15 : 1-116, 47 figs, 1 pl.
Cate, C. N. 1976. A review of the Eratoidae (Mollusca: Gastropoda). Veliger, 19(3) : 341-366.
182 REC. ZaOL. SURV. INDIA, acc. PAPER No. 192
Family LAMELLARIIDAE
Shell is internal, thin and small, usually not more than 25 mm in height. Body whorl is large
with a small spire and impressed sutures. Shell is covered by brown periostracum. Aperture is
very large with thin and smooth columella. Outer lip is very simple and thin. Siphonal canal and
umbilicus are absent. Surface is smooth or with weak spiral striae. There is no operculum.
Head bears a pair of short tentacles with eyes at their outer bases. Foot is elongate and
quadrate posteriorly. Mantle is large and covers the shell partly or ~ompletely. Its surface is
rugose and bears wart-like projections. Mantle edge is thick with a short, very reduced incurrent
siphon and a furrow-like posterior siphon. Mantle cavity consists of a large ctenidium and
osphradium. Proboscis is moderate sized with a protrusible buccal mass. Radula is taenioglossate
with marginals (2-1-1-1-2) or without marginals (0-1..: 1-1-0). Sexes are either separate or united.
Male has a penis. Eggs are deposited in the holes in ascidians. Larva is a nautiloid echinospira.
These occur on ascidians and cnidarians, and are widely distributed. It is a small family
divided into two subfamilies, Lamellariinae and Velutininae with about 9 genera and 50 species.
A single species was reported from India.
Subfamily LAMELLARIINAE
Lamellaria (Corvicella) indica Leach

(PI. 36, fig. 5, 6)
Shell small, up to 24 mm in heigh~ thin, fragile, whorls three, with a depressed spire, shallow
sutures. Aperture large, columella smooth and curved, outer lip almost straight and sinuous.
Surface smooth covered with brownish periostracum.
India: Tamil Nadu : Kanya Kumari, rare. Indo-Pacific.
Allan, J. 1958. Some species of Lamellariidae (Class Gastropoda) from the eastern Australian
coast. J. Malacol. Soc. Austral., 2 : 48-57.
Behrens, D. W. 1980. The Lamellariidae of the North Eastern Pacific. Veliger, 22(4) : 323-339.
:1 :P p _ NO R P
trombidae
1. tr mbu (La _ i trombu ) canal ium' ndaman' 2. Strombll (I anarium) er thrinu. ,erythrinus :
Indian ' ,a ' . trombu (Canarium) marginatu marginatu'; 4. Tibiafu 'us: an wry Harb ur
5.Tibia il1 ulae horab; 6. trombus (Canarium) labiatu labiatu': M2265 14 Fuladu I land
aldi
I ~ 7. ' tr01nbu ( Qnarium) iabiatus oldiu; ' . TI'bia d .Ii atula: ay ngal' 9 . Tibia
in 'ula horab : juv nil . 10. trombus ( anariurn nlutabili ; 11. trombu nlarginatu u in tu .:
Trine mal : ri ,anka.
R --" L. R , IN . P PER 0. 192
P at 26:
ndruuans.' . ,4. ' 'rol1t/,,;' (Do.nuuhrJ Ii~·f,e,.i : l' akhapatn _In

I, .... fl<JlllhllS (Lel1tigo) /eJlligi"ostl. · :
n HL a P adc.:s l ~ 5 ( , "- tlnm! us ( ihherullls) gill ''-"/tls : tVlthuln, Port hir nd.: llllan.
B A I.~LiIJIJU : POLYPLACO HORA A D GAST OP'ODA
ate 27 : S om id,ae
. Lamb; (Harpago) chiragra chiragra: male (fonn rugosa) Singapore 148.5x82.8mm;

2 5. Lambi (Lambis) lambis : Andamans, 2. Male, apertur.al view" 145x80mm: 3. a1 " dorsal
vi w; 4. Male, side view, 143 x 83.5, .; 5. fema e, side v'ew,195 x140 I ;6,7. Lambis (Millepus)
scorpius indomaris : John Lawrence sland, Andamans, 1,50 x '63. 5nun; 8,9. Lambis (Lambis) crocata
crocata : Andamans 122.3 x57.8.
R .Z L. RV. TN IA . PAPER o. 192
Pate 28: re
pulu hila undular: ". pulu Ira ill :

11, 1 . , 10. I ,.. pidula l1al hi: 11 . ~ r lhun t,_11_b _1I"'rn :
And m.an ~ I urv ~ ~. Rirn lIa (ar' pir) _ n /lata .
L~LJI.JU : PO yp P RA D TROPODA
·cidae, Vanikor:dae
1,2. Hippon x a uta; 3 4. Vanikoro pUcata : Andamans' .5.6.. Vanikoro can ellata: ndaman'
7. VanikoYi Ii ea; 8 9. Crucibulum extin torium.
C. ZOQL. SURV. DIA ace. PA R No 192
late 30 : no horidae
1 . ,tlophora chine" j ;' . ,4. nophora 'Kula; Ilophora olarioides ' 7 ' . en ophora
pallidula' 9.,10. nophora olar;''if1 : 11, 1-11' / I' 11 .. ). nophora corrugata : 148
Puri ri sa' 14 l. t 1lophora i "d; 'a.
B R H :P PLJr.. 'L,'-'PH RA AND GA TROPODA
: Cypraeidae
2. Cypraea argus' 3. ,C ypraea mappa' 4. Cypraea lynx.; 5. Cypraea tigri ; 6, Cypraea arabica: M
18827/3' 7 8. Cypraea talpa : M 5392/1; 9, Cypraea annu/u J' 10. Cypraea moneta' 1 L Cypraea
vitellus.' 12. Cypraea caputserp.entis; 13. Cypraea erosa.
R L. , RV. I • P PRo. 192
P at 2: ae
R I : I 01 N HELL : P LYPLA PHORA A 0 ' TROPOOA
ate 33 : Cy _rae·dae
1,2. . 'Praea ( ro aria) ocellata : M 18 22/3' 4. YP,a,ea (Erosaria) turdu vdnckworthi : M

I 2621 ; 6. Cypraea pallida: M 21816/4 Dona Paula beach . ' oa' 7,8 . Cypraea (L ',f1cina) argus:
_ ')73 . 9,10. Cypraea (Lynclna) lynx M 18 ,47/3' 1 ,12. IC praea (Ero aria) lamarckii redimita'
1 , 4. Cypra, a (Lyncina) vitellu dama : M 18471/3; 15 16. ypraea (Pu 'tu/aria) i 'e~ ula
(: .lienardi) ': 1 11 / . 17,18. C praea (Pusfuiaria) globule : M I 126/3.
L. RV. IN A 0, . P PER No. 192
Pate 34 : p -ae·dae
1.- , .'1 J1'(N,/ U ( fauriria) arabica ': 'M I 8_7/ 3: . .4 . ypraea ( fOllt/aria) mOil :Ita: 2_4- / , int
' ~ Ii nH~rc J II f ,)f ar nar: 5.6. (.l1}ro< a ( fa uri/ill ) luallri,ialla r( I~ina: 7 . ) praea (f)(udinaria :
- I X. 69/ '). ' 9.l0. :'1Jra 0(1 ( tic/co/aria) ll1h 'leu.\' nne/ells ;' 11.1__ .1'JJI'{1(J(l carn o/a: _7 4 .
: 1 D1 PH RA AD GA -ROP DA
Plate 3:5 : - r·v"idae,Ovurdae
1- . rrj ia h rdaca : x 6. Indian Sea . 4 5.. Trzvia oryza : Andaman ; 7. P udo<;imn JQ

(Ditnin ula)fruti 'urn: Bombay' . ,9. Vol a 'owerh ana: mbay' OIL PrinlO 'ula 'ingu!arh,':
ombay' I . a & b) P eudosirnnia ( iminovula) frum ntU"': 5, Bombay' 13. Primol ula
triatula: B may' 14 15. alpurnu rruco 'U"': Ea tBay atchal Nicobar' 16 17.P eudo inl11ea
pun tata.
Rf: '. Z L R . I OJ , .P P R o. l ' 2
la e .' 6 : tat· d.ae., amellariida
I ,_, 3 a -~ .. 'Iiallfa peroni; : 4. (h 'lI/li 01 " "11 : Rill - nd Is 'lnd, , nkllnans: '\0. anll:l/ariu illti a .
Family ATLANTIDAE
Pearly Nautilus
Shan is very small, usually not more than 10 mm in height, thin, fragile and discoidal. Body
whorl has a keel. Aperture may be ovate or subtrigonal with a roundish or subtrigonal ovate
comeous operculum. Colour is uniformly dull white or pale brown. Although the shell looks
small the animal can be completely \vithdrawn into the shell.
Head bears large eyes and well-developed proboscis. Foot is separable into anterior and
elongate posterior part. The former bears a sucker and the operculum is attached to the latter.
Sexes are separate. Male has a penis and penial sucker.
These are pelagic and occur as epiplankton in the upper layers of the ocean and to a depth of
few hundred metres. They feed mainly on other planktonic forms, stich as ctenophores, salps,
crustaceans and other heteropod molluscs. It is a slnall family containing three genera and
about 18 species.
Atlanta peronii Leseur, 1817

(PI. 36, fig. 1-3)
Shell small, up to 7 mm in diameter, thin, fragile, glossy and pJanospiral. Periphery sharp
and with a large crest in undamaged specilnens, protoconch multispiral, fine growth striae,
colour white or pale brown.
India: East and West Coasts of India, offshore pelagic form and often coJlected in plankton
nets, common. lndo- Pacific.
Family NA TICIDAE
Moon Shells
Shell usually is small to moderately large in size, occasionally up to 80 mm in length. It is

ovate-conic to globose, with a depressed or lnoderately elevated spire. Body whorl is large and
often inflated. Surface is smooth or polished, may have obsolete axial or spiral sculpture. Shell
is variously coloured and some of the species can be identified on the basis of their colouration.
It has large, ovate to semilunate aperture, with usual1y oblique outer lip. Columella usuaJly has
a callus deposit. The most distinguishing feature of the shell is the presence of a funicle in the
umbilicus, which Inay be open or closed. Funicle is a rib-like structure that grows from the little
bulge of the callus on the siphonal canal. Operculum is paucispiral with an excentric nucleus,
corneous or calcareous.
Head bears a pair of sma1l tentacles situated wide apart, with a Httle developed or reduced
eyes. Foot is highly developed and it can be extended and spread to an enormous size by its
water tube system. When expanded the anterior propodium of the foot folds back and covers
much of the head. In the genus Sinum the foot can be six to seven times larger than the shell.
Posterior part of the foot envelops much of the shell when the animal is active. During this time
a slit on the right side permits the circulation of water into the mantle cavity. Foot is used as a
spade to dig, as a plough to move through the substratum in search of the prey and to hold and
chock its prey. A boring gland situated on the ventral side of the mouth assists in making holes
in the bivalves. Mantle cavity consists of a large ctenidium and a narrow osphradium. Buccal
mass is protrusible and possesses corneous jaw plates.
Alimentary system consists of a taenioglossate radula (2-) -) -1-2), a we1l developed foliated
gland in the oesophagus and a caecum in the stomach. Sexes are separate and in many can be
differentiated externally by their shells. Male has a penis on the right side. In the females there
is a long, coiled oviduct, a large albumen gland and mucous gland. Eggs are laid in a jelly-like
mass mixed with sand rolled in the form ofa ribbon and because of the shape the egg masses are
called sand dollars. Eggs hatch in about two to three weeks releasing free-swimming veliger
larvae.
Moon shells are burrowing fonns, moving actively on sandy or muddy shores along the
coast. They plough through the substrate with their massive foot in search of their prey that
includes many soft bottom families of bivalves, especially venerids, tellinids and lucinids, and
gastropods. The prey is enmeshed in the mucous strands and held firmly by its foot, the special
boring gland then softens the shell, the radula grinds through the shell and makes a hole, and
finally the proboscis is inserted and the liquidised meat is sucked in. The feeding in naticids
involves both mechanical and cheillical actions. A number of bivalves washed ashore on a
sandy beach can be found with the holes Inade by naticids.
It is a large family with about 200 valid recent species distributed world-wide, especially in
the tropical seas from the intertidal sandy beaches to a depth of about 100 m. Moon shells are
commonly seen in soft bottom sedirnents and sandy beaches of India. About 25 species were
reported from India but only the following 22 species are dealt here. Based on their shell shape,
sculpture, nature of aperture and opercululn, the falnily is divided into the following four
subfamilies (Kabat, 1990, 1991).
I. Ampullospirinae - spire high, whorls tabulated, sutures channelled.
2. Polinicinae - shell globose, usually uniformly coloured, umbilicus open, opercu)lun

corneous, cephalopodial portion of the Inale gonoduct an open groove.
3. Naticinae - usually colourful, opercululn calcareous, umbilicus usually funiculate,

cephalopodial portion of the Inale gonoduct closed.
4. Sininae - shell low spired to subaurifonn and spirally sculptured, anitnal cannot be
retracted completely into the shell.
Subfamily NA TICINAE
Natica glla/teriana Recluz, 1844

(PI. 37, fig. 1,2)
Shell small, up to 20 mm in length, solid, surface glossy, spire lo\v. Aperture semilunar,
collunella with a conspicuous funicle filling up the tnajor part of the ulnbilicus which relnains a
crescent opening. Surface with obscure axial growth striae and a little prominent subsutural
radial ribs. Colour dull gray with brown streaks arranged in two to three spiral zones on the
body whorl, interior of aperture purplish, ulnbilicus white. OpercululTI calcareous with a single
marginal rib.
India : Lakshadweep, Kerala, Tamil Nadu : Gulf of Mannar, common; Andhra Pradesh,
Orissa, West Bengal: Digha, Hugli-Matla Estuary. Indo-Pacific.
Synonym : Natica nlarochiensis of authors.
Natica lilleata (Roeding, 1798)

(PI. 37, fig. 3~ 4)
Shell of medium size, up to 32 mIn in length, globose with an inflated body whorl and a
slightly elevated spire, apex pointed, surface sn100th and finely glossy. Aperture large, collunetla
thin, funiculum entering spirally inwards into the umbilical depression and separated froln the
parietal callus by U-shaped space. Colouration quite specific, surface ashy white ornamented
throughout with close set orange yellow, wavy, vertical lines. apex partially tinged with pale
bluish gray, umbilical space white.
India: Maharashtra, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Orissa, West Bengal: Digha,
Hugli-MatJa Estuary; Andaman and Nicobar Islands, abundantly common in intertidal mudflats
and backwaters. Indo-Pacific.
Natiea tigfina (Roeding, 1798)

(PI. 37, fig. 7, 8)
Shell of medium size, up to 31 mm in length, globose with an inflated body whorl and
conically exserted spire. Colutnella with a thick callus at its base, funicle obliquely enters
the umbilical depression at its anterior end leaving it open posteriorly. Colour pale brown
ornamented all over with small, close-set, rounded, purplish brown spots arranged in regular.
spiral lines, which may often coalesce with each other, interior of aperture and umbilical
area white.
India : Gujarat : Gulf of Kachchh; Maharashtra, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Pondicherry (not
comlnon), Orissa: Chandipur (very cOlnmon); West Bengal. Indo-Pacific.
Offshore form (10 to 30 In) inhabiting river mouths with fine sand mixed with mud. Egg
masses were found in abundance during pre-Inonsoon and post-monsoon periods towards the
mouth of Burhi Balang River, Chandipur (Orissa).
Synonyms: Natiea niacli/osa Lamarck, 1838
Natiea piela Recluz
Natiea vitelllls (Linnaeus, 1758)

(PI. 37, fig. 5, 6)
Shell of medium size. up to 40 mIn in length. globose, thick, with rounded whorls and a
short spire. Aperture lunar ovate, columel1a with polished callus posteriorly fusing with the
body whorl and covering partly the umbilical depression leaving it anteriorly open, callosity
without a spiral groove, funicle inconspicuous and fuses with the umbilical wall. Colour white
with two broad, brown spiral bands on the body whorl, apex reddish brown. Operculum with
four grooves parallel to the margin.
India: Lakshadweep, East and West Coasts, common. Indian Ocean.
Inhabits sandy beaches near low tide line and beyond. Usually collected in fishing nets.
Synonym: Nalica rllfa Born, 1780.
SUBBA RAO: INDIAN SEA SHELLS: POLYPLACOPIIORA AND GASTROPODA 187
Naticarills a/apapiliones (Roeding, 1798)

(PI. 37, fig. 15)
Shel I small. up to 20 lnm in length, globose ovate with a short exserted spire, body
whorl broadly expanded towards wide aperture; umbilicus deep and extending anteriorly, parietal
callus situated posteriorly, funicle thin and enters umbilical depression at an oblique angle.
Sculptured \vith fine growth striae and subsutural radial ribs. Colour light brown with four
narrow, white bands decorated with dark bro\vn rectangular spots, apex violet, interior of
aperture purplish, outer lip edge and umbilical area white. Operculum with many grooves parallel
to Inargin.
India: Maharashtra : Botnbay; Tatnil Nadu : Krl1sadai Island; Pondicherry, shallow water.
Indo-Pacific, cotnmon and \videspread.
SynonYITI : Nalica zonaria Lalnarck, 1816.
Naticllrills mallceli Jousseaulne, 1874

(PI. 37, fig. 9, 10)
Shell small, up to 25 mm in length, spire elevated, suture deep. Aperture moderately large,
colulnella concave, without a calJus deposit, a low, rounded funicle entering the C-shaped
utnbiJicus. Surface smooth except for oblique axial grooves in the subsutural region. Colour
grayish brown . body \vhorl with t\-vo major rows of faint to conspicllous brown spots, often
enclosing in beh\'een hvo additional rows of fine brown dots~ base, umbilicus and COl111nelia
whitc" funicle bro\-vn or tinged with brown terminally, interior of aperture tinged with light
brown. OperCUllUTI with nine or ten strong spiral ribs, nuclear area \vith a slnooth, irregular
callus.
India: Andamans, rare. Mozatnbiql1e to Philippines.
Synonym : Natica strongyla var. andanlanica Melvil1 and Sykes, 1899.
Nllticarius onca (Roeding, 1798)

(PI. 37, fig. II, 12)
Shell small, Inajority 15 to 16 tnm in height, often a few reach up to 23 mm in height, solid,
spire low. Aperture scmi-ovate, parietal callus prominent, UITIbiJiclls opens posteriorly, funicle
broad and prominent filling anterior 2/3 of umbilicus, Surface glistening and with gro\vth lines.
Colour cream, body whorl with five spiral rows of large and conspicuolls dark bro\vn rectangular
spots, aperture and nuclear whorls white. Operculum calcareous and multisulcate.
India: Andamans. Red Sea and Mozalnbique to Japan and Fiji.
Naticarius pulicaria (Philippi, 1852)

(PI. 37, fig. 13, 14)
Shell small, usua Ily up to 11 mm in height, maximum height up to 16.5 mm, globose, neritoid,
spire short, body \vhorl squarely rounded, rather flattened beneath the suture, surface smooth.
Aperture ovate, columella calloused at the upper part, ulnbilicus circular and partly closed by
the callus. Colour ashy-white, periphery ornamented with chocolate brown oblique blotches
and narro,\' white band on the middle and lower part of body whorl, band bearing distantly
placed chocolate-brown spots.
India: Maharashtra : Bombay; Tatnil Nadu : Madras, Kanya Kumari. Indo-Pacific.
Tanea euzona (Recluz, 1844)

(PI. 37, fig. 16, 17)
Shell small, up to 25 mm in length, thick and globose, spire low. Aperture semiovate, funicle
tongue shaped and enters the umbilicus obliquely. Shell surface smooth and ornamented with
fine, closely arranged, wavy orange brown lines and three spiral zones of alternating white and
orange brown arrow-shaped Inarks, umbilicus white. Operculum with two marginal ribs.
India: Tamil Nadu : Gulf of Mannar (Tuticorin); Pondicherry, Andamans, offshore, 30 m.
Persian Gulf and Mozambique to Japan and Philippines.
Subfamily POLINICINAE
Neverita alb limen (Linnaeus, 1758)
(PI. 38, fig. 9, 10)
Shell moderately large, up to 40 mm in length, thick, ovate and laterally compressed, spire
depressed and exserted. body whorl 'very large. Aperture semiovate, almost extending up to the
spire, very thick, tongue shaped parietal callus in the middle of the columella coalescing with
the tllnicle and posteriorly narrow, funicle broad and fills the centre of the umbilicus leaving a
naITO\V groove anteriorly and deep llinbilical depression posteriorly. Surface shining and smooth
\\lith obsolete growth striae. Colour cream, umbilical area and spire white, interior of aperture
dull \vhite. Opercululn corneolls and dark reddish-brown.
India: Talnil Nadu, Pondicherry, Andamans, not common. Indo-West Pacific.
Neverita peselep/,allti (Link, 1807)

(PI. 38, fig. 11, 12)
Shell sinall, up to 30 Innl in length, thick, not nlllch compressed laterally, spire low and
conical. Aperture large and lunar ovate, umbilical groove very deep and less circular, funicle
not much conspicuous, terminates in a ledge-like callus pad. Colour white or crealn, sOlnetimes
with a faint yellowish line around the base, umbilical area, nuclear whorls and interior of aperture
white, funicle finely ridged. Operculum chitinous and dark reddish-orange.
India: Tamil Nadu, Pondicherry, common. Red Sea and Mozambique to Japan and Australia.
Polinices (Glossau/ax) didyma (Roeding, 1798)

(PI. fig. )
Shell moderately large, up to 57 mm in length, thick, body whorl large and inflated, broader
than high with a depressed spire, surface smooth and glossy. Aperture large and semiovate,
coltllnel1a with a large transversely expanded curved callosity divided into two by a transverse
groove, posterior portion large and fuses with the body whorl covering the umbilicus, anterior
part smaller and free, funicle overlapped by the callosity, umbilicus a wide excavated angular
opening. Surface uniformly pale brownish or grayish, callosity and interior of aperture deep
chestnut.
India: Gujarat, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Pondicherry, Andhra Pradesh, Orissa, West Bengal,
common, intertidal to 100 m. Indo-West Pacific.
Synonyms : Natica chenlnitzii Recluz, t 843
Neverita hieolor Philippi, 1849
Nalica lanlarckiana Reeve, 1855
Polin ices (Mammil/a) meillnostoma (Gmelin, 1791)

(PI. 38, fig. 5, 6)
Shell of medium size, up to 35 mm in length, not thick, pyriformly ovate, spire short with a
blunt apex. Aperture large, oblong semilunar, parietal callus folded partly covering the wide
and deep umbilicus. Surface shining with fine growth striae. Colour white or steel gray with
three brownish gray spiral bands on the body "vhorl, parietal callus dark chocolate brown, interior
of aperture pale brown. Operculum corneous and dark reddish brown.
India: Lakshadweep : Minicoy Island; Tamil Nadu, Pondicherry (comlnon), Andalnans,
rare. South Africa to Japan and Hawaii.
Polinices (Mammilla) flemingialla (Recluz, 1844)

(PI. 38, fig. 7, 8)
Shell small, up to 15 mm in height, aperture obliquely elongated, a deep anterior utnbilical

groove, operCUlum corneous with a dark brown zone along the outer Inargin.

It reselnbles P. nlanln1illa but can be distinguished by the broader aperture and umbilical
groove. Its outline is not oblique as in P. In am nl ilia.
Polin ices (Mamnlilla) sebae (Recluz, 1844)
Shell small, up to 10 Inm in height, thin, quad angularly ovate, spire depressed, body whorl
very large and inflated. Aperture large and squarely ovate, Columella broadly reflected almost
covering the umbilicus. Sculptured with distinct growth lines interested by consipicuous spiral
striae. Colour white, body whorl \vith two rows of quadrate brown spots umbilical area dark
chest nut coloured.
India: Maharashtra : Bombay; Tamil Nadu : Tuticorin; Andamans. East Africa and Natal to
Philippines.
Synonym; Na/iea zonzebariea Reclu2, ] 844 (Kilburn, 1970).
Polin ices (Poli"ices) mllmmilla (Linnaeus, 1758)

(PI. 38, fig. 3, 4)
Shell of medium size, up to 35 mm in length, thick, pyriformly ovate, spire low and bulbous.
Aperture semilunar, ulnbilical area filled with broad and thick funicle. Surface smooth except
for fine growth striae. Colour ivory \vhite, often with yellowish tinge on the funicle. Operculum
chitinous, light bro\vn with a dark brown zone near the columellar edge.
India: Maharashtra, Goa, Kerala, Lakshadweep, Tamil Nadu (common), Pondicherry
(comlnon), Orissa, Andamans, common in shallow \vaters. Indo-West Pacific.
Synonym : NJamillaria tumidus Swainson, 1840.
Kabat (1990) discussed the synonym of this species and concluded that Polinices mammilla'
should be ·'rcstricted to the white shelled, closed umbilicus forms"
Subfamily SININAE
Ellnaticil,a (Eunaticina) coarctata (Reeve, 1864)

(PI. 39, fig. 3, 4)
Shell small, up to 15 Inm in length, thick, globosely ovate, spire low, whorls slopingly
contracted above and swollen to\vards base, suture a little distinct. Apertu.re widening
anteriorly. parietal callus at the posterior part of the columella, a transverse groove in the
middle separating the callus into two, posterior part fuses with the body whorl, anterior part'
free and extends into the deep and semicircular umbilicus. Surface spirally grooved and crossed
by axial growth striae. Colour dull brown, umbilical area, columella and interior of aperture
white.
India: Tamil Nadu, Andamans. Elsewhere: Singapore.
Eunaticina (ElIllaticina) iillneana (Recluz, 1843)

(PI. 39, fig. 1, 2)
Shell small, up to 20 mm in length, thin, broadly ovate, with low conical spire and deep
sutures. Aperture large and wider at the base, columella almost straight, parietal callus narrow,
posteriorly reflected over the ulnbilicus and gradually narrowing down anteriorly, umbilicus
open and deep, without an internal funicle. Sculptured with about 50 fine, irregularly spaced
spiral grooves crossed by finer and close-set axial growth lines. Colour dull brown, operculum
corneous and light brown, smaller than the aperture.
India: Tamil Nadu : Gulf of Mannar, not comlnon. Japan and Fiji to Natal (South Africa).
The species ·has often been misidentified as Eunaticina papilla (Gmelin).
Synonym : Sinum tumescens (Reeve, 1864) : Mookherjee, 1985.
Eunaticina (Eunaticina) papilla (Glnelin, 1791)

(PI. 39, fig. 5, 6)
Shell small, up to 10 mm in height, auricular in shape, spire exerted, a shallow groove

between spire and body \vhorl. Aperture large, ovate, posteriorly narrow, columella with weak
callus. Sculptured with fine, regular evenly spaced spiral grooves intersected by finer close set
transpiral growth lines.
India : Maharashtra : Bombay; Tamil Nadu : Gulf of Mannar-very common; Madras,
·Tranquebar, Indo-Pacific.
Sinum llelesserti (Recluz, 1843)

(PI. 39, fig. 7, 8)
Shell small, up to 15 Inm in length, thin, ear-shaped, with a low and suppressed spire.
Aperture large and elongate, parietal callus thin and obscures the umbilicus. Sculptured with
evenly spaced, coarse spiral threads crossed by axial growth striae. Colour reddish-brown with
subsutural white area on the shoulder of the body whorl, aperture and callus white. Opercululn
corneous.
India: Orissa: False point; Tamil Nadu. Madagascar to Philippines.
192 REC. ZDDL. SURV. INDIA, DCC. PAPER No. 192
Sinum /,aliotoideum (Linnaeus, 1758)

(PI. 38, fig. 15, 16 and PI. 39, fig. 9, 10)
Shell small, up to 30 mm in length, thin and translucent, compressed and ear-shaped, spire
low. Aperture large, elongate, umbilicus closed by parietal cal1us, outer H.p thin. Sculptured by
fine wavy spiral threads and obsolete growth lines. Colour ivory white pr white.
India : Andhra Pradesh : Visakhapatnam; Tamil Nadu, offshore. Madagascar and Natal
(South Africa) to Indonesia and Philippines.
Synonym : Sigaretus planatus Recluz, 1843
Sigaretlls planulatus Recluz, 1843.
Sinllm laevigatum (Lamarck, 1822)

(PI. 39, fig. 11, 12)
Shell small, up to 22 mm in length, somewhat similar to S. neritoideum but more compressed.

Umbilicus closed by parietal callus. Sculpture different from that of S. neritoideum, flat-topped
major spiral ridges separated by fine single or paired intermediary threads, often becoming
wavy. Colour yellow, apex purple blue.
India: Andamans, rare. Mozambique to Indonesia.
Not known from India's mainland coast.
Sinum neritoideum (Linnaeus, 1758)

(PI. 38, fig. 13, 14)
Shell of medium size, up to 40 mm in length, thick and depressedly ovate, spire reduced,
body whorl large and inflated, not much compressed as in the other species. Aperture large and
broadly ovate, columella slightly arched, with callus deposit reflected slightly over the preceding
whorl, outer lip thick, umbilicus closed. Sculptured with close-set well-developed spiral ridges
and fine axial growth lines. Colour yellowish brown, columella and interior of aperture white,
rather glossy, apex purple brown.
India: Gujarat, Maharashtra : Bombay; Tamil Nadu : Madras, Tranquebar, Gulf of Mannar;
Orissa: Chandipore, Puri; mainly offshore, not common. Arabian Sea to Malaysia, Indonesia
to Japan.
The following species were also reported from India: Natica (Natica) arachnoidea (Gmeltn,
1791 )-Andalnans. Neverita effusa (Swainson, 1822)-Gulf of Mannar, Tamil Nadu. Po/inice,
(Manlnlil/a) sinliae (Deshayes)-Nicobars.
Golikov, A. N. and Staroboyatov, Y I. 1975. Systematics of prosobranch gastropods.

Malacologia, 15( I) : 185-232.
Kabat, A. R. 1990. Predatory ecology of naticid gastropods with a review of shell boring
predation. Malacologia, 32( 1) : 155-193.
Kabat, A. R. 1990. Species of Naticidae (Mollusca: Gastropoda) described by Linnacus in the
Systema Naturae (1758). Zool. J Linn. Soc., 100 : 1-25.
Kabat, A. R. 1991. The classification of the Naticidae (Mollusca : Gastropoda) review and
anaJysis of the supra-specific taxa. Bull. lvlas. Comp., 152(7): 417-449.
Kilburn, R. N. 1976. A revision of the Naticidae of Southern Africa and Mocambique (Mollusca).
Ann. Natal. Mus., 22(3) : 829-884.
Family TONNIDAE
Tun Shells
Shell is small to very large in size, up to 200 mm in length, thin and Jight weight, capacious,
spire short and less elevated, body whorl large and inflated, ovoid or globular. Aperture is very
wide, and bears a large anterior siphonal canal, anal or posterior canal either absent or
insignificant, outer lip margin fluted or denticulate, columella often twisted and bears more or
less strong callosity, umbilicus covered by callosity or sometimes open. Sculpture consists of
mainly raised spiral ribs separated by grooves, true varices and axial sculpture absent. Operculum
is absent.
Head bears long filiform tentacles, with eyes at their outer bases. Foot is large, pointed
posteriorly and truncated anteriorly. Mantle cavity contains a monopectinate ctenjdium and
bipectinate osphradiuln. Proboscis is extensible with a suction cup at the tip formed out of
tenninal lips.
Radula is taenioglossate (2-1-1-1-2). Digestive system consists of a well-developed
buccopharyngeal gland, an accessory gland and a long duct along the oesophagus. Nervous
system is zygoneurous.
Sexes are separate. Male bears a large penis and often with an accessory papilla. It possesses
an open seminal groove formed out of the male pallial gonoduct. Eggs are oval and transparent.
These are laid in masses of broad ribbons. Free-swimming planktonic veligers can survive for
6-8 months.
Tun Shells prefer sandy habitats from subtidal to deep \vaters. Their prey mainly consists of
echinoderms especially holothurians, bivalves, crustaceans and fish. About 50 species are known
worldwide. The family includes three genera, namely Tonna, Maleum and Eudoliunl. The former
two, represented by the following species, occur in India.
Tonna cepa (Roeding, 1798)

(PI. 41, fig. 7)
Shell large, up to 110 mm in length, globose and thin, whorls convex, sutures deeply
canaliculated, base of the shell broad. Aperture wide, outer lip thick, columella without parietal
callus and twisted on its lo\vcr part. Sculptured with five to six spiral ribs on the early whorls,
and about sixteen to seventeen broad, flat ribs on the body whorl divided by narrow and shallow
grooves. Cream or light fawn in colour, ornamented with uneven light brown or purple brown
markings, aperture brown within, \vith white columella.
India: Tamil Nadu : Gulf of Mannar; Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Indo- Pacific. Not
common in the Indian Ocean.
Synonym: Tonna olearium (Bruguiere, 1789).
SlJBBA RAO: INDIAN SEA SHELLS: POLYPLACOPHORA AND GASTROPODA 195
Ton"a clImingii (Reeve, 1849)

(PI., 41, fig. 5)
Shell large, up to 75 mm in length, solid and globose, spire elevated. Aperture slightly wide,
outer lip thick and fluted, columella with a slightly twisted and sharp callus and an open umbilicus.
Sculptured with numerous close-set, flat, spiral ribs, about 20 on the body whorl and 7 on the
penultimate whorl, containing a single thread in between, ribs seen through the aperture. Colour
brown, decorated with white chevron- shaped markings.
India: Tamil Nadu, Pondicherry, not common. Indo-Pacific.
Tonlla dolium (Linnaeus, 1758)

(PI. 41, fig. 9)
Shell very large, up to 150 mm in length, thin, globose, sutures canaliculated, spire low, and
body whorl inflated. Aperture very wide, showing spiral depressions corresponding to the ribs
on the dorsal surface, outer lip simple, thin and fluted, columella almost straight, without a
parietal shield, twisted conspicuously on the basal part, umbilicus open and deep. Sculptured
with broad, flat, raised, widely spaced spiral ribs, two to three on the penultilnate whorl and
about thirteen to fourteen on the body whorl, \vith threads in the intermediate spaces. Colour
white to cream, ornamented with rectangular or quadrate orange brown spots on the ribs, apex
and aperture brown.
'India: East Coast, very common. Indo-West Pacific, cOlnmon in the Indian Ocean.
Synonym : Tonna nlaculatum Lamarck, 1845
Tonna perdix (Linnaeus, 1758)

(PI. 41, fig. 8)
Shel1 large, up to 1 to mm in length, elongate-ovate, narrow, thin, spire strongly elevated

and apex sharply pointed; narrow and obliquely inclined body whorl, whorls with rounded
shoulders, distinct but not very deep sutures. Aperture wide and elongate, outer lip slightly
thickened, but thin and fluted, columella \vith a small parietal callus, deeply ulnbilicate, siphonal
canal twisted towards aperture. Sculptured with eight on the penultimate and about twenty flat,
spiral ribs separated by narrow and shallow grooves on the body whorl. Colour brown with ribs
mottled with white, columella and callus white, interior brown, outer lip margin dark brown,
nuclear whorls yellowish-brown.
India: Tamil Nadu, Andaman and Nicobar Islands, coral reefs. It has a very large foot
compared to the shell. Indo- Pacific.
Tonna sulcosa (Born, 1778)

(PI. 41, fig. 1-3)
Shell large, up to 110 mm in length, elongate oval, slightly solid, sutures moderately deep,
spire short and conical, base of the shell produced. Aperture wide, outer lip slightly thickened
and denticulate, columella with a small, thin parietal shield, lower half slightly twisted. Sculptured
with broad, flat and close-set spiral ribs, about 6 to 8 on the penultimate whorl and 18 to 20 on
the body whorl, intercostal spaces shallow and smooth, but often with a single thread in some.
Colour white with four or five brown bands on the body whorl, aperture white, apex dark
purple. The colour bands readily distinguish this species from others.
India: Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Orissa. Indo-West Pacific.
Synonym : Tonna fasciatum Bruguiere, ] 789
Doliu", var;cosum Preston, 1910
Tonna lessel/ala (Lamarck, 1816)

(PI. 41, fig. 4)
Shell large, up to 120 mm in length, solid and heavier than in T. doliunl, spire elevated,
consists of 5 ~ whorls. Aperture wide, outer lip thick, wavy or fluted, with about 12 pairs of
denticles on the inner edge" lower part of the columella with a parietal callus partly covering the
umbilicus, columella twisted, with a groove running from the umbilicus, siphonal canal recurved.
Sculptured with a number of raised, rounded ribs, three on the penultimate whorl, 13 to 14 on
the body whorl, the intercostal spaces smooth. Cream coloured, the ribs marked with numerous
alternate spots of white and brown, outer lip, parietal callus white.
India: Tamil Nadu : Gulf of Mannar; Andamans, not common. Indo-West Pacific.
It is often confused with the common T. dolium but can be differentiated by its thicker shen,
numerous regularly spaced spiral ribs without intermediate threads, thickened and denticulate
outer lip.
Ma/ea pomum Linnaeus, 1758

(PI. 41, fig. 6)
Shell moderately large, up to 65 rom in length, solid with a low spire. Aperture narrow, outer
lip broad and widens towards the base, with ten strong, elongated teeth on the inner side, columella
with a white . slnooth callosity on the upper part; with four to five plications on the lower half,
a siphonal notch, umbilicus closed by parietal callus. Sculptured with smoothly rounded
spiral ribs, three on the penuitirnate whorl and twelve on the body whorl, interspaces narrow.
SUBBA ~AO : INDIAN SEA SHELLS: POL YPLACOPHORA AND GASTROPODA 197
Cream coloured with white squares on the ribs, interior of aperture orange brown with white
callus and outer lip.
India : Andaman and Nicobar Islands, sandy substrates in coral reefs. It has a large foot.
Indo-Pacific.
Kilias, R. 1962. Das Tierreich: Gastropoda/Prosobranchia-Tonnidae. Vol. 77. Walter de Gruyter,

Berlin.
Vredenburg, E. von 1919. Observations on Doliidae. Mem. Indian Mus., 7 : 150-186.
Natarajan, A. V. 1957. Studies on the egg masses and larval development of some prosobranchs
from the Gulf of Mannar and the Palk Bay. Proc. Indian Acad. Sci., 46(8) : 170-228.
Panikkar, N. K. and Tampi, P. R. S. 1949. The egg mass of doliid gastropod mollusc from
Krusadai Island. J Bombay nat. Hisl. Soc., 48(3) : 608-610.
198 REC. ZOOL. SURV. INDIA, acc. PAPER No.J92
Family FICIDAE
Fig Shells
Shell is medium to large in size, thin, fig shaped with Jow spire and a large, long body whorl.
Aperture broad and long, with a long drawn-out anterior canal, outer lip simple and not thickened,
columellar lnargin arcuate and without a parietal shield. Sculptured by spiral Iirations crossed
by fine axial striations giving the she)) a cancellated surface. Operculum is absent.
Head is long and narrow, with a pair of long, pointed filiform tentacles. Eyes are situated at
the outer side of base of tentacles. Foot is very broad and irregularly rounded posteriorly, and
on the anterior side there are recurved lateral tentaculate processes. Mantle is reflected over
the shell and the mantle folds are beautifully veined. Siphon is long and narrow. A large
monopectinate ctenidium and a smaller and narrow bipectinate osphradium are present in
the mantle cavity. A long proboscis is with unhooked jaw plates. A taenioglossate radula
(2-1-1-1-2) and simple but large buccopharyngeal glands are present.
Sexes are separate and can be differentiated by their shells, which are longer in.females than
in males. The latter possess a penis and a closed pallial sperm duct. Eggs are deposited in
stacked masses.
Fig Shells occur on sandy and muddy bottolns up to ~OO m of depth. These are carnivorous
and feed on echinoderms, especially sea urchins. These secrete acid, which soften the sea urchin
test facilitating the radula to drill a hole. The proboscis then devours the flesh from inside. The
fanlily is monogeneric with a few species distributed at subtidal depths, mostly in the Indo-
Pacific.
Ficus ficoides (Lamarck, 1822)

(PI. 43, fig. 5, 6)
Shell of medium size, up to 50 Innl in length, rather thin, spire almost flat. Aperture.
more elongated, outer lip thin and slightly convex, columella almost straight with a curve in
the centre, siphonal canal longer and more slender than in F. variegala but shorter than in
F. gracilis. Sculptured with about 35 strong spiral cords enclosing three finer threads in each
of the inter space, axial cords cross the spiral cords giving a strongly netted shell surface. Colour
Jight brown, ornamented with 4 or 5, narrow. ivory coloured bands which bear widely spaced
brown dots or dashes, large irregular brown blotches on the shell surface, interior of aperture
\vhitc with a violet tinge near the outer lip, becoming brown towards the interior.
India: Tamil Nadu, Pondicherry, not common.
Synonym : Ficus reliclIiata Reeve, 1847
SUBBA RAO: 'NOlAN SEA SHELLS : POL YPLACOPHORA AND GASTROPODA 1'99
FicliS gracilis Sow'erby, 1825

(PI. 42, fig. 1-4)
She'll arge, up to 100 In In in length, thIck, with slightly elev,ated spire and elongate body
whorl. Aperture long and wide, outer Up slightly thickened and almost straight, columella almost
straight with a curve in the ,center, long and broad siphonal canal. Sculptured with widely spaced
strong, flat spiral ,cords and smaller axial cords. Colour light brown, ornamented with 111 any
axial, darker brown wavy lines, aperture chestnut brown,. With pale blue'''gray outer lip ;and
colume.la.
India: West Bengal, Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, Pondicherry (very rare), Nicobars. Indo-
Pacific up to 100 In.
Synonym : Ficus dllssum;eri Chenu.
FicliS investigatoris E. A. Smith, 1906

(PI. 43, fig. 1-4)
Shell large, up to 80 nlm in length, thIn, spire large and elevated, body whorl narrowly
elongate. Apertuf,e narrower than in the other species of the genus, outler lip thin, siphonal canal
short and broad. Sculptured with narrow and raised spiral cords and obsolete axial cords, colour
uniformly dull brown VJithout any ornam,entation.
India: Lakshadweep, 'Orissa') Andaman Sea, rare,. Indian Ocean, 185 In.
The species differs fro ln others in its shape, raised spire and in being drab coloured.
Fig. 30. Ficus with animal.

200 REC. ZOOL. SURV. INDIA, ace. PAPER·No. 192
Ficus variegata Roeding, 1798
(PI. 42, fig. 5-8)
Shell large, up to 90 mm in length, more globose than in the preceding species, spire low,
body whorl more globose. Aperture broad, outer and inner lips moderately thick. Siphonal
canal short and broad. Sculpture quite distinct, spiral ridges high with deep grooves in the
interspaces, axial ridges obsolete to pronounced giving the shell surface a delicate or strongly
netted appearance, often giving a beaded appearance at the intersection of spiral and axial ridges.
Colour light brown with white bands ornamented by large blotches.
India: Lakshadweep, West Bengal, Orissa (very common), Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu,
Pondicherry, Nicobar Islands. Indo-Pacific.
Synonym : Ficus ficus of authors
Ficus subintermedia (Orbigny, 1852)
Pyrula sewell; Prashad, 1927.
REFERENCES
Smith, E. A. 1894. A list of the recent species of the genus Pirula Lamarck, with notes respecting
the synonymy. J. Malae., 3 : 64-69.
Prashad, B. 1927. Notes on molluses in the collections of the Zoological Survey of India (Indian
Museum), Calcutta. Ree. Indian Mus., 29: 229-232, pI. xxii, figs. 1,2 & 4.
Family CASSIDAE
Helmet Shells, Bonnet Shells
Shell is moderate to rather very large in size, some attaining 380 mm in length, solid and
heavy, porcelaneous, with large body whorl and moderate to short spire. Aperture is narrow
and elongated, with a short oblique anterior canal and often a posterior canal of various sizes,
outer lip thickened and with blunt teeth in the majority, columella with a parietal shield and
plications. Shell surface may be smooth or with variously developed spiral and axial ridges, and
often nodulose at the shoulder. Operculum is thin and horny, brown and semicircular with an
acentric nucleus at its inner margin.
Head is large and bears moderately long, filiform tentacles; eyes situated on the protuberances
at the outer bases of tentacles. Foot is large and almost rounded at both the extremities. A
monopectinate ctenidium and a bipectinate osphradium are present in the mantle cavity. A large
pleurembolic proboscis, which is cylindrical and extensible, helps in the capture of the prey.
Radula is taenioglossate (2- I - I -1-2) and bears 88-220 rows of teeth. Digestive system consists
of buccopharyngeal or salivary glands and neurotoxic acid-secreting gland.
Sexes are separate. In some sexual dimorphism is well noticed. In males shell is smaller and
bear fewer and elongated sculptural knobs, and a prong like penis on the right side of the head.
Eggs are laid in tower-like capsules and each capsule may contain up to 300 eggs. Some of
these eggs act as 'nurse eggs' and provide nourishment to other eggs to develop and hatch into
veliger larvae that have a long planktonic life.
Majority of the species occur in sandy substrates from low tide level to depths. They feed
upon echinoderms. About 60 species under 10 genera are known worldwide, four genera and
~ species are known from Indian Seas.
Subfamily CASSINAE
Cassis cornuta Linnaeus, 1758

(PI. 44~ fig. 1, 2 and Frontis piece)
Shell very large, up to 350 mm in length, very solid and heavy, spire short and consists of
seven whorls. Aperture comparatively narrow, outer lip thick and wide with a recurved edge,
twelve blunt teeth on the inner margin, columella with about fifteen plaits on the lower two-
thirds, narrowly umbilicate, a large parietal shield almost obscures the body whorl when looked
from the ventral side, siphonal canal twisted and turned up vertically. Sculptured with two
broad, strong spiral ridges and several small, with long, narrow pits between them, hom-like
knobs on the shoulder. White with light brown shading and sparse brown spots, outer lip and
teeth white with brown 'squares', columella, inner area of shield· orange brown, rest of shield
pinky-white.
India: Tamil Nadu (15-20 m), Pondicherry (rare), Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Indo-
Pacific.
It is commonly called as 'King Shell' Males are generally smaller than the females.
Cypraecassis rufa Linnaeus, 1758

(PI. 45, fig. 2 Frontis piece 7, 8)
Shell very large, up to 180 mm in length, solid, spire low with pointed apex, whorls with
angulated shoulders. Aperture narrow, columella Iirate and toothed, a large parietal shield, outer
lip thickened, broad, recurved and with twenty-two elongated teeth. Siphonal canal turned up
vertically, with a posterior canal. Body whorl sculptured with three to four rows of blunt knobs,
top row biggest and decrease downwards, the base with spiral cords and bands, columella red,
teeth white, interstices dark brown, parietal shield pink brown.
India: Lakshadweep, Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Indo-West Pacific.
It is popular as pine apple shell or Queen shell among shell dealers in Andamans.
Subfamily PHALIINAE
Pllalium areola (Linnaeus, 1758)

(PI. 45,. fig. I, 3)
Shell large, up to 90 mm in length, whorls not angulated, spire sharply pointed. Outer lip
thick and recurved, broader especially towards the base, with 22 widely separated teeth, lower
half of columella and parietal shield with irregular coarse, spiral ridges, anterior canal deep and
slightly deflected to the left. Spire and shoulder of penultimate whorl cancellate, without any
nodes, body whorl smooth and glossy with a well:developed varix._ Colour white with 5 rows of
rhomboidal brown spots and outer edge of shield with pink-brown tinge.
India: Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Pondichery (uncommon), Andamans. Central
Indo-Pacific.
Pllalium glaucum (Linnaeus, 1758)

(PI. 44, fig. 3, 4 and PI. 45, fig. 4)
Shell large, lip to 120 mm in length, solid, strongly inflated body whorl and a short conical
spire. Outer lip thickened, with 25 teeth on the interior and three or four strong and sharp
spines at the base, columella with a prominent callous shield and numerous irregular plications,
umbilicus narrow and deep, siphonal canal turned up vertically. Apical whorls with sharply
angulated shoulders and spiral beads, body whorl expanded and smooth with a spiral row of
beads and obsolete short folds on the presutural ramp. Colour grayish, aperture dark brown
within, outer lip edge with about five broad brown bars, columella and shield creamy pink to
white.
India: Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Pondicherry, common. Indo-Pacific.
PhaUlIm (Senticassis) bisulcatum bisulcatunt (Schubert and Wagner, 1829).

(PI. 45, fig. 5)
Shell moderately large, up to 70 lnm in length, globose, spire short and depressedly conical,
whorls convex \vith small, widely-spaced strong or weak teeth, parietal shield prominent and
slightly rugose, columella with a few transverse ridges on the upper part and irregularly plicated
on the lower part. Sculptured with spiral cords and axiallirae on early whorls and spiral grooves
on the last whorl. Colour cream ish with five rows of more or Jess prominent squarish light
brown spots, outer lip, aperture and parietal shield white, outer lip with .or without five groups
of dark brown marks.
India: Orissa, Tamil Nadu, Pondicherry, very common, Andamans. Indo-West Pacific.
Phalium (Semicassis) lallrotis (Jousseaume, 1888)

(PI. 45, fig. 7)
Shell of medium size, up to 40 mm length, thin, globose. Aperture narrowly elongate, outer
lip thick, with about twenty teeth, columella with a thin shield, three to five folds at the base and
two plications on top, umbilicus narrow, deep. Sculptured with distinct regularly spaced spiral
grooves, spire whorls with fine axial ribJets within the grooves. Colour cream or pale brown
with five spiral rows of rectangular, reddish brown blotches, spire whorls dark purple, outer lip
ornamented with five broad brown bars.
India: Andamans. Western Indian Ocean.
Pha/ium bandatum bandatum (Ferry, 1811)

(PI. 45, fig. 9)
Shell large, up to 120 mm in length, elongate, spire high and concave, outer lip thickened
and recurved with twenty elongate teeth, largest centrally, columella with five small folds
anteriorly, parietal shield strongly folded with raised lirae. Sculptured with beaded spiral cords
on the early whorls and faint striae on the later whorls; small knobs on antepenultimate whorl,
five yellowish transverse bands with darker yellowish brown bars, aperture dark brown within
the outer lip and columellar shield yellow or yellowish orange, outer lip with six purple-brown
spots.
India; Indian Seas, no specific locality, no recent collection. Mainly West Pacific.
Synony.m : Cassis coronu/ala Sowerby, 1825
Casmar;a erinaceus er;naceus (Linnaeus, 1758)

(PI. 45, fig. 8)
Shell large, up to 70 min in length, spire moderate, shoulders rounded. Aperture broad, outer
lip thickened, recurved and smooth except for five or six small, sharp spines anteriorly, columella
smooth with two folds anteriorly. Shell surface smooth, some times with nodulose shoulders.
Cream coloured, with a purple tinge, aperture white, purple-brown blotches on outer lip, body
whorl with faint yellowish-brown squares, yellowish-brown marks below suture.
India: Andaman and Nicobar Islands. East Africa to Polynesia.
Casmaria ponderosa ponderosa (Gmelin, 1791)

(PI. 45, fig. 6)
Shell of medium size, up to 50 mm in length, elongately ovoid, spire moderate and apex
pointed, whorls moderately convex and evenly rounded. Aperture narrow, outer lip thickened
and reflected, with seven, rather widely spaced, short and pointed tubercles, inner .margin with
numerous small teeth. Shell surface smooth without spiral ribs, grooves or varices, with a row
of blunt nodules on the shoulder of the body whorl. Colour cream, with two pale brown spiral
bands, dark brown marks below suture and on the anterior part of the body whorl, dark-brown
oblong marks on the thickened, ridge-like margin of the outer lip.
India ; Lakshadweep: Minicoy Island; Tamil Nadu: Gulf of Mannar; Pondicherry (rare),
Andamans. Red Sea to Polynesia.
Shell is less slender than in the preceding species, axial folds on the body whorl never reach
the base, outer lip denticulate along its whole length and has a bottom row of brown spots.
REFERENCE
Abbott, R. T 1968. The Helmet shells of the world (Cassidae) Part t. Indo-Pacific Mollusca,
2(9) : 15-20 I.
Family RANELLIDAE
Triton Shells
The family name Ranellidae has been adopted recently replacing the m~re familiar name
Cymatiidae (Beu and Cernohorsky, 1986).
Shell size ranges from 30 mm to 400 mm in height, thick, fusifonn or ovate-ventricose.
Protoconch is large and smooth with five to six whorls. Tritons are distinguished by their thick,
hairy or fibrous periostracum. Body whorl is large with a rounded aperture. Outer lip is thickened
with undulate outer Inargin and denticulate inner margin. Columel1a has a parietal callus that
obscures the umbilicus. Anterior siphonal canal is short to long, wide or narrow and often
recurved; anal canal is obsolete or absent. Sculpture is characterised by strong, raised spiral
ribs, heavy knobs and varices. Operculum is of various shapes, thick and corneous \vith acentric
nucleus.
Head bears two filiform tentacles, which have eyes on their outer bases. Foot is short and
truncated posteriorly. Mantle cavity consists of a monopectinate ctenidium and a bipectinate
osphradium. Mantle edge bears a papilla, an anterior incurrent siphon and a posterior excurrent
siphon. Proboscis is stout and extrusible. Digestive system consists of a hypobranchial gland,
taenioglossate radula (2-1-1-1-2), a pair of acid secreting salivary glands, and a style sac.
Sexes are separate. Male possesses a large, flattened penis and an open pallial gonoduct.
Female has a closed pallial oviduct, albumen and capsule glands. Eggs are laid in large capsules.
There is a free-swimming veliger stage.
Tritons occur on sandy or rocky habitats from shallow intertidal zone to deep sea of tropical
regions. These are carnivores feeding on other snails, clams, starfishes and sea urchins. About
130 species are known worldwide, of which 20 are reported from India.
Subfamily CYMA TIINAE
Cllaronia tritonis Linnaeus, 1758

(PI. 46, fig. 5, 6)
Triton's Trumpet. Shell very large, up to 300 mm in height, spire high and pointed, body
whorl elongate. Aperture very large, outer lip flaring, about 10 to 12 spiral ribs extending on to
the interior, columella concave, strongly and coarsely lirate, umbilicus narrow, siphonal canal
very short. Sculptured with coarse spiral and axial ribs, spiral ribs below the suture beaded, two
such ribs on earlier whorls and three on the body whorl, ribs flat and broad with a small narrow
rib in the interspaces. Shell creamy \vhite with purple and brown markings on spiral ribs, lip
pinky-white, interior of aperture orange, columella orange-pink with purplish brown bet\veen
the Iirae.
India: Lakshadweep, Nicobars, rare. Indo-Pacific.
It usually occurs alnong coral reefs and feeds on starfishes, including the crown-of-thorns
sea stars, Aeon/haste,. plane; that feed on the coral polyps. Hence it is considered as a key
species in the reef ecosystem. Over collection has been a threat to the survival of this species.
It i~ listed as an endangered species in the IUCN Invertebrate Red Data Book (1984). In Nicobar
Islands, popUlation seelns to have been reduced due to over collection by shell dealers who can
easily fetch around Rs. 2000/- per a single shell.
Cymatillm (Ge/agna) succinctum (Linnaeus, 1771)

(PI. 48, fig. 1)
Shell of medium size, up to 35 mm in length, light, narrowly elongate with six inflated
whorls, body whorl gradually leading to the spire. Aperture small, outer lip expanded, its outer
edge with a slnall varix and interior channelled, columella smooth, siphonal canal elongate and
straight. Sculptured with smooth and rounded spiral cords on the body whorl and seven on the
penultimate whor). cords separated by slnooth and wide channels. Colour pale brown, spiral
cords red, aperture, outer lip and columella white.
India: Andaman and Nicobar Islands, not common. Indo-Pacific.
Cymatium (Gutlurnium) muricinum (Roeding, 1798)

(PI. 47, fig. 1)
Shell large, up to 75 mm in length, solid, spire high, body whorl higher than broad and
proportionately of the same height as the spire. Aperture moderately large, outer lip with strong
varix, with seven teeth arranged in two rows separated by a groove, upper row of teeth stronger,
colulnella with parietal shield and with wrinkles at its basal part, siphonal canal moderate in an
angle of 45°. Sculptured with coarse spiral and axial cords, six to seven main cords on the body
whorl and three on the penultimate whorl, with three varices and rows of axial nodules in
between, colour dull bro\vn with dark brown mottling, aperture, columella and lip white.
India: Indian Seas, Andaman and Nicobar Islands, no recent collection. Indo-West Pacific,
Caribbean Sea.
Cymatillm (Linateiia) cumaceunl Lamarck, 1816

(PI. 47, fig. 5)
Shell slnall to mediuln in size, up to 40 mm in length. thinner than in other species of the
falnily, spire moderately elevated, conical and with smooth protoconch, whorls feebly angulated
above. Aperture proportionately broader, outer lip flaring outward, the ribs ending as teeth on
the margin, nlunbering about fifteen, cohllnella with very thin callus and almost smooth, umbilicus
narrowly open, anterior siphonal canal moderately produced and rather strongly twisted.
Sculptured with evenly spaced, flattened, smooth and shining ridges, grooves narrow, shallow
and smooth. Colollr pale brown.
India: Tamil Nadu.
SynonYln : Cassidaria cingulata Lamarck, 1822
Cymatium (Lotorium) lotorillm (Linnaeus, 1758)

(not figured)
Shell large, up to 70 mm in length . thick, spire moderately elevated and turreted, body whorl
wide above and abruptly narrow below, whorls strongly and angularly shouldered. Aperture
narrow and oval, outer lip strongly thickened, with seven teeth on the inner edge, colulnella
almost straight, with heavy callous rib at the upper part, wrinkles in the central part, and a slnall
rib at the base above the siphonal canal, siphonal canal narrow and elongate, with only a slight
twist. Sculptured with thick and raised varices, two major on the body whorl strong and each
traversed by deep transverse depressions, additional transpiral ribs between the varices strongly
knobbed on the shoulder. Colour brownish, -ornamented with dark brown transverse bands on
the varices.
India: Lakshad\veep, Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Indo-Pacific.
Cynlatiun, (Monoplex) nicobaricum Roeding, 1798

(PI. 47, fig. 2)
Shell moderately large, up to 50 mnl length, spire high and elevated, body whorl expanded.
Aperture oval and small, outer lip with strong varix and seven pairs of elongate teeth on the
interior, columella lirate, siphonal canal more elongate than in C. pileare. Sculptured with
'nodulose spiral ribs and fine threads in the interspaces, ,vith strong varices, three to five large
knobs between the varices on the shoulder. Ash coloured with red markings and indistinct
cream bands, aperture orange yello\v, outer lip and teeth white. Varix dark gray and white.
India: Lakshadweep, Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Indo-Pacific, Atlantic.
Cymatium (Monop/ex) pileare Linnaeus, 1758

(PI. 47, fig. 3)
Shell large, up to 120 mIn in length, spire high and elongate, body whorl narrow and tapering
below. Aperture narrow and ovate, outer lip thick with strong varix and seven to eight pairs of
teeth on the inner edge, columella \vith very strong, whitish, \vrinkle-like ridges, siphonal canal
ahnost closed and slightly twisted. Sculptured with close-set, strong, finely beaded, spiral ridges,
alternate ridges stouter and traversed by a median groove, interspaces behveen the ridges traversed
208 REC. ZOOL. SURV. INDIA, DCC. PAPER No. J92
by spiral threads, varices five to seven, two on either side of the aperture strongly developed.
Aperture, outer lip and columella deep red or pale orange. Colour light and dark tan, varices
darker brown with white bands.
India: Gujarat: Porbandar; Lakshadweep, Tamil Nadu: Gulf ofMannar (Pamban); Andaman
and Nicobar Islands. Indo. . West Pacific.
Cymalillm (Monop/ex) vespaceum (Lamarc,Jc, 1822)

(PI. 47, fig. 4)
Shell of medium size, up to 35 mm in height, elongate-ovate, spire narrow and elevated with
a pointed apex, body whorl longer than spire, sutures deep_ Aperture narrow, outer Jip outer
margin with a varix, broad, often paired teeth on the inner side, columella with strong lirations
throughout, siphona) canal short. Sculptured with strong spiral cords crossed by axial riblets,
two varices on either side of the shell, shoulder region well angulated by prominent nodules.
Colour chocolate brown with white spiral bands, one on each whorl, outer lip with white and
brown bands.
India: Lakshadweep, Tamil Nadu: Gulf of Mannar, not common. Indo-West Pacific.
Cyn.alillm (Ranularia) Iripum (Lamarck, 1822)

(PI. 46, fig. 1)
Shell large, up to 70 mm in length, solid, spire elevated, body whorl almost as high as broad.
Aperture narrow, outer lip with a strong varix and seven elongate teeth, columella without a
shield, but with plications throughout and those on the basal part stronger than the rest, siphonal
canal long and slightly twisted to left. Sculptured with coarse spiral ribs and axial cords, about
seven prominent beaded ribs on the body whorl and three on the penultimate whorl, four strong
knobs, almost varix-like on the shoulder, interspaces between the ribs with two to three finely
beaded threads. Colour dull brown, aperture and lips purplish white, a whitish spiral band across
the middle of the body whorl, white ridges on a purplish-white columella.
India: Tamil Nadu, Indian Seas, not common. Indo-West Pacific.
Subfamily RANELLINAE
Biplex bozzetli (Beu, 1998)

(PI. 48, fig. 4)
Shell small, up to 45 Inm in height with strongly inflated whorls, dorsoventrally flattened,
spire moderately high, anterior canal moderately long, sculptured with weak, spiral cords and
narrow ill-defined axial costae forming rounded nodules at their intersections with spiral cords;
apertl.lre oval with smooth inner lip and slightly thickened and reflexed outer lip, inside of
aperture with indistinct spiral ridges, interstices with threads.
Distribution: India: Marine Survey Sta. 151 & 226, off Travancore, 355 In (194 fins),
Tutlcorin. Western and Northern Indian Ocean.
The species in India was earlier known under the name Bip/ex perea. Beu (1998) recognized
fOllr species, Bip/ex bozzetti (Indian Ocean), Bip/ex perea (Western Pacific), Dip/ex pulchella
(North Australia and eastern Indonesia) and B. pulehra (Western Pacific). B. pulehella is the
smallest. The other three species are recognized by relative spire height, aperture size, whorl
diameter and sculpture.
Rip/ex pu/cllra (Gray in G. B. Sowerby, t 836)

(PI. 48, fig. 3)
Shell of medium size, lip to about 40 rom in length, dorso-ventrally flattened, spire
proportionately long and apex pointed. Aperture slnall and ovat outer lip with obsolete teeth,
columella \vithout a parietal shield, with a paired tooth at the upper part and obsolete plications
on the rest, siphonal canal extended and slightly curved. Sculptured with expanded and flattened
wing-like varices, spiral ridges with threads in between, axial ribs about twenty on the body
whorl, blunt nodules at the intersection of axial and spiral ribs. Colour pale gray with whitish
aperture and creamish nodules.
India: Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, Andamans. Its known distribution is western Pacific
(Beu, 1998).
Gyrineum (Gyrilleuln) natalor (Roeding, 1798)

(PI. 48, fig. 2)
Shell of medium size, up to 40 mm in length, dorso-ventrally compressed, thick and coarse

looking, spire elevated and conical. Aperture round and small, outer lip with strong varix and
leven, widely spaced ridge-like teeth, colurnella \vith a posterior tooth and obsolete plicae below.
Sculptured with spiral cords, ten on the body whorl, four on spire whorls, axial ribs and tine
threads with rounded nodules on the intersections, a pair of varices one on each side of the body
whorl forming a continuous crest-like ridge froln apex to the basal part of the shell. Colour
grayish brown with dark brown bands and nodules, varices brown and white, aperture interior
white, a white band around the body whorl.
India: Gujarat, Maharashtra, Goa, Talnil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Orissa, West Bengal.
Northern Indian Ocean and Northwestern Pacific.
Subfamily PERSONINAE
Dislorsio (Dislorsio) anus Linnaeus, 1758

(PI. 48, fig. 6)
Shell large, up to 80 min in length, irregularly inflated whorls and distorted shape, spire
pointed. Aperture small and irregular in shape, outer lip thick with two rows of teeth~ outer
row consists of seven large teeth pointing outward, inner row consists of eight smaller teeth,
a channel separates the two rows, colulnel1a very large \vith a wide central notch, parietal
shield rugose with a fluted round edge, siphonal canal ridged on either side and sharply
recurved. Sculptured with nodulose spiral ridges and axial riblets. Colour white, ornamented
with brown spiral bands and blotches, aperture and parietal shield white, coated with pink and
bro\vn areas.
India: Nicobars. Indo-West Pacific.
Distorsio (Dislorsio) relicularis (Linnaeus, 1758)

(PI. 46, fig. 3, 4 and PI. 48, fig. 5)
Shell moderately large, smaller than in the preceding species, up to 50 mm length, whorls
and shape not as irregular as in the preceding species. Aperture narrow and small, outer lip
flattened, with ten, very small teeth on the outer edge and inner teeth at the end of the
ridges crossing the lip, columella with thin parietal callus, long, strong plications on the'
basal part. Sculptured with spiral cords crossed by axial ribs forming sharp nodules at the I
intersections, often with a varix on the body whorl. Cream coloured, but teeth and aperture
interior white.
India: Lakshadweep, Andhra Pradesh, Orissa, Andaluan and Nicobar Islands. Indo-Pacific.
Synonym: Distorsio reliculala Roeding. 1798.
8eu, G. A. J970. The Inollusca of the genus Charonia. Trans. Royal Soc. New Zealolfd, 11 :
203-223, 5 pis.
Beu, G. A. 1986. Taxonon1Y of gastropods of the families Ranellidae (= Cymatiidae) and Bursidae.
Part 2. Description of 14 new modern Indo-West Pacific species and subspecies with
revisions of related taxa. NelV Zealand J. zool., 13: 273-355.
Beu, G. A. ) 998. Indo-West Paci fic Ranellidae, Bursidae and Personidae (Mollusca: Gastrpoda).
A Monograph of the New Caledonian Fauna and Revisions of related taxa. Mem. MIlS.
nal. d 'His I. Nallirelle, TOlne 178 : 1-256.
Beut G. A. and Cernohorsky, W. 0.1986. Taxonomy of gastropods of the fan1ilies Ranellidae

(= Cymatiidae) and Bursidae Part 1. Adoption of Ranellidae and revie\v of Linatella
Gray, 1857. Nel1.' Zealand 1. Zool., 13 : 241-266.
Ganapati, P. N. and Subbaiah Sastry, R. 1973. The spawn of a cymatid gastropod, CYlnatiunl
pUeare (Linn). Curro Sci., 42( 1) : 25.
Wells. Susan M., Pyle Robert, M. and Mark Collins, N. 1984. The IUCN Invertebrate Red
Data Book. L+632 pp. Mollusca, p. 67-195, IUCN. Gland, Switzerland.
212 REC. ZOOL. SURV. INDIA, oee. PAPER No. J92
Falnily BURSIDAE
Frog Shells
The common name 'Frog Shell' is due to its resemblance to a warty toad or a tree frog.
Shell is slnaJl to very large in size, ranging from 12 mm to 250 mm in height. It is ovate,
ventricate to flatly compressed and generally does not have a periostracum. It has an irregularly
ovate aperture. Frog shells can be easily differentiated from other related families by the presence
of a distinct posterior anal canal, which acts as an outlet for the discharge of wastewater.
Anterior siphonal canal at the base of the aperture is generally small, but often may be elongate
and twisted. Outer Inargin of outer lip is thickened and its inner margin denticulate. Columella
is generally with a parietal shield that obscures the umbilicus, and bears plications on its margin.
Sculpture consists of strong spiral and axial cords or threads and varices bearing knobs, which
sometilnes develop into spines. Opercululn is thin or thick. It may be orange yellow or brown
with a Inarginal or terminal eccentric nucleus.
Head bears two filiform tentacles, which have small eyes on their outer bases. Foot is short
but strong. Mantle has papillae on its edge and possesses two short siphons, one for drawing in
\vater (incurrent) and the other to act as an outlet for the waste (excurrent), which correspond to
anterior siphonal and anal canals respectively seen on the shell. Mantle cavity has a monopectinate
ctenidium and a bipectinate osphradium. The snails are carnivores and to help in the capture of
prey they possess a very Jong~ slender and pleurelnbolic proboscis. Digestive system consists of
a taenioglossate raduJa (2-1-1-] -2), bulky and somewhat leaf-like salivary glands and a style
sac. Anus opens half way in the mantle cavity.
Sexes are separate. Male possesses a flattened penis and an open pallial gonoduct. Female
has closed pallial gonoduct, albulnen glands and capsule glands. The eggs are laid in a gelatinous
.nass. VeJiger larva has a long planktonic life.
The snails occur alnong rocks and coral reefs in the tropical seas. They are vermivores
feeding on \vorms sllch as annelids, especially polychaetes, sipunculans. There are about 2S
species under fOllr genera living in subtropical and tropical seas. In India two genera Bursa and
TZltz!fa. are represented by about 10 species, but only the following are dealt.
Bursa (Blifonaria) crumella crumena (Lamarck, 1816)

(PI. 48, fig. 7)
Shell moderately large, up to 65 Inln in length, shape some\vhat similar to that of B. rona,
broader with an elevated spire. Aperture obliquely ovate, outer lip broader and flatter supported
by a varix as in B. nlargaritula, its inner Inargin denticulate, colulnella with a distinct parietal
shield and strong plications at the bottom. Sculptured with fin-like, \vider, and much thinner,
sharp-edged and spineless varices on either side, surface with finely nodulose spiral threads,
two to three rows of short nodules on the body whorl and one on the penultimate whorl. Colour
grayish dark bro\vn, aperture and Iips white, often tinged with dark brown.
India: Andhra Pradesh : Visakhapatnam; Tami) Nadu : Gulf of Mannar; Pondicherry
(common). Indo-West Pacific.
Bursa (Bufonar.ia) ecllinatll (Link, 1807)

(PI. 46, fig. 2 and PI. 48, fig. 10)
She)) large" up to 75 mm in length, spire high, body whorl elongate, higher than broad,
whorls slightly angulated. Aperture narrowly ovate, outer lip edge frilled, with strong irregular
transverse teeth, columella with obsolete lirations, siphonal canal slnall and shallow. Sculptured
with spiral cords and strong, elongated, outwardly directed spines, four spines on the outer lip
edge, two very long and two sinall, arranged alternately. Colour uniformly pale bro\vn.
India: East and West Coasts, Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Indian Ocean.
Synonyrt:l : Bursa spinosa (Lamarck, 1822)
Bursa (Bu/onaria) margaritllia (Deshayes, 1832)

(PI. 49, fig. 2)
Shell of medium size, up to 35 mm in length, thick, spire short, body whorl a little broader
than high, whorls angulated in the Iniddle. Aperture almost round, outer lip with fin-like outer
edge and about fourteen denticles on the inner edge, inner lip thin and narrow, colUlnella calloused
and plicate, plicatiolls becoming prominent at the base, short and straight siphonal canal and a
distinct anal canal. Sculptured with strong rounded varices traversed by coarsely granular
,transverse ridges, the varices join each other and form a continuous ridge on either side of the
shell, the spiral cords not forming nodules as they cross the varix, two to three spiral rows of
antero-posteriorly compressed nodules around the shoulder angulation, sutures \vith strong and
oblique axial riblets. Colour yellowish brown, often ornamented with three spiral rows of dark
brown spots!, nodules tinged with brown, aperture white to crealn with pale yellowish brown on
the outer margin of the outer lip.
India: Pondicherry, rare. Indian Ocean to the Fiji Islands.
Bursa (Bu/onaria) rana (Linnaeus, 1758)

(PI. 48, fig. 8, 9)
Shell large, up to 80 mm in length, spire conical and elevated, body whorl higher than
broad. Aperture obliquely ovate, outer lip with about thirteen denticulations, colllJneJla without
a parietal shield but only a glazing, its basal part finely denticulate, spiral threads on the body
whorl continue on to the columella, especially at the upper part; siphonal canal short. Sculptured
with prolninent varices, which bear spines, upper part of the body whorl with two ro\¥s of
nodulose spiral cords, the one belo\v smaller, one row on the penultimate whorl, rest of the shell
surface with granulose spiral threads and spinose nodes. Colour dull white or cream, irregularly
tuaculated with brown. aperture \\lhite or brown, often with three dark brown bands, one on the
penultilnate and two on the body whor1.
India: Orissa, Talnil Nadu (common), Pondicherry (not common), Andamans. Indo-
Pacific.
Bursa elegans Sowerby, )838, a much smaller species, is synonYlnised with this species. It
however, differs in sculpture. Nodules on the shoulder are large and sharper and on the varices
they are smaller. It is considered to have restricted distribution extending from Andamans to
Borneo (Beu, 1986).
Tutu/a (Tutu/ella) ,,,beta (Linnaeus, 1758)

(PI. 49, fig. I)
Shell large, lip to 125 lnm in length, solid, heavy, fairly high spire, \vhorls convex and
angulated. Aperture large and almost circular, outer lip flaring, with about twelve teeth on its
inner edge, colulnella concave, \vith wide parietal shield, plicate throughout and plications at
the base more prominent, posterior canal short, deep and open, anterior canal short, deep, -almost
closed and twisted. Scu1ptured Ylith prominent beaded spiral cords, with two strong varices,
about five strong knobs between the varices, spire whorls with prominent knobs. Colour creamy-
white, irregular brown flecks and spots, aperture tight yellow.
India: AndaJnans, offshore. Indo-West Pacific excepting Red Sea and Hawaii.
Synonyms: Bursa lanlpas of authors
Bursa bubo (Linnaeus, 1798)
Bursa lamarck;; (Deshayes, 1853)

(PI. 49, fig. 3)
Shell large, up to 75 mm in length, solid, heavy, spire elevated, body whorl narrow. Aperture
proportionately small, outer lip expanded and fluted with nine teeth on the outer and inner
margins, columella with coarse lirations on the top and three strong pJications at the base, a
slna" callous shield, deep. extended siphonal canal curved towards the right, deep and almost
closed anal canal, coarse and strong fasciole. Sculptured with two varices on each whorl, and
SuaBA RAO : INDIAN SEA SHELLS: POLYPLACOPHORA AND GASTROPODA 215
coarse, granular spiral ridges, with blunt knobs at the sutural region. Colour creamy white with
brown markings, aperture white.
India: Lakshadweep, Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Indo-Pacific.
REFERENCE
Heubrick, R. S. and Fretter, V. 1969. Some aspects of the functional anatomy of Cymalium
and Bursa. Proc. malac. Soc. Land., 38 : 415-429.
Family EPITONIIDAE
Wentle Traps
'Wentle Trap' is derived from a Dutch word which means winding staircase. She1l is small to
medium in size, up to 40 mm in height. It is slender and highly conical or turretifo~ with
nUlnerous, often loosely coiled whorls. Spire is pointed with an amber brown protoconch.
Aperture is circular or rounded. SOlne are umbilicate, while in some the umbilicus is closed by
the expanded columellar margin. Sculpture consists of slightly oblique, regular, axial lamellae
or varices, which are formed as the reflected outer lips at earlier pauses in the growth of the
animal. Shells are white or brown, but a few may bear brown tinges or markings. Operculum is
horny, thin, paucispiraJ to multispiraJ, with an almost central nucleus.
Head bears long and pointed tentacles, with eyes situated on elevations at their outer bases.
Foot is short. Mantle cavity contains a ctenidium, a long bipectinate osphradium and a
hypobranchial gJand. Proboscis is acrembolic and bears very small lateral processes. Radula is
stenoglossate. Digestive system includes two pairs of salivary glands and large stomach. There
are no oesophageal glands. These are protandric hermaphrodites and do not bear a penis in the
male phase. Eggs are laid in strings, and covered by sand grains.
Wentle Traps are cosmopolitan, occurring from shallow intertidal region to great depths.
These feed on cnidarians especially sea anemones, soft corals etc. Many of them are parasitic.
There are numerous genera (over 50) and estimated 250 species.
Taxonomy of Indian Epitoniidae is very confusing. A number of species have been
mentioned in literature without proper descriptions. As is the case with the families of several
Indian molluscs there is no revisionary work. Identification of species has been done on the
basis of the National Zoological Collections in the Zoological Survey of India, which however
is not updated. The number and form of varices. shape of the base, amount of spiral ribbing are
taken into account. Kilburn (1985) Inentioned the problems in the identification of epitoniids,
and considered the nature of protoconch and presence of pitted interitacalx as the two major
reliable characters.
4maea (Acrilla) aCllminata (Sowerby, 1844)

(PI. 49, fig. 4)
Shell of Inedium size, up to 32 mm in length, narrow, glossy, elongately turreted, acuminate,

whorls 15, convex with ilnpresscd sutures, aperture elongately oval, columella thin, arched,
flattened inwardly, outer lip thin and fragile, umbilicus absent. Sculptured \vith very close-set
transpiral ribs, a fine presutural spiral rib, body whorl with a keel at the base. Colour cream with
hyo brown spiral bands.
India: Maharashtra ; Bombay; Tamil Nadu : Madras, Point Calimere, Agasthiampalli,

Tranquebar; Pondicherry: Karaikal; Orissa: Chandipur. Indo-Pacific.
Amaea (Acril/a) gracilis (Sowerby, 1844)

(PI. 50, fig. 9-11)
Shell small, up to 10 mm in height, whorls eight, rounded with attenuated spire, aperture
ovate, acuminate at the base, outer lip thin, columella curved, imperforate. Sculptured with
thread-like axial ribs enclosing glossy interstices, and fine spiral striae, body whorl without a
keel.
India: Maharashtra: Bombay; Orissa: Chandipur (common); West Bengal: Sunderbans,
Sandheads, Digha, common. Elsewhere: Philippines.
Eglisia tricarinata Adams and Reeve

(PI. 50, fig. 5)
She)) small, lip to 20 mm in height; numerous rather inflated whorls, aperture small and
round, with a thick columella. Sculptured with two to three slnooth spiral ribs on each whorl,
the interstices cancellately and finely sculptured.
India: Orissa, Tamil Nadu.
Epitoniunr immaculatunr (Sowerby, 1844)

(PI. 49, fig. 7)
Shell small, up to 18 mm in length, elongate, whorls continguous, tUlnid and rounded with
deep and crenulated sutures. Aperture ovate, peristome thickened, subumbilicate. Sculptured
with thin, unequal, irregular axial varices, indistinct spiral striae, white.
India: Maharashtra: BOlnbay; Tamil Nadu: Gulf ofMannar (Tuticorin, Mandapaln); Orissa,
not very common. Else\vhere: Philippines.
Epitollillm (Papyriscala) latifasciatum (Sowerby, 1874)

(PI. 50, fig. 3)
Shell small, up to 13 mm in length, pyramidal, whorls round, increasing rapidly, suture

deeply impressed, aperture oval, outer lip uniforlnly but weakly thickened, narrowly tllnbi Iicate.
Sculptured with numerous- thin, plate-like transpiral varices. Colour reddish-yellow or white.
India ;. Maharashtra : BOlnbay; Tami1 Nadu : Gulf of Mannar (Tuticorin), Agasthiampalli.
Indian Ocean.
Epitonium (Epitonium) pallas; (Kiener, 1838)

(PI. fig. )
Shell small, up to 20 Inm in length, pyramidal, whorls 7-8, a little disunited often joined only
by the lamellae, aperture ovate, outer lip laminate and reflected, umbilicus deep. Sculptured
with about ten prominent, widely spaced lamellae on each \~horl, and slightly angular near
sutures. Colour orange brown, with apex shiny pale orange-brown, lamellae and aperture white,
interior pale orange-brown.
India: Tamil Nadu: Madras, Agasthiampalli, rare. Indo-Pacific.
Epitonium pyramidale (Sowerby, 1844)

(PI. 50, fig. 2)
She)) small, up to 20 mm in length, pyramidal, with nine subventricose whorls scarcely in

contact, aperture subcircular, outer lip laminate, columella touching crests of all varices and
produced anteriorly into small beak. Sculptured with laminated varices, angulated at top near
the ·suture, transpirally connected at suture and continued obliquely on spire, varices on body
whorl converging below covering umbilicus. Colour white.
India: Tami Nadu : Madras, Agasthiampalli, Gulf of Mannar (Mandapam). Indian Ocean
and West Pacific Ocean.
Epitonium seafare (Linnaeus, 1758)

(PI. 50, fig. 4)
Precious Wentle Trap. Shell largest in the genus, up to 50 mm in length, whorls seven,
sutures deep, body whorl almost as broad as high, aperture round, with thickened lips, umbilicus
very deep. sculptured \vith eight lamellae per \vhorl, lamellae join the whorls. Colour pale flesh,
lamellae and lips white, aperture interior pale flesh.
India: Pondicherry. Indo-Pacific.
Epifonium subauriculatun, (Souverbie, J866)

(PI. 50, fig. 6a-e, 7)
Shell small" up to II 111m in height and 5 mm width, narrow, alternate with rounded whorls.
Aperture round, uinbiliclis absent, with lalnellate peristome. Sculptured with prominent,
nl0derately thick and subrellcxcd varices, varices seven, widely separated and extend into spire.
Colour white.
India: Tan1il Nadu : Tuticorin. Indo-West PaCific.
Gyroscala lamellosua (Lamarck, 1822)

(PI. 49, fig. 5, 6)
Shell small, up to 18 mm in length, pyramidal, with eight round and contiguous whorls.
Aperture obliquely ovate, outer Jip thickened and slightly reflected, umbilicus absent. Sculptured
with laminated and broad varices connected at suture, continued on to spire, body whorl with
.twelve lamellae and a spiral rib separating the upper and lower half. Colour pale fawn, dark to
light brown between varices; apex, aperture and varices white.
India : Tamil Nadu : Gulf of Mannar (Tuticorin, Mandapam); Pondicherry, not common.
Indo-Pacific.
Cirsotrema (Cirsotrema) varicosum (Lamarck, 1822)

(PI. 50, fig. 1)
Shell small, up to 42 mm in height, acuminate, with a developed basal cord, whorls 8,

sculptured with axial and spiral ribs, peristome continuous and thickened.
[ndia : Andamans. Indo-Pacific.
Synonym : Sealaria varieosa Lamarck, 1822.
REFERENCES
Dushane, H. 1979. The family Epitoniidae in the Northeastern Pacific. Veliger, 22(2) : 91-134.
Kilburn, R. N. 1985. Epitoniidae in South Africa. Ann. Natal Mus., 27(1) : 239-337.
220 REC. Za~L. SURV. INDIA, acc. PAPER No. 192
Family JANTHINIDAE
Violet Snails
Shell usually is small, up to 25 mm in length. It is thin and fragile with a few whorls and
depressed or elevated spire. Aperture is ovate, sometimes becomes angular by the presence of
carina or extended columella. Outer lip margin is sharp. It does not have an umbilicus. Surface
usual1y is smooth but often may have spiral or axial striae. It is violet, white or brownish coloured.
There is no operculum
Head is large with bifid tentacles. Eyes are reduced or absent. Foot is broad and short. It is
divided into an anterior propodium and a posterior mesopodium. The former captures air bubbles
that are entangled in a transparent secretion of mucus to form a float. This long, tongue- shaped,
frothy float is attached to the mesopodium. The float helps the animal to keep afloat on the
surface of sea.
Mantle cavity contains the ctenidium, osphradium and a hypobranchial gland that releases
violet secretion. Alimentary system consists of a ptenoglossate radula without a central tooth,
oesophagus without glands and a large stomach.
Violet Snails are protandric hermaphrodites in which male phase has no penis. These are
either oviparous or ovoviviparous. Egg capsules are attached in bundles to the underside of the
float. Veliger larva has an operculum.
Violet Snails are pelagic, occurring worldwide in high seas. They feed on siphonophores
especially Velella, Porpita and Physalia. Dead shells in large numbers may sometimes get washed
ashore after stormy weather. It is a small family consisting of two genera and about thirty species.
Janthina janthina (Linnaeus, 1758)

(pI. 51, fig. 1-3)
Shell small, up to 25 mm in height, thin and fragile, whorls four, and convex with low spire,
sutures well marked, body whorl markediy angular centrally. Aperture large and somewhat
squarish, columella and outer lip thin, base of columella rather angulated. Surface of the shell
sculptured with minute growth striae and a few spiral grooves, which become markedly stronger
on the flattened base of the body whorl. Colour pale violet above the angular part of the body
whorl and deep violet below.
India: Gujarat, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, common. Cosmopolitan.
Synonyms : Janthina comnJunis Lamarck, 1822
Janthinafragilis Lamarck, ] 822
Janthina roseola Reeve, 1858
Janthina violacea Roeding, 1798
'~UIlRA RAO : INDIAN st ·A SH EI.LS : POLYPLACOJ>1I0RA AND (iASTROr ODA 22 1
Fig. 3 t. Janthillel g/obosa.
Janthina g/(J/J.o.;\'(, Swainson, 1822

(PI. 51 fig.. 5, -6)
'I
Shell generally sinaller than in the preceding speci·es, maxilnum up to 23 Inm in height, thin
and fragile, easily distinguished from J Janthina by its more globose, evenly rounded body
whorl that lacks the angled periphery of the former. Aperture large and drawn out anteriorly,
columella drawn out anteriorly.. Sculpture as in .J. janth.ina. Colo\;ir violet throughout, with pale
subsutural area or \vbite band at the sutures. IOuter lip broken in all the shells.
India: Occurs along with Janthina ianthina, but not so common. Cosmopolitan.
Reclllzia jellef,n,e; Petit, 1853

(P L 5 1, fi g. 4)
Shell small, up to 18 mm in height, thin and fragile" glossy, whorls six and rounded, spire
highly elevated, sutures deep. Aperture almost circuhlf~ co,lumella slightly twisted, uunbilicus
rather obsolete. Surface with indistinct irreguhu growth striae. 'Colour crealll.
India; Nicobars. Elsewhere: Gulf of Arabia..
222 REC. ZOOL. SURV. INDI~ ace. PAPER No. 192
Selected Bibliog'raphy
Ganapati, P. N. and Subba Rao, D. V. 1959. Notes on the feeding habits of Ianthina janthina
Linn. J mar. bioI. Ass. India, 1(2) : 251-252.
Laursen, D. 1953. The genus Ianthina. Dana Report No. 38 : 1-40
Risbec, J. 1953. Note sur la biologie et l'anatomie de Janthina globosa. Bull. Soc. Zool. France,
78(2-3) : 194 - 201.
:I N .L.I .... LJ ..... : P YPL PHORA AND GA TROPODA
Plate 37: ,a ticidae
1,2. ali a gualteriana ' 3 . Natica lineala; 5 6. Natica vitellu ; 7 8. Nati a ti 'rina : ndia,'
9 10. atf ariu man eli : 1540 India; 1 12. Naticartus onca: 1544 Andaman '. ati a
pulicaria; 15.. aticariu alapapilione ; 16 17, Tanea euzona.
R L. URV. DI 0 , p P R No. 192
P a e 38 : a icid,a e
I, ... . Polillicc:' schae ' , . Polini . '. ' (p{ Ij"i('(; ~') II11l11111illa : ndanlan "
'<0- P /in; t ' ( _,lTlllllilla )
, •
III )/allostollur I7 . p, lilli,' ,' (Po/iniLc.- )jl Inill~i ilIa : (" l . ,1 \ rita allulIl 11 : 11, 1_. \'7rita
I CS( l '/" Inti; ~ . , 14. iUII'" II ' riloj " '.11111 : adra,,', an1 i adu, Inn: I ,1 . /IIU111" If, (oid ~111" .
1
........... ..., ...,..., : POLyp",",,"' ~ '-1PHORA AND GASTROPOD
late 39 : Nafc'· dae
,2. unaticina (. unaticina) linneana; 3 4. Eunaticina (Eunaticina) coarctata' 5 6. Eunaticina

I Eunaticina) papilla; 7 8. Sinum dele erti; 9 10. Sinum haliotoideum; 11 12. Sinum laevigatum.
REC. ZOOL. SURV. INDIA., oce. PAPER No. 192
Plate 40 : Nat·c·dae
I. Na.tica lineata; 2. Natica tigrina; 3. Natica didyma; 4. Polin ices lnelanostomus; 5,6. Ficus gracilis.
S B A ELLS : POLYP ACOp · ORA D GASTROPOD
ate 41 : Ton ·dae
1,2. Dolium varico urn : ,olotype, M 4411/1, Balasore Bay Ori sa' 3. Tonna sulcosa : off
ondich rry' 4. Tonna tessellata : Andamans·· 5. Tonna cumingii : 22589/4 offTuticorin' 6. Malea
pamum : Indian S as' 7. Tonna cepa: ndian S as' 8. Tonna perdix: Nan Cowry harbour, icobar;
'9. Tonna dolium : Pondich ny.
R .Z L. URV. I DrA 0 . PAPER 0. 192
Plate 42: ·cidae
1- . Fi ·us 'ra ilis ; . Bhi'l liHpatnan , ndhra Prad~ h~ _, . Fi tl ~ \ ' Irit 'ala: N g aUa 111,
aJn i 1 'ldu~ 7, . Pirula .\'eu'elli : (01 t pc, 1_ 3/ , . ' 4_ 0 .
: N A EA SHE LS: PO YPLACOPHORA AND GASTR'O PODA
2 Ficus inv,estigatoris-Ho otype : M 2811 1, 80.9x47 .6; 3,4. Ficus investigatoris : M 768-770/1,
Sta. 258, Marine Survey; 5,6. Ficusficoides: Point Calimere, Tamil N.adu.
R .Z L. RV INDIA . PAP RNo. 92
Pate 44: assidae
I 2.. a. ~d c rnufa : Andaman .~ . PhaJium lau a.

U : INDI SEA SELLS : P'OLYPLACQI HORA AND GASTROPODA
late 45 : 'C assidae
1,3 _ Phalium areola.: Visakhapatnam; 2. Cypr,aecassis rufa : Andamans; 4. Phalium glaucum :

5. Phalium bisulcatum bisulcatum : M 22662/4, Veerapandianpatf am, Tamil Nadu; 6. Casmaria
ponderosa ponderosa '. Andamans; 7. Phalium faurotis; 8. Casmaria erlnaceus erinaceus;
9 . Phalium bandatum bandatum : 2576, Indian Seas.
· Z OL. SURV. INDIA ace. PAPER o. 192
late 46: anellidae
1. CYlnatium tripus' 2. Bur a ec.hinata; 3 4,. Di ·tor. io reticularis' 5,6. Charonia triton is.
IAN A H L : POLYP LA OPHORA AND
Pate 7 : a idae
I. C matium muricinum; 2. _ymatium nicobaricum: 2655 Indian ;_ 'e a . 3. matium pileare·

4. ymatium ve paceum 5. Cy matium (Linatel/a) cutacea; 6. Cymatium (Manop/ex) penneketi.
R " 0 L. SU V. [NOlA, oee. PAP R No. 192
(runu.:"a ('I"U'"£1no :
ncar adra '.
:I ~ ......... L.I~ : P L P H RAA 0 ' TR P
. TUfl~ra (TU1u..f( Ila rub fa : 2. Bur a 'Bufonaria Inar aritula' . Bur"a IonIa,. kii: 4, __'na , _
( rilla a ufnillata ' - GJro ' ala ianl llo a ;' 7. pit nilulI ,(1111l1a 'u/atu11l : _ndanl _n .
R IA 0 . P PRo. I' 2
I. irsotrefl'a ( irsotr ~'na) \', ndnlan ; 2. Epitoll;unl p_ rarnida/e; 3. Epit nium

lal(lus 'iafilln: ga thyalllpaUi, Talni adu~ 4. (a/aria palla\'i; 5. Egli'ia tricarinata,' 6. a- .
7, EpitolliulIl subauricularum; ~ utie rill. ,EpitOIl lUll (Par1'; (ala) n"dtieo' tata : Andaman '9. Egg
, as f ~ ('rilla gracilis,' 10. · 1. crilla gra{'ilis : pifOlltlU1l calal'€ .
BA PH NDG TROPO
ate 51 : Janthin·dae
1-3 . .ianthinajanthina.' 4. Recluziajehennei; 5 6. Janthina lobsa.

REC. zaOL. SURV. INDIA oce. PAPER No. 92
Pia e 52: uricidae
I. , hi or U In; "opk I/u ~ hicorell kilburn;'· 4 nicoreu ax;corni

. 'hi or u brunn .fl; •
ndamsn M2 I / 1 56.4 ·5 w'th pin O/ 19(with ut pine ). 5. Chicoret~ banksi. Andman
33 4/ 1 54. 5 O. 5(wi h pin I I .5(without in . 6. hi 'oreu ramo u .
. I H R HELL : P , YP A PH R N 1 'A TR P D
P at 53: Muricidae
. Hau 'tellum hau telluln: Andaman . 2. olna/o antha corpio ndaman, 3, HOlnalocantha
ecunda : Sr' anka. 4 5, Murex carbonnieri.' 6 7. Murex malabaricus' 9. Murex tenui.1~ostrunl .
O. Murex tribulu : Port kha Gujarat.
R L. URV. lNDI . P PRo. 192
P ,a te 54 :
1.2. Mitre.\" Irapa : Vi, ~ akhapatnalll~ ' ,4. MUI'f!x lel'"i pilla : Andalnans~ 5,6. Mliricanthus
kuesterialllls: 7 aquetia a1lllandalei: ndalna~ ea.; . Naquetia CapUC111a : Arakan ynnlar;
9 10.. Murical1fhus virgin US~ 11. Naqtlelia tl'ilJtI(~fer :: Andaman ~ . Pier) 1I0(U pinllatu ~.
H : P LYP P DA
Pa
1. urexiella andamanen i : o lotype , Andamans 11.1 7.35

I . 2. Muric 'P i bombayen i :
ujatat· 3. Drupa mo~um morum: M 2 501 /4 Arong viI age Car icobar; 4. Drupa rubu idaeu ,:
I
ri anka' 56. Drupa lobata' 7. Drupel/a concatenJta : M3580' 8 10,. Dropella cornus' Mauritu ;
11 12. Drupa rL inus ricinus: Neil Isla d South Andama .2 ,.5 6
.Z L. : URV. DI OCC. PAPER No. 192
a 56: -icidae
p PH RA R P
_ur·c,odae
ale bar
REC. 0 L. URV. DlA, ace. PAP R No, 192
Pate 58 : Muricidae
1. PUI "ra hue 'illca : '~22 . .. 65 . _0. 5~ 2. upura panel/na, e Id. ujar t , .. Purpura p rica
ndanuills: 4. Tltais ('('''illata : ndULl' n '~ 5. Thais lac( r(l: alpe outh Kanara, Kamata .a:
6 .1110';: ' Ii.\'s(}li : ('UIlIt I hcat·h. orth anara dist . arnataka.
L LY A HO A TROP DA
dman M3525 5.6x4 .9(excluding ' pin ~ ).. 2.Thai blanfi rdi: M24119/5
2 , 15 .55.' 3. Thai intermedia: Andaman 47 . 30 m . 4, Thai tub ro a : illd M 4 I /
4 .Seith pine)/ 36.7 Excluding pine .; 5 . Thai ruga a: lack ag da Konark ri
3 III 30.7 19.55' 6~ _ oraUiophila ro a : Indian ea M 3605- 10. oralliophila n riroid a :
7' 11. Rapa rapa : M3562.' 12. oraliiophUa madreporara: ndama ' 1 . oroll; phil
tulari : M . 2' 1 ,.. oralliophila abn rrni ": 361 '.
URV. 0 A 0 ,P P R N '. 192
a -e 6: Bucc· idae
], -. Bahylollia spira/a : MtlUr-lS, rvt 19_X 1 /J~ 3. B 1I.1'/011i I =,:l'/ollica : i aktrlpatnanl. _6.. ~:
. PislIU a iglu a : lndiun ' cas, 14J~ ~ :. assaria 'o n}}", lIuh /jea: 6. 7 a. saria fa \ ior : H, l t pe
. f:ngina li,u'<lla: '9 . Engillll1lt!1ulicari<1 : iCl baL: I ( ,I I . .~ - "gj"a a I\'(. .ollfa : ndiHlluns .
Order NEOGASTROPODA
Shell is solid and usually large. It is variously sculptured and has a prominent anterior siphonal
canal. An operculum is present in Inany. Proboscis tnainly is pleurembolic. Radula has a central
and pair of lateral or marginal teeth. Mantle cavity contains a single Inonopectinate gill, one
auricle and one kidney. Sexes are separate with a complex reproductive systetn. An occur in
marine habitats with the exception of a few estuarine inhabitants. These are mainly carnivores
or scavengers.
The order includes 21 families and about 5000 species. 19 families and an estimated 500
species are reported to occur in India.
Falnity MURICIDAE
Shell is very snlall to very large in size, measuring 5 mm to 300 Inln in height. It is variable
in shape, elongate or fusiform to club-shape or biconic. Spire is distinct and lIsually of mediunl
height. Protoconch consists ofa few whorls. Aperture is rounded to ovate. Columella is without
folds but often may bear plicae. Outer Jip may be dentate and sometimes lnay bear long processes.
Anterior siphonal canal is short to long, narrowly open or entirely closed. Posterior canal'is not
distinct. Surface is scabrous or lamellose, or may bear simple, foliated or spiny varices. Axial
sculpture may consist of one or a few ridges or knobs. Aperture is closed by a thin or thick
operculum. It is unguiculate, ovate or rounded.
Cephalic tentacles are pointed and bear eyes at their outer bases. Foot is moderately long
and bears a special accessory-boring organ located on the midanterior ventral surface. There is
a short to long siphon. Mantle cavity contains a lnonopcctinate ctenidiuln, a wel1-developed
bipectinate, chelnosensory osphradium and a hypobranchial gland that produces purple secretion.
Proboscis is moderately long and extensible. A lilnentary systeln has a pair of salivary glands,
with a pair of smaller accessory salivary glands lying dorsal to the pharyngeal bulb. Oesophagus
has a posterior valve of Leiblein. A true anal gland is present in the fonn of a caecal outgro\vth
from the rectum. Radula is long and stenoglossate (1-] -1).
Sexes are separate. Penis is situated just behind the right tentacle. It is wide, blunt and dorso-
ventrally flattened, with a flagelluln at the tip. Development usually is direct and a few species
have pelagic larva. Eggs are Jaid in capsuJes that form a cluster and are attached to shells or
seaweeds. A cluster may consist of25 to 80 capsules and each capsule Inay contain about 19 to
700 eggs. Some of the eggs develop into embryos while SOlne serve as nurse eggs.
Muricids have worldwide distribution and are abundant in intertidal zone of rocky coast and
reef ecosystem. Majority of the species occur in littoral and sublittoral zones while a few extend
to a depth of about ] 900 In. Muricids are carnivores mainly feeding upon barnacles, other
molluscs, polychaetes, crustaceans, slnall fish etc.
The family includes about 800 species, which are grouped under eight subfamilies, namely
Muricinae, Muricopsinae, Ocenebrinae, Trophoninae, Typheninae, Drupinae, Thaidinae and
Rapaninae. Only Ocenebrinae is not reported from India.
There is no unanimity with regard to division of the family into subfamilies. We have followed
the one given by Boss (1982) and Radwin and 0' Attilio (1976). Recent studies have recognized
eight subfamilies: Muricinae, Muricopsinae, Typhinae, Tripterotyphinae, Erglataxinae,
Ocenebrinae, Rapaninae and Trophonrinae. The subfamilies Thaidinae and Drupinae are clubbed
together with Rapaninae. The subfamily Erglataxinae includes the genera, Cronia, Vexilla and
Villilaria.
Subfamily: MURICINAE
Shell is small to very large in size, fusiform or globose, ornamented with simple foliated or
spinose varices, axial sculpture with one to a few ridges or knobs, the inner side of outer lip
dentate or lirate or rarely smooth, siphonaJ canal may be long, narrow and tubular or broad and
short or partly sealed in sOlne. Operculum is unguiculate, marginally thick with a central
depression and a terminal or subterminal nucleus.
It is a large subfamily, which includes some of the COlnmon murex shells found along Indian
coasts. About 180 species belonging to 28 genera are known worldwide; 44 species and 9
genera are reported from India.
C/licoreus axicornis (Lamarck, 1822)

(PI. 52, fig. 4)
Shell slna)) to medium in size, 20 to 50 mm in length. Protoconch smooth, consists of2 ~
whorls, spire high \vith 8 post nuclear whorls, body whorl small, suture deep. Aperture ovate,
anal sulcus inverted U-shape, outer lip dentate, interior lirate, inner lip detached, siphona) canal
long and sl ightly curved. Body whorl sculptured with three varices and foliaceous spines, two
prominent axial ridges in between the varices, shoulder spine largest, siphonal canal with two
nloderately long spines. Colour light brown with interior of aperture white.
India: Andarnans. Elsewhere: Persian Gulf, Sri Lanka, Taiwan, Philippines.
C/licoreus banksil (Sowerby, ] 841)

(PI. 52, fig. 5)
Shell small to medium in size, 28 to 5~ mm in length, fusiform, protoconch smooth, consists
of2 ~ whorls, spire high \vith seven post nuclear whorls, sutures deep, body whorl of moderate
size. Aperture ovate, outer lip crenulated above but dentate belo\v, columella slightly adherent
posteriorly but detached anteriorly, siphonal canal long and narrowly open, distally curved
upwards. Body whorl sculptured with three foliaceous varices and two prominent axial knobs
on the shoulder, with major and minor spiral cords, and nodules, shoulder spine longest followed
by one shorter, and three of equal length and another shorter spine, distally curved, siphonal
canal with three 1arge.r spines.
India: Maharashtra: Bombay; Andamans. Indo-Pacific.
C/licoreus hrunneus (Link, 1807)

(PI. 52, fig. 2)
Shell medium to large in size, 47 to 80 mm in length, generally thick and rhomboid, protoconch
smooth, depressed, with 2 ~ whorls, black coloured, spire elevated with seven post-nuclear
whorls. Aperture slnali, ovate, anal sulcus narrowly deep, outer lip finely dentate, interior lirate,
columella adherent posteriorly but detached anteriorly, smooth, \vith a blunt tooth posteriorly,
siphonal canal short, broad (narrowly closed) and distally curved. Body whorl large, sculptured
with profusely frilled varices, a single large blunt knob axially in between the varices, spiral
scu1pture with major and minor cords bearing fine tubercles, varices with branched and foliate
spines, shoulder spines long followed by seven short spines, canal \vith three spines. Colour
dark chestnut brown to black, with white aperture and yellow or dark, purple-blue colulnella.
India: East and West Coasts, Andaman and Nicobar Islands, very common. Tropical Indo-
Pacific.
Synonynl : Murex adustus Lalnarck, 1822.
ClticoreliS kilburni Houart and Pain, 1982

(PI. 52, fig. 3)
Shell Inediuln to large in size, 40 to 92 mm in length, broadly rhomboidal, protoconch

smooth with 2 ~ whorls, terminally depressed like a cavity, spire elevated with seven to eight
post nuclear whorls, body whorl large. Aperture large, ovately rounded, anal sulcus inverted V-
shape, outer lip dentate, interior lirate, colutnella adherent but anteriorly slightly detached,
siphonal canal medium-sized, broad, narrowly open and recurved upward towards right. Body
whorl scu1ptured with three varices, two to three axial ribs, one on shoulder prominent and
knob-like, spiral sculpture with major and minor cords bearing fine nodules, with prominent
frondose spines on the varices of the body whorl, shoulder spine large and branched, followed
by four equal sized spines enclosing spinetets in between, canal with three spines. Colour light
brown to chocolate brown \vith dark pink ribs, aperture white on the interior bearing a large
parietal pink patch.
India: Gujarat, Maharashtra: BOlllbay; Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Indian Ocean.
SynonYlll : Murex maurus of authors.
Cllicoreus nlicropllyllus (Lamarck, 1819)

(PI. 52, fig. ])
She)) large, up to 92 Inm in length, fusoid shape, protoconch smooth, rounded and
depressed with 2 ~ whorls, spire high, consists of nine post nuclear whorls, body whorllarge
and elongate. Aperture circularly ovate, anal sulcus narrow and deep, outer lip thick, dentate,
lirate interiorly, columella adherent, slightly twisted with faint plications on the posterior part,
siphonal canal of moderate size, narro\vly open, terminal part curved to the right. Body
whorl sculptured with foliaceous varices, short and broadly open spines, shoulder spines large
followed by four short spines and \vith spinelets in behveen, four spines on the canal, one to
two knob-like axial ridges, spirally with primary and secondary cords bearing fine tubercles
giving a scabrous surface. Colour lig~t to dark brown with white aperture tinged with light
pink.
India: Orissa: Gopalpur; Talnil Nadu : Madras; Andamans. Indo-Pacific.
Synonym : All/rex torre/actlls, Sowerby, 1841.
Cllicoreus ramosus (Linnaeus, 1758)

(PI. 52, fig. 6)
Shell large to very large in size, up to 254 mm in length, fusiform, protoconch rounded and
smooth, 2 ~ whorls, spire low, consists of six rounded whorJs, suture impressed, body whorl
large and globose. Aperture large, ovately rounded, anal sulcus shallow and broad, with a parietal
ridge, outer lip with coarse dentations and a prominent tooth on the lower half, inner side lirate,
columella detached anteriorly but pa~ly adherent posteriorly forming a callus, siphonal canal
of moderate size" broad and narrowly open. Body whorl with three varices bearing foliaceous
spines in between, prominent axial ridges, spiral cords and threads, shell surface scabrous.
Shoulder spine prominent followed by five of equal length. with spinelets in between, canal
\vith three spines decreasing in size anteriorly. Colour light brown to dark with pinkish tinge on
spiral cords, aperture interiorly \vith reddish pink margin.
India : Gujarat, Tamil Nadu : Gulf of Mannar (Tuticorin); Pondicherry, Andhra Pradesh :
Visakhapatnam; Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Indo-West Pacific.
The species possesses the largest sized shell in the family and occurs at a depth of 15 to
20 m. In Port Blair, Andamans, it is commonly known as Nancowry Shell, probably
because of its abundance in Nancowry grollp of islands. Nowadays the shellcraft market in
Port Blair mainly survives on the shells obtained from the Gulf of Mannar, Tamil Nadu.
About 272.8 tons in J 992 and 537.1 tons in 1993 were fished from Southeast India
(Ayyakkannu, 1994).
SUBDA RAO : INDIAN SEA SHELLS: POLYPLACOPHORA AND GASTROPODA 227
Haustellum haustellum (Linnaeus, 1758)

(PI. 53, fig. 1)
Shell large, up to 90 mm in length, club shaped, protoconch smooth, with 2 Yz whorls, low
spire consists of six subanguiated whorls, body whorl inflated, globose, suture impressed.
Aperture wide, subcircuiar, anal sulcus U-shaped, outer lip thickened with a thin projection
over it, inner surface with 12 to ] 5 lirations, inner lip a little adherent posteriorly but completely
detached anteriorly" erect and raising above the plane of the canal, inner surface smooth, outer
surface strongly and irregularly ridged, siphonal canal longer than the body whorl and spire
combined, straight, tapering anteriorly, almost closed, without spines. Body whorl \vith three
rounded varices, three to four broad and low axial ridges, prominent on shoulder, spiral sculpture
with five to eight primary cords folJo\ved by fine threads in behveen, canal bears eight primary
cords with fine threads in between. Colour light brown with distinct chocolate brown on cords
and tubercles, aperture with pale pink Inargin on its interior.
India: Tamil Nadu, Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Indo-Pacific.
Homalocantlto scorpio (Linnaeus, 1758)

(PI. 53, fig. 2)
Shell Inoderately large, up to 54 mm in length, fusifonn, spire elevated, consists of fOllr

whorls, shouldered, suture deeply excavated. Aperture small, subcircular, outer lip finely dentate,
inner lip detached, smooth, without anal sulcus, siphonal canal long, narrowly open, body whorl
with five varices, bearing short spines except on the last varix, which bear four long spines,
distally palmate and digitate, ventrally open, connected by webbing, spirally with major and
minor cords alternating each other. Colour dark pinkish brown, with light interior.
India: Known only from Andamans. Red Sea to Philippines.
Homaloeantfla secunda (Lamarck, 1822)

(PI. 53, fig. 3)
Shell smaller than in the preceding species, up to 40 mm in length, broadly fusifonn, spire
less elevated than in the preceding species, five shouldered whorls, suture deep, obscured by
succeeding \vhorl. Aperture small, oval, without anal sulcus, outer lip dentate, inner lip adherent,
.Ilightly detached anteriorly, smooth, siphonal canal long, broad, narrowly open. Body whorl
with five to six varices, last varix with five digitate and distally palmate spines, canal with three
long spines enclosing slnaller spines in between and connected by a web. Colour light brown to
chestnut brown, interior white.
India: Tamil Nadu. Elsewhere: Sri Lanka to New CaJedonia.
Murex carbonnieri (Jousseaume. 1881)

(PI. 53, fig. 4, 5)
Shell large, lip to 100 mm in length, club shaped, spire elevated, acute. consists of 7 to 9
whorls, suture deep, silnple, crossed by growth lamellae. Aperture ovate, outer lip margin
crenulated~ a slnalllabial tooth on the lower part, inner lip partly adherent posteriorly but detached
anteriorly, siphonal canal tubular, straight, narrovvly open. Body whorl large, with three prominent
varices bearing long spines, shoulder spine longest and open, sculpture consists of several primary
and secondary spiral cords. Colour creamy white to light brown. Spiral cords with lighter nodes
enclosing elongated brown spots in between. Aperture with brown spots on notches.
India: East and West Coasts, Lakshadweep, Andaman and Nicobar Islands, common. Indo-
West Pacific.
The species closely resembles All/rex Iribuilis. but can be differentiated from the latter by
the presence of reddi"sh brown spots on its primary cords.
Synonym: All/rex Iribulus of authors (part)
Murex maillharicus Smith, 1894

(PI. 53, fig. 6, 7)
Shell large, up to 115 Inm in length, spindle shaped~ spire elevated, acute, consists of eight
whorls. Aperture ovate, without anal sulcus, outer lip crenulated, interior slightly lirate, inner
lip slightly adherent posteriorly but detached anteriorly, siphonal canal elongate and narrowly
open. Body whorl large, bears three varices, three to six low axial ridges, spiral sculpture consists
of about 22 prilnary, secondary and tertiary cords. Primary cords at the intersection with varix
give rise to short~ open, recurved spines, shoulder spine largest, spines connected by web. Colour
light brown with three dark transverse bands on the body whorl. Aperture white with light
pinkish colour inside.
India : Gujarat~ Maharashtra. Karnataka, Kerala. Arabian Sea. A single record from Bay of
Bengal.
Mllrex tenuirostrllm tenllirostrum Lamarcl\, 1832

(PI. 53, fig. 8, 9)
Shell large, up to 92 mm in length, club shaped, whorls elevated, suture shallow, curved
axial rib on the last whorl demarcates it froln the teleoconch, spire acute, consists of 8 to 10
\vhorls, whorls rounded but looks angulated because of the pronlinent prirnary cord. Aperture
oblong, ollter lip crenulated. lirate inside, a prominent labial tooth on the lower half, inner
111urgin posteriorly adherent but detached anteriorly, canal very long, straight and narrowly open.
Sculpture consists of spiral and axial cords and ribs, three rounded varices bearing spines at the
intersections of spiral cords, spines closed, curved and solid. Colour creamy white, aperture
white.
India: Kerala, Tamil Nadu: Madras, Tranquebar; Andalnans, deep-water fonn. Indo-
Pacific.
It differs from Murex tribulus and M ternispina in possessing a very long siphonal canal
bearing very few short spines.
Synonym: Murex tribulus of authors (part)
Murex ternispina Lamarck, 1822

(PI. 54, fig. 3, 4)
Shell of medium to large size, up to 95 mm in length, club shaped, spire low, with t\VO
whorls but with eight to nine whorls including protoconch, suture deep, crossed by growth
lamellae, body whorl large and globose. Aperture ovate, outer lip margin with strong varix
with three large and about six intervening slnall teeth, interior lirate, inner lip pa111y adherent
posteriorly, erect anteriorly, canal straight and long, opens narrowly. Surface sculptured
with spiral cords and axial ribs, cords include prilnary and secondary ones separated by
threads, three spines on each whorl, shoulder spine long and prolninent, generally straight,
spines sol id, closed, terminally curved, and decrease in size gradually from posterior to
anterior side, canal with curved spines, axial SCUlpture consists of longitudinal rounded ribs in
between varices. Operculum thin, horny, reddish brown. Colour creamy white and aperture
also white.
India: Gujarat, Orissa, Andamans. Indo-Pacific.
It is characterised by discontinuous axial ribs and dark purple coloured spinal tips.
Synonym : Murex nigrispinoslis Reeve, 1845
Murex trapa Roeding, 1798

(PI. 54, fig. 1, 2)
She)) medium to large in size, up to 93 Inln in length, whorls consist of seven post nuclear
and 2 Y2 in the protoconch, a prominent spiral ridge on the base of the protoconch, which
continues as shoulder ridge on teleoconch, spire moderately elevated, acute, body whorl large,
rounded. Aperture large and lenticular, anal sulcus broad and deep, outer lip erect and crenulated,
smooth anteriorly, a large prominent labial tooth, inner lip adherent posteriorly, detached and
with callus anteriorly, siphonal canal elongate, straight and narrowly open. Sculptured with
three rounded and spinose varices, axial sculpture \vith fOllr to five intervarically low costae,
spiral cords include primary, secondary and tertiary ones, spines Jlloderate to short, closed
ventrally, curved upwards on body and straight on canal. Colour light brown, aperture white,
margin deep brown in the middle.
India: East Coast, Andalnans, not reported from West Coast. Indo-Pacific.
It resembles M Iribulus but differs froln it in its eJevated and acute spire, subanguJate
whorls, and in having a few spines on upper part and a more prominent labial tooth.
Murex tribulus Linnaeus, 1758

(PI. 53, fig. 10)
Shell large, up to 112 mIn in length, club-shaped, protoconch of 3 ~ whorls, smooth except
for a spiral ridge on the last whorl, spire high consisting of six to seven rounded whorls, sutures
deep and cOin pressed, body whorl globose. Aperture large, subcircular, anal sulcus broad and
shallo\v, outer lip erect with crenulations on the lower part united to fonn a labial tooth, inner
lip detached and erect anteriorly but slightly adherent posteriorly, siphonal canal elongate,
narrowly open, straight and distally curved. Sculptured with three spinose varices on the body
whorl, with three to four strongly nodose axial costae, spiral sculpture consists of three primary
cords enclosing in between secondary and tertiary cords, with long and straight spines on the
primary cords and short spines on the secondary cords, siphonal canal generally with seven
spines, which decrease in size towards the anterior end. Surface colour light brown with white
aperture, tips of spines tinged \vith dark purple.
India: East and West Coasts, Andamans, comlnon. Indo-West Pacific.
The species reselnbles 'vll/rex trapa, but can be differentiated from it in possessing more
spines on the entire length of the canal and blunt labial teeth.
Mllricantlllls kuesterianus (Tapparone-Canefri, 1875)

(PI. 54, fig. 5, 6)
Shell moderately large, up to 62 mm in length, broad, spire low with five angular whorls,
suture not distinct" body whorl large and globose. Aperture large, ovate, outer lip strongly
dentate and lirate on the interior" a prolninent labial tooth on the lower part, inner lip adherent,
smooth and twisted anteriorly, siphonal canal short, broad and distally curved. Body whorl
bears seven to eight rounded cords, shoulder region with prominent spine, with a cluster of
spines near the anterior end, canal with a very large and stout spine.
India: Gujarat, Maharashtra : BOlnbay. Arabian Sea.
The shell bears close resemblance to that of M virgineus but can be differentiated by ita
general shape and distinct sculpture.
Synonynl : ft"lurex virginells : Subrahmanyam el al. (t 952) and Menon et al. (1961).
Muricantllus virgineus (Roeding, 1798)

(PI. 54, fig. 9, 10)
Shell medium to large in size, up to 118 mm in length, fusiform, spire acute with six to seven
'Subangulated whorls, body whorl large, globose. Aperture large, ovate, anal sulcus shallow,
inverted V-shape, outer lip thick, with coarse denticles and a prominent tooth on the lower part,
inner lip adherent, anterior most part slightly twisted, smooth but with a parietal ridge, siphonal
canal not much elongate, broad, distally curved upwards. Sculpture consists of four rounded
varices on body whorl, spiral SCUlpture consists of six to seven major cords with minor cords
and fine scabrous threads in the interspaces, a few short, open spines at the intersection of major
cords with varices, the prominent one being on the shoulder, spines on the lower part of the
body whorl develop into a wing-like structure, canal with two spines. Colour light cream with
a pinkish or chocolate brown band on the middle of the body whorl, aperture marble white with
a reddish pink margin.
India: Tamil Nadu: Gulf of Mannar, common. Indian Ocean.
Shell resembles that of Murex ramosus but can be differentiated from it by the presence of
four varices on body whorl and indistinct foliaceous spines on the varices. It can be differentiated
from M kuesterianus in having fewer numbers of varices, an axial knob and a prominent shoulder
spine.
Naquetia annanliaiei (Preston, 1910)

(PI. 54, fig. 7)
Shell large, up to 83 mm in length, fusiform, spire high and acute, with seven subangulate
whorls, suture impressed, body whorl large, fusiform. Aperture lenticular, anal sulcus shallow
inverted U-shape, outer lip thick, lirate on the inner side, inner lip smooth, siphonal canal
long, moderately broad, distally curved to the right. Sculptured ~ith three frondose varices on
the body whorl, varical webbing overlaps the preceding whorl, two to three prominent axial
knobs on the shoulder; spiral SCUlpture consists often primary cords in between with secondary
and tertiary cords. Colour light brown with three dark reddish brown spiral bands on the body
whorl and a single spiral band on each of the spirel whorl, aperture white with a light pinkish
patch.
India: Orissa, Andaman Sea. Indo-West Pacific.
Naquetia capucina (Roeding, 1798)

(PI. 54, fig. 8)
Shel1 moderately large, up to 66 mm in length, fusiform. spire high and acute, with six
subangulate whorls, suture not distinct, body whorl medium-sized, fusiform. Aperture ovate,
anal sulcus deep inverted V-shape, outer lip thick, coarsely dentate, inner side with seven
prominent denticles, inner lip smooth, with a prominent knob on the posterior end, siphonal
canal short and broad, distally curved to the right. Sculptured with three rounded, thick varices
thrown into a number of folds, laminate, with one to two low axial ridges in between the varices,
spiral sculpture consists of alternating major and minor cords, body surface with low folds or
frills which become prominent on the canal. Colour dark chestnut brown, aperture white with
light pink margin.
India : Andaman and Nicobar Islands, near mangroves. Elsewhere: Singapore, Western
Australia to Philippines.
Naquetia triqueter (Born, 1778)

(PI. 54, fig. II)
Shell smaller than in the other two species of the genus, up to 56 Inm in length, narrow and
fusiform, spire high with five \vhorls. sutures obscure, body whorl of moderate size. Aperture
large, ovate, anal sulcus broad and shallow, outer lip finely crenulated, inner lip smooth, siphonal
canal short and broad. Body whorl with three rounded and thick varices, three low elongated
axial ridges between varices, spiral sculpture consists of eleven major cords enclosing in between
two to three fine threads, varix develops into webbing anteriorly, posteriorly overlaps the
preceding whorl. Colour creamy brown with two to three dark brown spiral bands on the body
whorl and blotches on the rest. Aperture \vhite.
India: Andamans, not common. Tropical Indo-Pacific.
Pterynotus pinnatus (Swainson, 1822)

(PI. 54, fig. 12)
Shell moderately large, up to 67 mm in length, fusiform, spire high with six to eight whorls,
suture shallow, body whorl large. Aperture broad and ovate, anal sulcus indistinct, outer lip
with fine crenu'lations and lirations, inner lip slTIooth, siphonal canal of moderate size. Body
whorl \vith three varices expanded into thin flanges continuing along the body and canal, ventrally
scaly in appearance, a single lo\v, knob-like axial ridge prominently on the shoulder in between
the varices, spiral sculpture consists of numerous threads, in between with minor cords, a spine-
like projection on the siphonal canal. Colour white to light fawn with brown patches on the
wing, aperture white.
India: Tanlil Nadu : Porto Novo, Madras; Andamans. Tropical Indo-Pacific, moderately
comnlon.
SUBBA RAO : INDIAN SEA SHELLS; POL YPLACOPHORA AND GASTROPODA 233
Subfamily MURICOPSINAE
Shel1 is small to medium in size, fusiform to biconic, ornamented with prolninent varices
bearing foliaceous or spine-like projections, gap between body and canal without sculpture,
axial sculpture consists of fine lamellae, anal sulcus weak, siphonal canal of moderate length.
Operculum as in the subfamily Muricinae.
Four genera, each represented by a single species, are reported from India.
Murexiella andamanensis Houart and Surya Rao, 1996

(PI. 55, fig. I)
Shell small, up to 14 mm in length, spire acute, high with four angulated whorls, suture
impressed, body whorl globose. Aperture oval, anal sulcus indistinct, outer lip margin crenulated,
inner lip smooth, siphonal canal moderately long, narrowly open. Body whorl with seven to
eight frilled spinose varices, shoulder edge with prominent, upwardly curved spines, spiral
sculpture consists of five major cords on the body whorl, and two on each of the spire whorl,
upwardly curved, open spines in the interstices, canal with two prominent spines. Colour light
brown.
India: Andamans.
Synonym: Murexiella macgintyi: Subba Rao and Surya Rao, 1993 (non: M. Smith, 1938)
Muricopsis hombayanus (Melvill, 1893)

(PI. 55, fig. 2)
Shell small, up to 35 mm in length, fusiform, spire acute and longer than body whorl including
siphonal canal, with five to six angulated whorls, suture impressed. Aperture oval, anal sulcus
broad, V-shaped, outer Ijp margin feebly crenuJated, with six teeth on the inner margin, 1ip
smooth with two to three pustulae on the anterior end, siphonal canal short and open. Sculptured
with seven lamellose varices and spines on the shoulder, spiral sculpture of four scabrous major
cords, interstices scaly. Colour light brown.
'India: Gujarat, Maharashtra, Goa. Arabian Sea.
Subfamily: DRUPINAE
Shell is small with a low acute spire, globosely ovate, sculptured with tubercles. Aperture is
ovate and narrow, outer lip with either simple or compound teeth, columel1a with a single or
double fold or with no folds.
The members are common in shalJow coral reefhabitats, abundant in Andaman and Nicobar
Islands.
Drllpa (Drupa) lobata (Blainville, 1832)

(PI. 55, fig. 5, 6)
Shell small, up to 31 mm in length, spire acute, low, body whorl large. Aperture narrow,
elongate, not constricted, outer lip margin crenulated, with five digitate processes extending from
the ridges, first one canaliculated, rest scaly, interior margin with six rounded teeth, columel1a
with callous extending posteriorly, with plications on the anterior, often with open umbilicus.
Sculptured with nodulose spiral ridges, and three to four scabrous rings in the interstices. Colour
dark brown to chocolate, aperture white on the interior with dark chocolate brown margin.
India: Lakshadweep, Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Mauritius to Indonesia.
Drupa (Drupa) morum morum (Roeding, 1798)

(PI. 55, fig. 3)
Shell of medium size, up to 42 mm in length, globosely ovate, spire acuminate, low, body
whorl large. Aperture long, narrow and constricted, outer lip with eight teeth arranged in fours,
followed by two, a single tooth and the last one separated by a gap from others, inner lip with
single axial fold bearing three plicae-like ridges, enameled callous, anal sulcus long and deep,
siphonal canal short and deep. Body whorl with five rows of spinose tubercles, dark in colour,
interstices with two rows of scabrous striations, outer lip margin with three rows of nodules that
extend to small processes. Colour white with dark brown tubercles. Aperture deep violet on the
interior.
India : Lakshadweep, Tamil Nadu: Gulf of Mannar; Andaman and Nicobar Islands, reef
ecosystem. East Africa to Eastern Pacific.
Synonym : Ricinula horrida Lamarck, 1816.
Drupa (Drupa) ricinus ricinus (Linnaeus, 1753)

(PI. 55, fig. 11, 12)
Shell small, up to 26 mm in length, subovate, spire acute, low, body whorl large. Aperture
long, narrow and constricted, outer lip with two sets of compound tooth arranged in fours and
twos followed by two widely separated teeth, columella with a single fold bearing three to four
oblique plicae-like ridges, callous with black dots towards posterior and anal sulcus long and
deep, siphonal canal short, deep and open. Colour generally gray, aperture white and in majority
with a continuous or broken orange yellow ring, tips of the spines dark brown.
India: Lakshadweep, Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Tropical Indo-Pacific.
The species occurs along with D. (D.) morum morum. It can be distinguished by long
spinose tubercles, and by the presence of black dots on the columella and orange-yellow ring in
the aperture.
Drupa (Ricine//a) rubusidaeus (Roeding. 1798)

(PI. 55, fig. 4)
Shell of medium size, lip to 42 mm in length, ovately globose, spire acute and low, body
whorl large. Aperture narrowly ovate, not constricted, anal sulcus deep and broad, outer Jj p
margin with seven to nine teeth arranged in a row, inner lip broad, calloused, with three to four
plications on the anterior end, siphonaJ canal short, deep and open. Body whorl with five rows
of spinose tubercles, three to four rows of scabrous ridges in between the rows of tubercles.
Tips of the tubercles dark brown and aperture interior light purple in colour.
India: Lakshadweep, Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Indo-Pacific.
Drupel/a cornus (Roeding, 1798)

(PI. 55, fig. 8-10)
Shell of medium size, up to 37 mm in length, spindle shaped, spire acute and high with four
whorls, suture impressed, body whorl large. Aperture narrowly ovate, anal sulcus deep, inverted
U-shape, outer lip thick, margin crenuJated, six to seven teeth on the interior, inner lip smooth,
callose, two to three oblique plicae on the anterior end, canal short and open. Sculptured with
four rows of prominent pointed tubercles on the body whorl, two rows on the penultimate whorl
and a single row on the rest, spiral cords in between the rows oftubercles. Colour white, aperture
white, often cream to light purplish interior.
India: Lakshadweep, Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Mauritius to Philippines.
Drupe/la concatenata (Lamarck, 1822)

(PI. 55, fig. 7)
Shel1 small, up to 31 mm in length, ovately elongate, spire acute and high, with five rounded
whorls, body whorl large, suture impressed. Aperture narrowly ovate, outer lip thick with
crenulated margin bearing six teeth on the interior, inner lip smooth with three plicae on the
anterior end, canal short and open. Sculptured with four to five rows of rounded tubercles and
two to three scabrous spiral ridges in between. Colour white, tubercles orange coloured, aperture
white with cream or orange interior
India : Maharashtra: Bombay; Andaman and Nicobar Islands, reported to feed on corals.
Mauritius to tropical Pacific, moderately common and wideJy distributed.
Maculotriton serriale (Deshayes in Laborde and Linant, 1834)

(PI. 56, fig. 1, 2)
Shell small, up to 15 mm in length, slender and elongate, spire high, with seven annulated
whorls, body whorl large. Aperture narrowly elongate, outer lip thick and strong with a varix,
interior with six denticles, columella smooth, with two weak plications on the anterior end,
canal short, narrow and deep. Sculptured with 12 to 15 axial ribs and 16 to 20 spiral cords
becoming nodulose at intersections. Colour white, with two rows of chocolate brown markings
on spire whorls and additional two rows on the body whorl.
India: Lakshadweep, Tamil Nadu: GulfofMannar(Pamban); Andamans. Widely distributed
in the Pacific but sparsely in the Indian Ocean.
Subfamily RAPANINAE
Shell is more or less pyriform, often produced anteriorly, spire short or depressed, inner lip
smooth, canal short and broadly open.
Rapana rapiformis (Born, 1778)

(PI. 56, fig. 3)
Shell large, up to 103 mm in length, pyriform, spire very low, with four to five whorls,
suture deep and canaliculated, body whorl large and inflated. Aperture wide and oval, outer lip
margin denticulate, interior lirate, inner lip smooth, \-vide and deep umbilicus, imbricately scaled
fasciole, canal short and widely open. Sculptured with three low slightly nodulose spiral ridges,
the rowan the shoulder bear fifteen open, blunt hollow spines, the second and third row of
spines on the Iniddle and lo\ver part of the body whorl decrease in size, several flattened spiral
cords on the body whorl. Colour light bro\vn with three to four chocolate brown bands on the
body whorl, aperture light brown to cream.
India: Gujarat, Lakshad\veep, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Orissa, occurs at moderate
depths and caught in fishing nets. Indo-Pacific.
Synonym: Rapana bulbosa: Satyamurti, 1952.
Subfamily THAIDINAE
Shell is solid and heavy, spire moderately low, sculptured either with tubercles or knobs,
aperture large, columella pustulose, outer lip either dentate or lirate, canal short.
This is another large subfatnily after Muricinae and often treated as a falnily by some. The
subfatnily is represented by seven genera and 29 species in the Indian seas. These are common
on the intertidal rocky coasts.
Cronia (Erg/atax) contracta (Reeve, 1846)

(PI. 56, fig. 4)
Shell of Inediunl size, lip to 37 Inm in length, fusiform, spire elevated and acute, with six
subangulated whorls, body \vhorl large. Aperture large, elongately ovate, ollter lip finely
SURBA RAO : INDIAN SEA SHELLS: POL YPLACOPHORA AND GASTROPODA 237
crenulated, \vith five to six denticles on the interior, inner lip smooth, with three to four plicatiens
on the anterior part, canal short, broadly open. Sculptured with eight to ten prominent axial ribs
with one to two low rounded varices, and numerous fine, scabrous spiral threads. Colour chestnut
brown to dark brown, aperture white to pinkish white.
India: East and West Coasts, Lakshadweep, Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Indo-West Pacific.
Synonym : Drupa margariticola of authors.
Cronia konkanensis (Melvill, 1893)

(P1. 56, fig. 6)
Shell small, up to 27 mm in length, pyramidally fusoid, spire high and acute, with five to
six rounded whorls, body whorl large. Aperture elongately ovate, outer lip thick with crenulated
margin and five teeth leading to raised lines on the interior, inner lip smooth with two to
three plicae above short canal. Sculptured with axial ridges bearing six to seven rows of
horizontal tubercles, and three spiral scabrous cords in between the rows of tubercles. Colour
chocolate brown, tubercle and spiral cords white, aperture light violet with chocolate coloured
margIn.
India: Maharashtra: Bombay, Devgad; Tamil Nadu: Madras; Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
Indian Ocean.
Cronia ocllrostoma (Blainville, 1832)

(PI. 56, fig. 5)
Shell small, up to 21 rom in length, biconic shape, spire elevated, acute, consists of six
subangulate whorls, suture wavy, body whorl gibbous. Aperture narrowly elongate, outer lip
slightly crenulated. and with six to seven denticles, inner lip smooth, three to four denticles on
the posterior end, canal short. Sculptured with six to seven angulated axial ribs and prominent
nodulose spiral cords and enclosing in between three to four scabrous threads. Colour \vhite,
aperture Iight orange.
India: Andamans. Tropical Indo-Pacific.
Cronia subnodulosa (Melvill, 1893)

(PI. 56, fig. 7)
Shell sman, up to 24 mm in length, elongately fusoid, spire acute and high, with six angulated
whorls, suture impressed. Aperture narrow and elongate, outer lip thick, with crenulated margin
and five teeth on its interior, inner lip smooth with three to four faint plicae, canal short. Sculptured
with eight to nine nodulose axial ribs, a single prominent row of nodules on spire whorls with
scabrous cords on either sjde. Colour chocolate brown, nodules dark brown, aperture light
violet, margin dark brown with a prominent white band in the middle.
India: Gujarat, Maharashtra, Kamataka, Andhra Pradesh, Andamans. Elsewhere: Pakistan
(Karachi), Myanmar.
Thais bufo (Lamarck. 1822)

(PI. 56, fig. 10)
Shell moderately large, up"'to 55 mm in length, solid, heavy and globose, spire acute, not
much elevated, consists of three to four rounded whorls, body whorl large and slightly angulated.
Aperture large, ovate, outer lip crenulated and with lirations on the interior, columella smooth,
and with callous extending up to and even beyond the shoulder region, anal sulcus deep, siphonal
canal short and broadly open. Sculptured with three to four rows of tubercles that become
gradually obsolete towards the anterior end and with spiral cords. Aperture creamy white, outer
lip margin chocolate brown, columella creamy yellow.
India: East and West Coasts, Andaman and Nicobar Islands, common on the rocky shores,
not known from West Bengal coast. Indo-Pacific, not so common in the Pacific.
Shell bears some resemblance to that of Purpura panama that occupies the same habitat on
intertidal rocks. In M bufo the shell has a short spire, more globose body whorl and more
prominent tubercles.
Reproductive system and breeding habits of M bufo have received considerable attention
(Chari, 1950; Rajalakshmi Bhanu et al., 1982a,b,c). Sexes are separate and male possesses a
wide dorso-ventrally flattened flagellate penis. Testis is connected to prostate gland by a straight,
tube-like vas deferens. A straight tube leads from the prostate gland to penis. The secretions
from the testis contain mucoproteins and glycolipids while those of prostate are rich in
carbohydrates and variable amounts of protein.
Female reproductive system has two glands, namely albumen and capsular. Ovaries are
connected to the albumen gland by oviduct, which opens into the gland at a point below the
kidney. Albumen gland is creamish white and consists of several tubules lined by secretory
cells. This gland opens into the ventral wall of capsular gland that is creamish yellow. The latter
secretes the egg capsules that generally are deposited on the rocks in the intertidal region. Both
the glands are highly proteinaceous. Secretions of albumen gland are rich in carbohydrates and
protein and those of capsular gland contain mucoprotein. Albumen gland secretions are PAS
positive and do not contain glycogen.
M bufo has a peak breeding season from December to June at Visakhapatnam, Andhra
Pradesh.
SUBBA RAO : INDIAN SEA SHELLS: POL YPLACOPI lORA AND GASTROPODA 239
Morula anaxares (Kiener, 1836)

(PI. 56, fig. 11, 12)
Shell small, not more than 14 mm in length, spire short, acute and consists of four nodulose
whorls, body whorl angulated and obtusely ovate. Aperture narrow and elongate, outer lip with
crenulations on the margin and four rounded denticles on the interior, inner lip smooth, and
with two to three plications on the anterior end. Sculptured with four spiral rows of nodules and
striations, nodules larger on the first two rows giving angular appearance but they decrease in
size on the other two rows. Colour dirty gray to light brown with \vhite spiral bands, aperture
light violet streaked with a white band, columella light violet, often with white markings.
India: Lakshadweep, Tamil Nadu: Gulf of Mannar; Andalnan and Nicobar Islands. Indo-
Pacific, with wider distribution in tropical Pacific.
Morula biconica (Blainville, 1832)

(PI. 57, fig. 6)
Shell small, up to 26 mm in length, spindle-shaped, spire acute and elevated, with five
subangulated whorls, body whorl large and oblong. Aperture narrow and elongate, angulated,
outer lip margin scabrous, interior denticulate, first hvo teeth large and compound, inner lip
smooth with plications on the anterior end. Sculptured with eight to nine spinose axial ribs, and
fine scabrous spiral cords, the one on the shoulder and Iniddle of the body whorl prolninent,
broad and tuberculated. Colour white with bro\vnish axial ribs and white spiral cords, aperture
light violet.
India: East Coast, Andamans, not very comillon. Indo-Pacific, \vith wider distribution in
the tropical Pacific.
Morula granulata (Duclos, 1832)

(PI. 56, fig. 8, 9)
Shell small, up to 30 mm in length, broadly spindle shaped, spire acute and elevated with
four to five tuberculated whorls, body whorl large and angulated. Aperture narrowly ovate,
,outer lip thick, margin crenulated, interior with four teeth, inner lip slnooth with two to three
pustules.above short and open canal. Sculptured with protninent spiral rows of tubercles, two
on spire whorls and four on the body whorl \vith fine scabrous threads in behveen, tubercles
more prominent near the shoulder. Colour dark gray to black, base of tubercles white, aperture
violet, outer lip teeth bluish white, colulnella with a dark brown patch on its posterior end.
India: East and West Coasts, Lakshadweep, Andaman and Nicobar Islands, comlnon on
rocky shores. Tropical Indo-Pacific, common.
Synonym: Drupa luberculata : Satyatnurti, 1952 and other Indian records.
Morula marginatra (Blainvil1e, 1832)

(PI. 57, fig. 8)
Shell small, up to 27 mm in length, pyramidaJ]y fusoid, spire acute and consists of four
angulated whorls, suture distinct. Aperture narrowly ovate, outer lip margin thick and crenulated,
interior with four prominent teeth leading to raised lines, inner lip smooth, but plicated in the
middle, canal short and broad. Sculptured with longitudinal ribs broken to squarrose tubercles
by the revolving scabrous cords, deep pits in the interstices, body whorl possesses four to five
rows and each spire whorl with two rows of spiral cords. Colour grayish white with white
horizontal lines on the centre of the body whorl, aperture light violet marked with dark chocolate
brown lines inside, teeth white, outer Jip margin chocolate brown.
India: Gujarat, Karnataka, Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Indo-West Pacific.
Shell bears sOlne resemblance to those of M granulata and young ones of Thais
hippocastal1l1nl. It differs from the former in having deep pits in the interstices and a broader
aperture and from the latter in the presence of deep pits and absence of spinose tubercles.
Morula nOt/icostata (Pease, 1868)

(PI. 57, fig. 2, 3)
Shell small, lip to 21 mm in length, broadly ovate, spire high and consists of five subangu)ate
whorls. suture obscure. Aperture narro\vly ovate, outer lip margin thick, four to five denticles
on the interior, inner lip smooth, with three Jight plicae on the anterior end, canal short. Sculptured
with four to five rows of rounded nodules that decrease in size from anterior to the posterior,
three to four scabrous spiral cords between the nodular rows. Colour light chocolate. brown,
nodules white, purplish brown spiral bands, aperture light violet with a broad white band on the
interior, columella with a dark brown blotch on the posterior end.
Morula fillliculaia (Reeve, 1846)

(PI. 57, fig. 7)
Shell small, not nlore than] 0 mm in length, spindle sha'ped, spire elevated and consists of
five whorls. Aperture narro\v, elongately ovate, outer lip thick with a crenulated margin and
five to six denticles on the interior, columella with three pustules above canal, anal sulcus deep,
inverted U-shape bordered by a ridge. Sculptured with prominent nodulose spiral cords, two to
three on spire whorls and six to seven on the body whorl. Colour white, with orange brown
nodules. aperture white with brown markings on the columella.
India: Talnil Nadu: Gulf of Mannar (Tuticorin), not reported from any other locality.
Elsewhere: Myanmar (Mergui Archipelago).
SUBDA RAO : INDIAN SEA SHELLS: POLYPLACOPHORA AND GASTROPODA 241
Morula uva (Roeding, 1798)

(PI. 57, fig. 1, 5)
Shell sma)), up to 24 mm in length, more or less spindle shaped, spire elevated and consists
offive to six whorls, body whorl large. Aperture narrow and elongate, constricted in the middle,
outer lip margin thick and crenulated, with four to five denticles on the interior, upper two large
and often combined, inner lip with three short plicae on the anterior end, ridge in the middle
forming an angle, canal short. Sculptured with five rows of nodules on the body whorl and two
rows on each of the spire whorl, nodules some tiInes become spinose. Colour white, nodules
dark brown or black, aperture light violet to purplish black with white denticles.
India: Lakshadweep, Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Indo-Pacific, not COlnlnon.
Shell bears some resemblance to that of the common species, M granu/ata, but can be
differentiated from it in the presence of spinose nodules and in having the first two dentic les on
the outer lip prominent.
Nassa serta (Bruguiere, 1789)

(Pl. 57, fig. 9)
Shel1 moderately large, up to 57 mm in length, oblong ovate, solid, spire short, consists of
five slightly rounded whorls. Aperture oblong, outer lip margin finely crenulated, interior smooth,
inner lip smooth with a denticle on the posterior end, a strong parietal ridge at the posterior end,
canal short and broad . anal sulcus bordered by ridges, small fasciole. Colour chestnut brown
with a transverse row of irregular blotches on the middle of the body whorl, aperture interior
cream, outer lip margin and columella brownish.
India: Tamil Nadu : Gulf of Mannar; Andalnan and Nicobar Islands. Tropical Indo-Pacific,
uncommon.
Purpura hllccinea Deshayes, 1844

(PI. 58, fig. 1)
Shell moderately large, up to 54 mm in length, oblong fusiform, spire high, consists of fOllr
to five rounded whorls. Aperture narrow, lineate, outer lip margin thick, finely crenuJated,
interior with eight to nine teeth leading to ridges, columella almost straight, slnooth with an
oblique fold in the middle fonning an angle, plications on the anterior end. Sculptured with
eight to nine broad axial ridges and seven to eight spiral cords on body whorl enclosing narrow
cords in between. Aperture creamy white, outer lip margin dark chocolate brown, interior light
brown, columella and shell surface chocolate brown.
India: Andaman and Nicobar Islands, not common. Elsewhere: New Guinea.
Purpura panama (Roeding, 1798)

(PI. 58, fig. 2)
Shell large, up to 77 rnm in length, broad, spindle shaped, spire high and consists of three to
four whorls, body whorl large and angulated. Aperture ovate, outer lip margin crenulated and
do not lead to ridges, columella broad and obliquely grooved but not ridged as in the preceding
species, siphonal canal short and broad. Sculptured with five broad spiral ridges and four to five
narrow ridges in the interspaces, low-raised tubercles on the ridges. Colour chestnut brown
with rows of white markings, aperture light orange, outer lip margin dark brown.
India: East and West Coasts, Lakshadwecp, Andaman and Nicobar Islands, common in the
mid-eulittoral zone. Elsewhere: Pakistan (Karachi), Sri Lanka, Philippines.
Synonyms : Purpura rudolphi Lamarck, 1822
Thais rudolphi (Lalnarck, 1822)
Pllrpllra persica (Linnaeus, 1758)

(PI. 58, fig. 3)
Shell large, up to 105 mm in length, oblong, spire low and consists of three whorls, body
whorl inflated. Aperture wide, outer lip margin crenulated, interior with blunt teeth running as
dark grooves, columella flattened, slightly twisted, grooved, calloused posteriorly. Sculptured
with broad, obsoletely knobbed, narro\v spiral ridges. Colour grayish brown, ridges white with
dark brown ·stripes. posterior part of columella with a dark brown blotch.
India: Gujarat : Porbandar; Andaman and Nicobar Islands, not common. Indo-West Pacific,
moderately common in the Pacific.
Thais {Irn,igera (Link, 1807)

(PI. 59, fig. 1)
Shell large . up to 78 mm in length. spire high, acute and consists of five whorls. Aperture
ovatc, outer lip with seven to eight denticlcs, interior lirate, columella slnooth, a little wrinkled
with two to three denticles on the posterior part. Sculptured with two prominent rows of tubercles
followed below by two rows of smaller tubercles. Colour brown, aperture with white interior
and yellowish brown outer Inargin.
India: Lakshadweep, Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Tropical Indo-Pacific, not common.
Thais hlalifordi (Melvill, 1893)

(PI. 59, fig. 2)
Shell small, lip to 30 nlln in length, ovately fusiform, spire high and acute, consists of four
angulated whorls, body whorl large with a distinct angulation at the shoulder. Aperture ovate,
anal sulcus bordered by a ridge, outer lip with eight lirations arranged in pairs on the interior,
inner lip smooth, slightly twisted on the anterior end. Sculptured with six and four Inajor spiral
threads above and below the shoulder respectively, axial sculpture consists of eleven to twelve
low, sometimes inconspicuous tubercles. Colour generally light brown.
India: West Coast (comlnon), Andmnans. Arabian Sea to Singapore.
Shell bears some resemblance to that of Thais tissoti but differs in the absence of deep
bisulcate transverse grooves and arrangement of denticles on the outer lip.
Thais eC/lillata (Blainville, 1832)

(PI. 58, fig. 4)
Shell of medium size, up to 48 lnm in length, ovate, spire a little high, consists of three to
four tuberculated whorls. Aperture ovate, outer lip crenulated, with seven to eight teeth leading
to ridges, inner lip bordered by a ridge. Sculptured with five rows of prolninent blunt spines,
scabrolls spiral ridges. Colollr light brown, aperture white with yello\vish 111argin.
India: Gujarat : Veraval; Andhra Pradesh: .Visakhapatnam; Andalnans. Elsewhere: Sri
Lanka to Philippines, not common.
Shell resembles that of Mancinella a/ouina but differs from it in the presence of prominent
rows of spines on the body \vhorl and in the absence of reddish brown lirations inside the
aperture.
Tltais Itippocastanllm (Linnaeus, 1758)

(P1. 57, fig. 4)
Shell moderately large, up to 63 mIn in length, spire high and consists of four angulated
whorls. Aperture ovately narrow, outer lip crenulated with four to five prorninent teeth on the
interior leading to ridges, columella slTIooth, slightly folded anteriorly. Sculptured with four
spiral rows of spines on the body whorl and four to seven spiral threads in bet\veen the ro\vs of
spines. Colour chocolate brown with vertical bands and dark brown spines, aperture bluish
white and margin tinged with brown, denticles and ridges chocolate brown.
India: Lakshadweep, Maharashtra : Bombay; Andhra Pradesh : Visakhapatnanl (cotnmon
on intertidal rocks); AndaJnan and Nicobar Islands. Tropical Indo-Pacific.
Thais internleliia (Kiener, 1836)

(PI. 59, fig. 3)
Shell of mediuJTI size, up to 49 lTIm in length, spire elevated, \vith three \vhorls, slightly
angulated, body whorl large and distinctly angulated, slightly depressed above the shoulder.
Aperture ovate, outer lip thick, with a crenulated margin, and twelve teeth on the interior,
244 REC. Za~l. SURV. INDIA, OCC. PAPER No. 192
columella slnooth, upper region with callous and with plications on the anterior end. Sculptured
with four major spiral cords enclosing four to five minor cords in between. Tubercles dark
brown interpolated with white bands, outer margin of outer lip chocolate brown with white
blotches in between, columella with brown streaks and blotches at anal sulcus.
India: Lakshadweep, Tamil Nadu : Madras, Gulf of Mannar (Pamban); Andamans, not
common. Tropical Indo-Pacific.
Thais lacera (Born, 1778)

(PI. 58, fig. 5)
Shell moderately large, up to 55 mm in length, ovate, spire acute, consists of four

allgulated whorls, body whorl strongly shouldered. Aperture large, ovate, outer lip finely
crenulated, interior lirate, columella sinooth, callose with partly closed umbilicus. Sculptured
with flat and sinooth, callouse, mildly scabrous transverse striations, two rows of tubercles on
the upper part of the body whorl, sometimes developed into spines. Colour ashy brown, aperture
Iight brown.
India: East and West Coasts, very COllllnon. East Africa to Japan.
This species is highly variable in size, sculpture and shape of the aperture. The snails live
attached to jetties, rocks, boulders etc. in the river mouths and backwaters.
Synonyms : Purpura carini/era Lamarck, 1822
Cuma disjllncla Annandale, 1922
Thais rllgol'a (Born, 1778)

(PI. 59, fig. 5)
Shell of medium size, up to 42 mm in length, ovately fusiform, pagoda-like, spire high,

consists of four angulated whorls, body whorl large, sloping above shoulder. Aperture moderately
ovate, outer lip crenulated with grooved interior and with eight to nine denticles, columella
s11100th, \vith a small fold, anal sulcus broad and shallo\v, umbilicus \yide and deep. Sculptured
with four proillinent ridges below shoulder, ornamented with compressed scales, interstices
behvcen the ridges \vith fine scabrous threads. Surface light brown, with scales and striations
dark brown.
India: East and West Coasts. more conlmon on West Coast, rocky substratum near low
water Inark. Indo-Pacific.
Synonyms : All/rex sacel/zlIl1 Gnlelin, 1791
Purpura sacel/l1111 Lalnarck, 1822
Thais tissoti (Petit, 1852)

(PI. 58, fig. 6)
Shell small, up to 27 mIn in length, spire elevated, body whorl large and oblong. Aperture
narrowly ovate, outer lip margin and interior crenulated, columella slnooth ,vith plications on
the anterior end, a ridge on the posterior end, umbilicus slnall and almost closed. Sculptured
with four thick spiral ridges separated by bisulcate grooves, two narrow cords in between the
first two ridges, ornalnented with low tubercles. Colour light brown \vith dark brown tubercles.
India: Gujarat on West Coast to Andhra Pradesh on East Coast. Arabian Sea and Bay of
Bengal.
It occurs along with Thais blanfordi on the rocks in the intertidal zone and bears sOlne
similarity to its shell. However, it can be distinguished from that species in possessing four
strong spiral ridges and deep bisulcate grooves.
Thais tuherosa (Roeding, 1798)

(PI. 59, fig. 4)
Shell moderately large, up to 511nm in length, oblong and heavy, spire elevated and consists
offour spinose \vhorls. Aperture ovate, outer lip margin crenulated and its interior 1irate, cohllnella
smooth, callouse with three to four light plications on the anterior end. Body whorl sculptured
with three rows of thick blunt spines and broad scaly spiral cords in between those rows. Colour
white with three to four black bands, aperture creamy white with three to four black blotches on
the outer lip and two dark brown mottled areas on the columella and reddish brown lirae.
India: Lakshadweep, Tamil Nadu : Gulf of Mannar; Andaman and Nicobar Islands, reef
ecosystem. Tropical Indo-Pacific, moderately COlnmon.
Shell looks sOlnewhat similar to those of Thais armigera and T. hippocaslanul11. It differs
from the fonner in having a shorter spire, in the absence of denticles on the outer lip, dark
brown blotches on the aperture margin and reddish brown Iirae. It can be differentiated frolll
T. hippocastanllln, by its shorter and blunt spire, by the absence of denticles on the outer lip and
by the presence of tnore nUlnber of lirations in the aperture.
Vexilla vexillum (Gmelin, 1791)

(PI. 57, fig. 10)
Shell small, up to 24 tnm in length, ovate, spire short and acute, consists of three rounded
whorls, body whorl large and oblong. Aperture long and narrow, outer lip with thirteen denticles,
columella smooth, calloused, twisted. Surface without any sculpture. Colour yellowish brown
with dark brown spiral bands nUlnbering two to three on spire whorls and eight on the body
whorl.
India: Maharashtra : Bombay, not common. Indo-Pacific.
246 REC. ZOOL. SURV. INDIA, occ. PAPER No. 192
Ayyakkannu, K. 1994. Fishery status of Babylonia spirata at Porto Novo, Southeast coast of
India. Puket A1arine Biological Centre Special Publication. 13 : 53-56.
Barketi, S. and Ahmed, M. 1983. Studies on the reproductive biology of some prosobranchs
from the coast of Pakistan bordering the northern Arabian Sea 2. Egg capsules and
larvae of four species of Thais. Veliger, 26( 1) : 30-36.
Cernohorsky, w. O. 1965. The radula, egg capsules and young of Murex (Chicoreus) torrefactus
Sowerby (Mollusca: Gastropoda: Muricidae). Veliger, 8(4) : 231-233, 6 text figs.
Cernohorsky, W. o. 1967. A-farine Shells of the Pacific 1. 24~ pp., 60 pis. Pacific
Publications.
Cernohorsky, W. O. 1972. Marine Shells of the Pacific 2. 411 pp., 68 pis. Pacific
Publications.
Chari, V. K. ] 950. Breeding habits of Thais bulo (Lamarck). 1. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.,
49 : 3 17-318.
Emerson, W. K. and Cernohorsky, W. O. 1973. The genus Drupa in the Indo-Pacific.
Indo-Pacific lvlollusca, 3{ J3) : 1-40, 35 pis.
i~ouart, R. and Surya Rao, K. V. 1996. Description of a new species of Muricopsinae
(Gastropoda: Muricidae) from the Andaman Islands. Apex, 11(2) : 55-57, figs 3-6.
Radwin, G. E. and D' Attilio, A. 1976. Afurex shells of the world: An illustrated guide to the
A-Iuric.:idae. 284 pp., ] 92 figs., 32 pis. Stanford University Press.
Rajalakhshlni Bhanu, R. C., Shyall1aSundari, K. and Hanulnantha Rao, K. 1982a. Histological
and histochenlical studies on the salivary glands of Thais bufo (Lamarck) (Mollusca:
Neogastropoda). Alonilore Zool. Iial (NS), 15 : 239-247.
Rajalakhshlni Bhanu R. C., Shyalnasundari, K. and Hanumantha Rao, K. 1982b. Histological
and histochemical studies on the albumen gland and capsular gland of Thais hula
(Lamarck), (Mollusca: Gastropoda). Proc. Indian A cad. Sci. (Anim. Sci.), 91(5) :
407-415.
Rajalakhshlni Bhanu R. C., Shyamasundari, K. and Hanumantha Rao, K. ) 982c. Histological
and histochelnical studies on the male reproductive system of the muricid gastropod
Thais hufo (Lamarck). Folia Morphologica, 31(4) : 335-340.
Rajalakhshmi Bhanu R. C.• Shyalnasundari, K. and Hanumantha Rao, K. and Prasada Rao,
D. G. V. 1981. Effect of salinity and teillperature on the gastropod Thais rudolph;
(Lamarck). Indian 1. IlIar. Sci., 11 (2) : 195-) 97.
Subba Rao, N. V. and Surya Rao, K. V. 1993. Contribution to the knowledge of Indian
Marine Molluscs Pt. 3. Family: Muricidae. Rec. zool. Slirv. India, Occ. Paper No.,
153: 1-133, 14 pis, 28 text-figs.
Tan, K. S. and Sigurdsson, J. B. 1996. Two new species of Thais (Mollusca: Neogastropoda:
Muricidae) from Peninsular Malaysia and Singapore, with notes on T tissoti (Petit,
1852) and T blanfordi (Melvill, 1893) from Bombay, India. The Raffles Bulletin of
Zoology, 44(1) : 77-107.
Family CORALLIOPHILIDAE
False Tritons
Shell is small to large in size, usually not more than 100 mm in height, elongate and fusiform
or globose. Whorls are few with a short spire. Aperture may be small and short or moderately
wide, with a denticulate outer lip. Columella possesses a parietal callus, smooth or granulose.
Siphonal canal is short to moderately long. Posterior canal is indistinct. Operculum, when present,
is corneous \vith nucleus on the external margin.
Foot is short and reduced. Proboscis is pleurembolic with a distal buccal cavity. Radula is
either reduced or absent since the snails feed upon corals suctorially. Alimentary system consists
of a gland of Leiblein in the oesophageal region.
Sexes are separate. Males have a rudimentary penis that is blunt and rather dorso-ventrally
flattened. Female stores the eggs in mantle cavity and releases veliger larvae.
These live in association with corals, either attached to the surface or as burrowers, in shallow
tropical and subtropical seas. The falnily consists of about 200 species belonging to 6 genera.
Three genera, natnely Corallioplzila, Rapa and Latiaxis are distributed in India, but the former
two are dealt here.
Coralliopllila ahnormis E. A. Smith

(PI. 59, fig. 14)
Shell. small, up to 20 mm in height, solid but light. fusiform, spire about half the total length,
protoconch 2 whorls, smooth. Whorls seven, rounded, sutures shallo\..,. Aperture large, outer'lip
thin and margin crenulated. columella slnooth, siphonal canal recurved and open, umbilicus
absent. Sculptured with seven to eight axial varices and fine regular scaly spiral cords. Colour
yellowish brown with dull white aperture.
Coralliopllila costularis (Lamarck, 1816)

(PI. 59, fig. 13)
Shell small, lip to 27 min in height, thick and elongate, whorls rounded, body whorl more
than half the total length of the shell. Aperture small, outer lip corrugated and lirate within,
columella without callus shield, smooth and a parietal ridge, anterior canal long, narrow and
recurved, posterior canal a sinus, umbilicus open, bordered by scaly ridge. Sculptured with
strong, broad, varix-like axial ribs crossed by crowded, scaly, spiral cords. Colour off-white,
aperture colour not clear since the collection i~ very old.
Coralliopllila erosa (Roeding, 1798)

(PI. 59, fig. 6-9)
Shell of medium size, up to 32 mm in height, pointed at both ends, very much inflated in the
middle giving a defornled-Iook, body whorl angulated at the centre, columella stnooth, with
callus at the lower half, umbilicus either open or closed, siphonal canal stunted and shallow.
Sculptured with slightly broad axial ribs becotning obsolete near suture and crossed by numerous,
close-set, scabrous spiral cords. Colour dirty \vhite, aperture \vhite.
India: Tatnil Nadu : Gulf of Mannar; Andamans. Indo-Pacific.
Synonym: Coralliophila defornlis (Lamarck, 1822)
Coralliophila matlreporara (Sowerby, 1822)

(PI. 59, fig. 12)
Shell small, up to 22 mm in height, solid, ovate, spire low. Aperture flattened and large~
outer lip flaring and slnooth, columella shelf- like, siphonal canal absent, umbilicus absent.
Sculptured with numerous close-set spiral threads and longitudinal striae. Colour white or gray,
columella violet.
India: Andamans. Indo-Pacific, not comtnon.
Synonynl : Quoyula nladreporarunl (Sowerby, 1832)
Coralliopllila neriloillea (Lanlarck, 1816)

(PI. 59, fig. 10)
Shell small, up to 30 min in height~ thick, more or less fusiform, body whorl large and spire
,short, sutures shallow. Aperture large, about three-fourth length of the shell, outer lip slanting
with sharp edge and finely dentate, and ridged within, columella with a callus-shield, a narrow
umbilical channel, siphonal canal short and recurved. Sculptured with crowded, uneven, slightly
scaly spiral lines. Colour off white, aperture rich violet. Surface generally encrusted.
India: Andamans.
Synonym: Coralliophila violacea (Kiener, 1836)
Rapa rapa (Linnaeus, 1758)

(PI. 59, fig. 11)
Shell large, up to 75 mm in height, thin, bulbous, with flat or slightly sunken spire and very
expanded body whorl. Aperture tnoderately wide, constricted anteriorly, outer lip thin and
crenulated by the ridges ending on it, coltllnella with callus, which partly obscures the deep,
wide open umbilicus, strong fasciole, siphonal canal short and broadly open. Sculptured with
rounded spiral ridges that increase in size and widely separated towards anterior end, fine spiral
threads in between the ridges on the top and fine axial lamellae at the bottom. Colour uniformly
cream.
D' Attilio, A. 1978. Muricacea Catalogue of the family Coral1iophilidae. The Festivus, 10(10):
69-96.
D' Attilio, A. and Bertsch, H. 1979. PreJiminary account of three generic taxa in the Muricacean
farnily Coralliophilidae. The Festivus, 11(3) : 21-25.
Robertson, R. 1970. Review of the predators and parasites of stony corals with special reference
to syrnbiotic prosobranch gastropods. Pac. Sci., 24( I) : 43-54.
Family BUCCINIDAE
Whelks
Shell is small to large in size, strong and thick, globose or ovate conical to fusiform. Protoconch
consists of one or many whorls. Teleoconch consists of many whorls, with a fairly large body
whorl and a somewhat tapering spire. Aperture is large and narrow to wide. Outer Jip may be
thickened and generally smooth often bearing plications on the inner margin. Columella is
usually smooth, and sometimes thickened bearing a reflected callosity. A fasciole may be present
at the base. Anterior canal is well developed, short to long and narrow to wide. Posterior canal
is not distinct. Surface of the shell is smooth or sculptured with axial ribs and spiral cords or
threads without strong varices. Operculum is ovate, thin, corneous brown with either apical or
subcentral nucleus.
There are two cephalic tentacles bearing eyes at their outer bases. Foot is large, broad and
anteriorly truncate. Siphon is well developed. Mantle cavity contains a monopectinate ctenidium,
a bipectinate osphradium and often mucus secreting hypobranchial gland. Proboscis is strong,
long and pleurembolic. Alimentary system consists of a stenoglossate radula (I-I-lor 1-0-1)
with multicuspid laterals, a pair of salivary glands with long ducts, well-developed oesophagous,
stomach with caecum, and Leiblein and anal glands.
Sexes are separate. Male bears a broad, blunt and dorso-ventrally flattened penis. Female
has a seminal receptacle. Eggs are laid in capsules and some eggs act as nurse cells. Development
may be direct or indirect.
It is a very large cosmopolitan family divided into four subfamilies consisting of about 93
genera and about 300 species occurring from shallow intertidal areas to depths. These are
carnivorous but are more scavengers than active predators. Indian fauna is represented by some
well-known genera, such as Babylonia, Phos, Cantharus and Engina. A brackish water genus
Cleat unique to Southeast Asia occurs in India.
Recent anatomical studies revealed that Babylonia has unique combination of characters
such as accessory salivary gland, unusual anal gland, glandular dorsal folds in the mid-posterior
oesophagus and- a U-shaped stomach without a caecum. Hence it was concluded that Babylonia
belongs to a separate family Babyloniidae (Harasewych and Kantor, 2000).
Subfamily BUCCININAE
Babylonia spirata (Linnaeus, 1758)

(Fig. 32, PI. 60, fig. 1, 2)
She111arge, up to 70 mm in height, solid and heavy, ovate, body whorl inflated, spire high
and elongate, sutures deep and channeled. Aperture large, ovate, outer lip sharp and smooth,
252 . OOL. SURV. DIA, oce. PAPER No. 192
'th animal.
ig,. 3. Babyl "ia =ev.lani a 'th anim J.

strongly flexed at top, columella smooth with heavy callus and a single thick ridge extending
spirally inwards on the posterior side, umbilicus broad and deep, often obscured by the callus,
a wide fasciole, anterior canal in the form of an oblique notch, posterior canal well developed,
bordered by parietal callus. Surface smooth, white with prominent light brown blotches, oblique
streaks and spots; aperture, outer lip and columellar callus white, fasciole orange brown, nuclear
and post nuclear whorls purple.
India: Gujarat : Gulf of Kachchh (Beyt Island); Maharashtra : Bombay; Goa, Tamil Nadu,
Andhra Pradesh: Visakhapatnam; Orissa, Andamans. Indian Ocean.
The record from Andamans is based on one old specimen labeled Eburnea ambulacrum.
There are no recent collections and its occurrence is the islands in doubtful.
The species is exploited in good quantities from near Porto Novo (Tamil Nadu) and
Sakthikulangara - Neendakara area (Kerala). The meat of it is exported to Japan (Appukuttan,
1996).
Synonyms : Babylonia canaliculata Schumacher, 1817

Eburnea ambulacrum Sowerby.
Babylonia zeylanica (Bruguiere, 1789)

(Fig. 33, PI. 60, fig. 3)
Shell large, up to 70 mm in height, fusiform, less so1id and with less inflated whorls, body
whorl narrower than in B. spirata, sutures not canaliculated, spire high ending in dark purple
~ex. Aperture large, outer lip sharp and smooth, but not flexed at top, columella smooth, with
heavy broad callus posteriorly but narrow anteriorly, a strong parietal ridge almost close to the
outer lip, umbilicus broadly open with a row of teeth on the outer margin, fasciole with a ridge
on the inner edge, anterior canal broad and deep, posterior canal not distinct. Surface smooth,
eolour white with large brown blotches.
India: Kerala : Tiruvananthapuram; Andhra Pradesh: Visakhapatnam; Pondicherry. Indian

Ocean.
The species is caught as a by-catch in shrimp trawlers at Sakthikulangara-Neendakara area

(Xerala). The meat of this species is also exported to Japan (Appukuttan, 1996).
Clea bock; Brot,

(PI. 61, fig. 8)
Shell small, not more than 20 mm in height, body whorl large, about three fourth of the total
height of the shell, a total of six whorls, rounded, sutures shallow. Aperture large, almost half of
the total height, outer lip thickened, with lirations on the interior, columella with callous, smooth,
anterior canal short, broad and shallow, umbilicus absent. Sculptured with axial and spiral ribs,
colour grayish brown, aperture white.
India: Andhra Pradesh: Godavary Estuary near Narasapur.
Subfamily PHOTINAE
Phos senticosus (Linnaeus, 1758)

(PI. 61, fig. 10)
Shell of medium size, up to 35 mm in height, pyramidal, spire highly elevated, whorls

angulated at shoulder, suture impressed and constricted. Aperture moderately wide, outer lip a
little bit thick, wavy, with strong lirations on the interior, columella calloused anteriorly and
with two plications, a posterior parietal ridge, anterior canal slightly twisted, posterior canal
insignificant. Surface sculptured with spiral ridges and axial ribs with nodules at intersections,
spiral threads in between ridges. Colour pink brown, body whorl with a darker band on the
middle, suture and aperture white.
India: Andamans, not common. Indo-Pacific.
Pllos textum (Gmelin, 1791)

(PI. 61, fig. 12, 13)
Shell small, up to 27 mm in height, spire not as much elevated as in P. senticosus, sutures

not much impressed. Aperture moderately wide and Ii,rate within, outer lip thick and with an
indistinct notch anteriorly, columella with callus, with an indistinct fold on the lower columellar
shield, anterior canal broad and short, posterior canal absent. Sculptured with sinuous and
angulate oblique axial ribs crossed by spiral threads, the top spiral thread on each whorl bears
spines at the junction with axial ribs. Uniformly cream coloured, aperture orange coloured,
lirations dark brown, columella and outer lip blotched with dark brown at the posterior and
anterior ends.
India: Andamans, not common. Indo-West Pacific, common in weedy coral sand.
Synonym : Phos blainvillei· Deshayes, 1832
Nassar;a acuminata (Reeve, 1844)

(PI. 61, fig. 11)
Shell small, up to 23 mm in height, spire high with smooth protoconch of 2 to 3 whorls,

body whorl slightly shorter than the spire, sutures distinct. Aperture small, with strong lirations
on the interior, outer lip thickened with a varix, finely denticulate on the margin, columella
plicate, anterior canal shorter than in N pus ilia and obliquely recurved, posterior canal distinct
bordered by ridges on either side. Sculptured with strong axial ribs and occasional varices,
crossed by crowded spiral cords. Colour yeJlowish with white aperture.
India: Maharashtra : Bombay; Tamil Nadu : Madras; Pondicherry, Orissa : Ganjam, Puri.
Indo-West Pacific, offshore.
Synonym: Nassaria bitubercularis (A. Adams, 1851)

Nassaria suturalis (A. Adams, 1853)
Nassaria coromandalica (E.A. Smith, 1894)

(PI. 60, fig. 5)
Shell small, up to 30 mm in height, fusiform, spire high, with smooth and glossy protoconch
of2 whorls, body whorl half of the total height. Aperture narrow, with lirations on the interior,
outer Jip thickened occasionally with a varix, usual1y margin not crenulated as in other two
species of the genus, columella with a strong parietal plication and two prominent plications
on the anterior side, wrin.kles on the rest, anterior canal broad but not strongly recurved,
posterior canal distinct. Sculptured with narrow axial ribs crossed by spiral cords forming nodules
at the cross sections, the surface'more nodulose than in the other two species, the interspaces
between the strong spiral cords with fine spiral thread. Colour half white or dull brown with
white aperture.
India : Bay of Bengal. Elsewhere : Sri Lanka, 180 to 360 m, probably endemic to Bay of
Bengal.
Nassaria pusilla (Roeding, 1798)

(PI. 61, fig. 7)
She)) small, up to 20 mm in height, solid, spire elevated, protoconch smooth, I ~ whorl,

body whorl of same height as the spire. Aperture small, with strong Hrations on the interior,
outer lip finely dentate, columella lirate, anterior canal slightly elongate. Strong axial ribs
crossed by spiral cords forming nodules at inter sections. Colour uniformly creamish with white
aperture.
India: Orissa: Ganjam, Puri; Andhra Pradesh: Visakhapatnam; Tamil Nadu : Tranquebar.
South and Southeast Asia, offshore, 10 to 20 m.
Synonym: Nassaria nivea (Gmelin, 1791)

Subfamily PISANIINAE
Cantharus (Pollia) fumosus (Dillwyn, 1817)

(PI. 61, fig. 5)
Shell small, up to 25 mm in height, thick, body whorl higher than the spire. Aperture large,
half of the total shell height, outer lip thick and lirate within, columella with callus bearing
irregular folds, umbilicus obscured by the callus, anterior canal short and broad, posterior canal
with a fold. Sculptured with strong, broad and rounded axial ribs bisected by regular spiral
ridges. Colour yellowish with dark brown ribs, with a spiral white band; aperture, columella
and outer lip white.
India: Gujarat. Indian Ocean, not common.
Cant/,arus (Pollia) spiralis (Gray, 1846)

(PI. 61, fig. 3)
Shell of medium size, up to 45 mm in height, thick with strongly shouldered whorls, spire
narrow and shorter than the body whorl. Aperture broad, outer lip thick, wavy, and flexed at top,
lirate within, columella with callus and smooth, a small depression on t~e outer edge of columella
anteriorly. Sculptured with ten strong white spiral ribs separated by broad brownish grooves on
the body whorl, three on the spire whorls, interspaces with spiral threads, the lowermost spiral
rib broader and thicker bordering the depression. Colour brownis~ with white aperture.
India: Gujarat, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Pondicherry. Indo-Pacific.
Cant/larus (Pollia) tranquebaricus (Gmelin, 1791)

(PI. 61, fig. 1,2)
Shell of medium size, up to 40 mm in height, fusiform, thick, body whorl larger and higher
than the spire, sutures well demarcated, whorls angulate at the shoulders. Aperture large, outer
lip thick, flexed posteriorly, with distinct teeth continuing on to the interior ridges, columella
with callus and irregular wrinkles, anterior canal broad and short, posterior canal absent, umbilicus
absent but with a distinct fasciole. Surface sculptured with varix-like axial ridges, about nine on
the body whorl, forming flattish knobs on the shoulder, crossed by spiral chords separated by
shallow grooves, each chord formed by two or three fine spiral threads. A thick brown
periostracum, colour yellowish, aperture white.
India: Tamil Nadu : Madras, Gulf of Mannar; Pondicherry (very common). Indian Ocean.
Cantharus (Pollia) undosus (Linnaeus, 1758)

(PI. 6 t, fig. 4)
Shell of medium size, up to 40 mm in height, fusiform, heavy and solid, spire short and
straight sided, sutures shallow. Aperture narrOWt outer lip thick with a varix, ridged within,
columella smooth interiorly but irregularly plicate on the outer margin, fasciole weak, anterior
canal short and broad, posterior canal bordered by a parietal tooth and labrum tooth. Sculptured
with heavy and angular, evenly spaced spiral ribs. Colour paJe ye))ow, with dark brown ribs
separated by white or orange interspaces, aperture white, outer lip and lower half of columella
stained with orange.
India: Gujarat, Maharashtra, Goa, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh: Visakhapatnam.
Cantharus (Pollia) wagner; (Anton, 1839)

(PI. 61, fig. 6)
Shell small, up to 30 mm in height, thick and heavy, body whorl higher than the spire,
constricted towards the base. Aperture narrow, outer lip thickened, with five to six strong teeth
and the anterior-most forming a ledge entering the aperture, columella calloused, with lirations
on the parietal wall and two prominent teeth on the lower half. Sculptured with broad axial ribs
prominently crossed by sharply raised spiral cords. Colour creamy white, ornamented with
orange brown bands or spiral rows of brown spots, aperture creamy white.
India: Andamans, not common. Indo-Pacific.
Synonym : Turbinella crenulata Reeve, 1847
Pisania ignea (Gmelin, 1791)

(PI. 60, fig. 4)
Shell of medium size, up to 35 mm in height, narrow, thin, spire almost as high as the
body whorl, apex usually eroded. Aperture moderately wide, outer lip thin, weakly fluted,
occasionally with obsolete teeth in the posterior half and a distinct and strong denticle at the
posterior end bordering the canal, columella smooth and flexed at the base with' a denticle at
the posterior end. Surface smooth except for the growth striae, weak spiral cords at the base
of the body whorl. Colour yellowish with dark brown axial flames and blotches, aperture
dull white.
India: Bay of Bengal, not common. Indo-Pacific.
Synonym: Pisania buccinulunl Roeding, 1798
Engina alveolala (Kiener, 1836)

(PI. 60, fig. 10, 11)
Shell small, up to 20 mm in height, pointed at both ends, body whorl longer than the spire,
protoconch of one smooth whorl. Aperture narrow, outer lip thickened and denticulate, columelJa
258 REC. Za~l. SURV. INDIA, DCC. PAPER No. 192
calloused and denticulate, anterior canal short and narrow, posterior canal bordered by teeth on
either side. Sculptured with nodulose axial ribs, strong spiral threads enclosing in the interstices
fine spiral threads, a row of nodules at the suture. Colour grayish with brown nodules,
encircled by a white band on the body whorl, columella and outer lip purple brown with white
denticles.
India: Andamans. Indo- Pacific.
Engina lineata (Reeve, 1846)

(PI. 60, fig. 8)
Shell small, usuaJJy not more than 8 mm in height, ovate with acuminate spire, whorls 6.
Aperture narrow, outer lip thickned bearing six teeth, columeUa calJoused with plications through
out. Sculptured with broad axial ribs crossed by numerous spiral cords. Colour dull white
ornamented with deep chocolate to black lines, extending to aperture and columeHa, spire whorl
with a single spiral line and body whorl with one on upper part and double on lower part.·
India: Lakshadweep, Tamil Nadu : Pamban. Mainly Pacific.
Synonym: Engina Irifasciata Satyamurti, 1952.
Engilla mendicaria (Linnaeus, 1758)

(PI. 60, fig. 9)
Shell small, up to 17 mm in length, solid, with a short spire and large body whorl, whorls
roundly shouldered. Aperture narrow and higher than the spire, outer lip thickened, slightly
varicose, with large coalescing teeth in the centre. Columella calloused, parietal wall plicate,
central area of columella smooth and lower half bears a row of connected nodules. Sculptured
with obsolete growth striae and spiral cords. Colour blackish with yellowish spiral bands,.
columella and denticles on outer lip purple brown.
India: Lakshadweep, Tamil Nadu, Andamans, common under rocks near the high tide line.
Indo-Pacific.
Appukuttan, K. K. 1996. Marine molluscs and their conservation. In: Marine Biodiversity
Conservation and Management. (N. O. Menon and C. S. O. Pillai, eds.). p. 66-79. Central
Marine Fisheries Research Institute, Cochin.
Ayyakkannu, K. ) 994. Fishery status of Babylonia spirata at Porto Novo, Southeast coast of
India. Phuket Marine Biological Centre Special Publiction, 13 : 53-56.
Cemohorsky, W.O. 1971. Indo- Pacific Pisaniinae (Mollusca: Gastropoda) and related buccinid
genera. Rec. Auckland Inst. Mus., 8: 137-167, 95 text figs.
Cemohorsky, W. O. ] 975. Supplementary notes on the taxonomy of Buccinid species of the
subfamily Pisaniinae (Mollusca: Gastropoda). Rec. Auckland lnst. Mus., 12 : 175-211.
Harasewych, M. G. and Kantor, Yuri I. 2000. On the morphology and taxonomic position of
Babylonia (Neogastropoda : Buccinidae). Eleventh International Tropical Marine.
Molluscs Programme (TMMP) Congress and Workshop, 20th September - 08th October
2000. Abstracts. p. 8.
Melvil1, J.e. 1895a. Description of a new species of Engina from Bombay. Proc. malac. Soc.
Lond, 1 ; 1'62.
Melvill, J.e. 1895b. Descriptions of four new species of Engina and a new species of Detrancia.
Proc. ma/ac. Soc. Lond., 1 : 226-227.
Family COLUMBELLIDAE
Dove Shells
She]) is small to medium, solid and fusiform. Whorls are many with a sman to large body
whorl and high acute spire. Aperture lIsuaJly is long and narrow. SiphonaJ canal is very short.
Outer lip is thin or thickened and often with denticulations on the interior margin. Columellar
margin is smooth or weakly denticulated. Surface usually is smooth but sometimes with axial
and spiral cords. Operculum, when present, is sma)), horny and oblong. Nucleus is eithertenninal
or on the external border.
Cephalic tentacles are long and slender bearing eyes at their outer bases. Foot is large and
narrow. Siphon is long and fleshy. Mantle cavity contains a hypobranchial gland. Proboscis is
pleurembolic with a distal buccal cavity. Radula is rachiglossate (1-1-1 or 1-0-1). There is a
posterior pyriform valve of Leiblein in the anterior oesophagus. A small gland of Leiblein is
present.
Sexes are separate. Male has a large, tapering and tubular penis enclosed in a pouch. Eggs
are laid in hemispherical capsules on hard substrata. Development is indirect.
Dove Shells occur in warm temperate and tropical seas from the intertidal zone to 200 m.
The family is divided into two subfamilies namely Columbellinae and Pyreninae, which include
about 50 genera and about 400 species. Six genera, namely Pseudanachis, Columbel/a, Anachis.
Euplica, Pyrene and Milre/la occur in Indian Seas.
Subfamily COLUMBELLINAE
Pseudanacllis duclosiana (Sowerby, 1847)

(PI. 62, fig. 10, 11)
Shell small, up to 15 mm in height, ovate and acuminate, body whorl more than half the
length of the shell. Aperture broad, flexuous, outer lip thickened with denticles on the interior,
columella with denticles on the interior, canal short and acuminate. Sculptured with fine axial
ribs, interstices finely striated. Colour dark brown.
Radula is rachiglossate. It is a long ribbon consisting of more than 108 transverse rows of
teeth. Each transverse row has one central flanked by one lateral on either side. The centra)
tooth bears 12 strong denticulations.
India: West Bengal, Orissa, Andhra Pradesh. Indo-Pacific.
It is gregariolls and lives attached to undersurface of hard objects near low water mark.
Columbella turturina Lamarck, 1822

(PI. 62, fig. 4, 5)
Shell small, up to 12 mm in height, solid, bulbous, inflated at the shoulder, apex pointed.
Aperture very narrow, outer lip thickened, with eight to nine conspicuous denticles, columella
with two rows of denticles, two large denticles on the inner side and five to six denticles on the
outer side. Surface smooth except for spiral cords at the base of the body whorl. Colour white,
ornamented with orange brown spiral Jines, aperture pinkish.
India: Lakshadweep, Andaman and Nicobar Islands, not common. Indo-Pacific.
Subfamily PYRENINAE
Euplica varians (Sowerby, 1832)

(PI. 62, fig. 12)
Shell small, up to 10 mm in height, solid, short spire. Aperture narrow, outer lip slightly
thickened, with seven denticles, columella with two rows of teeth, one split tooth on the interior
and six denticles on the outer margin. Sculptured with axial ribs on the spire whorls, axial nodes
.at the sho.ulder and prominent spiral cords at the base of the whorl. Colour whitish with spiral
rows of reddish brown markings or lines, aperture light violet.
India: Lakshadweep, Tamil Nadu, coral reefs, moderately common. Indo-Pacific.
Mitrella blanda (Sowerby, 1844)

(PI. 62, fig. 8, 9)
Shell small, up to 18 mm in height, elongate fusiform, protoconch of two whorls, pointed.

Aperture narrow and elongate covering three-fourths of the body whorl, outer lip thickened
with varix bearing obsolete )irations, columella arched ~nd smooth without denticles, a narrow
and short anterior canal, a posterior sinus. Surface very glossy and smooth except for obsolete
spiral striae at base. Colour pale yellow with wavy, zigzag brown axial streaks, dorsum of body
whorl near suture sJightly elevated in the centre and with streaks of dark brown colour making
the area distinct, aperture pale yellow.
India: Gujarat, common in clear sandy areas in river mouths or shallow bays. Not known
from East Coast of India. Probably restricted to Arabian Sea.
Mitre/la puella (Sowerby, 1844)

(PI. 62, fig. 13a-d)
Shell small, up to 12 mIn in height, protoconch of two whorls, teleoconch consists of eight
flat-sided whorls, sutures distinctly prominent, body whorl almost half the total length of the
shell. Aperture narrow, outer lip thickened, varicose and with six denticles on the outer margin,
anterior canal short and slightly recurved. Surface generally smooth, often with axial ribJets on
the early whorls, base of body whorl with strong spiral oblique cords. Colour whitish with
irregular reddish-brown spots.
India: Andamans, very rare. Indo-West Pacific.
Synonym: Colunlbella conspersa Gaskoin, 1852
Pyrene flava (Bruguiere, 1789)

(PI. 62, fig. 6, 7)
Shell small, up to 25 mm in height, elongately spindle-shaped, whorls evenly rounded, devoid

of angular shoulder, sutures slightly impressed. Aperture moderately broad rather narrowed
posteriorly, outer lip slightly thickened and denticulated within, columella with a thin deposit.
of callus. Surface smooth, but body whorl sculptured with fine spiral ridges at the base. Colour
deep yellow with a subsutural spiral row of a few widely spaced, large white spots, aperture and
columella whitish.
India: Tamil Nadu : Gulf of Mannar (Pamban, Krusadai Island); Andamans.
Synonym: Columbella jlavida Lamarck, 1822
Pyrene phi/ippinarum Recluz, 1843

(PI. 62, fig. I)
Shell small, up to 25 mm in height, thick and solid, broadly biconic, spire highly elevated
and pointed, protoconch of two whorls, rounded at the shoulder. Aperture narrow and elongate
almost reaching up to the shoulder of the body whorl, outer lip thick with incurved margin, with
denticulations on the interior, columella straight, with thin callus and smooth interior. Surface
smooth except for six to eight strong spiral ridges at the base. Colour cream, ornamented with
reddish brown lines, a narrow white band in the centre.
Pyrene scripta (Lamarck, 1822)

(PI. 62, fig. 2, 3)
Shell small, up to 15 mm in height, broadly spindle shaped with a moderately short spire,
body whorl longer than the spire, whorls angularly shouldered below the suture. Aperture narrow
and elongate, slightly flexed in the middle, outer lip thick, straight, the posterior end stands
slightly out of the level of the spire due to the angulation of the body whorl, inner margin with
about 10 to 12 strong denticulations, columella slightly arched, with thin callus, anterior half
with an axial row of granules and two small close-set teeth on the interior. Body whorl with fine
close-set spiral grooves, weaker at the shoulder, obsolete above, but strong and conspicuous at
the base. Colour white, ornamented with dark brown lines and dots arranged in transpiral lines
below suture followed by a clear white zone, a series of irregular brown dots or spots below the
white zone.
India: Gujarat : Gulf of Kachchh; Tamil Nadu : Gulf of Mannar; Andaman and Nicobar
Islands, common near coral reefs. Indo-Pacific.
Synonym: Pyrene versicolor (Sowerby, 1832)
Pyrene testudinaria (Link, 1807)

(PI. fig. )
Shell small, up to 20 mm in height, solid, pointed at both ends, but broader and more widely
ovate than in P.flava, whorls evenly rounded, with a comparatively short spire. Aperture narrow,
outer lip thickened and finely denticulate on the interior, columella slightly arched, with four to
five denticles on the anterior end. Surface smooth except for spiral cords at the base of the body
whorl. Colour white with bright, orange brown markings, numerous on the lower half but large
and few on the upper half.
India: Tamil Nadu : Krusadai Island. Indo-Pacific.
Synonym : Columbella vulpecula Sowerby, 1847
Golikov, A. N. and Starobogatov, Y I. 1975. Systematics of prosobranch gastropods.

Malacologia, 15( 1) : 185-232.
Houston, R. S. 1976. The structure and function of Neogastropod reproductive systems with
special reference to Columbellafuscata Sowerby, 1832. Veliger, 19(1) : 27.. 46.
Pace, S. 1902. Contributions to the study of the Columbellidae, no. 1. Proc. malac. Soc. Lond.,
5(1&2) : 36-154.
Family NASSARIIDAE
Mud Snails, Dog Whelks
Shell is small to medium in size ranging up to 40 mm in length. It is broad and ovately

rounded to slender and narrowly elongate with numerous whorls and an elevated spire. Aperture
is constricted, and rounded to narrow. Anterior canal is very short and usually fissured. Posterior
canal usually is in the form of a notch. Outer lip is thick and either smooth or lirate on the
interior. Columella is twisted and develops callus which in SQme grows into a broad shield
often covering the entire ventral surface. Size of the columellar shield is variable and it depends
on the developmental stage of the individual. Columella is either smooth or with denticles.
Umbilicus is covered. Surface of the shell is sculptured with spiral and axial striae or ribs, often
being obsolete on the last two whorls. Sometimes nodules may develop or there may be many
rows of tiny granules or tubercles. Operculum is variable, small and of different shapes, irregularly
ovate, subtrigonal or claw-like and rarely serrate.
Tentacles are moderately large bearing eyes at their outer bases. Foot is long and broad,
rather narrow and pointed, some times bifurcated posteriorly. Siphon is long and conspicuous.
Mantle cavity consists of a monopectinate ctenidium, bipectinate osphradium and hypobranchial
gland. Proboscis is long and pleurembolic with a terminal buccal cavity. Radula is stenoglossate
( 1-1-1). Alimentary system consists of a small gland of Leiblein in the oesophagus and a
erysta,Bine style in the stomach.
Sexes are separate. Male has a tubular penis and a prostate gland. In the female there is an
accessory oviductal opening in the mantle cavity, a bursa copulatrix, capsule gland, seminal
receptacle, ingesting gland and gonopericardial duct. Eggs are laid in capsules. Veliger has a
long duration of life .
The family has representatives in brackish water and from shallow intertidal region to depths
of the sea. The snails prefer soft substrata like mud or sand. A few are herbivores but majority
are carnivores or scavengers feeding on carrion. Mud snails can be seen clustering around a
dead animal.
The family is divided into three subfamilies which include a total of 12 genera and about
200 species.
Subfamily DORSANIINAE
Bul/ia (Bullia) melanoides (Deshayes, 1832)

(PI. 63, fig. 3)
Shell small, up to 20 mm in length, solid, narrowly elongate with slender spire, whorls
slightly inflated, sutures well defined, protoconch of about three smooth whorls. Aperture small
with a widely open notch of the anterior canal, outer lip thin. Surface distinctly latticed due to
the intersection of axial ribs and fine spiral grooves, middle of the body whorl smooth, its base
generally with four to five strong spiral grooves, a single groove immediately below the sutures
and below it two close-set grooves. Colour dark purplish gray with a whitish or pale brown
glossy apex.
India: Gujarat : Somnath; Karnataka : Mangalore; Kerala : Quilon; Tamil Nadu : Tiruchendur,
Kilakkarai, Kundugal Point, Krusadai Is., Pamban, Dhanushkodi, Rameswaram; restricted to
sandy shores of India.
Bullia (Bullia) tranquebar;ca (Roeding, 1798)

(PI. 63, fig. 2)
Shell moderately large, up to 35 mm in length, elongate ovate, light weight, body whorl half
the total shell length. Aperture wide, outer lip smooth, callus smooth, anterior canal short,
broad and fissured. Sculptured with irregular spiral grooves and a subsutural ridge, spiral grooves
more prominent at the base of the body whorl. Colour yellowish to pale brown often with dark
brown wavy axial streaks, aperture white.
India: Maharashtra : Bombay; Lakshadweep;TamiI Nadu : Madras, Tranquebar, Karaikkal,

Nagapattinam; Andhta Pradesh: Visakhapatnam; Orissa: Puri, sandy shores along east and
west coasts. Indian Ocean.
It differs from B. melanoides in the absence of latticed sculpture and in having a wider
aperture.
Bullia (Dorsanum) vittata (Linnaeus, 1767)

(Fig. 34, PI. 63, fig. 1)
Shell moderately large, up to 55 mm in length, elongately turreted, protoconch of three

smooth whorls. Aperture wide, outer lip thin, columella smooth, anterior siphonal notch very
wide. Sculptured with spiral grooves separated by wide interspaces, three rows of beaded spiral
cords just below the sutures. Colour livid brown.
India: Orissa: Gopalpur, Puri, Konark, Chilka mouth; Andhra Pradesh: Bheemunipatnam,
Visakhapatnam; Tamil Nadu : Madras, Agasthiampalli, Tranquebar; Pondicherry, Andamans,
common on the sandy shores of east coast. Indian Ocean.
It is mainly a species of continental shores where it prefers surf beaten intertidal zone. It has
a massive foot with the help of which it quickly burrows into the sand.
Synonym : Bullia livida (Reeve, 1846).

266 REC. Za~L. SURV. lNDIA1 ace. P,APER No. 192
Fig. 34 . .IIul/i(" 'illala w jlh an imal.
SubfalnilyNASSA RIIN,AE
Nassarius (Nassarius) coronalus (Bruguiere, 1789)

(PI. 63, fig. 4, 5)
Shell of medium size, up ,to 34 mm in length, broadly ovate, thick, body whori longer
than the sp:ire, protoconch of two whorls, smooth. Aperture broad, outer lip thick with
lirations on the interior, posteriorly notched ,columella with a callus shield but smaller than
in N.arcularius, a bas;al fold and a parietal idge, anterior canal broad and truncated. Sculptured
with strong axial ribs ,crossed by spiral grooves on spire whorls; body whorl w'th blunt
coronations on the shoulder and spiral grooves on the basal part Coloured brown or greenish
brown, dark brown between coronations, a white subsutural line, aperture purplish brown to
white.
ndi,a : Andaman and 'Nicobar Islands. Indo-West Pacific.
Nassarius (Hima) sto/atus (Gmelin, 1791)

(PI. 65, fig. 8)
Shell small, up to 15 mm in height, ovately conical with inflated body whorl, pointed spire,
whorls overlapping at the suture. Aperture ovate with a sma)) apical notch, outer lip thickened,
backed by a varix, extending above up to half of the penultimate whorl, with six to seven
denticles on the interior, columella calloused with five to six denticles and laminations anteriorly.
Sculptured with axial ribs, almost obsolete on the dorsal side of body whorl and in the form of
nodules below suture, spiral grooves prominent at the base of the body whorl. Colour yellowish-
white with three broad chestnut spiral bands also seen through the aperture.
India : Maharashtra : Bombay; Tamil Nadu : Madras, Tuticorin, Agasthiampalli,

Adirampattinam, Tranquebar, Pamban; Pondicherry, West Bengal: Sunderbans, common. Indo-
West Pacific.
Nassarius suhconstrictus (Sowerby, 1899)

(PI. 65, fig. 6, 7)
Shell small, up to 12 mm in height, fusiform, whorls 7-8, regularly increasing, suture

impressed with a constriction below. Aperture obliquely ovate, siphonal canal short, broad and
a Httle recurved, columella excavated, porcellaneous, with a well-defined restricted callus,
thickened to form a tubercle at the posterior end and outer lip coarsely and varicosely thickened
posteriorly, with fine denticles on the inner margin. Sculptured with characteristic coarse,
longitudinal ribs on the spire whorls and on the shoulder of the body whorl, which become
obsolete below, base with i1ne, wavy spiral striae. Colour greenish when fresh, becoming pale
gree~ish yellow on preservation, ornamented with subsutural and broad basal bands, interior of
aperture white, columella margin white and tinged with flesh red.
India: Tamil Nadu : Ennur backwaters; Orissa: Chilka Lake (from many localities); West
Bengal : Port Canning (Type locality).
Synonym: Nassa denegabilis Preston, 1914 (Type locality: Chilka Lake).
Nassarius (Niotlra) alhescens gemnlu/i/erus (A. Adams, 1852)

(PI. 63, fig. 6, 7)
Shell small, up to 15 mm in height, elongate ovate, spire pointed, protoconch of three whorls,
smooth, body \vhorllonger than the spire. Aperture small, outer lip thickened and lirate interiorly,
columella -calloused, with three to six denticles on the lower half and a parietal denticle above,
anterior canal narrow and posterior sinus short. Sculptured with oblique granulateo axial ribs
crossed by spiral grooves, nodules just below sutures large and more distinct. Colour creamy
white, some with one or two dark brown spiral bands on the body whorl, apex creamy white,
aperture white.
India: Andamans, Indian Seas. Indian Ocean.
Nassarius (NiotlJa) conoidalis (Dcshayes in Belanger, 1832)
Shell small, up to 20 mm in height, body whorl stubby and expanded, sutures broad or
narro\\' and channeled. Aperture wide, outer lip Urate on the interior with ~ to 10 denticles,
columella with expanded callus covering the body whorl, wrinkled or granulose, anterior canal
deep and recurved. Sculptured with regular granules arranged in close- set -axial and spiral
rows, four or five on penultimate whorl, 8 to lOon the body whorl. Colour fleshy brown,
occasionally with two faint bands on the body whorl, columella cream, aperture interior with
t~o_.purplish brown bands.
India: Karnataka : Mangalore; Tamil Nadu : Madras, Tranquebar; Pondicherry (common);

Orissa: Puri, Chatrapur; Andamans. Indo-Pacific.
Occurs on coral and weedy sands from shallow intertidal to deeper water and also on
mudflats.
Synonyms :Buccinum gemmulatum Lamarck, 1822 is a primary homonym of Buccinum
gemnlu/alum Wood, ) 818
Nassarills (Niotha) distortus (A. Adams, 1852)

(PI. 63, fig. 8)
Shell small, up to 25 mm in height. Aperture moderately broad and round, outer lip slightly
thickened, with 12 to 17 lirations on the interior, c01umel1a with slightly expanded callus,
columellar margin smooth except for a parietal denticle and two to four small denticles at the
base, anterior canal short and deep. posterior canal narrow. Sculptured with axial ribs separated
by broad, smooth spaces, 12 to 16 ribs on the penultimate whorl and 12 to 17 on the body whorl,
ribs stepped up at sutures and separated from the subsutural nodules, coarse spiral cords at the
base of the body whorl. Colour cream or half- white, ornamented with a brown band at the
centre of the body whorl, apex purple, aperture interior light brown with a dark band, columella
and outer lip white.
India: Tamil Nadu. Indo-Pacific.
Nassarius (Niot/IlI) jacksonianus (Quoy & Gaimard, 1833)

(PI. 64, fig. 2)
Shell small, lip to 15 mm in length, ovately conical, spire acute and longer than the aperture.
Outer lip with a varix externally and with four to six elongated denticles on the interior, columellar
callus strongly laluinated on the body whorJ, with four to six denticles anteriorly. Sculptured
SUBBA RAO : INDfAN SEA SHELLS: POL YPLACOPHORA AND GASTROPODA 269
with widely spaced axial ribs, 12 to 13 on the penultimate whorl, six to eight on the body whorl,
on the latter 12 to 15 overriding spiral cords, obsolete on the dorsum, remains of nodules just
below the suture, colour cream with brown spiral bands, outer lip white, aperture white with a
purplish band inside.
India: Maharashtra : Bombay; Tamil Nadu : Madras, Tuticorin, Porto Novo, Mandapam,
Pamban, Krusadai Is., Kundugal Point; Pondicherry, Orissa: Puri, Chilka Lake; Indian Ocean.
It be~rs some resembl~nce to Nassarius stolatus (Gmelin).
Nassarius (Niol/la) livescens (Philippi, ] 840)

(PI. 64, fig. 1)
Shell small, up to 20 mm in lengt,h, gemmulate or noduled. Outer lip with ] 0 to ] 3 )irations

on the interior, columella with a strong callus extending on to the body whorl, often the callus
thin above parietal wall and fonn thick lamina in that region, 4 to 10 denticles on the inner
margin, anal canal short and deep. Sculptured with oblique axial ribs and crossed by deeply
incised or shallow spiral grooves forming granules at the intersections, subsutural row of granules
Inore conspicuous than the rest. Colour creamy-white \vith two to three broad brown bands on
the body whorl, in some clouded with brown, columellar callus and outer lip white.
India: Maharashtra : Bombay; Lakshadweep, Talnil Nadu, Orissa, Andaman and Nicobar
Islands. Indo-Pacific, occurs in weedy intertidal sands.
Nassarius (IViotlla) luridus (Gould, 1849)

(PI. 64, fig. 5, 6)
She)) small, up to 25 mIn in height, elongate ovate, with inflated body whorl, spire pointed.
Aperture moderately large . outer lip with lirations on the interior, columella with thick callus
but not much expanded, columellar margin with obsolete denticles, strong parietal lamina and
an anterior lamina, anterior canal deep, posterior canal broadly open. Sculptured with close-set
axial ribs on the early whorls, others smooth with nodules just below the suture, seven to eight
strong spiral striae at the base of the body whorl, the back of the outer lip often with four to six
crowded axial ribs. Colour variable white-gray, ornamented with orange-brown lines, with dark
brown spots near the sutures, aperture with purple-brown interior.
India : Andamans.
Nassarius (Niotlta) nodiferus (Powys, 1835)

(PI. 64, fig. 4)
Shell small, up to 25 mm in height, with convex whorls, body whorl inflated. Aperture
broadly oval, outer lip with 10 to 11 denticles, thickened axial ribs on the back, coluI11ella
calloused forming shield on the body whorl, columellar margin with irregular denticles, anterior
and posterior canals broad, the latter bordered by parietal ridge, with a fasciole. Sculptured with
wideJy spaced coarse axial ribs, 13 to 18 on the spire whorls, 22 on the body whorl, ribs constricted
a little below suture forming nodules, strong spiral cords at t~e base of the body whorL Colour
brown, ornamented with pale and narrow spiral bands, columella, outer lip white, aperture
purple-brown with band.
India: Maharashtra : Bombay; Tamil Nadu : Tuticorin, Tranquebar, Rameswaram; Andamans.
Indo-Pacific.
Nassari"s (Plicarcu/ar;a) g/obosus (Quoy & Gaimard, 1833)

(PI. 64, fig. 9, 10)
Shell stnall, up to 20 mm in height, spire pointed. Aperture narrowly elongate, ·columella

\vith large, smooth and rounded callus, with two or three denticles at the base and a parietal
ridge, outer lip thickened, \vith lirations on the interior, anterior canal broad and deep;posterior
canal distinct bordered by a parietal ridge. Sculptured with beaded axial ribs and spiral rows of
granules all over. Colour fawn or bro\vn, occasionally with a broad, dark brown band on the
body \vhorJ, columellar callus white or cream.
India: Andaman and .Nicobar Islands. Indo-Pacific.
Nassarius (P/icarcularia) graniferus (Kiener, 1834)

(PI. 64, fig. 7. 8)
Shell small, up to 2S mm in height, spire pointed. Aperture narrow, columellar callus expanded
covering the body whorl on the ventral side, nodulose on the upper part, with one or two denticles
at the base, upper lip thickened, with 10 to 12 denticles at the base, lirations on the interior,
anterior canal deep and short, posterior canal distinct. Sculptured with rows of evenly spaced
nodules, one row on the early whorJs, two on the penultimate whorl and four on the body whorl,
with axial growth striae and spiral striae. Colour cream to fawn, columellar callus \vhite, aperture
with yellow interior.
Nassar;us (P/icarcu/aria) pU//IiS (Linnaeus, 1758)

(PI. 65, flg~ I, 2)
Shell slnall, up to 20 mm in height, solid, body whorl Jonger than the spjre. Aperture sman,
outer lip strongly thickened and lirated on the interior, columellar callus large covering-totally
the ventral part of the body whorl, with three or four denticles, a strong fold at the base, a thick
parietal ridge bordering the short deep posterior canal, anterior canal short, deep and forked.
Sculptured with a humped callosity on the dorsum, early whorls ribbed, slender axial ribs
throughout except on the left of the dorsal hump, two to four granulose spiral cords on the base
of the body whorl, incised line below the suture. Colour olive or brown with a narrow white line
on the body whorl in some, columellar callus creamy white.
India : Andhra Pradesh : Visakhapatnam; Tamil Nadu : Gulf of Mannar, Tranquebar;
Pondicherry, Andamans, not common. Indo-West Pacific.
Synonyms : Nassarius thersites (Bruguiere, 1789)

Nassarius gracilis (Pease, 1868)
Nassarius (Zeuxis) dorsatus (Roeding, 1798)

(PI. fig. )
Shell large, up to 90 mm in height, solid and elongate. Aperture large, outer lip thickened
supported by a prominent varix, with weak Iirations on the interior and three to eight weak
denticles on the margin, columella calloused and finely denticulate. Sculptured with axial ribs
and sutural nodules on the apical whorls, body whorl smooth with 8 to 10 oblique cords at the
base. Colour variable, steel gray with obsolete brown bands, occasionally tan or dark brown,
interior of aperture purple brown.
India: Tamil Nadu : Madras, Tuticorin, Porto Novo, Tranquebar, Rameswaram, Palk Bay;
Pondicherry, common. Indo-West Pacific.
Synonym: Nassarius canaliculatum (Lamarck, 1822)
Nassarius (Zeuxis) foveolatus (Reeve, 1853)

(PI. 65, fig. 5)
Shell small, up to 20 mm in height, oblong ovate, spire elevated and acute, body whorl
narrower than in other species. Aperture ovate, outer lip slanting supported by a varix, 12 to 14
lirations on the interior, anteriorly with five to seven small projecting spines, columella with not
much expanded callus, margin with denticles all along, the posterior most and the anterior most
stronger and drawn into the aperture, parietal denticle strong bordering the narrow anal canal,
anterior canal broad and deep. Sculptured with close-set, fine axial ribs on all the whorls,
interstices with spiral striae giving cancel1ate appearance, with a subsutural ridge. Colour yellow
or yellowish brown, aperture cream.
India: Maharashtra : Bombay; Keraia, Tamil Nadu : Madras, Porto Novo; Orissa : Chilka
Lake; West Bengal: Digha, Sunderbans; common. Indian Ocean.
Nassarius (Zeuxis) olivaceus (Bruguiere, t 798)
(PI. 65, fig. 3)
Shell of medium size, up to 40 mm in height, thick, body whorl longer than the spire. Aperture
small, outer lip thickened and slanting, with varix behind and denticles on the inner edge,
columella concave and calloused, with denticles, anterior canal well-developed and shallow,
anal canal short and bordered by a parietal ridge. Sculptured with oblique axial ribs on the early
whorls, later smooth, body whorl smooth with spiral grooves at the base, conspicuous on the
ventral side and towards the varix of the outer lip. Colour tan to dark brown, often with yellow
band at the shoulder of the body whorl, interior of aperture purple-brown.
India: Tamil Nadu: Rameswaram; Pondicherry, Andamans, not common. Indo-Pacific.
Hebra horridus (Dunker, t 847)

(PI. 65, fig. 4)
Shell small, up to t 5 mm in length, elongate ovate with pointed spire. Aperture rounded,
outer lip thickened with lirations on the interior, columellar callus wide spreading over to the
body whorl, margin with about six denticles, callus surface with granules and wrinkles. Sculptured
with spinose axial ribs crossed by spiraJ threads. Colour light brown often with dark brownish
bands.
Synonyms : Nassarius curta (Gould, 1850)
Nassarius muricata (Quoy and Gaimard, 1833)
Selected Bibliograpby
Cemohorsky, W.O. 1984. Systematics of the family Nassariidae. Bull. .Auckland Inst. Mus.,
14 : 1-356.
Namboodri, P.N. and Sivadas, P. 1980. On the occurrence of Bullia tranqllebarica (Roeding)
(Nassariidae : Gastropoda) in Kavaratti atoll (Lakshadweep). Curro Sci., 49(17) :
683-684.
Family MELONGENIDAE
Crown Conchs, Whelks

Shell is medium to large and thick having a pyriform to fusiform shape. Whorls are a few
with a more or less flattened or elevated spire bearing a sizable protoconch. Shell is covered by
brown or opaque periostracum. Aperture is large and wide with a thickened and smooth outer
lip. Columella is also smooth and without any plaits. Sculpture is not very conspicuous. There
may be a few spiral cords at the base and strong knobs or tubercles at the shoulder. Operculum
is thick, horny and unguiculate with a terminal nucleus.
Head' bears a pair of tentacles. Foot is large and powerful. Mantle cavity contains a large
monopectinate ctenidium, bipectinate osphradium and large hypobranchial gland. Proboscis is
long, narrow tipped and pleurembolic with a distal buccal cavity. Radula is stenoglossate (I-I-
I) or rarely it may be absent. Alimentary system consists of a pair of large salivary glands
without accessory glands and a gland of Leiblein in some. MeJongenids do not have acessory
boring organ and accessory salivary glands unlike muricids. Some malacologists are in favour
of including melongenids in the family Buccinidae due to similarity in their radular and anatomical
characteristi cs.
Sexes are separate. Male has a large penis on the right side and the female has a large
capsule gland. The eggs are laid in clusters or strings. There is a free-swimming larval stage but
frequently a crawling young may emerge out of the egg.
Melongenids feed on gastropods, bivalves, polychaetes, ascidians and carrion. Recent
laboratory studies had shown that P. cochlidium feeds on bivalves such as Anadara granosa,
Perna viridis, Meretrix costa, Meretrix meretrix and Katelys.ia opima (= Marcia opima) and
unidentified polychaetes (Benny et al., 1996; Siraimeetan et al., 1988). Studies on other
melongenids also revealed that they feed on bivalves. However, the feeding habits of a species
may vary from place to place. In Singapore P. cochlidium was observed to feed on the barnacle
Balanus amphitrite and Balanus variegates (Tan and Phauah, 1999).
These are mainly carnivores or scavengers, occurring on muddy sand substrates in shallow
water, where clams are also available. It is a small family with six genera and about 30 species.
The genus Pugilina is common in the Indian ocean. In India the genus is represented by three
species, which occur in bays and backwaters.
Pugilina (Hemifusus) carnarium (Roeding, 1798)

(PI. 66, fig. 1, 2)
Shell large, up to 110 mm in height, solid and heavy, body whorl wide with a short and blunt
spire. Aperture very wide, outer lip thick and smooth. Columella with callus from anterior to
posterior end, smooth, umbilicus open. Sculptured with one row of slnall tubercles just near
the suture on spire whorls, two rows of strong tubercles on the body whorl, one at the
shoulder being larger than the one below it, spiral cords on the spire whorls and on the body'
whorl below the lower row of tubercles. Colour wheatish-brown, with a thick periostracum,
aperture white.
India: Gujarat, not known from the East Coast. Indian ocean.
Synonym : Melongena bucephala Lamarck, 1822.
Pugilina (Hemifusus) cochlidium (Linnaeus, 1758)

(PI. 66, fig. 3, 4)
Shell large, up to 105 mm in height, almost pear shaped, solid and heavy, whorls angular,
concave from suture to shoulder, shell less broad than in P. carnarium. Aperture narrow and
elongate, outer lip with obsolete ridges, columella without any fold, anterior canal short
and broadly open, very narrow and shallow umbilicus, strong fasciole. Sculptured with axial
ribs on the spire whorls, body whorl with close set spiral ridges on the lower half and more or
less smooth on the remaining part, a row of about eight strong compressed tubercles at the
angular shoulder of the last two whorls. Colour reddish brown, interior of aperture brownish
yellow.
India: East and West Coasts, common in the shallow muddy areas and estuaries, abundant
in the Kakinada Bay, Andhra Pradesh. Indian Ocean.
Pugilina (Hemi/usus) lernalanus (Gmelin, 1791)

(PI. 66, fig. 5, 6)
Shell large, up to 100 mm in height, lightweight, ovately pyriform, whorls angular at shoulder.
Aperture broad and oval, outer lip thin, with lirations on the interior, columella with callus often
with spiral ridges extending on to it, siphonal canal broad and long. Sculptured with irregular,
obtuse spiral ridges, fine above the angle and broad below, prominently noduled at the angle.
Colour fawn yellow to yellowish red, aperture flesh coloured.
India: Tamil Nadu, not common. Southeast Asia.
Volema paradisiaca nodosa (Lamarck, 1822)

(PI. 66, fig. 7, 8)
Shell of moderate size, up to 55 mm in height, thick, solid, ovately pyriform, spire short and
blunt, body whorl slightly angulated at the shoulder. Aperture broad, outer lip thick with strong
lirations on the interior, co)ume))a with thick callus on the anterior two thirds and thin callus on
the posterior one third, umbilicus narrow, with a strong fasciole, anterior canal short and widely
open, posterior canal distinct. Sculpture not as conspicuous as in the other species of the family,
small nodules on the spire whorls, often strong at the shoulder of the body whorl, ridges separated
by distinct grooves at the base of the body whorl. Colour yellowish brown, sometimes with
chocolate brown spiral bands. Colour yellowish brown, interior of aperture light brown.
India : No specific locality, rare. Indian Ocean.
REFERENCES
Bayer, Ch. 1952. Catalogue of the genera Melongena and Semifusus. Zool. Meded, 31 (25) :
265-299.
Benny, A., Venmathimaran, B. A. and Ayyakkannu, K. 1996. Phuket Mar. Bioi. Centre, Special
Publication no. 16 : 273-278.
Siraimeetan, P., Ameer hamsa, K. M. S. and Satyanarayana Rao, K. 1988. Bull. cent. Mar.
Fish. Res. Inst. Cochin, no. 42 : 111-116.
Tan, K. S. and Phauah, C. L. 1999. Diet and feeding habits of Pugilina cochlidium
(Neogastropoda: Melongenidae). J. Moll. Stud. (1999) 65 : 499-501.
Family FASCIOLARIIDAE
Horse Conchs, Tulips
Shell is small to very large, often attaining 200 mm in height (elsewhere it is 600 mm),
fusiform or spindle-shaped with a few whorls and an elongate spire. It usually is covered
by brown to opaque periostracum and usually not brightly coloured. Aperture is ovate to
subpyriform with lirations on the interior. Outer lip may bear strong or weak denticles or smooth.
Columella usually is smooth, but often may bear weak folds and a fasciole at the anterior
end. Anterior siphonal canal is weJl developed and very long. Posterior sinus is indistinct.
Shell surface may have axial and spiral cords, which may be strong and in some there are
knobs on the body whorl. Operculum is brown, horny, fairly thick, oval to unguiculate with a
terminal nucleus.
Head is small and narrow bearing short tentacles with eyes at their outer bases. Foot is broad
and short. A monopectinate ctenidium, bipectinate osphradium and a hypobranchial gland are
present in the mantle cavity. Proboscis is very long, pleurembolic with a distal buccal cavity.
Radula is stenoglossate (1-1-1). Alimentary system, besides the usual structures, consists of
large salivary glands, a small gland of Leiblein.
Sexes are separate. Male has a large penis. In female, the ingesting gland serves the function
of seminal receptacle. Eggs are deposited in capsules and the development may be direct or
through a free-swimming larva.
The family has a cosmopolitan distribution. Majority are deep-water forms while a few
occur in shallow intertidal zone.
These are carnivores feeding on wonns and clams.
The family is divided into four subfamilies, Fasciolariinae, Fusiniinae, Peristemiinae and
Colubrariinae, which include about 32 genera and 200 species. Six genera and 20 species are
reported from India. The subfamily Colubrariinae is elevated to a separate famrly by some
(Boss, 1982).
Subfamily FASCIOLARIINAE
Pleuroploca filamentosa (Roeding, t 798)

(PI. 67, fig. I)
Shell large, up to 115 mm in height, solid, spindle shaped, suture ad pressed, shoulders round,
spire strongly elongate. Aperture elongate with close-set yellowish spiral ridges within, outer
lip with dark brown denticles, columella with callus anteriorly, glazed, arched and with three to
four plaits anteriorly. anterior canal elongate and slightly twisted. Surface sculptured with
prominent spiral cords crossed by faint axial striae, a row ·ofaxial nodules on each whorl.
Colour bluish-white, cords reddish brown.
India: Lakshadweep, Tamil Nadu : Pamban, Krusadai Island, Shingle Island, Kilakkarai;
Pondicherry. Indo-Pacific.
Pleuroploca trapezium (Linnaeus, 1758)

(PI. 67, fig. 2)
Shell very large, up to 170 mm in height, heavy and thick, spire strongly elevated and sharply
pointed, shoulder strongly developed. Aperture broad, with strong ridges on the interior, outer
lip with seven pairs of teeth where spiral lines meet the edge, columella with callus, smooth
except for three anterior plaits, anterior canal broad and extended, fasciole weak. Sculptured
with a little pointed strong knobs on the shoulders, incised paired spiral lines also seen through
the aperture. Flesh coloured with incised dark brown lines, covered by dark periostraculn,
columella pale brown.
India: Tamil Nadu : Tuticorin, Pamban; Andamans. Indo-Pacific, moderately common under
coral rocks in shallow water down to 20 m.
It is collected in large quantities on the Southeast coast of India and its meat IS exported
to Southeast Asia. About 225.2 tons in 1992 and 402.5 tons in 1993 were collected (Ayyakkannu,
1994).
Subfamily FUSININAE
Fusinus co/us (Linnaeus, 1758)

(PI. 67, fig. 5)
Shell very large, up to 140 mm in height, spindle shaped with an elevated spire, Aperture
moderately narrow and lirate within, outer lip finely dentate, columella with thin callus, without
plaits or plications, ridges showing through, siphonal canal very long and slender. Sculptured
with prominent axial ribs on early whorls, last three whorls with obsolete axial ribs remaining
as two nodules on the shoulder, with prominent spiral ribs extending on to the siphonal canal.
Usually white or Jight cream with a few brown streaks, brown between ribs and nodules, aperture
white, edge tinged with brown.
India : Orissa: Chandipur, Chatrapur, Gopalpur; Tamil Nadu: Madras, Tuticorin, Pamban;
Andamans. Indo-Pacific, occurs on sandy bottoms at 15 to 20 m depth.
The species of Fusinus are distinguished from that of Fasciolaria by their more slender and
usually white shells, long, narrow and straight siphonaJ canal, in the absence of plaits on the
columella and in their sculpture.
Synonyms : Fusinus loreuma (Deshayes, 1843)

Fusinus loreuma (Lamarck, 1822) : Satyamurti, 1952
Latirus andamanicus E. A. Smith, 1894.
Fusinus forceps (Perry, 1811)

(PI. 67, fig. 3)
Shell very large, up to 135 mm in height, solid, spindle shaped, spire whorls well rounded.
Aperture oval, columella smooth with callus raising s1ightly above the level of the shell, with
one or two weak parietal plications, outer lip thick with wavy outer margin and lirations on the
interior, anterior canal long and slend~r, posterior sinus present. Sculptured with broad, rounded
axial ribs crossed by fine spiral ridges which continue on to the siphonal canal. Colour white
covered by pale brown periostracum.
India: Tamil Nadu : Gulf of Mannar. South Asia.
Synonym : Fusinus turriculus (Kiener, 1840)
Fusinus nicobaricus (Roeding, 1798)

(PI. 67, fig. 4)
Shell of medium size, up to 42 mm in length, smallest for the genus, elongately, fusiform.
Aperture narrow and Ii rate , outer lip thin and smooth, columella with narrow callus, with
plications on the margin, siphonal canal long and stoul Sculptured with axial ribs on early whorls,
last two whorls with prominent nodes at the shoulder which tend to be duplicated by small nodes
flanking to it, body whorl with very thick spiral cords and longitudinal striae prominent at suture.
Colour cream with irregular reddish-brown longitudinal lines and streaks, aperture white.
India: Tamil Nadu : Tuticorin; Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Indo-Pacific.
It is distinguished by its more elevated and rounded spiral ridges and the dark coloured
flames on the surface.
Subfamily PERISTERNIINAE
Peristernia IIassatula Lamarck,

(PI. 67, fig. 7)
Shell small, up to 20 mm in height, solid, ovately oblong. Aperture narrow, with Iirations on
the interior, outer lip angulate with fine denticulations on the margin, columella with callus,
two to three anterior plicae and a parietal plicae, anterior canal sl'tort and oblique. Sculptured
SUBBA RAO : INDIAN SEA SHELLS: POLYPLACOPI lORA AND GASTROPODA 279
with strong axial ribs becoming nodulose at the shoulder on the last hvo whorls, rest of the
surface with conspicuous spiral cords and axial striae. Colour light yellowish brown, reddish
brown in the interstices between the ribs, often with dark orange brown band, aperture violet.
India: Andamans, rarc. Indo-West pacific.
Peristernia pulcllella (Reeve, 1847)

(PI. 68, fig. 3)
Shell small, up to 20 mm in height, narrowly fusiform, narrower than in P. uS/lilata. Aperture

small and oval, lirate within, outer lip convex and thin, columella smooth with thin, narrow
callus and anterior canal moderately long, but longer than in P. ustulata, posterior sinus present.
Sculptured with strong, coarse and oblique axial ribs crossed by widely separated strong spiral
cords. Colour yellowish-brown, aperture J ight brown.
India: Andamans, rare. Indo-Pacific.
Peristernia IIstulata (Reeve, 1847)

(PI. 67, fig. 8, 9)
Shell small, up to 15 mm in height, thick. Aperture small and lirate within, outer lip convex,
wavy and constricted basally, columella with callus and with three plicae anteriorly, anterior
canal short and a little recurved. Sculptured \vith coarse axial ribs and scabrous spiral cords.
Colour light yellowish brown, aperture cream coloured.
India: Andamans, rare. Indo-Pacific, common.
Peristernia violacea (Reeve, 1847)

(PI. 67, fig. 6)
Shel1 sma)), up to 20 mm in height, sOlnewhat fusiform, spire high with acuminate apex.
Aperture small and ovate, with seven to nine lirations on the interior, outer lip thin and wavy,
columella with callus, smooth except for four plicae anteriorly, umbilicus narrowly open, anterior
canal short and narrow. Sculptured \vith strong axial ribs, crossed by strong spiral cords. Colour
dull white, aperture pinkish-violet \vhen fresh, blackish-chestnut stain at base.
Latirus belcheri (Reeve, 1847)

(PI. 68, fig. 1)
Shell of medium size, up to 35 Inm in height, fusiforrn, spire rather tUITeted. Outer lip angulate
and with denticles in fully grown specimens, constricted at the anterior end, columella with
callus anteriorly, three strong plicae anteriorly and one small denticle posteriorly, anterior canal
open and moderately short. Sculptured with strong spiral cords enclosing in between fine striae,
whorls concave round the upper part, encircled with a row of wavy nodes at the suture and a
dupl icate series of tubercles on the body whorl. Colour white, ornamented with conspicuous
black flames and blotches and white axial lines, aperture light blue, denticles on outer lip blackish~
brown.
India: Lakshadweep, rare. Indo-Pacific.
Latirus craticulatus (Linnaeus, 1758)

(PI. 68, fig. 2)
Shell of medium size, up to 45 mm in height, cylindrically elongated, thick, whorls convex.

Aperture short and narrowly oval, outer lip convex, with lirations on the interior, constricted at
the base, col umella with four plicae anteriorly and a parietal denticle bordering the posterior
sinus, anterior canal short and recurved to the left. Sculptured with obscure, blunt axial ribs,
becoming obsolete on the lower part of the body whorl, sutures of the spire very finely scaled,
spirally encircled with rather distantly placed prominent spiral cords. Colour yellowish-white,
axial rib brick red, aperture dull white.
India : Andamans. Indo-Pacific.
The species can easily be demarcated by the coloured ribs.
Latirus gibbulus (Gmelin, 1791)

(PI. 68, fig. 5, 6)
Shell moderately large, up to 70 mm in height, fusiform, thick, solid, smooth. Whorls

concavely depressed round the upper part. Aperture short, outer lip convex, constricted anteriorly
with fine denticles on the margin, columella smooth, umbilicus large. Sculptured with obtuse
rounded knobs at the angles, obsolete spiral threads and growth striae. Colour wheatish brown,
with dark brown, paired spiral lines, aperture yellowish.
India: Lakshadweep, Andamans, not common. Indo-Pacific.
Latirus nodotus (Gmelin, 1791)

(PI. 68, fig. 3)
Shell small, up to 30 mm in height, solid. Aperture narrow, columella with 6 small plicae,
siphonal canal moderate. Sculptured with large, coarse nodes and distinct spiral cords on the
anterior end.
.uaBA RAO : INDIAN SEA SHELLS: POL YPLACOPHORA AND GASTROPODA 281
Latirlls polygonus (Gtnelin, 1791)

(PI. 68, fig. 7)
Shell moderately large, up to 60 mm in height, fusifortn, angulate, sutures constricted. Outer

lip finely denticulate and ridged within in fully grown specimens, columella with callus and
four small plicae anteriorly, anterior canal broad and short with a weak fasciole. Whorls concavely
depressed round the upper part, sculptured with strong spiral ridges, one row of blunt tubercles
on the spire whorls, two rows on the body whorl. Colour cream and covered by a brown
periostracum, dark brown spira) bands, aperture white.
India: Tamil Nadu; pearl banks off Tuticorin; Andamans. Indo-Pacific.
Leucozonia (Laterolagena) smaragtlulus (Linnaeus, 1758)

(PI. 68, fig. 9)
Shell of tnedium size, up to 35 min in height, solid and globose. Aperture narrow, \vith
obsolete lirations on the interior, outer Jip thick and constricted anteriorly, columella with callus,
with two to four plicae anteriorly and a parietal knob posteriorly, anterior canal short and
oblique. Sculptured with close-set raised spiral cords separated by narrow grooves. Colour
dark brown, spiral cords reddish- brown and interstices white, aperture white with a blackish
stain on the anterior part of columella. In majority the outer Jip is broken, so also the specimen
figured.
India: Lakshadweep, Nicobars : Car Nicobar; common in the coral reefs. So far not reported
from reefs of Gulf of Mannar. Indo-Pacific.
Subfamily COLUBRARIINAE
Coluhraria muricata (Lightfoot, 1776)

(PI. 68, fig. 8)
Shell large, lip to 90 mm in height, solid, fusiform, whorls coiling irregularly, sutures
shallow, protoconch of two whorls, slnooth. Aperture narro\v and elongate, outer lip thick,
with twelve lirations on the interior, columella calloused, glazed and completely s11100th,
siphonal canal short, broad and a little recurved, posterior canal distinct and bordered by a
parietal ridge. Sculptured with granulose axial ridges crossed by \videly spaced spiral cords
and two varices on each whorls. Colour cream ish ye))ow, mottled and spotted dark brown,
aperture white.
Coluhraria tortuosa (Reeve, 1844)

(PI. 68, fig. 4)
Shell of medium size, up to 45 mm in height, thin, fusiform, whorls coiling irregularly,

sutures shallow, protoconch of I Y2 smooth whorls. Aperture narrow, outer lip slightly thickened,
weakly lirate, columella with callus and without teeth, siphonal canal short and narrow, posterior
canal absent. Sculptured with axial ribs crossed by spiral grooves producing beaded appearance,
one varix on each whorl. Colour grayish brown and mottled with dark brown spots, aperture
crealny white.
IUSBA RAO : INDIAN SEA SHELLS: POL YPLACOPHORA AND GASTROPODA 283
Falnily VOLUTIDAE
Volutes, Bailer Shells.
Shell is moderate to very large in size, often extending up to 500 mIn in height. It may be
narrow with a high spire or inflated and globose with a sunken spire. Aperture is long and
narro\v to broadly open. Columella bears folds or plications as in mitres, but the anterior most
fold usually is the strongest. Anterior canal is truncate and the posterior one is indistinct or
absent. Surface is ornamented with shades of dark brown or orange. Operculum is absent in the
majority.
Head is small and has a broad hood over the rhynchostome. Tentacles are short and eyes are
sessile when present. Foot is large and broad. Mantle is large and often extends over the shell
covering it partly. Its edge bears a siphon, which carries two processes or lappets. Mantle cavity
consists of a lTIonopectinate ctenidium, bipectinate osphradium, and a hypobranchial gland,
which sometilnes secrets purple fluid. Proboscis is pieurembolic, and short with a hood-cover.
Radula rarely is stenoglossate (1-1-1) but usually is uniserrate with only a central (0-1-0).
Alimentary systeln consists of tubular salivary glands and their accessory glands, and a gland of
Leiblein in the oesophagus.
Sexes are separate. Male carries a penis, an open pallial gonoduct or a prostate gland. Eggs
are laid in capsules and the development may be direct or through pelagic veliger larva.
It is a large family divided into nine subfatnilies that include a total of about 46 genera and
250 species. These are widely distributed in shallow intertidal areas to deep waters of the sea.
Majority however, occur in the offshore regions. They feed on Inolluscs or flesh of dead anitnals.
These are poorly known in India and are represented by only four species.
Subfamily CYMBIINAE
Melo melD (Solander, 1786)

(P 1. 70, fig. 4, 5)
Shell very large, up to 200 mm in height, ovoid, not very thick, with reduced spire, enlarged
and strongly inflated body whorl. Aperture very wide and elongated, coluinella \\lith three to
four folds, anterior canal broad and deeply excavated. Surface sn100th except for oblique axial
growth striae. Colour bright yello\vish orange and ornamented with a few dark brown patches
around the middle of the body whorl.
India: Tamil Nadu : Mostly off Corolnandal Coast. Southeast India, Bangladesh to South
China Sea through Malaysia, up to 10m.
Although not common, shells are traded at Kanya Kumari and other coastal places ofTamiJ
Nadu and also at Port Blair, Andamans. In the Port Blair market it is popularly known as Mango
Shell. There is a good demand for this in local shellcraft industry. All shells are obtained from
Tamil Nadu.
Synonym: Cymbiunz indica (Gmelin, 1791)
Subfamily ZIDONINAE
Harpulina /apponica (Linnaeus, 1767)

(P 1. 69, fig. 8)
Shell slnall, up to 20 mm in height, solid, ovate, spire more elevated than in M nleio, globose,
protoconch of three smooth whorls, suture uneven and faintly channeled. Aperture narrow,
outer lip thickened and slanting. columella with equally strong plaits anteriorly, four or five
weak plications posteriorly, anterior canal narrow, posterior canal narrow and deep, callus partly
covers fasciole. Sculptured with low axial ribs on spire whorls, obsolete on antepenultimate
whorl, about ten low, axially pinched nodules on body whorl, becoming obsolete near the outer
lip. Colour cream, ornamented with spiral rows of dark brown dots and dashes except for a
band below suture, often with three spiral bands of pale brown blotches.
India: Talnil Nadu : Gulf of Mannar, coral reefs. Elsewhere: North Sri Lanka. Endemic to
Bay of Bengal.
REFERENCE
Weaver. C. S. and du Pont, J. E. 1979. Living Volutes: A Monograph of the Recent Volutidae
of the world. Delaware Museum of Natural History, Monogr. Sere No.1: 1-375,
79 color pis.
SUBBA RAO : INDIAN SEA SHELLS; POL YPLACOPHORA AND GASTROPODA 285
FaJnily : VASIDAE
Vase Shells, Chanks
Shell usually is large and heavy, with pyriform or fusiform shape. Body whorl is very large
compared to the spire. Aperture is oval to narrowly lirate. Outer lip is thick and may be smooth
or with a few teeth. Columella margin bears four to five strong folds. Anterior siphonal canal is
long or short and the posterior canal is indistinct. Sculpture consists of rows of tubercles or
nodes and distinct spiral cords. Operculum is corneous, oval and unguiculate with a terminal
nucleus.
Head is small. Tentacles are also small bearing eyes at their outer bases. Foot is broad and
may be bifid anteriorly. Proboscis is long and pleurembolic, with a distal buccal cavity. Radula
is stenoglossate (1-1-1). Alimentary system consists of a small gland ofLeiblein and its pyriform
valve. Sexes are separate. Male has a penis that often bears a terminal process. Female lays eggs
in strings of capsules.
They are common in the reefs of Gulf of Kachchh, Lakshadweep, Gulf of Mannar and
Andaman and N icobar Islands. They are carnivores and feed on worms and clalns. The fami Iy
is small containing about 25 speci~s, occurring in shallow coral reefs. It is recognized into three
subfamilies Va~inae, Turbinellinae and ptychatractinae. The first two have their representation
in India.
Subfamily VASINAE
Vasum ceram;cum Linnaeus, 1758

(PI. 70, fig. 1)
Shell larger than in V. turbinellus, up to 100 mm in height, fusiform, solid and heavy, spire
high, sutures indistinct. Aperture narrow and elongate. Outer lip thick, with four to five notches
and four strong teeth, columella with callus and three strong ridges in the centre, anterior canal
short, deep and wide, posterior canal a notch, with a fasciole. Sculptured with spiral rows of
stout spines, one row on the lowermost spire whorl and penultimate whorl, body whorl with
four rows, upper most row of spines stronger than the rest, spiral cords all over. Colour white,
usually with encrustations not revealing the base colour, maculated with brown, columella white
with brown blotches, outer lip white with brown teeth.
India: Lakshadweep, Tamil Nadu : Gulf ofMannar; Andaman and Nicobar Islands, intertidal
'zone of reef ecosystem. Indo-Pacific.
Vasum turbinellus Linnaeus, 1758

(P I. 70, fig. 3)
Shell smaller than in V. ceramicum, lip to 85 mm in height, solid and heavy, spire moderate
to short, sutures indistinct. Aperture narrow and elongate, outer lip with coarse, blunt teeth,
colulneJla with ca))us and three to four slightly oblique ridges, siphonal canal open and short,
posterior notch indistinct. Sculptured with rows of spines, the upper most row on the shoulder
with larger spines, followed below by a row of small blunt spines, then a rough ridge and then
two rows of smaller, blunt spines on the base, and finally the fasciole ridge, surface generally
lnalleate. Colour white with dark brown maculations, aperture white, teeth dark brown, columella
cream, tinged with brown on the edge.
India: Lakshadweep, Tamil Nadu : Gulf ofMannar; Andaman and Nicobar Islands, intertidal
zone of reef ecosystem. Indo-Pacific.
Tudicla spirillus (Linnaeus, 1751)

(Fig. 36, PI. 69, fig. 9, 10)
.Shell moderately large, up to 7S rnm in height, pyriform, ventricose, body whorl bulbous
with flatly depressed spire and knob-like protoconch. ColumeJla with broadly expanded,
projecting, plate-like callus, aperture interior grooved, anterior canal narrow and long as in
muricids, recurved anteriorly. Sculpture consists of faint transverse grooves, with a sharp ridge
and compressed nodules at the angulated shoulder and a row of solitary nodules above the
shoulder. Colour brownish gray with irregularly placed reddish-brown blotches especially above
the ridge, dark reddish-brown dashes on the ridge, aperture and columella white.
India: Tamil Nadu, Pondicherry, off shore, common. Endemic to Bay of Bengal from
Southeast India to Sri Lanka.
Subfamily TURBINELLINAE
Turbillella pyrum (Linnaeus, 1758)

(Fig. 35, PI. 69, fig. 1-7)
There are three kinds of chanks, namely the sacred chank of India, the Caribbean chank and
the Brazi lian chank, each belonging to a separate species under the genus Turbinello.
The Indian chank has a strong and spindle shaped shell measuring up to 140 mm in height.
Its external surface is covered with a velvety brown periostracum. The aperture is wide with a
long and deep anterior canal. There are three to four strong columellar ridges, which give support
: fNDI H LL : PYLA OP RA AND G TR PO
late 61 : B c,cinidae
1 2. antharu tranquebaricu ': hi ilipatnam M 345 1; 3. ,Cantharus piralis:

4. ,Cantharu undo:u : Dwaraka, Gujarat M 2 17/4' 5. ' antharu ~ fumo U~ : lndian c ~ an
M13583 /2' 6. antharu wagneri~ 7. a saria pu illa ( . Nivea ; ' . / abo kii: N, r apur, W t
'Godavari Di t. Andhra prade h M 2080314 ~ . Nas aria laevior: tao 237. nd man Marin
, urv ~ Y' 10. Phos enticosu : Andaman . 1. Na ~ aria acuminata 0 . ~ uturalis) ; 12 I . Phos textU"l
I
: a Ja coa t fl ' a.
I
R .Z L" V. acc. /\PER o. 92
Plate 62: 0
_ri" :
RA A H L : :P ;YPLA ~ OPHO DGA TROP OA
late 63 :
L Bullia vittata : Puri Orissa, 23794/5' 2. Bullia tranquebarica : Pondich rry M 23722/5-
3. Bullia melanoides' 45. Nassarius coronatus : Indian Seas M 3664; 6,7. Nassariu albe en
gemmuliferu ; 8. Nas ariusdistortus : Andamans M 3726; 9. Na' sariu conoidali x.
R R . fND[
a - .•
A DIA EA SHELL' : PO OPHORA AND GA TR POD A
: N assariidae
1,2. Nassarius pullus : M 18670/3- 3. Na ' ariu olivaceu : M 3674' 4. Heb~a horridus (curta) .
5. Na ariu Joveolatus : 18489-94/3; 6,7. Nassariu ' ubconstrictus: M23630/4 hilkaI e;
8 9. Nas arius ' tolatu . 2377514 Chandlpur Orissa. Nassarius dorsatu .
, zoo . URV. IND . PAP R 0. 192
at 66
1,2. Pugilina (Hemifusus) carnaria; 3,4. Pugilina (He,mijusus) cochUd,um; 5,,6. P~gil;na ternatanus
7,8. Volema paradisciaca.
H o ROP
I. PI, UI op/oca jilanlento a : Andaman . 2. Pi UJ annln I ng I-

. Fu inu forcep . 4 . Fu.'inu ni 'obaricu : India : ffG n a
,711-12/ 1' 6. Peri ternia lola ea : Andanlan nd man,
1 14/3' , ,9.Pelist Iniau.tulata: ndaluan M37 4.
L. SURV, INDIA 0 C. ERNo.192
,a te 68
L RA ND . A' TROPO
P .ate 69: Va ·ae
I Turbin lla p rum var 0 tu· : Purcat' 2, Turbin I/a pyrum var. obtu : Nagapattinam '
'- ,Turbin lla p rum : Por nd r Gujarat· 4.. Turbin fla p rum : alaya J.amna ar
I ujar t.
. 7. Turbin lla p rum ar. a uta: ri Lanka (Talaimannar).·
I flar ulina lapp l1i a: u f f
•
a ar 9 10. Tudi /apirillu .

DI ,P P R ,192
at 70:
, ,J' t, ' tall ('I", I1l1i " 111,1 : ~ i11.!:tn, ~

1uth nd<nrl'n~ . nU'oill 111/."1 '011./11 ' II' " I land Juth
Aud,UII 111 : . , r I,'UIII /urhill 1111.': (' i II Ian I. 1 Ith ~ ndtuna: 4. . \ hit IIItJ : an il "I u.
IA A H L' . P P OPH RAA D T A 287
Fig. 35. Egg case of Tudicla spirillus.
l'g. 6. Turbitlella p rum with animal.

to the columellar muscles. Operculum is horny and elongated. She]) as a rule is dextral (right
handed spiral) but rarely sinistral forms may occur. In Tamil Nadu the former is known as
Edampuri and the latter as Valampuri chank.
A distinct subspecies Turbinella pyrum lusus Sowerby (P 1. 70, fig. 2) occurs at a depth of
15 m in Andaman Sea. It is characterized by a distinct high spire, angular shoulder and elongated
anterior cana1.
Sexes are separate. In Gulf of Mannar the chank breeds from January to March. Eggs are
deposited in 25 to 30 capsules and the total mass bears striking resemblance to a ram's hom.
Young ones with 15 mm long shell erupt out of the capsules and fall on to the bottom. The
whole' brood consists of about 200 to 250 juveniles. Since there is no free-swimming larval
stage in its development the chank does not get dispersed over long areas. The chank may grow
to a maximum of 260 mm shell length.
Chanks are gregarious and localised in distribution. They prefer sandy bottom mixed with
moderate mud, where their food, tubicoJous polychaetes, is avaiJabJe in plenty. Chank beds are
found at a depth of 30 to 50 m in the Gulf of Mannar, in shallow waters of Gulf of Kachchh and
in Andaman Islands and Palk Bay.
Six kinds of chanks are recognised in commerce and trade. They are Thuthukkudi from
Thirunelveli, Ramesary from Ramanathapuram, Duvani from Trivandrum, Garbakki from
Madras, Potti from Sri Lanka and Surti from Gujarat. Of these, Thuthukkudi, Duvani and Surti
are supposed to be of good quality and are in maximum demand.
The story of chank and its uses can form a separate volume by itself. It has a very long
history dating back to Indus VaIJey CiviJisation. Several ornaments like bangles, rings, necJdaces,
a variety of shell crafts, etc. are made out of the shell. It is also used as an amulet against evil
eye. Chanka Bhasma (burnt chank powder) is used in ayurvedic medicine. In Hindu temples
chank is blown to invocate God at the time of worship. It is also used as a libation vessel and
water poured from a chank is considered as 'holy'
Although there are a few chank. . based industries in Tamil Nadu, the main centres-are in
West Bengal and Bangladesh. According to some reports there were about 5000 families
dependant on chank shell industry in West Bengal alone, spread over in the districts ofHowrah,
Bankura, Burdwan, 24 Parganas and Calcutta.
Chanks are not only in demand in our country but are also exported to Italy, Spain,
Pr.anoe and U.S.A. Majority of the chanks are fished from the Gulf of ManRar while a few
tbousands.are collected from the GulfofKachchh and those from Andamans..are.commercially
insignificant. In Gulf of Mannar the fishing rights are leased out by the Government of Tamil
Nadu, while in Gulf of Kachchh, Dept. of Fisheries, Govt. of Gujarat purchases the shells
JUSBA RAO : INDIAN SEA SHELLS: POLYPLACOPHORA AND GASTROPODA 289
from 'wagher' fishermen and auctions the accumulated shells to dealers at the end of the year.
The whole operation is carried out under the supervision of Government officials who
would ensure that no undersized shells (less than 6 cm length) are col1eeted. The fishery of this
highly esteemed shell has its ups and downs and the annual production figures are highly
fluctuating. Since the entire fishery is based on natural populations the yield is falling far short
of rise in demand for chanks. As a result there is a crisis in the domestic market, especiaIJy in
West Bengal. The export trade had also fallen from 55 tonnes in 1976 to 18 tonnes in 1977.
Bangladesh, which once used to import chanks from India, is now dependent on the supply
from Sri Lanka.
Sinistral chank or Valampuri chank is a rarity but devout Hindus are zealous to possess one
such. Unscrupulous businessmen have devised a method to trick the innocent people by
substituting a sinistral lightning whelk, Busycon contrarium. It is a natural sinistral species and
occurs in abundance in the Gulf of Mexico. It is imported at a cheaper rate and sold in the name
of Val amp uri chank, which fetches a higher rate. A few of these shells i.e. lighting whelks, have
found their place in temples.
The Indian chank has localised distribution extending from southeast coast through Sri Lanka
to Southwest coast in Kerala and in the Gulf of Kachchh, Gujarat. It was also reported from the
St. Martin Island, off Bangladesh.
Abbott, R. T. 1959. The family Vasidae in the Indo- Pacific. Indo-Pacific Mollusca, 1(1) :
15-32.
Apte, D. 1992. An unusual specimen of Turbinella pyrum (Linnaeus, 1776). 1. Bombay nat.
Hist. Soc., 89(2) : 267.
Arunachalam, S. 1952. The History of the Pearl Fishery of the Tamil Coast.
Balasundaram, C. 1983 On the occurrence of an abnormal chank, Xancus pyrum (Linn) in Palk
Bay. 1. Madura; Kamaraj Univ. (ScL), 8(2) : 87-88. (1980).
Delsaerdt, A. 1992. A freak specimen of Turbinella pyrum lusus Sowerby, 1825. Gloria Maris,
31(12) : 29-30.
Hornell, James 1914. The sacred chank of India. Madras Fisheries Bureau Bull. No.7, 188 pp.
Moses, S. T. 1924. The anatomy of chank (Turbinella pyrum). Madras Fish. Bull., 17 : 105-127.
Taylor, J. D. 1984. The diet of Indo Pacific Vasum (Gastropoda: Vasidae). J. Conch., Lond.,
31(6) : 375-382.
Family OLIVIDAE
Olive Shells
Shell is variable in size, small to large but usually not more than 80 mm in height, rarely
reaching up to 100 mm. It is cylindrical or subcylindrical in shape, with spire being short or
elevated and sutures grooved or channelled. Shell is smooth, hard and highly glossy. Aperture
is elongate to ovate, with wide, deep and short anterior canal, and indistinct posterior canal.
Outer lip is thick and smooth. Columella is with callus, and folds anteriorly and often obliquely
plicate. Sometimes a fasciole may also be present. Periostracum and operculum usually are
absent. The shells display brilliant colours, which are highly variable within the ~pec~es.
Cephalic region is small with reduced tentacles, which mayor may not bear eyes. The
animal has a powerful foot which exceeds the length of the shell when it actively crawls. It is
divided into an anterior propodium and a voluminous posterior metapodium. The sides are
expanded (parapodia) and extend over the shell laterally. Mantle cavity consists of a
monopectinate ctenidium, bipectinate osphradium and a hypobranchial gland. Proboscis is
pJeurembolic bearing a distaJ buccal cavity. Radula is rachiglossate type (1-1-). A gland of
Leiblein is present in the oesophagus.
Sexes are separate. Male has a dorso-ventrally flattened penis and a closed pallial sperm
duct. Female possesses a gonopericardial duct, a distal bursa copulatrix and an ingesting gland.
Eggs are laid in capsules and the development has a pelagic veliger larva.
Olives are carnivorous and feed on living and dead tissue. They feed mostly on bivalves,
crustaceans and other invertebrates. They usually are offshore forms" with a few species
occurring buried in intertidal zone of sandy beaches, lagoons and near coral reefs. The family is
divided into four subfamilies that include a total of about 16 genera and 200 species. The
systematics of Indian olives is poorly known and their identification becomes often very
difficult. There may be more number of species than some of the more common species described
below.
Subfamily OLIVINAE
Oliva annulata Gmelin, 1791

(P 1. 72, fig. 8, 9)
Shell of medium size, up to 35 mm in height, spire high and narrow, suture deeply channelled,
upper part of the body whorl noticeably angled showing sharp shoulder, thickened outwardly
along the edge of the outer lip, columella plicate. Cream coloured and ornamented ,vith small
blotches and usually a row of spots at sutures, aperture orange, apex yellow.
The India.l form belongs to forma mantichora Duclos, 1835

Oliva caerulea (Roeding, 1798)

(P 1. 72, fig. 12, 13)
Shell moderately large, up to 60 mm in height, spire high and calloused, suture narrow and
deep, slightly inflated in the middle. Columella with strong ca1lus and three to four ridges on the
anterior and thin callus and plications on the posterior. Colour variable, white, profusely spotted
with blue-gray and golden yellow, often with two faint spiral bands, aperture violet, columella
white, fasciole with yellow tinge.
India: Tamil Nadu, Andamans. Indo-Pacific.
Synonym : Oliva episcopalis Lamarck, 18) 1
Oliva oliva (Linnaeus, 1758)

(Pl. 71, fig. 2 and Pl. 72, fig. 4)
Shell of medium size, up to 30 mm in height, thick, polished, spire very short, sutural groove
narrow and deep. Aperture narrow, columella with callus on the anterior two thirds and with
oblique, uneven plaits. Colour highly variable, creamy white, brown, black or yello\v, omalnented
with dark spots, blotches or without any markings, columella white, aperture brown, white or
pink.
India: Maharashtra : Bombay, Deogad; Lakshadweep, Talnil Nadu : Madras, Cuddalore,
Porto Novo, Tranquebaretc.; Pondicherry, Andhra Pradesh: Visakhapatnam, Kakinada; Orissa:
Puri, Balasore; common in the intertidal zone of sandy beaches. Indo-Pacific.
Synonym: Oliva ispidula (Linnaeus, 1758)
Oliva miniacea (Roeding, 1798)

(P I. 72, fig. 3)
Shell large, up to 90 mm in height, heavy, solid, spire short to moderate, sutures deep and
channelled. Aperture rather wide, columella with three to four plaits anteriorly and denticulate
throughout. Colour variable, mostly creamy yellow, ornamented with irregular, wavy brownish
gray axial lines or dots, two broad, dark chocolate broken bands, one below the suture and the
other at the middle of the body whorl, aperture characteristically rich orange, a narrow, cream
coloured axial band extending from anterior to posterior end along the outer lip, columel1a
white, fas~iole band dark brown.
Oliva serir:ea (Roeding, 1798)

(P 1. 71, fig. 5)
Shell moderately large, up to 70 mm in height, spire very Jow with pointed apex, suture
narrow and deeply channelled, with a raised callous projection, anterior end of columeHa
calloused. Aperture narrow, outer lip extends posteriorly to level with the shoulder of the body
whorl, columella with plicae. Surface ornamented with three dark coloured bands on creamy
white background, two broad, blackish-brown spiral zones.
India: Andhra Pradesh, Andamans. Indo-Pacific.
Oliva vidu" (Roeding, 1798)

(P 1. 72, fig. 1)
Shell of medium size, up to 50 mm in height, spire stunted, suture deeply and narrowly
grooved, body whorl rather inflated posteriorly. Columella with broad ca1lus on the anterior
end gradually thinning towards the posterior half, with ridges throughout, posterior end of the
columella extended to level with the beak-like extension of the outer lip which extends to level
with the spire. Colour Ilighly variable, brown with wavy dark brown lines and zigzag pattern,
often with a dark spiral band in the middle, aperture usually white.
India: Orissa: Chatrapur, Puri; Andhra Pradesh: Bheemunipatnam, Visakhapatnam; Tamil
Nadu : Madras, Tranquebar, Pamban; Andamans. Indo-Pacific, offshore, common, but not as
common as O. oliva.
Synonym: Oi:va maura Lamarck, 1811
Olivancillaria gibbosa (Born, 1778)

(PI. 72, fig. 14)
Shell moderately large, up to 60 mIn in height, stout, thick, elongately ovoid, spire short
but acuminate, body whorl inflated, suture channelled. Aperture rather wide, with slit-like
posterior canal, coJumeJla with thick callus extending over to the penultimate whorl, anteriorly
with oblique close-set ridges and posteriorly smooth, fasciole strong and raised. Colour pale
yellowish brown with a prominent yellow band at the base, mottled or streaked with black
spots, sometimes whitish with zigzag transpiral brownish bands, columella yellowish-white,
aperture bluish-white.
India: Gujarat, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu (very common), Pondicherry (common), Andhra
Pradesh: Visakhapatnam, Kakinada; Orissa, West Bengal, Andaman ant:! Nicobar Islands. Indian
Ocean.
Subfamily AGARONIINAE
Agaronia nebulosa (Lamarck, 1811)

(P 1. 72, fig. 5)
Shell of medium size, up to 40 mm in length, slender and elongate, spire narrow and acutely
elevated, suture deep_ Aperture elongate and anteriorly wider, columella with strong and broad
callus anteriorly and weakly calloused posteriorly, columellar plaits stronger and twisted at
base. Colour pinkish white ornamented with zigzag brown lines and oblique concentric streaks
iust below suture.
India: Gujarat : Okha; Diu, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu (common), Pondicherry (common),
Andhra Pradesh, Orissa. Indian Ocean to Indonesia.
Synonym: Oliva subulata Reeve, 1858.
Subfamily ANCILLINAE
Amalda ampia (Gmelin, 1791)

(P 1. 71, fig. 4 and PI. 72, fig. 6, 7)
Shell of medium size, up to 35 mm in length, slender and elongate, spire elevated with a
pointed apex, sutures almost covered with callus leaving fine impressions. Aperture wide,
columella twisted in the middle with deep furrow, two grooves extend on to body whor1. Surface
highly polished, ivc. y.. white to creamy.. brown, often tinged with orange brown towards the
spire and apex.
India: West Bengal : Ganga Sagar, Bakkhali, Digha; Orissa, Andhra Pradesh :
Bheemunipatnam; Tamil Nadu : Madras, Tuticorin, Tiruchendur, Pamban, Krusadai Is.,
Kundugal Point, Kanya Kumari. Indian Ocean.
It is common on sandy beaches along the east coast of India from intertidal zone to about
20 m depth. Once it was very abundant on Digha beach, West Bengal, but indiscritninate
collection of shells for the preparation of curios has lead to the total absence of the species on
the beach.
Ancilla monilifera Reeve, 1864

(P 1. 72, fig. 10, 11)
Shell small, up to 15 mm in height, spire elevated, sutures shallow, thin. Aperture rather
bifid anteriorly, outer lip thin, columella concave basally and marked with a fasciolar ridge.
callus thin1y extending over up to the penultimate whorl. Sculptured with fine axial striations, a
294 REC. ZOOL. SURV. INDIA, acc. PAPER No. .192
broad, obJique spiral band at the base. Colour cream, ornamented with a row of dark brown
dashes below the suture, spiral band at the base, with dark brown, distantly placed axial streaice,
aperture white, with a brownish tinge, surface with irregular dark brown spots.
India: Andamans. Elsewhere: Western Australia.
Burch, J. Q. and Burch, R. L. J 967. The family Olividae. Pacif. Sci., 21: 503-522.
Kilburn, R. N. 1977. Descriptions of new species of Arnalda and Chilotygma (Gastropoda:
Olividae: Ancillinae) with a note on the systematics of Arnalda, Ancillus and Ancillista.
Ann. Natal, Mus., 23(1) : 13-21.
Kilburn, R. N. J981. Revision of the genus Ancilla. Ann. Natal Mus., 24(2) : 349-363.
Petuch, E. J. and Sargent, D. M. 1986. Living Olive Shells of the World. C. E. R. F.,
Charlottesville, Va.
Wilson, E. R. 1969. Use of the propodium as a swimming organ in an ancillid. Veliger, 11(4) :
340-342.
Zeigler, R. F. and Porreca, H. C. 1969. Olive Shells of the World. 96 pp. t 3 colour pis. Shell
Cabinet, Virginia.
SUBBA RAO : INDIAN SEA SHELLS: POLVPLACOPHORA AND GASTROPODA 295
Family MARGINELLIDAE
Margin Shells
Shell usually is small, up to 20 mm in height. It has ovate to subpyriform shape with large
body whorl and elevated to sunken spire. Protoconch is paucispiral. Aperture is long and narrow
with thickened outer lip that may be smooth or denticulate. Columella has three to six strong
plicae. Anterior siphonal canal is short and truncate. Posterior one is indistinct. Surface is glossy
and smooth. There is no operculum.
There is a pair of long cephalic tentacles bearing eyes at their outer bases. Foot is long,_
narrow and truncated anteriorly. Mantle extends over to the shell and covers a greater .part of it.
Mantle cavity consists of monopectinate ctenidium and a bipectinate osphradium. Proboscis is
pleurembolic with a distal buccal cavity. There is a small Leiblein gland. Radula has a narrow
central and no laterals (0-1-0).
Sexes are separate. Male has a more or less pointed penis. There are no gonopericardial
ducts. Female has seminal receptacles or sperm sacs. Eggs are laid singly and development may
be direct.
Margin shells are carnivores, feeding on clams and other snails. They occur in shallow
waters to depths. The family is divided into three subfamilies namely, Marginellinae,
Cystiscinae, and Marginelloninae, which include a total of about 32 genera and 650
species. These are common on the West African and Australian coasts. In India these are
less known.
Subfamily MARGINELLINAE
Margine//a angustala Sowerby, 1846
(PI. 71, fig. 6 amd PI. 73, fig. 2)
Shell small, up to 20 mm in height, cylindrically ovate, spire flat and calloused. Aperture
narrow, outer lip thickened and smooth. Columella with four oblique folds at the anterior end
and the anterior-most smallest. Surface smooth, glossy, ash-white with grayish brown spiral
bands crossed by bluish axial lines.
India : Maharashtra : Bombay; Lakshadweep, Tamil Nadu (very common); Pondicherry,

Andhra Pradesh: Visakhapatnam; Orissa: Ganjam; Andamans, common. Indian Ocean, deep
water.
Ma,.gine/la vent,.;cosa G. F+scher, 1807
(P 1. 73, fig. 3)
Shell small, up to 20mm in height, ovate, solid, spire rather exerted, whorls roundly convex
at the upp,er part Outer lip thickened with caUus and reflected, co'lumelia with five distinct
plaits at the ,anterior half, surface smooth, light yelJowish . . brown.
India : West Bengal : Sand leads' Orissa : P llrj~ TamH Nadu : M,adras; on mud in shallow
'\vater, not COll11n(ln . South Asi a.
AI<Irgitle/l.{f /oeb(!(:ke,(IIUI (\Veinkauff, )

(PI 7 1 ~ng. 5andPL7J,fig. 4)
Shell sl11all, solid, spire sl'ightly e'levated. Aperture narro\v, \vider at the antenor end, outer
lip thickened with many srnall denticles on the inner nlargin. co,lumeUawith five strong pla·ts.
Shell surface glossy, un "foran light gray. outer rp ,yhite Inside, columellar cal us y'eUow'ish at
the anterior end.
India: Pondicherry, Andamans. Indial Oce,an, not COlnlnon.
Persicula persica
(PI. 73, fig. I a, b)
Shell small, 15 mm in height, spire slightly elevated, body whorl almost straight sided.
Aperture narrow and eJongate, outer lip slightly thickened and smooth, columella with 3-4
small plaits. Surface smooth. Colour white.
Cown, E. 1965. A proposed reclassification of the family Marginellidae (Mollusca: Gastropoda).

Veliger, 7(3) : 184-194.
Laseron, C. F. 1957. A new classification of the Australian Marginellidae. Australian J. Mar. &
Freshw. Res., 8 : 274-311.
298 REC. ZDDL. SURV. INDIA, DCC. PAPER No. 192
Family HARPIDAE
Harp Shells
Shell is large, thick and heavy, with a large body whorl. It has a low and short spire with an
acute apex. The aperture is broadly or narrowly ovate. Anterior canal is very short or absent and
the anal canal is distinct in the form of a shallow sinus. Columella is with callus and glazed,
without any plications. Surface is sculptured with strong axial ribs, which end in sharp points
on the shoulder. Spiral sculpture is either obsolete or absent. Shell has a beautiful colour pattern
with bright reddish brown to pink.
Foot is very large and fleshy. It is divided into anterior propodium and posterior pointed
metapodium. Head bears slender and pointed tentacles, with eyes at the anterior end of a lateral
enlargement at the base of tentacles. Proboscis is pleurembolic type in which only the basal part
is invaginable. Radula is minute and stenoglossate. Mantle lobes cover the whole shell. Sexes
are separate. Male is with a compressed penis.
Harp Shells occur in the sandy part of the reef among rocks and coral in shallow water.
These are nocturnal and carnivorous, feeding on small crabs living in the sand.
It is a small family divided into two subfamilies, namely Harpinae (2 genera) and Moruminae
(1 genus), which include a total of about 40 species. The subfamily Harpinae is represented by
its nominate genus in India.
Harpa amouretla Roeding, 1798

(P 1. 73, fig. 6, 7)
Shell of medium size, smaller than in other two species, up to 45 mm in height, slender with
a raised spire. Aperture narrow, columella simple without significant parietal callus, fasciole
long and narrow. Sculptured with about thirteen axial ribs pointed at the shoulder. Colour white,
ribs crossed by pairs of dark brown lines enclosing yellow-brown, the interstices between ribs
dull brown, columella fawn anteriorly, with a brown spot near the anterior end and with a
brownish blotch in the middle.
India: Tamil Nadu : Tranquebar; Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Widely distributed in the
Indo-Pacific.
Synonym: Harpa minor Lamarck, 1822
Harpa davidis Roeding, 1798

(Pl. 73, fig. 5)
Shell moderately large, up to 85 mm in height, light, spire moderate, body whorl expanded.
Columella smooth, with a twisted fasciole. Sculptured with about eleven ribs ending in small
sharp spines on shoulder. Colour fawn pink with lighter pink spiral bands, ribs with single, reddish
brown lines, columella dark brown on the posterior and with a small brown mark on the anterior.
India: Tamil Nadu : Madras, Tranquebar, Pam ban, Rameswaram; Andaman and Nicobar
Islands. Indian Ocean to Northwestern Sumatra.
Harpa Ilarpa Linnaeus, 1758

(not figured)
Shell large, up to 90 mm in height, ovate, spire moderate, body whorl with a square shoulder.
Sculptured with twelve, widely spaced ribs ending in sharp spines on the shoulder, interspaces
with fine axial striae. Columella with short, sharp teeth in the posterior part, fasciole strong and
twisted. Colour flesh pink, ribs decorated with dark brown lines arranged in twos, threes or
fours, interspaces with white and red-brown rows of dashes and V-shaped marks, outer lip with
brown marks where groups of lines end on last rib, columella fawn coloured with central brown
mark, slnaller blotch posteriorly on parietal wan and another small one at its anterior end.
India: Talnil Nadu, Pondicherry. (East Africa to Tonga (Rehder, 1973).
Harpa major Roeding, 1798

(P 1. 73, fig. 8, 9)
Shell of medium to large in size, up to 80 rom in height, broadly oval, solid, body whorl
large, spire conical. Aperture large, ovate, outer lip simple and gently arcuate, columella bordered
by a strong rounded fasciole, ribs ~ontjnue as ridges on the columella, anterior canal broad and
posterior a shallow sinus. Protoconch consists of3 Y2 smooth whorls, post nuclear whorls with
sharp axial ribs and hvo or three spiral cords, the uppennost gives the whorls a shouldered
appearance, body whorl with twelve axial ribs ending in spines on the subsutural ramp, interspaces
with fine axial striae. Colour of the shell pinkish flesh colour, spaces between the ribs ornalnented
with axial festooned pattern of white, ribs with or without dark brown spiral lines, columeJ1ar
and parietal area with a large deep chestnut blotch, Inore or less divided in the middle of the
parietal wall, the lower part continues down to the base of the columella.
India: Tamil Nadu : Madras; Andamans. Widely distributed in the Indo-Pacific, offshore
species.
Synonym : Harpa conoidalis Lamarck, 1822
REFERENCE
Rehder, H.A. 1973. The Family Harpidae of the World. Indo-Pacific Alo//lisca, 3( 16) :
207-274.
Family MITRIDAE
Miters
Shell is medium to .large in size. It is solid and elongately ovate, cylindrical or fusifonn.
Spire usually is high with a multispiral protoconch. Aperture is more or less elongate with a
distinct anterior siphonal canal. Posterior siphonal canal is indistinct or notched. Columella has
3 to II distinct, close set oblique folds and the first one is larger and longer than the second one.
Surface of the shell may be smooth or may bear axial ribs, spira] grooves, cords and granules.
There is no operculum.
Head bears a pair of elongate tentacles with eyes at their outer bases. Foot is small and
triangular. Proboscis is very long and has a pecuJiar epiproboscis, which serves as a vehicle for
the salivary gland secretions. Alimentary canal is very distinctive type. A pair of salivary glands
is present. Accessory salivary gland and Leiblein gland are absent. Midoesophagus is very
short and not conspicuously glandular. Stomach often is with muscular gizzard, a modified
style sac and without caecum. Radula is rachiglossate type with three teeth per each row (1-1-1)
or one central (0-1-0) as in Cylindromitrinae.
Sexes are separate. Rock and coral dwellers deposit eggs on the rock or coral boulders,
\vhereas sand dwellers deposit them on weeds. Egg capsules are deposited in loose symmetrical
clusters. Each cluster may contain about 15-100 capsules, and each capsule contains about 100-
500 white or cream or yellow coloured translucent eggs. The incubation period lasts for two
weeks, after which a free-swimming veliger with operculum is released. Operculum however
disappears in the adult.
The family has a cosmopolitan distribution. Majority of the species live in the crevices
or holes of coral reefs. A few may occur on the rocky coasts, while a few are sand-burrowers.
The rock and reef dwellers usually are detritus feeders but the sand dwellers are carnivores.
Based on radular and shell characters the family is distinguished into four subfamilies, namely
Mitrinae, Imbricariinae, Cylindromitrinae and Vexillinae. The family includes about 400 species,
of which 45 species are known to occur in India.
Subfamily MITRINAE
Mitra (Mitra) ambigllQ Swainson, 1829

(PI. 74, fig. I)
Shell moderately large. up to 55 mm in length, body whorl proportionately longer than the
spire and thick, spire elevated and without radial ribs, sutures distinct. Aperture longer than the
spire, outer lip with 17 to 20 close-set denticles, columella with five oblique folds. Shell surface
with spiral ribs enclosing punctate grooves in between. Colour uniformly brownish.
India: Andaman and Nicobar Islands, not very common, intertidal coral reefs.
Mitra (Mitra) c(lrdinalis (Gmelin, 1791)

(PI. 74, fig. 2)
Shell of medium size, up to 50 mm in length, ovate, body whorl longer than the spire.
Aperture longer than the spire, outer lip with 23-35 denticles. columella with five distinct oblique
folds. Sculptured with distinctly punctated spiral grooves and axial striae. Colour white with
rows of orange brown spots.
India: Andaman and Nicobar Islands, hard coral reef substratum. Madagasrar to
Polynesia.
Mitra (Mitra) guttata Swainson, 1824

(PI. 74, fig. 3)
Shell of medium size, up to 38 mm in length, elongately fusiform, solid, whorls seven, spire
acuminate. Aperture larger than the spire, columella with five oblique folds. Shell sculptured
with punctated spiral lines. Sutures deep brown with a white band on the body whorl.
India: Gujarat, Maharashtra. Madagascar to Sri Lanka.
Mitra (Mitra) mitra (Linnaeus, 1758)

(PI. 74, fig. 4)
Shell very large, up to 152 mm in length, elongately ovate. Aperture creamy yellow, outer
lip denticulate, columella with four oblique folds. Surface with punctate lines. Colour golden
yellow with bright orange red rectangular blotches arranged in revolving band.
Mitra (Mitra) stictica (Link, 1807)

(PI. 74, fig. 5)
Shell moderately large, up to 67 mm in length, spire short, whorls six, sutures deep with
prominent coronations. Aperture creamy orange, outer lip thick with eleven denticles, the 11105t
anterior ones more conspicuous, columel1a with four oblique folds. Colour white, ornamented
with rows of irregular orange blotches.
Mitra (Nebu/aria) aurantia aurantia (Gmelin. 1791)

(PI. 74, fig. 7, 8)
Shell small to medium in size, up to 35 mm in length, fusiform, whorls six, spire acuminate,
suture deep. Aperture long, whitish, outer lip bears 12 to 14 crenulations and a shallow notch in
the upper part, columella with four oblique folds. Sculptured with regular prominent spiral ribs.
Colour orange or chocolate brown, a white spiral band on the whorls.
India: Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Indo-Pacific.
Mitra (Nebularia) auranlia subruppeli Finlay, 1927

(PI. 74, fig. 6)
Shell smaller than in the nominate subspecies, up to 27 mm in length, whorls six, spire
smaller than the aperture, sutures deep. Aperture with a thick and smooth outer Jip and a columella
bearing four to five obI ique folds. Sculptured with faintly marked spiral ridges and grooves.
Colour chocolate brown with a white band below the suture.
India: Gujarat, Goa. Indo-Pacific.
Mitra (Nebularia) c/I'Ysa/is Reeve, 1844

(PI. 75, fig. 3)
Shel1 small, up to 16 mm in length, ovate, body whorl comparatively larger than the spire;
spire less acuminate. Aperture longer than the spire, outer lip contracted in the middle. with
seven to eight crenulations, columelJa with three to four strong oblique folds. Sculptured with
spiral ridges and grooves. Colour yellowish brown with a broad interrupted white band.
Mitra (Neblliaria) cucllmerina Lamarck, 18 t 1

(PI. 75, fig. 1)
Shell small, up to 28 mm in length, spire shorter than the aperture. Outer lip with 11 to 12
crenulations, columella with four oblique folds. Sculptured with elevated keel-like spiral ridges
enclosing distinct grooves in between. Colour orange red or reddish brown.
India: Tamil Nadu, Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Red Sea to Polynesia and Hawaii.
Mitra (Nebu/aria) luctuosa A. Adams, 1853

(PI. 75, fig. 2)
Shell smal1, up to 25 mm in length, elongate, spire elongated, longer than the aperture,
whorls eight. Outer lip thick and snlooth, columella with four oblique folds. Sculptured with
SUBBA RAO : INDIAN SEA SHELLS: POLYPLACOPJIORA AND GASTROPODA 303
spiral ridges enclosing in between shallow and punctated grooves. Colour brownish with a
white band below the suture.
Indian Seas. Gulf of Oman to Hawaii.
Mitra (Nehlllaria) tahanula Lamarck, 1811

(PI. 75, fig. 4)
Shell small, up to 11 mm in length, ovate oblong, whorls six. Aperture longer than the spire,
outer lip crenulated, columella with three strong and one weak oblique folds. Sculptured with
angulated spiral ridges and fine axial striae in the interstices. Colour reddish brown.
India: Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Gulf of Aden to San10a and Tonga Islands.
Mitra (Nebularia) ticaollica Reeve, 1844

(PI. 75, fig. 5, 6)
Shell small, up to 20 mm in length, whorls five, spire small in comparison to the body whorl.
Aperture longer than the spire, outer lip with 12 to 13 crenulations, columel1a with four oblique
folds. Colour brown to dark tan with a few small, white spots.
India: Andaman and Nicobar islands. East Africa to Polynesia and Hawaii.
Milra (Slrigatelltl) colonlhelli/orJ11eS Kiener, 1838

(PI. 75, fig. 11)
Shell of medium size, up to 30 mm in length, thick and solid, \vhorls six, spire short
and acute. Aperture longer than the spire, outer I ip thick, smooth and sinuate, columella with
six oblique folds. Sculptured with shallow spiral grooves. Colour brown with irregular white
spots.
India: Indian Ocean to Polynesia.
Mitra (Slrigalella) decllrtata Reeve, 1844

(PI. 76, fig. I)
Shell of medium size, up to 32 mm in length, thick and solid, spire short whorls five, body
whorl smooth in the upper half but with broad spiral ridges on the lower half. Aperture longer
than the spire, outer lip sinuated and contracted in the upper part. Columella \vith four oblique
folds. Colour deep chocolate \vith a conspicuous white band below the suture.
India: Nicobars. Indo-Pacific.
Mitra (Strigatella) /itterata Lamarck, 181 t

(PI. 75, fig. 9, 10)
Shell small, up to 22 mm in length, solid, ovate, whorls five. Aperture longer than the spire,
outer lip smooth, depressed in the middle and more callous on the inner side. Sculptured with
shallow spiral grooves on the lower half of the body whorl. Colour consists of wavy longitudinal
plates, chocolate brown streaks and blotches.
India : Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Red Sea and Gulf of Oman to Polynesia and
Hawaii.
Mitra (Strigatella) paupercu/a (Linnaeus, 1758)

(PI. 76, fig. 2)
Shell small, up to 26 mm in length, ovately oblong, whorls eight, spire acuminate. Aperture
as long as the spire, outer lip smooth, columella with four oblique folds. Body whorl smooth,
corded at the base. Colour chocolate with wavy white axial streaks.
lndia : Andaman and N icobar Islands. Red Sea to Polynesia and Hawaii.
On reef flat, under rocks and boulders, more near the high tide mark.
Mitra (Strigatella) retusa Lamarck, 1811

(PI. 76, fig. 4)
Shell small, up to 20 mm in length, ovately cylindrical, spire short and blunt, \vhorls five.
Aperture longer than the spire, outer lip thick, slightly compressed in the middle, with 10 to 12
crenulations, columella with four oblique folds. Colour dark reddish brown, ornamented with
longitudinal wavy white lines and a narrow white transverse band below the suture.
India: Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Seychelles to Tonga Islands and Samoa.
Under rocks and corals in the reef ecosystem.
Mitra (Strigate//a) scutu/ata (Gmelin, 1791)

(PI. 76, fig. 3)
Shell of medium to moderately large size, up to 50 mm in length, thick, whorls seven to

eight. Aperture with a thick and smooth outer lip and columella bearing four oblique folds.
Sculptured with spiral ridges. Colour chocolate brown interrupted by a yellowish spiral band
below the suture.
India: Gujarat, Maharashtra : Bombay, Goa, Tamil Nadu : Madras; Andaman and Nicobar
Islands. Gulf of Aden to Polynesia.
SlJBBA RAO : INDIAN SEA SHELLS: POL YPLACOPHORA AND GASTROPODA 305
Subfamily IMBRICARIINAE
Neocancilla circula (Kiener, 1838)

(PI. 77, fig. 1)
Shell ~'11all, up to 33 mm in length, acuminately fusiform, spire sharp, base of body

whorl slightly contracted and recurved. Aperture longer than the spire, columella with four
oblique folds, outer lip crenulated. Sculptured with strong, sharp and distinct spiral ridges,
interstices cancellated with fine axial striae. Colour brown with orange lines on spiral ridges.
India : Maharashtra : Bombay; TalniJ Nadu, Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Throughout
Indo-Pacific.
Neocancilla granatina (Lamarck, 1812)

(PI. 77, fig. 2)
Shell of medium size, up to 42 mm in length, narrov/ly ovate, spire acuminate, whorls seven.
Aperture smaller than spire, columella with four weak oblique folds, outer lip weakly crenulated.
Body whorl decussate. Colour whitish encircled with light brown lines.
India: Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Throughout tropical Indo-Pacific.
Neocallcilla papilio (Link 1807)

(PI. 77, fig. 3)
Shell of mediuln size, up to 48 mm in length, elongately ovate, with acuminate spire, whorls
seven. Aperture slightly larger than spire, columella with four oblique folds, outer lip crenulated.
Surface with spiral ridges separated by broad interstices and traversed by axial striae giving a
decussate appearance. Shell white and encircled by light brown lines.
Cancilla interlirata (Reeve, 1844)

(PI. 77, fig. 4)
Shell of medium size, up to 37 mIn in length, elongate, spire acutninate. Aperture longer
than the spire, columella with five oblique folds, outer lip thin, weakly crenulated. Sculptured
with sharp, raised spiral ridges crossed by longitudinal striae forming distinct cancellations,
interstices with spiral lirae. Colour white with irregular brown patches.
India: West Bengal, Orissa, Andalnan and Nicobar Islands. Mauritius to Polynesia and
Hawaii.
306 REC. ZaOL. SURV. INDIA. acc. PAPER No. 192
Cancilla isabella (S\vainson, 1831)

(PI. 77, fig. 5)
Shell of small to medium size, up to 46 mm in length, elongately fusiform, spire acuminate,

suture deep, whorls seven. Aperture slightly longer than the spire, columella with five oblique
folds, outer lip weakly crenulated. Sculptured with numerous slender, close-set elevated
spiral ridges and fine longitudinal striae giving punctated appearance. Colour light orange
or brown.
India: Andaman and Nicobar [slands. Andamans to Philippines and Japan.
CI1IICillil pllilippillarulH (A. Adams, 1851)

(PI. 77, fig. 6)
Shell sJnall , up to 32 mm in length, elongately ovate, whorls nine. Aperture longer than
spire, columella with six oblique folds, outer lip crenulated. Sculptured with spiral rounded
ridges. Shell grayish white.
India: Anda.nan and Nicobar Islands. Andamans to China Sea and Polynesia.
Subcancilill flanlmea (Quoy and Gaitnard, 1833)

(PI. 77, fig. 7)
Shell small, up to 26 Innl in length, fusiform, spire acuminate, whorls eight. Aperture longer
than the spire, columella with four oblique folds, outer Jip crenulated. Colour white, ornamented
with chestnut brown axial flalnes. Sculptured with angulated spiral ridges and punctated spiral
grooves.
India: Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Mauritius to Fiji.
Shell very much similar to that of the genus Cancilla but differs from the latter in radular
characters.
Domiporta rliJilirata (Adams and Reeve, 1850)

(PI. 77, fig. 8)
Shell small, up to 30 mm in length, ovately fusiform, spire acuminate and sharp, whorls
nine, ventricose, sutures hnpressed. Aperture longer than the spire. columella with six oblique
folds, outer lip thin and without crenulations. Surface sculptured with distinct elevated spiral
ridges bisected by punctated axial grooves.
India: Andaman and Nicobar Is1ands. Andamans to China Sea and Buton.
lnlbricaria pllnctata (Swainson, 1821)

(PI. 75, fig. 7)
Shell small, lip to 15 Inm in length, conical, spire depressed, apex Inucronate. ApeJ1ure very
large, columella \vith six oblique folds, outer lip thin and smooth. Shell without 11luch sculpture
except punctate spiral lines on the basal part of the body whorl.
India: Andamans. Mauritius to Polynesia.
Seahrieola (Seabricola) eaerlliea (Reeve, 1844)

(PI. 77, fig. 9)
Shell small, up to 25 mm in length, pyralnidal, whorls nine, spire acuminate. Aperture slightly
longer than the spire, columella \vith five obJique folds, outer lip crenulated. Shell surface
granulated or scabrous, spiral grooves narrow and distinct, spiral whorls punctated with axial
and spiral striae. Colour white with chestnut bands on the body whorl.
India: Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Andamans to Philippines.
Scahricola (S.vainsollia) fusea (Swainson, 1831)

(PI. 75, fig. 8)
Shell smaller than in S. caerlliea, up to 18 mm in length, ovate, whorls six. Colunlella with
four oblique folds, outer lip crenulated. Sculptured with punctate spiral grooves. Colour \vhite
with a pale \vhite flecked band.
India: Orissa, Pondicherry.
Subfamily CYLINDROMITRINAE
Pterygia erenulata (Gmelin, 1791)

(P1. 76, fig. 5)
Shell of small to Jnedium size, up to 33 mIn in length, oliviform, whorls seven, spire short.
Aperture large extending up to the shoulder of the body whorl, colulnella \vith seven to nine
oblique folds, outer lip thick and crenulated. Sculptured \vith punctatcd spiral lirae bisecting
axial striae, interstices narro"I. Shell white, ornamented with irregular orange bro\vn zones.
India: Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Indo-Pacific, subtidal sands.
Pterygia dactylus (Linnaeus, 1767)

(PI. 76, fig. 7)
Shell of mediuln size, up to 40 mm in length, whorls seven. Aperture not reaching the
shoulder but longer than the spire, colulnella with six strong, oblique folds, outer lip thick and
308 REC. ZOO'L. SURV. INDIA, OCC. PAPER No. 192
crenulated. Sculptured with shallow spiral striae and decussated spire. Shell white with chestnut
or dark-brov.'n bands.
India: Andalnan and Nicobar Islands. Tropical Indo-Pacific, subtidal sands.
Pterygia /enestrata (Lalnarck. 1811)

(PI. 76, fig. 6)
Shell small, up to 24 mm in length, cylindrically· ovate, spire very short, whorls seven.
Aperture longer than the spire, columella with eight to nine oblique folds, outer lip thick and
crenulated. Sculptured with sharp, regular, nodulose spiral ridges bisected by obtuse rude axial
grooves. Colour white, ornamented with reddish- brown spiral bands.
India: Andamans. Andamans to Polynesia.
REFERENCES
Apte, D. 1997. Range extension of NeocQncil/a circula (Kiener, 1838). 1 Bombay nat. Hist.
Soc.
Subba Rao, N. V. and Dey, A. J984. Contribution to the knowledge of Indian marine molluscs
1. Falnily Mitridae. Rec. zool Surv. india, Occ. Paper No, 61 : 1-43, 3 pis.
S'VDBA RAO : INDIAN SEA SHELLS: POL YPLACOPI-IORA AND GASTROPODA 309
Family CANCELLARIIDAE
Nutmegs
Shell is sman to medium in size, which usually is between 20 and 50 mm in height. Shape is
elongate ovate to irregularly subtrigonal with a bulged protoconch of a fe\\! whorls. Spire is
rather elevated with a pointed apex. Aperture usually is ovoid with an indistinct posterior sinus
and distinct anterior canal. Outer 1ip is thickened and bears denticulations on the inner Inargin.
Colulnella has a well-developed callus and bears three distinct folds. Sculpture consists of axial
ribs and spiral cords giving the shell cancellated surface. There is no operculum but has the
capacity to close the aperture by secreting mucus and entangling sand grains.
Head bears a pair of tentacles with eyes on swellings at outer bases. Foot is small to large.
Proboscis is pleurclnboJic. Radula consists of a blade like central without lnarginals or laterals.
There is a pair of salivary glands and a Leiblein gland and valve. Sexes are separate. Male has
a large penis.
Nutmegs are mostly offshore forms occurring up to great depths. The family is classified
into three subfanliJies, 39 genera and 500 species, which are mostly Atlantic in distribution. In
India it is represented by only a few species.
Subfatnily CANCELLARIINAE
Cal1cellaricl alperel/(I Lalllarck, 1822

(PI. 78, fig. 3)
Shell of mediuln size, up to 40 Inm in height, globose to elongate ovate, spire short and apex
pointed, sutures narrow and deep, shoulder narrow. Aperture tnoderately \vide, outer lip thick,
strong lirations on the interior, columella with callus bearing three folds anteriorly, umbilical
pore almost closed by the coJumel1a shield, siphonal canal short and broad. Sculptured \vith
nunlerous axial riblets crossed by alternately thick and thin spira) ridges. Colour paJe brown,
aperture yellowish or white.
India: Orissa, Andhra Pradesh: Visakhapatnam; Pondicherry, not comlnon. Indo-West Pacific.
Cancellaria quasi/la Petit, 1987

(PI. 78, fig. I, 2)
Shell small, up to 25 mm in height and 19 mIn in width, elongate-ovate, spire raised,

protoconch of two and half whorls. Aperture oval, anterior canal and posterior sinus absent,
outer lip thick but without denticles, colulnella with callus and with three colulnellar folds on
the anterior half. Sculptured with strong axial cords and spiral ribs giving a basket-like appearance
(quasilla Ineans wicker basket).
India: Off Travancore, 360 fms. Indian Ocean.
Trigonostoma sea/ala (Sowerby, 1832)

(PI. 78, fig. 4)
Shell small, up to 25 n1m in height, ovate and globose, shallow wide channel from angular
shoulder to rather constricted suture. Aperture wide, )irate within, outer lip thickened, meeting
the colulnclla straight posteriorly, a snla)) parietal plication. Columella \vith a callus shield and
three folds anteriorly, lllnbilicus open and deep, siphonal canal short and shallow. Sculptured
\vith slender. oblique, rather close axial ribs, about 13 to 16 on the body \vhorl and weak spiral
cords becoll1ing nodules on the ribs, axial ribs ending in small nodules on the shoulder. Colour
white or light cream, lnarked on the ribs with crowded dark brown lines, aperture and columella
white.
Trigollostonla scalariformis (Lamarck, 1822)

(PI. 78, fig. 5)
Shell small, lip to 20 mm in height, spire short, somewhat stepped lip \vhorls with sutural
rarnp. Aperture narro\v and obliquely oval, outer lip thick and lirate within . columella with
callus bearing three oblique folds, base of columella recurved towards aperture bordering the
short siphonal canal, lllnbilical groove partly covered by the columellar callus. Sculptured with
fewer, stronger axial ribs separated by fairly broad interspaces, body \vhorl with nine axial ribs
fornling crenulations at the shoulder, \veak, spiral striae cross the ribs. Colour variable, but
usually pale bro\vn, white between shoulder and suture, often with a white spiral band at the
f11iddle of the body whorl, columella and edge of outer lip white, aperture lired with brown.
India: Pondicherry, Andamans, not common. Indo-West Pacific.
Synonyrn : ('ancel/aria lanlberti Sowerby, J832 : Finn, 1985.
REFERENCES
Petit, R. E. 1987. New names for two species of Cancellaria (Mollusca : Gastropoda).
The Nautilus, 101(3): 154.
Slnith, E. A. 1899. See Selected Bibliography p. 378.
S:P YPLAI OPHORA AND GASTROPO A
I 2 Oli a idelia: Visakhapatnam; 3,4. Oliva oliva; .5. Oliva ericea: Vi akhapatna ; 6 7. maIda
ampla : V', a apatnam,'.8 9. Marginella loebeckeana : Visa apatnam' 10. MargineUa angustata :
Vi akhapatnam.
· URY. DIA
Ii a Ii a'
annulato'
H o R P D
7. Harpa arnour tta :

· URV IN IA OC . P PRo. 192
la e 74 :
it,. anll igua' ;Ira ca,.ii"alis~ . _lIra , _ ltl _ la~ itra 'lI;tra; itra 'St; Ii a, ,;t,-a
(, .J aurantia. ubrtlpp ~Ii; 7.. itr I ( t bular; ,) (l1I"(l1II;a Ollr_1I1( .
HE L p D A TR P
ae
itra ? lu t:uo a' ,Mitra hry ali· 4. I banula.'

itra .) ticaonl Q' 7, Imbricaria punctata : 8. cabricola fu a: ,7 3nun'
9 O. M~' triga( lla lilt rata' 11. M ,{ .trigatellaolumbell.iformi' .
R .Z L. ' R . 19
Plat 76:
I, ' ,(. tri at lIa) d curlala' _. ,( tri at II p up r ula' . tri at Ila 1 utuiat
(.' Iri t lIa) n tu Q ' ,PI 1) ' i r I"dat .
1 tr ta' . Pr IJ i d III ,
B : 1 Dl p
l oan illa circula' 2. _o all ilia OTQnatina' oCGnci/la papili ~ one illa int rlir ta'
. an iI/a L'ab lIa: . ancilla philippinarunl: 7" ubcancilla /7anull a~ Inip }rla n~/7Ii" 10
ri 1o (. abri la 'Q ru! a,
I
REC. ZOOL . SURV. I DIA, ace. PAPER '0 . 192
Plate 78 : 'C ancellariidae
l ~ . ~. Tri
SUBBA RAO : INDIAN SEA SHELLS: POLYPLACOPHORAAND GASTROPODA
Pate 79 : Conidae
I. Conus geqgraphs; 2. Conus striatus; 3. Conus ,tulipa; 4,. Conus marmoreus; 5. Co.nus vexillum
6,. Conus figulinus .
L. RV. DIA OC . PAP R 0.1 92
lat 80: Con·dae
nu ~ b _tull"u ;.
. , nu di tan ' ,:r u ,I,U gJU l g raphu .
RAO : H_LL : P LY LAOPHORA A 0
,ate 81 :
l. Conus aculeiformis" 2. Conu arenatus; 3. Conu nicobari u; 4. Conu canonicu . 5 onu

capitaneus' 6. Conus ,a madi; 7. Conus mutabilis; 8. -Conus inscriptus' 9. Conu' epiY:opu ;
10. Conus striatus.
c.zoo . s v. IA oce. PAPER No. 192
Pate 82 : Conidae
1. 01lU bra LI' • I1U litt ,.al[l ; burn U' • o"u pipe~atu . onu lividu .
7,. nu flU - at /I ntl (filipa' bra.
o ,: IND AN SEA S LS : PQLYPLACOpl ' ORA AND GASTROPODA
late 83 : Conidae
1,2. Conus acutangulus; 3. Conus coronatus; 4.. Conus coromandelicus; 5. Conus elegans:
6. Conus figulinus x.
RE . Z L. URV. IN oce PAPER ' . 192
at 84:
1 2, Turri uta (ornata tornata' . Turri ""a . ja ana' 4rri ·I/a tornata fulminata
7. hI pira tra ancori t~(1 an ,Qr;a' . Turri ula ja ana' 0 oph,otoma acuta
12 ophiotoma indi _.
SUBBA RAO : INDIAN SEA SHELLS: POL YPLACOP( lORA AND GASTROPODA 311
Fatnily CONIDAE
Cones
Shell is small to large in size, often attaining a maximutn height of 100 mm. It is solid,
cone shaped and often heavy. Spire is generally depressed or low, pointed and in sOlne may
be highly elevated. Aperture is long and narrow extending along the whole length of the
body whorl. Inner and outer lips run almost parallel to each other and the latter is smooth
bearing no denticles. A distinct posterior sinus may exist. Surface of the shell is covered by thin
or thick periostracum. which may be yellowish or brownish, often obscuring the actual colour
of the shell. There is great variability in colour pattern but it is generally specific. Operculum
with a terminal nucleus is usually present. It is stnall, ovate to elongate with an unguiform
shape.
Cephalic region bears a tubular rostrum and a pair of tentacles bearing eyes on their distal
outer surfaces. Foot is long and narrow. Mantle cavity consists of an incllrrent siphon and a
ctenidium. Proboscis is intraembolic or polyelnbolic. Radula is toxoglossate, generally \vith
lateral teeth and rarely \vith a central. Marginal teeth are tnodified into harpoon-like structures
with poison. Oesophagus does not bear any valve of Leiblein. Sexes are separate; a conspiclloUS
tubular verge is present in the male. Felnales deposit eggs in pouch-like capsules and some are
capable of depositing several thousand eggs at one sitting. Pelagic larvae elnerge out of the
capsules and can survive for variable durations.
The family includes about 500 recent species which are generally abundant in tropical coral
reef habitats. Majority live in the intertidal zone between the reef and the shore, in the rock and
coral crevices and in sandy habitats in the reef. These are carnivorous feeding on molluscs
(molluscivorolls), on \\forms (vennivorous) and small fishes (piscivorous). Cones are comlnon
in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Gulf of Mannar, Gulf of Kachchh and Lakshadweep. A
few species were collected off the Inainland coast of India from the intel1idal sandy zone to a
depth of abou~ 40 In. About 73 species of Cones are known froln India, and of these 53 are
reported from Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
ConU.f QClIleijormis Reeve~ 1843

(PI. 81, fig. 1)
Shell slnalJ, up to 25 mm in height, spindle shaped \vith an elongate body \vhorl and an
elevated spire, light . sculptured with round spiral ridges separated by 111inute beaded grooves,
surface whi~.with quadrangular light brown Inarkings.
India: Talhil Nadu : Madras, Tranquehar; Pondicherry, Andatnan and Nicobar Islands, not
common. Indo-Pacific, Red Sea to Philippines.
ConUj' acutangulus Lamarck, 1810

(PI. 83, fig. I, 2)
Shell small, up to 25 mm in height, soUd, sharply pointed at both ends, body whorl broad at
the shoulder, spire high and pointed, about a third of the total height ofthe shell. Surface sculptured
with spiral ridges and fine axial striations in the interstices, yellowish- bro\vn, flecked with dark
bro\vn, often with indistinct, interrupted spiral bands, one above and the other below the centre,
ridges decorated with widely spaced brown dots, spire with broad brown spots, aperture white.
India: Maharashtra : Bombay; Tamil Nadu : Madras, Corolnandal Coast; Andhra Pradesh:
Visakhapatnam, offshore, 51 to 83 m, not common. Tropical Indo-West Pacific, Red Sea t~
, Hawaii.
Conus amadis Gmelin, 1791

(PI. 81, fig. 6)
Shell of Inedium to large size, up to 85 mm in height, light weight, spire sharp and pointed,
shoulder often channelled, spire and base of body whorl with spiral grooves, colour highly
variable, white ''lith orange brown reticulations which often join into irregular bands, spire
decorated with large brown spots, aperture white, periostracum absent in preserved specimens.
India: Talnil Nadu: GulfofMannar, Coromandal Coast, Porto Novo; Andaman and Nicobar
Islands. Sri Lanka to North Sumatra.
Coornans el al. (1980) recognized two subspecies, Conus anladis amadis occurring in Sri
Lanka and Coronlandel coast, and COlnus amadis caslaeno/asciallis Dautzenberg, 1937 occuning
around Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
Conus araneosus Solander in Lightfoot, 1786

(PI. 80, fig. 4)
ShelllTIoderately large, up to 60 mm in height. solid and heavy, spire slightly elevated with
a blunt apex, body whorl with an angulated shoulder, spire whorls eoronated with,raised tubercles,
yello\vish white or light chocolate brown with dark bro,vn triangular marks, encircled with two
or three interrupted or irregular but \vell defined bands of chocolate brown, in some the top
most band broader than the lower ones, often the upper two bands coalesce together forming a
broader band, aperture white.
India: Tamil Nadu : Coromondal Coast, Gulf of Mannar; Andaman and Nicobar Islands,
cornmon, intertidal to a little subtidal on limestone or sand substrates. Indian Ocean.
't breeds during October-March in the Gulf of Mannar (Natarajan, 1957).
Synonym : ('onus arachnoidells Gmel in, 1791 (Coomans et ai, 1981).
Conus arenatus Hwass in Bruguiere, 1792

(PI. 81, fig. 2)
Shell of medium size, up to 50 mm in height, heavy, stoutly turbinate or cylindrical, spire

convexly flat or slightly elevated, body whorl a little' inflated and strongly coronated at the
shoulder, columella with a plaint or fold. Colour white decorated with closely spaced
t
numerous small reddish- brown dots all over, some arranged in two or three dark bands, aperture
white.
India: Maharashtra, Lakshadweep, Tamil Nadu, Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Tropical
Indo-Pacific, from India to Tualnotu Archipelago and from South Japan to North Australia
(Coomans e/ al., 1981).
Conus aulicus Linnaeus, 1758
(PI. 79, fig. 5)
Shell large, up to 80 mm in height, solid and inflated, spire pointed. Surface beautifully
coloured with large white tent Inarks on a dark brown background.
India: Andaman & Nicobar Islands. Indo-Pacific.
At a first glance the species bears sOlne resemblance to C. episcopus but differs froln it in
being narrow and being smoother.
Conus betulinlls Linnaeus, 1758

(PI. 80, fig. I)
Shell large, up to 95 mm in height, heavy, spire not much elevated, body whorl inflated with
rounded shoulder, surface smooth except for a few spiral ridges at the base, creanlY yellow,
ornamented with \videJy spaced spiral rows of dark brown spots of variable size:;" aperture
creamy white with yellow-edged lip, periostracum thick and yellowish.
India: Orissa: Gopalpur; Andhra Pradesh: Visakhapatnam; Tamil Nadu : Madras, Tuticorin,
Porto Novo, Tranquebar; Pondicherry, COlnmon. It is collected in trawl nets at about ~O to
25 m depth. Indo-West Pacific.
Conus capitaneus Linnaeus, 1758

(PI. 80, fig. 6)
Shell moderately large, up to 60 mm in height, spire low and striate, colour brownish with
yellow or green tinge, ornalnented with lines of black spots encircling the body \vhorl above the
central white band and bordering it below, purple base devoid of spots, white band on body
whorl and its shoulder, spire with black and white chequered effect extending a little on to the
shoulder below.
India: Lakshad\veep, Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Indo-West Pacific.
Corus coromalldelicus (E. A. Smith, 1894)

(PI. 63, fig. 1)
Shell of Inediuln size~ lip to 35 mm in height, light but solid, allnost biconic, resembles a
cone shell. spire small. Aperture twice as long as spire, columella without callus, outer lip thin
and corrugated, posterior sinus shallow and at the tip of the outer lip, siphonal canal broad and
truncated, spire whorls slightly keeled with incised sutures. Sculptured with strong, regular,
sometimes nodulose spiral ribs, shoulder of each whorl with axial striae. Colour pale brown,
ribs darker, aperture white.
India: Bay of Bengal, 200 nl. Else\vhere: Gulf of Arabia.
Conlll' corollatlls Gmelin, 1791

(PI. 64, fig. 5-7)
Shell of Inedium size, lip to 40 Innl in height, solid and stout, spire elevated with an obtuse
and blunt apex, body \vhorl with an angulated and coronated shoulder, surface with several
small, threadlike spiral ridges Inarked with alternate \vhite and brown. colour grayish blue,
encircled \vith two bluish gray bands, a broader one on the top and a narro\ver one at the base,
interrupted by white and zigzag axial lines, spire \vhorls with spiral bands of white and brown,
aperture purplish brown, periostraculn thin and brownish yellow.
India: Gujarat : Okha; Tanlil Nadu : Gulf of Mannar (Krusadai and Shingle Islands),
Mandapaln, Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Widely distributed in the Indo-West Pacific.
Co II liS distans I-{wass in Bruguiere, 1792

(PI. 80, fig. 5)
Shell large, up to 100 Inln in height, elongately turbinated, narro\v in the middle, spire
convexly exsertcd~ apex characteristically and flatly truncated, shoulder coronated with obtuse
white knobs and yellowish brown interstices~ light brown \vith a broad paler band at the centre,
base stained with black ish violet.
India: Lakshadvveep. Andanlan and Nicobar Islands. Indo-West Pacific.

SU·BBA RAO : INDIAN SEA SHELLS: POL YPLACOPHORA AND GASTROPODA 315
COIIIIS ebraeus Linnaeus, 1758

(PI. 82, fig. 1)
Shell of medium size, lip to 50 mm in height, spire moderately elevated and coronated,
colour brownish- white, three or rarely four broad spiral bands of dark chocolate or black chevron-
shaped or rhomboid markings, spire and top ornamented with black markings, surface more or
less striated throughout but Inore prolninent towards the dark stained base, aperture \vhite,
periostracum thin and translucent.
India: Lakshadweep, Tamil Nadu : Gulf of Mannar; Pondicherry, Andatnan and Nicobar
Islands. Indo-West Pacific to Central Alnerica.
Common on the beach rock exposed during low tide and in areas where polychaetes are
abundant.
COIIllS ehurneus Hwass in Bruguiere, 1792

(PI. 82, fig. 3, 5)
Shell lnoderately large, up to 70 mm in height, heavy with rounded shoulders and flattened
top, spire sinall and pointed, colour white with regularly arranged spiral ro\vs of black or dark
brown quadrangular spots, periostraculn olive brown and translucent.
India: Lakshadweep (not common), Talnil Nadu : Tuticorin, Tranquebar; Andhra Pradesh:
Visakhapatnam (25 m); Andalnan and Nicobar Islands. Widely distributed in the Indo-West
Pacific.
Conus eiega1ls Sowerby, 1895

CP1. 83, fig. 3)
Shell of medium size, up to 35 1nm in height, thin, glossy, spire elevated. \vith pointed
nodules above sutures, protoconch glossy and pointed, surface with distinct spiral grooves at
the lower half, white with spiral rows of reddish brown blotches or dots.
India: Andhra Pradesh: VisakhapatnalTI. Indian Ocean.
Conus episcoplls I-Iwass in Bruguiere

(PI. 79, fig. 11)
Shell small, up to 40 mm in length, spire highly elevated with blunt apex. Surface slnooth
except for spiral threads on the base of the body whorl, ornamented with white tent marks on
brown background colour.
The shell looks sirnilar to that of Conus textile but it is narrower and less glos:;).
India: Lakshadweep, Andaman and Nicobar Islands. not C0t11Inon. Indo-Pacitic.
Conus figulinus Linnaeus, 1758

(PI. 79, fig. 6)
Shel11TIoderately large, up to 71 mm in height, heavy, pyriform with elevated spire, colour

unifortnly light brown encircled with many dark brown spiral lines, a pale tan band at shol.dder,
spire dark brown, aperture white, periostracum thick and dark brown.
India: Maharashtra: Bombay; Kerala: Malabar Coast; Tamil Nadu: Madras, GulfofMannar;
Pondicherry.
Conus flavidus LaJnarck, 1810

(PI. 79, fig ..3)
Shell relatively smaller than in other cones, up to 60 mm in height, spire flat, surface smooth
except for a few spiral striations at the anterior end. Aperture narrow, 'outer lip thin. Colour
yellowish-brown becoming pale on the shoulder and spire, a narrow white band at the middle of
(he body whorl. Interior of aperture purple coloured.
India. Indo-Pacific.
Conus geograplllis Linnaeus~ 1758

(PI. 79, fig. 12 and PI. 80, fig. 6)
Shell large, up to 110 1nm in height, thin and light weight, spire short with coronated whorls,
body \vhorl ovately cylindrical with widely spaced coronations at the shoulder, surface smooth,
columella with a thick callus at the base, colour brownish with some white tent marks and
blotches, darker brown blotches, often with two broken spiral bands, aperture white.
It has a poisonous sting whose bite may be fatal to man and hence the speciJnen should be
handled carefully in the field.
India : Tamil Nadu ; Gulf of Mannar; Pondicherry; Andaman and Nicobar Islands, not
common. Indo-West Pacific, intertidal sands.
Conus inscriptus Reeve, 1843

(PI. 8), fig. 8)
Shell sinall, up to 40 mm in length, spire pointed. Body whorl white, ornamented with
brownish yellow spots, aperture \vhite.
India; Maharastra: off Bombay. 82 m; off Ratnagiri SOme Kerala: offCalicut~ 82 In. Tamil
Nadu : Cape COtnrin, Porto Novo, Madras (46 and 64 m) : Froln Red Sea to Bay of Bengal
(Kohn, 1978).
Conus litteratus Linnaeus, 1758

(PI. 79, fig. 8 and PI. 82, fig. 2)
Shell very large, lip to 142 mm in height, with a flat spire and rounded shoulder, white
with a number of rows of close-set bands of rectangular dark chocolate or black spots, the
spots sometimes elongated axially towards the shoulder, usually encircled with two to
three broad indistinct light yellow or orange-brown bands, often covered with brownish
periostracum.
India: Lakshadweep, Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Tropical Indo-Pacific.
It occurs partly buried in sand in knee-deep water.
Conus livitlus Hwass in Bruguiere, 1792

(PI. 82, fig. 6)
Shell of medium size, up to 50 ml'!} in height, heavy, spire depressed and conical, surface
spirally striated, striae at the base often granulose, spire and shoulder coronated with tubercles,
colour livid green with a white band around the middle of the body whorl, spire white with a
purple apex, interior of aperture deeply stained with yellow at the upper and lower parts.
India: Tamil Nadu : Tranquebar, Gulf ofMannar (Shingle Island); Pondicherry, (very rare),
Andaman and Nicobar Islands (cornmon).
It bears striking silnilarity to Conus jlavidus Lamarck, 1850 but differs from it in having
coronations on the spire and shoulder.
Conus marmorells Linnaeus, 1758

(PI. 79, fig. 2)
Shell large, up to 90 Inm in height, thick and solid, obconicaJ shape, spire flat. Aperture
narrow with a thin outer lip. Sculptured with widely spaced\ nodules on the shoulder.
Coloured with triangular white patches on dark brown back ground. Periostracllm thin and
transparent.
India : Tamil Nadu : Madras, Gulf of Mannar (Pamban); Andatnan Islands. Uncommon.
Indo-Pacific.
Conus miles Linnaeus, 1758

(PI. 79, fig. 1)
Shell large, up to 90 mm in height, heavy, broadly conical, spire flatly obtuse with blunt
apex, shoulder lightly keeled, pale yellowish, ornarnented with fine, wavy, axial light brown
lines, t\VO dark spiral bands, one slightly above the middle region and another at the base of the
body whorl, aperture white with hvo bro\vn zones.
India: Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Tropical Indo-West Pacific.
It occurs in sandy patches among coral reefs where a little water remains even during low
tide.
Conus mutabilis Reeve, 1844

(PI. 81, fig. 7)
Shell of mediuI11 size, up to 50 mm in height, solid and broadly conical, spire elevated with
pointed apex, body whorl \vith light to dark brown axial flalnmules, extending to dark bro~n,
\vith interrupted darker spiral lines, spire tan or white, with dark brown axial flammules, extending
on to the body whorl. aperture white.
India: Maharashtra: Bombay; Goa, Karnataka: Karwar; Tamil Nadu. Elsewhere: Sri Lanka,
~orneo. Hong Kong.
Conus nicobariclls Hwass in Bruguiere, 1792

(PI. 81, fig. 3)
Shell large. up to 100 Inm in length, thick and heavy, spire elevated. body whorl sharply
angulated above. spire with distinct coronations. Coloured with brown lines on white background
and ornamented with t\VO prominent spiral bands of dark brown mottlings.
India: Andamans. Mainly Pacific. Indonesia to Phillippines.
The shell is silnilar to that of ('onus araneoslIs. Many consider this as a subspecies of
('. uraneoslis.
Conlls IIussatella Linnaeus, 1758

(PI. 82. fig. 7)
Shell of Inedium size, lip to ~O mm in height, glossy, elongate cylindrical, spire elevated,
\vith pointed apex. shoulder steeply sloping. surface of body whorl sculptured with low spiral
ridges, finer spiral ridges above the shoulder, white with irregular orange brown to light purplish
bro\vn blotches, spiral ridges ornalnented with dark brown spots. aperture \vhite, periostracllm
slnooth and translucent.
India: Gujarat : Okha: Tamil Nadu :. Madras, Gulf of Mannar (Shingle Island). Tropical
Indo-West Pacific.
Conus piperatus Dillwyn, 1817

(PI. 65, fig. 8)
Shell of medium size, up to 40 mm in height, spire elevated, spire and shoulder cfthe body
whorl with obsolete coronations, colour light bluish-gray with an obsolete pale brown band and
a violet anterior region, dark brown spots in between coronations.
Conus striatus Hwass in Bruguiere, 1792

(PI. 81, fig. 10)
Shell large, up to 100 mm in height, thick, cylindrically turbinate with short and obtusely
convex spire, tapered shoulder, surface of the body whorl sculptured with fine spiral striations,
spire whorls channelled, colour pinkish-white with blotches of purple gray or brown, spire
white \vith rose-tainted apex, aperture white.
India: Tamil Nadu : Gulf ofMannar (Tuticorin, Hare Island, Krusadai Island, Shingle Island);
Andatnan and Nicobar Islands. Tropical Indo-West Pacific.
ithas,a.poiso.llOus ·sting and should be handled carefuHy while collecting in the field.
Conlls terebra Born, 1798

(PI. 82, fig. 9)
Shell large, up to 90 mm in height, heavy and narrow, sculptured with coarse spiral ridges,
colour wh·ite with two pale yellow bands, one on the shoulder and the other a little below
middle of the body whorl, base tinged with purple at the to, purple lines below sutures, aperture
white, periostracum thick and bro,vn.
India: Tamil Nadu : Madras, Gulf of Mannar (Krusadai Island); Andaman and Nicobar
Is~nds (not common).
Conus textile Linnaeus, 1752

(PI. 79, fig. 6 and PI. 80, fig. 3)
Shell large, up to 90 mm in height, glossy, cylindrically ovate, spire acuminate, body whorl
strongly shouldered and narrow towards the base, surface smooth or with weak spiral striations
at the base, colour yellowish white or golden yellow, with large irregular, orange brown
maculations, often arranged in two or three reddish brown interrupted spiral bands, aperture
white, periostracum thin and smooth.
India: Tamil Nadu : Madras, Gulf of Mannar (Tuticorin); Pondicherry, Andaman and Nicobar
Islands, not common. Tropical Indo-West Pacific.
It is venomous and should be handled carefully in the field.
Conus tulipa Linnaeus, 1758

(PI. 79, fig. 9, 10 and PI. 82, fig. 8)
Shell moderately large, up to 60 mm in height, thin and swollen, spire elevated and faintly
coronated, body whorl with a distinct shoulder, lower half of aperture wide, colour sky blue
with clouds of dark brown ornamented with spiral lines of tiny brown dots.
India: Andamans. Andamans to Australia and Central Pacific.
It bears some similarity to C. nussatella but can be easily distinguished by its swollen shell
and wider lower half of aperture and dark brown maculations on the body whorl.
Conus vexil/um Omelin, 1791

(Pl. 79, fig. 4)
Shell large, up to 75 mm in height, rather thick and solid, spire flat, biconical, body
whorl shoulderd. Aperture elongate and narrow. Surface without any sculpture. Colour reddish-
brown with two whitish bands one just below the suture and the other at the middle of the body
whorl.
India : Tamil Nadu : Gulf of Mannar (Tuticorin); Andaman & Nicobar Islands. Indo-
Pacific.
Conus virgo Linnaeus, J758

(PI. 80, fig. 2)
Shell large, up to 80 mm in height, heavy, spire short or flat topped, shoulder low, conical
and sharply keeled, sides almost straight, widely spaced weak spira) ridges at the base, fine
spiral threads on spire whorls, colour white to pale yellow, tinged with deep bluish violet at the
base, aperture white with deep bluish violet tinge at the lower end, periostracum thick and
brown.
India : Tamil Nadu : Gulf of Mannar (Mandapam, Tuticorin); Pondicherry. Andaman
Islands.
A Checklist of the species of Conus in India.
The following species of Conus were also reported from Indian localities but are not included
in this book, as the specimens are either not ~vailable for study or in not good condition.
I. Conus achatinus Gmelin, 179 I

2. C. andamanensis E.A. Smith, 1878 Andamans (= Conus collisus Reeve, 1849)
3. C. australis Holten, 1802
4. C. bandanus Hwass in Bruguiere, 1792
5. C. bayani Jousseaume, 1872
6. C. biliosus (Roeding, 1798) Andaman and Nicobar Islands
7. C. bosch; Clover, 1972
8. C. earaeteristieus Fischer, 1807 Andamans
9. C. eatus Hwass in Bruguiere, 1792 Tamil Nadu, Andamans
10. C. ceylanensis Hwass in Bruguiere, 1792 Tamil Nadu, Andamans
11. C. chaldeus (Roeding, 1798) Andaman and Nicobar Islands
12. C. edwardi Preston, 1908 Andamans
13. C. eximius Reeve, 1849
14. C. jlavidus Lamarck Andamans
15. C. frigidus Reeve, 1848
16. C. generalis Linnaeus Andamans
17. C. glans Hwass in Bruguiere, 1792 Nicobars
18. C. gubernator Hwass in Bruguiere, 1792
19. C. insculptus Kiener
20. C. janus Hwass in Bruguiere, 1792
21. C. lentiginosus Reeve, I 844
22. C. longurionis Kiener, 1849-50
23. C. malaceanus Hwass in Bruguiere, 1792
24. C. masoni G. & H. Nevill, 1874
25. C. miliaris Hwass in Bruguiere, 1792 Andamans
26. C. nJillepunctatus Lamarck
27. C. milneedwardsi Jousseaumc, 1894
28. C. monile Hwass in Bruguiere, 1792 Andamans
29. C. musicus Hwass in Bruguiere, 1792
30. C. nobilis Linnaeus, 1758 Andamans
31. C. pennacells Born, 1778 Andaman and Nicobar Islands
32. C. prelioslls G. & H. Nevill, ] 874
33. C. quercinlls So lander (in Lightfoot), 1706
34. C. rattus Hwass in Bruguiere, 1792
35. C. straluralus Sowerby
36. C. striatellus Link, 1807
37. C. sulcatus I-Iwass in Bruguiere, 1792
38. C. tessulatlls Born, 1778 Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Andamans

39. C. zeylanicus Gmelin, 1791
40. C. zonatus Hwass in Bruguiere, 1792 Andaman and Nicobar Islands
Apte, D. 1992 Record of the cone shell, Conus cumingi (Reeve, 1848) from Bombay seas. J.
Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 89(]) : 142-]43.
Coomans, H. E., Moolenbeek, R. G. and Wits, E. 1979. Alphabetical revision of the (sub)
species in Recent Conidae. 1. abbas to adnsonii. Basteria, 43 : 9-26; 2. adansoni to
albuquerqui. Bas/eria, 43 : 81-105; 3. albus to antillarum with the description of Conus
algoensis agulhas; nov. subspecies. Basleria, 44 : 17-49 (1980); 4. aphrodite to azona
with the description of Conus arena/us bizona nov. subspecies. Basleria, 45 : 3-55 (1991).
7. cingulatus to cylindricus including Conus shikamai nomen novum. Basteria, 48(6) :
223-311 (1985).
Endean, R. ]964. Venomous Conus. Ausl. nal. Hisl., 14 : 400-403, 3 fig.
Endean, R. and Rudkin, C. 1963. Studies on the venoms of some Conidae. Toxicon, I : 49-64.
Kohn, A. J. 1978. The Conidae (Mollusca: Gastropoda) of India. J. nat. Hisl., 12 : 295-335
(contains many other references).
Kohn, A. J. 1961. Studies on spawning behavior, egg masses and larval development in the
gastropod genus Conus. 1. Observations in the Indian Ocean during the Yale Seychelles
Expedition. Bull. Binghanl Oceanogr. Coil., 17(4) : 1-5 J.
Ramu, YD., Nal1athambi, T and Mathew, M. K. t 996. COlnparative studies on the Radula
teeth of two species of Conus from the Indian coast. Clirr. Sci., 70(4) : 313-314.
Subba Rao, N. V. ] 980. On the Conidae of Andaman and Nicobar lslands. Rec. zoo!. Surv.
India, 77 : 39-50.
324 REC. ZOOL. SURV. INDIA, OCC. PAPER No. 192,
Family TURRIDAE
Shell is of minute to very large size, 1mm to 170 mm in height. It has variable shapes but
generally fusiform with turret-shaped spire. Protoconch may be smooth or elaborately sculptured.
Anterior siphonal canal may be very long and narrow or short and truncate. Columella usually
is smooth or rarely nodulose or indistinctly plicate. Anal sinus is in the form of an indistinct slit
to a deep profound turrid notch situated at various distances between the sutures and periphery
on the outer lip. Sculpture is highly variable. It may consist of spiral cords, nodules, gemmules
or spines. Operculum is corneous and small, which may be leaf-shaped or lanceolate with a
terminal nucleus, or ovate to subovate with a medio-Iateral nucleus. It may be often vestigial or
absent.
Cephalic tentacles are widely separated bearing eyes at their bases. Proboscis is long and
intraelnboilc or polyembolic. There are no jaws, but a poisonolls venom gland is present. Radula
may be more or less rachiglossate and nondetachable or toxoglossate with only marginals and
detachable. There is no valve of Leiblein. Sexes are separate.
It is a large family divided into 15 subfamilies consisting of 600 genera and subgenera and
about 2000 species. These are carnivorous and use a dart-like tooth to harpoon and capture the
prey. These occur in shallow water to deep seas, majority being off shore forms.
There is not much work on Indian turrids. About 80 species were reported in Indian waters,
but there may be many more species. The collection available for study included only 23 species,
which are dealt here.
Subfamily TURRICULINAE
Turricula javana Linnaeus, 1767

(PI. 84, fig. 8, 9)
Shell large, up to 75 min in height, spire high, slightly shorter than the body whorl, aperture
broad, with a wide posterior sinus extending from shoulder to suture, siphonal canal short
and often twisted. Sculptured with obliquely set and axially elongate nodules on the shoulder,
two narrow spiral ridges below suture, strong spiral threads on the lower half of the body
whorl from shoulder to the base of siphonal canal. Colour brownish yellow with nodules being
lighter.
India: Maharashtra: Bombay; Pondicherry, not common. Indian Ocean.

Turricula tornata tornata (Oi I)wyn, 18] 7)

(PI. 84, fig. 1, 2)
She111arge, up to 90 mm in height, solid and heavy, fusiform, spire less than half the total
length, sutures shallow, aperture wide, posterior sinus deep, siphonal canal long and twisted.
Shell surface smooth, except for a shallow spiral ridge below the suture and spiral striations at
the base of the body whorl. Colour creamy white ornamented with brown lines.
India: Maharashtra : Bombay; Tamil Nadu : Madras; Andhra Pradesh : Bheetnunipatnaln,
Visakhapatnam; Orissa: PurL India to Thailand.
rllrricu/a tornata [u/minata (Kiener, ] 839-40)

(PI. 84, fig. 5, 6)
Shell moderately large, up to 55 mm in height, similar to T. (ornata (ornata but differs from
it in having a heavy subsutural fold, rounded shoulders, and more clear cut colour pattern of
retractive reddish brown flames.
India : Gujarat : Gulf of Kachchh; Maharashtra : BOJnbay~ Goa, Karnataka : Karwar;
Lakshadweep, Pondicherry, Orissa, not common. Indian Ocean.
Coc/I/espira travallcorica travallcorica (E.A. Smith, 1896)

(P1. 84, fig. 7)
Shell of medium size, up to 35 mm in height, thin and delicate, spire high, half the total
length, aperture narrow, columella with callus, smooth, posterior sinus indistinct, anterior canal
broad and short. Shoulders prominently keeled, with numerous, small~ sharp spines, surface
smooth, with a few spiral threads at the base of the body whorl. Colour uniformly dull white
and devoid of ornamentation.
India: Kerala, Andamans (750 m). Indian Ocean.
Paradrll/ia [ugata (E. A. Smith, 1895)

(PI. 86, fig. 10)
Shell small, up to 32 mm in height and 11 min in width, solid, spire a little less than half the
total height of the shell, sutures shallow. Aperture narrowly elongate, columellar lip ahnost
straight, siphonal canal broad and shallow, posterior notch small. Sculptured with raised axial
ridges and obsolete spiral striae. Colour brownish with light brown aperture.
India : Off shore form. Investigator, Sta. 202-Bay of Bengal (7 °4' 40" N 80°25 '30" E),
695 fins, Sta. 222-Andaman Sea (13°21' N 93°14'30" E), 1405 fIns.
326 REC. ZOOL. SURV. INDIA, occ. PAPER No. 192
Subfamily TURRINAE
Lophiotoma acuta (Perry, 1811)

(PI. 84, fig. 10, 11)
Shell of medium size, up to 45 mm in height, fusiform, spire long, more than half the
total height, aperture narrow, outer lip with a prominent posterior slit, columella smooth,
siphonal canal straight and of moderate length. Sculptured with prominent sharp double keel at
periphery of each whorl, with three to four spiral threads on either side of the keel, sutures deep
with moderately large ridges on either side. Colour white, speckled with small dark brown dots,
most prominent on the keel, but with smaller dots on lesser ridges and threads, aperture dull
white.
India: Andamans, common. Indo-Pacific, Red Sea to Samoa.
Synonym : Pleurotoma tigrina Lamarck, 1822
Lop/.iotoma indica (Roeding, 1798)

(PI. 84, fig. 12)
Shell moderately large, up to 60 mm in height, elongate fusiform, spire long, less than half
the total height, aperture narrow, with smooth columella and a deep, broad posterior slit on the
outer lip. Siphonal canal long and straight. Sculptured with a distinct keel on the lower half of
the whorls, 9 to 10 smooth secondary spiral threads above and below the keel, a narrow presutural
cord, lowest sharp ridge begins at the end of the siphonal notch. Colour white with dark brown
spots on the keel and dark brown axial streaks.
India: Andhra Pradesh: Visakhapatnam; Tamil Nadu: Madras; 'PondicheIT)', common. Indo-
Pacific, Indian Ocean to the Fiji Islands.
Synonym: Pleurotoma marmorata Lamarck, 1822
Luceropex indagaloris (Finlay, 1927)

(PI. 86, fig. 8, 9)
Shell small, 34 mm in height and ] 2 mm in width, elongate fusiform, spire elongate but Jess
than half the height of the shell. Siphonal canal broad, sinus broadly open and U-shaped.
Sculptured with peripheral row of gemmules, subsutural keel of weak gemmules on the spire
whorls and spiral striae on the body whorl becoming obsolete towards the anterior end. Colour
white.
India: Investigator Sta. 232-Laccadive Sea. 435 fms. offTravancore, 360 fms (E. A Smith-
Powell, 1964).
Synonym: Pleurotoma optala E. A. Smith, 1894
Xenuroturris cingulifera cingulifera (Lamarck, 1822)

(PI. 86, fig. 1, 2)
Shell of medium size, up to 50 mm in height, solid, spire high, more than half the total
height, aperture sma11, columella SJTIooth, posterior sinus deep, siphonal canal broad and short,
slightly recurved. Sculptured with double-corded keel just below the suture followed by close-
set spiral threads below. Colour cream, ornamented with axially elongate dark brown spots on
the cords of the keel and minute reddish brown dots on the spiral cords, aperture and columella
white.
India: Andamans, not common. Indo-Pacific, Red Sea to Fiji, not common.
Gemmula congener congeller (E. A. Smith, 1894)

(PI. 85, fig. 2)
Shell of medium size, up to 45 mm in height, solid, spire high, half the total height, columella
with smooth callus deposit, posteriorly with deep sinus, outer lip thin, with a deep U-shaped
notch, ,siphonal canal broad and short. Sculptured with strong spiral cords bearing gemmules,
body whorl with a strong peripheral carina ornamented with gemmules and five to six fine
spiral cords with close-set gemmules. Colour cream, without any ornamentation, aperture white,
columellar callus shining white.
India: Bay of Bengal, 234 m. East Africa to Philippines.
Gemmula monilifera (Pease, 1860)

(PI. 85, fig. 7)
Shell small, up to 30 mm in height, solid and narrow, spire half the total height, aperture
narrow, columella with thin callus, almost straight, smooth, outer lip with a broad U-shaped
notch, posterior sinus absent, siphonal canal narrow and moderate, almost straight. Sculptured
with narrow peripheral carina bearing gemmules, one raised spiral cord with a thin spiral cord
below on spire whorls, body whorl with one granulated peripheral carina and three raised spiral
cords below followed by indistinct spiral cords below up to the posterior edge of the aperture.
Colour wheatish brown, aperture and columella white.
India: Kamataka: Mangalore, 45 to 55 m.
Gemmula oldham; (E. A. Smith, 1894)

(PI. 85, fig. 1)
Shell of medium size, up to 45 mm in height, solid, spire slightly less than half the total
height, aperture narrow. Columella with slightly broad callus, with plicae in the centre, posterior
sinus very small, broad and shallow. Sculptured with peripheral carina bearing gemmules as in
G. speciosa speciosa, body whorl with several, close-set spiral cords bearing gemmules. Colour
cream, aperture and columella dull white.
India : Laccadive Sea, 660 m. Indian Ocean.
Gemmula speciosa (Reeve, 1843)

(PI. 85, fig. 10)
Shell of medium size, up to 50 mm in height, solid, spire half the total height, sutures
channeled, shell narrower than in the preceding species, columella, with callus, smooth, posterior
sinus narrow and small, outer lip with narrow notch, siphonal canal slightly drawn out. Sculptured
with peripheral carina bearing gemmules and one or two fine spiral cords, body whorl with a
distinct gemmulated peripheral carina and five to six widely spaced spiral cords. Colour dull
brown, aperture and columella white.
India : Bay of Bengal. Elsewhere : Arabian Sea, Gulf of Martaban (110m), China Sea,
Philippines.
Synonym: Pleurotoma carinata (Gray, 1834)
Gemmula vagata (E. A. Smith, 1895)

(PI. 85, fig. 3-6)
SheJl moderately large, up to 55 mm in height, spire high but less than half the total height,
aperture a little broad. Columella without callus, smooth, outer lip with a broad and deep notch,
siphonal canal narrow and elongate. Sculptured with strong peripheral carina bearing gemmules
and several spiral cords below.
India: Lakshadweep, Andamans.. Indian Ocean.
Turridrupa bijubata (Reeve. 1843)

(PI. 86, fig. 12, 13)
Shell small, up to 8 mm in height and 3 mm in width, spire high, almost twice the height of
aperture, anterior canal short and broad. Sculptured with three strong, raised spiral keels on the
spire whorls, body whorl with 6-7 keels on the top and 5-6 weak spiral striae on the base,
interstices between the keels with fine spiral threads. Colour Jight chocolate and keels light
brown.
India: West Bengal: Digha, intertidal sand; Andamans. Indo-Pacific.
Unedogemmula unedo (Kiener, 1840)

(PI. 85, fig. 8, 9)
Shell large, up to 75 mm height, solid, fusiform, spire elongate, less than half the total
height, upper part of whorls convexly sloping, lower part rounded, aperture broad, outer lip thin
with deeply 'U' shaped notch, siphonal canal long and slightly curved. Sculptured with strong
carina on the upper half of each whorl and strong, sharp edged spiral ridges. Colour pale yellow
flecked with brown, aperture and columella white.
India: Gujarat (80 m), Andamans (340 m). Elsewhere: Gulf of Oman.
Subfamily DRILLINAE
Austroclavus exasperatus (Reeve, 1843)

(PI. 86, fig. 3, 4)
Shell smaJl, up to 30 mm in height, solid, spire half the total height, aperture short and
narrow, columella with callus, a strong parietal tubercle, outer Jip thick with a notch below the
tubercle, siphonal canal a broad shallow depression. Sculptured with raised axial nodules and
fine axial growth striae. Colour cream, ornamented with dark brown, close-set, elongate axial
lines just below the nodules on the body whorl, aperture and columella white.
India: Andamans.
Tomopleura vertebrata (Smith, 1875)

(PI. fig. )
Shell small, up to 20 mm in height, suture incised, aperture small, outer lip corrugated,
posterior sinus moderately deep, anterior canal broad and truncated. Sculptured with strong
spiral ridges with distinct axial threads in the interspaces. Colour ye])owish white, aperture and
columella white.
India: Maharashtra, Tami Nadu : Madras; Orissa, West Bengal. Elsewhere: Indo-Pacific.
Subfamily CRASSISPIRINAE
Funa jIavidula (Lamarck, 1822)

(PI. 86, fig. 5)
Shell of medium size, up to 35 mm in height, thick, elongate fusiform, spire almost half the
total height, sutures distinct, aperture flaring with thickened outer lip, columella straight, with
callus on the upper part, posterior sinus not very deep, siphonal canal broad and short. Sculptured
with strong, rather close- set axial ribs crossed by spiral threads, a row of subsutural beads and
distinct spiral threads on the base of the body whorl. Colour yellowish with dark brown bands,
aperture light orange.
India: Tamil Nadu. Elsewhere: Gulf of Arabia.
Funa tayloriana (Reeve, 1846)

(PI. 86, fig. 14, 15)
Shell small, up to 30 mm in height, solid, elongate fusifonn, spire half the total 'height,
sutures shallow, aperture rather narrow, columella with callus, outer lip strongly convex, posterior
sinus deep and opening slightly upwards, siphonal canal broadly open and truncated. Sculptured
with strong, widely- spaced axial ribs crossed by weak spiral threads, axial ribs on the body
become obsolete towards the base and spiral ridges become prominent. Colour cream with
indistinct brownish dots.
India: Andhra Pradesh: Visakhapatnam; Andamans. Elsewhere: Gulf of Arabia.
Subfamily ZONULISPIRINE
Ptyc"obela grifjitl,ii, (Gray, 1834)

(PI. 86, fig. II)
Shell small, up to 22 mm in height, solid, fusiform, spire about half the total height, sutures
adpressed, aperture rather wide, slightly concave, without much callus, outer lip slightly
thickened, posterior sinus deep, siphonal canal moderately long. Sculptured with axial nodes
on the shoulder of each whorl and smooth spiral threads but no subsutural cord. Colour. light
brown.
India: Bay of Bengal. Indian Ocean.
Ptychobela nodulosa (GmeIin, 179 I)

(PI. 86, fig. 6)
Shell of medium size, up to 35 mm in height, spindle shaped, spire slightly more than half
the total height, whorls with rounded periphery. Aperture a little broad, columella with callus
posteriorly, outer lip thick, with posterior sinus, notch on the outer lip deep and rounded, siphonal
canal short. Sculptured with strong, broadly rounded spiral ribs and 2-6 regular spiral striae in
the interspaces, a low, keeled spiral rib generally made up of two close-set ridges just below the
suture, portion below this a little deeply hollowed. Colour dull brown with yellowish peripheral
band, a dark reddish-brown zone at the shoulder, a lighter brown zone at the base of the body
whorl.
India: Maharashtra : Bombay; Tamil Nadu : Madras, Porto Novo, Gulf ofMannar (Krusadai
Island); Pondicherry, Andhra Pradesh: Visakhapatnam, Orissa. Indian Ocean.
Synonym: Brachytoma crenularis Lamarck: Gravely, 1942; Satyamurti, 1952.
Subfamily RAPHITOMINAE
Some prefer to use the name Daphnellinae since the important diagnostic characters of the
genus Raphitonza are in doubt.
Daphnel/a lymnaeformis (Kiener, 1840)

(PI. 86, fig. 7)
Shell small, up to 15 mm in height, thin, spire almost as high as the aperture, whorls regularly
convex, sutures slightly adpressed. Aperture narrow and finely striate within, colulnella concave
and smooth, outer lip thin and convex, with nan'ow and deep notch, siphonal canal spout shaped.
Sculptured with short lamella at the sutures and numerous fine spiral striae crossed by longitudinal
striae giving the shell a minutely cancellate appearance, Creamy white, ornamented ,vith zigzag
brown markings.
India: Andhra Pradesh: Visakhapatnam, not common. Indian Ocean to Fiji Islands.
A Checklist of Turridae from India
A list of species reported from India is given below. These species are not included in the
text as either the specimens are not available for study or their identity not established. The list
however, is not exhaustive. The localities are given wherever known.
Subfamily TURRINAE
1. Turris annulata (Reeve, 1843) Bombay

2. Turris crispa crispa (Lamarck, 1816)
3. Turris crispa variegata (Kiener, 1839) West Coast of India
4. Turris garnonsii (Reeve, 1843)
5. Turris spectabilis (Reeve, 1843)
6. Turris undosa (Lamarck, 1816) South India.
7. Gemmula congener mekranica (Vredenburg)
8. Gemmula hombroni (Hedley, 1922)
9. Gemmula gilchristi (Sowerby, 1902) Andaman Islands
10. Gemmula sindiensis (Vredenburg)
11. Lophiotoma abbreviata abbreviata (Reeve, 1843)
12. Lophiotoma abbrev;ata Zlstulata (Reeve, 1846)
13. Lophiotoma albina (Lamarck, 1822)
14. Epidirona nlultiseriatp (Lamarck, 1822)
15. Turridrupa acutigenlmata (E. A. Smith, 1877) East Coast of India
16. Turridrupa cerithina (Anton)
17. Turridrupa deceptrix Hedly, 1922
18. Turridrupa preston; Powell, 1967
19. Unedogemmula deshayesi (Doumet, 1839)
Subfamily eLAVINAE
20. Clavus echinata Lamarck
21. Clavus enna Dall
22. Clavus wilmeri E. A\ Smith
23. Splendrilla persicus
Subfamily TURRICULINAE
24. Tlirricula ceylonica (E. A. Smith)
25. Tlirricula neUei spllris (Hedley)
26. Con,;tas breviplicata (E. A. Smith, 1899)
27. Conlitas margaritae (E. A. Smith, 1904) Andamans, 750 m.
28. COlnitas eurina (E. A. Smith, 1895) off South India
29. Comitas exslrucla (von Martens, 1903)
30. Comitas symbiotes (Wood mason and Alcock, 1891)

31. Marshallena philippinarum (Watson, 1882)
32. Paradrillia inconstans prunulum (Melvill and Standen, 1901)
33. Paradrillia meivilli Powell, 1969
34. Typhlosyrinx praecipua (E. A. Smith, 1899)
Subfamily ZONULISPIRINAE
35. Ptychobela incerta (E. A. Smith)

36. Ptychobela major (Reeve)
Subfamily CLA THURELLINAE
37. Eucithara coronata (Hinds, 1843)

38. Eucithara duplaris (Melvill, 1923) Andaman Islands
39. Eucithara novaehollandiae (Reeve) (Syn. E. crassilabrum Reeve)
40. Eucithara vittata (Hinds)
41. Gingicilhara cylindrica (Reeve)
42. Gingicilhara iyrica (Reeve, 1846)
43. Cilharamangelia townsend; (Sowerby)
44. Etrema gravelyi (Winckworth, 1940) Orissa, Tamil Nadu
45. Etrema spurca (Hinds)
46. Lienardia mallet; Recluz
47. Lienardia cosmia (Winckworth, 1940) Orissa, Tamil Nadu
Subfamily MANGELIINAE
48. Heterocithara mason; (Nevi II)

49. Pseudoraphitomafairbanki (G. & H. Nevill) Bombay, Orissa and Andamans.
Subfamily RAPHITOMINAE
50. Pseudodaphnellafusoides (Reeve)

51. Pseudodaphnella lemniscata (Nevill)
52. Pseudodaphnella lucida (Smith)
53. Pseudodaphnella maculosa (Pease)
54. Pseudodaphnella nexa (Reeve)
Kilburn, R. N. 1989. Notes on Ptychobela and Brachytoma, with description of a new species
fronl Mozambique (Mollusca: Gastropoda: Turridae). Ann. Natal Mus., 30: 185-J96.
Kilburn, R. N. 1992. Turridae (Mollusca: Gastropoda) of Southern Africa and Mozambique.
Part 6. Subfamily Mangeliinae Section. Ann. Natal Mus., 33(2) : 461-575.
Maclean, J. H. 1971. A Revised Classification of the Family Turridae from the Eastern Pacific.
Veliger, 14(1) : 114-130.
Po\vell, A. W. A. 1964. The Family Turridae in the Indo-Pacific. Mollusca, Part I. The Subfamily
Turrinae. Indo-Pacific Mollusca, 1(5) : 227-345.
Powell, A. W. A. 1967. The Family Turridae in the Indo-Pacific. Mollusca, Part la. The Subfamily
Turrinae Concluded. Indo-Pacific Mollusca, 1(7) : 408-431.
Powell, A. W. A. 1969. The Family Turridae in the Indo-Pacific. Mollusca, Part 2. The Subfamily
Turriculinae. Indo-Pacific Mollusca, 2(10) : 207-415.
SUBBA RAO : INDIAN SEA SHELLS: POL YPLACOPIIORA AND GASTROPODA 335
Family TEREBRIDAE
Pencil or Auger Shells
~hell is small to large in size, long and narrow with many whorls and a high pointed spire.
Body whorl is more or less small with a small aperture. Outer lip is simple. Co)ume))a is thickened
and sinooth except for a prominent fold anteriorly. Posterior sinus usually is distinct and the
anterior canal is truncate. Shell resembles that of a screw shell (Turritella) but can easily be
differentiated by the shape of its aperture, fold on the columella and in possessing an anterior
canal. Operculum is corneous, ovate!, claw-like and pointed posteriorly with a terminal nucleus.
Head bears a pair of tentacles with eyes situated at the tips of short eyestalks. Eyes may
sometimes be absent. Foot is small, rounded anteriorly and pointed posteriorly. Proboscis is
thin, invertible or poJyembolic with a proxitnal buccal cavity, which consists of an outer eversible
labial tube and an inner retractiJe buccal tube. Radula may be absent or reduced with the formula
of 1-0-1. A poison gland is present. Salivary glands may be present but the Leiblein gland is
absent. Sexes are separate. Male has a very long penis.
Augers are carnivores feeding on polychaetes and hemichordates. Majority are shallow water
inhabitants of sandy shores and live buried in the sand. The family consists of eight genera and
about 200 species. Four genera and about 25 species are reported from India. These genera are
differentiated on the basis of radular characters. There is no radular ribbon in Terebra. In
Duplicaria and Has/lila the radula has a pair of slender and curved teeth in each row. In Impages
there is a cluster of teeth similar in shape and size as in the Conidae.
Terebra areo/ala (Link, 1807)

(PI. 88, fig. 1)
Shell large, up to 120 mm in height, whorls 20 to 21, stout. Aperture broadly oval.. columella
rather straight with a strong fasciole and a ridge. Surface smooth except for growth striae, a
spiral groove divides the whorl into a smaller (one third) upper part and a broad (two-thirds)
lower part. Colour shining cream, ornamented with three rows of blackish brown squarish
blotches on spire whorls and four rows on the body whorl, the squares in the lower most row
larger than others.
India: Lakshadweep, Andamans. Indo-Pacific.
Synonym: Terebra nluscaria Lamarck, 1822.
Terehra ch/orata Lamarck, 1822

(PI. 88, fig. 2)
Shell moderately large, up to 65 mm in height, solid with about 14 whorls. Aperture small,
. outer lip thin, lower part of columella not in line with the outer lip. Surface smooth, obsolete
plications on the early whorls, a deep groove below the sutures. Colour white, ornamented with
irregular, purple- brown blotches and wavy lines.
India: Nicobars. Tropical Indo-Pacific.
Terebra commaculata (Gmelin, 1791)

(PI. 87, fig. 5, 6 and PI. 88, fig. 9)
Shell large, up to 95 mm in height, with about 25 flattened whorls. Aperture small and
almost rectangular with twisted columella. Shell scabrously latticed, with two spir~l bands of
nodules divided by a groove below the suture, often the nodules fused together to form a single
raised band, fine spiral ridges crossed by axial riblets. Colour white ornamented by rather
rectangular brown blotches bordered by a white ridge with thin brown dashes, about six per
whorl, blotches extend lengthwise.
India: Andhra Pradesh: Visakhapatnam; Tamil Nadu : Madras; Pondicherry, Andamans,
rare. Southeast Asia.
Synonym : Terebra myuros Reeve, 1860
Terebra crenulata (Linnaeus, 1758)

(PI. 88, fig. 3)
Shell large, up to 115 mm in height, solid, with broad body whorl gradually tapering into the
apex, with about 18 rounded whorls. Aperture of moderate size, with rather smooth columella~
short but strong fasciole. Sculptured with small nodules just below the suture on each whorl, a
small constriction below the nodules; early whorls with axial plicae, only growth lines on the
latter whorls. Colour yellowish-brown, with white nodules, three or four spiral rows of reddish
brown dots on the body whorl, two on other whorls, small fine streaks of reddish-brown between
the nodules.
India: Lakshadweep, Andamans. Tropical Indo-Pacific.
Terehra dimidiata (Linnaeus" 1758)

(PI. 88, fig. 4)
Shell very large, up to 140 mm in height, solid with about 20 rounded whorls. Aperture
broadly oval, outer lip a little flared at the base, columella rather straight, with a weak plait,
fasciole strong. Surface smooth and shining, early whorls with axial plications and later ones
with growth lines, a slight constriction below the suture dividing each whorl into a narrow
upper one third and a broad lower two-third. Colour orange-red with wavy white streaks often
bifurcating at the top.
India: Lakshadweep, Andaman and Nicobar Islands, common. Tropical Indo-Pacific.

Terebra guttata (Roeding, 1798)

(PI. 88, fig. 6)
Shell large, up to 115 mm in height, about 21 whorls. Aperture small and rectangular, outer
lip and columella straight, fasciole rather weak, anterior canal broad and recurved to the left.
Sculptured with obsolete growth lines, area below the suture slightly raised. Colour orange
brown, ornamented with one row of large white spots just below the suture on the raised surface
of spire whorls, and two rows on the body whorl.
India: Andamans, rare. Indo-Pacific.
Synonym: Terebra oculata Dillwyn, 1817
Terebra maculata (Linnaeus, 1758)

(PI. 88, fig. 5)
Shell largest in the genus, up to 140 mm in height, stout and heavy with about 18 rounded
whorls, broader than in other species. IAperture rather wide, columella smooth except for a
weak parietal fold, fasciole small but strong with a central groove. Surface usually smooth
except for weak axial plications on the early whorls and growth lines on the latter whorls.
Colour very distinct, white, ornamented with two spiral rows of irregular, purple brown blotches
on each whorl and on the upper part of the body whorl, the latter with about five pale tan
rectangular blotches on the body whorl.
India: Lakshadweep, Andamans, common. Tropical Indo-Pacific.
Terebra nebulosa Swainson, 1825

(Pl. 88, fig. 8)
Shell large, up to 75 mm in height, about 20 whorls. Aperture small and rectangular, with
almost a straight outer lip constricted at the upper end, columella in line with the lip at the base.
Sculptured with 18 to 25 broad, close-set and curved axial ribs with spiral grooves in interstices
and punctate spiral groove at the suture. Colour white, ornamented with large, irregular, orange-
red blotches, and band of same colour at the base of the body whorl.
Shel1 bears some resemblance to that of T. undulata but can be differentiated by the colour
pattern.
Terebra subulata (Linnaeus, 1767)

(PI. 88, fig. 7)
Shell large, up to 115 mm in height, slender with about 25 whorls and an acute apex. Aperture
very small, with thin outer lip and twisted columella, small fasciole, truncated and curved anterior
338 REC. zOOt. SURV. INDIA, acc. PAPER No. 192
canal. Scu1ptured with fine axia1 threads and irregu1ar, weak spiral grooves, the area below the
suture raised into a spiral band. Colour very distinct, cream, ornamented with two rows of dark
brown squarish blotches on the early whorls and three rows on the body whorl.
India: Lakshadweep, Tamil Nadu : Madras, Gulf of Mannar (Krusadai Island); Andamans,
moderately common. Indo-Pacific.
Terebra columellaris Gray, 1834

(PI. 89, fig. 2)
Shell of medium size, up to 45 mm in height, whorls 18 to 20. Aperture small, outer lip thin
and constricted posteriorly, columella rather straight, anterior canal curved towards left.
Sculptured with a row of white beads and punctate spiral groove at sutures, curved axial ribs
with deep grooves in the interstices. Colour light orange-brown, interstices dark brown.
India: Andamans, not common. Andamans to Tropical Pacific.
Hastula trai/lii (Oeshayes, 1859)

(PI. 89, fig. 3, 4)
Shell small, up to 25 mm in height, narrow and needle shaped, with slopingly flattened
whorls, sutures indistinct. Aperture small, columella arched and short. Shell surface almost
smooth, except for elongate pJications on the upper part of the whorls. Colour shining
white, apex lead colour, whorls with ash coloured spira) bands and indistinct spots below
suture.
India: Orissa: Gopalpur, Paradip; Andhra Pradesh: Bheemunipatnam, Visakhapatnam; Tamil
Nadu : Madras, Nagapattinam. Indian Ocean.
Hastula inconstans (Hinds, 1844)

(PI. 89, fig. 1)
Shell small, up to 20 mm in height. thin, narro\v and acicular with about 12 whorls. Aperture
short, broadly effused at base, co)ulnella callollsed, very short and straight, keeled at base.
Sculptured with elongately plicated axial ribs on the upper part of the whorls. Colour shining
fawn-white or ashy, \vith pale band towards base, sutures white with pale band and brown dots
below.
India: Tamil Nadu : Tranquebar; Andamans.
Synonym : Terebra aciculina Reeve, 1860.
Hastula lauta (Pease, 1869)

(PI. 89, fig. 8, 9)
Shell small, up to 20 mm in height \vith about 12 whorls. Aperture slnall. Sculptured with
straight axial ribs and a deep spiral groove at sutures. Colour dark gray, ornamented with blackish
brown squarish spots at sutures and intermediate white spots, nuclear whorls tan coloured.
India: Andamans. Andamans to Pacific.
Duplicaria duplicata (Linnaeus, 1758)

(PI. 87, fig. 2, 3 and PI. 89, fig. 6, 7)
Shell of medium size, up to 50 tnm in height, narrowly elongate with 15 to 17 \vhorls,

aperture small and ovate, columella twisted, anterior canal recurved. Sculptured with a deep
sutural groove and 25 to 30 flat and close. .set axial ribs, whorl divided by a spiral groove above
the middle. Shell glossy, creatn or brown coloured with darker rusty brown transpirally elongate
markings and often with a pale band just above suture.
India: Tamil Nadu : Madras, Gulf of Mannar (Tuticorin, Palnban, Krusadai Island);
Andamans, common. Indo-Pacific.
Impages /teetiea Linnaeus, 1758

(PI. 89, fig. 5)
Shell of medium size, up to 50 Inm in height. Aperture broad at the base, colulllelJa smooth,
fasciole with central groove. Surface smooth, cal10us near suture. Colour cream with slightly
broken purple band below suture, columella brown.
India: Andhra Pradesh: Visakhapatnaln; Tamil Nadu.
Cemohorsky, W. o. and Bratcher, T. 1976. Notes on the taxonomy of Indo-Pacific Terebridae

(Mollusca: Gastropoda) with description of a new species. Rec. Auckland Inst. Ml~S"
13: 131-140.
Miller, B. A. 1970. Feeding mechanism in the family Terebridae. American Malacological
Union, Annual Report, p. 72-74.
Smith, E. A. 1875. Remarks on a few species belonging to the falnily Terebridae and descriptions
of several new forlns in the collection of the British Museuln. Ann. Mag. nat. Hist.,
11(4) : 263.
Subclass HETEROBRANCHIA
The familiesArchitectonicidae, Pyram'idellidae, Amathinidae, and Mathildidae have confusing

systematic history and do not constitute a well-defined group. Many have treated them under a
superfamily Heterogastropoda. We have followed Vaught (1985) and grouped these families in
a separate subclass. Shell is discoidal or conical to turriculate with usually an operculum. The
protoconch is heterostrophic. The radula is modified taenioglossate or rachiglossate or absent.
A ctenidium is present or absent. The subclass includes one superorder embracing four families,
of which three are known from India.
Superorder ALLOGASTROPODA
Family ARCHITECTONICIDAE
Sundial Shells
Shell is tninute to moderately large in size, from 3 to 70 mm in height. It is conical to discoid

with an elevated or depressed spire. Whorls may be rounded or angular with a flat base. Aperture
is rounded to angular. Umbilicus is very deep, may be narrow or wide. Surface usualJy is with
strong sculpture consisting of spiral and radial ribs that are often beaded. Operculum is horny,
thin, paucispiral to multispiral with a central or excentric nucleus and bears a characteristic
internal spiral process.
Cephalic tentacles are broad and flattened. Mantle cavity contains a triangular ctenidium, an
osphradium with a narrow ridge and a hypobranchial gland. ,Radula is taenioglossate-modified
(0-2-1-2-0). Sexes are separate. Male has no penis. Larvae are pelagic with a long life.
These are tropical deepwater forms associated with coelenterates.
Arcltilectonica laevigala (Lamarck, 1822)

(PI. 90, fig. 4)
Shell small, up to 24 mm in height, depressedly conical with sharply angulated marginJ

whorls with four to .five, roughly equal, flat ridges crossed by axial growth lines, with profuse
blotches of pinkish purple, orange, brown or yellowish brown, bands always broken into blotches
but not continuous as in A. perspecliva. Base fawn with blue tinge on broad middle area, and
with brown radial markings on the periphery.
India: Gujarat: GulfofKachchh; Maharashtr: Bombay; Tamil Nadu(common), Pondicherry
(not common), Orissa: Gopalpur, Puri, Konark, Paradip. Persian Gulf to Myanmar.
The species is distinguished from A. perspectiva in having four grooves followed by deep
suture, umbiHcus bordered by beaded margin with two grooves, and brown blotches below
suture.
Architectonica perspectiva (Linnaeus, 1758)

(PI. 90, fig~ 1-3 and PI. 91, fig. 1-2)
Shell small, up to 20 m~ in height, depressedly conical, moderately thick, flattened base

and angulated periphery. Aperture ventral, subquadrangula~, outer lip sharply angulated at lower
margin, umbilicus wide with strongly plicated, brown tinted margin. Whorls transpirally obliquely
striated throughout, distinct narrow spiral groove below suture. Upper edge of each whorl with
three prominent, unbroken spiral bands of brown, white and chocolate in that order. Along
lo.wer edge a spiral rib, alternately coloured with interrupted bands of white and brown or dark
brown, on body whorl this rib followed by distinct white slender thread-groove; base slightly
bulged and radiately striated, periphery with broad raised margin divided medially by closely-
sC?t spiral double groove, umbilicus lined with denticulate ridge. Base fawn, with brown dots on
outer ridge and inner edge of plicate area, beads white and denticles stained brown.
India: West Bengal: Digha; Andhra Pradesh: Visakhapatnam; Talnil Nadu : Porto Novo,
Point Calimere, Pamban etc., common. Indo-Pacific.
Heliacus (He/iacus) areola (Gmelin, 1791)

(PI. 91, fig. 6-8)
Shell minute, up to 6 mm in height, thick, broader than high, spire dome-shaped, whorls
rounded with a convex base and round aperture. Sculptured with four coarse spiral ribs separated
by narrow grooves on the spire, sutural rib more distinct, ribs radially grooved, body whorl with
four spiral ridges above periphery and three on the base, two cords within the narrow umbilicus.
Colour cream, ornamented with radial blackish brown streaks, cream around umbilicus and
columella, outer lip margin stained with blackish brown streaks.
India: Goa. Indian Ocean.
Heliacus dorsuosus (Hinds, 1844)

(PI. 91, fig. 3-5)
Shell minute, up to 6 mm in height, disc-like and convexly lenticular resembling button

shell, whorls rounded leading to an almost circular mouth, broadly umbilicate with a crenuJated
umbilical margin. Sculptured with finely beaded spiral ribs, lowest rib of each whorl most
prominent, periphery of body whorl with two prominent ridges with channel in between.
Continuous brown bands next to suture and below upper sulcus, and interrupted brown bands
around periphery and near umbilicus.
India: Tamil Nadu: Madras, Gulf of Mannar (Tuticorin, Pamban); Andamans. Indo-Pacific.
Heliacus stramineus (Omelin, 1791)

(PI. 91, fig. 3-5)
Shell small, up to 12 mm in height, discoid, thick, almost twice as wide as high, flat.topped
with a concave base, whorls almost rounded leading to a circular aperture, broadly umbilicate,
corrugated all around, two cords within umbilicus. Sculptured with fine beaded spiral tidges
and spiral grooves between deep narrow suture and periphery, three ridges between periphery
and base separated by broad striated spaces, small cord between lower two ridges, spiralJy
ridged base rather narrow, oblique growth lines on the surface. Colour uniformly light brown
throughout without any markings.
India : Tami Nadu: Gulf of Mannar (Tuticorin), Point Calimere; Pondicherry, very rare.
Indo-Pacific, shallow water.
Pllilippia radiala Roeding, 1798

(PI. 91, fig. 9, 10)
Shell relatively smaller than in Archileclonica, height up to 22 mm, higher than broad, whorls
rounded, mostly smooth vt'ith indistinct spiral striations and two prominent spiral cords near
suture, base convex \vith groove at periphery, umbilicus slightly open and deep, umbilical wall
crenulate. Colour white. a broad reddish brown band below suture with oblique axial rays
spreading down the whorls, umbilical area white surrounded by brown specks on rum.
India: South India. Indo-Pacific, common in certain locaHties.
Bieler. R. 1984-87. Die gattungen der Architectonicidae, Gastropoda Allogastropoda. I. Arch.

Moll. IIS( 1-3) : 53- J03 (1984); II. Ibid, 115(4-6) : 231-265 (1984); ilL/bid: t 16 (1-3) :
89-117 ( 1985); IV. Ibid: 117(4-6) : 203-215 (1987).
Bieler, R. J986 Revision of genera, and Indo-Pacific species in the family Architectonicidae.
Anler. Alalae. Bull., 4 : 108.. ]09.
Garrard, T A. )977. A revision of Australian Architectonicidae (Gastropoda: Mollusca). Rec.
Austral. MilS., 31(13-16) : 506-585, figs 1-12.
Falnily PYRAMIDELLIDAE
Shell is minute to small in size, up to 30 lnm in height; pyramidal to turriculate with a

tapering spire. Apex is tilted from the vertical axis. Apex of the shell is heterostrophic; the
normal revolution of the whorls is dextral but the apical whorls are sinistral. Shape of the
aperture is variable. Anterior siphonal canal is absent. Columellar margin may be smooth or
may bear one to three plicae. Umbilicus is absent. Shell surface is smooth or may bear spiral or
axial striae and nodules. Operculum is corneous, thin and paucispira1.
Tentacles on the head are short and shaped like donkey's ears. They have a ciliated antero-
median groove and bear eyes on the inner Inargin. Foot is narrow. Mantle cavity bears ciliated
strips. There is no ctenidium. Proboscis is very long and retractile. Radula is absent, but a
hollow style is present. Oesophageal glands are absent but tubular glands are present.
Sexes are united and monaulic. Male part bears an invaginable penis. Eggs are deposited in
gelatinous masses. A pelagic veliger stage is present in the development.
The snails have cosmopolitan distribution and occur from shallow intertidal region to greater
depths. Majority of the species inhabit sandy bottoln. These are predators or ectoparasites on
other mollusks, sponges, coelenterates, sipunculans, crustaceans etc. They puncture the host's
skin with the stylet and suck the fluids through the buccal pump.
The family is divided into four subfamilies, namely Pyramidellinae with two or three
columellar pJicae, Odostominae with a single columellar fold, Turbonillinae with smooth
columella, and Cyclostremellinae with low spire. Hundreds of species were described. In India
the first three subfamilies are represented by a few genera and species.
Subfamily PYRAMIDELLINAE
Pyramidella dolabrata terebelluln (Mueller, 1774)

(PI. 92, fig. 1, 2)
She]) small, up to 15 mm in height, thin, semitransparent, glossy, whorls eight, sutures lightly
grooved. Columella expanded basally, with three folds, upper one Inore conspicuous and the
two below small and close-set, outer lip thin, lnnbiliclls deep, three dark brown lines seen
through the aperture. Shell surface smooth with reddish brown spiral bands.
India: West Bengal: Digha; Andamans. Indo-Pacific, not common.
Pyramillella sulcata (A. Adams, 1855)

(PI. 92, fig. 5)
Shell larger than in the preceding species, up to 25 mm in height~ slnooth and shining,
whorls many, sutures grooved. Apet1ure lirate within, \vith three folds as in the preceding species,
umbilicus absent. Shell cream coloured, ornamented with chocolate-brown axial wavy lines or
blotches. an indistinct white spiral band on the last and the penultimate whorl.
India: Lakshadweep, Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Indo-Pacific, moderately common.
Otopleura auriscati (Holten, 1802)

(PI. 92, fig. 6-8)
Shell small, up to 20 mm in height, solid, e)ongately ovate, whorls convex and slightly
stepped at the sutures, outer lip thin. Columella flattened, with three folds, umbilicus absent.
Creamy-white, ornamented with dark reddish-brown spots, sculptured with numerous angulate
axial ribs and blunt nodules just below the sutures.
India: Andamans. Indo-West Pacific, moderately common.
Subfamily ODOSTOMINAE
Odostomia babylonica Winckworth, 1940

(PI. 92, fig. 9)
Shell minute, smaller than in O. oxia, up to 3 mm in height, pyramidal, with seven whorls,
strongly turreted making a distinct series of steps broadly angled at the upper end, aperture
ovately rounded, distinct spiral lirations within, columella with one tooth, outer lip smooth,
with a minute umbilicus.
India: West Bengal, Orissa, Tamil Nadu.
Odostomia oxia Watson, 1886

(PI. fig. )
Shell minute, up to 5 mm in height, ovate with three to four whorls and deep sutures,
columella with one fold, outer lip depressed below fonning a notch, surface smooth.
India: West Bengal: Digha, occurs on Donax incarnatus. Elsewhere: Australia.
Syrno/a dubiosa G. & H. Nevill, 1871

(PI. 71, fig. 8)
Shell small, up to 7 mm in length and 2 mm in width, elongate, less acuminate, whorls 10

with distinct sutures. Aperture subovate, contracted posteriorly and rounded at the anterior end,
columella reflexed with a distinct plait. Shell usually smooth. Colour dull brown.
India: Puri (Type-locality), Orissa.
Subfamily TURBONILLINAE
Turbonilla /elicita Laseron, 1959

(PI. 92, fig. 3)
Shell small, up to 8 min in height, attenuately subulate, whorls 11 to 12~ gradually increasing,
constricted in the middle, aperture oval and distinctly angled above, columella slightly thickened.
Sculptured with regular, strong, straight longitudinal ribs. Colour shining pale yellow.
India: West Bengal: Digha. Elsewhere: Australia.
Laseron, C. F. 1959. The family Pyramidellidae from North Australia. Aust. J. Mar. Freshw.
Res., to : 177-267.
Melvin, J. C. 1910. A revision of the species of PyralTIidel1idae occurring in the Persian Gulf,
Gulf of Oman and North Arabian Sea. Proc. Malac. Soc. Lond., 9 : 171-206.
346 REC. ZOOL. SURY. INDIA, OCC. PAPER No. 192
Falnity AMA THINIDAE
Shell is small, limpet-like or pyralnida1. Protoconch whorls coil in a direction opposite to

that of the spire. Aperture is large. Shell surface has either spiral striae or three carinae.
The felinity contains seven genera with only a few species.
Amatllina tricarinata (Linnaeus, 1758)

(PI. 93, fig. 1, 2)
Shell small, ur to 20 mm in length, limpet-like, solid, dull, rather oval in shape, apex at the
posterior end, three strong rounded ridges or carinae radiate from the apex and project beyond
the outline of the shell, surface with wavy radiating ribs at the posterior end. Colour white and
covered with brownish periostracum, inside white but \vith yellowish tint.
India: Goa, Lakshad\veep: Minicoy Island; Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Indian Ocean.
REFERENCE
Ponder, W. F. 1987. The anatomy and relationships: Anlathina. Asian Marine Biology, 4 :
1-34.
Subclass OPISTJ-IOBRANCHIA
Shell is absent in many, when present it nlay be external or internal. It is ovate to cylindrical
in shape with a broad aperture and shortened whorls. In the family Juliidae the shell is
exceptionally of two valves. Operculum is absent in the adults. The anilnal exhibits detorsion.
The head possesses a cephalic shield. Mantle cavity is reduced. A bipectinate ctenidilllTI is
present in sOlne. But in many it is replaced by secondary respiratory structures which can be
seen in the form of dorsal cerata, anal tufts or anal leatlects etc. In a few, the respiration is
integulnentary. Nervous system is primitively streptoneurous, but secondarily euthyneurous in
advanced fonTIs. Sexes are united with internal fertilization in majority. These are predolninantly
marine.
The subclass is divided into nine orders and ] 6S families. Opisthobranchs are poorly
represented in the National Zoological Collections. The difficulty in the collection and
preservation of these Inolluscs and the difficulty in the identification of pickled specilnens are
some of the factors responsible for their poor state of knowledge in India. However, there are a
few recent publications on the opisthobranchiate fauna of Gujarat coast (see Bibliography,
Burn and also Narayanan). The reported occurrence of eight orders and as Inany as 50 faJnilies
consisting of about 150 species is a poor representation in India as conlpared to 3400 species
estimated to occur in the Indo-West Pacific Province.
Order CEPHALASPIDEA
Shell is mostly external, but often enclosed in the nlantlc. Operculum usually is absent. Foot
has laterally expanded parapodial lobes. A flattened cephalic shield extends dorsally over the
back. Eyes are sessile. Nervous systeln is euthyneurous. Sexes are united. These are benthic
forms with carnivorous habits.
The order is classified into IS falnilies of which] 0 are represented in India.
Family RINGICULIDAE
Shell is small, usually Jess than 10 mIn in height, thick and rounded with an elevated spire.
Aperture is large but looks reduced because of the protruding lamella frolll the outer lip and
strong columellar folds. Outer lip is more or less thick bearing lameJIations on the interior.
Surface usually is smooth or may bear fine spiral sculpture. Opercululn is absent.
The anilnal can be cornpletely retracted into the shell. Foot is broad anteriorly. Cephalic
shield is short, broad and bifid. Radula is small. Central tooth is absent and lateral teeth lnay be
one or two in each row. There is a long proboscis. Sexes are united.
It is a monogeneric family represented by two species in India.
Ringicu/a propinquans Hinds, 1844

(P1. 92, fig. 12, 13)
Shell minute, up to 5 mm in height, thick, glossy, ovate, sutures deep, aperture narrow,
columella thick, with two strong folds and a parietal ridge, outer lip thickened, with a prominent
central tooth. Surface with widely spaced spiral grooves. Colour white.
India: Orissa: Puri; Andhra Pradesh: Vasishtha Godavary Estuary near Narsapur.
RingiclI/a encarpo/erens de Folin, 1867

(PI. 92, fig. 10, 1I)
Shell minute, up to 4 min in height, thick with low spire, outer Jip expanded and serrated.
Surface \vith regular, distinct spiral striae.
India: West Bengal, Orissa, Talnil Nadu, not comlllon. Indo-West Pacific.
The species differs froln R. propinquans in having a more globose shell, serrated outer lip
and distinct spiral striations on the surface.
Family HYDA TINIDAE
Shell is of sma11 to medium size, thin and external. It is elongate-globose to rounded ovate.
Spire is short and rather depressed. Body whorl is large and inflated with a large aperture,
which is narrow above and broadly rounded below. Surface lIsually is slnooth or with weak
striations and bear conspicllolls colour bands. Operculum is absent. The anilnal is brightly
coloured and can be completely withdrawn into the shell.
Foot is large and strong, bearing large parapodia that can cover the whole shell. Cephalic
shield has two pairs of anterior lobes and a pair of strong posterior lobes. A feather-like rhinophore
is present between the anterior lobes. Eyes are sessile and situated between the posterior lobes.
Proboscis is long and strong. Radula is with or without central tooth but with nlunerous lateral
teeth. Sexes are united. Penis is strong and retractile.
These are vermivorous, feeding exclusively on cirratulid polychaetes. The falnily includes
two genera, namely Hydatina and Micronlelo.
Hydatina ionata (Lightfoot, 1786)

(PI. 93, fig. 3, 4)
Shell small, up to 30 min in height, thin and glossy, body whorl ovoid and inflated, with a
flat or sunken spire, suture a deep groove, aperture wide with a thin outer lip and slnooth
columella. Surface smooth except for thin growth lines. Colour creamy white, ornamented \vith
two very broad spiral bands of oblique, close-set axial lines of brown colour, edges on either
side of these bands with unbroken dark brown line.
India: Gujarat. Indian Ocean.
REFERENCE
Rudman, W. B. 1972. The anatomy of the opisthobranch genus Hydatina and the functioning
of the mantle cavity and alimentary canal. Zool. J Linn. Soc. London, 51(2) : 121-139.
350 REC. Za~l. SURV. INDIA, OCC. PAPER No. 192
Falnily SCAPHANDRIDAE
Shell is minute to medium in size, up to 50 mm in height, conical to subcylindrical, with a

more or 1ess dilated body whorl and a flattened or sunken spire. Aperture is more or less broad
anteriorly and narrow posteriorly. Columella is with or without folds. Surface of the shell is
smooth or with spiral striations and often with rows of punctations. Operculum is absent.
Foot is as long as the shell. Cephalic shield bears no tentacles but has short posterior lobes.
Eyes generally are absent. Radula has a small central tooth, a large lateral tooth and several
marginal teeth.
Sexes are united. Penis is protrusible. Eggs are deposited in a mass attached to the substratum
by a Inucus cord. Development is indirect.
These occur in soft, Inuddy or sandy substrata from intertidal zone to greater depths (up to
2000 In). They feed on small foraminiferans and molluscs. The family includes four genera,
Scaphander, Tornatina, Cylichna and Acteocina.
Actaeocina estriala (Preston, 1914)

(PI. 93, fig. 6)
Shell minute, up to 4 mm in height and) -5 Inm in width, cylindrically ovate, spire moderately
exserted, suture narrowly channelled. Aperture narrow at the posterior end and broad at the
anterior end, columella not much curved, outer lip obtusely angled posteriorly and slightly
dilated anteriorly.
India: Orissa: Chilka Lake. Manikpatna (about) m depth), off Balugaon (1-2 m depth).
Preston (1914) described another species Tornalina soror from Manikpatna, which looks
similar to A. eslr;ala.
Scop/,ander andamaniclis E. A. Smith, 1894

(PI. 93, fig. 5)
Shell slnall, lip to 2S 1111n in height and 20 Inm in width, thick, solid and bulla-like appearance.
Aperture wide, cotu111ella curved at the anterior end, smooth and with callus, outer lip thick and
posteriorly extends beyond the level of the shell. Surface smooth except for growth striae.
Colour dull yellow.
India: Marine Survey Sta. 273~Andamans, 870-1170 fins; off Malabar Coast.
Family PHILINIDAE
Shell is thin, plate-like and enclosed within the mantle. Body whorl is dilated and the apex is
involute and sunken. It usually is whitish and without any strong sculpture. Aperture is wide
and ear-shaped. Operculum is absent.
Animal is white or light flesh coloured. It has thick and broad foot bearing elongate parapodia.
The large cephalic shield occupying two-thirds of the body length is divided into two lobes
posteriorly. Eyes may be absent but there is a pair of rhinophores. Radula has no central tooth
and marginaJs may be absent or six in number. It has the formula [(0-6)-1-0-1-(0-6)]. There is a
strong gizzard bearing three strong and thick plates. Sexes are united. A protrusible penis is
present. Eggs are laid in gelatinous mass. A pelagic veliger larval stage is present in the
development.
It is a monogeneric family having cosmopolitan distribution and numerous species, which
occur at 10 to 20 m depth in the sublittoral region. These usually are collected in the fishing
nets. The snails feed on foraminiferans, small snails and bivalves.
Plliline aperta (Linnaells, 1758)

(PI. 93, fig. 7)
Shell smat.l, up to 20 mm in height, fragile, milky white, oval with a large body whorl and
broad aperture, spire almost obsolete. Shell surface with coarse growth lines. Shell completely
enclosed by the mantle. Animal white with a blunt tail.
India: Andhra Pradesh: Visakhapatnam, common, 20 to 50 m. Indo-Pacific.
Family BULLIDAE
Bubble Shells
Shell is rather strong and roundly ovate. Spire is sunken. Aperture is as long as the shell. It
is broadly ovate anteriorly but narrow posteriorly. Columella is concave, with thin callus and
without any folds. Outer lip is slightly thickened. Colouration consists of reddish brown flecks.
Anilnal is completely retractable into the shell. Operculum is absent.
Cephalic shield is somewhat indented medially in front and has two large, strong lobes
posteriorly. There is a pair of lateral rhinophores. Eyes are transparent. Foot is short and broadened
anteriorly but rounded posteriorly. Radula has the formula of 1-2-1-2-1. Sexes are united. Eggs
are laid in long ribbons. Free-swimming veligers are released. Bubble shells are sand dwellers
and are carnivorous.
Bulla ampulla Linnaeus, 1758

(PI. 93, fig. 9)
Shell of medium size, up to 45 mm in height, moderately solid, broadly ovoid, spire very
much invaginated and marked by a depression, body whorl expanded, outer lip extends
posteriorly, columella smooth and with thin callus. Shell surface smooth and polished, cream
coloured with pale brownish red or clouds of light brown, rarely with two broad spiral bands,
aperture and columella white.
India: East and West Coasts, common. Indo-Pacific.
-'UDSA RAO : INDIAN SEA SHELLS: POL YPLACOPHORA AND GASTROPODA 353
Family HAMINEIDAE (Atyidae)
Shell usually is external and similar to that in Bullidae, but thinner and fragile with an
involute spire covered by the expansion of the body whorl. Aperture is large extending along
the length of the shell and the posterior part of the outer lip is detached from the apex. Surface
of the shell is without pronounced sculpture. It is generally white in colour and covered by a
brownish periostracum. Animal may be completely retractable into the shell, but often it may
be larger than the shell. There is no operculum.
Foot is large with well-developed parapodia. Cephalic shield consists of two short
rounded posterior lobes covering the anterior part of the shell or may be truncate. Gizzard has
strong plates to assist in grinding of the organisms taken in. Sexes are united with a protrusible
penis.
Some are shallow water inhabitants of the intertidal sandy habitats and a fe\v may extended
to depths at 3000 m. Indian species are less known. All the four subfamilies namely, Atyinae in
which animal is completely retractable into shell; Bullactinae, in which shell is not retractable;
Lathophthalminae and Hamineinae occur in Indian seas. But collections include a few species
of Atyinae and Hamineinae from India.
Subfamily ATYINAE
Atys cylindriclls (Helbling, 1779)

(PI. 93, fig. 8)
Shell small, up to 15 mm in height, thin, fragile, narrowly subcylindrical, spire sunken,

aperture narrow and extends the whole length of the shell, expanded at the base, outer lip
extends beyond the apex of the shell, columella slTIooth, rarely with a weak fold at the base.
Sculptured with weak growth striae and a few incised spiral lines on the top and at the base
enclosing in between a smooth central area. Colour white.
India: Andamans.
Atys elongatus A. Adams, 1850

(PI. 93, fig. 11, 12)
Shell small, up to 25 mm in height, narrow and elongate, spire deeply sunk. Aperture narrow
and widening gradually towards the anterior end. Body whorl encircled by grooves on the
anterior and posterior one thirds leaving in between SITIooth or obsoletely sculptured area, mid-
dorsal with an elevation. Colour yellowish white.
354 REC. zaOL. SURV. INDIA, ace. PAPER No. 192
India: Andamans, rare.
It differs from Atys hyalina in being narrower and in the absence of sculpture on the median
one-third.
A{J's lIyalina Watson

(PI. 93, fig. 10)
Shell sma1l, up to 20 mm in height, thin, spire sunken. Aperture protruding beyond the
level of the shell, narrow at the posterior but wider at the anterior end. Body whorl encircled by
distinct grooves separated by wide spaces and visible through the aperture, keel-like structure
on the mid-dorsal area bear indistinct axial ridges. Colour pale yellow with dark coloured spiral
grooves.
India: Andamans, rare.
A(~'s naucum (Linnaeus, 1758)

(PI. 93, fig. 13)
Shell larger than in A. cylindric us, up to 35 mm in height, globose, spire sunken, aperture
large and expanded anteriorly, outer lip looks Inore detached than in A. cylindric us, columella
with an angulate curved fold anteriorly. Sculptured with distinct spiral lines on the top and at
the bottom leaving a smooth centre. Colour white and covered by brown periostracum, often
decorated with reddish brown wavy axial streaks.
India: Andamans.
Synonym : Atys /ernlginosa A. Adams, 1850
Subfalnily HAMINEINAE
Haminea crocaia Pease, 1860

(PI. 94, fig. 2, 3)
Shell small, up to 15 mm in height, thin and fragile, oval in shape with broad posterior end,
semitransparent, light bluish in living condition but becomes pale yellow on preservation. In
Jive condition mantle covers most part of the shell.
India: West Bengal: Sagar Island; Orissa: Chilka Lake; Tamil Nadu: Madras. South Amea
to Australia.
Ham;IIea elegalls A. Adalns

(PI. 94, fig. 1)
She)) small, up to 20 mIn in height, oblong-ovate, narrow at the posterior and a little
expanded at the anterior end. Aperture narrow at the posterior, elevated and acuminated, outer
lip elongately produced and arched over above the middle. Colour white.
India: Andhra Pradesh: Masulipatnam, uncommon.
Family RETUSIDAE
Shell is minute in size, usually not more than 5 mm in height. It is cylindrical or pyriform in
shape with an elevated or low spire. Aperture is narrow above and broad below. Columella is
with one fold. Outer lip is thickened and smooth to serrate. Surface of the shell is either smooth
or with spiral striations. Operculum is absent.
Anterior region has a small cephalic shield with two posteriorly directed tentacular processes
bearing reduced and sessile eyes. Jaws and radula are absent. Sexes are united with monaulic
condition. A protrusible penis is present. There is no larval stage as the development is direct.
The family consists of two genera, Retusa and Volvulella and about 100 species, which are
distributed mainly in the Atlantic and Pacific Ocean. One species is known from India.
Retusa pyramidata (A. Adams, 1850)

(PI. 94, fig. 4, 5)
Shelllninute, up to 4 mm in height, pear shaped, fragile, spire sunken, outer end of outer lip
slightly elevated., columella concave and calloused.
India: West Bengal, Orissa, Talnil Nadu.

Order SACOGLOSSA
Shell when present usually is univalved and rarely bivalved. Univalved shell has a large
aperture. Animals are slug-like and slnall in size, usually less than 10 mIn in length. Head bears
paired rhinophores or lobes. Radula has a single blade-like uniseriate central tooth. The body
may have dorsal papillae or cerata. Sexes are mainly united.These usually are associated with
algae.
The order includes seven faJnilies, all of which are known to occur in India. These are slnall
molluscs and need special efforts to collect. Only the following is described below.
Family JULIIDAE
Bivalve Gastropods
During the last century two important discoveries were made in the field of malacology -
one the discovery of NeopUina in 1952 and the other, living bivalve gastropods in 1959. The
latter was known among fossils. For a long titne bivalve gastropods were placed in the class
Bivalvia (Family Juliidae). The discovery ofa new living species Tamanovalva linlax Kawaguti
and Baba, 1959 settled the taxonomic position of this group and is placed in Gastropoda.
These are microscopic gastropods with laterally compressed and slug-like body enclosed
within two thin valves. The two fragile valves are united by a single subcentral round or horizontal
adductor muscle. The characteristic feature of the shell is the presence of apically coiled
protoconch on the left valve. The shell is not more than 10 mm in length.
Head bears a pair of slnall tentacles and grooved rhinophores. Eyes are situated on short
projections from the middle of the neck. Foot is narrow, tapering posteriorly. The sole is medially
grooved. Mantle cavity contains a laminate gill, slnaJl osphradium and a pigmented hypobranchial
gland.
Buccal mass contains paired elongate buccal diverticula and salivary glands. Radula is'
uniseriate and blade-like. Sexes are united. Penis is on the right side of the head. Female gonopore
opens medially on the right side of the foot.
Living bivalve gastropods were discovered first in Japan and since then there were records
from several other localities (Kay, 1968; Ganapati and Sarma, 1972). The family is divided into
two subfamilies, namely Juliinae which includes one genus Julia distributed in the Indo - Pacific
and west coast of America, and Bertheliniinae which includes the genera Berli1elin ia,
Tamanovalva, Edentellina and Midorgiadistributed in the Indo-Pacific with a total of 18 species
(3 species under Juliinae and 15 species under 8ertheJiniinae). The following five species were
reported froln India Tanlanovolva /imax, Kawaguti and Baba, Tamanovalva schlumberzeri,
Dautzenberg, 1895; Julia burni, Sarma, 1975; Berlhelinia (Tamanovalva) ganapatii, Sanna,
] 975; Berthelinea (TaI11anovalva) wa/rairensis, Sarma, 1975. These are algal associates occurring
mostly on ('aulerpa racelnosa (Sarma, 1975).
Tamanovalva limax Kawaguti and Baba, 1959

(Fig. 38, 1-3)
Shell snlall, not more than 10 mm in length, elongately oval, valves equal, thin, fragile,
transparent and light yellow in colour, protoconch of one and half whorls situated just behind·
the anterior one third of length. Adductor muscle scar round and in anterior half, firmly attached
to the right valve. Rhinophores grooved, speckled with white dots, tentacles small and lobe-
like, eyes situated on the prominence of neck, foot narrow with a medially grooved sole.
India: Andhra Pradesh (Visakhapatnam); Tamil Nadu (Gulf ofMannar). Occurs on Caulerpa
racelliosa. Elsewhere: Japan.
Tamanovalva schlumbergeri Dautzenberg, 1895

(Fig. 38, 4-6)
Shell smaller than in T linlax, lip to 0.46 mm in length and 0.31 mm in height, thin, transparent,
fragile and equivalve, light greenish yellow, sculptured with fine concentric growth lines crossed
by transversely radiating yellow lines. Adductor muscle scar not very distinct. Protoconch
conspicllous on left valve, of one and half whorl, erect and located in the posterior third of the
length, shell valves oval, nearly trapezoid, anterior end high, dilated and subtruncate, dorsal
margin convex, ventral margin gently curved. hinge narrow and edentulous.
India: Andaman Islands (Port Blair), on Halinleda opuntia.
Julia b"rni Sarma, J975

(Fig. 38, 7-10)
Shell Ininute, up to 1.5 mm in length and 1.0 mm in height, cordate, solid, equivalved,
porcellaneolls and dark brownish-green, hinge with a prominent tooth-like knob on the left
valve fitting into a deep socket on the right valve, protoconch on the left valve minute \vith one
and one quarter whorls, sculptured with thin transparent and brownish green periostracum,
umbones prominent and beak-like, shell valves broadly oval with rounded anterior margin and
deeply cxcavted posterior margin.
India: Andarnans (Port Blair). Indian Ocean: Reunion Is.; Mauritius, Seychelles, Sri Lanka.
SUBBA RAO : INDIAN SEA SHELLS: POL YPLACOPIIORA AND GASTROPODA 359
100 J.l
3
1 2
120 Il 6
7
8
9 10
Fig. 38. Bivalve gastropods (after Sarma, 1975)

1-3. Tamanovalva Iimax. I. Left valve; 2. Right valve; 3. Protoconch on the left valve.
4-6. Tamal10valva schlumbergeri. 4. Left valve; 5. Right valve; 6. Hinge line of left valve.
7-10. Julia bllrni. 7. Len valve; 8. Inner view of left valve; 9. Right valve; I U. Inner view of right valve.
REFERENCES
Ganapati, P. N. and Sarma, A. L. N. 1972. Bivalve gastropods of the Indian Seas. Proc.
Indian natn. Sci. A cad. 388 : 240-250. (Also in Symposium on Marine Intertidal Ecology.
INSA Bulletin no. 47, 1974).
Kay, E. A. 1968. A review of the bivalve gastropods and a discussion of evolution within
the Sacoglossa. Symp. Zoot. Soc. Lond., 36 : 109-134.
Sarma, A. L. N. ] 975. Three New species of the Bivalved Gastropods Julia and Berthelinia
found in the Eastern Indian Ocean. Jap. Jour. Mala. Venus, 34(1 & 2) : 11-25.
Order APL YSIOMORPHA
Animals usually are large. A small calcareous or corneous internal shell covered by Inantle
is present. A cephalic shield usually is absent. There are two pairs of tentacles, one anterior on
the marginal ridges and the other posterior pair known as rhinophores behind the eyes. The
latter are curled like rabbit's ears and hence these are commonly called sea hares. Radula is
multiseriatc with a central tooth and numerous lateral teeth. Foot has well developed lateral
parapodia directed upwards.
Sexes are united. These are herbivores. It is a small order consisting of two families, nalnely
AplysiidC\e and Notarchidae. Both the families are reported from India. The former is more
common than the latter and is described below.
Family APL YSIIDAE
Sea Hares
The animals are medium to large in size, often extending up to 200 mm in length. They
possess a thin, horny or calcareous internal shell with reduced or rudimentary spire. Cephalic
shield is not well defined. Head bears four tentacles, which are cylindrical and flattened. Tentacles
resemble hare's ears. Foot is long and narrow. It bears \vell developed and symmetrical parapodia
directed upwards which help in swimming. The animal as a whole is large and humped which
on contraction looks like a 'sitting hare', hence called 'sea hare' Skin is without warts or villi
but with reticulate markings. Radula bears a broad central tooth with a denticle and nUlnerous
lateral teeth.
Sexes are united. Penis is filiform with a spined sheath. Eggs are laid in gelatinous strings.
The family is divided into three subfamil ies, nalllely Aplysiinae, Dolabellinae and
Dolabriferinae. Each subfalnily is represented by one genus in the Indian region. t\.10st of the
species occur in the intertidal region and a few in the subl ittoral region.
Subfamily APLYSIINAE
Ap/ysia benedict; Eliot, 1899

(Fig. 39. 1-3)
Animal large, up to 100 111m in length and 70 mm in width, body soft and fleshy, elongate-
ovoid tapering into a tail posteriorly. Tentacles large and leaf like, rhinophores or posterior pair
of tentacles more or less cylindrical. Shell thin, membranous and covered by the Inantle, internally
with a thin, white calcareolls layer. A ctenidium in a cavity on the right, genital pore anterior to
the ctenidiulTI. Radula \vith a triclispid central tooth and numerous laterals. Colour greenish
black with irregular ocellate spots.
India : Gujarat: Gul f of Kachchh; Talnil Nadu: Gulf of Mannar; Andaman and Nicobar
Islands, crevices of rocks. Indian Ocean.
Animal is able to swim rapidly with the help of parapodia. It releases purplish fluid when
disturbed and escapes under its cover.
Ap(vsia cornigera Sowerby, 1876

(Fig. 39. 4-8)
Animal larger than in A. benedicti, heavily built, elongate-ovate being narrow anteriorly and
broader posteriorly with blunt tail. Anterior tentacles large and flattened, rhinophores short and
stumpy with transverse grooves externally giving it a segmented appearance. Parapodia shorter
than in A. benedicti, fused posteriorly. Shell large, broadly rounded with a beak-like apex.
Ctenidhl1n large and bears branched lamellae. Surface with reticulate markings alternating with
clear spaces.
India: Gujarat, Lakshadweep, Tamil Nadu: Ennur near Madras, Gulf of Mannar (rare).
Indian Ocean.
Subfamily DOLABELLINAE
Dolabella auricularia (Sol ander, 1786)

(PI. 94, fig. 8)
Animal very large, up to 200 mnl in length. Body oblong ovate, narrow anteriorly and
broad posteriorly. Posteriorly part of the body Inarked by a flattened disc. Skin very rough
and tough, bears several filamentous processes. Anterior tentacles flattened and broadly
expanded, rhinophores with wrinkled and palliated surface. Foot broad and with a flattened
sole. Parapodia \vell developed and united in front. A ctenidium in the groove. Genital pore
posterior to the ctenidium. Radula with nUlnerous close-set teeth. Shell white, thick, calcareous,
hatchet-shaped with callous deposit in the apex. When disturbed it releases copious quantity of
purplish nuid.
India: Talnil Nadu: Gulf of Mannar (Kundugal Point, Krusadai Island.); Andamans. Indo-
Pacific, \videly distributed.
It lives under rocks or buried in sand in grass beds or tidal pools. It has a cryptic colouration
and not easily noticed.
2
6 7
3 8
1
4 5
Fig. 39. Aplysiids

1-3. Aplysia benedictL 1. Animal. 2. Shell, 3. Radular tooth. 4-8. Ap~vsia corlligero, 4 & 5. Dorsal and
ventral view of animal. 6 & 7. Shell, 8. Radular tooth.
Bebbington, Alen ) 974. Aplysiid species from East Africa with notes on the Indian Ocean
Ap(l'siol110rpha (Gastropoda: Opisthobranchia). Zoo!. 1. Linn. Soc., 54 : 63-99.
Eales, N. B. 1944 ApJysiids fronl the Indian Ocean, with a review of the family Aplysiidae.
Proc. A4alac. Soc. London, 26 : 1-22.
Eales, N. B. 1960. Revision of the world species of Ap/ysia (Gastropoda: Opisthobranchia).
Bul/. Br. Ail/s. nat. Hisl. (Zool.), 5( 10) : 267-404.
Order NOT ASPIDEA
It is a less known group in India. Shell may be external, internal or absent. Operculum is
absent in adults. The animal is medium to moderately large with ovately elongate body. The
radula Inay or may not have a central tooth, but has numerous lateral teeth. Sexes are united.
These are exclusively marine and are epifaunal carnivores.
The order is divided into three families of which two occur in India. One family is dealt with
below.
Family UMBRACULIDAE
Umbrella Shell
Shell is external and limpet-like. Apex is central with a spire consisting of one whorled
protoconch. Internally there is a circular muscular impression. Head has a pair of tentacles and
a pair of rhinophores with slits. Foot is massive and thickened, larger than the shell and \vithout
parapodia. Mantle is thin, not covering the entire shell. Mantle cavity is reduced to a groove on
the right side and cons~ts of a large, bipectinate ctenidiulTI. Radula is large and broad, with a
central tooth and numerous lateral teeth. Sexes are united and ITIonaulic. Penis, situated between
the tentac les, is nonretracti Ie.
It is a monogeneric family, with wide distribution in warm telnperate and tropical seas. The
snails feed on sponges.
Umbraculum umbraculum (Lightfoot, 1786)

(PI. 94, fig. 6, 7)
Shell external, flat and plate-like, aniJnal cannot be withdrawn into it. Shell relnains on the
top of the animal like a hump.
India: Tamil Nadu : Gulf of Mannar. Indo-Pacific.
366 REC. ZOOL. SlJRV. INDIA, acc. PAPER No. '192
Order THECOSOMATA
Sea butterflies
The shell is tubular or globular. It is thin and transparent. The foot is modified for swimming.
It has developed fin-like expansions or epipodia extending from the dorsal side of the head,
which is not very distinct. It bears a pair of cephalic tenacles. The animal has an invaginable
proboscis. Radula when present has a central tooth and paired laterals. True ctenidium is rarely
present. These are protandrous hermophrodites. These are pelagic occurring in open oceans and
has a cosmopolitan distribution.
The members of the order Thecosolnata (earlier known as Pteropoda) are commonly called
sea-butterflies. Their test is made of aragonite and their presence in sediments of sea bed is used
for paleoclimatic interpretation. The occurrence of pteropods is used to examine the Aragonite
compensation depth. Pteropod distribution is influenced by temperature and salinity, and they
are indicator species of watermass (Meisenheimer, 1948; Sakthivel, 1969). They are important
organisms in determining the paleoenvironment (Bhattacharjee et al., t 999). Pteropods are
important organisms of late Quaternary sediments around Car Nicobar Island (Nicobars),
Narconduln Island (Andamans) etc. As nlany as 20 species belonging to three families,
Lilnacinidae, Cavolinidae (Euthecosomata) and Peraclididae (Pseudothecosomata) were reported
frolll scdilnents around Car Nicobar of \vhich 80 % belong to the family Cavolinidae
(Bhattacharjce el al., 1999). The planktonic salnples are also dominated by Cavolinidae, with
the genus ('!io represented by more number of species (Sakthivel, 1976). Of the 21 species of
Pteropods recorded from Indian Ocean, 15 species were from Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal.
Cavolinu gibbosa, C.'avolina Iridenla were, however, reported only from the sediments around
Car Nicobar.
The orger is divided into two suborders Euthecosomata and Pseudothecosomata. A total of
about 53 species are known, of these 27 species are reported from the Indian Seas.
Suborder EUTHECOSOMATA
Shell spirally coiled with an opercululn or bilaterally symmetrical without an operculum,
foot develops fins which are separate and dorsal to the mouth. Proboscis is absent. Mantle
cavity and osphradillin are present. These are hernlophrodites but have separate ovary and
testis. The suborder includes two families and both of these are known to occur in India.
Family CA VOLINIIDAE
Shell slnall, lip to 30 min in length, symnletrical without any coils. fragile and corneous,
varible shape, bulbolls to flattened triangular, colour \vhite or brown, foot develops dorsal
s\\'imlning fins or parapodia. head bears unequal tentacles, eyes absent.
Cosmopolitan and holoplanktonic. More than 80% of the species of pteropods reported
from seas around India belong to this family.
Following are the species reported from the seas around India.
Family LIMACINIDAE
1. Limacina buJilnoides (d'Orhignyi; 1836) (Saktivel, 1976 - 280/0 Arabian Sea,- 36% Bay
of Bengal)
2. Limacina injlata (d'Orhignyi, 1836) (63% Arabian Sea, 56% Bay of Bengal; Late
Quaternary deposits, Car Nicobar)
3. Limacina trochiformis (d'Orbigny, 1836) (Bhattacharjee, 1999 - 66% Arabian Sea, 67%
Bay of Bengal)
Family CA VOLINIDAE
Subfamily CLIONINAE
4. Creseis acicZlJa (Rang, 1826) (Trivandrum, Cochin, Madras, Krusadai)

5. Creseis acicula acicula (Quaternary Deposits, Car Nicobar)
6. Creseis cherchari (Bows, 1886) (Quaternary Deposits, Car Nicobar)
7. Creseis virgula (Rang, 1828) (Sakthivel, 1976 - Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal, not
common)
8. Creseis virgula conica Eschscholtz, 1829
9. Creseis virgula constricta.(Chen and Be, 1964)
10. Clio cuspidata (Bosc:- 1862) (Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea, rare)
11. Clio convexa (Bo~~~ 1886) (Car Nicobar)
12. Clio pyramidata Linnaeus, 1767 (Sakthivel, 1976 , Car Nicobar)
13. Clio pyramidata lanceolala (Linnaeus, 1767) (Bay of Bengal)
14. Hyalocylis striata (Rang, t 828) common in Andaman Sea, Arabian sea, Car N icobar
15. Styliola subula Quoy and Gaimard, 1827 (rare in Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea, Car
Nicobar)
Subfamily CA VOLINIINAE
16. Cavolinia globulus (Gray, t 805) Car Nicobar

17. Cavolinia injlexa (Lesueur, 1813) (Patchy on East and West coasts, in Andamans
predominant in SW monsoon)
18. Cavolinia longirostris (Lesueur, 1813)
19. Cavolinia longirostris /ongirostris
20. Cavolinia longirostris limbata
21. Cavolinia longirostris angulosa
22. Cavolinia longirostris strangulata
23. Cavolinia tridentata (Forskal, 1773) Southern Indian Ocean, Car Nicobar
24. Cavolinia uncinata (Rang, ] 829) swarms in eastern Arabian Sea
2S. Diacria quadridentata (de Blainville, 1827) Moderate in Bay ofBengaJ and Arabian Sea
26. Diacria trispinosa (de Blainvil1e, 1827) moderate.
Suborder PSEUDOTHECOSOMATA
Family PERACLIDIDAE
27. Peraclis reticulata (d'Orbigny, 1836).
REFERENCES
Bhattacharje~, D., Ghosh, S. K., Rakshit, S. and Mallik, T. K. 1999. Evidences of Late Quaternary
climatic changes revealed by pteropod records around Car Nicobar Island, Andaman
Sea. Gondwana Geol. Magz. Spl. Vol. 4(1999) : 157-~67.
Sakthivel, M. J976. Geographical and seasonal distribution of Euthecosomata (Pteropoda,
Gastropoda) in the Indian Ocean. "Meteor" Forsch. Ergebnisse, 23 : 1-22.
Meisenheimer, 1949. & Sakthivel, 1969. See Sakthivel, 1976.
Subclass PULMONATA
Shell usually is small to large and of various shapes. It is, however, absel1t in a few slug-like
forms. Operculum is absent except in one marine genus Amphibola. Eyes are situated either at
the bases or on tips of the tentacles and hence the names Basommatophora and Stylommaatophora
respectively. In the former, the tentacles are contractile but non-invaginable, whereas in the
latter, they are iravaginable. A respiratory pore or pneumostome is present on the right side.
Radula bears numerous teeth, a small central tooth flanked on either side by numerous laterals
and marginals. Ctenidium is absent but the pallial cavity is modified into a pulmonary cavity.
The auricle is placed in front of the ventricle. Nervous system is euthyneurous. Sexes are united,
with a single or separate. genital ducts. These lay eggs, which hatch out into young ones. There
is no veliger larval stage with the exception of a few marine species. Majority of pulmonates are
terrestrial except for a few freshwater families (Lymnaeidae, Planorbidae, Physidae, Bulinidae
etc.) and a few marine families (Siphonariidae, AmphiboJidae etc.).
TraditionaJly, the subclass is divided into two orders, Basommatophora and Stylommatophora.
But recent taxonomic studies have recognized two more orders, Archaeopulmonata to
accommodate the family Ellobiidae and Systellommatophora to include shell-less and slug-like
forms belonging to the families Onchidiidae, Veronicellidae, Rathousiidae and Rhodopidae. A
separate subclass Gymnomorpha has been erected by some to include the last four families. It is
again divided into two orders, Syste]Jommatophora for Onchidiidae (marine forms) and
Soleolifera for the other three families. Two of these families occur on land, and the third
family Rhodopidae is monotypic containing Rhodope, which lives interstitially. An unidentified
species of the genus was reported from Visakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh.
Or~er ARCHAEOPULMONA TA
These are primitive pulmonates with a dextrally coiled spiral shell having no operculum.
Aperture has strong folds or teeth projecting into it. Tentacles are cylindrical bearing eyes at
their bases. Radula has numerous teeth with denticulate central, lateral and narrow marginaJs.
An osphradium is absent. Respiratory opening is present at posterior end of the mantle.
Reproductive system is of primitive type with separate genital openings.
The order includes two families Ellobiidae and Otinidae, but only the former has
representation in India.
Family ELLOBIIDAE
Shell is small to moderately large in size, up to 60 Inlll in height. It is thin to thick, ovate to
cylindrical in shape. Body whorl is large with a short spire. Aperture is elongate with a thick
370 REC. ZOOL. SURV.- INDIA, DCC. PAPER No. 192
outer lip, often reduced in size by the presence of teeth. Columella is with folds or teeth. Outer
lip is with one to several teeth. Surface usually is smooth or with striations.
Animal can totally retract into the shell. There is a pair of retractile and rounded tentacles
bearing eyes at their bases. Radula has numerous teeth. A small respiratory orifice,
pneumatophore, is present on the posterior edge of the mantle. Foot has a small transverse
furrow. Sexes are united with separate genital pores. Penis is retractable and has a chitinous
stylet.
It is a large family with cosmopolitan distribution and includes about 2 J genera and hundreds
of species, which occur on land, in estuaries and in intertidal zone of the sea. Some of the
species are common in the Inangroves of the Indo-Pacific region.
Subfamily ELLOBIINAE
Cassidula nucleus (Gmelin, 1791)

(PI. 95, fig. 1)
Shell small~ up to 25 mm in height, thick and ovate, with a short spire and convex body
whorl being angular at the shoulder. Aperture narrow and longer than the spire, columella with
callus and two folel;;, outer lip thickened, obsoletely denticulate and angulate. Surface with
irregular spiral striae, fawn coloured.
India: Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, West Bengal, estuaries and mangroves. Indo-West Pacific.
Ellobium allrisjudae (Linnaeus, 1758)

(PI. 95, fig. 5)
Shell of medium size, up to SO mm in height, elongately ovate, spire short, sutures incised.
Aperture narrow, columella with callous bearing three-folds, the central one large and the one
on either side \veak, outer lip thickened on its lower hvo-thirds, no umbilicus. Surface with
close-set axial ridges and spiral rows of granules prominent below the sutures.
India : Gujarat, Maharashtra, Orissa: Mahanadi Estuary; West Bengal: Gangetic Delta;
Andaman and Nicobar Islands, estuaries and mangroves. Indo-Pacific.
Ellohium gangeticllm (Pfeiffer, 1855)

(PI. 95, fig. 6)
Shell smaller than in E. allri.\:illdae, up to 30 mm in height, fusiformly ovate, thin, covered

with straw coloured epidermis, spire short, whorls tumid. Aperture slightly expanded below,
columella with two plaits. Surface \vith thin axial striae.
India: West Bengal, Orissa, Andhra Pradesh. Elsewhere: Sri Lanka, Myanmar.
Pythia plicata (Ferussac) Gray, 1825

(PI. 95, fig. 7)
Shell small, up to 25 mm in height, ovate, compressed, spire acute, body whorl large, suture
impressed, aperture narrow, outer lip margin reflected with three to four plicae protruding into
the aperture, columella calloused, with three conspicuous folds, ulnbilicus deep. Colour light
purple with a white band along the outer lip. Sculptured with longitudinal growth stri-ae.
India: West Bengal, Orissa, Tamil Nadu, Pondicherry. Indo-Pacific.
Laemodonta monilifera (H & A Adams, 1854)

(PI. 95, fig. 2)
Shell sma)), up to 10 mm, thick, duJ), roundly ovate, spire short. Aperture sma)), with thickened
outer lip bearing t\VO stout teeth, columella with three folds, parietal callus well developed,
umbilicus obsolete. Surface sculptured with strong, close-set ribs. Colour pale yellowish-bro\vn.
Periostracum thin and bears spiral frills.
India.: Orissa, rare. Gulf of Arabia.
Subfamily MELAMPODINAE
Melampus pulcltella (Petit, 1842)

(PI. 95, fig. 4)
Shell very small, up to 8 mm in height, ovately fusiform, solid, spire convexly conoid,
whorls six to seven. Aperture narrow, produced at the base, columellar plait strong, outer lip
denticulate. Colour light brown, surface with fine growth lines.
India: Maharashtra, West Bengal. Elsewhere: Philippines.
Melampus ceylonicus (Petit, 1841)

(PI. 95, fig. 3)
Shell small, up to 15 Inm in height, ovate with a conical acute spire and a narrow body
whorl, suture lineate. Aperture narrowly elongate, oblique and protruding below, outer lip Inargin
thin, inner margin \vith 6-7 teeth situated in the middle, columelJa obliquely rounded, with
three plaits. Colour 1i ~ ht brown, ornamented with dark bands.
India: Maharashtra : Bombay; Andhra Pradesh, Orissa.
The snails are air breathers. These are gregarious and occur under the bark and crevices in
the roots of mangrove plants.
Order BASOMMATOPHORA
SheJl is limpet-shaped or globose and spirally coiled. Operculum is present in the larval
stage and in the family Amhibolidae also in the adult stage. Animal is with one pair of tentacles
bearing eyes at their bases. These live in or near water and have developed a secondary gill
cal led pseudobranch for respiration. These occur in freshwater, estuaries or in the intertidal
rocky shores.
The order includes 15 families of which 6 families are known from India. The following two
fami lies occur in marine habitats.
Family SIPHONARIIDAE
Shell is small, up to 30 mm in length. It is limpet-like, cap-shaped and irregularly oval in

outline. Apex is in the centre or a little posterior. Surface is radially striated or ribbed, either
uniformly brownish or with reddish brown flecks. Muscle scar is almost circular and
horseshoe shaped and discontinuous on the right broken by pulmonary furrow. Operculum is
absent.
Foot is large and rounded. There are no cephalic tentacles. Mantle cavity has a gill posteriorly
and an osphradium. Radula has a small and narrow central, with laterals and marginals. Proboscis
is short and narrow. Sexes are united, with a common opening on the right behind the head.
Male portion has a penis and a prostate. Eggs are laid in ribbons.
The species occur mostly in the intertidal region and browse on the algae. The family consists
of four genera and about 75 species. The genus Siphonaria has the largest number (70) of
species. A few species are reported from India.
Siphonaria funiculata Reeve, 1856

(PI. 95, fig. 8, 9)
Shell small, up to 15 mm in length, ovate, lilnpet-like, spire elevated and near to posterior
end. Sculptured with radiating ribs and striae, interior smooth, deep groove extends from the
centre to right margin, corresponding area on the surface of the she)) represented by
elevated double ridge, Inuscle scar impression incomplete and horseshoe shaped. Interior
colour light brown, muscle scar white, ribs on the external surface white with light brown
interstices.
India: Lakshadweep. Elsewhere: Australia.
Found attached to rocks and tree trunks in the supra tidal zone.
REFERENCE
Hubendick, B. 1947. Phylogenie und Tiergeographie der Siphonariidae : Zur Kenntis der
Phylogenie in der ordnung Basommatophora und des Ursprungs der Pulmonaten gruppe.
Zool. Bijdr. Uppsala, 24 : 1-216.
374 REC. ZOOL. SURV. INDIA, acc. PAPER ~o. 192
Family AMPHIBOLIDAE
Shell is small, up to 25 tnm in height. It is globose and spirally coiled with a large body
whorl and conical spire. Aperture is large. Umbilicus is conspicuous and wide. Surface is with
fine axial striations. Opercu1um is oval, with a spiral coil and a subcentral nucleus.
Head is large, with short tentacles bearing eyes at their bases or without tentacles. Pulmonary
cavity is large, without a gill but with an osphradium. Hypobranchial gland in, the roof of the
mantle cavity may be present or absent. Sexes are separate. A muscular penis is present. Eggs
are laid in capsules and the veliger stage is passed within· the capsule.
These live partly buried in the muddy or sandy substratum in sheltered bays, estuaries,
backwaters and mangroves. It is a small family with a total of 10 species under two genera,
Anlphibola and Salinator. The later genus is represented by one species in the estuaries of
India.
Sa/inalor burmana (Blanford, 1867)

(PI. 95, fig. 10, 11)
Shell small, up to 30 mm in height, globose, with a large body whorl and a pointed spire,
sutures distinct. Aperture large and oval, columella without callus, outer lip thin, without posterior
canal, colour dark brown.
India: Gujarat : Bhavnagar (mangroves); Andhra Pradesh: Kakinada Bay; West Bengal:
Gangetic Delta, estuaries and mangroves. Elsewhere: Australia.
p
mmula oldhami : La cadiv,_ a. 2. emmula on 11 I

I no 11 r : ' a f Ben a1.
. Gemmula a ala. 77 I I. 7. G mmula m 'nilif' ra~ , 9. Un do mmula lIn edo ~ ] O. 'Jnlnu"tla
I
p io ~ (Eomopl ura ert brata).

Dl DCC. PAP R o. 92
tat 86:
I, . "urolll,.r; 'in uli( . r 'in uliF

. r . II' fro la\ u a 'P"1 tu' , una fla idula'
I . 0 ' hob 1 II dulo', I ; 7. aph" /I Z nUl , 1Irap ~ inda atori ~ . rillia u ata'
II . Ptychoh la r(9ithii' I ,1 . TItrridrllp 1 L . Funa (, . I riana.
SUBBA RAO : fNDlAN SEA SHELLS : POLYPLACOPHORA .ANDGASTROPODA
Plate 87 : Terebridae
1. Terebra dimidiata; 2,3. Dupicaria duplicata; 4. Terebra s.ubu.lata.; 5. Terebra cQmmacuiata.

v. DrA 0 . PAP R No . 192
I. 14. r._hra ar. oJala ; 2. 14. ,,_bra hi rata; , ~r. bra I flu/ata ' 4. Terebra dimidiata' 5. Terebra
"'Q ulata ,~ 6. n r bra guttata ,; 7. rer hra ubulat : . 14 n bra n -hulo a: 9. Terebra commacuJata.
: INDIA EA SHELL OLYP OP 0 G 1 00 A
idae
1, Hastula inconslans; 2. Terebra co lumellaris; 3 4. Haslula trail/it" 5.. Impag ' he tica
6,7, Duplicaria duplicata; 8 9. Hastula lauta.
.Z D OC. PAP R No. 92
Pate '90 : Architect
1~. ,. hit I, 11i apr. p ,ii, a ,: . T1 hit

H ' : Pi YP A OPHORA A A TROPOD
,ate 9 :
I 2. Architectonica pe~ pe, tiva' 3-5. Heliacus stramineus' 6 . It Zia u a~ ola '
9 10. Philippia radiata.
R R, OI . P P R No. 192
P .ate 92 .: ra
.-. Pyr lI"i lelll /, lahrafa lereh ,1/1Im' . urb nill .F Ii ita: 4 . , ' . l'rlllid, II
. ule ITa; ' 1 . (Jt '1' 'ura IUriS{ Ifi~ ""i,
d, I, baby/"i ,. III ~
I I . R. propinllllll,' to, .(( 'Ilia }.ria .\ .

UB LL : P YPLA OPH RA 0 GA TROPODA
93
I 2. Amathina tricarinata' 3 4. Hydatina velum' 5. Scaphander andamanicu' 6. Tornatina

inconspicua" 7. Philine aperta" 8" Aty · cylidricus' 9,. Bulla ampulla; 10 Atys hyalina' 11 12" ty
elongata" 13. Atys naucum.
DIA, 0 . PAPE 0. 192
1. Ha,,,itu;a :II .' all . 2~ _ . H ""in ,_ ~ro 'ala~ 4~ , R '(u "'a p ramidata ' 7. ,Umbra _ulunl tu"bracu[um'
. olab lIa au,.; ·ula,.,a~ . lio pyranlida la , 10 11. lio _u pidata 12 1_. _a oli"ia ,1ongiro tl i' a.
RA A HE L' : P HORAA D TR PODA
i ~ honariidae
. Cassidula nucleu ; 2. Laemodonta monilifera : Orissa; J. Melampus ceylonicu . 4. Melampus

pulcheUu 5. Ellobium aurisjudae' 6. Ellobium gangeticum; 7. Pythia pJicata' 8. iphonaria
funicula ta.
· 192
Plate 96 :
1-. JlchiC/i,,,,, t II rUI"~ 4- 5. " Itidi,l/II Ii rillunl; 6. nell/dill"' typha .

11 fr m und r
Order SYSTELLOMMATOPIIORA
A shell is absent. Anitnals are slug like with an elongately ovate body. They vary in size
from microscopic to 100 mm in length. Mantle is thick forming a notum dorsally and extending
anteriorly down over the head and laterally along the length of the body. There are two pairs of
tentacles on the head, the upper ones contractile and bear eyes, the lower ones are tactile.
The respiratory pore and anus are located at the posterior and behind the foot. Radula
possess unicuspi~ teeth. Two separate genital openings are present; the male opening lies
anteriorly on the right side of the head and the female opening is midway on the right side or
near the anus.
The order is treated by some under a separate subclass Gymnophora or Opisthopneumona
(See Boss, 1982). The order contains one family, which is represented in India.
Family ONCHIDIIDAE
Animals usually are slug- like, large and shell less. Dorsal surface is covered by thickened
mantle. It usua11y is uneven with papillae or tubercles and accessory eye like structures. The
mantle has repugnatorial glands, which release repulsive secretions. Head has a roof like frontal
shiel". The body is divided into dorsal notum separated from the lateral hyponotum or girdle-
like border by a groove called perinotum. Foot is large and broad with a median sole. Radula is
broad with a tricuspid central tooth and numerous lateral and marginal teeth.
Sexes are united, with a posteriorly located female. genital pore and an anteriorly situated
male gonopore. The penis has an accessory gland. A coiled shell is present in the embryonic
stage. A pelagic veliger larva is present.
These are amphibious, occurring mainly in estuaries. Onchidiuni having Indo Pacific
distribution is the only genus reported in India. It is represented by seven species in India
(Awati & Karandikar, 1948; Stoliczka, 1869).
Onc/lidium tenerunt (Stoliczka, 1869)

(PI. 96, fig. 1-3)
Animal of moderate size, 35 mm in length and 19 mm in width, ovate-elongate, flabby.

Mantle not tough, greenish grey, ornamented with dark spots and fine granules, eye pedicles
with swollen base and distinctly swollen granular tips, eyes black and located in transverse
fo.lds. Anus pulmonary orifice and female genital pore located at the posterior end of the mantle
on the ventral side.
India: West Bengal; on the banks of the river Hugli. It remains buried in the mud with its
posterior end pointed upwards. It was found crawling on the dykes and poles after rain. It is a
common species in the HugH estuary.
Onchidium tigrinum Stoliczka, 1869

(PI. 96, fig. 4, 5)
Animal small, 17 mm in length and ] 3 mm in width, ovate, with hard coriaceous mantle,
body pale greenish with irregular spots, surface with large black-tipped tubercles enclosing
granules in between, head and tentacles dark green, tentacles stout at the base, thin in the middle
and slightly thickened at the tip bearing black eyes. Anus, pulmonary orifice and female genital
pore located at the posterior end on the ventral surface.
India: West Bengal; on the banks of Hugli-Matla estuary, in shady places, inside crevices of
dykes, bricks etc.
Oncllidium typllae (Buchanan, 1800)

(PI. 96, fig. 6, 7)
Animal large, 44 mm in length and 20 mm in width with both ends obtuse. Mantle greenish
and ornamented with various shades, dorsal surface with numerous small and large tubercles
bearing 2 to 4 black spots on their tips. Foot broad.
India: West Bengal, HugH-Matla estuary. Its range in the estuary extends to about 120 Ion
up stream and occurs on the muddy substratum and on erected structures.
Onchidium verruculatum (Cuvier, 1830)

(Fig. 40. 1, 2)
Animal largest 6f all species, 50 mm in length and 30 mm in width, elongately ovate with
very tough and leathery integument. Dorsal surface covered with tough and warty tubercles
varying in form, size and structure, tubercles may be simple or compound, the latter in a group
of 5-7 simple tubercles, tubercles in the posterior region irregularly branched and bushy.in
appearance known as "gill trees", unbranched tubercles with free and flattened ends bearing
eyes called "occular papillae" situated on four-fifths of the dorsal surface. Head large and rounded
bearing a vertical slit-like mouth on its ventral surface, with two widely separated cephalic
tentacles. Animal dirty greyish and ornamented with dark purplish brown blotches on the dorsal
surface and pale yellowish grey on the ventral surface. Foot with pale greenish sole and
hyponotum surrounding it dark greyish green.
SUBBA RAO : INDIAN SEA SHELLS: POL YPLACOPHORA 'AND GASTROPODA 377
India: Common on east and west coasts and Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Occurs in the
nooks and crevices of rocks in the intertidal region. It is the only species occurring in the rocky
marine environment.
1 2
Fig. 40. Onchidium verruculatum

1. Dorsal view, 2. Ventral view. A-anus; CT-cephalic tentacle; DT-dorsal tubercle; FA-female genital pore;
GT-gill tubercle; H-hyponotum; M-mouth; PA-pulmonary aperture.
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Mannar and Palk Bay. Proc. Indian. Natn. Sci. Acad., BioI. Sci., 38 B (5 & 6) : 462-474.
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Setna, J. B. 1932. The Andaman shell fishery. J Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 36 : 94-100.
Smith, E. A. 1894. Report upon some Mollusca dredged in the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian
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Smith, E. A. 1895. Report upon some Mollusca dredged in the Arabian Sea during the season
1894-95. Ann. Mag. nat. Hist. Lond., (6) 15 : 1-19 and 262-265.
Smith, E. A. 1896. Descriptions of new deep sea Mol1usca. Ann. Mag. nat. Hist. Lond., (6) 18:
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Smith, E. A. 1899. On Mollusca from the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea. Ann. Mag. nat.
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5. GLOSSARY
Acuminated. Apex of shell terminating in a point
Anal canal. In gastropods channel at the posterior end of the lip through which the aniInal
passes waste matter. Hence also known as posterior canal.
Anterior. In bivalves, it is the side on which the head, or part analogous to the head of the
animal lies, It is known in the shell by the umbos, which if turned at all, are turned
towards that part of the anterior. In spiral univalve is that part of the outer lip which is at
the greatest distance froln the apex. Of a conical univalve such as a lilnpet it is the part
where the head of the animal lies.
Apex. The posterior tip of shell, first formed part of shell.
Apophysis. A projecting peg-like or finger-like structure.
Arcuate. Arched
Auricles. Ear-like extension of dorsal region of shell commonly separated from the body by a
sinus. Adj. Auriculate.
Auriform. Earshaped
Auricular aura. Blunt internal ridges swelling out distally as low tubercles, marking lower
border of auricles.
Biangulate. Two keeled or with two ledges (shelf-like projections).

Bicarinate. Having two keels or ledges.
Bidentate. Two-toothed
Body. whorl. The largest whorl of a spiral shell (anterior)
Buccal cavity. Cavity within the mouth
Callus. A deposit of enamel, mostly around the aperture in gastropods; thickening layer of
shelly material. adj. Callous.
Callosity. Callus; the state of being hardened with a shelly deposit.
Canal. A groove which characterize some spiral univalve shells, where the inner and outer lips
unite at the front or posterior part of the aperture.
Canaliculate. Channelled or grooved.
Cancellate. Marked by ridges or cords crossing each other (sculpture lines intersecting at right
angles)
Carina. Keel
Carinated. Having a raised, thin ledge; keeled
Clathrate. Latticed; crossing to form a network
Clavate. Club-shaped
Clypeiform. Shield-shaped.
Columella. The column formed by the inner sides of the volutions of a spiral univalve. It is
sometimes described as the inner lip of the aperture of which it forms a part (the axis of
coiling of a tightly spiral gastropod).
Columellar lip. The inner edge of the aperture, including that part of it which covers the body
whorl.
Concentric. A term applied to sculpture which is spiral

Cord. Small, round-topped ridge
Cordate/Cordiform. Heart-shaped
Coriaceous. Resembling leather
Coronate. Having the whorls of a spiral shell surrounded by a row of spines or tubercles
Costae. Ribs
Costated. Ribbed
Crenate. Having the edge cut or notched
Crenulate. Finely notched.
Decollated. Apex broken otT

Decussated. Intersected by striae crossing each other (with a latticed surface formed by the
intersection of fine ribs, not necessarily at right angles)
Dextral. Coiled in a right-hand spiral
Dioecious. Sexes separate
Direct Development. No larval stage in development, young ones in adult body form
released.
Dorsum. Hump or upper surface (applied to cowry shells). Back of the shell opposite the
aperture.
Emarginate. Indented at the edge

Entire. Uninterrupted, not emarginated. The pallial line in bivalves is entire, when continued
without interruption or without a sinus and the peristome of a univalve is said to be entire
when not interrupted by canals or by the body whorl.
Exsert. Protrude; Projecting.
Fasciole. A spiral band formed by the successive edges ofa canal (either anterior or posterior)
indicating growth stages iii a gastropod.
Fossula. Shallow linear depression on the inner lip, especially in cowries.
Fusiform. Shaped like a spindle, swelling in the centre and tapering at the extremities.
Funicle. A ridge of callus spiraling into the umbilicus in the naticid gastropods.
Gibbous. Hump backed

Glabrous. Bald, smooth, possessing a surface without hair or any unevenness.
Globose. Rounded like a globe or ball
Granose. Granulated
Granulose. Granulated or covered with minute grains
Growth-lines. The lines formed by the edges of the successive layers of shelly matter deposited
by the animal as it increases the shell. Also called growth striae.
Height. Distance from the apex to the base or anterior end of the shell. Also known as
length.
Hermaphroditic. The presence of male and female reproductive systems in the same individual.
Protandric, when the male system appears first and functions; simultaneous when both
the systems are present.
Indirect development : Development passes through a larval stage

Imbricated. When the superficial laminae are placed over each other like tips of shingles.
Imperforate. Without umbilicus
Inflated. Swollen; applied to round shells of thin texture.
Inner lip. Edge of the aperture of a univalve shell which is near to the imaginary axis, as
distinguished from the outer lip or that which is on the opposite side. (Also called columella
lip).
I nterstices. Narrow spaces between things closely set

I ncised. Sculptured with one or more sharply cut grooves.
Keel. A flattened ridge, resembling the keel of a ship. (A carina or outstanding rib, usually
marking an abrupt change of slope in the shell outline).
Labial area. Area around the inner lip or labium from the anterior part of the columella to the
suture.
Labiate. With a thickened margin.
Lamella. A thin scale or plate.
Lamellate (adj.). Covered with thin scales or plates.
Laminar tooth. A plate-like structure
Lineated. Marked with lines.
Linguiform. Tongue shaped
Lip. Edge of the aperture, inner lip or labium, outer lip or labrum
Lirae. Striate
Lirate. Referring to threadlike sculpture.
Mamillated. Applied to a univalve shell when the apex is rounded like a te,t; bluntly rounded.
Nacre. Mother-of -Pearl. Inner layer of shell

Nacreous. Pearly; the shell consisting of thin layers of aragonite parallel to inner surface of
shell showing luster.
Node. Small knob
Nodose (adj.). Having tubercles or knobs
Nodule. Small node (adj. nodulose)
Nucleus.The first formed part (of a shell or operculum).
Obtuse. Blunt Of rounded

Oliviform. Shaped like an olive-shell
Operculum. The p!ate with which many molluscs close the aperture of their shell when retracted
inside.
Ossicle. An accessory shell plate or protuberance
Outer lip. The edge of the aperture at the greatest distance from the axis.
Oviparous. Egg laying

Ovoviviparous. Producing young by eggs hatched with in the body, nourishment of embryo is
from the yolk of egg.
Papillary/Papillose. Shaped like a teat.

Parietal whorl. Broader upper part of inner lip in a univalve shell.
Paucispiral. Few whorls in the spira), generally appJied to the operculum.
Pelagic. Free Swimming
Penultimate whorl. The last whorl but one (anterior) of a spiral shell.
Periphery. Widest part of a whorl
Periostracum. The thin, horny outermost layer of the shel1
Peristome. Edge of aperture
Pilose. Hairy, covered with hairs
Plait. A fold. A term applied to the prominence or folds on the pillar or columella lip of some
univalve shells.
Planorbid. Coiled in a flat spiral
Plica. Plait or fold on the columelJa of gastropods. adj. plicate
Plication. A fold, especially on the columella of gastropods.
Posterior. The side known by the direction of the curve in the umbos, which is from the posterior
towards the anterior. Posterior of univalve opposite end to the anterior (mouth).
Prodissoconch. She)) secreted by larva or embryo, which is preserved as beak of some adult
shells (Embryonic shell; the umbo in a bivalve).
Protoconch. Embryonic shell, whorls at the top of a shell in gastropod
Prismatonacreous. The shell consisting of prisms of aragonite parallel to inner surface of shell
showing luster.
Pyriform. Pear-shaped
Punctate. Dotted with small spots or depressions
Pustule. Small rounded elevation sma1ler than a tubercle
Quadrate. Square, applied when the outline of shells is formed by nearly straight lines meeting
at right angles.
Quadruplicate. With four folds or plaits-applied to the co)uJ11ella of some shells.
392 REC. ZOOL. SURV. INDIA, acc. PAPER, No. 192
Radiating. Applied to the ribs, striae, or bands of colours when they meet in a point at the
umbos of a bivalve shell and spread out towards the ventral margin.
Reticulate. Resembling net work. See cancellate
Rostrate. Beaked or pointed at the end, usually the anterior end of bivalves.
Rostrum. A beak like process or extension
Rugose. Rough, rugged.
Sagittate. Shaped like an arrow-head.

Sensu lato (S.I). In the broad sense.
Sensu stricto (S.8). In the strict sense.
Shoulder. Angulation of a whorl forming the outer edge of sutural ramp.
Sinuate. Having a wavy edge.
Sinus. A deep indentation; cavity
Siphonal fasciole. A spiral roughened tract to the left of the aperture in gastropods, formed by
successive growth stage of the anterior canal.
Siphonal canal. A groove in the shell through which the siphon is extended. Also known as
anterior canal.
Spermatheca. A seminal recepticle, a chamber in the female reproductive system for the recption
and storage of sperm.
Spermatophore. A package of sperm formed within a specialized part of the male reproductive
system.
Spatula. Spoon-shaped area surrounded by the muscle scar of limpets.
Spire. Includes all the volutions above the aperture of a univalve shell, except body whorl or
last whorl.
Striae. Fine incised groove, either flat or raised, which cross the surface of shells in different
directions.
Striated. Marked with fine grooves or lines (Fine sculpture that has the appearance of microscopic
scratches or grooves)
Subsutural. Just under the suture
Subulate. Slowly tapering to a sharp point; applied to shells which are long and pointed as in
genus Terebra.
Sulcus. A slit or fissure.
Sulcated. Grooved or furrowed.
Sulci. Grooves or furrows

Suture. The line which marks the joining of the whorls of the spire.
Tessellated. Applied to the colouring of shells, when arranged in regular defined patches like a
tessellated pavement.
Transverse aperture. At right angles with the axis of the shell
Tubercle. Small rounded elevation, larger than a pustule, sma1ler than a nodule.
Turreted. When the whorls of a spire are regulated so as to have the appearance of little turrets
rising above each other.
Varicose. Bearing one varix or more

Varix. A projecting ridge formed by the thickened, reflected edge of a former aperture, after
increased growth of the shell.
Vitreous. Resembling glass.
Whorl. A complete turn or revolution around the imaginary axis of a spiral shell.
Width. Widest part of a shell at right angles to its axis. Also known as breadth.
6. TAXONOMIC INDEX
Synonynls are given in italics. subgenera in parentheses and higher taxa in all capitals.
A africanum, Cerithium 132

abbreviata abbreviata, Lophiotollla 332 Agaron ia 294
abbreviata ustulata. Lophiotonla 332 AGARONIINAE 294
abnorrnis. Coralliophila 248 alabastrum, Euchelus 82
Acanthochitona 56 alapapiliones, Naticarius 187
ACANTHOCl-IlTONIDAE 49 alata. Cerithidea 135
ACANTHOCHITONINA 56 alata. Stcnoplax (Stenoplax) 56
ACANTHOCHITONINAE 56 a/allis, ischnoehiton 56
Acanthopleur.a 55 albescens gelnlnuliferus, Nassarius
achatcs, Actnaea 69 (Niotha) 267
achatinus, Conus 321 albiciJJa, Nerita (TheJiosty]a) 105
acicula, Crescis 367 albina, Lophiotoma 332
acicula acicula. Creseis 367 albumen. Neverita 188
aeielilina. Terehra 338
ALLOGASTROPODA 340
Acmaea 69 alouina. Mancinella 243
alveolata, Engina 257
ACMAEIDAE 69
amadis, Conus 4), 3 J2
(Acrilla) 216
Amaea (Acrilla) 216
Actaeocina 350
Atnalda 294
aculeifornlis. Conus 311
Amathina 346
ACULIFERA 5
AMA THINIDAE 346
aClItninata. Alnaea 2 J 6
arnbigua, Mitra (Mitra) 300
aculninata, Nassaria 254
QIllbuiacrUI11, Ehurnea 253
aCllta, Hipponyx 154
anloena, Pseudonerita 114
acuta, Lophiotollla 326
anlouretta, Harpa 298
aCIi/angli/a. Tl"'ri/ella 141
Anlphibola 374
acutangulus. Conus 3 ) 2
AMPHIBOLIDAE 374
aClItigemlnata. Tllrridrupa 332 (Anlphinefita) 412
(Jell/liS, Planaxis J 22
atnpla, Anlalda 2<.)4
(Adusta) 167
atllpulla, Bulla 352
adlls/us, Murex 225
Anadara 32
aelllligrlll1l1lalllS, ischl1ochi/OI1 55 anaxares, Morula 239
Ancilla 294 areolata, Terebra 335

ANCILLINAE 294 argus, Cypraea (Lyncina) 171
andalnanensis, Conus 321 argyrostomus, Turbo (Mannarostolna) 97
andamanensis, M urexiella 233 armigera, Thais 242
andamanicus, Scaphander 350 articulata, Nerita (Amphinerita) 112
andanzanicliS , Latil"lIs 278 asinina, Haliotis 62
andamanicus, Vermetus 76 aspera, Rhinoclavis (Rhinoclavis) 130
Angaria 99 asperella, Cancellaria 309
(Angaria) 91 asperulata, Phenacolepas 117
ANGARIINAE 99 asperulata, Stolnatella 92
Angiola 123 asperus, Euchelus 82
anguina, Tenagodus 142 ASTRAEINAE 99
angulatus, Vaceuchelus 83 Astrali urn ] 00
angulifera, Batillaria 138 Atlanta 183
angustata, Marginel1a 296 ATLANTJDAE 183
annandalei, Naquetia 231 alrala, Angaria 99
annulata, 0) iva 291 atratus, Eucheilis 82
annulata, Turris 332 atropurpurea, Pinctada 35
annulus, Cypraea (Monetaria) 173 attenuata, Turritella 140
anomioides, Pinctada 35 ATYIDAE 353
anus, Distorsio (Distorsio) 2 I 0 ATYINAE 353
aperta, Phi line 35 ] Atys 353
APLACOPI-IORA 3, 4, 5 aut icus, Conus 313
ApJysia 361 aurantia aurantia, Mitra (Nebularia) 302
APLYSIIDAE 361 aurantia subruppeli, Mitra (Nebularia) 302
APL YSIINAE 361 auricularia, Dolabella 362
APLYSIOMORPHA 361 auriscati, OtopJeura 344
arabica, Cypraea (Mauritia) 172 aurisjudae, Ellobium 370
arachnoidca, Natica (Natica) 192 australis, Conus 321
arachnoideus, Conus 312 australis, Monodonta (Monodonta) 84
araneosus, Conus 312, 318 AustroclaVlls 329
ARCHAEOPULMONA T A 369 axicornis, Chicoreus 224
Architectonica 340
ARCHITECTONICIDAE 340 8
arctipinnis, Sepioteuthis 42 Babylonia 25]
arenatus, Conus 3 13 babylonica, Odostolllia 344
areola, Heliacus (Heliacus) 341 balteatulTI, CerithiulTI 125
areola, Phalium 202 bandanus, Conus 321
bandatuln bandatum, Phalium 203 breviplicata, Comitas 332

banksii, Chicoreus 224 Broderipia 92
BASOMMATOPHORA 372 brunneus, Chicoreus 225
Batillaria 138 brunneus, Turbo (Marmarostoma) 97
batillariaeformis, Clypeolnorus 128, 130 bubo, Bursa 214
BA TILLARIINAE 138 buccinea, Purpura 241
bayani, Conus 321 BUCCINIDAE 251
(8elangeria) 78 BUCCININAE 251
belcheri, Latirus 279 buccinulum, Pisania 257
be1cheri, Monilea 81 Buccinum
bellula, Solariella (Solariella) 88 bucephala, Melongena 274
Bembicium 119 bufo, Thais 238
benedicti, Aplysia 361 (Bufonaria) 212
Berthlinia 357 bulbosa, Rapana 236
betulinus" Conus 313 bulhnoides, Lhnacina 367
hie%r, Neverita 189 Bulla 352
biconica, Morula 239 Bullia 264
bifasciata bifasciata, Clypeolnorus 129, 130 (Bullia) 264
bijubata, Turridrupa 328 BULLIDAE 264
bi liosus, Conus 321 burmana, Salinator 374
Biplex 208 burni, Julia 358
bisulcatum bisulcatum, Phalium Bursa 212
(Semicassis) 203 BURSIDAE 212
bitllbercularis, Nassaria 255
BIVALVIA 4, 5 c
hlainvil/ei, Phos 254 caerulea. Oliva 292
blanda, Mitrclla 261 caerulea, Scabricola (Scabricola) 307
blanfordi, Thais 242 caeruleum, Cerithium 132
blanfordiana, Gibbula (Gibbula) 85 callifera, Monilea (Monilea) 81
bocki, Clea 253 Calliostoma 74, 86
80lma 100 CALLIOSTOMA TINAE 86
bonlbayana, Diodora 67 Calpurnus 181
bonlbayanus, Muricopsis 233 (Ca)purnus) 181
boschi, Conus 321 ca Iyptraca 158
hOllr),i, Isehl1oehiton 55 CALYPTRAEIDAE 158
bozzettii, Biplex 208 cal1alicu/ata, Babylonia 253
nrachytonla 331 canalicllialum, Nassarius 271
canalifera, Lucapinella 64 CEPHALOPODA 3, 4, 5, 14

(Canari urn) 146 ceramicum, Vasuln 285
canarium, Strombus (Laevistrombus) 145 Cerithidea 135
Cancellaria 309 (Cerithidea) 136
CANCELLARIIDAE 309 (Cerithideopsilla) 136
CANCELLARIINAE 309 CERITHIIDAE 125
cancellata, Rimella (Varicospira) 150 CERITHIINAE 125
cancellata, Vanikoro 156 cerithina, Turridrupa 332
Cancilla 305 Cerithium 125
Cantharidus 84 ceylanensis, Conus 321
Cantharus 256 ceylonica, Turricula 332
caperata, Xenophora 161 ceylonicus, Melampus 27.1
capitaneus, Conus 313 chaldeus, Conus 321
capucina, Naquetia 231 chamaeieon, Nerita (Theliostyla) 105
CAPULIDAE 160 Charonia 205
Capulus 160 Cheilea 154
caputserpentis,Cypraea (Erosaria) 168 chenlnitzi, Natica 189
caracteristicus, Conus 321 chemnitzi, Pinctada 35
carbonnieri, Murex 228 cherchari, Creseis 367
cardinalis, Mitra (Mitra) 301 Chicoreus 224
carina/a, Plellrotoma 328 Chilkaia 139
carini/era, PZllpura 244 chinensis, Xenophora (Stellaris) 162
carnarium, Pugilina (Helnifusus) 273 chiragra chiragra, Lambis (Harpago) 150
carneola, Cypraea (Ponda) 174 Chiton 50
carnaticllm, Cerithiunl 127 CHITONIDAE 49, 50
Casmaria 204 chrysalis, Mitra (Nebularia) 302
~
CASSIDAE 201 Chrysostoma 85

Cassidula 370 cidaris, Liotina 98
CASSINAE 201 cinereus, Turbo (Lunella) 96
Cassis 201 cinguiata, Cerithidea (Cerithideopsil1a)
casta, Minolia 89 33, 136
catus, Conus 321 cingulata, Cassidaria 207
caurica,Cypraea (Erronea) 167 cingulifera cingulifera, Xenoroturris 327
CA VOLINIIDAE 366, 367 circula, Neocancilla 305
Cavolinia 367 circulatus., Euchelus 83
Cellana 71 Cirsotrelna (Cirsotrelna) 219
cepa, Tonna 194 Citharalnangelia 333
CEPHALASPIDEA 347 citrinum, Cerithium 132
Clanculus 74, 79 conoidalis, Nassarius (Niotha) 268

clanguloides, Clanculus 79 conspersa, Columbella 262
CLATHURELLINAE 333 contracta, Cronia (Erglatax) 236
Clavus 332 Conus 311
CLA VINAE 332 convexa, CI io 367
Clea 253 coralium, Cerithium )26
CHona sp. 76 Coralliophila 248
Clio 367 CORALLIOPHILIDAE 248
clypea. Emarginula 65 comigera, Aplysia 362
Clypeolnorus 129 comus, Drupella 235
clypeomorus, ClypeonJorlis 129 com uta, Cassis 201
Clypidina 65 coromandalica, Nassaria' 255
(Clypidina) 65 coromandelicus, Conus 314
coarctata, Eunaticina (Eunaticina) 190 coronata, Eucithara 333
Cochlespira 325 coronatus, Conus 3 14
cochlidium, Pugilina (Hemifusus) 33,274 coronatus, Nassarius (Nassarius) 266
coeni, Gibbula (Gibbula) 85 coronu/ala, Cassis 204
collisus, Conus 321 corrugata, Xenophora (Xenophora) 161
colombelliformes, Mitra (Strigatella) 303 (Corvicella) 182
Colubraria 281 cosmia, Lienardia 333
COLUBRARIINAE 281 costata, Nerita (Ritena) 108
Coltllllbella 260, 261 costularis, Coralliophila 248
('olzl111bellidae 260 Craspedochiton 57
Collll1Jbellinae 260 crassilabrunl, Eucilhara 333
columellans, Terebra 338 CRASSISPIRINAE 330
columna, Cerithium 126 crassus, Turbo (Marmarostoma) 97
colulnnaris, Turritella 140 craticulatus, Latirus 280
col us, Fusinus 277 Cremnoconchus 119
Ccmitas 332 crenularis, Brachytonla 331
comlnaculata, Terebra 336 crenulata, Phenacolepas 117
conl/Ilunis. Janthina 220 crenulata, Pterygia 307
comptus, Ischnochiton (Haplaplax) 55 crenulata. Terebra 336
concatenata, Drupella 235 crenulata. Turbinella 257
CONCI-IIFERA 5 Crepidula 158
congener congener, Gemnlula 327 CREPIDULIDAE 158, 159
congener mekranica, Gelnmula 332 Creseis 367
CONIDAE 311 crispa crispa, Turris 332
conoidalis, Harpa 298 crispa variegata, Turris 332
crocata crocata, Lambis (Lambis) 149 delesserti, Sinum 191

crocata,. Haminea 354 delicatula, Tibia 151
Cronia 236 deliciosa, Solariella (Solariella) 88
Crucibulum 158 delphinus, Angaria (Angaria) 99
crumena crumena, Bursa (Bufonaria) 212 denegabilis, Nassa 267
CRYPTOPLACINAE 57 deshayeshi, Unedogemmula 332
CryptopJax 57 Diacria 368
cucumerina, Mitra (Nebularia) 302 Diala 134
Cuma 244 dialeucum, Cerithium 132
cumaceum, Cymatium (Linatella) 206 DIALIDAE 134
cumingi, Tenagodus 142 didyma, Polinices (Glossaulax) 189
cumingii, Tonna 195 dimidiata, Terebra 336
cuneatus, Donax 32 (Diminovula) 178
curta, Nassarius 272 Diodora 66
cuspidata, Clio 367 DIODORINAE 66
Cyclostrema 94 disjuneta, Cunla 244
CYCLOSTREMATIDAE 94 distans, Conus 314
Cylichna 350 Distorsio 210
cylindrica, Gingicithara 333 (Distorsio) 210
cylindricus, Atys 353 distorta, Angaria (Angaria) 99
CYLINDROMITRINAE 307 distortus, Nassarius (Niotha) 268
CYAIATIINAE 205 diversicolor, Haliotis 62
Cymatium 206 Dolabel1a 362
CYMBIINAE 283 DOLABELLINAE 362
Cymbium 284 dolabrata terebeIlum, Pyramidella 343
Cypraea 167 doliuln, Tonna 195
(Cypraea) 168 Domiporta 306
Cypraecassis 202
Donax 32
CVPRAEIDAE 164
DORSANIINAE 264
D dorsatus, Nassarius (Zeuxis) 271
dactylus, Pterygia 307 dorsuosus, Heliacus 341
Oaphnella 331 (Doxander) 147
Daphnellinae 331 DRILLINAE 329
davidis, Harpa 298 Drupa 234
deceptrix, Turridrupa 332 (Drupa) 234
declivis, Gibbula 86 Drupella 235
decurtata, Mitra (Strigatel1a) 303 DRUPINAE 233
de/ormis, Coralliophila 249 dubisa, Syrnola 344
duclosiana, Pseudanachis 260 (ErgJatax) 236

dulcissima, Solariella (Solariella) 88 erinaceus erinaceus, Casmaria 204
duplaris, Eucithara 333 eros a, CoralJiophiJa 249
Duplicaria 339 erosa, Cypraea (Erosaria) 168
dupJicata, DupJicaria 339 (Erosaria) 168
dupJicata, Turritella 141 (Erronea) 167
dZlssumieri, Ficus 199 errones, Cypraea (Erronea) 167
erythrinus erythrinus, Strombus
E (Canarium) 146
ebraeus, Conus 315 estriata, Actaeocina 350
Eburnea 253 Etrema 333
eburnea, Cyclostrema 94 Euchelus 82
eburneus, Conus 3 15 Eucithara 333
echinata, Bursa (Bufonaria) 213 Eunaticina 190
echinata, Clavus 332 (Eunaticina) 190
echinata, Thais 243 Euplica 261
Edentellina 357 eurina, Comitas 332
edwardi, Conus 321 EUTHECOSOMATA 366
effusa, Neverita 192 euzona, Tanea 188
Eglisia 217 exasperatus, Austroclavus 328
elegans, Bursa 2) 4 eximia, Emarginula 65
elegans, Conus 3 15 eximius, Conus 32 t
elegans, Haminea 355 exquisita, Rimula 66
elegans, Macroschisma 65 exstructa, Comitas 332
ELLOBIIDAE 369 extinctorium, Crucibulum 158
ELLOBIINAE 370
Ellobi'um 370 F
elongatus, Atys 353 fairbanki, Pseudoraphitoma 333
Emarginula 65 fasciata, Rhinoclavis (Rhinoclavis) 132
EMARGINULINAE 65 fasc;alum, Tonna 196
encarpoferens, Ringicula 348 FASCIOLARIIDAE 276
Engina 257 FASCIOLARIINAE 276
enna, Clavus 332 faurotis, Phalium (Semicassis) 203
Epidirona 332 felicita" Turbonilla 345
episcopa/is, Oliva 292 fenestrata, Pterygia 308
episcopus, Conus 313, 315 fenestratus, Tectus 78
EPITONIIDAE 2 J6 ferruginosa, Atys 354
Epitonium 217 FICIDAE 198
equestris, Cheilea 154 ficoides, Ficus 198
Ficus 198 G
ficus, Ficus 200 ganapatii, Berthelinia 358
figulinus, Conus 3 16 gangeticum,. Ellobium 370
filamentosa, Pleuroploca 276 gangrenosa reentsi, Cypraea
FISSURELLIDAE 64 (Erosaria) 168
FISSURELLINAE 64 gamonsii, Turris 332
f1amme~ Subcancilla 306 GASTROPODA 60
flava, Pyrene 262 gaylordae, Lucapinella 64
flavida, Columbella 262 (Gelagna) 206
flavidula, Funa 330
Gemmula 327, 332
flavidus, Conus 3 16
gemmulatum, Buccinum 268
flemingiana, Polin ices (Mammilla) 189
generalis, Conus 32 i
flexuosa, Patella 71
geographus, Conus 3 16
f/uviatilis, Cerithidea 136
(Gibberulus) 148
fluviatilis, Potamacmaea 70
forceps, Fusinus 278 gibberulus gibberulus, Stromb~s 148
fortilirata, Tonicia 50 gibbosa, Olivancillaria 293
FOSSARIIDAE 139 Gibbula 85
foveolatus, Euchelus 84 (Gibbula) 85
foveo)atus, Nassarius (Zeuxis) 271 GIBBULINAE 85
fragilis, Capulus 160 gibbulus, Latirus 280
fragilis, Janthina 220 gilchristi, Gemmula 332
frigidus, Conus 321 Gingicithara 333
frumentum, Pseudosimnia girgyllus, Bolma 100
(DiminovuJa) 176 glans, Conus 321
fruticum, Pseudosimnia (Diminowla) 176
glaucum, Phalium 202
fucata, Pinctaaa 35, 36
globosa, Janthina 221
fulginea, Emarginula 66
g)obosus, Nassarius (Plicarcularia) 270
fugata, Paradrillia 325
globulus, CavoJinia 367
fumosus, Cantharus (Pollia) 256
globulus, Cypraea (Pustularia) 172
Funa 330
funiculata, Diodora 66 gJoriamaris, Conus 22
funiculata, Morula 240 (Glossaulax) 189
funiculata, S iphonaria 372 gracilis, Amaea (Acrilla) 217
fusca, Scabricola (Swainsonia) 307 gracilis, Ficus 199
FUSININAE 277 gracilis, Nassarius 271
Fusinus 277 granatina, NeocanciJla 305
fusoides, Pseudodaphnella 333 graniferus, Nassarius (Plicarcularia) 270
fusus, Tibia 151 granoradiatus, Chiton 50
granosa, A nadara 32 (Hemifusus) 273

granularis, Tectarius 119 (Heminerita) 114
granulata, Morula 239 herdmani, Ischnochiton 56
(Gratiadusta) 170 HETEROBRANCHIA 340
graveIyi, Etrerna 333 Heterocithara 333
grayana, Nerita (Ritena) 110 (HiJna) 267
griffithii. Ptychobela 330 hippocastanuln, Thais 243
gualteriana, Natica 185 HIPPONICIDAE 154
gubernator, Conus 321 Hipponyx 154
guttata, Mitra (Mitra) 30 I holdsworthana, Minolia 89
guttata. Terebra 337 Homalocantha 227
(Gutturnium) 206 hOlnbroni, Gemlnula 332
Gyrineuln 209 hordacea, Trivirostra 176
(Gyrineurn) 209 horrida, Ricinula 234
Gyroscala 2 19 horridus, Euchelus 83
horrid us, Hebra 272
H
hululensis, Chiton 51
HALJOTIDAE 61
hyalina, Atys 354
Haliotis 62
Hyalocyl is 367
haliotoideum. Sinunl 192
Hydatina 349
Haminea 354
HYDA TINIDAE 349
HAMINEIDAE 353
HAMINEINAE 354 I
(I-Japlaplax) 55 iatricus. Chiton 52
Harpa 298 ignea, Pisania 257
harpa, Harpa 299 Inlbricaria 307
(Harpago) 150 IMBRICARIINAE 305
HARPIDAE 298 inlitator, Chiton 52
Harpulina 284 imitatrix, Chilkaia 139
Hastula 338 immaculatum, Epitonium 217
Haustator ] 41 Impages 339
Haustcllum 227 incerta. Ptychobela 333
haustcllurn, Haustellurn 227 inconspicua, Tornatina
Hcbra 272 . inconstans, Hastula 338
hcctica. hnpagcs 339 inconstans prunulum, Paradrillia 333
Heliacus 341 indagatoris, Lucerapex 326
(Hcliacus) 341 indica, Cynlhiunl 284
he/vacca, (Jnl/SlliS 162 indica, Lanlel1aria (Corvicella) 182
helvola, Cypraca (Erosaria) 169 indica, Lophiotoma 326
8tJBBA RAO : INDIAN SEA SHELLS: POLYPLACOPHORA AND GASTROPODA 403
indica, P/axiphora 58 K
indica, Tricolia 103 Kateiysia 29
indica, Xenophora (Onustus) 162 kilbumi, Chicoreus 225
indicus, Euchelus 82 kochi, Rhinoclavis (ProcJavis) 131
indicus, Turbo 96 konkanensis, Cronia 237
induscica, Diodora 67 kotschyi, Osilinus 85
kuesterianus, Muricanthus 230
intlata, Limacina 367
inflexa, Cavo1ini~ 367 L
(Infundibulum) 77 labiatus labiatus, Strombus (Canarium) 146
infundibulum, Solariella (Solaricida) 89 labio, Monodonta (Monodonta) 84
inscriptus, Conus 316 lacera, Thais 244
insculpta, Nerita (Heminerita) 114 laciniata, Angaria 99
Laernodonta 371
inscu]ptus, Conus 321
laevigata, Architectonica 340
insulaechorab curta, Tibia 152
laevigatum, S inurn 192
intercostalis, Turbo 97 lamarckii, Bursa 214
interJirata, Cancilla 305 (Laevistrombus) 145
intermedia, Thais 243 iamarckiana, Natica 189
interruptus, Cantharidus 84 lamberti, Cancellaria 310
investigatoris, Ficus 199 Larnbis 148
irregularis, Capulus 160 lambis, Larnbis (Lambis) 148
isabella, Cancilla 306 Lamellaria 182
Ischnochiton 55 LAMELLARIIDAE 182
ISCHNOCHITONIDAE 49, 55 LAMELLARIINAE 182
ISCHNOCHITONINA 50 Lamellibranchia 3, 4
lamellosa, Gyroscala 219
ispidu/a, Oliva 292
lalnpas, Bursa 214
J lapponica, Harpulina 284
jacksonianus, Nassarius (Niotha) 268 laqueatus, Craspedochiton 57
jacnensis, Haliotis 63 larvaeformis f. occulatus, Cryptoplax 57
(Laterolagena),281
Janthina 220
latifasciatum, Epitonium (Papyriscala) 217
janthina, Janthina 220
Latirus 279
JANTHINIDAE 220 lauta, Hastula 339
janus, Conus 321 layardi bornbayana, Pirenetla 137
javana, Turricula 324 lemniscata, Pseudodaphnella 333
iehennei, Recluzia 22 I lentiginosa, Cypraea (Gratiadusta) 170
Julia 357, 358 lentiginosa, Diodora 67
JULIIDAE 357 lentiginosus, Conus 321
lentiginosus, Strombus (Lentigo) 148 LOTTIIDAE 70

(Leparocypraea) 171 Lucapinella 64
LEPTOCHITONIDAE 49 Lucerapex 326
leucosticta leucosticta, Nodilittorina 121 lucida, Pseudodaphnella 333
Leucozonia 281 luctuosa, Mitra (Nebularia) 302
lienardi, Cypraea (Pustulana) 172 (Lunatica) 96
Lienardia 333 (Lunel1a) 96
limax, Tamanovalva 358 luridus, Nassarius (Niotha) 269
(Linatella) 206 Iymnaeformis, Daphnella 331
lineata, Angiola 123 (Lyncina) 171
lineata, Engina 258 lynx, Cypraea (Lyncina) 171
lineata, Natica 185 Iyrica, Gingicithara 333
lineata, Lithophaga 76
M
linneana, Eunaticina (Eunaticina) 191
macgintyi, Murexiella 233
Liolia 98
Macroschisma 65
LIOTIINAE 98
maculata, Terebra 337
Liotina 98
listeri, Strombus (Doxander) 147 maculatum, Tonna 195
Lithophaga 76 maculatus, Trochus 77
litterata, Mitra (Strigatella) 304 maculosa, Natica 186
Iitteratus, Conus 3 17 maculosa, Pseudodaphnella 333
Littoraria 118, 1 19 Maculotriton 235
LITTORINIDAE 118 madreporara, Coralliophila 249
LITTORININAE 119 madreporarum, Quoyula 249
(Littorinopsis) 129 mahensis, Acanthochitona 56
Iivescens, Nassarius (Niotha) 269 Mainwaringia 119
Ii vida, Bullia 265 major, Harpa 299
lividus. Conus 317 major, Ptychobela 333
lobata, Drupa (Drupa) 234 malabarica, Paphia 32
loebeckeana, Marginella 297 malabaricus, Murex 228
longirostris, Cavolinia 368 malaccanus, Conus 321
longirostris angulata. Cavolinia 368 malaccanus, Tectarius 119
longirostris longirostris. Cavolinia 368 Malea 196
longirostris limbata, Cavolinia 368 malleti, Lienardi~ 333
longirostris strangulatu, Cavolinia 368 (Mammilla) 189
longurionis, Conus 321 mammilla, Polinices 190
Lophiotoma 326, 332 manceli. Naticarius 187
(Lotorium) 207 MANGELIINAE 333
lotorium, Cymatium (Lotorium) 207 mappa, Cypra~a (Leparocypraea) 171
Marcia 32 Melongena 274

margaritaceus, Turbo 97 MELONGENIDAE 273
margaritae, Comitas 332 melvilli, Paradrillia 333
margaritarius, Clanculus 79 mendicaria, Engina 258
margariticola. Drupa 237 Meretrix 32
margaritifera, Pinctada 36 meretrix, Meretrix 32
MARGARITINAE 82 micans, Cyclostrema 94
margaritula, Bursa (Bufonaria) 213 microdon, Clanculus 80
marginatra, Morula 240 Micromelo 349
marginatus marginatus, Strombus microphyllus, Chicoreus 226
(Canarium) 147 Midorgia 357
marginatus succinctus, Strombus miles, Conus 317
(Canarium) 147 miliaris, Conus 321
Marginella 296 miliaris, Cypraea (Erosaria) 169
MARGINELLIDAE 296 millegrana, Nodilittorina 121
MARGINELLINAE 296 (Millepes) 149
(Marmarostoma) 97 millepunctatus, Conus 321
marmorala, Pleurotoma 326 milneedwardsi, Conus 22, 322
marmoratus, Turbo (Lunatica) 96 miniacea, Oliva 292
mannoreus, Conus 317 MinoHa 89
maroehiensis, Naljea 185 Minolia 84
Marshallena 333 minor, Harpa 298
masoni, Conus 321 Mitra 300
masoni, Heterocithara 331 (Mitra) 300
masoni, Monilea (Monilea) 81 mitra, Mitra (Mitra) 301
maura, Oliva 293 Mitrella 261
(Mauritia) 172 MITRIDAE 300
mauritiana regina, Cypraea (Mauritia) 173 MITRINAE 300
mauritianus, Tectus 78 MODULIDAE 124
maurus, Murex 225 Modulus 124
maxima, Nerita (Ritena) ItO moneta, Cypraea (Monetaria) 173
MELAMPODINAE 371 (Monetaria) 173
Melampus 371 monile, Conus 322
melanoides, Bullia (Bullia) 264 Monilea 81
melanostoma, Littoraria (Palustorina) 119 (Monilea) 81
melanostoma, Polin ices (Mammilla) 189 monilifera, Ancilla 294
Melo 283 monilifera, Gemmula 327
melo, Melo 283 monilifera, Laemodonta 371
406 REC. ZOOL. SURV. INDIA, GCC. PAPER No. 192
111 on iI((e n 1111 , Cerirhiunl J 28 natator, Gyrineum (Gyrineum) 209

Monodonta 84 Natica ]85
(Monodonta) 84 Naticarius 187
MONODONTINAE 84 NA TICIDAE 184
MONOPLACOPHORA 3, 5 NA TICINAE 185
(Monoplex) 207 naucum, Atys 354
. MOPALIIDAE 49, 57 (Nebularia) 30:
Morula 240 nebuJosa, Agaronia 294
monnn Inonlln, Drupa (Drupa) 234 nebuJosa, Terebra 337
IIlorllS, C'eri/hiuI11 129 nelJei spuris, Turricula 332
multiseriata, Epidirona 332 Neocancil1a 305
Murcx 228 NEOGASTROPODA 223
Murexiclla 233 Nerita 104
M uricanthus 230 (Nerita) 104
Inuricata, Colubraria 281 NERITIDAE 104
nIl/rica/a, Nassarills 272 neritoidea, Coralliophila 249
MURICIDAE 223 neritoideuln, Sinum 192
MURICINAE 224 Neverita 188
rllllricinun1, CYl11atililn (Gutturnium) 206 nexa, Pseudodaphnel1a 333
MURICOPSJNAE 233 nicobariculn, Cymatiul11 (MonopJex) 207
Muricopsis 233 nicobaricus, Conus 318
musicus. Conus 322 nicobaricus, Fusinus 278
111utabi lis. Conus 3 18 nicobaricus, Planaxis 122
111utabilis, Strolllbus (Canarium) 146 niger~ Planaxis ] 22
nlyuros, Terehra 336 nigrispinosus, Murex 229
niloticus, Trochus 74
N
(Niotha) 267
NACELLINAE 71
nivea, Nassaria 255
Naquctia 23 I nivosa, Phasianetla 102
nasika. Saptadanta 76 nobilis, Conus 322
Nassa 241
nobilis, Pseudovertagus 130
Nassaria 254 nodatus, Latirus 280
NASSARIIDAE 264 nodicostata, Morula 240
NASSARIINAE 266 nodiferus, Nassarius (Niotha) 269
Nassarills 266 Nodilittorina 120
(Nassarius) 266 (Nodilittorina) 120
nassatula, Pcristcrnia 278 nodulosa, Ptychobela 33 I
naslIta, Lithophaga (Lithophaga) 76 noduJosuln, Cerithiuln 127
SUBBA RAO : [NOlAN SEA SHELLS: POLYPLACOPHORA AND GASTROPODA 407
NOTASPIDEA 365 Osi)jnus 85

notata, Clypidina (Clypidina) 65 otinidae 369
novaehollandiae, Eucithara 333 Otopleura 344
(Nucleolaria) 174 ovina, Hal iotis 63
nucleus, Cassidula 370 Ovula 178
nucleus, Cypraea (Nucleolaria) 174 OVULIDAE 178
nussatella, Conus 318, 320 OVULINAE 178
OVllITI, Ovula 178
o oxia, Odostolnia 344
obeliscus, Cerithium 131
p
obovata, Emarginula 66
obtusa,Cerithidea (Cerithidea) 136 pallasi, Epitonium (Epitonium) 218
obtusa, Pseudonerita 1 14 pallida, Cypraea (Gratiadusta) 170
ocellata,Cypraea (Erosaria) 169 pallidula, Xenophora (Xenophora) 162
ochroleucus, Trochus (Infundibulum) 77 palustris, Pyrazus 137
ochrostoma, Cronia 237 pal ustris, Terebral ia 137
oculata, Terebra 337 panama, Purpura 242
Odostomia 344 Paphia 32
ODOSTOMINAE 344 papilio, Neocancilla 305
oldhami, Gemmula 328 papilla, Eunaticina (Eunaticina) 191
olearium, Tonna 194 papyracea, Pseudostomatella 92
Oliva 2QI (Papyri scala) 217
oliva, Oliva 292, 293 paradisiaca nodosa, Volema 274
olivaceus, Nassarius (Zeuxis) 272 paradoxum, Chrysostoma 85
Olivancillaria 293 Paradrillia 325, 333
OLIVIDAE 291 Patella 71, 76
OLIVINAE 291 PATELLIDAE 71
onca, Naticarius 187 PATELLINAE 71
ONCHIDIIDAE 375 Patelloida 70
onchidiuln 375 Patel/oida 70
(Onustus) 162 (Pate.lloidea) 76
onyx adusta,Cypraea (Adusta) 167 PATELLOIDINAE 70
opima, Kalelysia 32 patuJa, Nerita (Theliostyla) 106
opima. Marcia 32 paupercula, Mitra (StrigateJla) 304
OPISTHOBRANCHIA 347 peasieJ la I )9
optata, Pleurotoma 327 pectinoides, Tonicia 52
oryza, Trivirostra 176 pennaceus, Conus 322
oryzarum, Nerita (TheliostyJa) ] 06 PERACLIDIDAE 368
Peraelis 368 placenta, Placenta 32

perea, Biplex 209 PLACOPHORA 3, 5
perdix, Tonna 195 planatus, Sigareilis 192
Peristernia 278 planulailis. Sigaretus 192
PERISTERNIINAE 278 PLANAXIDAE 122
peronii, Atlanta 183 Planaxis 122
peronii, Liotina 98 planospira, Nerita (Theliostyla) 107
persica, Purpura 242 planum, Cerithium 126
persica, Persicula 297 Plaxiphora 58
Persieula 297 Pleuroploca 277
persicus, Splendrilla 332 Pleurotoma 326
PERSONINAE 210 (Plicarcularia) 270
perspeetiva, Architectonica 341 plicata, Angaria 99
peselephanti, Neverita 188 plicata, Cristataria 37
petholatus, Turbo (Turbo) 95 plicata, Nerita (Ritena) 111
petrosa gennesi, Clypeomorus 129 plicata. Pythia 371
PHALIINAE 202 plicata, Vanikoro 156
Phalium 202 Polinices 189
Phasianella 102 (Polinices) 190
PHASIANELLIDAE 102 POLINICINAE 188
Pht'nacolepas J J7 polita, Nerita (Amphinerita) 112
Philine 351 (Pollia) 256
PHILINIDAE 351 polygonus, Latirus 281
philippinarum, Cancilla 306 POL YPLACOPHORA 46
philippinarum, Marshallena 333 pomum, Malea 196
philippinarum. Pyrene 262 (Ponda) 174
Phos 254 ponderosa ponderosa, Casmaria 204
PHOTINAE 254 poraria,Cypraea (Erosaria) 169
phYlnotis, Stomatia (Stomatia) 93 porphyrites, Lunella 96
piela, Nalica 186 Potalnacmaea 70
pileare, CYlnatiuln (Monoplex) 207 POTAMIDIDAE 135
Pinctada 35 POTAMIDINAE 135
pinnatus, Pterynotlls 232 powisii. Tibia 152
piperatlls, Conus 319 praecipua, Typhlosyrinx 333
Pirenella 137 prestoni, Turridrupa 332
Pisania 257 pretioslls, Conus 322
PISANIINAE 256 Primovula 179
Placenta 32 (Proclavis) 131
propinquans, Ringicula 348 pyramidata, Retusa 356

PROSOBRANCHIA 61 Pyralnidella 343
proximus, Euchelus 82 PYRAMIDELLIDAE 343
Pseudanachis 260 PYRAMIDELLINAE 343
Pseudodaphnella 333 pyramis, Tectus 79
Pseudonerita 114 Pyrcne 262
Pseudoraphitolna 333 PYRENINAE 261
Pseudosimnia 178 pyrum fusus, Turbinella 287
Pseud ostoln ate II a 92 pyrum, Turbinel1a 286
Pseudovertagus 130 Pythia 371
Pterygia 307
Q
Pterynotus 232
quasilla, Cancellaria 309
Ptychobela 330
quadricarinatus, Euche)lIs 83
puella, Mitrella 261
quadricincta. Nodilittorina 120
Pugilina 273
quadridentata, Diacria 368
pulchella, Biplex 209
quadrizonata, Parapholas 76
pulchella, Melampus 371
quercinus, Conus 322
pulchella, Peristernia 279
Quoyula 249
pulcherrima, Haliotis 63
pulcherrimus, Chiton 51 R
pulcherrimlls, Rubitrochus 86 radiata enneagona, Cellana 72
pulchra, Biplex 209 radiata radiata, Cellana 72
pulicaria, Naticarius 188 radiata, Philippia 342
pullus, Nassarius (Plicarcularia) 270 radiatus, Trochus (lnfundibululn) 77
PULMONATA 369 ratnosus, Chicorells 226
punctata, Imbricaria 307 rana. Bursa (Bufonaria) 2) 3
punctata, Pseudosimnia (Oiminovula) 179 RANELLIDAE 205
punctatunl, Cerithium 132 RANELLINAE 205, 208
Purpura 24 1 (Ranularia) 208
purpurostolna, Clypeomorus 129 Rapa 249
pusilla, Nassaria 255 rapa, Rapa 249
(Pustularia) 172 Rapana 236
pustulosus, Trochus (lnfundibululn) 78 RAPANINAE 236
pyramidale, Epitonium 218 RAPHITOMINAE 331
pyralnidalis pyranlidalis, Nodilittorina 120 rapifonnis, Rapana 236
pyralnidata, Clio 367 rattus, Conus 322
pyramidata lanceolata, Clio 367 Recluzia 221
410 REC. Za~l. SURV. INDIA. acc. PAPER No. 192
reticulata, Distorsio 210 SACOGLOSSA 357

reticlilaris, Distorsio (Distorsio) 210 sagittarius, Clanculus 79
reticliiala. Ficus 198 Salinator 374
reticulata, Peraclis 368 Saptadanta 76
Retusa 356 satparaenris, Solariella 88
retusa, Mitra (Strigatella) 304 scabra scabra, Littorina (Littorinopsis) 120
RETUSIDAE 356 Scabricola 307
Rhinoclavis (Proclavis) 131 (Scabricola) 307
Rhinoclavis (Rhinoclavis) '130 scabriduln, Cerithium 127
Rhodope 369 scabrosus'l Trochus (Belangcria) 78
rhodostoma, Asraliuln 100 seatare, Epitoniuln 218
(Ricinella) 235 Scalaria 219
ricinus ricinus, Drupa (Drupa) 234 scalariformis, Trigonostoma 310
Rilnella 150 scalata, Trigonostoma 310
Rimula 66 Scaphander 350
Ringicula 348 SCAPHANDRIDAE 350
RINGICULIDAE 347 SCAPI-(OPODA 3, 4, 5
(Ritena) 108 schleegalai, Hyriopsis 37
Roccllaria 76 sehlumbergeri. Talnanovalva 358
rosea, Broderipia 92 SCHIZOCHITONIDAE 49
rosea, Vanikoro 157 scobinatus, Calliostoma 86
roseola, .Ianthina 220
scorpio, Homalocantha 227
rostratum" Ccrithiuln 132 scorpius indomaris, Lambis (MHJepes) )49
rubeta, Tutufa (Tutufella) 214
scripta, Pyrene 262
Rubitroehus 86
seutulata, Mitra (Strigatella) 304
rubusidaells. Drllpa (Rieinella) 235
Scutus 68
rudolphi. Purpura 242
sebae, Polinices (Malnmilla) 190
rlldolphi, Thais 242
secunda, Homalocantha 227
rufa, Cypraecassis 202
(Semieassis) 203
rl~ra. Nalica ) 86
semicostata, Astraliunl 100
rllfilirata, Domiporta 306
semistriata'l Diala 134
rugosa, Thais 244
renlis/riala, Haliotis 63
rupcl1ii" Diodora 67
senticoslIs, Phos 254
S Scpioteuthis 42
saccharina, Patelloida 70 sericea, Oliva 293
saccharil7oides, J)alelloida 70 serriale, Maculotriton 235
sac:elllllll, Alurex 244 Serpulorbis 144
sacellllnl. P"rpura 244 serta, Nassa 241
SUBBA RAO : INDIAN SEA SHELLS: POLYPLACOPHORA AND GASTROPODA 4lt
sewelli, Pyrula 200 (Stel1aria) 162

SILIQUARIIDAE 142 slellaris, Patel/oida 70
simiae, Polinices (Matnmilla) 192 file llat us, Trochus 78
sindiensis, Gemtnula 332 Stenoplax (Stenop)ax) 56
sinensis, Rhinoclavis (Rhinoclavis) 131 stictica, Mitra (Mitra) 301
singaporensis, Diodora 67 stolatus, Nassarius CHima) 267
singularis, Primovula 179 Stomatella 92
SININAE 190 STOMA TELLIDAE 92
Sinuln 191 Stolnatia 93
Siphonaria 372 (Stolnatia) 93
SIPHONARIIDAE 372 stratnineus, Heliacus 342
smaragdulus, LClIcozonia striata, Hyalocylis 367
(Laterolagena) 281 striatellus, Conus 322
(Solaricida) 89 straturatus, Conus 322
Solariella 88 striatula, Prilnovula 179
(Solariella) 88 striatus, Conus 319
SOLARIELLIN.A E 88 (Strigatella) 303
soiaris, Xenophora (Stellaria) 163 STROMBIDAE 145
solarioides, Xenophora (Xenophora) 162 Strom bus 145
sordidula, Rhinoclavis 132 slrongyla var. andan1anica, Na/ica 187
soror, Tornatina 350 StyJiola 367
sowerbyana, Volva 179 subauriculatulTI, Epitoniam 218
sparverius, Turbo (Manllarostoma) 98 subbrevicula, Clypeolnarus 132
speciosa, Calliostoma 86 Subcancilla 306
speciosa, Gemmula 328 subconstrictus, Nassarius 267
spectabilis, Turris 332 subintennedia, Ficlls 200
spiniger, Acanthopleura 55 sublaeve, CalJiostonla 87
spinosa, Bursa 213 subnodulosa Cronia 237
spiralis. Cantharus (Pollia) 256 subplicata, Minolia 84
spirata, Babylonia 251 subula, Styliola 367
spirillus, Tudicla 286 subulala, ()/iva 294
(Spiroglyphus) 76 subulata, Terebra 337
Splendrilla 332 succinctuln, CYlnatium (GeJagna) 206
spurca, Etrelna 333 sugillata, Pinctada 36
squamulata, Nerita (TheJiostyla) 107 sulcata, PyranlideJ1a 343
(StaphyJaea) 174 sulcatus, Conus 322
staphylaea, Cypraea (Staphylaea) 174 sulcatus, Planaxis 123
stellare, Astralillln 100 sulcifera, Stolnatel1a 92
412 REC. ZOOL. SURV. INDIA, oce. PAPER No: 192
sulcosa, Tonna 196 textum, Phos 254
sulculosa, Pseudonerita 115 THAIDINAE 236
suluralis, Nassaria 255 Thais 238
(Swainsonia) 307 THECOSOMATA 366
symbiotes, Comitas 333 (Theliostyla) 105
syrnola 344 thers;tes, Nassarius 271
Tibia 151
T
ticaonica, Diodora 68
tabanula, Mitra (Nebularia) 303 ticaonica, Mitra (NebuJaria) 303
talpa, Cypraea (Talparia) 174 tigrina, Natica (Natica) 186
Talnanovalva 358 tigrinum, Onchidium 376
Tanea 188 tigrina, Pleurotolna 326
tara, Patella (Patelloidea) 76 tigris, Cypraea (Cypraea) 167
tayJoriana, Funa 330 tissoti, Thais 245
Tectarius 119 TomopJeura 328
tecttlln, Modulus 124 Tonicia 52
Tectus 74 Tonna 194
Telescopiuln 136 TONNIDAE 194
telescopium, Telescopium 33, ) 36, 137 toreUl110, Fusinus 278
Tenagodus 142 tornata fulminata, Turricula 325
tenellum, Cerithillln 127 tornata tornata, Turricula 325
tenennn, Onchidiuln 375 Tornatina 350
ten/orill/Il. Trochlls 77 torre/actus, A{urex 226
tenuirostruln tenuirostrum, Murex 228 torresi, Cerithium 132
Terebelluln 150 tortuosa, Colubraria 282
terebelluln, Terebellum 150 tostus, Tenagodus 142
Terebra 335 townsendi, Citharamangelia 333
terebra, Conus 319 traillii, Cerithium 128
Tercbralia 137 trailli, Hastula 338
TEREBRIDAE 335 tranquebarica, Bullia (Bullia) 265
ternatanus, Pugilina (l-Ielnifusus) 274 tranquebarica, Calliostoma 87
ternispina, Murex 229 tranquebaricus, Cantharus (Pol Iia) 256
tessellata. Tonna )96 trapa, Murex 229
tcssulatus. Conus 322 trapezilnn, Pleuroploca 277
testudinaria. CelJana 72 travancorica travancorica,
tcstudinaria, Cypraea 175 Cochlespira 325
testudinaria, Pyrene 263 tribulus, Murex 230
textile, Conus 315, 319 trib"lus, Mllrex 228
textilis. Nerita (Theliostyla) 108 tricarinata, Amathina 346
tricarinata, Eglisia 217 Turricula 324, 332

tricarinalus, Euchelus 83 TURRICULINAE 324, 332
Tricolia 103 turriculus, Fusinus 278
TRICOLIIDAE 103 TURRIDAE 324
tricolor, Plaxiphora 58 Turridrupa 328, 332
tridentata, Cavolinia 368 TURRINAE 326
Irifasciala, Engina 258 Turris 332
Trigonostoma 3 10 Turritel1a 140
tripum, Cymatium (Ranularia) 208 TURRITELLIDAE 140
triqueter, Naquetia 232 turturina, Columbella 261
trispinosa, Diacria 368 tulicoriensis, Chiton 51
trisulcata, Haustator 141 Tutufa (Tutufella) 214
tritonis, Charonia 205 typhae, Onchidium 376
TRIVIIDAE 176 Typhlosyrinx 333
TRIVIINAE 176 U
Trivirostra 176
UMBONIINAE 80
TROCHIDAE 74
Umbonium 80
trochiformes, Limacina 367
UMBRACULIDAE 365
TROCHINAE 74
Umbraculum 365
trochoides, Nodilittorina 120
umbraculum, Umbracululn 365
trochlearis, Tenagodus 142
uncinata, Cavolinia 368
Trochus 74
undata, Nerita (Ncrita) 104
tuberculata, Drupa 239
undosa, Turris 332
tuberosa, Thais 245
undosus, Cantharus (Pollia) 256
Tudicla 286
undulata, Cheilea 155
tulipa, Conus 320
undulata, Littoraria 119
tumescens, Sinllnl 19 )
unedo, Unedogelnmu)a 328
tumidlls, Mammillaria 190
Unedogelntnula 328, 332
Turbinella 257
unguis, Scutus 68
TURBINELLINAE 286
ustulata, Peristernia 279
turbinellus, Vasum 286
uva, Morula 241
TURBINIDAE 95
TURBININAE 95 V
Turbo (Turbo) 95 Vaceuchelus 83
Turbonilla 345 vagata, Gelnl11ula 328
TURBONILLINAE 345 VANIKORIDAE 156
turdus winckworthi,Cypraea Vanikoro 156
(Erosaria) 170 varia, Haliotis 63
varians, Euplica 261 viridis, Haliotis 63

varicosa, Liolia 98 vitellus, Cypraea (Lyncina) 171
(Varicospira) 150 vitellus, Natica 186
varicosa, Sealaria 219 vittata, Bullia (Dorsanum) 265
varicosuln~ Cirsotrema (Cirsotrelna) 219 vittata, Eucithara 333
varicosunl, Doliulll 196 Volema 274
variegata, Ficus 200 VOLUTIDAE 283
VASIDAE 285 Volva 180
VASINAE 285 volva, Volva 180
Vasum 285 vulpecula, Columbella 263
ventricosa, Marginella 297
VERMETIDAE 144 W
Vennetus 144 wagneri, Cantharus (Pollia) 257
verrucosus,Calpurnus (CaJpurnus) 181 walshi, Crepidula 159
verruculatuln, Onchidium 376 waltairensis, Ber,thelinia 358
versicolor, Pyrene 263 wamefordi, Monilea 81
vertagus, Rhinoclavis (Rhinoclavis) wilmeri, Clavus 332
121 wine/rn'orlhi, Isehnoehilon 56
vertebrata, Tomopleura 328
vespaceUln, Cymatillm (Monoplex) 208 X
vestiarium, Umbonium 33, 80 Xenophora 161
Vexilla 245 (X enophora) 161
vexilluln, Vexilla 245 XENOPHORIDAE 161
vexillum, Conus 320 Xenuroturris 327
vidua, Nodilittorina 121
vidua, Oliva 293 Z
violacea, C'oralliophila 249 zonzebarico, Na/iea J90
violaeea, Janthina 220 zeylanica, Babylonia 253
violacea, Peristernia 279 zeylanicus, Conus 322
verginells, Marex 230 ZIDONINAE 284
virgineus, Muricanthus 231 zonoria, No/iea 187
virgo, Conus 320 lonata, Hydatina 349
virgula, Creseis 367 zonatlun, Cerithilun 132
virgula conica, Creseis 367 lonatus, Conus 322
virguJa constricta, Creseis 367 ZONULISPIRINAE 333
7. ADDENDUM
LIST OF MOLLUSCS INCLUDED IN THE SCHEDULE OF WILDLIFE (PROTECTION)
ACT 1972
The following molluscs are included in the schedule of Wildlife (Protection) Act 1972 by a
notification dated 5.12.2001 :
Part IV B - Mollusca
1. Cassis corn uta
2. Charonia tritonis
3. Conus malneedwardsi*
4. Cypracasis rufa*
5. Hippopus hippopus
6. Nautilus ponlpilus
7. Tridacna maxima
8. Tridacna squanzosa
9. Tudicla spiralis *
2. In Schedule IV to the said Act, after serial number 18 and the entries relating there to, the
fonowing serial numbers and entries shal1 be added, namely:
19. Mollusca
(i) Cypraea lanlacina*
(ii) Cypraea mappa
(iii) Cypraea talpa
(iv) Fascio/aria trapaziunl *
(v) Harpulina arausica*
(vi) Lambis chiragra
(vii) Lambis chiragraarthitica*
(viii) Lambis crocea*
(ix) Lambis nlillepeda
(x) Lambis scorpius
(xi) Lambis truncata
(xii) Placenta placenta
(xiii) S/rombus plica/us sibbaldi
(xiv) Trochus niloticus
(xv) Turbo marmopratus *
Comments
3. Correct spel1ing Conus milneedwardsi
4. Cypraecassis
6. Nautilus pompilius
9. Tudicla spirillus
19.(i) Cypraea IinJacina

(iv) Fascio/aria trapeziunz
(v) Harpulina arallsiaca
(vii) lambis chiragra arthritica
(viii) Lambis crocea. No such species. It may be Tridacna crocea of the three species
of Tridacna known from India two are included (Nos. 7 & 8). Tridacna crocea is
the third species
(xv) Turbo marmoratus
SOS
(Save Our Snails)

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OCCASIONAL PAPER NO.

POLYPLACOPHORA AND GASTROPODA

Edited by the Director, Zoological Survey ofIndia, Kolkata

Zoological Survey of India

Published: January, 2003

© Government of India, 2003

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED

• No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or

No. 192 2003 Pages 1-416

2. VALUES OF MOLLUSCAN DIVERSITY 20

Family Strombidae 145

Subclass HETEROBRANCHIA 340

Fig. t. Representatives of different classes of Mollusca.

Following Seed (1983), the classification of phylulTI Mollusca is given below:

Subphylum ACULIFERA Hatschek, 1891

Subphylum PLACOPHORA von Jhering, 1876

1.2 General Organisation and Function

Fig. 2. Some shell shapes in gastropods.

Fig. 3. Types of opercula.

Fig. 4. Di ftcrcnt types of Radula.

Modified taenioglossate with the formula 0-2-1-2-0 occurs in Architectonicidae.

1.3. Abundance and Distribution

1.4. Size and Diversity

Fig. 5. Map of India showing important coastal localities.

Predators, herbivores, infauna; bioeroders, epifauna. Commercially exploitable

Predators, herbivores, infauna; bioeroders, epifauna. Commercially exploitable

On plants, on substratum or attached to coral boulders. Only a few species; about

4. Tidal Flats and Muddy Shores

Burrowers and epifauna on substratum. Only a few species; mainly bivalves,

Infauna, intertidal : A few species. Meiofauna represented by 5 species.

Cryptic, epifauna, mostly herbivore gastropods : Littorina, Littoraria, Cel/ana,

Fig. 6. Coastal Ecosystems and Habitats of Molluscs.

Newell, N. D. 1969. Classification of Bivalvia. In: Treatise on Invertebrate Palaeontology

Russell-Hunter, W. D. 1968. A Biology 0/ Lo'wer Invertebrates. pp. Collier Macmillan,

Salvini-Plawen. L. 1969. Solenogastres und Caudofoveata (Mollusca: Aculifera) : organisation

2.1. Aesthetic Value

A snail's shell is cited as an example of mathematical perfection and what is mathematically

2.1.1. Geometrical Symmetry-Nautilus: Geometrically perfect and aesthetically

2.2. Commercial Value

'ag. 8. Display ofjweUery out of Top she ll.

. ,autilus ' bl lamp. spid r n"h an

Fi . 12. A rnirror decorated with bi al .

Gastropods: 7. Umboniunt vestiarium - Button shell

Pinetada atropllrpurea (Dunker, 1852)

Pinctada chemnitzi (Philippi, 1849)

Pinctada filcata (Gould, 1850)

Pine/ada margarilifera (Linnaeus, t 758)

Pinetada sUgillata (Reeve, 1857)

'Vater Content Protein Fat Carbohydrate Ash

Pearl oysters 74.00 ]9.80 2.5 2.5 2.0

2.4. Biomedical Value

Secretions in many prosobranchs, especially in the carnivorous species belonging to the

Parulekar, A. 1990. Taxonomy in Biomedical Resources of the Exclusive Economic Zone of

SUTURAL INSERTION PLATE

" LATERAL AREA

GRANULES PLEURAL AREA

CENTRAL AREA SUTURAL LAMINAE

Fig. 16. Chiton: External characters.

Fig. 17A. Chiton : Internal organs

* Not dealt in this book

Clliton granora(/;atus Leloup, 1937

Chiton hululensis (Smith,1906)

Fig. 18. Acanthopleura spiniger on rock, Chidiatapu. S. Andaman.