Terrestrial invertebrates - Udine Cultura

Terrestrial invertebrates 

MARCO ULIANA · ALESSANDRO MINELLI 

■ Introduction 

In areas occupied by deltas, estuaries 

and lagoons, the terrestrial invertebrate 

fauna is greatly influenced by ample 

local variations in soil salinity, which 

varies from nil to extremely high, 

depending on the vicinity of fresh or 

brackish waters, and the water content 

of the soils. Terrestrial invertebrates are 

generally conspicuous but very scarce 

on sunny ridges or banks exposed to 

coastal winds. As the above factors Dicheirotrichus lacustris 

vary, the vegetation and associated 

fauna also vary markedly - to the extent that the two extremes of the saline 

gradient are almost without any species in common; the hygrometric gradient 

shows similar features. 

In these complex environments with indistinct boundaries, populations of 

different origin overlap: a continental fauna may be identified on salt-free soils, 

largely coinciding with species of internal wetlands and generally without 

specific links with coastal areas. 

Instead, salt-rich soils host a fauna rich in specialised invertebrates, often more 

or less widely distributed over the Palaearctic region but present exclusively 

along coastlines, except perhaps to reappear as relict forms on residual 

mainland saline soils. The carabid beetle Dicheirotrichus lacustris is a typical 

case: it is found both in the Veneto lagoons and on salt-rich land around Lake 

Balaton in Hungary. This particular distribution bears witness to the ancient 

evolution of the coastlines of the Mediterranean basin and its environs. 

For some zoological groups (e.g., annelids and crustaceans), there may also be 

a true marine component which, although it sometimes ventures across the 

boundary separating the sea from dry land, does not manage to go much 

beyond the intertidal strip. Depending on the ties they have with salty 

Xiphidion discolor 

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environments, invertebrates living in brackish-water areas are divided into three 

ecological categories: halobiontic, if they live exclusively in salty environments; 

halophilic, if they have a preference for these environments but may also be 

found elsewhere; and haloxenic, if they are normally unrelated to salty 

environments and are found there because they are indifferent to salinity (for 

example, in the case of species which visit flowers) or remain confined in 

ecotone areas with weak salinity. 

As is typical of extreme environments, specialised forms are often represented 

by few species but high numbers of individuals: a study conducted on beetles in 

one site of the Lagoon of Venice found that the haloxene and halophilic forms, 

together, amounted to 30% of all species, but almost 70% of individuals. The 

distinction between these categories is often difficult. There are also species 

which behave differently according to the population considered. In these 

cases, halophilia is not an ecological requirement, but due to competition 

driving the more adaptable species into difficult environments. 

Only terrestrial invertebrates are described in this chapter: the aquatic fauna of 

brackish water and freshwater environments have already been covered in 

other volumes of the Italian Habitats series (“Brackish Coastal Lakes” and 

“Pools, Ponds and Marshes”, respectively; see also the chapter on aquatic 

invertebrates in this volume). For each group, the fauna of the saline 

environments are discussed separately from those of non-saline environments. 

94 ■ Between land and sea: annelids, 

crustaceans and springtails 

Isopod of the genus Sphaeroma 

Emerging land around lagoons, affected 

by tidal excursions, hosts some 

amphibious species belonging to 

typically marine groups. Examples are 

the annelids living in brackish mud, 

such as Hediste diversicolor and 

Timarete filigera, the nearest to dry land Amphipod of the genus Orchestia 

for the almost exclusively marine group 

of polychaetes. Representatives of marine groups of crustaceans that have 

acquired the capacity to pass more or less lengthy periods out of water can also 

be identified. Among the less “emancipated” are decapods, represented by the 

green crab (Carcinus aestuarii), a truly marine species which every now and 

then may be found on dry land, and flabellate isopods, represented by 

Sphaeroma species, which may even breed without returning to the sea. 

However, they remain dependent on the presence of damp ground, because 

their porous teguments mean that they can easily fall prey to dehydration. 

Slightly more constrained by the water but always very hygrophilous, are the 

few talitrid amphipods which frequent dry land. Examples are Talitrus saltator, 

which does not stray from the beaches, or species of the genus Orchestia, 

which venture further inland. The halophilic O. gammarellus is highly abundant 

in brackish areas: hundreds of them may be seen leaping away in all directions 

as soon as any object is lifted off the ground. Freshwater environments are 

frequented by its ally O. cavimana, which ascends watercourses to sites on the 

mainland. The large group of oniscoidean isopods (woodlice) behaves in the 

opposite manner: they are typically terrestrial animals, a few species of which 

frequent brackish environments, and a tiny minority (genus Tylos) even reach 

the tide mark on sandy beaches. Among the species of brackish environments, 

some are specialised, like Halophiloscia couchii and Armadilloniscus ellipticus, 

which cohabit with talitrids on the ground of the wettest glasswort communities 

and which give way, on higher ground and further inland, to less specialised 

forms, such as Armadillidum assimile, a ubiquitous dry-land species also found 

in damp non-saline environments. 

Among the collembolans (springtails), Anurida maritima is characteristic of 

sandbanks. This animal is only a couple of millimetres long, and occasionally 

becomes extremely conspicuous by forming swarms of thousands of specimens 

which, closely gathered together, cover the ground like large patches of indigo. 

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■ Molluscs 

The malacological fauna of sandbanks 

is characterised by a quite small 

number of species but an often high 

density of individuals. In particular, 

two small gastropods are frequently 

found: Truncatella subcylindrica and 

Myosotella myosotis. 

Myosotella myosotis 

The former, as its name suggests, 

loses the first rings of its shell with age while retaining all the subsequent ones, 

which are of a constant diameter. The latter is a ubiquitous species, which can 

tolerate sudden changes in salinity and temperature. Its shell may vary 

considerably in shape, even on a small geographical scale, making it difficult 

at times to distinguish it from similar but rarer species, such as Auriculinella 

bidentata and Ovatella firminii, which are more demanding in their choice of 

environment. 

All these species live close to the tide line. Oxyloma elegans is characteristic of 

damp freshwater environments, which are also frequented by many inland 

species. This species is associated with riverbanks and freshwater reservoirs 

with dense riparian vegetation, where it is easily observed on the leaves of 

reeds, cattails, irises and other marsh plants. It is spread throughout mainland 

Italy and on the large islands, but is not closely linked to the coastal strip, as it 

may also be found above 1000 m. 

■ Spiders 

Detailed information on the spiders of 

lagoon and river mouth ecosystems is 

mostly available for the northern 

Adriatic coast. In brackish-water areas, 

the ground-dwelling arachnid fauna is 

dominated by numerous species of 

lycosids or wolf spiders: among the 

Larinioides suspicax 

most abundant are Pardosa cribrata 

and P. luctinosa, the latter apparently 

stenoecious and loyal to brackish-water environments. 

Some hygrophilous species that are indifferent to salinity conditions are also 

frequent, such as Trochosa hispanica and various species of the genus Pirata. 

In the same environments, but on the 

vegetation, two salticids - Heliophanus 

flavipes and Sitticus caricis are 

particularly abundant: they lie in wait 

for their prey on plant stems, without 

using webs. 

Much more obvious than the small 

salticids are the araneids of the genus 

Larinioides (L. suspicax in particular), 

due both to their conspicuous size and 

large webs, which are stretched 

horizontally on herbaceous vegetation 

and made even more noticeable by 

the white silk case next to them - the 

spider’s hiding-place. 

On drier and sunnier grasslands, 

another eye-catching araneid is the 

Argiope lobata 

unmistakable Argiope lobata, of 

which the enormous females are most easily seen. This is a thermophilous 

species, without any specific bond with brackish water, but frequent along 

the coasts of the central and southern regions. 

The clubionids are very abundant in reed-beds. They are represented by 

many species of the genus Clubonia, in particular C. phragmitis and C. 

stagnatilis, and lycosids, among which Trochosa hispanica and Alopecosa 

pulverulenta are sometimes very abundant. In a study conducted at Valle 

Vecchia, near Caorle in the Veneto region, individuals of these two species 

accounted for more than two-thirds of all spider fauna. 

They are in any case both ubiquitous species, and the former has ever been 

observed to show a slight preference for scrub environments rather than 

open areas.The third quite abundant lycosid, Pardosa prativaga, also 

frequents reed-beds, probably not as its elective habitat, but suboptimal. 

A small salticid, Marpissa nivoyi, moves around on the ground - it is often 

associated with its congener M. radiata, which however prefers to stay on 

the vegetation. 

Mendoza canestrinii also lives among reed stems and, unlike the two 

previous ubiquitous species, shows an obvious preference for reed-beds, 

as does Antistea elegans, of the hahniid family, a hygrophilous species 

which may also be found in water-meadows and other types of damp 

environment. 

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■ Orthopterans and mantids 

The orthopterans and their allies are 

very well represented on the grasslands 

of both fresh- and brackish-water areas. 

Among the characteristic species of 

freshwater marshlands is Metrioptera 

marmorata, endemic to the northern 

Adriatic and found in coastal locations 

between Trieste and Chioggia, where it 

is associated with sedges and rushes. 

This is a highly endangered species: 

Metrioptera brunneri 

previously regarded as extinct, it was 

recently rediscovered at Monfalcone, between the two above cities. The dainty 

Conocephalus fuscus and the larger and sturdier Paracinema tricolor bisignata 

are much more common on the Italian peninsula and islands, and are typical of 

hygrophilous vegetation. The adults frequent grasses like Phragmites, 

Puccinellia and Agropyron, on which they feed and which, at least in the case of 

Xiphidion discolor, they also use as a refuge for their eggs, which are laid inside 

leaf sheaths. Small tetrigids are also typical of wet areas, and are extraordinarily 

well camouflaged on bare ground. The two Italian representatives of the 

tropidopolan acridids are Tropidopola cylindrica cylindrica, widespread in 

rushes and reed-beds on the Tyrrhenian coast and the islands, but increasingly 

rare everywhere because of the reduction of its exclusive habitat, and T. graeca 

transjonica, known only at the mouth of the river Lato in Apulia. 

Brackish-water environments are also rich in typical species. Some of the most 

significant are those of the genus Epacromius: E. coeruleipes and E. 

tergestinus, two acridids with a discontinuous but very ample Palaeo-Arctic 

distribution. In Italy they are found in lagoon areas in the northern Adriatic, and, 

only E. tergestinus, also in Latium. Their close ties with brackish water make 

them good indicator species of sandbanks. The habits of Chrysochraon dispar 

giganteus, a species with Adriatic distribution, little known and considered 

endangered, are probably similar. 

Aiolopus thalassinus, allied with the Epacromius, is less specialised. This 

halophilous and hygrophilous species, despite its name, is not exclusive to 

either brackish-water or coastal areas. Its less stringent requirements are also 

reflected in its more widespread distribution over most of Italy, although it is 

becoming rarer. Conocephalus dorsalis has similar ecological characteristics, 

but is limited to central-northern Italy. 

Endemic species are also found here: on the northern Adriatic coast, between 

the Lagoon of Venice and the Valli di Comacchio, further south, lives Metrioptera 

brunneri, a species exclusive to brackish water, found in sea-lavender and 

glasswort communities on sandbanks, and on the banks of channels with 

Phragmites and Agropyron. It is difficult to observe as it is very elusive. It was 

practically unknown until recently, and is still of uncertain systematic status. The 

southern fauna includes Pterolepis elymica, a tettigoniid endemic to Sicily, so 

far only found along the western coast, from the salt-pans of Trapani to Mazara 

del Vallo, where it is exclusive to brackish and retrodunal environments. This is 

another little-known species, identified only a few decades ago. 

Haloxene species, being thermophilous, appear on higher drier ground. 

Examples are Acrida ungarica mediterranea, generally rare elsewhere, and a 

few mantids, such as the common Mantis religiosa and the elegant Empusa 

fasciata, an oriental species recorded at the mouth of the Tagliamento in the 

Gulf of Trieste. The large Gryllotalpa also lives on raised clay banks, safe from 

exceptionally high tides. Difficult to find, it is often identified by its shallow 

tunnels. In the Lagoon of Venice, some species of the G. sedecim/G. 

octodecim group have been recorded, but can only be precisely identified by 

chromosome counts. A less well-known excavating orthopteran is Xya 

variegata, only about 0,5 centimetre long, rare, and exclusive to sandy or silty 

sedimentary soils, mainly coastal, in which the adults live and reproduce. 

Orthopteran of the genus Gryllotalpa 

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■ Heteropterans 

The typical heteropterans, or true bugs, of brackish-water areas include the 

saldids and several halophilic or halobiontic species found in lagoon and rivermouth 

areas in Italy. Halsosalda lateralis is widespread, although discontinuously, 

along the entire peninsula and on the islands, often in large numbers. In the 

north, they are often found associated with Salda adriatica, a species with 

Pontic-Mediterranean distribution which is not found south of the Po Delta. They 

are highly active daytime predators which frequent the damp mud of banks, able 

to hunt both by sight - they have very large eyes - and by making use of their 

sense of smell, as revealed by their capacity to poke in the mud with their rostra 

until they reach any small annelids or insect larvae. Some species can tolerate 

prolonged immersions, in response to tides in their elected habitat. The 

phytophagous heteropterans include various plant-bugs (mirids) specialising on 

halophytes, including Phytocoris salsolae and several species of Orthotylus, such 

as O. palustris, and O. divisus, in Sicily and Sardinia, and O. curvipennis, only in 

Sicily. They are typical species of glasswort and sea-lavender communities. 

The fauna of freshwater environments consists of a large number of more or 

less ubiquitous species. Among the most characteristic are the lygaeids of the 

genus Cymus, associated with rushes, and the pentatomids of the genus 

Eysarcoris, frequent mainly among sedges. 

Salda adriatica 

■ Coleopterans 

Carabid beetles are well-represented in 

damp environments. Among the large 

Carabus, two species are worthy of 

mention: C. granulatus, very widespread 

and still relatively common at the edges 

of reed-beds, along hedgerows and in 

damp riparian woodlands, where it 

takes refuge and overwinters in rotten 

tree trunks, and the larger and more 

eye-catching C. clathratus, which is 

also able to hunt underwater but is very 

sensitive to environmental change - to 

the extent that it is now extinct in many 

areas, including the marshlands in 

Latium and the Lagoon of Venice. 

Typical of damp environments are 

Carabus granulatus 

species of the Chlaenius and 

Chlaeniellus genera, almost all of which Chlaenius spoliatus 

are brightly coloured. The large 

Chlaenius spoliatus is a voracious predator of talitrids, which it finds in the 

fissures of damp clay soils. 

The many small species grouped until recent times in the vast genus 

Bembidion are also richly represented in damp environments. Among the most 

common and widespread are B. quadrimaculatum and Ocydromus 

tetragrammus illigeri, with their characteristic yellow-marked livery, and the 

more sober Philochthus lunulatus, Notapus varius and Emphanes axillaris 

occiduus (previously known as E. rivularis). Other typical species of this 

environment are the highly abundant Agonum afrum, the elegant and 

unmistakable Drypta dentata, which is common beneath detritus in reed-beds 

but also to be found in marsh woodlands, under the bark of trees, and a group 

of species, long and flat in shape - a fact which allows them to find refuge in the 

hollow stems of reeds: examples are Odacantha melanura, the species of the 

genus Demetrias, Paradromius linearis and the rare P. longiceps. 

Lastly, characteristic of freshwater marshes are various species of Brachinus, 

known for an extraordinarily sophisticated technique aginst attack: small 

quantities of hydrogen peroxide and of an enzyme (catalase) capable of very 

rapidly reducing the former to water, are introduced, with a sudden release of 

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oxygen, into a “blasting chamber” at the top of the abdomen when it is 

compelled to defend itself. The animal can thus produce tiny explosions, 

accompanied by a very hot spray which is directed at the aggressor. This 

phenomenon, which is easily observed, is recorded in the names of some 

species, such as B. explodens, B. sclopeta and B. crepitans. 

The Brachinus are also interesting for the unusual biology of their larvae, which 

develop as parasites on the pre-imago stages of other beetles. B. crepitans and 

B. explodens, for example, feed on the pupae of carabids of the genus Amara. 

Predators also include the many species of staphylinids, among which the eyecatching 

and often very abundant representatives of the genus Paederus stand 

out, and the characteristic Stenus, with their large protruding eyes and an 

extremely unusual extensible mouth apparatus. 

Phytophages dependent on hygrophilous plants include various chrysomelids, 

such as the small Galerucella pusilla which lives on Lythrum, the odd stubby 

Chrysolina, associated with Mentha, like Ch. staphylaea and Ch. polita, but 

most especially various, generally rare, species of the genera Donacia and 

Plateumaris, with their elegant and sleek shapes, the larvae of which develop at 

the expense of numerous aquatic or semi-aquatic plants. The weevils are also 

well-represented: on damp meadows, at some distance from the water, 

significant numbers of species may be found on plants of the knotweed family 

(Polygonaceae), such as Lixus linearis and L. bardanae, which have a 

Brachinus plagiatus 

preference for the genus Rumex, or 

some Rhinoncus, more frequently 

associated with Polygonum. 

Shorewards, the small species of the 

genus Nanophyes are frequent on 

Lythrum, of which the most common is 

N. marmoratus. Tapeinotus sellatus, 

which lives on Lysimachia, is a very 

infrequent species of unmistakable 

appearance, known only in a few sites 

in central-northern Italy. 

Instead, Mononchus punctumalbum is 

very common in the same environment, Cylindera trisignata 

and is easily observed on the flowers 

of its host plant, Iris pseudachorus, where it reproduces at the expense of the 

iris seeds. 

On hydrophytes, there is no lack of curculionids, capable of moving about on 

the water or of spending long periods submerged: examples are the tiny 

Tanysphyrus lemnae, whose larvae develop on duckweed, and the many 

species of the genus Bagous, generally rare and dependent on hygrophilous 

plants like Butomus and Sparganium or on true hydrophytes (Potamogeton, 

Ceratophyllum). 

Various species of anthicids live as saprophages or mycophages on damp 

soil. Some are ubiquitous, like Anthelephila pedestris, others rarer and more 

specialised, like Pseudotomoderus compressicollis and Tenuicomus velox 

bucciarellii - the latter described from specimens collected in the Veneto 

lagoons, but which has not been found for several decades. The small 

sylvanid Psammoecus bipunctatus is also probably mycophagous. It is rarely 

abundant, but is considered an indicator species of reed-beds. 

In brackish-water environments the number of species falls drastically. Among 

the carabids, the cicindelids or tiger beetles appear, hunting on bare ground 

during the hottest hours of the day. There are several halophilous species, 

some very common, such as Calomera littoralis nemoralis and Cylindera 

trisignata, others more localised, such as the Sicilian Cassolaia maura 

cupreothoracica. 

Among the most typical carabids of brackish soils are the pogonines, with 

the genera Pogonus, Pogonistes and Sirdenus (the last found only in Sicily 

and Sardinia), all halobious and at times with more than one species in the 

same site. They live on silty-clayey sediments, sometimes reaching as far as 

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the wet mud on the coastline, as in 

the case of Pogonus littoralis. Many 

species of Dyschiriodes also live in 

these environments. These small 

carabids have fossorial habits, and are 

often to be found in the burrows of the 

staphylinid beetles of the genus 

Bledius, on which they prey. 

Another burrower is the ground beetle 

Daptus vittatus, belonging to the group 

of the harpalines, which includes many 

granivorous species: among these is 

Staphilinid beetle of the genus Bledius 

also Anisodactylus poeciloides, which 

feeds on the seeds of Puccinellia. 

The staphylinid beetles characteristic of these environments include the 

previously mentioned Bledius, which are interesting both because of their 

morphology, the males having long prothoracic and cephalic horns, and their 

breeding habits, which involve the digging of tunnels in which the females 

accumulate small heaps of unicellular algae to serve as food for the newborn 

larvae. Indeed, these staphylinids betray their presence by their excavating 

work, the results of which are easily visible on the bare ground of sandbanks. 

Other staphylinids commonly found in glasswort communities are the small 

pselaphines, with many species including the halobious Brachygluta schueppeli, 

at times highly abundant. Many species of halobious anthicids belong to the 

community of ground-dwelling micro-coleopterans, in particular the genus 

Cyclodinus, together with the heterocerids, represented by species of the genus 

Heterocerus, in particular H. flexuosus, which has a limivorous (silt) diet. 

Phytophages are represented by a good number of haloxene species or only 

locally halophilous ones. There are not many specialised phytophages, but one, 

Chrysolina schatzmayri is of particular interest. It is endemic to the stretch of 

coast between Istria (beyond Trieste) and the Po Delta, where it develops on 

Inula crithmoides. It is associated exclusively with sandbanks, and is generally 

not very common, but numbers may at times be observed on the host plant, as 

happens with many phytophages. Highly localised, but with a wider overall 

distribution, is Bulaea lichatschovi, a pollenophagous coccinellid associated 

with Halimione portulacoides and perhaps other halophile Chenopodiaceae. 

There are also some halophilous species among the curculionids, such as the 

relatively abundant Asproparthenis albicans and the rarer and eye-catching 

Bothynoderes affinis, both associated with Chenopodiaceae. 

■ Lepidopterans 

The lepidopteran fauna of damp environments is quite rich, being a direct 

expression of the floral diversity that characterises at least some of these sites. 

Butterflies include Lycaena dispar, a large lycaenid whose larvae develop on 

hygrophilous Polygonaceae. It is an uncommon species, in decline throughout 

Europe and protected by various international treaties (see also page 139). 

Many moths associated with reed-beds are also characteristic of freshwater 

areas, such as the cossid Phragmataecia castaneae, whose larvae live 

exclusively in reed stems, which they consume for up to two years prior to 

metamorphosis. It is a species with discontinuous distribution along the entire 

Italian peninsula, especially along the coastline. Many noctuids are also found 

in stands of reeds or cattails, such as species of the genus Archanara, never 

very common, whose larvae have endophytic habits, and some species of the 

genus Mythimna, the caterpillars of which consume leaves, such as those of 

the rare Simyra albovenosa and Senta flammea. Various pyralids, like 

Sclerocoma acutella and Chilo phragmitella, are also reed-eaters. 

There is a pyralid moth faunula associated with hydrophytes in stagnant waters 

containing plants with submerged stems and leaves. Acentria ephemerella, a 

very small species of unassuming appearance but of notable biological interest, 

lives on the latter. The females of Acentria may be of two different forms, one 

Lycaena dispar 

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with normally developed wings and the other, more abundant, micropterous 

(with very small wings). The micropterous females never leave the water: they 

live submerged, swimming about propelled by their hair-fringed legs, and mate 

by placing their abdomen against the surface (the males are normally winged). 

The polyphagous habits of the larvae (which attack, for example, 

Ceratophyllum, Elodea and Chara) have led to this species being exploited as 

agents of biological control of alien hydrophytes in North America. Duckweeds 

(Lemna sp.) also host pyralids: the larvae of Cataclysta lemnata may develop on 

them, although not exclusively. 

Brackish-water areas contain a poorer lepidopteran fauna, both because of the 

scarce floral diversity that exists in these difficult environments and, more 

importantly, because many of the plants are not very appetising, only being 

edible for phytophages capable of tolerating the high salt concentrations in 

their tissues. There are no butterflies with halophilous habits, but there are 

various interesting species of moths. These include some endemic species, 

such as Orgyia splendida arcerii (also known as O. dubia arcerii), a small but 

eye-catching halobious lymantriid endemic to Sicily, strictly localised in the 

area between Trapani and Marsala and on the islands of the Stagnone, where it 

feeds on Halimione portulacoides and Suaeda fruticosa. It is at great risk of 

extinction because of its tiny distribution area and the added difficulty of 

dispersal, as the females are wingless, a typical feature of the genus. 

Malacosoma castrense 

Agdistis morini 

More surprising than the endemic 

Sicilian species are the endemic 

lepidopterans in the northern Adriatic – 

two species discovered very recently. 

One of these, Xylomoia stangelmaieri, is 

a medium-sized noctuid (wingspan of 

2.5 cm), so it is surprising that the 

species escaped observation until 

1998. Endemic to the Veneto coast, 

where it is known only in Valle Vecchia 

(Caorle), it frequents saline areas, but its 

biology is still unknown. The second 

endemic species, discovered only in 

2002 in some sites of the northern 

Adriatic but perhaps also distributed 

Caterpillar of Malacosoma castrense 

elsewhere, is Agdistis morini, a 

pterophorid belonging to a genus of 

easily recognisable moths because of 

the unusual Y-shaped posture adopted 

by the adults, which rest with their 

wings folded facing forwards along the 

Caterpillar of Agdistis morini 

main body axis. A. morini, previously confused with its ally A. bennetii (records of 

which still have to be verified in Italy), belongs to a group of Agdistis with 

halobious habits, associated with plants of the genus Limonium. 

Specialised lepidopterans generally live on the vegetation of brackish areas, 

but they are not always distinct species: in some cases, they belong to usually 

haloxene polyphagous species, but locally specialised as halobious. This is the 

case of Malacosoma castrense in the Lagoon of Venice and adjacent areas, 

which lives exclusively in shoal environments with a monophagous diet based 

on Limonium. The adults are unassuming, but the larvae, coloured and 

gregarious in their early stages, are very conspicuous. Occasionally the species 

undergoes a demographic explosion so sensational that, in the early 19th 

century, local naturalists attempted (unsuccessfully) to use the cocoons to 

produce silk. Other halobious species are found among the noctuids, including 

Hadula sodae, H. stigmosa and Lacanobia blenna, associated with halophilous 

Chenopodiaceae and generally considered rare, by virtue of their localisation 

around brackish-water areas, which makes them difficult to find without a welltargeted 

search. They are widespread species but, with their fragmented 

distribution area, they are only known in a few sites along Italian coasts. 

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■ Dipterans 

The dipterans of damp areas which 

undoubtedly attract most attention are 

the culicids, i.e., mosquitoes. More 

than 60 species of haematophagous 

(blood-sucking) mosquitoes have been 

recorded in Italy, many of which are to 

be found in coastal biotopes: along the 

Mosquito of the genus Aedes 

shores of the Friuli and Veneto regions 

at least 27 species have been 

ascertained, of which about ten may be considered to attack man. Not all 

species habitually bite humans: some only do it occasionally, preferring 

livestock, such as Anopheles maculipennis and A. messeae, while others have 

more specialised habits, like Culex hortensis, which only bites frogs and toads. 

The aquatic larvae of the culicids feed on organic particles in suspension, which 

they gather by causing tiny vortexes with their mouth appendages. They are 

habitually found at the surface of the water, where they come into contact with 

the air by means of their abdominal respiratory siphon. 

The species of the genus Coquillettidia are an exception, having a specialised 

siphon with which they bore into submerged plant tissues, exploiting the air 

contained in the parenchyma. The culicids in general are adapted to life in 

freshwater, although there are some which can tolerate or even prefer to breed in 

brackish water: these include Ochlerotatus detritus and O. caspius. The latter can 

tolerate extremely high salinity (above 85 grams/litre) and is one of the species 

which causes most annoyance to humans in the coastal areas. Lastly, there is 

Anopheles sacharovi, which has apparently disappeared from Italy, but was in the 

past the principal vector of malaria in the northern Adriatic coastal areas. 

Microphagous culicid larvae form part of a food chain with other dipterans. In 

freshwater pools, they are one of the main prey for larvae of hybotids of the 

genera Platypalpus and Tachydromia, or muscids of the genus Phaonia. Among 

the predators, the record is probably held by the aggressive empids, such as 

Hilara, Rhamphomyia and Empis, the majority of which are hygrophilous. The 

males gather together in huge swarms during the breeding season, while the 

females sit on surrounding perches, awaiting the approach of a male carrying 

the “gift” of a prey. In the genus Hilara, the males have silk-secreting glands 

with which they produce an empty cocoon as a symbolic gift to take to the 

female. The empids also include species with raptorial legs (genera 

Hemerodromia and Chelifera). 

The metallic green adults of the 

dolichopodids prefer to hunt on the 

ground, chasing their prey on long, agile 

legs. The representatives of other 

families which fly around freshwater 

pools, such as the scatophagids, have 

larvae which feed on the tissues of 

Nymphaea and Nuphar, or the 

sciomyzids, with larvae which are 

predators or parasites of aquatic and Stratiomys chamaleon 

terrestrial molluscs; in both cases, the 

adults are saprophages. The empids are also well-represented in brackish-water 

environments, with halobious species of the genus Drapetis, predators as both 

larvae and adults. Their similar habits mean that they are associated with the 

diminutive halobious hybotids of the genera Crossopalpus and Chersodromia. 

In these environments, the presence of many species of ephydrids, which are 

more or less exclusive, is significant. Representatives are the halophilous 

Paracoenia fumosa - at times highly abundant, various species of the genus 

Scatella, and the two Italian species of the genus Halmopota: H. septentrionalis 

on the mainland and H. mediterraneus in Sicily. The larvae of the latter can 

tolerate wide fluctuations in salinity. Similar tolerance is found in some 

chironomids, dipterans similar to mosquitoes, the males of which gather in 

enormous nuptial swarms next to bodies of water. Their larvae can tolerate 

notable fluctuations in the amounts of chlorides and sulphides, and the sudden 

changes in temperature to which the shallow waters of shoals are often 

subjected. The presence of haemoglobin, which gives the Chironomus larvae 

their characteristic red colour, also permits them to survive in asphyxial mud. 

Lastly, significant dipterans in the damp coastal areas include the stratiomyiids. 

The adults are rarely seen in large numbers, partly because of their poor mobility, 

and partly because, in many cases, they are not very abundant species. The 

group is considered useful as an indicator species, because of the notable 

ecological diversification of its representatives. Among those more obviously 

halophilous are species of the genera Nemotelus and Stratiomys, the latter being 

quite large and with eye-catching yellow and black aposematic colours. In some 

cases, resistance to salinity close to that of seawater has been documented - up 

to 28 g/l for S. singularior. Instead, species of the genus Odontomyia are 

associated with still freshwaters. The representatives of the terrestrial fauna 

include Pachygaster atra, only found in the northern regions of Italy and, as 

larvae, associated with decomposing organic matter in damp environments. 

109

110 111 

Insect fauna of tamerisks 

Marco Uliana 

The tamarisks (Tamarix spp.) are often the 

only trees growing sparsely on halophilous 

grasslands, but they are not very 

appetising for insects. The salts excreted 

by the leaves mean that they are almost 

exclusively eaten by specialised 

phytophages. However, there are more 

than 90 species of these specialists in Italy, 

of which at least 42 are monophagous on 

the genus Tamarix (or, at most, also found 

on the affine genus Myricaria). Only a few 

insects attack the woody parts: these are 

usually generalist xylophages associated 

with dry wood, like termites (Reticulitermes 

lucifugus), bostrichid beetles such as 

Apate monachus, which is polyphagous, 

and Schistocerus bimaculatus, observed 

on tamarisks along the coast near 

Siracusa, in Sicily. The insect fauna on the 

green parts of tamarisks is much more 

abundant, and many specialised species 

live on them. At least 25 species of 

heteropterans, half of which belong to 

the mirids, with their characteristic 

slender shapes, suck the sap. 

Coniatus tamarisci 

The most significant genus is Tuponia, 

with at least nine species present, some 

of which are considered exclusive to 

tamarisks, like T. tamaricis. 

Megalodactylus macularubra is also 

exclusive, and may have population 

explosions that cause great harm to the 

plants affected. There are also many 

species of homopterans found on 

tamarisks, including cicadellids and also 

aphids and coccids. Representatives of 

the former include Opsius stactigalus, 

which is a very widespread species. 

Indeed, this leafhopper is sometimes so 

abundant that the damage caused by 

their piercing apparatus is severe enough 

to cause the tamarisk buds to fall off. 

The coccids include various polyphagous 

species and at least two monophagous 

ones: Chionaspis etrusca, which infests 

the woody parts of the plant, and 

Trabutina mannipara, famous because 

it can secrete large amounts of 

honeydew, which solidifies as the 

“manna” of biblical fame. 

The lepidopterans are also represented 

by various specialists, including the 

pterophorids of the genus Agdistis, 

which can cohabit with congener 

species associated with the 

Plumbaginaceae (see page 107). 

A. tamaricis is very widespread along 

Italian coasts, and its larvae may easily 

be found by shaking the leaves of the 

host plants, on which they live for the 

entire growing season (there are known 

to be up to four asynchronous 

generations annually). There are also 

representatives of the large families of 

noctuids and geometrids: Clytie illunaris 

belongs to the former, an oligophage 

with Mediterranean distribution. 

Various species belong to the latter, 

including the monophagous Eupithecia 

ultimaria, which is known in a few sites 

of central Italy and the islands, and 

which has recently also been reported 

on the northern Adriatic coasts. 

Beetles are represented by small 

species which live on the 

Clytie illunaris 

inflorescences: tiny curculionids of the 

genus Corimalia, the larvae of which 

feed in the floral capsule - they gather 

very abundantly on the spikes, where 

their size and colour allow them to 

blend in with the small fruit. The three 

Italian species of the genus Coniatus 

also belong to the curculionids. 

Their larvae, similar to lepidopteran 

caterpillars, live on tamarisk branches 

adopting the same camouflaging 

techniques as geometrid caterpillars: 

they anchor themselves by their 

abdominal extremities and rear up, 

simulating twigs. When mature, they 

pupate in silk cocoons which, 

depending on species, are placed 

on the ground (C. tamarisci and 

C. repandus) or on twigs (C. suavis). 

The adults of Coniatus are also highly 

mimetic: their body is marked with 

green, brown and pink patterns which 

break up their outline, so that the 

insects merge with the flowers on 

which they live.

Terrestrial vertebrates 

MAURO BON · FRANCESCO SCARTON 

■ Amphibians 

Large brackish-water basins subjected 

to tidal excursions and the deeper 

lagoon channels are not the best 

examples of environments for the 

biological cycle of amphibians. Highly 

variable salinity strongly curtails the 

activities, especially breeding, of most 

anurans - frogs, tree frogs and toads - Green toad (Bufo viridis) 

and renders the habitat completely 

inhospitable for urodels (newts), which are closely associated with freshwater. In 

order to observe these animals, it is therefore necessary to search in scattered 

environments, especially the ditches and pools close to marginal areas and 

cultivated fields, the relicts of freshwater marshes, disused or flooded quarries, 

and peri-fluvial environments with still water and moderate vegetation cover. 

Here, the southern smooth newt (Lissotriton vulgaris meridionalis) may be 

observed and, more rarely, the Italian crested newt (Triturus carnifex). 

Examples of species living in environments rich in shrub and tree vegetation 

are the common toad (Bufo bufo) and the agile frog (Rana dalmatina), 

occasionally also Lataste’s frog (Rana latastei) and, in Friuli, the yellow-bellied 

toad (Bombina variegata). All these species have been affected by the 

elimination of their typical feeding and breeding habitats of woodland edges 

and are now only found in the mosaic of marsh grasslands, in the hedgerows 

and patches of trees present on some fish-farms, or on uninterrupted 

farmland. 

The only amphibian which regularly colonises true lagoonal environments, even 

moderately arid and brackish, is the green toad (Bufo viridis) which, given the 

tolerance of its larvae to moderate concentrations of salt, can breed 

successfully even in the absence of freshwater pools. Bodies of freshwater with 

aquatic vegetation allow the reproduction of the Italian tree-frog (Hyla 

intermedia) and green frog (traditionally referred to the genus Rana, but today 

Flamingos in flight over the Po Delta 

113

scientifically assigned as Pelophylax synklepton esculentus), the adults of 

which also search for food along the edges of brackish-water channels. 

Lastly, the spadefoot toad (Pelobates fuscus) should be mentioned. This 

fossorial species, associated with soft sandy soils, was long considered extinct 

in the coastal areas of the Po plain, but some relict populations have recently 

been identified near Ravenna and Ferrara and in the retrodunal pools of Porto 

Caleri (Rosolina), in the province of Rovigo. 

■ Reptiles 

Reptile communities include various 

species well-adapted to brackishwater 

conditions and soils with little 

tree or shrub vegetation. Among the 

snakes, the checkered water snake 

(Natrix tessellata), with an almost 

exclusively fish diet, grass snake 

Checkered water snake (Natrix tessellata) 

(Natrix natrix) and rat snake (Hierophis 

viridiflavus) find plenty of food. 

The rat snake is one of the most common ophidians in lagoonal and coastal 

areas, where it is as well-adapted to natural environments with herbaceous or 

shrub vegetation as it is to heavily anthropised ones. The distribution of Natrix 

is more rarefied, especially in the Lagoon of Venice, where until the end of the 

19th century the checkered water snake was considered the most common. 

The European pond turtle (Emys orbicularis) is also very frequent, and may 

venture into brackish waters, although it is more often found in freshwater, 

where it is easy to find groups of individuals bathing in the sun to regulate their 

body temperature. 

Other quite frequent reptiles, found mainly in ecotone environments along the 

banks and on the flood plains of deltas and lagoons, include the western green 

lizard (Lacerta bilineata), slow-worm (Anguis fragilis) and the elusive smooth 

snake (Coronella austriaca). The very common wall lizard (Podarcis muralis) is 

extremely widespread in anthropised areas with buildings, while the Italian wall 

lizard (Podarcis siculus), a Mediterranean species in expansion for both natural 

and human reasons, lives prevalently in coastal sites and on some islands in the 

Po Delta and in the lagoons, with a few populations distributed along sandy 

riverbanks further inland. 

In the lagoons of the eastern Veneto and more especially in Friuli, there is some 

contiguity of the farming landscape with the high plains and hills, so that species 

which are now rare still persist, such as the asp (Vipera aspis) and the Aesculapian 

snake (Zamenis longisssimus), two snakes also extremely localised over the 

whole plain and coastal area of the Veneto. Even the common gecko (Tarentola 

mauritanica) can be found in some built-up areas of coast and lagoons. This 

typically Mediterranean species is in expansion northwards, probably by 

accidental transport, as it is found in areas around railway stations and ports. 

The high numbers of red-eared turtles (Trachemys scripta elegans) are mostly 

attributable to their deliberate release in the wild. Many of this American 

subspecies are known locally and the first cases of reproduction have also 

been documented, a prelude to its probable naturalisation. Other subspecies 

(T. scripta scripta and T. scripta troosti) have also been reported more recently, 

often in the same environments - generally urban, suburban or places regularly 

frequented by humans. As regards the rare populations of Hermann’s tortoise 

(Testudo hermanni) at river mouths and in lagoons of the northern Adriatic 

(mouth of the Tagliamento, in the Bosco Nordio and Bosco della Mesola), their 

attribution to relict native populations is still uncertain. 

Lastly, the presence of the sea turtle (Caretta caretta) in internal waters is 

worthy of mention. Specimens of this rare pelagic marine species often 

penetrate into lagoonal waters close to the inlets and sometimes even swim 

slightly upriver. They are almost always juveniles, who frequent the northern 

Adriatic coasts during the summer months. 

114 115 

European pond turtle (Emys orbicularis)

116 117 

Great crested grebe (Podiceps cristatus) 

■ Birds 

In comparison with other Italian 

coastal areas, a great deal is known 

about the birdlife of the northern 

Adriatic lagoons. The rich variety of 

species and abundance of individuals, 

especially in winter, have long 

stimulated the curiosity of both 

professional ornithologists and amateur Black-throated diver (Gavia arctica) 

birdwatchers. However, until the mid- 

20th century, much of this knowledge was closely associated with the world of 

hunting, and it was only from the 1970s onwards that scientific studies and 

monitoring began to be conducted with increasingly rigorous methods. The 

most obvious example of this is the census of overwintering aquatic birds, 

which is conducted every year in mid-January as part of a programme involving 

all the European wetland areas. Many more specific studies have been carried 

out on the migrating or nesting fauna, involving the marking or ringing of 

individual birds and the use of sophisticated techniques like radio-tracking. 

The most important data come from the European midwinter census, which 

has been conducted regularly since the early 1990s, involving thousands of 

experts and birdwatchers every year. The results have ascertained the 

presence of around 500,000 aquatic birds in recent years in the coastal area 

considered here. Most of them are ducks; this figure represents at least 30% of 

the total counted for Italy. 

Coastal seawater. Grebes (Podiceps spp.) and divers (Gavia spp.) are 

common, but not abundant, and are also found in lagoons. Coastal waters are 

exploited in winter by some species of dabbling ducks, such as the velvet scoter 

(Melanitta fusca), common scoter (Melanitta nigra) and the eider (Somateria 

mollissima); they are very rarely observed in lagoon waters. These ducks feed 

mainly on molluscs, crustaceans and echinoderms taken from the seabed with 

dives that may reach depths of 8-10 m. Again in winter, in some areas of the 

northern Adriatic, such as the Po Delta, ducks like the widgeon (Anas penelope) 

demonstrate an interesting example of commuting. During the day, they may 

gather in flocks of hundreds or thousands of birds off the coast, then to return at 

dusk to the fish-farm ponds, to feed during the night. 

During pre- and post-breeding migrations, other species of pelagic birds are 

quite frequently reported: these are the puffin (Puffinus yelkouan), pomerine

skua (Stercorarius pomarinus) and Arctic skua (Stercorarius parasiticus). The 

latter two species practise typical parasitic behaviour (klepto-parasitism) on 

seagulls and terns which carry prey in their beaks, by repeatedly attacking them 

until they drop their prey. 

The gannet (Morus bassanus) is rarer. This species is associated in the popular 

imagination with the sea-cliffs of northern Europe, but in reality it may also be 

observed, especially between March and October, in water-bodies close to the 

Italian coasts. 

Another species, the shag (Phalacrocorax aristotelis), has become very 

common in the last decade along a good part of the northern Adriatic coast, 

following an increase in the nesting populations in colonies situated along 

southern Istria and the Quarnero coast in Croatia. 

Recent studies have collected the first data on the use of coastal waters by 

some gulls and terns which nest in the northern Adriatic lagoons. Among 

these, the most common is the sandwich tern (Sterna sandvicensis), a 

medium-large tern which searches for the fish on which it feeds for distances 

of up to 20-25 km from its nesting colonies on the sandbanks of the open 

lagoons or in the fish-farm basins. Less abundant are the common tern (Sterna 

hirundo), which does not generally move farther than 10-15 km from its 

colonies, and the little tern (Sterna albifrons), which is only rarely observed 

more than 4-5 km from the colonies. 

Littoral belts: sandy shores. There are 

many sandy beaches, extending for 

miles, along the entire Adriatic coastal 

arc. Although some of these littoral belts 

have been almost completely modified 

by the urban development of the 1950s 

and 1960s (as in the case of the Venice 

Lido), others have retained significantly 

natural conditions, such as the beaches 

of the Po Delta and those which border Little tern (Sterna albifrons) 

the Lagoon of Grado-Marano. 

Among nesting species, two birds of notable conservation interest deserve 

special attention, the Kentish plover (Charadrius alexandrinus) and the little 

tern. Both nest directly on sandy shores or at the base of the first dunes. The 

little tern is a colonial species, and the Kentish plover often associates with it 

to benefit from the anti-predator behaviour the tern shows against raptors and 

mammals. Until the early 1980s, both species were common and locally 

abundant, with colonies that reached 200 breeding pairs of little terns along 

the coast of the Po Delta and in the Lagoon of Venice. Both species 

subsequently became rarer, preferring to nest in more internal environments 

like sandbanks or fish-farm basins. 

Another typical species of beaches and their dunes is the oystercatcher 

(Haematopus ostralegus) which, in Italy, has demonstrated one of the clearest 

examples of recovery of a once occupied distribution area. Until the mid-1980s, 

it was estimated that there were just over twenty pairs along the whole Adriatic 

arc, restricted to sandbars in the Po Delta. By the early 1990s, this small 

population had grown, settling for the first time on the sandbars of the Lagoon 

of Grado-Marano, and a few years later the species returned to nest in the 

Lagoon of Venice, after almost a century of absence. Currently, the northern 

Adriatic population is estimated at around 150 pairs. This rapid increase is 

probably due to the arrival of birds from the Balkans and the high breeding 

success that has been observed in recent years. 

118 119 

Common tern (Sterna hirundo) 

The open lagoon: channels, marshlands and sandbanks. For birds which 

frequent the open lagoon, we limit ourselves here to mentioning the presence 

of three ecological-functional groups: diving fish-eating species; those which 

feed on shallow bottoms; and those which nest on sandbanks. 

Among the first, the most common are the great crested grebe (Podiceps 

cristatus) and black-necked grebe (Podiceps nigricollis), the black-throated

diver (Gavia arctica) and red-throated diver (Gavia stellata) and a sawbill, the 

red-breasted merganser (Mergus serrator). They are all very well adapted to 

aquatic life, diving in particular; the position of the legs, set far back on their 

bodies, guarantees a powerful thrust when swimming underwater. The prey, 

generally small to medium-sized fish, are caught with dives to depths of up to 

8-9 metres, and may last for up to two minutes. 

Given their specific feeding behaviour, these species require relatively limpid 

water with a good availability of fish. The January censuses conducted in the 

decade 1997-2006 have counted around 10,000 birds of these species every 

year in the four northern Adriatic areas (Lagoon of Grado-Marano, Lagoon of 

Caorle, Lagoon of Venice, and the Po Delta), of which the most abundant is 

the black-necked grebe. 

Like many other wintering species in the lagoons, these divers are found 

mainly between December and February, at the end of which they return to 

their nesting sites in northern and eastern Europe. 

Parts of the lagoon beds emerge at low tide, thus making extensive loamy-clay 

surfaces populated by invertebrates such as small crustaceans, molluscs, 

polychaetes, etc., available for many species of wading birds. Some waders 

catch their prey on the surface, others sift through the first few centimetres of 

sediment; only the curlew (Numenius arquata) searches to a depth of 10-15 cm, 

which cannot be reached by the other species. 

In winter, the density of waders in the Lagoon of Venice has been estimated at 

4-5 birds/hectare of shallow bed. Their numbers peak between December and 

February, notwithstanding the large numbers of migrating birds which make 

stopovers in the lagoons in spring and autumn. 

Among the different species of waders, the most abundant every year is the 

dunlin (Calidris alpina), which forms flocks of thousands that are easily 

observed in winter or during their migrations. The northern Adriatic lagoons 

host on average around 40,000 dunlin, the Lagoon of Venice being the main 

overwintering site in Italy. The second species in order of abundance (on 

average 3,600 every year) is the curlew, which is particularly common in the 

Lagoon of Grado-Marano. Juveniles are also regularly observed in spring and 

summer, after the adults have returned to nest in northern Europe or on the 

Russian tundra. Grey plover (Pluvialis squatarola), golden plover (Pluvialis 

apricaria) and redshank (Tringa totanus) are the other species most easily 

observed in winter. All these waders also search for food in the fish-farm ponds 

where the water is only a few centimetres deep. 

Much less easy to observe in the open lagoon are the dabbling ducks. They 

only use the emerging mudflats at night, when at least some of them leave the 

fish-farms, where they concentrate in tens of thousands during the day. In 

particular, the widgeon feeds on seagrass leaves and rhizomes. Other species 

of dabbling ducks, such as the mallard (Anas platyrhynchos) and teal (Anas 

120 121 

Curlew (Numenius arquata) Redshank (Tringa totanus)

122 

Black-winged stilt (Himantopus himantopus) 

crecca), prefer to eat seeds and plant 

parts. When shallow seabeds are 

submerged at high tide, the waders 

gather in very precise sites, known as 

roosts, where they await the next low 

tide. These sites, which may be islets, 

sandbanks or artificial structures such 

as piers and platforms, must not be 

submerged at high tide and must not 

contain terrestrial predators; preferably, Teal (Anas crecca) 

they should also be close to the shallow 

beds. In the Lagoon of Venice, a roost which has been used for decades is close 

to the Lido inlet. This site, which hosts up to 10,000-15,000 birds, is the most 

important known roost in the northern Adriatic and, during autumn migrations, 

is also frequented by many other species - for example, the little tern. 

Shoals are another characteristic component of lagoonal morphology. 

Cyclically submerged at high tide, they have dense vegetation cover and an 

internal network of channels and pools. Birds use these sites for feeding, 

particularly along the channels or in the pools at low tide. It is here that waders 

like redshanks, curlews and dunlins feed, but also some dabbling ducks which, 

especially at night, search for seeds and other plant food. 

However, these environments are characterised most obviously by nesting 

species, thanks to the presence of many and on occasion abundant colonies 

composed of hundreds of pairs of terns, gulls and some waders. Although 

sandbanks are regularly submerged, the high tides typical of October and 

November do not generally occur during the spring-summer. Consequently, 

small raised areas, like the heaps of vegetation beached on the sandbanks over 

the previous months, piles of shell fragments and wood debris, are perfect sites 

for laying eggs. The choice of unusual environments like sandbanks is 

explained by their relative tranquillity, the absence or rarity of terrestrial 

predators, and their vicinity to the lagoon waters where food can be found. 

Sandbank colonies are composed of a variable number of breeding pairs, from 

a few dozen up to almost a thousand, almost always of two or more species: 

terns (common tern, sandwich tern, little tern), seagulls (black-headed gull, 

Larus ridibundus, and the Mediterranean gull, Larus melanocephalus) and a few 

waders (mainly redshank, but also the black-winged stilt, Himantopus 

himantopus and the avocet, Recurvirostra avosetta). 

The anti-predator behaviour adopted by colonial species becomes evident 

when a raptor or human being approaches too close. In these cases, all the 

123

124 

Recent artificial environments: landfills and sandbanks 

Much of the current appearance of the 

northern Adriatic lagoons is either the 

direct or indirect result of man’s 

activities in recent centuries. There are 

consequently many environments which 

may in some way be considered artificial. 

In this box, we refer only to the more 

recent creations, constructed since the 

1960s. These are the so-called landfill 

sites and artificial sandbanks. 

The former are true artificial islands, 

obtained by filling shallow lagoon beds 

with mud from dredged channels. 

Three landfills exist in the Lagoon of 

Venice, with a surface area of almost 

1200 hectares. They were completed at 

the end of the 1960s, for the purpose of 

enlarging the industrial zone of Porto 

Marghera. However, the planned 

expansion did not take place, and 

the newly created environments were 

left to spontaneous colonisation by 

vegetation and fauna. 

During spring-summer, they are home 

to large colonies of herring gulls (Larus 

michahellis), but many other species 

also nest: the shelduck (Tadorna 

tadorna), at one time extremely rare 

but now progressively increasing, the 

redshank, oystercatcher and purple 

heron (Ardea purpurea), the extremely 

rare bittern (Botaurus stellaris) and the 

little bittern (Ixobrychus minutus), 

the garganey (Anas querquedula), 

the marsh harrier, and Montague’s 

harrier. For some of these species, the 

landfill sites of the Lagoon of Venice 

are of national importance, hosting 

more than 1% of the estimated nesting 

populations in Italy. Other, smaller 

landfills are to be found in the Lagoon 

of Grado-Marano, at the mouth of the 

river Lisert. 

From the late 1980s onwards, in both 

the Lagoon of Venice and the Po Delta, 

the sediment produced by the dredging 

of channels and inlets has been used to 

construct many artificial sandbanks, 

islets which are generally just above sea 

level and therefore largely submerged 

at high tide. Their average size is 

A herring gull (Larus michahellis) on its nest Oystercatcher (Haematopus ostalegus) 

Mauro Bon · Francesco Scarton 

approximately 10 hectares, so that they 

are much smaller than the landfills. 

This has facilitated the development 

of vegetation similar to that of natural 

sandbanks. Densely vegetated areas 

and others with scattered cover also 

mean that bird species which generally 

look for very different environmental 

characteristics can nest in safety. 

Repeated annual censuses 

demonstrate that there may be at least 

ten nesting species on these sites. 

Some of these (puffin, oystercatcher, 

black-winged stilt and redshank) are of 

important conservation interest and 

their populations may reach dozens 

or hundreds of pairs. 

125

126 

birds rise in flight, trying to force the unwelcome presence to leave by flying in 

circles round the intruder and making short dives. The effects are not always 

those hoped for, as predation of eggs and chicks by Montague’s harrier (Circus 

pygargus) and the marsh harrier (Circus aeruginosus) show. The reaction to the 

presence of a peregrine falcon (Falco peregrinus) is completely different. This 

raptorial species, for some years now has nested on the edge of the Lagoon of 

Venice, and regularly captures the adults of seagulls and terns nesting on the 

sandbanks. 

The majority of species which nest on sandbanks sometimes also breed in fishfarm 

areas, on artificial sandbanks or along the coasts. Recent data indicate 

the nesting on the lagoon sandbanks, excluding those on the fish-farms, of 

around 3000 breeding pairs of various species of Charadriidae, the most 

abundant of which is the redshank (1400-1500 pairs), followed by the common 

tern (600-800 pairs) and sandwich tern (500-700 pairs). 

Redshanks very often nest in isolated pairs on sandbanks. However, when 

there are colonies of gulls and terns, the redshanks, in groups of tens or 

hundreds of pairs, join them. Redshanks have been known in the Lagoon of 

Venice since 1500; currently, the northern Adriatic is the most important nesting 

site not only in Italy but also in the entire Mediterranean. The sandwich tern, 

which at one time bred in Italy only in the Valli di Comacchio, has been nesting 

in the northern Adriatic since 1995, within the Lagoon of Venice. 

Marsh harrier (Circus aeruginosus) 

River mouths: reed-beds. Dense, 

extensive reed-beds, dominated by the 

reed (Phragmites australis), grow at the 

mouths of the rivers which discharge 

into the wetland areas of the northern 

Adriatic. The borders of these 

formations often graduate, through 

increasingly haline plant communities, 

into true sandbank environments. 

Their typical bird fauna is varied, 

although less rich or abundant than in 

the other lagoon habitats. 

Among the nesting species are aquatic Coot (Fulica atra) on its nest 

birds like the water rail (Rallus 

aquaticus), spotted crake (Porzana porzana), little crake (Porzana parva), coot 

(Fulica atra), moorhen (Gallinula chloropus), little bittern (Ixobrychus minutus) 

and probably also the bittern (Botaurus stellaris). Of great importance is the 

presence of some colonies of red heron, especially in the Po Delta, but also at 

the mouth of the Stella (Lagoon of Grado-Marano) and in the Lagoon of Caorle. 

At the edges of the pools which open out like clearings inside the dense reedbeds, 

the great crested grebe, dabchick (Tachybaptus ruficollis), garganey 

(Anas querquedula) and, more rarely, gadwall (Anas strepera) may all nest. The 

marsh harrier is the only raptor which often nests here. 

Lastly, there are many passerines, including the reed bunting (Emberiza 

schoeniclus), great reed warbler (Acrocephalus arundinaceus), reed warbler 

(Acrocephalus scirpaceus) and Cetti’s warbler (Cettia cetti). The bearded tit 

(Panurus biarmicus) is much rarer. 

Fish-farms. The most unusual component of the northern Adriatic coastal arc 

is probably the historical presence of fish-farm ponds, areas which have been 

artificially embanked to separate them from the tidal lagoon basin. 

In the northern Adriatic there is a total of about 22,000 hectares of embanked 

fish-farming ponds; the majority inside the actual Lagoon of Venice (9,500 ha), 

more than 8,000 ha in the Veneto part of the Po Delta, 2,700 ha in the Lagoon 

of Caorle, and 2,000 in the Friuli lagoons. 

The peculiar landscape of fish-farming ponds (see chapter on Conservation 

and Management), with few mudflats or sandbanks but with an abundance of 

water-bodies and riparian environments - as well as the lack of human 

disturbance in comparison with other areas - provides favourable conditions for 

127

128 

aquatic birds, especially dabbling ducks, which gather in the ponds during their 

migrations and to overwinter. 

It is in these vast stretches of water, particularly in the coldest winter months, 

that the greatest concentrations of aquatic birds may be observed. The regular 

winter censuses have demonstrated that, of the approximately 450-500,000 

aquatic birds present each year in the northern Adriatic lagoons, around 80% 

are found in the fish-farming ponds. Some individual ponds, especially in the 

Lagoon of Venice, may host extremely high concentrations of birds, up to 30- 

40,000 individuals, equivalent to 60-80 birds/ha of water surface. 

The dabbling ducks find their optimal habitat in the still, shallow waters of fishfarming 

ponds, with belts of riparian and marsh vegetation, particularly reedbeds. 

The most numerous species in winter belong to this group: in order of 

abundance they are mallard, teal, widgeon, pintail (Anas acuta), shoveler (Anas 

clypeata), shelduck (Tadorna tadorna) and gadwall. Many of these are also 

nesting species. 

Diving ducks, which feed on aquatic plants and molluscs on the bottoms of the 

deeper waters, are much less abundant. The most common species in winter is 

the pochard (Aythya ferina), followed by the goldeneye (Bucephala clangula) 

and the now extremely rare tufted duck (Aythya fuligula). 

The most common swan is the mute swan (Cygnus olor), a sedentary and 

nesting species, following its introduction to rivers and some fish-farming areas 

Pochard (Aythya ferina) Cormorant (Phalacrocorax carbo) 

at the end of the 1980s. It is a territorial species during the breeding season, but 

in winter frequently gathers in its feeding grounds, sometimes forming large 

flocks. Specimens born and ringed in the Lagoon of Grado-Marano are 

regularly spotted in winter in the Lagoon of Venice and nearby rivers. 

Specimens of widgeon, equipped with radio-transmitters, have also moved 

from the Friuli lagoons to the Po Delta. This indicates that, even in midwinter, 

there are movements of birds between the northern Adriatic areas. 

The whooper swan (Cygnus cygnus), a rare winter visitor, and the exotic 

black swan (Cygnus atratus) of Australian origin, incautiously introduced for 

ornamental purposes, are also recorded. Two species of geese regularly 

winter on the fish-farms, especially in those of Caorle and the Friuli lagoons. 

These are the bean goose (Anser fabalis) and white-fronted goose (Anser 

albifrons). 

The greylag goose (Anser anser), at one time only recorded as a migrating 

bird, has recently been introduced and is now widespread in many fishfarming 

areas. 

The cormorant (Phalacrocorax carbo) overwinters in fish-farming basins and, 

more recently, has also nested. As a migrant, it arrives at the end of October 

and leaves in April. The presence of these birds has often led to conflict with the 

fish-farmers, as cormorants - as do herons - prey on fish of commercial interest 

(mullet, eels, etc.). 

129

130 

Similar to the cormorant, but smaller, is the pygmy cormorant (Phalacrocorax 

pygmaeus). The most recent data indicate at least 150-200 pairs, which makes 

the northern Adriatic fish-farms the most important breeding site in Italy for this 

rare species. 

The greater flamingo (Phoenicopterus roseus), a species considered extremely 

rare in past decades, has increased rapidly, to some thousands of individuals in 

the Po Delta and Lagoon of Venice, where the first cases of nesting were 

recorded in 2007. This increase may be due to the success of the colonies in 

central-southern Italy, or to a different migration strategy adopted by the 

species as a result of climate change. The flamingo’s particular method of 

feeding, filtering the top centimetres of sediment through its beak, make it 

particularly susceptible to lead poisoning caused by the ingestion of shot 

contained in cartridges fired by hunters. In recent winters, lead poisoning has 

caused the death of dozens of birds in the Po Delta - dramatic evidence of this 

problem, which has often been ignored. 

The waders found on fish-farms include all those listed previously (grey plover, 

curlew, dunlin, golden plover, avocet, black-winged stilt), together with others 

more associated with farmland, like the lapwing (Vanellus vanellus), which has 

also been nesting for some years, or freshwater environments, like the 

common sandpiper (Actitis hypoleucos) and the snipe (Gallinago gallinago). As 

well as the lapwing, surveys conducted in 2000-2002 have estimated the 

Snipe (Gallinago gallinago) 

presence in fish-farming ponds of 300- 

400 pairs of black-winged stilt, 150- 

200 of redshank, 80-100 of avocet and 

a few dozen pairs of Kentish plover. 

Also worth mentioning is the recent 

nesting of the rare collared pratincole 

(Glareola pratincola), present only in 

one fish-farming pond of the Po Delta. 

There are also various species of terns 

which nest on sandbanks, islets and 

embankments within the fish-farms: 

almost 1000 estimated pairs of common 

tern, 600 of little tern and up to 200 pairs 

of gull-billed tern (Gelochelidon nilotica). 

The last is the tern least linked to the 

presence of water, often hunting 

invertebrates and small terrestrial 

Grey heron (Ardea cinerea) 

vertebrates on farmland. 

Among the larids, the most common is the herring gull (Larus argentatus), 

which is particularly common in fish-farms of the Lagoon of Grado-Marano 

and the northern Lagoon of Venice. Much less abundant as nesters are the 

Mediterranean gull and black-headed gull. 

Of great importance in the fish-farms are heronries, mixed breeding colonies 

of ardeids, on trees, rows of tamarisks or reed-beds, mainly the little egret 

(Egretta garzetta), grey heron (Ardea cinerea), red heron, great white egret 

(Casmerodius albus) and squacco heron (Nycticorax nycticorax), but in some 

cases accompanied by other colonial birds like the cormorant and pygmy 

cormorant. 

Some heronries, especially the largest ones, which may contain up to 800-1000 

nests and have been occupied uninterruptedly for decades; others are more 

ephemeral. Within a heronry, the distribution of the various species tends to 

follow a set pattern: the red heron prefers to build its nest in a reed-bed or on 

shrubs and small trees, while the grey heron sites its nest on the tops of 

medium-tall trees. The squacco heron, little egret and the other species occupy 

intermediate positions. 

There are also reed-beds in the fish-farms, sometimes very extensive closest to 

the freshwater channels. The bird fauna is that typical of the reed-beds 

described above, plus the certainty of the presence of some pairs of bitterns, 

one of the rarest birds in Italy. 

131

132 

Lesser white-toothed shrew (Crocidura 

suaveolens) 

■ Mammals 

Among the various types of wetlands, 

transition environments host the most 

interesting communities of mammals. 

The reed-beds sustain vast populations 

of harvest mouse (Micromys minutus), 

widespread both in more internal 

freshwater areas and in more halophile 

ones. The greatest density of harvest 

mice is recorded in the thickest reed- 

beds, and only marginally in sparse ones mixed with other vegetation. The 

presence of Miller’s water shrew (Neomys anomalus) is also of great faunal 

interest: this swimming insectivore, which is closely linked with lagoonal 

environments, may be very abundant locally. 

Other recorded species are the common wood mouse (Apodemus sylvaticus) 

and the Udine shrew (Sorex arunchi), especially where pure reed-beds degrade 

towards situations with mixed riparian vegetation. In marginally halophilous or 

more degraded environments the lesser white-toothed shrew (Crocidura 

suaveolens) predominates. 

The principal characteristic that determines the high biodiversity of reed-beds is 

probably the link between this type of vegetation and the damp soil rich in 

organic matter in which insects abound - the main prey of many shrews. 

Small mammals in salty meadows are numerically limited but interesting, as 

these environments are periodically submerged by high tides and have loose 

silty soils - conditions that do not permit the building of nests and tunnels. The 

species to be found here are the lesser white-toothed shrew, common rat 

(Rattus norvegicus), house mouse (Mus domesticus) and, more rarely, the wood 

mouse, which occasionally visits these habitats to feed at low tide. 

The richest community of mammals is that of the dry environments bordering 

the wet areas (lagoon edges, fish-farms, agro-ecosystems) where there are 

grassy banks, uncultivated land, and clumps of shrubs and trees. Here, the 

dominant species are the house mouse and wood mouse, which may cohabit 

but which generally indicate two different environmental situations: the former, 

degraded situations or early stages of forested environments; the latter, the 

presence of more highly structured vegetation. Quantitatively, the third place is 

occupied by the ubiquitous lesser white-toothed shrew. 

A series of minor species follow, including the harvest mouse and water shrew in 

marginal reed-beds, and the Udine shrew which frequents wooded areas. The 

northern water vole (Arvicola terrestris) 

is well-adapted to amphibian life and 

inhabits oxbow lakes and channels, 

even small ones, as long as there is 

abundant grass cover on the shores. 

Then there is the field fauna: some 

species of grass voles (Microtus savii, 

M. arvalis and M. liechtensteini) and the 

very common northern mole (Talpa 

europaea). The bicoloured white- Weasel (Mustela nivalis) 

toothed shrew (Crocidura leucodon), 

the tiny pygmy white-toothed shrew (Suncus etruscus), striped field mouse 

(Apodemus agrarius) and ship rat (Rattus rattus) are more localised. 

Among medium-sized mammals, the hedgehog (Erinaceus europaeus) is 

common. Just one lagomorph, the brown hare (Lepus europaeus), is quite 

widespread. Two other species, neither of them native, are present to a very 

localised extent: the rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) and the eastern cottontail 

(Silvilagus floridanus), the latter a native of North America. The coypu (Myocastor 

coypus), a large rodent of South American origin, whose populations originated 

from repeated escapes and releases from fur farms, is now very common and at 

times invasive, especially in the Po Delta and Lagoon of Venice. 

Five species of carnivores are known in the lagoon fish-farms, especially where 

there are embankments and hummocks covered in abundant vegetation: the 

red fox (Vulpes vulpes), badger (Meles meles) and beech marten (Martes foina) 

are all in apparent increase. The weasel (Mustela nivalis), although to a lesser 

extent, appears to be well-distributed over the whole area; the western polecat 

(Mustela putorius) has become very rare and is endangered. The presence of 

the otter (Lutra lutra) in the past should also be mentioned. The fragmented and 

degraded landscape of the Veneto-Friuli plain does not meet the ecological 

requirements of this species (rivers full of fish, with banks thickly covered in 

woodland), so the possibility of reintroducing it at local level is not promising. 

Lastly, bats mainly frequent lagoon areas as places to feed and rest. Knowledge 

of local chiropterans is still very scarce, as bats are one of the most difficult 

groups of vertebrates to study. As well as species which roost in buildings, such 

as the serotine (Eptesicus serotinus), Kuhl’s pipistrelle (Pipistrellus kuhlii) and 

Savi’s pipistrelle (Hypsugo savii), there are others which clearly require 

woodland. These include the noctule (Nyctalus notula), Nathusius’s pipistrelle 

(Pipistrellus nathusii), and Daubenton’s bat (Myotis daubentonii), which prefers 

habitats with plenty of channels and open bodies of water. 

133

Conservation and management 

ANNELORE BEZZI · MAURO BON · FRANCESCO BRACCO · 

FRANCESCA DELLI QUADRI · GILBERTO GANDOLFI · MARIACRISTINA VILLANI 

The lagoons of Grado-Marano and 

Venice still conserve the typical 

characteristics of lagoonal environments, 

even after the major transformations 

effected by the populations settling 

here, with the aim of contrasting 

natural tendencies. 

Examples of this are the river diversions 

carried out by La Serenissima (Republic 

of Venice) to prevent the Lagoon of 

Venice from turning into a marsh, the 

digging of channels for navigation purposes, and the drainage operations in the 

surrounding plain areas. All these large-scale changes have greatly modified the 

original environment, the evolution of which is today closely controlled by human 

actions and no longer due only to natural forces. 

Massive drainage operations were carried out in the hinterland, starting in the 

second half of the 19th century and continuing until the 1960s. Extensive areas 

of lagoon basins, such as the Lagoon of Caorle, which was at one time much 

wider and more mosaic-like, have been transformed into farmland, with the 

loss of the brackish water setting and morphological peculiarities that 

characterise these transition environments. 

The impact that inappropriate economic choices have had on these delicate 

areas is more obvious (the oil refineries and chemical works in the industrial 

area of Marghera and the positions of other industries or electrical power 

stations). The impact on the flora and fauna by the main sources of chemical 

pollution, recognised by law as National Decontamination Sites (Porto 

Marghera, Lagoon of Grado-Marano), are now carefully monitored, as well as 

those of other industrial plants (like that at Po di Pila, one of the several mouths 

of the river Po). 

Eutrophication is another major problem in the lagoons and the Po Delta. Due 

partly to natural causes and partly to climate change, this phenomenon is 

accelerated by dumping of urban sewage and discharges from intensive 

Electric power station in the Po Delta 

Farmland and poplar stands at the mouth of the 

Isonzo (Friuli Venezia Giulia) 

135

agriculture and livestock farms surrounding the lagoon and river areas, and 

fish-farms where feed is distributed. The consequences are increased turbidity, 

abnormal growth of algae, anoxia, with the consequent death of fish, the risk of 

botulism for birds, and changes in the macro-benthic and fish communities. 

The negative effects of these phenomena have direct repercussions on fishing 

and fish-farming activities. 

Considering these problems on a global scale, it is clear that the effects of 

climate change, partly natural but greatly amplified by humans, will lead to a 

rise in sea level, and this will obviously have greater and more rapid 

consequences in transition areas like lagoons. 

The influences of major projects, like that of the MoSE barrage, on the Lagoon 

of Venice, have yet to be understood, but will certainly be significant. 

■ Hydraulic arrangements 

Solutions to problems like flooding in the city of Venice, the constant need to 

dredge shipping channels and regulate the rivers discharging into the lagoon, 

landfills and other interventions that modify the hydro-geological structure of 

these delicate systems, all have considerable repercussions on the biodiversity 

of deltas, estuaries and lagoons. 

After decades of discussion, the decision was made to start building MoSE, a 

series of gigantic barriers, created by raising floating mobile bulkheads fixed to 

the bed of the Lagoon of Venice off the three sea inlets. The aim is to control the 

high tides which cause so much damage to the city. One of the various 

environmental hazards that these barrages will cause, when they function, will 

certainly be a reduction in oxygen turnover. 

The work necessary to build MoSE, with large-scale excavation and flattening 

of the sea bed, coastal reinforcements and raising of banks will all lead to 

additional effects. 

Any type of movement inside the lagoons involves the danger of re-suspension 

of materials deposited as a consequence of the chemical industries in the area. 

Porto Marghera and the Lagoon of Grado-Marano are two of the National 

Decontamination Sites. One example of the problems caused is the enormous 

difficulty of dredging internal shipping channels which become silted up by 

normal lagoon dynamics, as dredging involves disturbing sand which, among 

other things, contains mercury. 

Landfills. Special rules protect and regulate the Lagoon of Venice, a unique 

jewel in the artistic, historical, architectural and natural world. However, these 

rules and suggestions often come into conflict with the local economy. One 

specific result of this is the creation of landfill sites. These are wide lagoon 

areas, once occupied by marsh grasslands, which were drained in the 1960s 

and surrounded by embankments for what was to become the third industrial 

zone of Venice - a project later abandoned. 

Mud produced from the excavation and dredging of the shipping channels 

was poured into these areas which, after being abandoned, were re-colonised 

by a rich flora and fauna, probably due to their environmental diversity. The 

substrates are characterised by soil of varied grain sizes; pools of water form 

on the irregular surface; alternatively, salt water penetrates. The landfills have 

therefore become biotopes of natural interest. Halophilous, psammophilous 

and hygrophilous habitats have been recreated, together with brackish-water 

pools with submerged vegetation. 

Conversely, as happens along the beaches and in the coastal wetlands, alien 

species have been recorded as growing in the landfills, constituting a threat to 

native plants because of their invasive potential. 

Species include Baccharis halimifolia, an aster of American origin, the North 

American false indigo (Amorpha fruticosa), which may form extensive shrub 

cover, and the oleaster (Elaeagnus angustifolia), originating from temperate Asia 

and introduced into Italy as an ornamental shrub. As regards the importance of 

landfill sites for birds, see the box on pp. 124-125. 

136 137 

False indago (Amorpha fruticosa)

■ Alien animal species 

One of the most urgent problems, also considered as such by the Italian 

Ministry of the Environment, is the continuous introduction of alien species into 

Italy. 

As regards the lagoons, three types of alien animal species are of particular 

importance: 

● Philippine clams: despite the ban of Italian decree no. 120 of 12 March 2003 

(implementation of the EU Habitats Directive), these clams are still “sown”, as 

they are of high economic value. The fishing and dredging operations involved 

in clam farming (described in the section on birds) have a strong negative 

impact on the native macro-benthic communities, and clarification is foreseen 

at European Union level; 

● alien species are transported by ships, especially to Porto Marghera and 

Porto Nogaro). Recent studies have demonstrated that a large number are 

introduced into the Lagoon of Venice and some thrive, to the detriment of local 

species; 

● species “foreign” to the lagoon fauna are introduced when jetties, breakwaters 

and shipping channel markers are built, as they introduce a “hard” substrate 

into an environment which previously had an exclusively soft one. Several 

interesting studies have been carried out on this subject. 

■ Legal constraints and protected 

species 

138 139 

Fish-farm ponds “re-flooded” at Valle Vecchia (Caorle, Veneto) 

The lagoon areas and coastal zones 

near the river mouths include a plentiful 

collection of habitats, which mainly 

include environments identified on a 

geomorphological basis, such as the 

estuaries (identified in Annex I of the 

Habitats Directive [92/43/EC] as code 

1130), the muddy or sandy flats that 

emerge at low tide (1140) and the 

coastal lagoons (1150) - these last with Sea-lavender (Limonium narbonense) 

an asterisk indicating their priority value. 

The series of psammophilous and halophilous vegetation is also covered by the 

Habitats Directive, with more precise definitions based on the plant communities 

present. These include the Spartina maritima grasslands (code 1320), the 

Mediterranean flooded pastures of the maritime order Juncetalia (1410) and, 

among the priority habitats, the Mediterranean salty steppe grasslands of 

Limonietalia (1510) and herbaceous vegetation of grey dunes (2130). 

The estuarine and lagoon areas host floral species of notable biogeographical 

value. There are endemic species like Stipa veneta, described as a new species 

in 1986 for the Lagoon of Venice and later also found at the mouth of the 

Tagliamento. There are also species which reach the limits of their distribution 

area in this territory. This is the case of Trachomitum venetum which, from 

Mongolia and Manchuria, crossed the deserts of central Asia and reached the 

western limit of its distribution on the northern Adriatic coast. 

Among invertebrates, the small butterfly Lycaena dispar is a protected species 

under the Habitats Directive (Annexes II and IV), and is also on the IUCN and 

Bern Convention lists. The situation for this lycaenid, widespread in Europe, is 

worrying almost everywhere, as it is already considered extinct in some 

countries and close to extinction in others. The reasons for this collapse are the 

disappearance of its chosen habitat - the water meadows of hygrophilous 

polygonaceae of the genera Rumex and Polygonum on which these small 

butterflies feed. In Italy, Lycaena dispar is only to be found in the central-north, 

and more especially along the northern-Adriatic coast, where it is irregularly 

distributed in the few remaining wetland areas, fish-farming ponds in particular. 

The Habitats Directive also protects some significant species of the 

characteristic fish fauna of these environments (see p. 151).

140 

These environments are protected by 

European laws, mostly on the basis of 

the Habitats Directive, thanks to which 

important parts of Italian territory have 

been set aside for conservation: the 

Lagoon of Caorle, mouth of the 

Tagliamento, Laguna del Mort with the 

pinewood of Eraclea, Lagoon of 

Venice, Lagoon of Grado-Marano, and 

the Po Delta have all been recognised 

and designated as S.C.I. (Sites of 

Community Interest). Many of them are 

also protected as Regional Parks. 

The Waters Directive 2000/60/EC 

(implemented by Italian law no. 152 

of 3 April 2006) is of enormous 

importance. It defines an estuary as the 

area of transition at the mouth of a river 

between freshwaters and coastal waters, the external seaward limits of which 

are defined by a Decree of the Italian Ministry of the Environment - temporarily, 

these limits are set at 500 metres from the coastline. The Directive also defines 

transition waters as the bodies of surface water close to the mouth of a river, 

which are partly saline because of their vicinity to coastal waters, but which are 

substantially influenced by flows of freshwater. 

Lagoons are important water-bodies, so that the ecological and chemical state 

of their waters must be monitored and evaluated. Estuaries and deltas are 

considered as surface watercourses, and monitored if they are important, i.e., if 

they belong to: 

● natural watercourses of the first order (i.e., those discharging directly into the 

sea), the catchment area of which is more than 200 km 2 ; 

● natural watercourses of the second order or above, the catchment area of 

which is more than 400 km 2 . 

Regarding discharge of industrial waste, the Italian D.M. of 30 July 1999 

(following Art. 5 of the D.M. of 23 April 1998), lays down the water quality 

requisites and the characteristics of water purification plants for the protection 

of the Lagoon of Venice. It also sets the limits for industrial and urban sewage 

discharges that enter the Lagoon of Venice and the water-bodies in its drainage 

basin. Substances include various heavy metals, PAH (polycyclic aromatic 

hydrocarbons) and pesticides. 

■ Fish fauna 

Fish species resident in the lagoon, 

estuary and delta environments of 

Italian coasts do not seem to be under 

serious threat, because of their great 

capacities for adaptation. 

However, it is evident that local 

extinctions may occur if populations 

are subjected to major alterations in 

their habitats. The phenomenon may 

become worrying when it regards 

endemic species with a small 

distribution area, like Canestrini’s goby 

(Pomatoschistus canestrinii), lagoon 

goby (Knipowitschia panizzae) and 

Pomatoschistus tortonesei. 

Instead, much more serious problems 

affect species which undertake potamodromous migrations towards rivers, all 

of which are considered to be in risk categories. In particular, the two species of 

migratory lamprey and three species of sturgeon are included in the IUCN lists 

as threatened or vulnerable taxa. The reasons for their vulnerability are 

extensive water pollution and, more especially, the presence of insurmountable 

obstacles in the watercourses prior to reaching the areas where these species 

spawn. They are all inserted in the Habitats Directive, which has legal status. 

Together with the lampreys and the twaite shad (Alosa fallax) (Annexes II, IV, V), 

the South European toothcarp (Aphanius fasciatus) (Annex II) and the endemic 

lagoon goby (Annex II) are also recorded. 

Severe environmental degradation has contributed to a reduction in sturgeon 

populations. As these fish are of great importance for the Habitats Directive 

(Acipenser naccarii and A. sturio are priority species), precise plans of action 

exist for their reintroduction, especially in the Po basin and its estuary and delta 

areas. 

Although not yet inserted in the lists of species at risk, there has also been a 

diminution in the flow of juvenile eels migrating into Italian estuaries in recent 

years - a phenomenon occurring in all European waters. In this case, as well as 

difficulties of movement and growth in internal waters for the above reasons, 

there is the added problem of the increased removal of young eels to be reared 

in fish-farms over extensive areas. 

Breakwater at the mouth of the Fiora (Latium) Goby 

141

142 

■ Bird fauna 

The bird fauna of deltas and lagoons 

include many species listed in the Birds 

Directive. Some of the species in 

Annex I have nesting or overwintering 

populations of nation-wide importance: 

cormorant, little egret, great white 

egret, red heron, marsh harrier, blackwinged 

stilt, avocet, marsh tern and 

sandwich tern, to cite the most 

important. These populations are so 

large that many lagoon and coastal 

biotopes have been designated as 

Z.S.P. (Zones of Special Protection), the largest of which are the Po Delta 

(IT3270023), Lagoon of Venice (IT3250046), Lagoon of Marano (IT3320037) and 

mouth of the Isonzo - Isola della Cona (IT3330005). 

Each of these single areas, together with the Lagoon of Caorle, host population 

of more than 20,000 overwintering aquatic birds, which is one of the criteria 

indicated in the Ramsar Convention for defining a wetland of international 

importance. As an example, in the period 2004-2008, the Lagoon of Caorle 

hosted an average of 29,731 birds, the Po Delta 131,790 and the Lagoon of 

Venice 212,210. In the Lagoon of Venice alone, in the same period, 9 species 

(great white egret, shelduck, wigeon, pintail, teal, mallard, coot, dunlin and 

black-headed gull) exceeded criterion B6, which provides for the regular 

presence of at least 1% of the biogeographical population of a species or 

subspecies. 

Therefore, considering only the populations of overwintering aquatic birds, the 

Lagoon of Venice responds, in 10 cases, to the objective criteria of the Ramsar 

Convention, each of which, considered separately, would be sufficient for the 

designation of a wetland of international importance. 

In spite of the apparent level of protection, the bird fauna of Italian lagoons and 

deltas is subject to many kinds of pressure, which may constitute strong threats 

to the presence and/or breeding success of many species. The most important 

of these threats include: 

● massive urbanisation of the coastline, especially during the mid-20th century, 

and great increases in the numbers of bathers and visitors on the last 

stretches of unspoilt coast. The latter phenomenon is much more recent and 

has caused a reduction in the numbers of some species which breed near 

sandy shores or on dunes. Examples 

are the Kentish plover and puffin, 

species of EU interest, which have now 

abandoned the coastlines to breed in 

lagoons or fish-farming areas; 

● the progressive disappearance of 

the system of sandbanks, due to widespread 

erosion of mainly human origin, 

especially in the Lagoon of Venice, is 

reducing the availability of suitable 

nesting sites for many birds, such as 

the redshank, common tern and sandwich 

tern. These environments are also 

those most exposed to the expected 

rise in sea level; 

Kentish plover chick Flamingos in the Cervia salt-pan (Emilia 

Romagna) 

● Philippine clam fishing, which involves hundreds of boats, is modifying the 

morphology, texture and composition of the macro-benthic populations of vast 

areas of shallow lagoon beds. One of the feared effects - and in some cases 

already verified - is a reduction in the numbers of limicolous or fish-eating birds 

that feed in these stretches of lagoon; 

● in the last few years, management practices operated by private individuals 

who own fish-farming ponds have been aimed at increasing the numbers of 

aquatic birds for hunting purposes, especially those overwintering, rather than 

traditional fish-farming activities. On one hand, the increase in bird numbers is 

undeniable, and in many cases has doubled over the course of a decade; on 

the other, the effect on overwintering bird populations of lead poisoning, 

caused by the ingestion of lead shot in surface sediments, must be evaluated 

more rigorously. Recent flamingo deaths in the Po Delta have demonstrated the 

seriousness of this threat. 

As repeatedly proposed, management responses to these pressures must be: 

● the reduction and control - a total ban not being practicable - of human disturbance 

in specific coastal areas, together with information to habitual users 

(tourists, but also local residents) about the aims of conservation; 

● limitations to shipping in the environmentally sensitive Lagoon of Venice; 

another proposal is that the management of some areas should be entrusted to 

local fishermen, and controls in other areas should be increased, so that they 

are all managed according to a pre-eminently conservationist point of view. 

Recent laws envisage banning the use of lead shot in the Zones of Special Protection 

from 2009 onwards. 

143

Teaching suggestions 

MARGHERITA SOLARI 

■ Evolution of the coastline 

● Aims: to stimulate awareness of the 

environment; to encourage respect for 

the land and its conservation; to develop 

an understanding of the continual 

evolution of the coastline and coastal 

environments in general; to develop 

the ability to study an area through a 

literature search and exploration in the 

field, using a variety of sources; to 

Shipping channel in the Lagoon of Grado-Marano 

Adriatic coast in the Po Delta area 

stimulate verification and investigation in the field of information acquired from 

the literature; to develop the capacity for observation, analysis, comparison 

and interpretation of the data collected; to develop the ability to interpret natural 

phenomena observed. 

● Level: secondary-school pupils. 

● Equipment: bibliographical material (geographical, topographical and historical 

maps); proper clothing for the field excursion; compass and camera; stationery 

goods for producing a teaching panel. 

● Possible collaborators: teachers of the humanities and natural sciences; a 

nature guide and field excursion assistants. Evaluate the possibility of making a 

short excursion on a tourist boat in a lagoon. 

PRELIMINARY STAGE 

1. Literature search on the area to be studied. There are a variety of maps 

available for some areas of the northern Adriatic (for example, showing the 

evolution of the coastline near the Lagoon of Grado and mouth of the Isonzo, 

and for the Po Delta area). Prepare geographical maps on different scales, plus 

topographical and/or historical maps. Examine scientific papers on the evolution 

of the studied territory, highlighting the most significant parts, ensuring that they 

are within the grasp of the pupils. Examine the archaeological evidence by 

analysing the sources (finds exhibited in museums, archaeological digs, 

145

146 

descriptions in the literature), concentrating particularly on the documented use 

of the territory in pre-Roman, Roman, medieval and modern times. 

2. Identify a suitable area for the field excursion, during which the pupils can 

observe the coastal environment, evaluating its characteristics and peculiarities. 

CLASSWORK 

3. Describe the evolution of the coastal environment from the geomorphological 

viewpoint, with further analysis of deltaic characteristics in particular, both riverand 

wave-dominated. Pupils should use a panel to prepare a diagram of a delta 

showing its three typical zones: delta plain, delta front and pro-delta. Study the 

morphologies of the delta plain (distributary channels, lagoons, shoals, tidal 

flats, sandbars and dunes, mudflats, islands, tidal creeks). Analyse the 

influence of river and sea waters on the various types; study the physical and 

chemical characteristics of the various habitats and submerged vegetation. 

FIELD EXCURSION 

4. During an excursion with the nature guide to the chosen delta observe the 

various environments and compare then with the delta layout described in class. 

5. Divide the pupils into pairs, each of which will take photographs of the 

different environments, accompanying then with a brief description. Teach 

pupils how to use the topographical maps in the field, and how to use a 

compass. Visit any archaeological sites in the vicinity. 

6. If possible, include an excursion in a tourist boat and guided observation of 

the various environments in a lagoon. 

Variation in the coastline at Grado (Friuli 

Venezia Giulia); in red: traces of a Roman road ) 

ONGOING CLASS WORK 

7. Print the photographs taken by the 

pupils and add them to the diagram 

showing the delta. 

8. Organise group research, using the 

bibliographical sources, on coastline 

evolution from pre-Roman times until the 

present. Examine writings, historical 

maps, archaeological finds, etc. 

Summarise the information acquired and 

draw a diagram to illustrate the evolution 

of the delta (or lagoon) over the last 2000 

years, on a smaller scale than the initial 

diagram, to place next to it. 

Mouth of a river along the Ionian coast (southern Italy) 

9. Search through bibliographical and perhaps also oral sources, for information 

on the use of the territory and coastal waters by man: activities of drainage, 

dredging, fishing, construction of fish-farm ponds, fish-farming and molluscfarming, 

etc. Discuss the consequences of water regulation, which may 

influence the dynamics of the coastline, even in areas far from river mouths. 

10. Discuss the factors that influence the evolution of deltas and lagoonal 

environments, and ongoing changes in the territory. 

11.Hold a final discussion in class on man’s use of the territory and the 

necessity for suitable management and conservation. 

■ Molluscs 

● Aims: to develop knowledge of different species of molluscs and their way of 

life; to stimulate capacities for observation, analysis and comparison; to stimulate 

knowledge of the environment, and to encourage respect for and conservation 

of it; to enhance awareness of the fact that exploitation of environmental 

resources for economic reasons must first safeguard the environment itself. 

● Level: primary-school pupils. 

● Equipment: literature; camera; material for building a display case (approximately 

30 x 30 cm) for observation and comparison of mollusc shells. 

● Possible collaborators: nature guide or expert malacologist, both in class 

and in the field; assistants for the field excursion. 

PRELIMINARY STAGE 

1. Search for bibliographical material with photographs and drawings that 

illustrate the morphologies and life-styles of the most common bivalves and 

gastropods of sandy coasts, deltas and lagoons in particular. 

2. Buy edible bivalves and gastropods from a fishmonger (clams, mussels, 

razor shells, cockles, scallops). 

147

148 

How to identify molluscs 

More than 1,200 species of gastropod 

and bivalve molluscs are extimated to live 

in the Mediterranean. Many are easily 

identified by observing the shells which 

are commonly found among the materials 

stranded by high tides in winter. 

To identify a species, the following points 

must be taken by examine: colour and 

shape of the shell, and presence of more 

or less marked growth rings, ribs, 

tubercles or spines on the exterior. In 

bivalves, the hinges and scars left on the 

interior by adductor muscles and mantle 

(pallial line) are also good indicators. In 

the case of gastropods, it is necessary 

to count the whorls on the spire, relating 

them to the height of the shell. 

Bivalves: 1. Glycymeris glycymeris (height 5 

cm); 2. Venerupis sp. (width 2.1 cm); 3. Callista 

chione (h 5.3 cm); 4. Mytilus galloprovincialis (h 

2.5 cm); 5. Acanthocardia tuberculata (h 4 cm); 

6. Lucinella divaricata (h 0.6 cm); gastropods: 

7. Tricolia pullus (h 0.8 cm); 8. Bittium 

reticulatum (h 0.9 cm); 9. Cyclope neritea (h 0.8 

cm); 10 and 11. Bolinus brandaris (h 5 cm) 

Elongated spire, 

smooth (7) or tuberculate (8) 

7 

smooth 

shell 

with flat spire 

8 

height 

of 

spire 

teeth 

cardinal 

teeth 

tubercles 

Maria Manuela Giovannelli 

hinge 

attachment of 

adductor muscles 

pallial sinus 

pallial sinus 

ribs 

hole made by a 

gastropod 

predator 

Left: note that two different species of gastropods of 

the same height may have a very different number of 

whorls. Below: two examples of the same species in 

which the dark patches (10) indicate growth in an 

oxygen-poor environment, and the presence of spines 

(11) is an adaptation of the specimen to a mobile 

substrate. 

siphonal canal 

the two 

closed 

valves 

seen 

from 

above 

1 2 

3 

5 6 

9 10 11 

legament 

hinge without 

teeth 

4 

spines 

3. Identify an accessible stretch of beach, in the vicinity of a delta or lagoon, for 

a brief field excursion with the pupils. 

FIELD EXCURSION 

4. Field excursion (preferably in winter months when heavy seas are more 

frequent). Divide the pupils into groups and organise collections of beached 

bivalves and gastropods, with initial sorting of this material, to be done on site 

with the assistance of the expert. Only whole, empty shells should be collected, 

in plastic bags. 

ONGOING CLASS WORK 

5. Prepare the gathered material (after washing with water and air-drying). 

6. Study the life-styles of bivalves and gastropods (filter-feeders, predators, 

necrophages, etc.); observation of drawings and diagrams. 

7. Examine purchased molluscs (open bivalves in hot water). Observe the 

mollusc, its foot, adductor muscles, siphons, and the ligaments which close 

the valves, and also the internal and external morphology of the shell. 

8. With the help of the malacologist and consulting easily available manuals, 

identify the shells gathered on the beach, attributing both the Latin and 

English names to each one, whenever possible. Divide the material into small 

trays or cardboard boxes without lids, write out labels, indicating the names of 

the animal, date and place of collection, type of habitat, etc., and prepare the 

display case, preferably with a glass cover. 

9. The malacologist should give a talk on the limiting factors (grain sizes of the 

bed, salinity, energy, temperature) which characterise the seabed and 

influence the distribution of benthic molluscs on the various substrates in 

deltaic environments, with examples of the species found in them. 

10. Observe the specimens which show particular characteristics or different 

adaptations, since these provide important clues on environment and life-style. 

11. Also note the presence, even in specimens of the same species, of 

thickened shells and longer spines in those which live on a sandy substrate, 

different colours, predation holes, etc. 

12.Mention the farming of mussels and other molluscs: methods of rearing and 

harvesting, factors influencing the distribution of these production activities, 

effects of pollution, presence of alien species, eco-compatible management 

practices, etc. Conclude with a discussion in class on the biodiversity that 

characterises the seabed, on pupils’ ability to identify the most common 

species of bivalve molluscs and gastropods, and on the correct management 

of coastal environments by man. 

149

Select bibliography 

AA.VV., 2004 - Atlante faunistico della provincia di Venezia (“Atlas of fauna in the province of Venice”). 

Provincia di Venezia - Associazione Faunisti Veneti. 257 pp., Venezia. 

A volume gathering information on the birds and mammals in the province of Venice, of particular interest 

for the data on lagoon fauna. 

AA.VV., 2007 - Atlante degli anfibi e dei rettili del Veneto (“Atlas of amphibians and reptiles in the Veneto”). 

Ediciclo ed., 239 pp. Portogruaro (Venezia). 

A substantial volume covering the distribution and ecology of amphibians and reptiles in the Veneto 

region, with many details on coastal and lagoon species. Up-to-date, with many illustrations and 

distribution maps. 

BONDESAN A., MENEGHEL M. (eds), 2004 - Geomorfologia della provincia di Venezia: note illustrative della 

carta geomorfologica (“Geomorphology of the province of Venice: explanatory notes to the 

geomorphological map”). Esedra Editrice, Padova. 

An important work providing a summary of the latest scientific knowledge on the geomorphology of the 

area. Contains interesting and detailed chapters on transition environments. The map (scale 1:50,000) is 

available as a paper copy and on a CD-Rom. 

FRACASSO G., VERZA E., BOSCHETTI E. (eds.) ANNOOOO – Atlante degli uccelli nidificanti in provincia di 

Rovigo (“Atlas of nesting birds in the province of Rovigo”). Provincia di Rovigo, 151 pp., Rovigo. 

A well-illustrated atlas on the distribution of nesting birds, especially in the coastal wetland areas of the 

Po Delta. 

FURNARI G., GIACCONE G., CORMACI M., ALONGI G., SERIO D., 2003 - Biodiversità marina delle coste italiane: 

catalogo del macrofitobenthos (“Marine biodiversity of the Italian coasts: catalogue of the 

macrophytobenthos”). Biologia Marina Mediterranea 10(1), 482 pp. 

A text with up-to-date nomenclature, listing the macroalgae and seagrasses found along Italian 

coasts. 

GAMBI M.C., DAPPIANO M., 2003 - Manuale di metodologia di campionamento e studio del benthos marino 

mediterraneo (“Manual of sampling and study methods of the Mediterranean marine benthos”). Biologia 

Marina Mediterranea 10 (suppl.), 638 pp. 

A volume with many chapters, two of which describe macroalgae and seagrasses. 

GATTO F., MAROCCO R., 1992 - Caratteri morfologici ed antropici nella Laguna di Grado (Alto Adriatico) 

(“Morphological and anthropogenic characteristics in the Lagoon of Grado (Northern Adriatic)”). Gortania, 

14: 19-42. 

A paper on the morphological characteristics and human interventions in the Lagoon of Grado, with a 

geomorphological map, scale 1:25000. 

GUERZONI S., TAGLIAPIETRA D. (eds.), 2006 - Atlante della laguna, Venezia tra terra e mare (“Atlas of the 

lagoon, Venice between land and sea”). Osservatorio naturalistico della Laguna del Comune di Venezia, 

Venezia, 242 pp. 

An environmental atlas of the Lagoon of Venice, with 103 thematic maps and a CD. 

KJERFVE B. (ed.), 1994 - Coastal lagoon processes. Elsevier, Amsterdam, 577 pp. 

Monograph on lagoon ecology. 

MCLUSKY D.S., ELLIOTT M., 2004 - The estuarine ecosystem, ecology, threats and management. Oxford 

University Press, New York, 214 pp. 

A textbook on the ecology of estuaries. 

PARODI R., 1999 - Gli uccelli della provincia di Gorizia (“Birds of the province of Gorizia”). Comune di Udine 

- Museo Friulano di Storia Naturale, publ. no. 42, 356 pp., Udine. 

An up-to-date and detailed volume, with many references to the bird fauna of the Friuli lagoons. 

PRANZINI E., 2005 - La forma delle coste (“Coastal landforms”). Zanichelli, Bologna. 

The first work in Italian devoted entirely to coastal geomorphology, it examines processes and 

morphologies of all coastal environments, with Italian and international examples. 

151

152 

RELINI G., BERTRAND J., ZAMBONI A. (eds.), 1999 - Sintesi delle conoscenze sulle risorse da pesca dei fondi 

del Mediterraneo centrale (Italia e Corsica) (“Summary of knowledge on bottom fishery resources in the 

Central Mediterranean (Italy and Corsica)”). Biologia Marina Mediterranea, 6 (suppl. 1): 868 pp. 

A collection of profiles of the principal species fished on the Mediterranean seabed. 

RIEDL R., 1991 – Fauna e flora del mediterraneo (“Fauna and flora of the Mediterranean”). Franco Muzzio. 

Padova, 777 pp. 

Manual of the flora and fauna of the Mediterranean, an essential text for marine naturalists. 

SEGERSTRALE S.G., 1959 - Brackishwater classification, a historical review. Archivio di Oceanografia e 

Limnologia, 11 (suppl.): 7-33. 

The original text defining the “Venice System” for zoning estuaries and lagoons on the basis of salinity. 

TRAINITO E., 2005 - Atlante di flora e fauna del Mediterraneo (“Atlas of flora and fauna of the 

Mediterranean”). Il Castello Editore, Milano, 256 pp. 

A volume with many colour photographs, useful for identifying macroalgae and animal species. 

ZERUNIAN S., 2002 - Condannati all’estinzione? Biodiversità, biologia, minacce and strategie di 

conservazione dei pesci d’acqua dolce indigeni in Italia (“Condemned to extinction? Biodiversity, 

biology, threats and conservation strategies of indigenous freshwater fishes in Italy”). Edagricole. 

Bologna, X+220 pp. 

This book examines 48 taxa, including anadromous and catadromous migratory species, and some 

species resident in brackish waters. It also discusses aspects of conservation. 

Glossary 

> Alien: a species that does not belong to the 

original fauna or flora of a given area, but reaches 

it by the direct intervention, intentional or 

accidental, of man. 

> Anthropophile: an organism which frequents 

humans and/or anthropised areas. 

> Benthos: in freshwater and marine 

ecosystems, the collection of organisms attached 

to or resting on bottom sediments and those 

which bore or burrow into sediments. 

> Bioindicator: an organism with ecological 

characteristics that provide useful indications on 

the quality of the environment in which it lives. 

> Brackish: applied to water which contains salt 

but is less salty than the sea. 

> Byssus: in bivalves, a tuft of strong filaments 

secreted by a gland in a pit (byssus pit) in the foot 

and used for attachment. 

> Detrivorous: feeding on debris or dead 

material. 

> Ecotone: a narrow, fairly sharply defined 

transition zone between two or more different 

communities. 

> Endemic: related to a species or other 

taxonomic group which is restricted to a particular 

geographic region, owing to factors such as 

isolation or climatic conditions. 

> Euryhaline: able to tolerate a wide range of 

salinity. 

> Eurythermic: able to tolerate a wide range of 

temperatures. 

> Eutrophic: nutrient-rich waters with a high 

organic content. 

> Exoskeleton: rigid external structure of an animal 

with functions of support, cover and protection. 

It is calcified in decapod crustaceans. As its 

rigidity impedes growth, the organism must moult 

periodically to substitute the old exoskeleton with 

a larger new one. 

> Fossorial: applied to an organism which lives 

by burrowing in sediments. 

> Granulometry: physical properties that identify 

the particles of a sediment on the basis of size. 

The basic particle sizes, in increasing order, are 

clay, silt, sand and gravel. 

> Haematophage: an organism which feeds on 

blood. 

> Hydrophile: an organism which prefers wet 

environments. 

> Hydrophyte: a plant that is adapted morphologically 

and/or physiologically to grow in water or 

very wet environments. 

> IUCN: International Union for the Conservation 

of Nature. 

> Malacologist: an expert on molluscs. 

> Mesophile: an organism that grows best at 

moderate temperatures. 

> Mesotrophic: applied to waters having levels of 

plant nutrients intermediate between those of 

oligotrophic and eutrophic waters. 

> Microphage: an organism which feeds by 

filtering small organic particles in suspension. 

> Micropterous: having small wings, generally 

atrophied and non-functional. 

> Mudflat: muddy area of a lagoon that only 

emerges at low tide. 

> Mycophage: an organism which feeds on fungi, 

including moulds and microscopic mycelia. 

> Oligotrophic: applied to waters which are 

nutrient-poor and characterised by low primary 

productivity. 

> Parasitoid: a parasite which kills its host as a 

consequence of its own full development. 

> Phytobenthos: algae and seagrasses which live 

in water anchored to the substrate. 

> Phytophagous: an organism which feeds on 

plants. 

> Phytoplankton: plant plankton and primary 

producers of aquatic ecosystems. 

> Plankton: aquatic organisms that drift with 

water movements, generally having no locomotive 

organs. 

> Rhizome: an underground stem which grows 

horizontally and, by branching, acts as an agent of 

vegetative propagation. 

> Saprophage: an organism that consumes 

other, dead, organisms. 

> Stenoecious: applied to an organism which can 

only live in a restricted range of habitats. 

> Stenohaline: applied to an organism that is very 

sensitive to changes in salinity. 

> Symbiont: an organism that lives in close 

association with another dissimilar organism. 

> Syphon: in molluscs, the folding of the mantle 

in the shape of a tube, allowing water to pass 

through to the gills. 

> Thallus: body of a plant that is not 

differentiated into root, stem and leaves. 

> Thermophilous: warmth-loving. 

> Thermoregulation: regulation of body 

temperature. 

153

154 

List of species 

Abra segmentum (= A. ovata) - 

55, 56 

Acanthocardia echinata - 44, 55 

Acanthocardia spinosa - 40 

Acanthocardia tuberculata - 44, 

55, 148 

Acartia - 61 

Acartia clausi - 60, 61 

Acartia latisetosa - 61 

Acartia margalefi - 61 

Acartia tonsa - 61 

Acentria - 105 

Acentria ephemerella - 105 

Acipenser naccarii - 68, 69, 141 

Acipenser sturio - 69, 141 

Acrida ungarica mediterranea - 99 

Acrocephalus arundinaceus - 127 

Acrocephalus scirpaceus - 127 

Actitis hypoleucos - 130 

Adriatic sturgeon - 68, 69, 70 

Aedes - 108 

Aesculapian snake - 115 

Agdistis - 107, 111 

Agdistis bennetii - 107 

Agdistis morini - 106, 107 

Agdistis tamaricis - 111 

Agile frog - 113 

Agonum afrum - 101 

Agropyron - 98, 99 

Aiolopus thalassinus - 98 

Alder - 91 

Alitta - 56 

Alitta (=Neanthes) succinea - 52, 

56 

Allium suaveolens - 90 

Alnus glutinosa - 91 

Alopecosa pulverulenta - 97 

Alosa fallax - 69, 141 

Alosa fallax ssp. nilotica- 69 

Alosa fallax ssp. rhodanensis - 69 

Amage adspersa - 53 

Amara - 102 

Amorpha fruticosa - 137 

Anas acuta - 128 

Anas clypeata - 128 

Anas crecca - 122, 123 

Anas penelope - 117 

Anas platyrhynchos - 121 

Anas querquedula - 125, 127 

Anas strepera - 127 

Anemonia viridis - 49 

Anguilla anguilla - 67 

Anguis fragilis - 114 

Anisodactylus poeciloides - 104 

Annual seablite - 83 

Anopheles maculipennis - 108 

Anopheles messeae - 108 

Anopheles sacharovi - 108 

Anser albifrons - 129 

Anser anser - 129 

Anser fabalis - 129 

Anthelephila pedestris - 103 

Antistea elegans - 97 

Antithamnion - 30 

Antithamnion cruciatum - 30 

Antithamnion nipponicum - 28, 30 

Anurida maritima - 95 

Apate monachus - 110 

Aphanius fasciatus - 64, 141 

Apodemus agrarius - 133 

Apodemus sylvaticus - 132 

Apseudes latreillei - 48 

Archanara - 105 

Ardea cinerea - 131 

Ardea purpurea - 124 

Arenicola marina - 44, 45 

Argiope lobata - 97 

Armadillidium assimile - 95 

Armadilloniscus ellipticus - 95 

Arvicola terrestris - 133 

Asp - 115 

Asproparthenis albicans - 104 

Asterina gibbosa - 49, 55 

Atherina boyeri - 59, 63, 64 

Atriplex prostrata - 81, 86 

Atriplex tartarica - 86 

Auriculinella bidentata - 96 

Austrian pine - 80 

Avocet - 123, 130, 131, 142 

Aythya ferina - 128 

Aythya fuligula - 128 

Baccharis halimifolia - 137 

Badger - 133 

Bagous - 103 

Balanus amphitrite - 55 

Balanus eburneus - 57 

Balanus improvisus - 57 

Bamboo worm - 53 

Bankia carinata - 50 

Barnacle - 57 

Bat - 133 

Bean goose - 129 

Bearded tit - 127 

Beech marten - 133 

Beluga - 69 

Bembidion - 101 

Bembidion quadrimaculatum - 

101 

Bicoloured white-toothed shrew - 

133 

Bittern - 124, 131 

Bittersweet - 81 

Bittium - 52 

Bittium reticulatum - 49, 148 

Bittium scabrum - 49 

Black bogrush - 90 

Black goby - 62, 66 

Black swan - 129 

Black-headed gull - 123, 131, 142 

Black-necked grebe - 119, 120 

Black-striped pipefish - 64 

Black-throated diver - 117, 119, 

120 

Black-winged stilt - 122, 123, 

125, 130, 131, 142 

Bladder campion - 90 

Bledius - 104 

Blidingia - 27 

Blidingia minima - 27 

Blidingia ramifera - 27 

Bolboschoenus maritimus - 81, 

85 

Bolinus brandaris - 44, 55, 148 

Bombina variegata - 113 

Botaurus stellaris - 124 

Bothynoderes affinis - 104 

Brachinus - 101, 102 

Brachinus crepitans - 102 

Brachinus explodens - 102 

Brachinus plagiatus - 102 

Brachinus sclopeta - 102 

Brachionus plicatilis - 60 

Brachygluta schueppeli - 104 

Brachypodium rupestre - 89 

Brown hare - 133 

Bryopsis plumosa - 27 

Bucephala clangula - 128 

Bufo bufo - 113 

Bufo viridis - 113 

Bulaea lichatschovi - 104 

Butomus - 103 

Calanipeda aquaedulcis - 61 

Calidris alpina - 121 

Callianassa tyrrhena - 55, 57 

Callista chione - 148 

Calomera littoralis nemoralis - 104 

Caltha palustris - 91 

Calystegia sepium - 81 

Canestrini’s goby - 66, 141 

Canuella perplexa - 60, 61 

Capitella - 58 

Capitella capitata - 53, 58 

Carabus - 101 

Carabus clatratus - 101 

Carabus granulatus - 101 

Carcinus aestuarii - 42, 45, 95 

Carcinus mediterraneus vedi 

Carcinus aestuari - 42 

Caretta caretta - 115 

Carex liparocarpos - 90 

Carex riparia - 81 

Carpet shell clam - 52 

Casmerodius albus - 131 

Cassolaia maura 

cupreothoracica - 104 

Cassostrea - 29 

Cataclysta lemnata - 106 

Cattail - 96, 105 

Centropages - 61 

Ceramium - 29, 30 

Ceramium diaphanum - 29 

Ceramium virgatum - 29 

Cerastoderma - 29, 38, 58, 66 

Cerastoderma glaucum - 55, 56 

Ceratophyllum - 103, 106 

Cereus pedunculatus - 54, 55 

Cerithium - 53 

Cerithium alucaster - 52 

Cerithium vulgatum - 52 

Cetti’s warbler - 127 

Cettia cetti - 127 

Chaetoceros - 32 

Chaetomorpha - 25 

Chaetomorpha aerea - 27 

Chaetomorpha linum - 27 

Chamelea gallina - 44, 47, 55 

Chara - 27, 106 

Charadrius alexandrinus - 119 

Checkered water snake - 114 

Chelon labrosus - 71 

Chelura terebrans - 50 

Chersodromia - 109 

Chilifera - 109 

Chilo phragmitella - 105 

Chionaspis etrusca - 110 

Chironomus - 109 

Chlaeniellus - 101 

Chlaenius - 101 

Chlaenius spoliatus - 101 

Chlamys varia - 49, 55 

Chlorella - 32 

Chondria capillaris - 30 

Chondria dasyphylla - 30 

Chrysochraon dispar giganteus - 

98 

Chrysolina - 102 

Chrysolina polita - 102 

Chrysolina schatzmayri - 104 

Chrysolina staphylaea - 102 

Circus aeruginosus - 126 

Circus pygargus - 126 

Cirriformia - 53 

Cladium mariscus - 85 

Cladophora - 27 

Cladophora albida - 27 

Cladophora rupestris - 27 

Cladophora sericea - 27 

Clam - 44, 55, 149 

Clubiona - 97 

Clubiona phragmitis - 97 

Clubiona stagnatilis - 97 

Clytie illunaris - 111 

Cocconeis - 32 

Cockle - 149 

Codium fragile ssp. 

tomentosoides - 27, 28 

Collared pratincole - 131 

Common crab - 42, 95 

Common gecko - 115 

Common rat - 132 

Common sandpiper - 130 

Common scoter - 117 

Common sturgeon - 69 

Common tern - 118, 123, 126, 

131, 143 

Common toad - 113 

Common wood mouse - 132 

Coniatus - 111 

Coniatus repandus - 111 

Coniatus suavis - 111 

Coniatus tamarisci - 110, 111 

Conocephalus dorsalis - 98 

Conocephalus fuscus - 98 

Coot - 127, 142 

Coquillettidia - 108 

Corb - 73 

Corbula gibba - 52 

Cordgrass - 86 

Cordylophora caspia - 58 

Corimalia - 111 

Cormorant - 129, 130, 131 

Coronella austriaca - 114 

Corophium - 58 

Corophium acherusicum - 55 

Corophium acutum - 55 

Corophium insidiosum - 58 

Corophium orientale - 58 

Corophium sextonae - 55 

Corycaeus - 60 

Coypu - 133 

Crab - 42, 43 

Crassostrea gigas - 52 

Crocidura leucodon - 133 

Crocidura suaveolens - 132 

Crossopalpus - 109 

Culex hortensis - 108 

Curlew - 120, 121, 123, 130 

Cyclodinus - 104 

Cyclope neritea - 48, 52, 53, 56, 

148 

Cygnus atratus - 129 

Cygnus cygnus - 129 

Cygnus olor - 128 

Cylindera trisignata - 103, 104 

Cymodocea nodosa - 30, 33, 36, 

37, 48 

Cymus - 100 

Cypress spurge - 89 

Cystoseira barbata - 25, 31 

Cytisus purpureus - 80, 89 

Dabchick - 127 

Daptus vittatus - 104 

Dark cockle - 49 

Daubenton’s bat - 133 

Demetrias - 101 

Dicentrarchus labrax - 59, 71 

Dicheirotrichus lacustris - 93 

Dictyota dichotoma var. 

dicotoma - 31 

Diogenes pugilator - 53 

Diver - 117 

Donacia - 102 

Donax semistriatus - 44 

Donax trunculus - 44 

Dosinia lupinus - 47 

Drapetis - 109 

Drypta dentata - 101 

Duckweed - 103, 106 

Dunaliella - 32 

Dunlin - 121, 123, 130, 142 

Dyschiriodes - 104 

Eastern cottontail - 133 

Echinocardium cordatum - 45, 46 

Ectocarpales - 31 

Ectocarpus - 31 

Eel - 67, 129, 141 

Egretta garzetta - 131 

Eider - 117 

Eleagnos angustifolia - 137 

Elodea - 106 

Emberiza schoeniclus - 127 

Emphanes axillaris occiduus - 101 

Emphanes rivularis see 

Emphanes axillaris occiduus - 101 

Empis - 108 

Empusa fasciata - 99 

Emys orbicularis - 114, 115 

Ensis minor - 44, 47, 55 

Epacromius - 98 

Epacromius coeruleipes - 98 

Epacromius tergestinus - 98 

Eptesicus serotinus - 133 

Erica carnea - 80, 89 

Ericthonius punctatus - 57 

Erinaceus europaeus - 133 

Eriphia spinifrons - 45, 55 

Esox lucius - 73 

Euphorbia cyparissias - 89 

Euphorbia palustris - 81 

Eupithecia ultimaria - 111 

European pond turtle - 114, 115 

Euterpina acutifrons - 59, 60 

Exuviella - 32 

Eysarcoris - 100 

Falco peregrinus - 126 

False indago - 137 

Fen pondweed - 90 

Fen ragwort - 81 

Fennel pondweed - 91 

Ficopomatus enigmaticus - 58 

Flamingo - 143 

Flowering ash - 89 

Fragrant leek - 90 

Fraxinus ornus - 89 

Fringed water-lily - 91 

Frog - 113 

Fucus virsoides - 25, 31 

Fulica atra - 127 

Gadwall - 127, 128 

Galerucella pusilla - 102 

Gallinago gallinago - 130 

Gallinula chloropus - 127 

Gammarus aequicauda - 49, 58 

Gannet - 118 

Garganey - 125, 127 

Gasterosteus aculeatus - 65 

Gastrana fragilis - 52 

Gavia - 117 

Gavia arctica - 117, 120 

Gavia stellata - 120 

Gayralia oxisperma - 26 

Gelidium pusillum - 30 

Gelochelidon nilotica - 131 

Gentiana pneumonanthe - 90 

Ghost shrimp - 57 

155

156 Gibbula - 49, 52 

Heterocerus - 104 

Little crake - 127 

Mullet - 59 

Oleaster - 137 

Pintail - 128, 142 

157 

Gibbula adriatica - 49 

Gigartina acicularis - 30 

Gilthead seabrem - 59, 71, 72 

Glareola pratincola - 131 

Glasswort - 83 

Glenodinium - 32 

Glycera - 52 

Glyceria maxima - 81 

Glycymeris glycymeris - 148 

Gobius niger jozo - 62 

Goby - 141 

Golden dock - 86 

Golden grey mullet - 71 

Golden plover - 121, 130 

Goldeneye - 128 

Gracilaria - 29 

Gracilaria armata - 29 

Gracilaria bursa-pastoris - 29 

Gracilaria gracilis - 29 

Gracilaria verrucosa vedi 

Gracilariopsis longissima - 29 

Gracilariopsis longissima - 29 

Grass goby - 66 

Grass snake - 114 

Grateloupia turuturu - 28 

Great crested grebe - 116, 119, 

127 

Great pond sedge - 81 

Great reed warbler - 127 

Great white egret - 131, 142 

Grebe - 117 

Green toad - 113 

Grey heron - 131 

Grey plover - 121, 130 

Greylag goose - 129 

Groupings of marestail - 91 

Gryllotalpa - 99 

Gryllotalpa octodecim - 99 

Gryllotalpa sedecim - 99 

Gull-billed tern - 131, 142 

Gymnodinium - 32 

Gyrodium - 32 

Hadula sodae - 107 

Hadula stigmosa - 107 

Haematopus ostralegus - 119, 

125 

Halicyclops - 61 

Halimione portulacoides - 104, 

106 

Halmopota - 109 

Halmopota mediterraneus - 109 

Halmopota septentrionalis - 109 

Halophila stipulacea - 33 

Halophiloscia couchii - 95 

Halsosalda lateralis - 100 

Harpacticus - 61 

Harvest mouse - 132 

Hedge bindweed - 81 

Hedgehog - 133 

Hediste diversicolor - 52, 55, 58, 

95 

Heliophanus flavipes - 97 

Hemerodromia - 109 

Hermann’s tortoise - 115 

Herring gull - 124, 131 

Heterocerus flexuosus - 104 

Heteromastus filiformis - 53, 58 

Heterotanais oerstedi - 58 

Hexaplex trunculus - 44 

Hierophis viridiflavus - 114 

Hilara - 108 

Himantopus himantopus - 122, 

123 

Hinksia - 31 

Hippophae fluviatilis - 90 

Hippuris vulgaris - 91 

Holm oak - 87, 89 

Holothurian - 55 

House mouse - 132 

Huso huso - 69 

Hydrobia - 58 

Hydrolithon - 30 

Hyla intermedia - 113 

Hypsugo savii - 133 

Idotea baltica - 48 

Inula crithmoides - 104 

Iris - 96 

Iris pseudachorus - 103 

Italian crested newt - 113 

Italian tree-frog - 113 

Italian wall lizard - 114 

Ixobrychus minutus - 124 

Jassa marmorata - 55 

Juncus maritimus - 85 

Juniper - 90 

Juniperus communis - 90 

Kentish plover - 119, 131, 142, 

143 

Knipowitschia panizzae - 66, 141 

Kuhl’s pipistrelle - 133 

Lacanobia blenna - 107 

Lacerta bilineata - 114 

Lagoon goby - 66, 141 

Lampetra fluviatilis - 70 

Lamprey - 69, 70, 141 

Lamprothamnion - 27 

Lamprothamnion papulosum - 27 

Lapwing - 130 

Larinioides - 97 

Larinioides suspicax - 96, 97 

Larus melanocephalus - 123 

Larus michahellis - 124 

Larus ridibundus - 123 

Lataste’s frog - 113 

Leaping grey mullet - 71 

Lemna - 106 

Lentidium mediterraneum - 44 

Leptocheirus pilosus - 58 

Leptonematella - 31 

Lepus europaeus - 133 

Lesser white-toothed shrew - 132 

Limnoria lignorum - 50 

Limnoria tripunctata - 50 

Limonium - 107, 139 

Limonium narbonense - 82, 139 

Liocarcinus - 45 

Liocarcinus vernalis - 45, 55 

Lissotriton vulgaris meridionalis - 

113 

Little bittern - 124, 127 

Little crake - 127 

Little egret - 131, 142 

Little tern - 118, 119, 123, 125, 

131, 143 

Lixus bardanae - 103 

Lixus linearis - 103 

Liza aurata - 59, 71 

Liza ramada - 59, 71 

Liza saliens - 59, 71 

Loripes lacteus - 49, 52 

Lucinella divaricata - 148 

Lutra lutra - 133 

Lycaena dispar - 105, 139 

Lyrodus pedicellatus - 50, 51 

Lysimachia - 103 

Lysimachia vulgaris - 81 

Lythrum - 102 

Lythrum salicaria - 81 

Mactra stultorum - 44 

Malacosoma castrense - 106, 107 

Mallard - 121, 128, 142 

Mantis religiosa - 99 

Marphysa - 52 

Marpissa nivoyi - 97 

Marpissa radiata - 97 

Marram-grass - 86 

Marsh gentian - 90 

Marsh harrier - 125, 126, 127, 

142 

Marsh marigold - 91 

Marsh spurge - 81 

Marsh woundwort - 81 

Martes foina - 133 

Mediterranean gull - 123, 131 

Mediterranean shore crab - 45, 

55 

Megalodactylus macularubra - 

110 

Melanitta fusca - 117 

Melanitta nigra - 117 

Meles meles - 133 

Melita palmata - 57 

Melosira - 32 

Mendoza canestrinii - 97 

Mentha - 102 

Mergus serrator - 120 

Metrioptera brunneri - 98, 99 

Metrioptera marmorata - 98 

Microarthridium fallax - 61 

Microdeutopus gryllotalpa - 57 

Micromys minutus - 132 

Microstella norvegica - 60 

Microtus arvalis - 133 

Microtus liechtensteini - 133 

Microtus savii - 133 

Miller’s water shrew - 132 

Molinia caerulea ssp. caerulea - 

90 

Mononychus punctumalbum - 

103 

Montague’s harrier - 125, 126 

Moorhen - 127 

Mosquito - 108 

Mugil cephalus - 71 

Mullet - 129 

Mullet - 59, 71 

Mullus barbatus - 73 

Murex - 44, 55 

Mus domesticus - 132 

Mussel - 47, 55, 149 

Mustela nivalis - 133 

Mustela putorius - 133 

Mute swan - 128 

Myocastor coypus - 133 

Myosotella myosotis - 57, 96 

Myotis daubentonii - 133 

Myricaria - 110 

Myrionema - 31 

Mythimna - 105 

Mytilaster minimus - 52 

Mytilus galloprovincialis - 47, 55, 

148 

Nanophyes - 103 

Nanophyes marmoratus - 103 

Nanozostera noltii - 27, 33, 34, 

35, 36 

Narrowleaf plantain - 90 

Nassarius - 56 

Nassarius corniculus - 48 

Nassarius mutabilis - 44, 48, 55 

Nassarius nitidus - 48, 53, 56 

Nassarius reticulatus - 52 

Nathusius’s pipistrelle - 133 

Natrix - 114 

Natrix natrix - 114 

Natrix tessellata - 114 

Navicula - 32 

Nemotelus - 109 

Neomys anomalus - 132 

Nephtys hombergi - 52, 56 

Newt - 113 

Nitophyllum punctatum - 30 

Nitzschia - 32 

Noctiluca - 60 

Noctiluca miliaris - 60 

Noctule - 133 

North American false indigo - 137 

Northern mole - 133 

Northern water vole - 133 

Notapus varius - 101 

Notomastus latericeus - 48 

Nototeredo norvegica - 50 

Numenius arquata - 120 

Nuphar - 109 

Nuphar lutea - 91 

Nyctalus notula - 133 

Nycticorax nycticorax - 131 

Nymphaea - 109 

Nymphaea alba - 91 

Nymphoides peltata - 91 

Ochlerotatus caspius - 108 

Ochlerotatus detritus - 108 

Ocydromus tetragrammus illigeri 

- 101 

Odacantha melanura - 101 

Odontomyia - 109 

Oithona - 59, 61 

Oithona nana - 60 

Oithona plumifera - 60 

Oithona similis - 60 

Oncaea - 59, 60 

Opsius stactogalus - 110 

Orach - 86 

Orchestia - 57, 95 

Orchestia cavimana - 95 

Orchestia gammarellus - 95 

Orgyia dubia arcerii - 106 

Orgyia splendida arcerii - 106 

Orthotylus - 100 

Orthotylus curvipennis - 100 

Orthotylus divisus - 100 

Orthotylus palustris - 100 

Oryctolagus cuniculus - 133 

Osyris - 89 

Otter - 133 

Ovatella firminii - 96 

Owenia fusiformis - 44 

Oxyloma elegans - 96 

Oystercatcher - 119, 124, 125 

Pachygaster atra - 109 

Pachygrapsus marmoratus - 45, 

55 

Paederus - 102 

Palaemon adspersus - 49 

Palaemon elegans - 48, 49 

Panurus biarmicus - 127 

Paphia aurea - 47, 52, 55 

Paracalanus parvus - 60, 61 

Paracentrotus lividus - 45 

Paracinema tricolor bisignata - 98 

Paracoenia fumosa - 109 

Paradromius linearis - 101 

Paradromius longiceps - 101 

Pardosa cribrata - 96 

Pardosa luctinosa - 96 

Pardosa prativaga - 97 

Peacock blenny - 65 

Pelobates fuscus - 114 

Pelophylax synklepton 

esculentus - 114 

Penilia avirostis - 60 

Peregrine falcon - 126 

Peridinium - 32 

Perinereis cultrifera - 52 

Perinereis rullieri - 52 

Petalonia fascia - 31 

Petromyzon marinus - 70 

Phalacrocorax aristotelis - 118 

Phalacrocorax carbo - 129 

Phalacrocorax pygmeus - 129, 

130 

Phalaris arundinacea - 81 

Phaonia - 108 

Philippine clam - 47, 55, 138, 

143 

Philochthus lunulatus - 101 

Phoenicopterus roseus - 112, 130 

Phragmataecia castaneae - 105 

Phragmites - 98, 99 

Phragmites australis - 76, 127 

Phytocoris salsolae - 100 

Pike - 73 

Pink flamingo - 112, 130 

Pink sea-lavender - 82 

Pinna nobilis - 49 

Pinus nigra - 80 

Pipefish - 64 

Pipistrellus kuhlii - 133 

Pipistrellus nathusii - 133 

Pirata - 96 

Plaice - 72 

Plantago altissima - 90 

Plateumaris - 102 

Platichthys flesus luscus - 72 

Platypalpus - 108 

Pluvialis apricaria - 121 

Pluvialis squatarola - 121 

Pneophyllum fragile - 30 

Pochard - 128 

Podarcis muralis - 114 

Podarcis sicula - 114 

Podiceps - 117 

Podiceps cristatus - 116, 119 

Podiceps nigricollis - 119 

Podon polyphemoides - 60 

Pogonistes - 104 

Pogonus - 104 

Pogonus littoralis - 104 

Polydora - 53 

Polydora ciliata - 53 

Polydora cornuta - 53 

Polydora ligni vedi Polydora 

cornuta - 53 

Polygonum - 103, 139 

Polygonum maritimum - 86 

Polysiphonia - 30 

Polysiphonia denudata - 30 

Polysiphonia harvey - 30 

Polysiphonia morrowiii - 28, 30 

Pomatoschistus canestrinii - 66 

Pomatoschistus minutus 

elongatus - 72 

Pomatoschistus tortonesei - 66 

Pomerine skua - 117, 118 

Pomerine skua - 118 

Porzana parva - 127 

Porzana porzana - 127 

Posidonia oceanica - 33 

Potamogeton - 103 

Potamogeton coloratus forma 

heterophyllus - 90 

Potamogeton pectinatus - 91 

Prasiola - 28 

Prorocentrum - 32 

Psammoecus bipunctatus - 103 

Pseudotomoderus 

compressicollis - 103 

Pterolepis elymica - 99 

Puccinellia - 98, 104 

Puffin - 117 

Puffinus yelkouan - 117 

Purple broom - 80, 89 

Purple heron - 124, 127, 131, 142 

Purple loosestrife - 81 

Purple moor-grass - 90 

Pygmy cormorant - 130, 131, 142 

Pygmy white-toothed shrew - 

133 

Quercus ilex - 87 

Rabbit - 133

158 

Radicilingua thysanorhizans - 30 

Rallus aquaticus - 127 

Rana - 113 

Rana dalmatina - 113 

Rana latastei - 113 

Rapana venosa - 47 

Rat snake - 114 

Rattus norvegicus - 132 

Rattus rattus - 133 

Razor shell - 44, 47, 55, 149 

Recurvirostra avosetta - 123 

Red fox - 133 

Red mullet - 73 

Red- throated diver - 120 

Red-breasted merganser - 120 

Red-eared turtles - 115 

Redshank - 121, 123, 124, 125, 

126, 131, 143 

Reed - 76, 77, 81, 82, 84, 85, 

96, 97, 101, 105, 127 

Reed bunting - 127 

Reed canary grass - 81 

Reed sweetgrass - 81 

Reed warbler - 127 

Reticulitermes lucifugus - 110 

Rhamnus saxatilis ssp. saxatilis - 

80, 89 

Rhamphomyia - 108 

Rhinoncus - 103 

Rhizosolenia - 32 

Rhodymenia ardissonei - 30 

River lamprey - 70 

Rock buckthorn - 80, 89 

Rosemary-leaved willow - 90 

Round-headed club-rush - 85 

Rumex - 103, 139 

Rumex maritimus - 86 

Ruppia - 27, 33, 35 

Ruppia maritima - 27 

Ruppia spiralis - 27 

Sabellaria spinulosa - 45 

Sagitta - 60 

Salaria pavo - 65 

Salda adriatica - 100 

Salicornia veneta - 83 

Salix rosmarinifolia - 90 

Salmo trutta - 73 

Saltmarsh aster - 82 

Sand crab - 45, 55 

Sand goby - 72 

Sandwich tern - 118, 123, 126, 

142, 143 

Sarcocornia fruticosa - 83 

Sardina pilchardus - 73 

Sardine - 73 

Sargassum - 25, 28 

Sargassum muticum - 28, 31 

Savi’s pipistrelle - 133 

Sawgrass - 85 

Scallop - 149 

Scapharca - 47 

Scapharca inaequivalvis - 47 

Scatella - 109 

Schistoceros bimaculatus - 110 

Schizaster canaliferus - 45 

Schoenoplectus 

tabernaemontani - 81 

Schoenus nigricans - 90 

Scirpoides holoschoenus - 85 

Scirpus sylvaticus - 81 

Sclerocoma acutella - 105 

Scrobicularia - 56, 58 

Scrobicularia plana - 55, 56 

Scytosiphon lomentaria - 31 

Sea aster - 81 

Sea bass - 59 

Sea bass - 71 

Sea buckthorn - 90 

Sea club-rush - 81, 85 

Sea cucumber - 55 

Sea knotgrass - 86 

Sea lamprey - 70 

Sea lattuce - 26 

Sea lavender - 139 

Sea rush - 85 

Sea turtle - 115 

Sea urchin - 45 

Seagull - 118, 126 

Senecio paludosus - 81 

Senta flammea - 105 

Serotine - 133 

Shag - 118 

Shelduck - 124, 128, 142 

Ship rat - 133 

Shoveler - 128 

Shrew - 132 

Shrubby glasswort - 83 

Silene vulgaris ssp. tenoreana - 

90 

Silver eel - 67 

Silvilagus floridanus - 133 

Simyra albovenosa - 105 

Sirdenus - 104 

Sitticus caricis - 97 

Skeletonema - 32 

Slow-worm - 114 

Small cordgrass - 86 

Smooth lizard - 114 

Smooth snake - 114 

Snipe - 130 

Softstem bulrush - 81 

Solanum dulcamara - 81 

Sole - 73 

Solea solea - 73 

Solen marginatus - 47, 55 

Somateria spectabilis - 117 

Sorex arunchi - 132 

Sorocarpus - 28 

South European toothcarp - 64, 

141 

Southern smooth newt - 113 

Spadefoot toad - 114 

Sparganium - 103 

Spartina maritima - 86, 139 

Spartina versicolor - 86 

Sparus auratus - 59, 71 

Spear-leaved orache - 81 

Sphaeroma - 94, 95 

Spisula subtruncata - 44 

Sprat - 73 

Sprattus sprattus - 73 

Spring heat - 80, 89 

Spyridia filamentosa - 29 

Squacco heron - 131 

Stachys palustris - 81 

Starfish - 55 

Stenothoe tergestina - 55 

Stenus - 102 

Stercorarius parasiticus - 118 

Stercorarius pomarinus - 118 

Sterna albifrons - 118, 119 

Sterna hirundo - 118 

Sterna sandvicensis - 118 

Stipa veneta - 139 

Stratiomys - 109 

Stratiomys chamaleon - 109 

Stratiomys singularior - 109 

Streblospio shrubsolii - 56 

Striped field mouse - 133 

Sturgeon - 69, 70, 141 

Suaeda fruticosa - 106 

Suaeda maritima - 83 

Sula bassana - 118 

Suncus etruscus - 133 

Symphyotrichum squamatum - 82 

Synchaeta - 60 

Synedra - 32 

Syngnathus abaster - 64 

Syngnathus acus - 64 

Tachybaptus ruficollis - 127 

Tachydromia - 108 

Tadorna tadorna - 124 

Talitrus - 57 

Talitrus saltator - 95 

Talorchestia - 57 

Talpa europaea - 133 

Tamarisk - 110, 111 

Tamarix - 110 

Tanysphyrus lemnae - 103 

Tapeinotus sellatus - 103 

Tapes - 29 

Tapes decussatus - 52, 55 

Tapes philippinarum - 47, 52, 55 

Tarentola mauritanica - 115 

Teal - 121, 123, 128, 142 

Tellin - 44 

Tellina fabula - 44 

Tellina nitida - 44 

Tellina pulchella - 44 

Tenuicomus velox bucciarellii - 

103 

Teredine - 50 

Teredo navalis - 50, 51 

Tern - 118, 126 

Testudo hermanni - 115 

Teucrium chamaedrys - 89 

Thalassiosira - 32 

Thicklip grey mullet - 71 

Thinlip grey mullet - 71 

Three-spined stickleback - 65 

Timarete filigera - 95 

Toad - 113 

Tor-grass - 89 

Trabutina mannipara - 110 

Trachemys scripta elegans - 115 

Trachemys scripta scripta - 115 

Trachemys scripta troosti - 115 

Trachomitum venetum - 139 

Trachythyone elongata - 55 

Trachythyone tergestina - 55 

Trapa natans - 91 

Tree frog - 113 

Tricolia pullus - 148 

Tringa totanus - 121 

Tripolium pannonicum ssp. 

tripolium - 81 

Triturus carnifex - 113 

Trochosa hispanica - 96, 97 

Tropidopola cylindrica cylindrica - 

98 

Tropidopola graeca transjonica - 

98 

Trout - 73 

Truncatella subcylindrica - 57, 96 

Tufted duck - 128 

Tuponia - 110 

Tuponia tamaricis - 110 

Twaite shad - 69, 70, 141 

Tylos - 95 

Tylos latreillei - 47 

Typha - 84 

Typha angustifolia - 84 

Typha latifolia - 84 

Udine shrew - 132 

Ulva - 26, 29 

Ulva clathrata - 26 

Ulva curvata - 26 

Ulva flexuosa - 26 

Ulva intestinalis - 26 

Ulva laetevirens - 26, 27 

Ulva rotundata - 26 

Umbrina cirrosa - 73 

Undaria - 28 

Undaria pinnatifida - 28, 31 

Upogebia pusilla - 52, 53, 55 

Valonia - 27 

Valonia aegagropila - 27 

Vanellus vanellus - 130 

Vaucheria - 31 

Vaucheria dichotoma var. marina 

vedi Vaucheria submarina - 31 

Vaucheria piloboloides - 31 

Vaucheria submarina - 31 

Velvet scoter - 117 

Venerupis - 148 

Vipera aspis - 115 

Vulpes vulpes - 133 

Wall germander - 89 

Wall lizard - 114 

Water chestnut - 91 

Water rail - 127 

Weasel - 133 

Western polecat - 133 

White water-lily - 91 

Whitebait - 59, 63, 64 

White-fronted goose - 129 

Whooper swan - 129 

Widgeon - 117, 121, 128, 129, 

142 

Wild asparagus - 89 

Wood club-rush - 81 

Woodlice - 95 

Xiphidion discolor - 92, 98 

Xya variegata - 99 

Xylomoia stangelmaieri - 107 

Yellow loosestrife - 81 

Yellow or warty crab - 45, 55 

Yellow water-lily - 91 

Yellow-bellied toad - 113 

Zamenis longissimus - 115 

Zostera marina - 33, 36, 48 

Zosterisessor ophiocephalus - 66 

159

The authors wish to thank the following persons 

for their kind collaboration: 

Harald Hansen (Araneida) 

Gianni Raffone (Brachyceran diptera) 

Marcello Romano (Sicilian entomofauna) 

Thanks are also due to Paola Sergo, 

Paolo Glerean and Maria Manuela Giovannelli 

The authors assume full responsibility for any 

errors or omissions in the text. 

This volume was produced with funds from the 

Italian Ministry of the Environment and 

Territorial Protection 

Printed in september 2009 

Arti Grafiche Friulane / Imoco spa - Udine 

Printed in Italy

Terrestrial invertebrates - Udine Cultura

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