HISTORY NOTES S2.pdf

UNIT1: COLLECTING
AND ANALYZING
HISTORICAL SOURCES

Complementarities of historical sources

Oral traditional sources
Oral tradition is defined as any information
passed by word of mouth (verbally) from one
generation to another. This is done through
socialisation, especially between the young and
the old (poems, songs, proverbs, recites etc…).

The complementarities of oral historical sources include:
a) Written sources: traditional music, poetry, stories, legends,
poems and proverbs can be written to serve the future
generations.
b) Linguistic sources: this involves studying and analyzing
languages, their sound, formation and relationship with
other languages, the findings are then narrated to other
generations.
c) Archaeological sources: It involves the digging of the
ground to discover of long ago fossils for research purpose.
Archeological sites include temples, caves, places, rocks,
shelters, etc. the findings are narrated to other
generations.

Written sources
These are recorded information found in books, bibles,
magazines, newspapers, diaries, journals and other written
records.
The following are example of complementarities between
written sources and other sources
a) Oral sources: narratives from eye witnesses and testimonies
are usually written down in diaries and books which are later
used as written sources of information.
b) Archeology: It involves the digging of the ground to discover
of long ago fossils for research purpose. It complements
written sources because after carbon dating the results and
findings made are written down.

ANTHROPOLOGY
Anthropology involves the study of existing social institutions
and relationship of people’s culture, tradition, norms, values
and attitudes.
The following are examples of other sources which are
complementary to anthropology:
a) Written sources: after studying and analyzing values,
norms and attitudes of people, findings are written down
for helping current and future generations.
b) Oral tradition: through narration about the past,
anthropologists acquire relevant information about
people’s cultures. Therefore, anthropologist study how
cultures and different societies were established.

ARCHAEOLOGY
This is the study of dug up materials remains of the people’s
past. This source is complementary with other sources of
History in the following ways:
a) Oral sources: Narrative and stories can help in the location
where fossils can be found.
b) Written sources: a person can study about fossils from
books and articles on archaeology.
c) Audio-visual sources: Activities of archaeologists can be
watched on television and videos, and listened to radios.

LINGUISTIC SOURCES
This involves studying and analyzing languages, their sound structure,
formation and relationship with other languages.
Linguistic source is well complimented by other historical sources such as:
a) Written sources: some books provide information on how some words
should be pronounced, this helps in language analysis, sound and
structure.
b) Anthropology: the study of the existing social institutions and culture
involves people’s languages
c) Oral sources: oral sources provide to linguistic sources the
pronunciation of some words in given language. It also helps to explain
the origin of some languages that are used in oral traditional sources.

ELECTRONIC OR AUDIO-VISUAL SOURCES
This source deals with obtaining information by listening to or watching other
devices by using modern technology like mobile phones, radios, televisions and
internet.
The following are complementarities of electronic sources with other sources of
history:
a) Oral sources: for example a journalist broadcasts historical information on
TV in a way of narration
b) Archaeological sources: once archaeological source is discovered, a video
recording can be done, recording maybe posted on internet for people to
watch and listen to, it may also be broadcasted on a television station
c) Written sources: various written documents are required in aiding the
recording and arrangement of information before being put in electronic
form

Challenges faced when using, material,
immaterial and electronic sources
Material sources: These include the use of
important historical sources that can be
considered while collecting historical information.
For example: written and archaeology sources
Immaterial sources: These are historical sources
that are less used today in a particular situation.
They include oral traditional and anthropology
sources.

Challenges faced in using material sources
The following are challenges faced when using material
sources
Written records cannot be used by illiterate people. It is
only limited to those who can read and write.
Some material sources such as archaeology and
linguistics require skills. This explains why archaeologists
and linguists are very rare in developing countries.

Material sources are also time consuming. For example,
archaeology may require a lot of time to identify the place where
historical evidence can be dug up. It also requires time to correctly
analyse the materials.
Material sources such as archaeology are expensive to invest in.
This is because they require professionals and special equipment
to participate in the digging up and interpreting the findings.
Material sources such as written records can be easily destroyed
by fire or water.

Challenges faced in using immaterial sources
The use of immaterial sources is associated with the
following challenges:
The use of oral traditional sources is not always accurate.
Some information may be highly exaggerated to include
few or no failures and weaknesses but more successes and
achievements.

Immaterial sources such as oral traditional are affected by the death
of an eye witness. Once he or she dies, information can never be
recovered.
Anthropology requires skilled people and experts. These experts are
very few.
Immaterial sources are affected by language barrier. Information
may be collected in a local language which might be not easy to
translate into other languages.

Challenges faced in using Electronic or audio-
visual sources
These include the use of modern technology such as mobile
phones, radios, television, cinemas and the Internet.
The challenges faced when using electronic sources include
the following:
They require reliable power supply such as solar or electric
power.
Without power supply, they cannot be used.
In remote areas without network coverage, television, mobile
phones and internet cannot be used.

They may be costly to acquire. Radios, mobile phones, television
and cinemas require money to buy. This is a real challenge to low
income earners, especially in developing countries.
Electronic sources such as radios cannot be used by people with
hearing impairment. Television cannot be used by those with visual
impairment.
The use of internet requires one to have knowledge about
information and communication technology. He or she must know
how to use the computer. A person who is not computer literate
may not access information from it.

Usefulness of different sources of history
Learning objectives:
1) Explain the validity of different sources of
History.
2) Assess the validity of different sources of
history in order to determine the most
appropriate source to use.
3) Appreciate how different methods are used.

Oral sources
❖Easy access (they can be found easily since it is sourced
from people)
❖They are the cheapest sources , there is no monetary
expense involved as they are passed down by words of the
mouth
❖They give first-hand information (it is given by people who
were present at event)
❖They are easy to verify as they involves interviewing living
people
❖They are most of time given by a witness

❖They are most of time given by a witness
❖They facilitate the verification of the
other sources.
❖They are more detailed
❖The illiterate can also attain to
information.
❖They provide a lot of information in a
short time.

Archaeological source (records)
❖It gives true information since it is backed by
evidences.
❖It gives information about the past on which we have
no written records or oral information.
❖It helped in discovering pre-historic information in
different parts of the world.
❖It tells us about the life, culture and evolution of
technology of ancient people.

LINGUISTIC SOURCE
❖It has helped in identifying and classifying languages.
❖It is cheap since there is no payment for the study of
languages spoken.
❖It helps to determine origin, migration and settlement of
people.
❖The source of information is not easily destroyed since it
cannot die.
❖Linguistics helped to classify people of Africa into various
language groups like the Bantu and the Nilotes(people from
Sudan, Uganda, Kenya and Tanzania who speak Nilotic)

GERMAN AND BELGIAN COLONISATION
Learning objectives:
a) Explain the causes of German and Belgian colonisations,
b) Identify the effects of German colonisation,
c) Identify the political, economic, judicial, socio-cultural
transformations introduced by Belgians.

Introduction
By Berlin conference 1884-1885, Rwanda was placed in
Deutsche Ostafrica meaning German East Africa composed by
Rwanda, Burundi and Tanganyika. Rwanda remained a
German protectorate until 1916 (failure of German in the
World War I) and it was given as a Mandate by the League of
Nations to Belgium.
After the WWII, Rwanda was placed under UN Trusteeship
until 1962; date of independence. All over this period, there
have been many transformations that greatly influenced the
socio- political and economic evolution of Rwandan society.

Causes of Germany and Belgian colonization of
Rwanda
Colonization: is the process through which a powerful country takes
over control on a weak country. German and Belgian colonization to
Rwanda was due to the following reasons:
The need for raw materials: Germans and Belgians need raw materials
to feed their home industries which had grown as result of industrial
revolution. These raw materials were minerals like tin, etc. which were
available in Rwanda.
The growing demand of tea, coffee, sugar and cacao: those cash crops
were at high demand in German and Belgium while Rwanda had fertile
land for tea, coffee and sugar cane plantation.
The desires for new markets for their manufactured products: this is
because factories were producing more goods than that people at
home were ready to consume.

The need to invest the surplus capital: Factory owner in German
and Belgium had grown rich; they needed new area to invest their
money.
The need to civilize uncivilized Rwandans: For westerns people
whose way of life and religion were different from that of
Rwandans. They wanted to introduce their civilization to
Rwandans.
The need for more land to settle their growing population: during
industrial revolution discoveries in heath domain were made, this
had reduced the mortality rate in European countries including
German and Belgium; this led to high population growth and land
scarcity.
Nationalism (pride in one’s country); Europeans including
Germans and Belgians thought that having colonies would
increase their countries’ strength, this pushed them to colonize
Rwanda.

The need to spread Christianity in Rwanda: Germans
and Belgians were Christians (catholic especially) while
Rwandans were practicing the traditional religion.
The need to decrease the unemployment rate: the
industrial revolution caused unemployment in Europe,
they came in order to create new jobs in their colonies
The role played by mass media which exaggerated the
economic potential of Africa.
The Berlin conference of 1884-1885 and its effects also
led to the partitioning of the African continent.

Rwanda under German colonization
In Rwanda, Germans used indirect rule. This form
of administration used traditional leaders to
administer on behalf of the Germans. It also
respected and maintained local culture.
The implementation of the German rule was to be
attained through the Military Phase and Civil
Administration Phase.

Military Phase (1897-1907)
This phase was characterised by occupation of Rwanda
between 1897 and 1907. At the same time, the German
government gave support to the local leaders to stop
several revolts.
Therefore, the military post at Shangi and Gisenyi were
only meant to bring people in those areas under
German rule and under the local Rwandan regime ruled
by King Yuhi V Musinga.

Civil Administration Phase (1907-1916)
This phase was characterised by the following events:
❖Services were transferred from Usumbura to Kigali the capital of Rwanda,
❖The government was headed by Richard Kandt and his residence was at Kigali.
❖Establishment of civil administration, conducting census, collecting taxes, and
creating of police force worked for Germans.
❖Germany provided military support to local leaders against rebellion of
Ndungutse whose real name BIRASISENGE, and Basebya.
❖The fighting and killing of rebellions such as Ndungutse, Basebya, and Rukara
rwa Bishingwe.
❖The comig of Christian missionaries in Rwanda such as Catholics, and
protestants.

Causes of Ndungutse rebellion
The following were the causes of the Ndungutse rebellion in northern
Rwanda:
1. There was need to recover lost glory by the people which had been
taken over by the royal court of Rwanda.
2. They were also subjected to forced labour introduced by the
Germans during the fixing of frontiers in 1910. To them, this was
unfair, and therefore made them to revolt.
3. The Germans forced people to supply them with food. This annoyed
them, causing a revolt not only against the German rule, but also to
the central authority headed by the king.

The First World War in Rwanda
The First World War that occured between 1914 and 1918
was mainly fought among European nations. However, its
impact was indirectly felt in other continents including
America, Asia and Africa.
In Rwanda Germans fought Belgians colonizer of Congo. The
war was mainly fought in Bugoyi and Cyagungu in west of
Rwanda.
It was Germans that began the war by attacking Belgians at
Idjwi island in September 1914.

Belgians were supported by British troops. The troops were deployed in two
directions.
a) On the side of Gisenyi, Colonel Molitor (a Belgian) crossed the volcanoes
through Uganda and proceeded from Gasabo to Kigali which was finally
captured on 6th May 1916. Nyanza collapsed on 19th May 1916.
b) Later, the Belgians moved on with the war through the Rwandan territory
towards Burundi.
During the war, Rwanda did all she could to support Germany. This support
ranged from providing armed warriors called Indugaruga as well as supplying
food.
For that reason therefore, there was an agreement and collaboration between
King Musinga and on the side of Dr Kandt and Captain Max Wingtens. Bwana
Tembasi commanded German troops in Rwanda between 1914 and 1916.

Impact of German colonisation
The effects of German colonization to Rwanda are discussed as follow:
Rwanda had lost her sovereignty: by colonization, Rwanda lost her
political independence for the profit of German.
Loss of lives: some Rwandans lost their lives while helping German
colonialists against Belgians during the first world war.
Reduction of the size of Rwanda: Rwanda lost its big part due to the
agreement between Germany, Britain, and Belgium to fixe borders of
African countries.

Decline of Traditional religion: German had been able to Protect catholic and
protestant Lutheran missionaries who came to Rwanda, this led to the spread of
Christianity.
Open Rwanda to worldwide: Germany managed to open the country to the
international trade through export of cow hides.
Abolition of barter trade: Germans introduced cash economy which replaced barter
trade.
Introduction of cash crops: Forced Coffee plantations were introduced.
Forced labor: Rwandans were forced to provide free labor for roads construction
and coffee plantation.
Kigali became a centre between the west of Rwanda and Urundi on one hand and
Bukoba on the other hand
Abolition of Rwandan traditional school (Itorero): They built a school at Nyanza in
1907, but this school was admitted children of chiefs learning Kiswahili, reading,
writing and arithmetic, this led to the decline of traditional school.

Introduction of head tax: German colonisation of Rwanda led to the
introduction of the head tax on male adult Rwandans.
Coming of European missionaries: such as Roman Catholic
missionaries, led by the White Fathers, came to Rwanda in 1900. They
were followed by the Presbyterian missionaries in 1907. This promoted
Christianity in Rwanda.
Integration of Rwanda in world economy: German colonisation of
Rwanda led to the export of large quantities of hides and skins and
livestock. The exportation was mainly to European countries. This
initiated a market economy in Rwanda.

Reforms introduced by Belgians
The Belgian administration in Rwanda began from 1916 up to the
independence after defeat Germans. It therefore led to a total
change in Rwanda’s political, social, economic, cultural and religious
sectors. It is important to distinguish the reforms introduced by
Belgians in Rwanda into three stages of the entire Belgian rule.
These are:
i) Reforms introduced during the Military Administration (1916-1924)
ii) ii) Reforms introduced during the Belgian Mandate (1926-1946)
iii) Reforms introduced during the Trusteeship (1946-1962)

Reforms introduced during the Military
Administration (1916 - 1924)
Rwanda under Belgian military leadership, was divided
into military sectors namely: Ruhengeri, Gisenyi,
Nyanza and Cyangugu. These military sectors were later
transformed into territories. They include:
1) The western territory (Rubengera territory capital)
2) Northern territory (Ruhengeri territory capital)
3) The territory of Nyanza (Nyanza territory capital)
4) The Eastern territory (Kigali territory capital)

Reforms introduced by Belgian military administration
Systematic disintegration of the monarchy: this was replaced by
Belgian military leadership that works for their benefits.
Undermining the Mwami’s (king’s) legal power: this reduced the king’s
authority he had before colonialism such right to decide whether
criminal could be sentenced to death.
Reduction of the Mwami’s (king’s) political power: the king had no
longer right to appoint chiefs who assisted him in giving order,
collecting taxes, etc..
Abolition of ubwiru and umuganura: this was done in order to weaken
the traditional institution that played a big role in maintaining order in
the country.

Declaration of religious freedom: this had reduced the
king’s religious power that assisted him to connect
Rwandans to God (Nyagasani). Thus tradition religion was
replaced by Christianity.
Abolition of imponoke and indabukirano:This was aimed at
weakening the influence of the king over his subjects. It was
also to help the Belgians remain with monopoly of power.
In fact, the occupation of Belgian military administration in
Rwanda, had undermined and abolished Rwanda’s
monarchy in terms of their own benefits.

Concept of Indabukirano in traditional
rwanda.
Indabukirano were gifts given to the chief after
being nominated and coronated to the position.
The gifts included items like cows and beer
(indabukirano).
Such was meant to show loyalty to him by his
subjects. It was also to enable the new chief cope
with the new lifestyle, to show happiness and to
congratulate the new chief

Concept of Imponoke in traditional Rwanda
Imponoke was a sign of compensation to the chief usually
after a heavy loss of cows, especially due to diseases or being
struck by lightening.
This was a sign of active by standership to the chief by his
subjects. Generally, to the chief, it was a way of compensating
him for the loss of cows and to enable him continue living
within the lifestyle he was used to before the loss.
It was one of the ways Rwandans used to show concern for
others in the society.

Importance of Indabukirano and Imponoke
❖They were ways of demonstrating loyalty and humility to the chief.
❖They were meant to show love and respect for the chieftaincy.
❖They enabled the chief to rule his subjects happily.
❖They helped to improve the status of the chief (to make him different
from ordinary people).
❖ They enabled the chief to solve some of the problems that befell his
subjects such as famine.
❖They were ways of ensuring sufficient food supply to him and his
family.
❖They were ways of showing happiness and congratulating the king.

Reforms introduced during the Belgian Mandate
(1926-1946)
A mandated territory is a country or territory
that is governed by another country based on
the authority given by the League of Nations.
The mandate may imply different forms of
government varying from direct
administration by the other country to being
self governing.

Reforms in administration 1926-1931
Belgian mandate in Rwanda was approved
October 20. 1924 by the Belgian parliament.
Its mission was to stop slavery trade, and
promote religious freedom. It therefore
brought many reforms in political, economic
and socio-cultural aspects.

Political reforms
There was Mortehan reforms that put an end of three-tier in
their various regions.
❖Chiefs were in turn replaced by their sons who worked for
Belgian benefits.
❖The king and chiefs were no longer leaders of the kingdom
that later led to the Deposition of King Yuhi V Musinga in
1931.
❖ the King Yuhi V musinga was replaced by Rudahigwa under
the royal name of Mutara III.

Reasons for the deportation of King Musinga in 1931
King Musinga was deported due to the following reasons:
❖He collaborated with the German administrators in order to
support him to defeat the northern rebellions.
❖He was opposed to the missionary activities, especially those of
the Catholic Church. He considered Christianity as one way for
weakening his position.
❖King Musinga had been accused of being opposed to moral,
social and economic activities of the colonial administration.
❖He is at the same time accused of being hostile to the work of
the missionaries.

Therefore, On July 12, 1931, Governor General Voisin
announced the deposition of King Yuhi V Musinga.
The king was asked to leave Nyanza royal court to Kamembe in
Kinyaga. Musinga left for Kamembe on July 14, 1931.
Later, Rudahigwa, the son of the chief of Nduga-Marangara,
was proclaimed King by Vice-Governor General Voisin under
the royal name of Mutara III.
King Musinga was moved from Kamembe to Moba near
Bukavu in Democratic Republic of Congo (D.R.C.) in 1940. He
spent the last bitter years of his life here, eventually dying on
October 25, 1944.

Socio-cultural reforms
Belgian mandate in Rwanda had socially brought the
following reforms:
❖Abolition of traditional education (Itorero): this was
replaced by formal education. Young Rwandans were no
longer taught Rwandan cultural values. Thus they have been
taught about science and Christianity.
❖Establishment of teacher training schools in various
regions in Rwanda. For instance teacher training school in
Zaza, Ruhengeri etc..

❖Establishment and construction of health centres and
hospitals to serve colonists and their followers. For
example Kabgayi, Kigali, Shyira hospitals.
❖Religion (Christianity): This introduced catholics, Anglican,
and Presbyterians churches in Rwanda. Thus, it led to the
abolition of traditional religion of Rwandans.
❖ Introduction of identity cards: Rwandan was first
identified by his clan. Being Hutu, Twa or Tutsi was a mere
social category. The identity cards which were introduced
by the Belgians in 1935 classified Rwandans as belonging to
Tutsi, Hutu and Twa as ethnic groups.

Economic reforms
Some of the economic reforms introduced in Rwanda during
the Belgian Mandate include the following:
❖Forced labour policy: Rwandans forcedly went to work in
construction of road and offices that could facilitate Belgian
colonialists. Otherwise Rwandans got nothing in return.
❖Agriculture and animal husbandry: there were
establishment of agricultural research centres in various
parts of the country to ensure the best harvests. For example
Rubona, Rwerere, Karama etc…

❖Mining activities: there was establishment of mining companies that
work for colonialists. For example (SOMUKI: Société Minière de Muhinga-
Kigali) in1934. Some other mining companies such as GEORWANDA was
established in 1945 while Compagne de Recherche et d’Exploitation
Minière (COREM) was established in 1948
❖Taxation policy: Belgians introduced poll tax in 1917 to finance their
administration and projetcs. This was compulsory for all adult male
Rwandans.
❖ Trade and commerce: there was introduction of monetary based
economy. Rwandans started grow cash crops for Belgian factors.
❖ Infrastructural development: there was construction of main roads that
facilitated Belgians to bring agricultural products to the sea ports.

Mining societies (companies)
❖MINETAIN: Société de Mine d’ Etain founded in 1926 worked at
Gatumba and Musha.
❖SOMUKI: Société Minierè de Muhinga et de Kigali: worked at
Rutongo.
❖COREM: Companie de Recherche et d’exploitation Miniere worked at
Gifurwe
❖GEORWANDA: worked at Rwinkavu

Reforms introduced during the Trusteeship
(1946-1962)
A trustee in a person to whom property is legally commuted in
trust, to be applied either for the benefit of specified
individuals, or for public uses.
It was in this way the United Nation trusted its administration
of colonies to some countries after the 2nd world war.
Trusteeship was aimed at preparing colonies for self rule. But
In during this period the colonialists used all means to divide
Rwandans to the extent that for the first time in its history
hundreds of thousands of its people were exiled from their
motherland.

Political reforms
❖ Formation of the government council for Rwanda-Burundi by May
4,1947 joined by the kings of Rwanda and Burundi in 1949
❖By 1952 government council was abolished and replaced by general
council for Rwanda-Burundi made up of 53 members
These councils played a consultative role
• By decree of 14th July, 1952, Belgium established the following organs to
represent the population:
• Conseil de sous-chefferie
• Conseil de chefferie
• Conseil de territoire
• Conseil superieur du Pays

❖The formation of political parties: from 1959, Belgians encouraged
the creation of political parties which were based on the ethnic
groups. For example: APRSOMA, UNAR, RADER, PARMEHUTU and
AREDETWA.
❖More than 300 Hutu chiefs and sub-chiefs were appointed to replace
Tutsi leaders who had been deposed, killed or fled during the initial
stages of uprising (1959 political crisis).
❖ By 1960, sub- chiefdoms were reduced from 544 to 229 and they
were called communes, the chiefdoms were abolished, the 10
territories became prefectures,

❖ At the same time, the Conseil Superieur du pay was dissolve and
replaced by a Special provisional council made of 8 members; six
from 4 main political parties (APROSOMA, PARMEHUTU, RADER and
UNAR), plus two members one representing Belgian colonial
government and other one representing the king (Ndahindurwa),
❖Formation of national assembly: the National assembly was
constituted replacing the special provisional council, it was
composed of 48 members (32 from PARMEHUTU, 6 from
APROSOMA, 9from RADER and 1 from AREDETWA).
❖ Establishment of first provisional Rwandan government (made of
10 ministers and 9 Belgian state secretaries): On October 20, 1960,
the Belgian government established the first government in Rwanda.

❖Abolition of monarchy: On October 1, 1961, Jean Paul Harroi
(resident of Rwanda-Urundi), based on referendum confirmed the
abolition of monarch. (In referendum of September 25, 1961,
people who wanted the kingship were 253,963 while 1,004,339
were against it).
❖Formation of the republic of Rwanda: On October 26,1961,
national assembly declared Rwanda a republic and elected
Geregoire Kayibanda the new republican leader on October
26,1961.
❖Belgians gave Rwanda its independence: On July 1, 1962, Rwanda
got its independence from Belgians.

Economic reforms
❖Belgian government elaborated a ten year social and
economic development plan for Rwanda –Burundi in 1951,
this was financed by:
• Fund raised from increasing taxes on natives
• External funds from the Belgian Native Well Being Fund
❖ Belgians promoted electricity, from 1958 dams were
constructed to produce hydro-electric power. These were:
• Mururu on Rusizi river
• Ntaruka between Burera and Ruhondo Lakes
• Sebeya

❖They promoted infrastructures: there was the
construction of schools, hospitals, dispensaries,
roads, development of marshland and planting
forests
❖They also promoted tourism, Belgians set up
the Akagera and Virunga parks.
❖Abolition of the socio-economic and political
dependence (Ubuhake) systems based on cows

Effects of Belgian colonisation
Belgian colonization had
effected political, economic
and social aspects of Rwanda.
Some of the effects are
discussed below:

Political effects
Change in the traditional administration: Belgians used
indirect rule and abolished tradition leadership which
undermined the King’s position.
Formation of councils: there was formation of councils. These
were mainly to prepare Rwandans for autonomy that was to
enable them gain total independence.
Formation of political parties: formation of political parties
which were to compete for power during the transition to
democracy. However, this was not achieved at all.

Economic effects
Improvement in agriculture: there was introduction of
new food crops and cash crops, and introduction of
research centers and animal breeding centres.
Generation of electricity: from 1958, the dams were
constructed to produce hydro-electric power. These
included Mururu on Rusizi River and Ntaruka HEP
stations
Establishment of industries: Belgians were
instrumental in the setting up of industries in Rwanda.
Examples of such industries include BRALIRWA.

Introduction of commercial mining: Belgians established mining
companies in Rwanda. For example (MINETAIN: Société des Mines
d’étain du Ruanda-Urundi) and Muhinga-Kigali mining company.
Construction of roads: In the 1920s and 1930s, Belgians constructed
various roads to facilitate trade.
Decline of traditional crafts: The traditional manufacturing sector was
harshly discouraged and total removed, they introduced imported
goods like hoes, saucepans, clothes, salt and knives.
Forced labor was introduced: men and women were forced to work
long hours in Belgian plantations and road construction works
Introduction of taxes: Belgians also introduced the collection of taxes.
The introduction of cash taxes instead of agricultural produce was
intended to increase cultivation of coffee as a cash crop in their favour.

Social effects
Abolition of traditional education: The
Belgian colonialists abolished traditional
education through itorero and replaced it
with colonial education. They established
schools like G.S Astrida, teacher training
schools and seminaries

Establishment of health centres: Belgians also set up
health centres to take care of the people. The
government hospitals established during the Belgian
rule included the hospitals at Kigali, Butare, Nyanza,
Kibuye, Gisenyi, Ruhengeri, Byumba, Kibungo and
Rwamagana. Gishari.
Construction of churches: They also constructed
churches in different parts of the country like in
Kabgayi, Ngoma-Mugonero and Gahini. This was to
facilitate the spread of Christianity.

Unit 3: CAUSES AND
COURSE OF THE 1994
GENOCIDE AGAINST
THE TUTSI

Meaning and definition of Genocide
Genocide is the mass killing of innocent people based on their
tribe, race, religion, political ideas, among other reasons, with
an intention of completely wiping them out.
The 1994 Genocide against the Tutsi was the mass killing of
innocent Tutsi based on racism. The Genocide against the
Tutsi began on the night of April 7, 1994, only a few hours
after the death of President Habyarimana.

Causes of Genocide against the Tutsi
Division ideology: which was supported by German and
Belgian colonialists that had led to Long term hatred of the
Tutsi by the Hutu.
Bad leadership during the first and the second Republics:
they were characterized by genocide ideology, murder which
increased hatred instead of developing unity among
Rwandans.
The culture of impunity: criminals who committed crimes
against humanity were rewarded by being promoted to
important administrative positions instead of being
punished which favoured the majority Hutu. This increased
the killing of the Tutsi.

Role played by local media: which incited the killing of
Tutsi through their notorious publications and
broadcasts.
Role of international media: which denied informing
internationally what was happening in Rwanda. This
caused little public pressure in the west for government
to intervene.
Role played by French government: which helped the
government of second republic to train militias groups
such as Interahamwe and Impuzamugambi to be used
in implementing genocide against Tutsi.

Planning and execution of Genocide against the
Tutsi
Genocide ideology began from 1959. it continued in
the first and second republics. There were trails of
killing innocent Tutsis in schools, and other sectors of
the country. Thereafter, the Genocide against Tutsis
began on 7th April, 1994 after few hours of the death of
President Habyarimana.
Therefore, Genocide was planed for long term and
implanted as follow:

Identification of the enemy: The enemy to be eliminated was
any Tutsi within the country. Enemies also included moderate
Hutu who were seen as sympathisers.
Preparation and establishment of lists: As part of the
conspiracy to exterminate the Tutsi, civilian and military
authorities and militia prepared lists of persons to be
eliminated. This was done by establishing a list of the people
to kill especially the Tutsis. It also included politicians,
intellectuals, businessmen and ordinary people in Kigali and
elsewhere in the country. As early as in October 1990, lists
were used for arrests.

Creation of civilian militia: Militias comprised of
organised groups, armed individuals and army troops
(Garde présidentielle, Interahamwe and
impuzamugambi militias). These were trained and
served as a complementary force to Rwandan army to
ensure that all enemies were killed.
Setting up road blocks: Day and night patrols
(Amarondo) were set up in different corners of the
country to prevent any attempt to escape

Course of the 1994 Genocide against the Tutsi
❖ Mass killings started in the night of 6th April 1994, immediately
after the crash of the presidential airplane, following the
incitement from the media and genocidal planners, soldiers of
presidential guard and interahamwe militias started systematic
elimination of Tutsi and Hutu political figures in opposition.
❖ On April 8th, 1994, Dr. Sindikubwabo Theodore was nominated
president of the republic and Kambanda Jean as prime minister,
this government gave orders to execute genocide.

❖ From the night of April 6th -11th, 1994, the horror spread
throughout the entire country except Gitarama and Butare
where killings began respectively on 15th and 19th April after the
sensitization of the government
❖ At the beginning the assailant in small groups killed the victims
at their homes, on the roads or arrested them at road blocks.
❖ The local authorities encouraged the victims to look asylum at
public offices like churches, commune offices, hospitals, schools,
stadium, etc with the plan of facilitating and accelerating mass
killings as assailants found them in big number in one place.

❖ Killers used many forms of extreme violence like burning people
alive, throwing people into pit latrines, forcing family members to kill
each other, using tools like machetes, grenades, bullets, impiri,
among others.
❖ On 12th April 1994, the interim government (called Abatabazi) fled
the capital Kigali due to advance of RPF-Inkotanyi and settled in
Gitarama at Murambi. Later on it moved to Gisenyi and in refugee
camps in Goma (Zaire)
❖Finally, RPF Inkotanyi soldiers stopped the mass killings and scored
victory over genocidal forces, on 4th July, 1994 Kigali city and Butare
were liberated; this marked the end of genocide.
Note: from April to July (3mothns), more than a million of people
(Tutis, and moderate Hutu) were killed.

Actors of genocide against the Tutsi
The Genocide against the Tutsi in Rwanda had different categories of
actors: organisers, executors, accomplices of killers and those who
killed observers:
❖ Government of Rwanda under Habyarimana
❖ Militias: Interahamwe and Impuzamugambi
❖ Forces of Garde présidentielle (Republican forces): They actively
participated in the killings all over the country as from 19th April
1994.
❖ Civil servants and the military: These include prefecture and
commune civil servants and commune police. They organised militias
and Hutu citizens to track and kill the victims hiding in many places
including hills and houses.

❖Local actors: These included businessmen, MRND local representatives and
local opinion leaders (such as teachers and entrepreneurs). They worked hand
in hand with local authorities to implement government directives and to
execute the genocide against the Tutsi.
❖Citizens: They played the role of being observers, executors and accomplices
to the killing of innocent relatives, brothers, sisters, colleagues and friends. The
targeted group to be exterminated was the Tutsi population without any
distinction of age, religion, region and sex.
Note: One could assert that among all these categories, there were a few
numbers that were reluctant to act as they were expected. Some accepted to
die instead of killing their brothers, sisters, neighbours and friends while others
used all means to save those who were being killed by providing them refuge or
helping them escape the danger before RPF forces arrived. Some testimonies of
genocide survivors proved this fact.

Role played by RPF/RPA to stop the genocide against the Tutsi
The role of RPF forces in stopping the Genocide is of major
importance. From the onset of the 1990 Liberation War, RPF
forces worked to liberate the country from the hands of
dictator Juvenal Habyarimana and his clique among the Akazu.
When the mass killings started from 7th April 1994 (though it
had taken place sporadically since 1959) to July 1994, RPF
forces doubled their mission.
They fought to liberate the country at the same time stopping
genocide and saving victims.

Below are the ways RPF forces laboured to save lives:
❖ On 7th April 1994, the chairman of RPA High
command, General Paul Kagame, convened an
emergency meeting of RPA High command at Mulindi
Headquarters. From that meeting, General Kagame
gave orders to stop the genocide, defeat the genocidal
forces (F.A.R and Militias) and rescue genocide
survivors.
❖ During the 100 days of the genocide against the Tutsi,
the RPA saved thousands of people through rescue
operations conducted across the country.

❖ Rescuing civilians was the main objective of the campaign
against the genocide.
The genocide was stopped on 4th July 1994 when the
genocidal forces and F.A.R (Forces Armées Rwandaises) were
defeated and Kigali liberated. The struggle for liberation and
stopping the genocide continued countrywide until 17th July
1994.
Finally, areas that were controlled by the French forces under
zone Turquoise (Gikongoro, Cyangugu and Kibuye) were also
liberated at a later stage, leading to the total liberation of
Rwanda.

Unit 4: KINGDOMS OF
EAST AND CENTRAL
AFRICA

BUGANDA KINGDOM
This was one of the most developed and
highly centralised states in the interlacustrine
region in the middle of 19th Century. It
covered the area between Lake Kyoga and
Lake Victoria in the north and south
respectively. To the west she was boarded by
Bunyoro and extended as far as River Nile to
the east.

Factors for the rise of Buganda kingdom
Weak neighbors: Buganda had weak neighbors at that time eg: Bunyoro
Participation in long distance trade: Buganda involved in the long distance
trade with coastal Arab traders who brought guns to exchange for ivory and
slaves. Those guns were used to conquer her weak neighbors
Lack of succession conflicts: before Kabaka died, he had to name his
successor, if he did not, the Katikilo and clan heads were responsible for
choosing capable Kabaka. This promoted political stability and peace, hence
the expansion
Buganda was inhabited by the homogeneous population: its population
had the same language, culture, value, this created unity and respect of
leaders, hence the expansion.

Fertile soil and good climate: this favored crops growing to feed
the population and the army, Baganda also kept livestock, sheep
and goats.
Strong army: her army was well organized, equipped with good
weapons, trained and disciplined, this army easily defeated weak
neighbors hence the expansion.
Strong, able and ambitious leaders: her leaders like Kabaka
Jjunju, Kabaka Ssuna, Kabaka Kateregga, etc enabled Buganda to
expand her sphere of influence.
Strategic location: Buganda was strategically positioned with
physical features which provided defense against her enemies.
These were Lake Kyoga in the North, Lake Victoria in the south
and River Nile in the East.

Small size: the kingdom of Buganda was too small, this made
it easy to administrate and control, hence its expansion.
Her good relationship with the outside world: Buganda had
good relations with Europe , the coming of explorers,
missionaries and colonialists enabled her to benefit her
neighbors expense.
Centralized administration: the top leader of Buganda was
Kabaka who ruled with the help of the traditional parliament
called Lukiiko, he was also assisted by three important
officials; Katikiro (prime minister), Omuwanika (treasurer) and
Omulamuzi (chief justice).

Political organization of Buganda kingdom
❖The kingdom was headed by Kabaka (king) on whose hands the
political authority of the kingdom restrictively rested
❖ The Kabaka’s position was hereditary and he had absolute powers to
appoint and dismiss the chief, give or withdraw land which was the
king’s property
❖Kabaka was the head of the army and final judge of cases whose
power was over life and death of his subjects
❖The king married from different clans to promote harmony in the
kingdom
❖At the king’s palace, there was a queen mother who had much
influence over the king (she was the advisor of the king)

❖The kingdom was divided into countries (Amasaza), sub-countries
(Gombolola), Parishes (Muluka) and sub-parishes for easy
administration
❖In his administration, the king was assisted by the palace officials
(the Lukiiko), these were: the head of administration (Katikkiro), the
head of justice (Omulamuzi), and the head of finance (Omuwanika)
❖Below this, there was clan leaders (Abataka) chosen from great
families, they were responsible for road construction and
maintenance of land fertility
❖Below the Bataka, there were the Batongole whose main duty was
the maintenance of law and order in the villages
❖They were also to also to accompany the warriors (Abajjasi) to war
where they served as food suppliers and dealt with the wounded
soldiers

❖Next in strata; there were peasants (Bakopi) whose role was
to cultivate crops like millet and bananas
❖Below the Bakopi were people to look after cattle
❖Then came slaves (they were war captives) who were the
property of the king and other prominent people in the
kingdom like Katikilo, Omulamuzi and Omuwanika.
The administration of districts and sub-districts was left in
hands of their heads although they were subordinates to the
king and paid tributes to the central authority, the conquered
states were equally administrated in the same way.

Social organization
❖The kingdom was organized on clan basis, she had 52
clans each with its own clan leader
❖Each family belonged to specific clan, each with its
own shrine where sacrifices were offered to the
ancestors of the family and clan
❖Buganda had a common religion known as Lubaale
and believed in many gods like the god of Lake
Victoria (Nalubale), god of sun and the Almighty
(Katonda)

❖ During the time of sacrifices the king and other
important priests led the prayers
❖ Budanda society was made up of three classes; royal
class (Abambejja and Abalangila), chiefs and clan
heads (Bataka) and peasants (Abakopi)
❖Baganda were great musicians usually drumming was
done by men while women danced by shaking their
buttocks
❖They built houses with clay, reeds and banana leaves
❖ Women and children did agricultural activities while
men engaged in defense, trade and hunting

Economic organization
❖ The Baganda were agriculturists growing crops
like banana, maize, millet, etc…
❖Cattle were kept for meat, milk and hides
❖ Buganda traded with their neighbors like
Bunyoro where they marketed bark clothes,
coffee, beans and blacksmith products such as
hoes, arrows, spears and knives

❖Baganda also participated in Long Distance
Trade with Arabs where they marketed ivory,
skins and hides, slaves in exchange for fire arms
and ammunition, Clothes and salt.
❖Fishing also was carried out on lakes, rivers and
swamps to supplement on the diet
❖Art and craft: Baganda people made mats,
ceramics, pottery, bags, jewelry, clothes, toys,
beads and woodcrafts

Factors for the decline of Buganda kingdom
The coming of Europeans: colonialists stopped slave trade
that Baganda traders benefited from, they also abolished
traditional religion which united the Baganda, that weakened
the power of Kabaka.
Big size of Buganda kingdom: the kingdom was grown big
which made it difficult to control; due to this distant territories
broke away leading to the decline of the kingdom
Death of strong leaders: Buganda lost capable, brave and
strong leaders like Kabaka Mutesa and Kabaka Mwanga
leading to its decline.

Disunity: due to religious differences and divisions, Baganda
people started hating and fighting themselves leading to the
decline of their kingdom.
Weak army: due to many expansion wars, the army was no
longer able to defend the kingdom, it had no standing army to
defend the kingdom leading to its decline.
Religious conflicts: there were religious among Catholics,
protestants and Muslims, those conflicts caused disunity
leading to the decline of the kingdom.
Decline of trade: colonialists stopped long distance trade with
its main item, slaves, this reduced kingdom’s revenue leading
to its downfall.

Succession disputes: there were disputes between
brothers who wanted to become Kabaka these were
Mutebi and Kamanya, this ended when Kamanya killed
his brother
Rise of dispute: when Kabaka Mwanga was exiled to
Seychelles islands. All those caused disunity among
Baganda people leading to its decline.
External attacks: Buganda declined due to external
attacks from neighboring kingdoms like Bunyoro, those
attacks caused damages and losses leading to the
decline of the kingdom.

KONGO KINGDOM
Kongo kingdom was located in southwest Africa, it existed
from 1390 until 1891 as an independent state. It is now
northern Angola, Cabinda, the Republic of the Congo, and the
western portion of the Democratic Republic of the Congo.
At its greatest extent, it reached from the Atlantic Ocean in the
west to the Kwango River in the east, and from the Congo
River in the north to the Kwanza River in the south. The
kingdom consisted of several core provinces ruled by the
Manikongo. The first king of Kongo kingdom was Lukeni Lua
Nimi.

Factors for the rise of Kong kingdom
Strong and able leaders: Kongo had strong and brave leaders
like Afonso I and king Alvaro who organized the kingdom
under effective control.
Strong army: Kongo kingdom had an army equipped with iron
weapons such as arrows, bows and spears; this army was able
to protect and expand the kingdom.
Trade: Bakongo traded among them and neighboring states.
They traded iron materials, agricultural products, handcrafts
products, ivory and minerals like copper and iron. The income
got was used to expand the kingdom.

Contribution from vassal states: vassal states paid tributes in form of
fish, ivory, minerals and meat, this favored the kingdom to grow and
expand.
Agriculture: Kongo had fertile soil and favorable climate; they
cultivated cassava, maize, beans, yams and sweet potatoes. The
kingdom didn’t experience serious famine.
Absence of external and internal attacks: Kongo kingdom had weak
neighbors, the king had strong army even king Afonso I used
Portuguese mercenaries. This made the kingdom strong; hence its
expansion.
Availability of minerals: Kongo kingdom was rich in minerals like
iron and copper which were traded with the Portuguese from which
the kingdom got much income.

Good geographical location: Kongo had congo river
which was the fishing ground, fishes were used as food
and trading item.
Art and crafts: many of Bakongo had skills in pottery
and weaving, they made pipes, pots and clothes that
they traded with the Atlantic ocean in exchange for
seashells and salt leading to the rise of the kingdom.
Foreign relation: Kongo kingdom had good relations
with foreigners especially Portugal. This provided wide
market for minerals, ivory and slaves from which the
kingdom got much income hence its rise.

Political organization
❖Kongo kingdom was ruled by a king who had
absolute power, he had the title Mani kongo
❖Below the king was the royal council composed of
1020 friends and brothers of the king
❖The kingdom was subdivided into six main provinces
(Matamba, Nenta, Namba, Nsundi, Sovo and
Mpemba) led by provincial governors called Mani who
took the name of province they ruled eg: Mani
Mpemba

❖Below provincial governors were village chiefs
called Nkulufu.
❖The king of Kongo also held several kingdoms
(vassal states: Kakongo, Ngoyo, Vungu, Ndongo,
Kisama, and Matamba).
❖The capital of Kongo was called Mbanza Kongo
later named Sao Salvador at the coming of the
Portuguese.

Economic organization
❖Agriculture and livestock: kongo kingdom produced
palm oil, cassava, bananas, yams and raised cattle,
goats, sheep and hens.
❖Mining: Kongo was rich in iron ore, there were large
copper deposits, they mined iron, copper and gold.
Possession of Iron meant military power, trade
dominance and increased agricultural output.

❖Trade: Kongo was the centre of an extensive trading
network, the trade flourished not only between Africans but
also across the sea with the Portuguese who came with silk,
glass, guns and other manufactured goods to be exchanged
with ivory, animal skins and hides, copper and iron from
Bakongo. The system of exchange was barter trade and the
use of their currency called Unzimbu.
❖Art and craft: the population of Kongo carried out iron
working, weaving, wood working and pottery.
❖Hunting and gathering: hunting wild animals provided meat
and hides which could be used for trade; elephants were
hunted in order to get ivory which was expensive at that
time.

Social organization
❖The society of kongo was based on clans, everyone was supposed to
belong to a particular clan
❖Each clan was headed by clan head who settled disputed on behalf of
the king
❖The society of Kongo kingdom was divided into three classes
• The Bakongo: the descendants of Ntinu Mene and the Mishikongo
• The People: this was the population conquered during the conquests
done by Ntinu Mene. There were Ovimbundu, Ambwela and the
Batwa
• The slaves: these were the war captives or prisoners of the war

❖Religion: the people of Kongo worshiped the
spirits of their ancestors, religious cult were
under leadership of regional religious leaders
❖Christianity reached Kongo under the reign of
Nzinga Ankuru who became Christian in 1491
and took the name of Joao I.
❖Language: Kongo people spoke the Kikongo
language
❖People respected their culture and it was a
source of pride

Factors for the decline of Kongo kingdom
Internal conflicts: there were struggles over succession
after Afonso’s death in 1542. This caused desunity and
fights among the Bakongo leading to its decline.
External attacks: Kongo was temporary attacked and
conquered by rival warriors from East known as Jagas.
Civil war in the kingdom: after the death of king
Afonso, the Portuguese shifted their interest southward
to the kingdom of Ndongo and helped them to defeat
Kongo in 1556.

Death of able leaders: Kongo kingdom rose up due to the influence
able leaders like Afonso and Alvaro, after their deaths conflicts among
the Bakongo and Portuguese colony of Angola, leading to the decline of
Kongo.
The Mbwila battle between 1665: this war was between Kongo
kingdom and Portuguese over copper mines in Mbwila district, at this
battle Kongo was defeated, King Antonio I was killed, most of nobles,
court officials and 5,000 troops of Kongo were killed, Kongo was
dissolved into small chiefdoms and never recovered.
Slave trade: Kongo kingdom has been one of the major channel where
slaves were picked from for four centuries, this made the kingdom
depopulated, lack of manpower which led to the decline of agriculture,
weakened its army and undermined the social structure of Kongo, all
those led to the decline of Kongo

Integration of Kongo kingdom into the Portuguese colony: in 1641,
Manikongo Garcia allied himself with the Dutch in attempt to control
Portuguese slave traders. However, the army of Kongo was defeated leading to
its decline.
Weak army: due to many civil wars against Portuguese and neighbors, the army
of Bakongo became weak, making it easy to be defeated and invaded by Jaga;
leading to its decline
Big size: Kongo Kingdom had become too big to be administrated by weak
leaders while at that time the army was not so strong enough to protect and
defend the kingdom.
European conquest in the 19th century: the Berlin conference of 1884-1885
decided to share the kingdom of Kongo between three European countries
these were France, Belgium and Portugal. This marked the end of Kongo
kingdom.

Conclusion
The kingdom of Kongo as other kingdoms in east-
central of Africa, was politically organized in form of
absolute monarchy. Its economy was based on
agriculture, cattle keeping, trade, etc. The Bakongo
were socially organized based on norms and values that
governed them. The development of Kongo kingdom
was due natural resources, trade, geographical location
while its collapse was due to internal conflicts, natural
disasters and external attacks.

Introduction
LDT was the commercial transaction that took place between trade
that took place central and east Africa. As the name suggest, this trade
involved traders moving long distances hence the name long distance
trade.
In most cases, it involved traders travelling thousands of miles from one
region to another through hostile environment. This trade was well
organized with sophisticated means of trade and well prepared people.
The traders were armed with fire arms in case of danger. It was led by
experienced men who knew the routes and territories where traders
passed.

Rise and Organisation of Long Distance Trade
Learning objectives;
By the end of this lesson, learners will be able to:
1. Explain the causes for the rise and expansion of long
distance trade.
2. Identify and describe the organization of Long Distance
Trade.

Factors for the rise and development of LDT
Availability of goods in the interior of both East and Central
Africa: such as gold, ivory, animal skins, slaves and feathers.
Ivory was needed in India for making bangles. In Europe and
America, the goods were used for making piano key and
ornaments.
Increased penetration into the interior by coastal people: From
1840, Sayyid Said moved his capital from Muscat to Zanzibar at
the coast of East Africa. This led various people to move deep in
the interior of East Africa for channeling slaves and ivory.

Increased demand for slaves in Europe and America: Slaves were
selling like a hot cake in Europe and America. This led various dealers in
the trade to move all over places in the interior for slaves, market and
exportation.
Introduction and availability of fire arms: Availability of fire arms made
it easier for Chokwe, Bisa and Nyamwezi people to acquire captives.
Introduction of cowrie shells as a medium of exchange: This solved
such as cheating and divisibility of some goods experienced during
barter trade. This led to rise and growth of long distance trade.
Division of labour: Communities such as Chokwe and Nyamwezi
practiced division of labour. After preparing the land for planting, men
were busy in trade and then, they would leave the work of harvesting
to women.

The hospitality of interior societies: Some African societies such as the
Baganda warmly welcomed the traders. The Yao guided and offered
food and shelter to the traders.
The introduction of Kiswahili: Kiswahili was used as a medium of
communication by traders while exchanging goods. It initially started at
the Coast. Later on, it spread to the interior parts of East Africa.
Political stability in the interior of East Africa: This was characterised
by a period of peace brought about by the rise of empires such as
Nyamwezi. The kings such as Nyungu ya Mawe, Mirambo, Seyyid Said
and Mutesa provided security and accommodation to traders. They
also collected trade items and organized caravans.

Mutual understanding between the coastal people and the interior
tribes: Tribes such as the Yao, Akamba, Nyamwezi and Buganda related
well with coastal people. This good relationship helped the trade to
develop because it promoted trustworthy among the traders.
The French sugar industries: The French sugar industries on the Islands
of Mauritius, Madagascar and Re-union also played a big role in the
expansion of slave trade.
Regular and favorable climate: East African climate was favorable
providing period of agriculture (rainy season) and period of trade.
Trading culture: Some African societies had trading culture by trading
with their neighbors and with Portuguese earlier, this led to the rise of
long distance trade

Organisation of long distance trade
The organization of the trade involved:
❖Participants (Africans, Europeans, and Asians)
❖ Trade items (products)
❖ Means of Transport and Communication,
❖ Means of exchange, and
❖ Major Routes used in the trade

Participants
Traders of long distance trade came from the interior and
outside. They include:
The interior African tribes such as the Yao, Akamba,
Nyamwezi, Baganda, Bisa, Banyoro, Ganda and Kikuyu. These
tribes provided commodities, and commodities.
There were Arabs, Indians from Asia, and Portuguese, British,
and French people from Europe bringing the manufactured
products such as guns, beads, bracelets, gunpowder,
sugarcane.

Trade items
The following are the commodities needed in the traders. They
include
Export items from the interior of Africa: such asivory, gold,
slaves, ostrich feathers, leopard and zebra skins, copper and
rubber.
The import items from Asia and Europe: such as guns, gun
powder, clothes, iron products, knives, beads, plates, sugar,
saucepans and mirrors.

Means of transport and communication
Originally, traders used to move on foot from the East
African Coast to the interior of East Africa.
Later on, donkeys were introduced from Saudi Arabia,
hence making transportation of goods easier.
Mode of communication at first was a problem. Later
on, Swahili-Arabs introduced Kiswahili language that
was commonly used in the business.

Means of exchange
At the beginning of this trade, barter
system was used. This was associated
with transaction problems.
Later on, cowrie shells were introduced
and started to be used as a medium of
exchange.

Major trade routes
The southern route: This began from coastal port in towns of Kilwa, Malindi
and Sofala. It ran through southern Tanganyika, modern Mozambique and
south of Lake Malawi. It extended to corridors of Yao and Biza region. Slave
trade was a dominant activity carried out along this route. The Yao tribe
dominated the trade.
The central route: It began from port of Bagamoyo and penetrated the interior
across Tanganyika to Ujiji on Lake Tanganyika. It crossed the Lake to reach the
resourceful Congo basin. From Tabora, the route diverted northwards to link
the kingdoms of Karagwe, Buganda, Ankole and Bunyoro. Again, this central
route branched southwards to enter the corridors of Lake Tanganyika, Lake
Rukwa and Lake Malawi. The Nyamwezi people dominated this route and the
main trading item was ivory.

The northern route: This started from ports of Pangani, Mombasa, and
Tanga. It passed through north east Tanganyika and Nyika plateau of
Kenya on its way to western Kenya, Lake Rudolf, and eastern shores of
Lake Victoria. The Akamba, Kikuyu and Mrima people were prominent
traders along this route. They dealt in goods such as ivory, slaves,
traditional medicine and poisoned arrows.
The Khartoum route: This route followed the present day Nile River up
to Sudan in the Nile valley. It crossed the Mediterranean Sea. It was
mainly dominated by Khartoumers from Sudan. The Khartoumers
traded with segmentary societies of northern Kenya and northern
Uganda. This route mainly dealt in slaves and ivory.

Reasons for the decline of long distance
trade
Learning objectives
By the end this lesson, the learner will be able to:
1) Explain reasons for the decline of long distance
trade.
2) Examine the reasons for the decline of long
distance trade.

Reasons for the decline of Long Distance Trade were discussed as
fellow:
Long distance trade became less profitable: It attracted many people
which resulted into competition for market. This led to the flooding of
goods forcing traders to lower prices. By the end of the day, their goods
fetched low profits.
Constant interstate wars: These resulted into insecurity, for example,
wars caused by the Nyamwezi who were using the Ruga-Ruga warriors.
This made many traders to abandon this trade for fear of being killed.
The death of some trade tycoons: Rich and prominent people in this
trade such as Mutesa I and Mirambo died in 1884. Seyyid Said died in
1846. These kings controlled, financed and provided security on the
trade. Their death had led to its downfall.

Poor means of transport: This deterred the transportation of
goods from the interior to the coast. This was partly caused by
harsh relief hence providing an obstacle in the transportation
of goods to East African Coast.
Over-taxation: African chiefs and kings charged a lot taxes
because they wanted to get rich in a short time. This led to
reduced profits in the trade and consequently discouraging
traders from the trade leading to its collapse.
The role played by Seyyid Bargash: this had led to the conflict
between the groups of Seyyid Said and Bargash causing the
closure of Zanzibar market hence the downfall of LDT.

Scramble for and partition of Africa: The colonisation had changed the
political, social and economic life of the Africans. This change resulted
into final collapse of long distance trade.
Flooding of European cheap goods in the African market: Industrial
revolution in Europe led to mass production of goods. These cheap
quality products sold more than the African goods, leading to the
collapse of long distance trade.
The abolition of slave trade by Britain and Belgium parliament in
1820: This resulted into reduced slaves in the market. Since many
traders were interested in the slaves, abolition of slave trade
culminated into the collapse long distance trade.

Effects of the Long Distance Trade
Learning objectives
By the end of this lesson, the learner will be able to:
1) Explain effects of long-distance trade
2) Examine the effects of long distance trade
3) Appreciate the effects of long distance trade

The effects of Long Distance Trade had affected social, economic and political
life conditions of people as follow:
a) Social effects
The rise of Kiswahili and Islam in East and Central Africa: this was
due to the interaction and intermarriage of African with foreigners
(Arabs, Indians, Portuguese etc..
Improvement of relationship between African societies: For
example, the Akamba and the Nandi tribes that had been enemies
before in Kenya had to trade freely
Depopulation in many places: When people were killed as they tried to
defend themselves against the slave traders. Others were captured, enslaved
and sold.

❖The trade depopulated many places: Many people were killed as
they were trying to defend themselves against the slave traders.
Others were captured, enslaved and sold.
❖As trade expanded in East and Central Africa, the old trading
centres developed into major towns. These towns included Kilwa,
Tabora, Ujiji and Zanzibar.
❖Famine was experienced in some areas. This was as a result of
slave raid which forced people to flee their homes looking for safer
areas. This disorganised the agricultural activities and earlier
economic ventures set up by East and Central African people.

Development of towns: the expansion of the trade in
the region had developed the old trading centres into
major towns. For example, Kilwa, Tabora, Ujiji and
Zanzibar.
Famine outbreak: This was as a result of slave raid
which forced people to flee their homes looking for
safer areas. This disorganised the agricultural activities
and earlier economic ventures set up by East and
Central African people.

Economic effects
Long Distance Trade affected economic sectors in the following ways:
Introduction of new commodities: Such commodities included guns,
beads, porcelain materials and clothes were brought in the interior of
East and Central Africa.
Exploitation of resources in the region: such as ivory, copper, gold,
tortoise shells and rhino horns were exploited in the interest of
foreigners.
Undermining of old system of barter trade: this was due top the
introduction of cowries shell, and Indian Rupees in East and Central
Africa.

Increasing of local foodstuffs production: it was increased to serve
the food stuffs demands by traders and their caravans because they
did not carry a lot food. This increased income of local people.
Depletion of elephants in East Africa: this was due to the increase
demand and sale ivory. though the trade, there was the misuse and
exploitation of people and animal resources in the region.
The rise and growth of people: such as Mirambo, Nyungu ya Mawe
and Tippu Tip made names as traders and pioneers in large economic
activities of East Africa.

Political effects
Long Distance Trade had affected political aspect in East and Central
Africa in the following was:
The rise of African societies: weak African societies raised and became
strong due the firearms, guns, and other weapons bought from what
they gained from the trade.
Resistance: some Africans such as Hehe, Nandi, and Banyoro were able
to resist to colonialists during and after LTD.
State formation of East Africa: This came about as a result of
individuals who acquired wealth and other opportunities from the
trade. For example, Nyugu ya Mawe, Mutesa I, Mirambo and Misri to
build lager political kingdoms.

Collapse of some weak African societies: For example, Ngindo
and Tonga of southern Tanganyika declined as a result of long
distance trade activities.
Establishment of large armies: communities involved in the
trade built large armies that helped them to expand their
territories. For example, Ruga Ruga (Nyamwezi), Abalusura
(Bunyoro), and Mviti (Nyungu Ya Mawe).
Discourage the production of local commodities: such as
beans, iron implements, bark clothes because they proved
less profitable than slaves and ivory. More so, imported
commodities such as clothes, shoes and saucepans proved
quite superior to local ones.

Introduction
It is normal that people move from place to place due
to different reasons. That is an aspect of migration.
Therefore, migration is the movement of people from
one place to another.
Ngoni migration was the movement or displacement of
Ngoni people from Southeast to central and East of
Africa in 19th century.

Origin and different groups of Ngoni
Learning objectives
By the end of this lesson, the learner will be able to:
Identify the origin and different groups of the Ngoni people
Recognise the origin of the Ngoni in order to understand the
relationship between the people of South Africa and east and
central Africa

Origin of Ngoni
❖The Ngoni belong to the Nguni, the Bantu people of Northern
Zulu land in South Africa. They had settled to the south east of
the Drakensburg Mountains.
❖They were the last group of Bantu speakers to settle in East
Africa in 1840s.
❖They were originally Ndwandwe people under Zwide’s
leadership.
❖When Shaka defeated Zwide, they fled northwards from their
home areas under Zwangendaba. This was due to the Mfecane (a
period of trouble) upheavals brought about by Shakas’ tyrannical
rule and expansionist policy.

The Ngoni were close relatives of the Zulu, Swazi,
Pondo, Thembu and Xhosa. They were warriors and
cattle rustlers. Due to this, they never were in good
terms with their neighbouring ethnic groups which
partly forced them to move away in 1820s towards the
north of South Africa. Slowly, some reached Malawi
and Zambia while others (Maseko, Ngoni and Tuta
Ngoni) went to Tanzania.

Different groups of Ngoni
Ngoni began their movement from south-East Africa in Northern
Zululand under the leadership of Zwangendaba in 1820.
Ngoni were in three groups: Tuta Ngoni, Gwangara Ngoni and Maseko
Ngoni
Later in 1835, they divided themselves into two groups:
❖ One group led by Zwangendaba passed west through Malawi and
Zambia and settled at Ufipa in 1840
❖ Another group led by Nduna Maputo(Maseko Ngoni) passed East of
lake Malawi and settled at Songea.

When Zwangendaba died in 1845, the Ufipa Ngoni disagreed and split
into five groups:
❖ Two groups remained in East Africa, these were the Tuta and
Gwangara Ngoni
❖ Other three groups moved out of East Africa (one group moved to
Malawi while other two groups moved back to Zambia)
The Tuta Ngoni moved northwards fighting and clashing with the
Holoholo near Lake Tanganyika.
In 1850’s Tuta Ngoni invaded Nyamwezi and finally settled at Kahama
south of Lake Victoria.
The Gwangara Ngoni led by Zulugama moved Eastwards to Songea and
met with Maseko Ngoni, two groups fought but Maseko were defeated
and pushed out of songea in 1860’s.

Some of the Maseko moved back to Mozambique
while others moved to Kilombero valley.
From Songea the Ngoni raided widely finally
settling in southern Tanzania among the Bena,
Hehe and Sangu.
Thus the Ngoni migration started around 1820’s
was ended by 1860s.

Reasons for Ngoni migration
Fear of being under Shaka’s leadership: Ngoni had fear of
being absorbed into the empire of Shaka who was a tyrant.
Ngoni were heated by their neighbors: Ngoni were full time
warriors and cattle plunders which made them to be disliked
by other tribes and forced them to move.
Over population in Zululand: Ngoni migration was due to
over population which caused land shortage and land
disputes, thus they moved to other areas in search for land.

Ngoni were searching pasture and water for their cattle:
Some Ngoni people had large herds of cattle, they moved
northwards looking for pasture and water for their animals
which was scarce in Zululand
Epidemic diseases: Ngoni people moved because of
epidemic diseases that affected them in south Africa. These
diseases were like small pox and sleeping sickness
Good leaders: Ngoni migrated due to the influence of their
leaders who provided good leadership. These leaders were
for instance: Zwangendaba, Maputo and Zulugama.

The spirit of adventure: Ngoni people also
migrated due to the spirit for adventure(need to
see what was happening beyond them).
Bad political system: Ngoni people migrated
because they were fed up of the old traditional
political system which encouraged dictatorship.
Absolute monarchy: Ngoni people migrated
because they were fed up of the old traditional
political system which encouraged dictatorship

Consequences of the Ngoni migration
The Ngoni migration had effected east African societies in both
positive and negative ways. They include the following:
a) Positive effects
Rise and growth of empires/kingdoms: The invasion gave rise to
the formation of bigger political units for defensive purposes.
Introduction of new weapons and military system: It led to
introduction of new weapons such as the assegai spear in East
Africa. They also introduced military skills which they learnt from
king Shaka.

Acculturation: this was due to intermarriages between the Ngoni
and Nyamwezi.
Unite east African people: Many small Ntemi chiefdoms united and
formed large political units under strong leaders to fight the Ngoni.
Formation of military groups: The Ngoni led to emergence of new
strong states led by groups known as Ruga-Ruga.
United small states: The Ngoni contributed to the growth of
nationalism in Tanganyika.
Population growth: They contributed to population increase in
Tanganyika.

Negative effects of Ngoni migration
Invasion of small states: The invasion gave rise to the
‘Ruga-Ruga’ mercenaries who lived only to steal, plunder
and destroy property.
The rise of new culture in the region: There was spread
of Ngoni customs and culture as well as detribalization in
places where they settled.
Depopulation: this was due to loss of lives leading to
depopulation in some areas where they passed and
settled.
Displacement of people: This was due to fear of Ngoni
raids and attacks.

Economic decline: They destroyed the economy of the people
of southern Tanzania, due to cattle rustling
Decline of different cities: As the Tuta Ngoni were moving
northwards, they disrupted the long-distance trade between
Tabora and Ujiji.
Outbreak of famine and hunger in the region: The Ngoni raids
led to disturbance and disruption of normal cultivation for
food hence decline in agriculture, leading to famine in the
region.
Insecurity and instabilities: this was due to the new weapons
and military tack ticks that increased warfare and aggression
in the regions that were previously peaceful.

EXPLORATION OF
AFRICA (15th and
19th century)

Introduction
In 15th and 19th centuries, the European explorers were scientists and
geographers who came to Africa for some purposes like research, study and
travel. They came from different countries, for example: Portugal, Spain,
Britain, France, etc.
Therefore, exploration means to have the spirit of adventure, it is also an act
of travelling thought a space in order to find out about it or find something.
The main points to be covered in this unit are:
❖ Different European explorers and their routes.
❖ Different causes of exploration
❖ Consequences of exploration of Africa.
❖ Problems faced by explorers in Africa.

Different European explorers and their routes
Learning Objectives
By the end of this session, the learner will be able to:
1) Identify different Europeans who explored Africa.
2) Compare the achievements of different explorers in
Africa.
3) Appreciate the importance of the activities of
different explorers in Africa.

Main explores in 15th century
The main explorers in 15th century and their discoveries are the
following:
Ibn Battuta (1304-1377): he travelled over 100,000km from his home
in Morocco, he travelled as far as Beijing and the Volga River.
Diego Cao (1460-1524): he was a Portuguese explorer; he is well
known in Angola, and because of him this country became a
Portuguese colony. He discovered the mouth and estuary of river
Congo and opened communication with Bakongo kingdom.

Bartholomew Diaz: he was a Portuguese, he discovered Cape
of storms in 1488, which later renamed the Cape of Good
Hope by King John II of Portugal because of the opening of a
route to the East.
Vasco Da Gama: he was a Portuguese. By rounding the Africa’s
Cape of Good Hope, he discovered an ocean route from
Portugal to the east; he reached Calicut (India) on May 20,
1498.
These explorers were mostly from Portugal. They came to
Africa using by sailing alongside the west coast of Africa.

Main explorers in 19th century.
The explorers who came to Africa in 19th century, and their discoveries
are discussed as follow:
1. Oscar Bauman
He was an Austrian explorer well known for his exploration in German
East African presently Rwanda, Burundi and Tanzania and producing
maps of the region in 1885.
He was the first explorer to enter Rwanda in 1892,
He was also the first European to visit Lake Eyasi, Manyara and
Ngorongoro Crater.

2. Count Gustav Adolf von Götzen
He was a German explorer and a governor of
German East Africa.
He was also the second explorer to reach in
Rwanda after Dr. Bauman.
He made his first trip to Africa in a hunting
expedition to Mount Kilimanjaro.

3. Doctor David Livingston
He was a Scottish congregationist pioneer medical
missionary with the London missionary society and an
explorer in Africa.
He was the first European to see the Victoria Falls
which he later named Victoria, an English name in
honour of Queen Victoria of England.
He discovered numerous geographical features for
western science such as Lake Ngami, Lake Malawi,
Lake Bangweulu and Victoria falls as earlier
mentioned.

4. Sir Henry Morton Stanley
His original name was John Rowlands, also a Congolese
by name Bula Matari meaning “Breaker of rocks”.
Stanley was a Welsh journalist and explorer famous for
his explorations in Africa as well as his search for Dr.
David Livingstone.

5. John Hanning Speke
He was an officer in the British Indian army well known
for his search for the source of the Nile.
Speke and Burton were the first Europeans to reach Lake
Tanganyika in February 1858.
He was also the first European to reach Lake Victoria
which he proved to be the source of the Nile and to map
it making him the discover of the source of the Nile on
30th July 1858.

6. Mungo Park
He was a Scottish explorer of West Africa and he was
the first westerner known to have travelled to the
central portion of the Niger River. He is believed to be
the first European to reach the long sought Niger River
at Ségou, on 21st July 1796.
He died in an ambush of natives because he was
betrayed when he was trying to make his own
discoveries.

7. Johannes Rebmann
He was a German missionary and explorer credited
with feasts including being the first European along
with Johann Ludwig Krapf to enter Africa from the
Indian Ocean coast.
He also was the first European to find Mount
Kilimanjaro in 1848, the following year he saw Mount
Kenya together with his colleague Krapf.

8. Sir Richard Francis Burton
He was a British explorer. He was known for his travels
and explorations in Asia, Africa and America as well as
his extra ordinary knowledge of languages and cultures,
he spoke 29 European, Asian and African languages.
Burton together with John Hannington were the first
Europeans to visit the great lakes region of Africa in
search of the source of the Nile.

9. Sir Samuel Baker
He was the British explorer. He served as a governor of
General of the Equatorial Nile Basin (Today’s northern
Uganda and South Sudan), between April 1869-August
1873 which he established as the province of
Equatorial.
He is most remembered as the discoverer of Lake
Albert.

10. Mary Henrietta Kingsley
She was the first female explorer on the African
continent. Whose work helped to shape European
perceptions of African cultures and British
imperialism.
Mary landed in sierra Leon on 17th August 1893
and passed into Luanda in Angola.

11. Carl Peters
He was a German explorer, colonial ruler,
politician and author.
The major reason for the foundation of German
colony of East Africa in today’s Tanzania.
Carl Peters was a strong supporter of social
Darwinism and his attitude towards the
indigenous people made him one of the most
controversial colonisers during his time.

12. James Augustus Grant
He was British Royal Navy officer and a navigator
in the early nineteenth century. He sailed into
Table Cape, South Africa on 8th July 1800.

Different causes of exploration
The following were some of the reasons why Europeans
wanted to explore Africa:
The desire for respect and prestige: this drove many
European into Africa because they expected to be given titles
like Sir, and other many rewards for those who would discover
new things.
Geostrategic interests: European countries sent explorers to
Africa to gain more colonies because countries that have
colonies were respected and pride in Europe.

To find new trade route: this is because northern route was
blocked by thieves and Muslims of Ottoman empire
Need of conquest: this was done in order to make their trade
easier (uncomplicated or trouble-free), For example the
conquest of east African coastal city states made Portuguese
trade uncomplicated
Need to spread Christianity: In the rate 1400s, there was only
one religion in Europe which was Christianity, European rulers
were very religious, and they wanted everyone to be
converted into Christianity while by this time Africans
practiced traditional religion while others were Muslims

Civilize Africans: by this time African were taken as
uncivilized, while Europeans thought that their way of
life was good, their came in order to spread their
civilization
The need of gold and other spices: these raw materials
were at high demand in Europe due to the
development of industries in Europe.
The desire of adventure: explorers went in a spirit of
enquiry or for excitement of the experience. They
wanted to explore Africa which was not known in
Europe.

To discover the source of African rivers: The source of this
longest African river was unknown to all, this created the need
to come and find its source hence the coming of explorers like
Richard Burton and Speke.
Humanitarian reasons: Some of the explorers had
humanitarian reasons and feelings like stopping slave trade
and cure various diseases that were affecting lives of Africans.
Agents of colonialism: Explorers are also believed to have
been sent by their home countries to prepare Africa for
colonisation the more reason as to why they did the mapping,
tracing minerals and fertile soils.

Improvements in technology: Europeans began to build
stronger, faster sailing ships like caravel, a ship with two sails
one each for running with the wind and for sailing into the
wind, better navigational instruments (astrolabe, could tell
north and south of the equator by the position of the stars,
magnetic compass, told direction accurately and more
accurate maps with the discovery of how to find the longitude
all this led to exploration of Africa.
To sum up: European explorers came to Africa for spreading
Christianity (brought the salivation to Africans), trade (market
for their industrial proud cuts), and preparing colonization.

Consequences of exploration
The European explorers in Africa had a great impact both
negative and positive on the social, political and religious
sectors of Africa. The impacts of exploration of Africa were as
follows:
➢Creation of commercial places (trading stations), trading
routes and industries.
➢Exploration of Africa resulted in the introduction of new
products from the European factories which flooded
European markets.
➢Exploration led to the improvement of the European
economic conditions and increase in population.

➢It led to the drawing of the map of Africa as explorers drew
more accurate maps of Africa which eased the coming of
many more Europeans in Africa.
➢It led to the discovery of the sea route to India by Vasco da
Gama 1497-1499 which increased trade links between
Europe and the East.
➢It led to the production of a new race of people known as
the Mulattos. These came as a result of intermarriages
between Africa and European explorers.
➢It led to introduction of plantation agriculture. For example,
the Portuguese had maize plantations wherever they settled.

➢It led to the rise of triangular trade, which was a
network of trading between Europe, Africa and the
America.
➢Exploration opened the interior of Africa to the
Europeans.
➢It contributed to the stopping of slave trade as some
of the explorers reported evils of slave trade in Europe
and argued that slave trade should be replaced with
legitimate trade.
➢It led to imposition of European cultures in Africa.

➢Spread of Christianity: explorers were followed by Christian
missionaries; because of their works many Africans are
Christians.
➢Exploration contributed to the improvement of geographic
information on Africa, for example the sighting of African
rivers, lakes and mountains by Europeans.
➢Discovery of raw materials of Africa and Indies, by this Africa
lost its natural resources.
➢Sharing of Africa between European powers, this was done
in Berlin conference because of disputes among European
powers on African continent due to information provided by
explorers.

Problems faced by explorers in Africa
Language barrier: explorers didn’t know African languages, thus it took
them quite substantial time first to learn the local languages in order to
be able to carry on their work. Hence this hindered their works.
Poor means of transport: In Africa, there were no roads, railways,
canals, bridges and telephones. Thus explorers moved on foot through
thick forests and climbed hills and mountains while pushing their
bicycles and currying heavy loads. Indeed lakes and rivers hindered
transport and communication means.
Wild animals; example lions, hyenas, snakes, leopards in African
tropical forests which threatened their lives as they travelled through
thick forests of Africa.

Opposition from both hostile tribes and African chiefs who
had been benefiting from African trade: example tribes like
Nandi of East Africa and the Yuruba of West Africa refused the
explorers thinking that they were to take their land and
disrupt their trade.
Unhealthy climate plus pests and diseases: diseases like
malaria, yellow fever and sleeping sickness attacked explores
and hindered their works; example malaria killed Dr. David
Livingstone in 1873.
Thick penetrable forests: it was a problem to pass through
thick tropical forests of Africa. This was a big problem for
explorers.

Rough relief: i.e. Africa is full of mountains, rivers and lakes. It was
difficult for them to travel this variety of relief of the continent.
Poverty / inadequate resources: explorers didn’t have enough food,
water, medicine and money; and thus, lack of enough resources
delayed explorers’ work and progress on the continent.
Thieves and unfaithful porters: explorers met with African thieves,
even porters run away with explorers’ luggage of clothes, food, water,
drugs etc. Also, this limited their works.
Political problems and insecurity of Africa: it was impossible to work
full time in Africa and to cover many African societies due to insecurity
caused by the expansion wars.
Opposition from Africa chiefs: some African chiefs attacked explorers
because they saw them as a threat to their traditional authority.

Remember:
Touring new places is indeed very important. It enables one to
discover, have fun and be exposed to new areas. However,
travelling without taking precaution is risky. Remember the
following:
❖ Do not travel alone to places you do not know very well.
❖ Avoid walking on foot in national parks for animals can
easily kill you.
❖ Travel once in awhile but not always to minimise costs and
to avoid bankruptcy.

Unit 8: EUROPEAN
COLONIZATION OF
AFRICA

Introduction
The scramble and partition of African countries among European
powers began in the beginning of 19th century.
Scramble: means rushing or struggling for something while
Partition means to divide.
Therefore, the scramble for and partition of Africa began as a result of
reports given by explorers, traders (chartered companies) and
missionaries about Africa. This period was referred to as colonization.
Colonization: refers to the process by which a powerful country rules
or controls a weak country by establishing political, socio-cultural and
economic principles on it.

Colonizers of African countries
France: Senegal, Ivory Coast, Mali, Mauritania, Burkina Faso, Morocco,
Algeria, Tunisia, Chad, Niger, Congo Brazzaville, Chad, Madagascar,
Central African Republic and Guinea Conakry.
Britain: Uganda, Kenya, Sudan, Egypt, Ghana, Nigeria, Gambia, South
Africa, Botswana, Zambia and Zimbabwe.
Germany: Tanzania, Togo, Cameroon, Namibia, Rwanda and Burundi.
Belgium: The Congo (The Democratic Republic of Congo).
Portugal: Mozambique, Angola and Equatorial Guinea.
Italy: Libya, Somalia, Djibouti and Eritrea.
Spain: Western Sahara and Equatorial Guinea

NOTE: Ethiopia and Liberia were the only African
countries that were not colonised. Ethiopia was too
strong for Italy at the Battle of Adowa in Ethiopia in
1896.
Liberia had just been founded by United States of
America as a home for the freed slaves. This happened
after the abolition of slave trade in the late 19th
Century. United States of America could not allow any
European power to colonise Liberia.

Learning objectives
By the end of this session, the learner will be able to:
1. State the different causes of European of Africa
2. Evaluate the causes of European colonisation of Africa and
show whether they were justified
3. Acknowledge the similarities and differences between
methods used by European colonialist to acquire colonies
in Africa.
Different causes of colonization of Africa

Africa is a very beautiful continent. It has physical features that people
make people from other continents travel to see. Take Rwanda as an
example. It has beautiful hills, rivers and lakes. It also has mineral
resources. These are some of the things, which made Europeans to
come to colonise Africa. Let us now discuss them in finer details.
❖There was need for raw materials for their home industries.
This was due to exhaustion of raw materials in their home
areas due to industrial revolution.
❖ There was need for market for their finished goods because
the European markets were not enough to consume
whatever was being produced by their industries.

❖ They also wanted cheap labour for their industries and
farms in the New Lands.
❖ They also wanted areas where they could invest their
surplus capital. This was because investment was not
profitable in Europe due to competition.
❖ There was need for raw materials for their home industries.
This was due to exhaustion of raw materials in their home
areas due to industrial revolution.
❖ There was need for market for their finished goods because
the European markets were not enough to consume
whatever was being produced by their industries.

❖ They also wanted cheap labour for their
industries and farms in the New Lands.
❖ They also wanted areas where they could
invest their surplus capital. This was because
investment was not profitable in Europe due to
competition.
❖ They also wanted land to settle the excess
population which had grown due to population
pressure in their countries medical care.

❖ They wanted to spread Christianity so as to save the
Africans from hell.
❖ The Europeans also wanted to stop slave trade and
slavery, thereby promoting respect for human rights.
❖ They also wanted to civilise Africans by teaching
them how to read and write. They also wanted to
introduce European cultures for, example, dressing
and eating feeding habits. They believed that
European culture was the best.

Methods and Agents of colonial conquest in Africa
In life, some people will do anything to achieve what
they want. Likewise, the colonialists used various
methods to colonise Africa. The methods are discussed
below.
Use of explorers: Explorers drew maps showing fertile
areas and rich mineral areas. They shared information
about how rich Africa was. This attracted their home
governments to come and take over African areas.

Use of missionaries: European missionaries
encouraged their governments to establish
colonial rule in Africa so that they could put an
end to the wars between African states, stop the
slave trade and protect them from attacks by the
locals and Muslims. They also softened African
hearts by preaching to them and persuading them
to accept Europeans and support their goals.

Use of traders (chartered companies)
Companies such as IBEACo and GEACo facilitated the
colonisation of Africa.
The trading companies through their agents signed
treaties with the African rulers. Carl Peters of Imperial
Germany East Africa Company for example, signed
treaties with Sultan Sakwa of Kavirondo, William
Mackinnon of Imperial British East Africa Company
signed treaties with various Kenyan chiefs.

Treaty signing
Europeans also signed treaties with African Chiefs to take over
African areas. For example, Moffat Treaty, Rudd Concession
and the Buganda Agreement.
Use of gifts and presents
Some African rulers were lured into accepting Europeans
through presents such as beads, clothes, weapons and
intoxicating drinks. Others were made chiefs while some were
promised western education, for example, Semei Kakungulu of
Uganda.

Use of tricks
This is where Europeans deceived African chiefs and took over
their areas. For example, Jaja of Opobo was convinced to board a
war ship in 1887 by Johnston and deported to the West Indies.
Divide and rule tactics
Europeans used the divide and rule tactics by playing off one
community against another. They encouraged warfare between
African communities. Once weak, the European powers occupied
it. This was the case with Nupe against the Fulani, the Baganda
against the Banyoro and the Maasai against the Nandi.

Force or military force: this was used in societies where
there was resistance or opposition to the establishment
of colonial rule.
Settlers schemes: as a Europe was overpopulated,
Europeans started settler schemes in Africa; example
South Africa, Zimbabwe and Kenya, Namibia. Thus,
European protection of these schemes meant
establishment of colonial rule.
Use of collaborators: collaborators helped colonialists
to establish their rules in Africa. Example the BAGANDA
helped the British to defeat the BANYORO.

Colonial systems of administration
There were several systems of administration
used by colonialists after successfully
colonising Africans. These were:
1. Indirect rule by the British
2. Assimilation by the French
3. Direct rule by the Germans

The indirect rule
It was a system under which the Europeans recognised the
existing African political system and used it to rule over the
colonies.
In this system of administration, African local kings and chiefs
were allowed to maintain their positions as administrators.
However, they were under the supervision of the British.
The British made new policies and decisions which were
implemented by African local leaders. It should be noted that
under indirect rule, African political and social institutions
were retained by the colonial masters.

HISTORY NOTES S2.pdf

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