Viktor Rydberg's Investigations into Germanic Mythology, Vol. II

Viktor Rydberg’s 

Investigations into Germanic Mythology, Vol. II 

Translated and Annotated by William P. Reaves © 2007 

AN OVERVIEW of the GERMANIC 

MYTHOLOGY'S EPIC ORDER 1 

The investigations I have presented for my readers, in their details and overall, 

provide evidence that the Germanic myths formed an epic, whose core, already organized 

into an epic, originated in Proto-Indo-European times. For this reason, it is useless to ask 

when the individual Germanic myths were first brought into epic connection with one 

another. When the proto-Germanic language began to diverge from its western Indo- 

European stem as a branch flourishing in its own right, the epic state of the extant myths 

was already an age-old fact, which extended to the very roots of Proto-Indo-European 

life. 

I have already shown that the Germanic myths are of much different ages, and a 

separate treatise is devoted to those that demonstrably originate from the Proto-Indo- 

European era . . 2 Others belong, as we have seen, to later ages: some to the so-called 

European Indo-European era, 3 some to the European Bronze Age, and still others to the 

Iron Age, and it may be taken for granted that all of these inherited sagas, so different in 

age, were influenced by the times that they passed through right up to the end of 

heathendom. But whatever their origin and whatever their transformations may have been 

since they arose and became universally accepted, they have been joined as new links to 

an already existing epic chain of myths, created by degrees. 

But when did this begin? From a psychological standpoint, I imagine one could 

answer: the need for organization and order in the mythic ideas, and thus the need for an 

epic connection between them, arises and asserts itself to the same degree as a race's or a 

people's mythology develops from animism and polydemonism into a polytheism with 

concrete and characteristic divine personalities. 4 These must proceed in relationship to 

one another and develop an activity in accordance with the character they gradually 

receive. With that, an epic connection becomes necessary. It appears with the power of a 

natural mental process. It is a product of the union of the association of ideas and 

1 [Rydberg’s footnote] It is only the outlines of the epic, in the greatest possible brevity, that have been 

recorded here. The material is handled in detail in “Fädernas Gudasaga, berättad för Ungdomen” 

(Stockholm, Albert Bonniers, 1887). [Translated as “Our Fathers’ Godsaga Retold for the Young” by 

William P. Reaves, iUniverse, 2003.] 

2 Investigations in Germanic Mythology, Vol. 2, Part 1. 

3 Rydberg held that a branch of Indo-Europeans entered Europe before dividing into a southern (Greco- 

Roman) and a northern (Germanic-Norse) branch, based on archeological and linguistic evidence, and 

supported by the scholars of his time. See Investigations into Germanic Mythology, Vol. 1, no. 5. 

4 [Rydberg’s footnote] Concerning animism and polydemonism see C. P. Tieles' excellent History of 

Religion translated into Swedish by P. E. M. Fischier. Allmän religionshistoria, Fahlcrantz & K., 1887.

causality. The material which animism and polydemonism create and which arises 

through the impression that the phenomena of nature make on mankind cannot remain in 

a scattered and chaotic condition forever. To the degree of the development of mental 

life, the power of order enters and works in this chaos to unite these elements into a 

coherent picture in time and space. 

As such, this natural process cannot be limited solely to the Indo-European race. 

Humanity in its entirety has been and is its area of activity, so long as the people progress 

out of the animistic and polydemonic period. The Semites as well as the Indo-Europeans 

have their great mythic epic, whose scattered links Oriental research is now on the verge 

of uniting. Already in the period before the pyramids, the Egyptians, like the Semites and 

the Indo-Europeans, had their mythic epic in a largely finished form as Maspero shows. 5 

It does not require a developed civilization for the epic-building instinct to appear: the 

need for order and coherence in the world of ideas asserts itself in all of polytheism's 

earliest phases. Among the Finns and the Bulgarians, as well as among the Egyptians, the 

Semites, and the Indo-Europeans, the inherited sagas have been linked together into an 

epic chain; so too among the Indians and the Mincopies. 

Every little story that the study of folklore brings to light is a fabric of associated 

ideas and causality; each is a miniature epic with cause, action, and the consequence of 

the action, along with the characteristics of the acting personage or natural object, and 

sometimes with ethical or religious motives as well. Were all religions and mythologies 

swept out of mankind's consciousness at this moment and the field thus opened for the 

existing "folklore" to grow freely and acquire all the nourishing juices that are now being 

used by the former, undoubtedly the isolated existing pieces of this folklore would, in 

degree of their kinship and under the influence of the association of ideas, grow together 

with one another into a bigger complex and this again would join itself to an even greater 

one, which, transformed by religious and moral requirements, would finally assume the 

shape of a new mythology. Stories, legends and adventures, whether they originated from 

collapsed mythic structures and banished religions or whether they never had any mythic 

or religious significance, during the historic centuries and under pressure from officially 

recognized religious legends, still show their extraordinary power of growth as well as 

their tendency to unite with the latter to form an epic whole. 

In order to strengthen this, do I need mention the wealth of Jewish folklore that 

appeared in order to remedy this need wherever a gap existed in the coherence of the 

events of the Old Testament and wherever these events required livelier color and 

apparent exposition, and thus gave us stories about Adam and Eve, about angelic 

relations with mankind's daughters, about Enoch, about Abraham and the other 

patriarchs, about Solomon, etc, which in fact, with the Biblical stories as chronological 

support, united with them through centuries into an all-attracting folklore-epic? 

Need I mention the number of dethroned myths and the many non-mythic 

creations of the folk imagination, which in the form of legends on Christian soil 

attempted to unite with Biblical history or historic Church data and with them receive a 

fixed place in an epic chain of events continuing through centuries? Or the Indo- 

European mythology, which the Greek forebears traveled with to Europe's southern 

peninsula and which, crushed to bits there during the collision with other myth-cycles, in 

memory of its lost unity looked back and formed a new continuity, so that one could 

5 Sir Gaston Camille Charles Maspero (1846-1916), French Egyptologist.

speak of events in a Golden Age during Chronos' rule, about those in a Silver Age 

following thereon after the scepter was passed to Zeus, and about those in a Copper and 

an Iron Age, and further, within the latter, of events in Cadmos' and Jason's time and 

about those, which dormant in ovo in Leda's womb 6 developed into a connecting chain of 

events up to and after the Trojan war with the Iliad's battles and the Odyssey's adventures 

as just episodes in a vast whole, still mastered by those well-versed in mythology? Thus 

when Ovid decided to celebrate all of the metamorphoses that the ancient mythology 

contained, he could do so in a long established epic-chronological order, which begins 

with Chaos and progresses through the entire legendary times. 

If we now move to the Germanic arena and to the centuries which saw one 

Germanic tribe after another converted to Christianity and the great Germanic mythic 

structure at last completely brought down in ruins, what do we find? The epicsynthesizing 

instinct again in full activity, since from the rubble, new epics joined 

together and were built up into one great whole. The ancient heathen heroic epic about 

Mannus and his descendants was sentenced to oblivion and dissolution; but the scattered 

pieces had life and with newly historic and quasi-historic support were tied in anew with 

legends about the Gothic King Hermanrich, about Odoacer, King Theoderich, and King 

Attila. Sigurd Fafnirsbane's epic sprouted out of the soil of decaying myths, and an epicsynthetic 

need hastened to further nourish it with what could still be found close at hand 

of the remains of decomposing sagas, and which, more or less organically, became 

incorporated with the Dieterich epic. One ought to have realized a long time ago that the 

epic-building urge did not come with the baptism of the Teutons, but has its basis in 

human psychology and was active through the millennia. A contrary opinion is puerile. 

That this insight has taken so long to manifest itself finds its explanation in the 

state in which the mythological research formerly found itself, and in which it appeared 

hopelessly imprisoned for several years within the so called ethnographic school before 

Andrew Lang 7 took the lead and pointed the way out. 

The meteorological school of mythology for a long time, and even now, has been 

as good as the absolute authority over the entire area of research discussed here. In regard 

to methodology, the most severe mistake that it makes is that it lacks an eye for the 

distinction between mythogony and mythology, for the difference between the science of 

the creation of myths and the science of their present contents, epic connection, and 

historical development. Mythogony, which is a human psychological and ethnographic 

branch of research, has been regarded as the actual mythology by this school. In closest 

connection with this methodological mistake stands the untenable assumption upon 

which this school rests, that the myths as they exist today, without further analysis, are 

suitable material for its endeavor to explain their genesis out of natural phenomena: from 

the storm, the lightning, dawn and dusk, etc. And this mistake has been compounded by 

the influence of linguists, who imagine that when a mythic person's name is interpreted 

and found to mean "rumbling,” "shining" etc, that all myths concerning him can therefore 

6 In Greek Mythology, Leda is the mother of Helen of Troy, whose abduction caused the Trojan War. The 

god Zeus in the shape of a swan seduced Leda, thus Helen was said to have been born from an egg (ovo). 

Although not mentioned in Homer's Iliad, Helen's birth from an egg was well-known, and the subject of art, 

in antiquity. 

7 Andrew Lang (1844-1912), Scottish poet, novelist, and scholar whose books include Custom and Myth 

(1884), Myth, Literature, and Religion (1887).

e explained by the meaning of his name. Arising in this way, the meteorologicaletymological 

school has intentionally made itself blind since, whatever their origin [and 

among them, that natural phenomena had an effect on the power of imagination is more 

probable than likely] --the myths in their current state were created in a course of 

evolution that progressed through an indeterminable number of millennia, during which 

entirely different factors than celestial and weather phenomena worked, creating new 

myths and remodeling old nature-myths. One can say with certainty that ever since the 

time when they were in the phenomenon-stage, the acting superhuman forces began to be 

formed into more or less concrete personalities by the imagination each with a fairly 

definite character and a fairly prescribed area of activity, united with elements of another 

origin and character altogether, thus weakening or remolding the purely natural elements 

in the mythology. And this remolding process must have been further reinforced-- the 

pure nature-myths further transformed-- when, after the time superhuman forces became 

distinct acting personalities, the need for order within these mythic concepts immediately 

set to work and placed the stories under causal and chronological laws in order to satisfy 

the epic-synthetic demands of the imagination. 

For this reason, it is a given that the meteorological school of mythology would 

absolutely ignore any research into the epic connection of the myths. Mere presentation 

of such connections would undermine the course they have pursued thus far. Almost 

exclusively, their efforts concern mythogony. But in order to accomplish this school's 

goal, one has to regard the myths as they have come to us as material, which only with 

utmost critical prudence can be used for this purpose, and only as a small part of the 

material available to gather and investigate. It is from the new folklore-movement and its 

human psychological investigations that one can hope for a mythogony that is in a 

position to accomplish this goal. 

After this account of my position, I pass to the subject of this treatise, adding only 

the observation that all mythologies in which narratives about the progenitors of man are 

included, of necessity must already place many if not all of its myths in a chronological 

order, since of necessity such a chronology exists in legends concerning progenitors 

following after one another, who are always put in the closest connection with the gods. 

The holy powers of the heavens and the underworld protect creation and mankind, their 

protégés, and, in relations with mankind's patriarchs, guide the course of events. Thus, 

the stories about the gods and the stories about the progenitors, as far as research can 

penetrate, have been interlaced within or fused with one another. To put the mythology in 

one box and the heroic sagas in another, as the meteorological school of mythology has, 

is a psychological absurdity and can only produce incorrect results. 

______________________

I. THE CREATION OF THE WORLD. 

1. Chaos. The World-Tree. Ginnungagap. This world had a beginning. There 

was a time when none of its elements existed. However in the empty abyss, three forces 

were at work: Cold, Heat, and Creative Power. These rose up out of three springs of 

unknown origin which, after Creation, took their place in the world and are called: 

Hvergelmir, Urd's well, and Mimir's well. To the north of Ginnungagap, Hvergelmir 

enveloped the rime in an icy mist; to the south of the void, warmth rose up from its well. 

Where cold and warmth met in Ginnungagap, the primal elements were formed by their 

clashing and blending. In the middle of Ginnungagap was the well of Creative Power, 

and beneath it, the seed of Yggdrasil, the world-tree. 

2. Primal Beings. The Primal Cow Audhumla. The first living creature that 

quickened out of chaos was the primal cow. From the congealed elements, she licked the 

progenitor of the gods, Buri. With four streams of milk, she nourished the primal giant 

Ymir, who was formed from the precipitation of the icy waves. Different giant clans grew 

from Ymir's different limbs: from under his left arm came the clan that is friendly to the 

gods, to which Mimir, his sister Bestla, and the dises of Fate belong. Together, Ymir's 

feet begot with one another the Hrimthursar (frost-giants), a monstrous and misshapen 

clan. 

3. The Underworld. The Sons of Bor. The underworld or Jörmungrund was the 

first world that the growing Yggdrasil bore. There, the original smith, Mimir, guards the 

well of Creative Power. The dises of fate guard the well of Heat. Buri's son, Bor, took 

Bestla, Mimir's sister, as his wife. Their sons, Odin, Hoenir and Lodur are the progenitors 

of all the gods. 

4. The First Condition of the World. Yggdrasil grew very high, watered and 

watched over by Mimir and the dises of Fate. From it grew the branches upon which the 

Earth plane rests. These were occupied for a long time by Ymir and the offspring of his 

feet, the frost-giants. 

5. Odin’s Self-Sacrifice. Determined to rule the earth but still young and 

inexperienced, Odin realized that alone he did not have enough power to get rid of the 

offspring of chaos. Therefore, he climbed up into Yggdrasil, remained there for nine 

nights without food or drink, pierced with a spear, sacrificed to himself, and prayed for 

the power he needed. He received it from Mimir, who gave him a drink from the well of 

Creation and taught him powerful songs. 

6. The Frost-Giants Defeated. Odin and his brothers slew Ymir. Most of the 

frost-giants drowned in his blood, and their souls migrated down into the northernmost, 

fog-enshrouded part of the underworld, Niflhel. However, a few of the youngest frostgiants 

saved themselves on the coasts of the northernmost part of the Earth, which is 

called Jotunheim. 

7. The World-Mill. Mimir's craftsmen built an enormous mill in the underworld 

over the well, Hvergelmir. It regulates the ebb and flow of the seas, turns the vault of 

heaven, and grinds the flesh of Ymir and his kinsmen into fertile soil. 

8. Creation Continues. The meal into which Ymir's flesh was ground covers 

Midgard, whose foundation Bor's sons raised out of the ocean of blood. Mimir and Durin 

created the smiths who built the mill in accordance with a decree of the council of gods.

They created the heavens out of Ymir's skull, mountains from his bones, etc. and forged 

the artwork and ornamentation that beautify all Creation. Mimir's daughter, Night, and all 

her kinsmen were taken up into the circle of gods. The roads traveled by Day and Night, 

Sun and Moon were laid out. The Aesir and the Vanir defined their separate roles: the 

Vanir preside over the regulation of the world's fixed processes and the Aesir watch over 

and guard all of creation. Thus, the Aesir built the marvelous Asgard high in Yggdrasil 

for themselves. The bridge Bifröst extends between Asgard and the underworld. 

II. THE PRIMEVAL AGE OF PEACE. 

9. The Peace Covenant. All creatures formed a covenant, and to seal it gave one 

another hostages. The Vanir's hostages to the Aesir were Njörd and his son Frey. Odin 

married Frigg, Njörd's sister. Odin and Mimir gave one another pledges. The giant 

children Gullveig and Loki were admitted into Asgard. The goddesses favored Gullveig; 

Odin and Loki entered into sworn brotherhood. Odin sent his son Tyr to be fostered by 

the giant Hymir, and his son Thor, he sent to the giant Vingnir and his wife Hlora. 

10. The Treasures of the Gods. In Mimir's smithy, his own sons and Ivaldi's sons 

worked forging many precious treasures for the gods. Mimir's sons made Brisingamen for 

Freyja, and, for all the gods, a wonderful golden board game. Ivaldi's sons forged the 

spear Gungnir for Odin, the ship Skidbladnir for Frey, and, for Njörd, an ax that can 

break every lock. For all the gods, Ivaldi's sons prepared a "remedy against old-age," 

which is preserved by their sister Idun, who was accepted into Asgard. Njörd sent his 

young son Frey to be fostered by Ivaldi's sons. 

11. The Creation of Man. The world was now in good order, but the beautifully 

decorated Midgard remained humanless. From two trees, Ask and Embla, which grew by 

the sea in Aurvangaland, Odin, Hoenir and Lodur created the first human beings. 

12. Heimdall, the Culture-Bearer. The descendants of Ask and Embla lived in a 

cultureless condition. But one day, on their shores, a boat landed in which lay a boy 

sleeping on a sheaf of corn, surrounded by all manner of tools and forged items. The boy 

was Heimdall, sent by the gods. The people accepted him tenderly. He grew up among 

them and taught them to kindle the holy fire using the fire-auger. He taught them the 

runes of time and the runes of eternity. He introduced agriculture, handicrafts and 

smithwork. He ordered their society, and established the three castes. 

13. Heimdall, the first patriarch. He lived a long time as a man among men, and 

his reign was the race's golden age. When he died, his boat returned to collect him. The 

sorrowing people surrounded him with treasures and weapons. The boat returned to 

Vanaheim, where Heimdall was stripped of his aged human shape, became a divine youth 

and was accepted into Asgard. 

14. Skjöld-Borgar, the second patriarch, succeeded him as ruler and judge in 

Aurvangaland. During the Golden Age, Midgard was populated as far north as Svarin's 

Mound in Svithjod (Sweden) and beyond. Ivaldi (Svigdir) became the ruler in this 

northern region.

III. THE TRANSITION FROM PEACE TO WAR. 

15. Runes of Witchcraft. Gullveig’s First Burning. 8 The forces of the giant-world, 

the descendants of Ymir's feet, who dwell in Niflhel and Jotunheim, hated the race of 

men that the gods had created and protected. They hated the holy songs Odin received 

from Mimir, and all the good learning that our race received from Heimdall. Their 

purpose is to destroy the world's order and bring back Chaos, from which they trace their 

origin. Gullveig and Loki were their secret allies in Asgard. Gullveig devised the evil 

sorcery and the runes of witchcraft, an antithesis to Heimdall's teachings. 9 She wanted to 

entice Freyja, whose handmaiden she was, to practice this art, but it was discovered and 

the gods sentenced Gullveig to burn. Then for the first time, flames learned to become 

blended with smoke and thus could only half-burn her heart. 

16. The Birth of the Midgard Serpent. Loki found and swallowed the half-burnt 

heart. Thereby, he became pregnant and bore the Midgard serpent, which he threw into 

the sea. The Midgard serpent grows in direct proportion to the evil in the world. 

17. Thor’s First Giant-slaying. The giants Vingnir and Hlora treacherously 

wanted to take their foster son Thor's life when they noticed that he had grown 

enormously strong. But Thor, while still young, killed them both and traveled to Asgard 

with Vingnir's vafur-laden 10 stone hammer. By that time, the giants had become 

numerous in Jotunheim and comprised many mighty clans. 

8 The exact placement of Gullveig-Heid's three burnings is problematic. Völuspá informs us that she was 

"thrice burnt and thrice reborn, ...yet she still lives.” Based on a passage in Hyndluljóð 40-41, Rydberg 

connects her to Angrboda, the mother of three monsters: the Midgard Serpent, the Fenris Wolf, and the 

half-livid giantess Leikn, who becomes queen of Niflhel (See Vol. 1, no. 63-67). Each time the witch is 

burned, Loki finds her heart, consumes it, and is impregnated by it. Rydberg makes the original suggestion 

that one monster was born after each of the three burnings. Völuspá appears to indicate that she was burnt 

once for spreading witchcraft across Midgard [22], once for betraying her mistress, Freyja, to the giants 

during the first fimbul-winter [25], and once in Odin's hall just before the war between the Aesir and the 

Vanir [110]. At the time of Gullveig-Heid's final burning, her daughter Gerd has become the wife of the 

Vanir god Frey, thus she is now a protected member of the Vanir clan. 

Here, Rydberg seems to add an additional burning (no. 15, where Heid is punished for teaching 

Freyja witchcraft). In my opinion, no. 15 and no. 19 are best combined. This would constitute the first 

burning, followed by the birth of the Midgard serpent. The second burning (rather than the third) would 

then occur at no. 46, signaling the birth of Fenrir, and the third at no. 110, after which Leikn, the queen of 

disease is born (the same being whom Snorri Sturluson identifies as 'Hel'). 

9 The Eddaic poems refer to this type of magic as "seiðr." From its known uses in the mythology, it seems 

to involve influencing the minds of others (see 87). In Völuspá 22, Heid "seið hón leikinn," deluded with 

seiðr; she is ever the delight of evil women. From the statement in Heimskringla that Freyja was the first in 

Asgard to practice seiðr comes the mistaken conclusion that Freyja is Gullveig. The thrice-born and thriceburnt 

Gullveig is called Heid when she comes among men, and in Hyndluljod, Heid is a daughter of the 

giant Hrimnir. In Volusungasaga, we find Hrimnir's daughter as a maidservant in Asgard under Frigg. She 

plays as important a role as Loki does in the corruption of order. 

10 In Þórsdrápa 14 Thor's chariot is called hreggs váfreiðar, the "storm's hovering chariot" which Rydberg 

interprets as the "storm's vafur-chariot,” leading him to conclude that the vafrloga mentioned in the Elder 

Edda was lightning. Thus he depicts Thor's hammer as "vafur-laden.” Vafrloga or vafræyði literally means 

"wavering fire.” Vafra means "to hover about,” "to wander to and fro" and is applied to the motion of 

flames and ghosts, which has led some to conclude that these fires in their natural state represent the Aurora 

Borealis. In Fjölsvinnsmál 31, Menglad-Freyja's hall is surrounded by "vafur-fire," as is Gerd's hall in 

Skírnismál 8, 9. The fire is said to be "wise" and can distinguish friend from foe. As seen in Fjölsvinnsmál, 

these fires surround and protect Asgard from intrusion. Thus in Haustlöng 13 when the Aesir raise the

18. The Gods’ Chalet at Elivogar. When sworn oaths had thus been broken (a 

hostage from the giant-world burnt in Asgard, and the foster-parents' holy obligations 

betrayed in Jotunheim), the peace covenant consequently was no longer valid. The gods 

feared an attack on Midgard by the giants. Therefore, they established a citadel on the 

southern coast of Elivogar, 11 from which the activities of the giants could be watched. 

The citadel became Thor's property and he entrusted it to a company of elves, over which 

Ivaldi and his son Egil acted as rulers. Ivaldi, the ruler of Svithjod and Finland, was the 

best of all spear-champions. Egil was the finest of all archers and skiers. Völund, Egil's 

brother, a smith who had learned his art at Mimir's forge, was considered to be as good or 

better than Mimir's finest smiths. Ivaldi, his sons and warriors pledged an oath of 

allegiance to the gods. 

19. Gullveig’s Second Appearance and Burning. Gullveig was born anew in 

Jotunheim and proceeded from there to Midgard, where she wandered about under the 

name Heid, bearing her unholy runes of witchcraft from house to house, working against 

Heimdall's holy runic teachings and corrupting mankind. Soon she was discovered, but 

too late. She was brought before the gods, who burned her a second time. As before, her 

half-burnt heart remained and was swallowed by Loki, who again became pregnant and 

gave birth to the Fenris-Wolf, which he convinced the Aesir to take in as a plaything and 

raise in Asgard. 12 

20. The Giants Want to Test Thor’s Strength. The giants devised a plan with Loki 

by which they could ascertain whether Thor would become a dangerous opponent for 

them. Loki urged Thor to make a journey to the fire giant Fjalar, who was competent in 

magic, and even accompanied him there. Optical illusions surrounded them on the way to 

and inside of Fjalar's citadel. Athletic competitions were held in which Thor imagined 

himself defeated, when in truth he had displayed incredible strength. 13 

21. Thjalfi and Svipdag. Egil and his wife Groa adopted an orphan, Thjalfi, who 

grew up in Egil's citadel, showing a brave and clever disposition early on. Later Egil and 

Groa had a handsome son of their own named Svipdag (Od). 

22. Thor’s Journey to Hymir. The giant Hymir owned the bull, Himinhrjotur; he 

also owned an enormous brewing-kettle, which the gods required in order to make use of 

what the sea-giant Aegir had obligated himself to brew for them. Thor, followed by Tyr, 

who had been fostered in Hymir's gard, proceeded there. He left his goatspan and wagon 

with Egil and crossed over the Elivogar with Tyr. Hymir had lightning-eyes and could 

kill with a glance. But his wife, Tyr's mother, knew how to divert the power in his eyes 

against a pillar in his mountain-hall. Hymir suggested a fishing trip on the Elivogar, 

"skjót-brinni," the quick-fire, against Thjazi as he approaches Asgard in eagle-guise in pursuit of Loki, they 

kindle the vafur-fire moat surrounding Asgard. To make this point clear, Hárbarðsljóð 19 tells us that Thor 

killed Thjazi with a blow from his hammer, which represents the thunderbolt (see 86). 

11 The Elivogar is usually referred to as a river, but it is actually a stretch of ocean separating Midgard (in 

the vicinity of Finland) from Jötunheim (i.e. the Arctic Circle) in the north. This parallels the underworld 

geography: Niflhel is separated from Hel by a mountain range called Nidafjöll, the Nida Mountains, atop 

which sits the fountain Hvergelmir, the source of all waters. Jotunheim contains the giants that survived the 

flood of Ymir's blood; Niflhel contains the souls of the giants that drowned in Ymir's blood. Thus we also 

find the designation Jotunheimar (plural), meaning Jotunheim (above) and Niflhel (below). 

12 In Fädernas Gudasaga, Gullveig's second burning occurs at no.46. 

13 Logically, 20 would fall after 23, if we accept Snorri's tale of Thor's adventure with Utgard-Loki. Thjalfi 

takes part in the competition described there, racing the lad Hugi, who is Utgard-Loki's own thought. 

Rydberg retells two alternate accounts of this myth in Fädernas Gudasaga, ch. 15.

where he had caught many whales. Thor tore off Himinhrjotur's head for bait. During the 

fishing, the Midgard serpent bit Thor's hook, but Hymir cut the fishing-line and the 

Midgard serpent sank into the deep, after Thor had struck it in the head with his hammer. 

When they had returned home, Hymir wanted new proof of Thor's strength. 14 Thor then 

snatched the enormous kettle and hurried on his way with it, followed by Tyr. They were 

pursued by Hymir's kinsmen, but defeated their foes and returned to the gods with the 

kettle. 

23. Loki and Thjalfi. While Thor was on this adventure, Loki came to Egil's 

citadel, where one of Thor's goats had been slaughtered for the evening meal. Loki 

persuaded Thjalfi to break one of the goat's leg bones. As compensation for the damage, 

Thor took Thjalfi and made him his foster-son. 

IV. THE AGE OF WAR 

BEFORE THE FIMBUL-WINTER 

24. Thor’s Campaign Against the Giant Geirrod. The gods and the giants were 

now in open enmity. Egil had difficulty defending the Elivogar. Geirrod's daughters 

devised a plan with Loki to bring Egil, Thjalfi, and the host from their citadel to ruin. 

Loki urged Thor into a campaign against Geirrod. Thor traveled with Egil, Thjalfi and the 

host from their citadel into Jotunheim. An ambush had been laid for them along the path, 

and as they waded over the river, Egil and his warriors were nearly drowned. A field 

battle with the giants ensued. Thereafter, another battle occurred within the giant's 

mountain stronghold. Geirrod, along with his daughters and the members of his 

household, fell in the battle. 15 

25. Thor’s Vingnir-Hammer Stolen. When Thor, on a journey in the company of 

Loki, lay down to sleep, his hammer was stolen from him and concealed by the giant 

Thrym deep down in the earth. Thrym would not return the hammer, except on the 

condition that he receive Freyja as his wife. Thor, dressed as a bride and ornamented with 

Brisingamen, proceeded to Thrym's gard, followed by Loki who was clad as a 

bridesmaid. When the hammer was laid in the "bride's" lap for the blessing of the 

marriage, Thor slew the hammer's thief and his house-folk. 

26. Asgard’s City Wall. Since the age of peace had ended, as a precaution, the 

gods fortified Asgard against the enemies of the world. A legend tells how this was 

accomplished. The master builder, a giant, who demanded Sol, Mani, and Freyja in 

payment, became incapacitated through one of Loki's tricks, at the time agreed upon to 

complete the work. When he then became violent with indignation over it, Thor slew 

him. Loki, in the form of a mare, enticed the master builder's draught-horse Svadilfari 

into the woods, where with it he produced the eight-footed horse Sleipnir, which became 

Odin's steed. 

14 As proof of Thor's strength, Hymir requests that he break a cup. Tyr's mother advises Thor to throw it 

against the giant's head, the only surface hard enough to shatter it. 

15 This episode is based in part on a faulty interpretation of the skaldic poem Þórsdrápa (see Vol. 1, no. 

114). Because the meaning of the poem is debatable, the exact number and identity of Thor's companions is 

unknown. The myth however was well-known, as there are several references to it.

27. Loki Cuts Off the Hair of Sif, the Dis of Vegetation. Thereafter, Ivaldi's son 

Völund forged locks of gold for her, which took root and grew like natural hair. 

28. The World-Endangering Wager. Loki devised a plan that seemed to be of 

great benefit for the gods, but actually was calculated to cause enmity between the gods 

and the Nature-smiths, as well as among them separately. 16 He sought out Mimir's son 

Brokk, wanting to strike a bet that Sindri, Mimir's most artistic son, could not make three 

treasures as good as those created by the sons of Ivaldi, specifically Sif's golden hair, the 

spear Gungnir, and the ship Skidbladnir. Loki wagered his head. Brokk, who would 

happily have the head of the world-endangering deceiver, took the bet. Sindri forged the 

boar Slidrugtanni for Frey and Freyja, the ring Draupnir for Odin, and for Thor, an iron 

hammer that could not be stolen, but would return by itself to its owner's hand. Since the 

gods were the only ones who could compare the worth of these treasures, they agreed to 

pronounce a judgment in the matter after performing tests. 

29. The Giant Hrungnir in Asgard. Odin tested his horse Sleipnir, and on that 

occasion saw the giant Hrungnir, who was the finest fighter and owned the best horse in 

Jotunheim. Hrungnir mounted his horse and raced him into Asgard, where he, even 

though an enemy of the gods, was received according to the dictates of hospitality and 

entertained with mead. Over the drinking-horn, he boasted about his strength and 

threatened his hosts, until Thor came in. Then he lowered his tone and made reference to 

guests' rights in order to save his life. He declared that he was weaponless, but if Thor 

would agree to meet him on his own mark in Jotunheim, they could set a time for it. Thor 

accepted his challenge. 

30. The Iron Hammer Proven. Thor went to meet Hrungnir. Egil could not 

accompany him to the meeting, because when Thor came to his citadel, he was out on 

watch duty on the Elivogar. Therefore Thor took the young Thjalfi with him. In the battle 

with Hrungnir, Thor fell to the ground wounded, but the iron-hammer, which he had 

already cast, crushed Hrungnir's head and returned to Thor's hand. Thjalfi felled the claygiant 

Mökkurkalfi. 

31. Thor Rescues Egil. It was cold and storming during Thor's return trip. He 

met an exhausted Egil and bore him in his basket over the Elivogar to his citadel. 

32. Egil’s Star. On this occasion, Egil's toe was stricken with frostbite. Thor 

broke it off and cast it into the heavens where it became Örvandil’s (the arrow-handler's) 

star. 

33. Groa’s Galder-chant. When Thor came to his citadel in Asgard, Egil's wife, 

Groa, was there. She sang healing galder over Thor's wound, but from happiness forgot 

the end of the galder-chant when she learned that Egil was safe and had been so honored. 

34. The Mead and the Moon. In Ivaldi's kingdom, a mead-well named Byrgir, 

whose waters granted poetic skill and happiness, came to light. Ivaldi kept the discovery 

secret and, one moonless night, dispatched his children Hjuki and Bil 17 to drain the well 

and return home with the mead, whose capacity would not diminish. The moon-god 

Nep 18 saw the children as they wandered back with the supply. He took them and the 

mead, and then presented the mead to the Aesir. 

16 i.e. between Mimir's sons and the elves, the sons of Ivaldi. 

17 Hjuki and Bil, who fetch the mead for their father, are the Jack and Jill of nursery rhyme. Bil is Idun. 

After her, Bifrost is once called Bil-röst, Bil's way (Fáfnismál 15). 

18 Nanna's father, Nep. Identical with Nokkvi, Gevar, and Mani, the Moon-god.

35. Ivaldi, the Enemy of the Gods. Enraged over this, Ivaldi lay in ambush for 

Nep as Nep made his way through the underworld, overcame him and took possession of 

the mead, which he regarded as his property. In order that the mead not be taken from 

him a second time, he entrusted it to the giant Fjalar to keep in the innermost recesses of 

his mountain-halls. He entered into a pact with Fjalar, which was to be secured by the 

marriage of Ivaldi and Fjalar's daughter, Gunnlöd. 

36. Odin at Fjalar’s. Ivaldi’s Death. On the day appointed for the wedding, 

Odin came to Fjalar's place in the guise of the bridegroom. The marriage with Gunnlöd 

was celebrated. Odin revealed himself to her in the night and, with her assistance, 

succeeded in obtaining possession of the mead, which he in eagle-guise bore to Asgard. 

In the meantime, Ivaldi was slain in an ambush planned by Fjalar's doorkeeper, outside of 

the mountain hall. 

37. The Judgment of the Gods in the Wager Between Loki and Brokk. The 

treasures had now been tested by the gods. Brokk and Loki appeared before them to hear 

the judgment. The excellent manner in which the iron hammer had endured the test of 

battle against Hrungnir decided the suit in Brokk's favor; Sindri's works were preferred 

over Völund's. Furthermore, the gods supported Loki's objection that his neck should not 

be injured, when his head is taken. Thus Mimir's sons, as well as Ivaldi's sons, were 

angered by this judgment. Brokk pierced Loki's lips with Sindri's awl. 

38. Völund and Loki. Odin and Hoenir made an excursion in the company of 

Loki, during which Loki was carried off by Völund (Thjazi) in eagle-guise. In order to 

save his own life, Loki was forced to swear an oath that could not be broken to convey 

Idun with her remedy against old age from Asgard. In revenge for his father Ivaldi's death 

and his own insulted honor, Völund resolved to ruin the gods and their creation. 

39. Idun Disappears from Asgard. The dis who preserved the Aesir's remedy 

against old age was enticed out of Asgard by Loki. She and her means of rejuvenation 

came into the power of the enemies of the gods. 

40. Freyja Disappears from Asgard. Völund and the newly reborn Gullveig, with 

Loki acting as the middleman, devised a plan to convey Freyja from Asgard. The plan 

succeeded and Völund delivered Freyja to the giants of Beli's clan. 

41. Frey Delivered to the Giants. Völund and Egil surrendered their foster son 

Frey to the same giant-clan. 

42. An Attempt at Reconciliation Rejected. Njörd, followed by Hödur and 

another god (probably Baldur), made haste to locate Ivaldi's sons but found that they had 

abandoned their citadel. Egil no longer watched over the Elivogar. Njörd and his 

companions met Ivaldi's sons on their way to the world's northernmost wilderness. Njörd 

desired reconciliation, but his attempt failed. A duel with arrows between Hödur and Egil 

ensued. Egil proved himself the superior archer but did Hödur no harm. 19 

43. Ivaldi’s Sons in Exile. Völund and Egil with a third Ivaldi son, Slagfin, 

continued on their path to the Wolfdales in the furthermost north, a place inaccessible to 

the gods. 

44. Disir (Goddesses) of Vegetation from Ivaldi's clan left the gods and flew in 

swan-guise to their kinsmen in the Wolfdales. 

19 This episode is preserved in Saxo Grammaticus' Danish History Book 6. There the archer Ani (Egil), the 

companion of Anund (Völund), challenges Fridlief (Njörd) to a duel. Bjorno (Hödur) defends him but is 

proven an inferior archer to Ani. (see Vol. 1, no. 112)

45. The Age of Treasures Ends. The angered sons of Mimir stopped forging 

treasures for the gods, but continued to be allies of the world-order, now threatened by 

the Ivaldi sons. 

46. Gullveig Burned Yet Again. When it was discovered that a maid who served 

the goddesses was the one who had betrayed Freyja to the giants, and that traitor was 

Gullveig, Thor slew her with a hammer blow. Her body was burned anew, and her 

remains, which the flames could not consume, were removed to the underworld and 

buried in holy ground in order to render them harmless. But Loki found her heart this 

time as well and swallowed it. 20 

47. Brotherly Discord Among the Gods. Hödur, who was an active hunter, got lost 

during a hunt in the Ironwood. When night fell, he took refuge in a cave, where he 

encountered a witch. She confused his senses with a magic potion and extracted a vow 

from him that he would acquire Baldur's betrothed, Nanna. The magic potion fanned 

Hödur’s affection for Nanna into flames. In the morning, he was ashamed of the vow but 

was compelled to fulfill it, although doing so meant breaking with his family. 

48. Hödur Joins the Giants and Makes War on Baldur. After Egil had abandoned 

his watch on the Elivogar, many giants crossed over the boundary waters. Hödur joined 

them and led them into battle, but was conquered. Baldur returned his remorseful brother 

to Asgard. 

49. Baldur’s Consumption. Baldur suffered bad dreams and attacks of despair. 

Many signs boded his death. Frightening losses, one after the other, had now befallen 

Asgard, and the life on Midgard had fallen into decline. Frey, the god of fertility; Freyja, 

the goddess of fecundity; and Idun, the dis of rejuvenation, were in the powers of the 

enemies of the world. Of the Nature-artists, one group had refused to serve them; the 

other one had sworn their destruction. The dises of growth had aligned themselves with 

Asgard's foes. But so long as Baldur, the establisher of peace and "the powerful promoter 

of the sun-disk," still lived, there was still hope that they could resist the forces of winter. 

50. All of Nature’s Creatures swore not to harm Baldur, and the gods requested 

such oaths. Not a single giant desired his demise with the exceptions of Gullveig, Loki, 

and Völund, who with his measureless desire for revenge, was now transformed into the 

most frightening of all the giant beings (Thjazi). 

51. The Mistletoe. In the Ironwood grew a tender sprig that, unlike its relatives, 

had not made an oath. The inquiring Loki found the mistletoe, and proceeded with it to 

the Wolfdales and to Völund, who made a deadly, infallible arrow of it. 

52. Baldur’s Death. After the obligatory oaths had been made, there arose a game 

among the Aesir in which they shot and threw weapons at Baldur on a sporting field, for 

nothing could harm him. With his bow, Hödur took part in the game. Loki slipped the 

mistletoe arrow into his quiver, because Hödur was the only one who could be mistaken 

to have wanted Baldur dead, on account of his previous desire for his brother's wife. 

Hödur shot the mistletoe shaft, which resembled his other arrows, and Baldur fell to the 

ground mortally wounded. In Asgard, inconsolable sorrow followed. 21 

20 This is best considered Gullveig's second burning, and joined with no. 62, "The Creation of Plagues." 

21 Baldur’s death and the related events are better placed after Völund’s death, since his daughter Skadi 

came to Asgard seeking Baldur as a husband. (See 86).

53. The Law of Blood-revenge pertains even to the gods, but in Asgard no one 

could be found who did not regard Hödur as innocent or who would rob Odin of another 

son. A holy law thus appeared to have been frustrated by the gods themselves. 

54. Odin’s Journey to the Underworld. Odin saddled Sleipnir and rode down to 

the underworld from the north through Niflhel towards the realms of Mimir and Urd. In 

Niflhel, the shade of the frost-giant Hrossthjof, Gullveig's brother, informed Odin that he 

would rear a son with Rind in western halls, who would be his brother's slayer. A hound 

of Niflhel, bloody on the breast, met him and followed him, barking at the high horseman 

until he came to the border of Mimir's realm. Odin sought out Mimir, conjuring the wise 

ruler of the fields of bliss in the underworld to tell what he knew regarding whether the 

world would, after Baldur's death, go on to meet its fate. 

55. Odin’s Eye in Mimir’s Well. Self-sacrifice was required to find the key to the 

riddle. The answer lay in the depths of the well of wisdom, at which Odin tore out an eye 

and cast it down therein. The eye peered into the future, but what it saw, Odin first had to 

confirm with Urd. 

56. Odin at the Snowy Grave. Odin rode farther and came to the place where the 

remains of Gullveig had been laid to rest. Along the way, there was a splendid castle built 

by Mimir's sons. Odin saw a lovely hall, hung with tapestries and lavishly ornamented 

with golden treasure. The grave of the "primeval-cold" frost-giant's daughter was 

shrouded by snow. Otherwise, winter never found its way into Mimir's realm. With a 

chanted formula, Odin conjured her, and she repeated her brother Hrossthjof's words. 

57. The Asmegir and the Underworld Breidablik. 22 The palace Odin saw had a 

remarkably important destiny. Here, Mimir preserves untainted human beings for a 

coming age; for he knows the future and from the foreboding signs concluded that a 

frightful age was impending in which all of Ask and Embla's descendants would be 

spoiled by misfortune and sin. In Midgard, he sought two benevolent children, Lif and 

Lifthrasir. For them and for Baldur, whose fate he foresaw, he had his sons build a 

splendid hall surrounded by a grove in the land of the rosy dawn. Delling, the elf of the 

dawn's first blush, is its watchman. Sindri-Dvalin and his smiths made the artful gate. 

Sorrow and sin, old age and infirmity can never come inside. The children, nourished 

with the power-giving morning dew from Yggdrasil's crown, wait for Baldur. The drink 

that gives the dead renewed strength is already poured for him in their hall. 

58. Urd Prophesies for Odin Concerning Ragnarök. Odin rode farther until he 

came to the well of the three Norns, where he bade Urd provide a solution to the riddle 

which weighed on him. Urd answered that she knew that he had hidden his eye in the 

well of wisdom and thus already knew what he needed to know. Odin laid the treasures 

of Valhall at her feet and bade her again to answer the question. Then she sang a frightful 

yet consoling song for him, regarding Ragnarök and the renewal of the world. 23 

59. Baldur’s Funeral Pyre. Baldur's pyre was built on his ship Hringhorni. Odin 

bore his son's body in his arms and laid him on the pyre. When Nanna saw this, she sank 

down with a broken heart and lay on the pyre beside her husband. Odin placed the ring 

22 Rydberg identifies Baldur's residence Breidablik with the hall in the underworld that houses Lif and 

Lifthrasir. Grímnismál 12 informs us that Breidablik is where "liggja veit fæsta feiknstafi," the fewest evil 

runes lie. 

23 The song she sang is Völuspá.

Draupnir on Baldur's breast and whispered into his ear; what, the world may never know. 

Then the pyre was set ablaze, and the burning ship sailed out into the sea of air. 

60. Odin Uses the Witch-Runes. The law of the world demanded revenge for 

Baldur, and it was predestined that the avenger would be born of Rind, the daughter of 

Billing, the elf of the sunset glow. But Rind rejected the Asa-father, and thus, forced by 

the greatest necessity, he resorted to the power of the runes of witchcraft. 

61. Baldur’s Avenger. With Rind, Odin fathered Vali, who left his mother's 

womb early. Only one night old and thus not responsible for his actions, nor feeling any 

remorse in his duty, he slew Hödur. 

62. The Origin of Plagues. Loki, who had again become pregnant with 

Gullveig's heart, bore the queen of plagues, Leikn, into the world. Leikn soon had much 

to do, since the fimbul-winter with its horrors immediately followed Baldur's death. 24 

THE FIMBUL-WINTER 

63. Ivaldi’s Sons in the Wolfdales. In one of the dark stretches of valley at the 

northernmost edge of the world, where one of the tunnels to Niflhel is found, Ivaldi's sons 

built a home and a forge. Egil and Slagfin went out on skis and hunted. Völund forged, 

and, when not at his forge, he chanted galder-songs and conjured with "gands," (magic 

objects, wands). 

64. Völund’s Witchcraft. When Völund chanted and conjured, dark winds 

carrying frosty mist and clouds emanated from him, blowing southward, unloading 

snowstorms and hail over Midgard. Hardly a day passed over many years that he did not 

send primeval-cold winds toward the world of man. The air was filled with ruin. Odin 

listened from Hlidskjalf and became aware that the galder-songs came from the uncharted 

regions beyond Jotunheim. He sent his wise ravens to spy, but their wings weakened and 

their blood stiffened. They returned with nothing to say. 25 

65. Völund’s Work. Völund called the weapon he crafted "the sword of revenge" 

(gambanteinn). He applied all of his artistry, all of his secret knowledge, to its 

preparation. He tempered the blade in the poisonous waves of rivers in Niflhel and etched 

the runes of certain victory into the invincible steel. 

66. The Upheaval of Nature. Every year, Midgard yielded fewer crops. Bad 

harvest followed on bad harvest. Spirits of hunger and disease came with blizzards and 

laid waste to man and beast. The gods seemed powerless, and offerings to them without 

hope. Two powerful thurs-maidens, Fenja and Menja, grasped the world-mill's handle 

and set it in so fast a motion that the earth trembled from its depths. From the mill-stones 

leapt fragments of rock, which were cast high up out of the sea; the mountains spewed 

fire, the millworks went awry, and the vault of heaven was wrenched into the oblique 

position it has had ever since. 26 

24 This episode is better placed at no. 110. Leikn, Loki's daughter, is identical with Snorri Sturluson's Hel, 

the queen of dead. As Snorri describes her, she is half-living, half-black. As a personal name, Hel actually 

refers to Urd. As a place name, it refers to the realms of bliss in the underworld (see Vol. 1, no 53-57). 

25 As told in the events of the poem Hrafnagaldur Óðins. There, Odin sends the gods Heimdall, Loki, and Bragi to Urd for an answer to whether these events signal 

Ragnarök. Tears are her reply. 

26 This explains why the Pole Star is not directly over head and why the heavens seem to rotate in a sloping 

position in reference to the horizon. This vandalism to the world-mill is felt both in the heavens and on 

earth. The whole order of Nature is disturbed. This geological disaster is quickly followed by a devastating

67. Swan-maidens in the Wolfdales. Ivaldi's sons had not dwelt there long, when 

three swan-maids came to share their fate. Two were Ivaldi's daughters: Idun, who laid 

her arms around Völund's white neck, and Auda, who loved Slagfin. The third was Sif, 

their relation, who carried a message to Egil from Groa that she could not come. 

68. The Migration from the North. Giant troops moved over the Elivogar into 

northern Midgard. The nature-smiths, who formerly had blessed the land with fertility, 

now forsook it and migrated from Svarin's Mound (in the far north) into the 

Aurvangaland (the southernmost parts of the Scandinavian peninsula). Sindri-Dvalin led 

the procession. Many Germanic clans lived in Svithjod. All suffered from the change in 

climate, most of all the Swedes, the northernmost Germanic people, who resolved to go 

south. So one tribe came to push another south. Behind them, the glacial ice and the 

snowfields expanded. Before them lay deliverance from death by starvation. 

69. Skjöld-Borgar Immigrates. The Germanic Empire South of the Baltic Sea is 

Founded. The forces against Aurvangaland were so strong that the aged Skjöld-Borgar 

(Berich) decided to take his people and move southward. There, he and his son Halfdan 

(Mannus) established an expansive kingdom which stretched out along the Rhine and 

down toward the highest mountains in Midgard. The Swedes occupied the Aurvangaland 

and stopped there. 

70. Halfdan, the Third Patriarch and First King. When Skjöld-Borgar, who had 

seen the Golden and the Copper Ages of the world, died, all tribes declared Halfdan king 

of new Germania. He was the first Germanic ruler with this distinction. His father, 

Skjöld-Borgar, had been designated judge. 

71. About Halfdan’s Birth. Halfdan was born one tempestuous night as holy 

waters fell from the "heavenly mountains" (clouds), and a thunderstorm raged. Thor 

overshadowed the house, thus he was regarded as the child's co-father. Urd and her 

sisters came and fastened the threads of his fate under the hall of the moon, strong ones 

towards the east and the west, but towards the north, they could merely cast a single 

thread and pray that it hold forever. Two ravens that saw the newborn in the morning, 

said to one another that they and the wolves were now in for a good time. Halfdan's 

parents, whom Heimdall had taught bird-speech, heard the prediction and lamented over 

it. 27 

72. Halfdan and the Progenitor of the Hamalians. Skjöld-Borgar entrusted his 

friend, Hagal, to foster Halfdan. Hagal had a son Hamal, who became the progenitor of 

the Amalians. Halfdan and Hamal were the handsomest men in Midgard, and much like 

one another in appearance. They were faithful friends. 

73. Halfdan’s Character. Halfdan united tremendous strength and superior 

intellect with beauty. He became the Teutons greatest skald and composed songs sung by 

generation after generation. He was popular and generous, but also desirous of adventure 

and intent on war. 

74. Halfdan and Groa. Halfdan and Hamal followed Thor, when he appeared in 

Svithjod to do battle with the giant-clans that now lived there. As the foster-brothers rode 

winter, the fimbul-winter. As part of the epic cycle, this myth is intended to relate historical events. Thus it 

is tantalizing to think that this myth may be a folk-memory of an actual ancient worldwide catastrophe, 

followed by an ice age. On this point, see Georgio de Santillana's Hamlet's Mill (1969). 

27 All of this occurs in the opening verses of the Eddaic poem Helgakviða Hundingsbana I, in which 

Rydberg recognizes the birth of the patriarch Halfdan. (see Vol. 1, nos. 29-30).

through a forest, they met Groa and her companions who were on their way to a forestlake 

to bathe. Halfdan forced Groa to follow him and took her as his wife. Groa's father 

fell in battle with Halfdan. 28 

75. Groa’s Sons: Svipdag-Od and Gudhorm. With Halfdan, Groa bore a son that 

was not his, but Egil's. The son was called Svipdag-Od. Afterwards, by Halfdan, she bore 

a son, who received the name Gudhorm. 

76. Groa Sent Away. Her Death. Groa could never come to terms with the thought 

that she was the wife of her father's murderer, and that her son by Egil was growing up 

under the care of Halfdan, upon whom Svipdag must eventually extract blood-revenge 

for the death of a kinsman. In time, Halfdan sent Groa and Svipdag away. They returned 

to Svithjod. Groa waited there for Egil's return, languishing unto death. Dying, she said to 

Svipdag concerning his difficult destiny that he should come to her grave and call on her. 

77. The Swan-maidens and Völund’s Brothers Leave the Wolfdales. The swan 

maids had spent seven winters there. During the eighth winter, they were sad and languid. 

Thus they took their swan-dresses and flew away. Egil and Slagfin left the Wolfdales to 

search for them. 

78. Ull. 29 Egil was accompanied on his way by a boy, his and Sif's son, born in 

the Wolfdales. Named Ull, the boy was raised by his father to be an archer and a skier. 

79. Völund Imprisoned and Bereft of his Sword. Mimir, the guardian of the worldtree, 

had previously not intervened in the Aesir's call to defend the order of the world. 

But now that Völund's sword of revenge was completed, there was no hope that they 

could accomplish this. With his wife, the mother of the night-dises, and with armed Njars 

(the folk of Mimir's clan; singular Njarr), Mimir proceeded out of the underworld to the 

Wolfdales, surprised Völund in his sleep, bound him with his own magic-rope, took 

possession of the sword of revenge, and transported Völund to an island, on which a 

smithy became his prison. Mimir's queen had Völund's hamstrings cut, since she feared 

most that he would escape. 

80. The Hiding Place of the Sword of Revenge. Mimir gave the sword to the 

mother of the night-dises for preservation. She concealed it in the trunk of the world-tree 

within the nine locks of its annual rings. 

81. Völund and Bödvild. Völund secretly murdered two young sons of Mimir, 

who had rowed out to the island to see his treasures. Of their skulls and eyeballs, he made 

jewelry, which he presented to their parents and their sister Bödvild. Later, she secretly 

came to the island, where he gave her a sleeping potion and embraced her. 

82. Völund Ensures Himself a Blood-avenger and Escapes. Völund had secretly 

been preparing an eagle-guise. When it was ready, he flew from the island to Mimir's 

castle, speaking to him, out of the reach of arrows. With the promise of great sorrow, he 

said that he would tell him the fate of his vanished young sons, if Mimir would swear a 

holy oath to do "Völund's wife" no harm, even before he revealed who she was, and that 

she would soon have a baby in Mimir's hall. Mimir made the oath. Völund revealed the 

28 This should properly occur before section 67, since this is the reason that Egil's second wife, Sif, rather 

than his first wife, Groa, accompanies him to the Wolfdales. 

29 [Rydberg's footnote] The older Nordic name forms are Vullr and Vollr. It is related to the Gothic Vulthus 

and means "distinguished," "of great reputation," "honored."

cruel crime he had committed and flew away. Bödvild bore a son, who received the name 

Vidga. 

83. The Anguish of the Mother of the Night-Dises. Protected by Mimir's oath, 

Vidga, the son of Völund the enemy of the gods and of the world, grew up in the castle of 

the mother of the night-dises, in the care of the family that protects the world-tree and is 

united by family and friendship to the gods. Vidga was heir to the sword of revenge and 

obligated, if Völund fell in his battle with the gods, to avenge his father's death. Thus was 

his destiny, if he ever found the sword of revenge in his power. 

84. Völund and Idun in Thrymheim. Völund sought out Idun, his swan-maid, and 

sequestered himself with her in a mountain in the Thrymheim range. Lame and robbed of 

the sword of revenge, and thus in no position to attack the gods; he could still ravage 

Midgard with galder and gander. 30 Furthermore, since Idun possessed "the Aesir's 

remedy against old-age," the gods sooner or later would fall victim to the power of time, 

if they were not brought down by the sword of revenge wielded by Völund's son. 

THE DECLINE AND END OF THE FIMBUL-WINTER. 

85. Idun Returned to Asgard. In order to ingratiate himself with the gods and 

avenge the mistreatment he had suffered at the hands of Völund, Loki offered to return 

Idun to Asgard, since he had discovered Völund's hideout. He flew in Freyja's falconguise 

towards the Thrymheim mountains. Taking the chance that Völund would be 

fishing in a nearby lake, Loki sneaked into the mountain and flew away clutching Idun, 

whom he had transformed into a fruit, 31 in his claw. 

86. Völund’s Death. Loki remained in the vicinity until Völund had discovered 

his loss and had seen the culprit, Loki himself. He did this to entice Völund to pursue. 

Völund clad himself in his own feather-guise and stalked the falcon, which flew on to 

Asgard where the gods, upon seeing the birds, made ready to receive them. Once the 

falcon had come safely within the castle-walls, they ignited Asgard's vafur-fire moat. 

Völund, wounded by spears and arrows, plunged headlong into the flames, his wings 

burning, and he was killed by a blow of Thor's hammer. 

87. Freyja Rescued by Svipdag and Returned to Asgard. Egil found Sif again, 

and his sons Svipdag and Ull lived with them. One day, Sif said to her stepson Svipdag, 

who was a handsome, lively, and quick youth, that he was now grown and ought to do 

something praiseworthy. She insisted that he find Freyja. Svipdag had no desire to do so, 

but Sif, who could foresee the future and had been inspired by Urd, demanded it as a 

pledge. Svipdag, who suspected that his stepmother wished him harm, went at night to 

his mother Groa's grave-mound, bade her awaken, reminded her of her promise, and told 

her what Sif had demanded of him. Groa, from within the grave, encouraged him and 

sang protecting chants ("galder") over him. Ull, who was devoted to his half-brother 

Svipdag, asked for and received his mother's blessing to follow him. Egil outfitted them 

30 Literally, "chants and magic implements"; the skalds envisioned Völund "shaking hail from the sails" 

(small pieces of cloth) and using a magic rope (a "gand") to bind or let loose the wind, while singing songs 

that "blend the air with evil." 

31 Even though the source of this, Skáldskaparmál 56, says that Loki transforms her into a nut (hnot), here 

and in Our Fathers' Godsaga, Rydberg maintains that Loki transformed her into a fruit (frukt).

in the finest manner with weapons and means of transportation for their journey, and they 

proceeded on their way. 

They were well received in Jotunheim, since they were Völund's nephews and 

thus regarded as allies of the giants. After a long and difficult journey, they reached Beli's 

clan, one of the most appalling, ugly, violent, vicious, and treacherous families in 

Jotunheim. There they found Frey and Freyja, who, according to Völund's orders, were 

regarded and treated as if they were the best of the clan, except that they were under the 

influence of witchcraft and as such were both in a dream state. Thus, Freyja hardly 

noticed that one of the giants, Grepp, wanted her for himself. The half-brothers spent 

frightful days in Beli's hall and would not have come away from there alive, if they had 

not been so alert and so intelligent, and not so faithfully aided one another, nor possessed 

such fine weapons. 

In time, a moment came when they could converse with Frey in private. They 

confided to him that they had come to rescue Freyja and him. For his own part, Frey 

refused to follow them; he felt so degraded by his stay among the giants and by his 

powerlessness as a protector of Midgard that he would not return to Asgard. But he 

would see his sister saved, so he helped the brothers find an opportunity to flee 

undetected with Freyja out of the giant-court. Frey remained behind until their escape 

was discovered, and, being superb skiers, they fled the persecution of the Beli-giants and 

the next night rested, concealed in a wood. Svipdag was in love with the beautiful maid 

and begged, in vain, for a single glance, but her mental-slumber 32 continued, her eyes 

were always lowered. During the night she disappeared. The half-brothers long looked 

for her and ultimately found her serving as a goat-maid for a giantess who lived alone. 

Svipdag and Ull requested lodging for the night from the giantess. Svipdag found favor in 

her eyes when he let it be known that he was not unwilling, if asked, to marry her. The 

giantess went out to invite her family and friends to her bridal feast. During her absence, 

Svipdag and Ull escaped with Freyja. A violent hurricane approached them during their 

journey and churned up the Elivogar as they crossed over it, but they reached Egil's 

chalet safely with the Vana-maid. Sif rejoiced at the outcome of their quest, but Svipdag 

was sorrowful, acknowledging his love and complaining that he had not even received a 

glance from the girl he had rescued. To discover Freyja's true feelings, Sif pretended to 

arrange a marriage between Svipdag and a maid of the house. Then Freyja could not 

32 Rydberg uses the Swedish word, "själsdvala" to indicate Freyja's condition. "Själ-" which means "soul, 

mind, spirit" when used as a prefix, refers to mental or spiritual matters, and "-dvala" means sleep. Freyja 

has been placed under a spell, likely by her maidservant Gullveig, who "gave" her to the giants (Völuspá 

25). Among them, Freyja is conscious, but listless and wasting away for love. She longs for Svipdag, but 

cannot raise her eyes to meet his. She is returned to Asgard in this condition, and in time, the spell is 

broken by true love's kiss. Gullveig is burnt a third time for this misdeed (see no. 110). 

In the opening lines of Skírnismál, Frey too is found to be under the same sort of spell. He is 

listless and wasting away for love. The cause of Frey's condition is likewise his future mother-in-law, 

Aurboda, who is Gullveig. Since Gullveig is associated with the magic art known as "seiðr," and said to be 

its originator, it is likely a means of mind control. This is confirmed by a third mythic example, that of 

Odin and Rind. According to Saxo Grammaticus, Rind rebuffed Odin three times, and on the third he 

touched her with a piece of bark upon which he had carved spells. She immediately fell sick, and; dressed 

as her nursemaid; Odin had his way with her in order to father his fated son and the avenger of Baldur, Vali 

(Saxo's Bous). A passage in Skáldskaparmál 9 by the skald Kormak informs us that "seið Yggr til Rindar," 

Yggr-Odin worked seid on Rind. Lokasenna 24 refers to the same event. Thus while the type of magic 

called galder can be used to help or harm, seidr seems always to carry a stigma with it because of its nature.

conceal her sorrow, and the wedding became hers and Svipdag's. Sif's will and, 

moreover, Svipdag's intention was to return Freyja to Asgard unviolated, since the Aesir 

were their family's enemies, and he hated them too. He laid a naked sword in the conjugal 

bed between himself and his bride. The following day, Freyja, again deep in dreams, was 

led to Asgard by Sif. 33 

88. Frey Returned to Asgard. The gods now knew where Frey could be found, 

and Njörd, who long had looked for him in vain, traveled on Skidbladnir to the fogshrouded 

skerries of Beli's giant-clan. There, Njörd surprised the thurses, put them to 

flight, and, after a fortunate struggle, liberated his son. Frey himself slew Beli. 

89. Halfdan’s Campaign into the North. In his Germanic kingdom south along 

the Baltic Sea, Halfdan gathered a powerful army to reclaim his father's sacred land, the 

Scandinavian peninsula, from the forces of winter. He equipped a fleet, and the army 

landed in Aurvangaland. The Swedes, who now lived there, would not affiliate 

themselves with the campaign. They wanted to keep the fertile fields they possessed 

there. They found support from the giant clans living in the north, who opposed the 

advancing procession. On his side, Halfdan received the support of the gods and of 

Mimir's sons, so that the gods, the nature-smiths, the giants, and human heroes fought 

beside one another in a bloody battle, in which Halfdan opened a path all the way to the 

north. With astonishment, the Swedes noticed that their retreat was followed by Spring 

and flowers, and flocks of migratory birds. Above Halfdan's fylkings (troops), Valkyries 

with golden spears appeared. From their horses' manes and bridles dropped nourishing 

dew over the fields, which for years had borne only frost-flowers. And the same Sindri- 

Dvalin, under whose leadership the nature-smiths had previously withdrawn from the far 

north, now traveled back in that direction and took part in the battle under Halfdan's 

banner. 

90. The Battle on the Ice was the name of one of the celebrated battles. Frey, 

Delling, Dag, Sindri and another son of Mimir, Bjarr, took part in this battle, and so too 

the ruler of the settlers, Vifill. Another bloody battle occurred on Moin's Heath. 

91. Hildiger. In one of these battles, Hildiger, Halfdan's half-brother, fell while 

he fought on the side of the Swedes. In a previous marriage with the progenitor of the 

Hildings, Drott had borne Hildiger in Svithjod. She then had had Halfdan with Skjöld- 

Borgar in Denmark. Hildiger fell in battle with Halfdan, whose life he had wanted to 

spare. Dying, he revealed to Halfdan who he was, and asked to be wrapped in his 

brother's cloak. 

92. Battles on the Western Sea and the Baltic. In connection with Halfdan's 

advance by land, there were advances by water on the Western Sea and on the Baltic 

against the powers of winter. Sindri's brothers, Brokk and Bjarr, cleansed the Western sea 

of thurs-monsters. Thor and Thjalfi freed the Danish and Swedish islands from magic and 

giants. On Hlessey (Lässo), Thjalfi came close to being killed by furious giantesses, but 

was rescued by Thor. 

33 In Saxo Grammaticus' Danish History Book 7, the source of this tale, Svipdag (Otharus) leaves Freyja 

(Syritha) alone wandering in the realm of the giants after rescuing her from the goatherd. She then descends 

the rocky terrain "in the manner common in antiquity" (probably in her falcon-guise) and comes to Egil's 

house ahead of Svipdag. The events that follow are perhaps better placed after section 98, where Svipdag 

obtains the sword of revenge. Thus, the sword laid between him and Freyja on their wedding night would 

be Völund's sword. Afterwards, Sif returns Freyja to Asgard. Rydberg suggests elsewhere that Njörd 

spirited Freyja away from Egil's house.

93. The Scandinavian Islands Resettled. Among those who then rebuilt the 

Scandinavian isles were Thjalfi, Vifill and Veseti. Thjalfi repopulated Gotland, which, 

before his arrival, had sunk at sunrise and emerged again at sundown. Thjalfi bore 

friction-fire around the island, thereby making it stable. Vifill repopulated Oland. Veseti 

repopulated Bornholm. 

94. The Battle at Svarin’s Mound. Egil’s Death. Svipdag, a Prisoner. Halfdan 

finally forced his way to Svarin's Mound, the same point from which the migration at the 

beginning of the fimbul-winter had had its origin. There the final battle occurred. Egil 

and Svipdag reached the army of the Swedes, but the night before the battle, Egil was 

surprised in his night-lodging by Halfdan, who killed him with a blow from his club. 

Svipdag was captured on the battlefield. 

95. Halfdan, King of All Germania. After this battle, even the Swedes, who 

returned to the land that they had possessed before the fimbul-winter began, recognized 

Halfdan as king. 

Hereby, the power of the great winter seemed to break, but not without 

consequences. 

SVIPDAG AND THE SWORD OF REVENGE. 

96. Halfdan and Svipdag. Halfdan showed his captured stepson mercy and 

offered him a king's title and a kingdom, but Svipdag replied that he would not allow 

himself to be bribed by him who had affronted his mother and killed his father. If 

Halfdan did not kill him now, he would kill Halfdan later. With this, Halfdan bound him 

to a tree in the forest and left him to his fate. 

97. Mani and Svipdag. With the aid of the galder that Groa had sung over him, 

Svipdag burst his fetters. Heavy with hopelessness, he went by night along a moonlit 

path. Mani (the Moon) spoke to him, saying that he should not despair, for his uncle's 

invincible sword was kept in the underworld by "Sinew-maimer," who had hidden it in 

the "water-requiring vessel" (the world-tree). 34 If he could acquire the sword, a great fate 

awaited him. The Sinew-maimer (Sinmara) was in distress, and if Svipdag could relieve 

her anguish, she would give the sword to him. She would only be relieved if Svipdag 

gave her the sickle with which one of the threads twisted by Urd could be cut. Mani 

informed Svipdag where he could find a passage to the underworld and how he should 

get there. And when he had finished his talk, a shining silver sickle fell from the sky at 

the youth's feet. Svipdag took it, thanked him, and proceeded on. 

98. Svipdag Obtains the Sword of Revenge. After a life-threatening journey 

behind "harnessed reindeer" 35 over high mountains and through terrible cold, and after a 

fortunate duel with the Njar who guarded the entrance to the underworld, Svipdag 

descended, making his way bravely through Niflhel's horrors. He climbed over the 

Hvergelmir mountain, saw the world-mill, and came down into Mimir's kingdom and to 

34 Sinmara, "the sinew-maimer; segjárnskeri "the water requiring vessel." This sentence is a paraphrase of 

Fjölsvinnsmál 26. 

35 

The source of this episode is Gevar and Hotherus' conversation in Saxo Grammaticus' Danish History 

Book 3. Rydberg demonstrates that the story of Hotherus and Baldur found there is a combination of the 

myth of Hödur and Baldur, and of certain events from the myth of Svipdag (Od) and the sword (see Vol. 1, 

no. 101). Gróugaldr 12 provides Svipdag with a charm to keep him safe on this leg of the adventure.

the castle of Night and the night-dises. There he was greeted by Mimir's sad queen 

(Sinmara) and by Bödvild, and met his uncle Völund's son, the little Vidga. He offered 

the queen the shining sickle with which her daughter Night, on her journey across the 

sky, could sever the thread of blood-revenge that Urd had stretched for Vidga beneath the 

hall of the moon. Svipdag also offered to take up Vidga's destiny in the legacy of bloodrevenge 

left by Völund. To that legacy belonged Völund's sword of victory, thus Mimir's 

queen took the sword from its hiding place and happily exchanged it for the moon's 

sickle. Afterwards, Svipdag saw the wonders of Mimir's kingdom, among them the 

closed castle of Baldur and the Asmegir (Lif and Lifthrasir), before returning safely to the 

upper world. 

99. Svipdag Leads a Giant Host. Svipdag summoned Jotunheim's troops for a new 

battle and let them know that he was in possession of Völund's invincible sword. One of 

the giant-rulers, Gymir, mobilized numerous giant armies to move with Svipdag as their 

leader against the south. That the sword of revenge was in the hands of Völund's nephew 

quickly became known in Asgard. Odin himself and his heroic sons, along with the Vanir 

gods Heimdall, Njörd, and Frey hastened to Midgard's defense and to aid Halfdan. 

100. Svipdag Victorious. In the tremendous battle that followed, the Aesir 

maintained the upper hand and Gymir's troops retreated in the end; but the victory 

nevertheless was Svipdag's. His sword, burning like the sun, felled as many of Midgard's 

warriors as Thor's hammer felled giants. Svipdag pushed toward Halfdan, whose raised 

club flew asunder as if struck by lightning, his mailcoat split, and he fell wounded. Thor 

cast his hammer toward Egil's son. Sindri's best work, Mjöllnir, met with Völund's best 

and returned to Thor's hand, in unusable pieces. Thor himself had to retreat. He carried 

the wounded Halfdan upon a mountain and from there threw boulders down upon 

Svipdag's army. 36 Against Njörd, Freyja's father, and Frey, her brother, Svipdag did not 

want to use his weapon. For this reason, he held back. 

101. Halfdan’s Death. His Sons, Gudhorm and Hadding. Halfdan died from his 

wounds, leaving two sons: Svipdag's half-brother Gudhorm, the son of Groa, and an 

infant son, Hadding, whose mother was named Alveig. 

102. Fear in Asgard. It is said that after this battle, Asgard trembled on the point 

of Svipdag's sword, but this enemy had rescued Freyja and chivalrously sent her back 

intact to the gods. She loved and yearned for him. Had he forgotten her? 

103. Svipdag Comes to Asgard. One spring morning, a youth with a sword, 

glittering like the sun, made his way across Bifröst up to Asgard's gate. He was fascinated 

by the vafur-encircled castle's plains, shimmering with gold within the huge surrounding 

36 This story is told in Saxo Grammaticus' Danish History, Book 3, where Hotherus (Svipdag) wields the 

sword he obtained from Miming (Mimir) against Brak-Thor's "club," and lops off the handle of the mighty 

weapon, rendering it useless. This is reminiscent of the tale in the Younger Edda, which tells how Loki 

interfered with the forging of Thor's hammer, Mjöllnir, causing it to have a short handle. Perhaps this event, 

told by Saxo, is the actual reason for the shortness of the handle. The original form of the myth is uncertain, 

but Saxo's version draws support from the poetic sources. Haustlaung 8 designates, Thjazi, who is Völund, 

"þórs of runni," or his "of rúni" depending on the manuscript. The latter means that Thjazi was at one time 

Thor's "confidential friend," which we know to be true since Thor and the sons of Ivaldi were once allies, 

but the former, "þórs of runni," means he who made Thor run. If this is a correct interpretation, both 

meanings hold true, as it was Völund's sword that caused Thor to retreat. In Vafþrúðnismál 51, Thor's sons, 

Magni and Modi inherit "Vingnir's Mjöllnir," presumably the stone hammer first given to Thor by the giant 

Vingnir before he acquired Sindri's masterpiece Mjöllnir. See Investigations into Germanic Mythology, 

Vol. 1, no. 113, section 19.

wall. On a flower-strewn hill, Freyja sat, lost in dreams and surrounded by the goddess 

Eir and other dises. Svipdag exchanged riddles a while with the gatekeeper, but when he 

spoke his own name, the wonderful gate sprang open by itself, and the gatekeeper's 

wolfhounds, which otherwise allowed no one entry, bounded toward him and licked his 

hands. The gatekeeper informed Freyja that a youth had come who certainly was 

Svipdag. Thus roused from her trance, she hurried out and, recognizing him, her greeting 

"was followed by her kiss." 37 

104. The Gods’ Reconciliation with the Ivaldi Family. Svipdag celebrated his 

legal wedding with Freyja in Asgard. Ivaldi's daughter, Idun, married Odin's son, the 

skald god, Bragi. Thor married Sif. Njörd married Völund's daughter Skadi, who, like 

Svipdag, came fully armed to Asgard, where she was received kindly. Yet, she demanded 

compensation for her slain father and received divine dignity, joining the family of the 

Vanir through marriage. 38 Völund's eyes were attached to the heavens and became two 

stars. Thus, like his brother Egil, Völund was honored among the stars. 

105. The Sword of Revenge Presented to Frey. In exchange for his bride, Svipdag 

gave his uncle's sword to Freyja's family, and it was decided that Frey should keep it. The 

sword had been forged so that it would grant unconditional victory to Völund or one of 

his relatives who carried it, but ruin for anyone else who availed himself of it. However, 

with the newly tied bonds of marriage, Ivaldi's clan became incorporated with those in 

Asgard, and the sword thus became the greatest means of defense in the world of the 

gods. 

106. Svipdag Rides to Baldur. The end of fimbul-winter, the defeat of the giant 

world, and the reconciliation with the Ivaldi clan filled Frigg with the hope that Asgard's 

happiness could be crowned with Baldur's return to Valhall. Perhaps his destiny in some 

way could be changed to allow that. Svipdag (Hermod) took it upon himself to bear her 

wish to the Norns, as well as her greetings to Baldur and Nanna. He received Sleipnir to 

ride and returned with greetings and gifts. Baldur gave the ring Draupnir to Odin; Nanna 

gave a veil to Frigg and a finger ring to Frigg's sister Fulla. From the Norns, Svipdag 

carried the reply that Baldur might return with Nanna, if no being were found that had not 

wept or would not weep for Baldur's death. But it quickly appeared that such a being 

could be found: a woman who called herself Thökk. From her mountain cave, where she 

sat, she replied: "Thökk weeps for Baldur's pyre with dry tears." She must have been 

either Gullveig or Loki. 

37 

In nos. 102-104, Rydberg describes the events of Fjölvinnsmál. The goddess in the castle is called 

Menglad, "Necklace-lover." The gatekeeper is named Fjölsvidr, a name of Odin, according to Grímnismál 

47. His wolfhounds are Geri and Gifr, while Odin's are named Geri and Freki (Grímnismál 19). In verse 45, 

the poet playfully allows Menglad to say that if Fjölsvidr is lying, "wise ravens will tear out [his] eyes on 

the high gallows." Odin, of course, is the one-eyed god of ravens and the gallows. Thus, the poet makes it 

clear that this is Odin himself who meets Svipdag at Asgard's gate. 

38 In Skáldskaparmál 56, as atonement and compensation for her father's death, the gods allow Skadi to 

choose a husband from among them without seeing anything other than their feet. She chooses the god with 

the most beautiful feet, believing they belong to Baldur. However, she is mistaken, and Njörd becomes her 

husband. [This event strongly suggests that Baldur was still alive at this time, suggesting his death should 

not be placed until after the fimbul-winter.] As part of the settlement, Skadi also insists that the gods make 

her laugh, something she thinks is impossible. To accomplish this, Loki ties one end of a cord around the 

beard of a nanny goat and the other end around his own testicles. As they pull each other back and forth, 

both squeal in pain. When Loki falls into her lap, Skadi laughs. The latter episode is omitted here and in 

Fädernas Gudasaga, presumably because it would have offended the sensibilities of the Victorian age.

THE WAR BETWEEN THE AESIR AND THE VANIR. 

THE GREAT WAR IN MIDGARD. 

107. Frey Proposes to Gerd. One day, Frey sat in Hlidskjalf and saw within 

Gymir's gard, the giant's daughter Gerd, from whose white arms a glow spread over sky 

and sea. After this sight, Frey was increasingly distraught. He concealed the reason from 

the worried gods, but finally revealed it to Svipdag (Skirnir). 39 Among giant rulers, 

Gymir was now Asgard's most dangerous foe, well known to be treacherous, violent, and 

eager to fight. A union between the gods and Gymir's family must have seemed 

outrageous, because it would threaten the safety of the world. That notwithstanding, Frey 

felt he must have Gerd in order not to die. Svipdag was sent to Gerd as Frey's proxy, 

carrying Draupnir and eleven golden apples as gifts. He first received a "no," then a 

"yes," but on these conditions: the Völund sword must be delivered to Gymir, and Gerd 

must be fetched by Svipdag and Freyja personally and taken into Asgard with the dignity 

of an Asynje. 

108. The Sword of Revenge in Gymir’s Power. Forced by necessity, the gods 

accepted the conditions, thus losing the promise of certain victory. This bargain was of 

great profit for the giant-world, although they could not use the sword without harming 

themselves. Gymir delivered it to his relative Eggthir, who buried it deep in the 

Ironwood. 

109. The Battle in the Hall of Gymir. Svipdag proceeded with Freyja to Gymir's 

hall, but they suspected treachery. Therefore, Thor and Ull secretly traveled ahead of 

them to Gymir's mountain gard and concealed themselves in the vicinity. Gymir let 

Svipdag know that he intended to keep Freyja and proposed that Svipdag himself marry 

Gerd; then Svipdag could recover the sword of revenge and carry out the blood-revenge 

for Völund, which he had undertaken but so far had forgotten; he could thus overthrow 

the Aesir and himself be the world's ruler. Svipdag pretended to give way to temptation 

and a double wedding was immediately arranged. During the celebration, Thor and Ull 

burst into the hall. Svipdag joined them, while Freyja battled by her husband's side. 

Gymir and the members of his household fell after a hard battle, all except Gerd, who 

was transported to Asgard by the gods. 40 

110. Gullveig Killed and Burnt Again. A giant maid called Aurboda had already 

belonged to Freyja's court before Svipdag came to Asgard. When Gerd arrived, she did 

not conceal that Aurboda was her mother and Gymir's wife. It also became apparent that 

Aurboda was the giantess Gullveig, who had been sentenced to die and repeatedly 

executed, but likewise repeatedly resurrected. When they made this discovery, the gods 

were gathered in Valhall and Aurboda was among them. In anger, Thor killed the witch 

39 Svipdag, "He with the shining looks" is also called Skirnir, the "shining one." The poem Skírnismál tells 

us that Frey and Skirnir shared youthful adventures. Frey was reared among Svipdag's family, the elves 

(alfar), and was also present when Svipdag liberated Freyja from Beli's court. 

40 

The source of this episode is Book 5 of Saxo Grammaticus’ Danish History, which contains the 

tantalizing remains of a lost myth. There Frodi (Frey) is wed to Alvild, the daughter of King Gotar. Erik, 

Roller, and Brak (Svipdag, Ull, and Thor, respectively) all take part in the action. In his usual fashion, Saxo 

changes the myth into a historical tale. From the Old Norse documents, we know little of the circumstances 

surrounding Frey and Gerd's marriage. In the poem Skírnismál, Gerd agrees to meet Frey nine nights hence 

in the wood Barri. What occurred there is unknown.

with a hammer blow; the Aesir stuck their spears in her corpse and held it in the fire to be 

burnt. 

111. The Vanir Demand Compensation for a Murdered Relative. To the Vanir, as 

to the Aesir, Gullveig was detestable and with good reason they suspected that Frey's 

love-sickness was caused by her witchcraft. But now she was Frey's mother-in-law and a 

relation of the Vanir, and it was their unconditional duty to demand compensation from 

the Aesir for her death. 

112. The Aesir and the Vanir Negotiate. Odin replied that Gullveig had long since 

been condemned for her evil and that it was incumbent upon the gods to carry out her 

death sentence whenever she appeared anew. He considered it wrong for the Aesir to pay 

compensation, because they had legally executed the spreader of destructive witchcraft. 

Then one of the Vanir pointed out that Odin himself had profited from Gullveig's runes. 

113. The Break Between the Aesir and the Vanir. Deeply embittered by this 

reminder, Odin cast his spear among the gathered Vanir, signaling that the case would be 

settled with weapons rather than by reason and argument. With that, the union of the 

Aesir and the Vanir established at the beginning of time was annulled and the Vanir left 

Asgard. 

114. The Vanir Declare Odin Removed. The Vanir reached this resolution: since 

Odin and Gullveig were guilty of the same crime, and Gullveig had been justly punished 

with death, Odin ought to be removed from his office for his similar stain on the dignity 

of the godhead. 

115. Mimir’s Death. Mimir, who sought to restore the peace between the Aesir 

and Vanir, was murdered doing so by someone, presumably Loki, and his head was sent 

to Odin on whose behalf he had acted to attempt reconciliation. The responsibility for this 

crime was cast by its perpetrator onto the Vanir. 

116. Mimir’s Head was now in Odin's possession and through Odin's prayers was 

transformed into a head of gold, 41 which spoke and always gave wise and noble advice. 

Ever since Odin has had the head of the advice-giver in his presence, his 

accomplishments have borne the mark of true wisdom. 

117. The Seven Sleepers. Mimir's seven eldest sons, the great primeval artists, fell 

into the sleep of ages after their father's death. Tired of the world's events and determined 

not to take part in the imminent war, they were convinced that the world's redemption 

now lay only in the approaching Ragnarök. Night envelops the castle where they 

slumber. The din of the world-mill and Hvergelmir's torrents do not disturb their sleep. In 

this castle, many rooms are filled with weapons and other works that they made. In one 

room, their horses sleep, outfitted for war. Mortals, whose fate it is to step into their 

castle, must take care not to touch the sleepers, lest the intruders be stricken with 

consumption. 42 

118. The Division into Parties. With Odin in Asgard remained, Thor, Tyr, Bragi, 

Vidar, Vali and Forseti, but among the goddesses only Skadi remained. Frigg sided with 

her family, the Vanir, and accompanied them, as did Freyja, Frey, Svipdag and Ull. So 

41 In Snorri Sturluson's Heimskringla, Odin embalms Mimir's severed head, while in Saxo Grammaticus' 

Danish History, Odin causes a golden statue, given in tribute, to speak. It seems that Rydberg has taken the 

middle ground, and combined the two tales. 

42 The adventurer Thorkill enters their cave in Book 8 of Saxo Grammaticus' Danish History.

too did every other power in Vanaheim and Alfheim, except Hoenir, who for that reason, 

was unseated as ruler in Vanaheim and succeeded by Lodur. 

119. Asgard in the Hands of the Vanir. After a long siege, Asgard was conquered 

by cunning strategy. Njörd's ax burst the lock on Asgard's gate and the Vanir's great wartroop 

streamed into the holy region. On Mimir's advice, the Aesir retreated, since none of 

the gods necessary for the order of the world could be allowed to fall in the civil war. 

120. Ull Proclaimed a New Odin. The Vanir and the Elves decided that one 

among them must bear Odin's name and receive the sacrifices of the devoted. They had to 

choose a god that had no particular vocation in the world's government, and therefore 

elected Ull. This change in government brought no change in religion; however, new and 

more demanding views about sacrifice arose. 

121. Manheim was the name of the land where the Aesir lived during their exile. 

They were not idle there, but always sought to benefit the world and protect their 

favorites. 

122. The Aesir Care for Halfdan’s Sons. Now that the Vanir were rulers in 

Asgard, the Aesir feared that Svipdag would use his power to strike at Halfdan's sons, 

Gudhorm and Hadding. Thus, Thor hid Gudhorm and Hadding in Greater Svithjod, one 

with the warrior Hafli, the other with the warrior Vagnhöfdi. But Gudhorm was never 

really in danger, because he and Svipdag shared the same mother, Groa. When Gudhorm 

received the news that Svipdag had offered him a large kingdom in western Germania 

near the Rhine, he accepted the offer and became king over all of the Germanic folk that 

belong to the Hermiones, the branch named after Gudhorm. 

123. Gudhorm’s Name as a Great King was Jörmunrekr. 43 

124. Sifka. Under this name, a man came to Jörmunrekr, claiming to be the ruler 

of a people called the Baningar. He won Jörmunrekr-Gudhorm's complete confidence and 

became his constant advisor. Sifka was Loki. 

125. Hadding’s Youthful Adventures. Svipdag decided, although reluctantly, to 

offer Hadding a kingdom also, as an inheritance from his father's estate, but the boy 

responded that he would not accept gifts from his father's killer. Sifka-Loki looked for 

Hadding in order to exile or to kill him, so Hadding was not safe long in Vagnhöfdi’s 

gard. One evening, a one-eyed man appeared riding on an eight-footed horse, he thanked 

Vagnhöfdi for fulfilling his duties, set the boy in front of him on his horse, and rode away 

with Hadding through the air to Manheim. There he instructed the boy in the wisdom of 

runes and weaponry. Odin sang protecting-galder over Hadding and gave him a drink 

called Leifnir's flames, which gave him the ability to loosen bonds and fetters with his 

breath. Then Hadding, accompanied by a norn, descended into the underworld, where he 

saw the regions of bliss. 

126. Märingaborg. When he grew up, Hadding was sent to a city in Midgard 

called Märingaborg. On the way there, he was ambushed by Loki and the Baningar and 

placed in fetters, but he freed himself that night and came to Märingaborg, where he 

found assembled many of his father's friends who had fled during Svipdag's reign. 

Among them was Hamal and Hildebrand. They prepared a revolt among the East 

Germanic tribes on behalf of Hadding. 

127. Vidga, Völund’s Son. In the midst of the preparations, a youthful hero, clad 

in magnificent armor, came riding into Märingaborg. On his shield were painted tongs 

43 With the variations Eormenric, Ermenrich.

and hammers. It was Vidga, Völund and Bödvild’s son. He said he was a cousin of 

Svipdag's and that it was his duty to fight Halfdan's kin. He challenged Hadding to a duel 

and overpowered him, but rather than kill Hadding, Vidga held out his hand to him. 

Vidga stayed for some time in Märingaborg, where all found delight in him. 

128. Hadding Leads the East Teutons. Now the East Germanic tribes were in 

danger of breaking up, but Hadding united them and was hailed as a great king. Vidga, 

Völund's son, then severed all friendly relations with him, because Vidga's place was on 

the side of Groa's sons, Svipdag and Jörmunrekr-Gudhorm. 

129. Hadding’s Name as a Great King was Thjodrek. 44 

130. The First Field Battle. Svipdag descended from Asgard to the Germanic 

homeland, where he called the Swedes and Danes to arms against Hadding. Enormous 

ships were built to carry the Scandinavian warriors over the sea. Jörmunrekr-Gudhorm's 

army joined with them. Valkyries were seen riding through the air, coming in part from 

Vanaheim and Asgard, and in part from Manheim. To Gudhorm's army came his fosterfather 

Hafli with the giantesses Fenja and Menja; to Thjodrek-Hadding's army came 

Vagnhöfdi with his daughter Hardgrep. Svipdag, through his skalds, let it be known to his 

and to Jörmunrekr-Gudhorm's armies that anyone on their side who fell would be taken 

by Valkyries to Freyja's hall, Sessrumnir. Thjodrek-Hadding let it be known among the 

East Germanic warriors that anyone on his side who fell would come to Odin. The night 

before every battle, the armies saw supernatural forms who battled in the starlight-- the 

Vanir and the Aesir. When hail and storms came from the west and pounded Hadding's 

troops, Odin and Thor, with golden spear and lightning hammer, could be seen driving 

them back. Then came the deciding blow; both sides showed the same heroic courage, 

but Sifka-Loki, who held himself outside of the warring crowd, had directed the western 

troops so shrewdly that Thjodrek-Hadding's fylkings were dispersed, and he suffered a 

stunning defeat. With Hamal and Hildebrand, Hadding fled back to Manheim. 

131. A Time of Peace Lasting Many Years, now arose, during which Germania 

was governed by Svipdag's viceroys and earls. In happy wedded-life with Freyja, 

Svipdag fathered beautiful daughters and a son, Asmund, whom he appointed king of the 

North. 

132. Sifka-Loki’s Treachery. During these years, Sifka kept near Jörmunrekr- 

Gudhorm and inflamed the enmity between the Germanic rulers with slander and lies, so 

that they would mutually exterminate one another. Gudhorm had appointed Sifka and his 

own son, Randver, to propose for him to the Northern ruler's daughter, Svanhild, and he 

received her approval. When they returned with Svanhild, Sifka informed Gudhorm that 

Randver and Svanhild were deceiving him. Gudhorm then let his only son hang and 

caused Svanhild to be trampled by horses. Gudhorm also killed two other relatives, the 

Harlungs, when Sifka, with lying accusations, provoked him against them. Svanhild had 

two brothers, Sörli and Hamdir, who sought revenge on Gudhorm for their sister 

Svanhild's death. They failed in their attempt, but they inflicted a terrible wound on 

Gudhorm, from which he suffered thereafter. 

133. The Hun War. The discord between the Aesir and the Vanir gave the giants 

courage to attack Midgard again. They proposed a treaty to the exiled Aesir, but Odin, 

who thought more of mankind's welfare than of his own, informed the Vanir of the 

imminent attack and offered them his aid, which was sorely needed because the number 

44 Þjóðrekr, Theodeoric, Dietrich.

of giant-troops that were rolling into Midgard and that would storm Bifröst was 

enormous. The Aesir, the Vanir, and the Elves united forces to beat the giants back. The 

body count was so great that the Elivogar and its coasts were filled up with dead bodies; 

consequently, the giants were substantially reduced in number from that time on, and are 

no longer a threat until just before Ragnarök. 

134. Reconciliation Between the Aesir and the Vanir. To thank Odin for his highminded 

action, the Vanir called on him to return to Asgard, where they again placed him 

in Valhall’s high seat. The peace was made steadfast with the agreement that 1) the Vanir 

were acquitted of all liability for Odin's acts that they disapproved of and that Njörd may 

return to Vanaheim at the end of time, 2) Gullveig, upon her rebirth, would not be 

burned, but banished to the Ironwood, and 3) the Aesir and the Vanir should each have 

half of those that fall on the battlefield. 

135. War Renewed Among the Germanic Tribes. In East Germania, a new 

generation fit for military service now arose, and they moved again under Thjodrek- 

Hadding's banner. Followed by the aged Hamal and by Hildebrand, Hadding led the 

eastern tribes. The Aesir and the Vanir wanted peace restored, but Loki had now gotten 

power not only over Gudhorm, but also over Svipdag, and peacemaking appeared 

impossible. The gods commanded Svipdag to make peace and give Hadding his portion 

of his father's estate, but neither this command nor Freyja's tears persuaded him. He 

ordered his son Asmund to assemble the Swedes and get word to the Danes and to 

Gudhorm's tribes. The Germanic armies now were mobilized against one another again. 

136. Svipdag Disappears. When the gods sent the defiant Svipdag a highly 

threatening order to submit to the will of the world controlling powers, he refused. But as 

his strongly manned fleet sailed over the Baltic Sea, he vanished. The gods' wrath had 

driven him to throw himself into the sea, where he was transformed into a beast. 

Humiliated and heartbroken, he dove down into the deep. The gods concealed his fate 

from Freyja. His son, Asmund, took over the leadership of the troops. 

137. Jalk by Asmund. Gudhorm's armies united with those of Asmund. Sifka 

followed the troops even now. One night, a tall one-eyed man, who called himself Jalk 45 , 

stepped into Asmund's tent and warned him against brotherly-war, but in vain, because 

Asmund remained under Sifka's influence. Thereafter, the one-eyed Jalk rode to 

Hadding's camp and spoke long with him and Hamal, Hadding's field-general. 

138. The Wedge-Shaped Battle Formation. The one-eyed Jalk taught Hadding and 

Hamal a new battle formation, which has been sacred to the Teutons ever since. 

139. Vagnhöfdi. They expected a field battle the following day, but Vagnhöfdi 

was missing from Hadding's army. A one-eyed rider who called himself Kjalar 46 had met 

Vagnhöfdi on his way, set him on his horse and placed him in Hadding's phalanx when 

the battle was its hottest and his help needed most. 

140. Hadding’s Victory. Sifka-Loki arranged Asmund's and Gudhorm's warriors, 

but the wedge-shaped battle formation broke Sifka's art. Odin's wisdom overcame Loki's 

tricks. Asmund, with shield on his back and battle sword in hand, cleared a path to 

Hadding, but fell under his spear and Vagnhöfdi’s crooked sword. Vidga, Völund's son, 

fell in this battle. Some say he threw himself into the sea and was rescued by his kinfolk, 

45 Odin, Grímnismál 49: "They called me... Jalk at Asmund's." 

46 Odin, Grímnismál 49: "They called me...Kjalar when I drew the sledge (i.e. the wagon, Vagn-höfdi)." 

See Investigations into Germanic Mythology, Vol. 1, no. 39.

Mimir's dises. He had killed many hundreds of men in this battle, but, against Hadding, at 

whose table he had been seated as a guest, he would not swing his sword. 

141. Peace. After Asmund had fallen, a white shield was raised, and the 

Germanic princes held out their hands in peace. Sifka-Loki vanished after the battle. The 

Germanic empire was divided among Hadding, Gudhorm, and a son of Asmund. 

142. Thjodrek-Hadding became a great-king, who was kind and governed 

successfully. Once Loki-Sifka had removed himself, it was not difficult for the princes to 

find bonds of friendship. In fact, so close a friendship arose between Hadding and 

Svipdag's grandson, the king of Sweden, that the latter took his own life upon hearing the 

unfounded news of Hadding's death. And when Hadding learned of it, he too came to 

Asgard through voluntary death. 

143. Freyja Searches For Svipdag. In her falcon-guise, the sorrowing Freyja 

searched all the worlds for her beloved, Svipdag. She finally found him in the sea near 

the skerry, Singastein. By his eyes, she recognized him, despite his transformation, and 

remained beside him faithfully. From her Brisingamen, a delightful shimmer spread itself 

through the sea, thus she has been called Mardöll ("Sea-shimmering") ever since. The 

tears she shed for Svipdag's fate were transformed into gold and, with this gold, the 

purest in the world, she bought Svipdag freedom from the wrath of the gods. 

144. Svipdag’s Death and Reentry into Asgard. One day as Hadding bathed in the 

proximity of Singastein, he engaged an incredible sea-beast in battle and killed it. Shortly 

thereafter, a beautiful woman appeared, who informed him that a supernatural being, a 

relation of the Vanir, had been concealed in the beast's form and that he, in order to avert 

the Vanir's wrath, should give compensation to Frey for his smitten relative. When 

Hadding understood that the slain beast was Svipdag, he was happy to have exacted 

revenge from his father's slayer. Nevertheless, he finally gave compensation. 47 Thus 

bonds of friendship were possible between him and Svipdag's descendants. 

145. The Battle for Brisingamen. While Freyja spoke with Hadding, Brisingamen 

lay exposed on Singastein. A seal climbed up onto the skerry. It was Loki, who wanted 

Brisingamen as a ransom for his life, since he was now being sought by the gods. But, 

before he could claim it, another seal crawled up onto the skerry and attacked him. When 

Loki recognized Heimdall in its eyes, he fled, and Heimdall returned Brisingamen to 

Asgard. Now Svipdag sits alongside the Einherjar, and Freyja enjoys uninterrupted 

happiness with him. 

146. Loki was Finally Caught by the Gods in Franangr’s Falls, where he lived in 

the shape of a salmon. From there, the gods conveyed him to a cave on the islet of Lyngvi 

in the Amsvartnir sea. A giantess, Sigyn, who was Loki's lawful wife, although she was 

quite unlike him, asked to share in his unfortunate fate. In the cave, Loki now lies on 

stones set on edge, the point of a sword placed against his back. His shackles are forged 

from the intestines of a wolf, which was his son. A poisonous snake is fixed above his 

mouth. The hairs on his head grow hard and become plague-inducing spear-like horns. 48 

147. Fenrir, Loki's son, was placed in bonds and likewise conveyed to Lyngvi. 

His imprisonment cost Tyr a hand. 

47 The woman, Freyja, curses him so badly he has no choice but to repent. See Saxo, Book 1. 

48 See Saxo, Book 8, the episode regarding the fettered giant Utgarda-Loki (see page 355 of the Oliver 

Elton translation). Notice, too, how Loki's three terrible children are all represented in this fate: the Wolf, 

the Serpent, and the plague-inducing ruler of Niflhel.

148. Gullveig, reborn as Angrboda, was banished to the Ironwood and held fast 

there by strong galder until the approach of Ragnarök. Her own and Loki's wolf-children 

followed her there. She dwells there, together with Eggthir, the guardian of Völund's 

sword of revenge. 

V. THE HISTORIC ERA. 

149. The Deterioration of the World. Although the worst promoters of evil had 

been neutralized before the time was over, when the gods communicated directly with 

man, the evil seed that Loki and Gullveig had sown into the nature of man still flourished. 

The world-tree aged, robbed of the protection once provided by Mimir and his sons; and 

generations of men became increasingly immoral: 

"Brother will slay brother, 

sister's sons will spoil kinship. 

Hardship is in the world, fornication rampant, 

an ax-age, a knife-age with cloven shields, 

a wind-age, a wolf-age, 

before the world plunges." 

VI. RAGNARÖK. 

150. The Foreboding Signs. Summer after summer, the sun's light and warmth 

diminish. The restraining forces on the winds break and, through the moan of the storm, 

the howl of Fenrir can be heard from Gnipa-cavern. From the Ironwood, the wolf-giant 

Hati and his giant-clan make their incursion into Midgard. The land is filled with battles, 

and princes' castles are stained red with blood. The dead are too many to be buried. 

Wolves compete with Nidhögg (decomposition) to feed on the numberless bodies. 

151. The Ruin of the Current Race of Man. A second fimbul-winter sets in. Hati, 

in wolf-guise, swallows the moon. All of the descendants of Ask and Embla are snatched 

away by weapon, disease, cold, or hunger. 

152. The Final Battle. In the Ironwood, Eggthir strikes his harp of storms and 

summons the fire-giant Fjalar, who comes in the guise of a red cock. Fjalar flies down 

into deep dales, where the world-destroying fire is set to erupt and Fjalar passes the 

sword to his father, Surt. Yggdrasil trembles and the Gjallar-horn, heretofore concealed 

in the holy shade of Yggdrasil's foliage, comes into Heimdall's hand. Its thundering tones 

penetrate the world, and Mimir's sons, awakened by the call of the horn, spring up out of 

the sleep of ages in order to take part in the final battle against evil. The dwarves, full of 

anxiety, stand near their rock wall. 49 Every forest and mountain harbors trollish beings 

49 In Völuspá 46, "Mim's sons spring up ...at the sound of the ringing gjallar-horn." and in Völuspá 48, 

when the Aesir and the Elves are all in counsel, "the dwarves (Mimir's sons) groan at the stone-gate, 

knowing well the mountain rock." It is the job of the seven sons of Mimir, led by Sindri-Dvalin to protect 

the places of bliss in the underworld, and the untainted life preserved in Mimir's sacred grove. They went to 

sleep in full armor, ready to do battle upon awakening. They do not join the gods on the battlefield, but 

rather protect their age-old home, Mimir's grove and realm. (See Vol. 1, no. 55)

with many other species of animals. Unsown fields yield crops and virtuous generations 

gather in eternal bliss beneath Gimli's gold-thatched roof, which shines more gloriously 

than the sun. 

154. The Gods find one another again on the Ida-plains, where Hoenir, Vidar, 

Vali, Modi and Magni gather around Baldur, Nanna, and Hödur. In harmony, Hödur and 

Baldur rebuild their father's halls. In the imperishable grass of the Ida-plains, the 

wonderful board game with which the gods played in time's morning is rediscovered. 

_______________________ 

That is the Germanic or, if you prefer, the Norse account of the Germanic mythic 

epic, whose essential features already appear in Völuspá. The events drawn in quick 

outlines and inferences follow one another there like they are developed and described in 

more detail here. 

Two important links of the epic chain do not need to be discovered. They were 

immediately evident. One is the story of Creation with its connecting links: Chaos and 

the seed of the world-tree, the original beings, the theogony, the ruin of the frost-giants, 

the origin of the artisans of Nature and their activity during the creation of the world, the 

peace accord of the primeval age, and the Golden Age before whose close mankind is 

created. Völuspá relates or makes reference to all of these in epic order. 

The other element that does not require discovery, but is immediately evident, are 

the final links in the great epic: The mythic age's conclusion partially with the 

imprisonment, partially with the exile, of the instigator's of evil (Völuspá 35); the 

historical age, whose evil inhabitants populate the underworld's world of misery (Völuspá 

36-38, compare 44); The signs that herald Ragnarök: the sword of revenge delivered to 

Fjalar, Hati and his wolf-clan's breaking into Midgard, another fimbul-winter, 

earthquakes that sunder the bonds of Loki and the chains of his brood; the blasts from 

Heimdall's horn, the awakening of Mimir's sons, etc.; preparations for the final battle, the 

course of the battle and its conclusion, the incineration of the world, the reappearance of 

Mimir's realm from the sea, the dawn of a new and blissful age. 

It is between these well-preserved parts of the chain that the other links unite and 

with them form a connected whole. With consideration of their original position to one 

another, Völuspá also gives guidance in some referencing features. The Golden Age ends 

when the "three dangerous thurs-maidens," born three times to different parents, 

Gullveig-Heid-Aurboda, begins her activities. She spreads witchcraft among evil women 

and thus lays the foundations of mankind's ethical degeneration. Thereby, the fimbulwinter 

of the primeval age is prepared. Something happens that causes the artisans of 

Nature no longer to make golden treasures for the gods and consequently, man can no 

longer say regarding them: var þeim vettergis vant ór gulli (Völuspá 8). 50 Freyja is stolen 

away and comes into the power of the giants. And the air is mixed with ruin, in other 

words: a fimbul-winter breaks out (Völuspá 22, Hauksbók). Between the outbreak of the 

fimbul-winter and Loki's imprisonment, Völuspá locates feuds in heaven and on earth, 

and Baldur’s death caused by Loki. To the previously peaceful Midgard ride Valkyries, 

equipped for battle. The Aesir kill and burn Gullveig three times. When she is burnt the 

50 "For them there was no lack of gold."

last time, a dispute caused because of it breaks out between the Aesir and the Vanir, and 

the latter occupy Asgard. And this discord has its counterpart on earth, which, like the 

heavens, becomes the scene of a "great war," a folkvig. After the end of the great war 

Loki is chained. All this from Völuspá. 

Through Saxo we learn what this great war was: a war among Svipdag, Gudhorm, 

and Hadding. What he says about this feud between these half-brothers leaves no doubt 

that it was concurrent with the Vanir's conquest of Asgard and Odin's exile. And he also 

informs us regarding Odin (the old exiled Yggr-Uggerus) that it was he, who while 

banished from heaven prepared the gods' victory in the so-called "Hun war," in which the 

giants made their last attempt to conquer the world. By this means, Odin reacquires his 

dignity as the highest of the gods. 

Through Saxo we are likewise informed that Gudhorm and Hadding were sons of 

Gram-Halfdan, and the myths about this Halfdan's birth, his youthful adventures, his 

royal power, and his struggle to repel the fimbul-winter can still be recovered in Saxo's 

work. So too Halfdan's relationship to Svipdag, Groa's son, who acquires Völund's sword 

of revenge, and with it slays Halfdan. Also completely proven is that Svipdag is the son 

of Egil-Örvandil, Völund's brother. The adventures in which Thor and Egil appear as 

close friends and the latter as watchman on the Elivogar must consequently be placed 

before the enmity between the gods and the treasure-smiths, among whom Egil and his 

brother Völund are among the foremost. Demonstrably, and shown in the first volume of 

this work, is that Halfdan, the first king, is the son of Skjöld-Borgar, the first judge; that 

the fimbul-winter began while they still lived, and caused the great migrations from the 

North, and that Skjöld-Borgar is the son of Heimdall-Rig, the bringer of culture. Thereby, 

the old Germanic hero-saga in its essential outline is recovered; and the multitude of links 

which bind the episodes of the mythology and the heroic sagas together bring the details 

to light and inform us how the events, merely summarized by Völuspá in a quick 

overview, develop into an epic chain of cause and effect. 

I don't expect that the followers of the meteorological school shall have patience 

enough to carefully go through the evidence. That is too much to ask of them. Because 

they have no interest in the only type of research -- circumstantial research -- and in the 

only type of evidence --circumstantial evidence-- that can produce sure results in this 

field. But I also expect objections from another direction: from the pseudo-Darwinist, 

who under the influence of the Theory of Evolution is inclined to accept that the Teutons 

of a couple of thousand years ago did not have enough intellect to create such an epic, 

and who therefore assumes even less among the forefathers of the Teutons during the 

Proto-Indo-European era. 

I have purposely avoided any kind of appraisal of the value of the Germanic epicmyth, 

which would place it either high or low. Everyone is free to find deep ideas in it or 

to place it on a level with a children's story. For my own part, all I can say about it is that 

the epic itself indicates that the race that created it is a spiritually gifted part of the human 

family, which does not prevent their creation from bearing many marks that its creation 

took place in their spiritual childhood. But the talented child will also have orderliness in 

his concepts; thus, every children's tale is a small epic. The inheritance of the Germanic 

tribes from Proto-Indo-European antiquity is also a great children's story. That this tale is 

a world-epic as well, which tells of the origin of the world, the end of the world, and 

naturally of the legendary progress of events between them, admittedly gives it a majestic

character; but I have known children, who have already begun to ponder Creation and the 

world in the nursery. People of all races and from much more primitive cultural 

viewpoints have asked themselves the same questions and sought to answer them. 

I point this out, because since the Darwinistic theory began to assert itself, one 

unscientific attempt after another has been made to apply it to the human race's historic 

era and show an enormous expanse of physiological and psychological results of 

evolution within this relatively short space of time. Thus for example, since Homer's 

time, it has been purposed that the retinas of the eye first became sensitive enough to 

different lightwaves for humans to see the primary colors of the spectrum; after the 

introduction of Christianity, the ears first became sensitive to musical harmonies and the 

vocal cords so developed that one could pass from a shriek into song. Thus, beside the 

solid scientific structure that was raised on Darwinism's foundation, a quasi-scientific 

imaginary-castle has risen, which distinguishes itself from other structures of the 

imagination only in that it lacks that which gives fantasy-making value, and possesses 

that which fantasy-making ought to forego in order to not lose the value it has. Had the 

ancient Egyptian monuments not shown that the human racial types that still exist were 

already found with their current facial types nearly 2000 years before Christ, the same 

kind of Darwinist could also place the origin of all present racial types in historic times. 

In full agreement with this pseudo-Darwinism stands the theory, repeated often during 

the last 20 years 51 and with the blithest certainty, that our ancestors who lived 2000 years 

before Christ must have been pitifully uncreative and stupid, because since this time the 

brain, according to noted authorities, has of course developed at least as much as the 

retinas and the eardrums have been refined. How were such idiots able to create an epic? 

All that they were in a state to ruminate in their cloudy minds must have been 

unconnected free-standing myths of such character that one at will can easily recognize in 

them thunder, lightning, storm, light, darkness, dawn and dusk, acting on their 

consciousness in its embryonic phase. I take for granted that the pseudo-Darwinist shall 

raise this objection. 

On my part, I believe that the time that separates us from the year 2000 BC is an 

entirely short period in relationship to mankind's whole state of evolution, and constitutes 

just another step, so to speak, to the point where we now find ourselves. The Indo- 

European man Aristotle was born 2,273 years ago; the Indo-European Archimedes 52 

2,176 years ago. If our quasi-Darwinists were to believe their own premise, they must 

regard their own brains as a product of a considerably higher physiological evolution than 

the Greeks named. They have certainly not shown this-- on the contrary, the evidence 

seems to point in the opposite direction -- but in any case it must have some meaning 

even for them, that while 2,273 years separate them from Aristotle, only 1,616 years 

separate Aristotle from his Indo-European forebears who lived 2000 years before Christ 

and presumably belong to the last era of the Stone Age. If these 1,616 years were a 

sufficient length of time to create such brains as Aristotle's and those of his fairly 

intelligent contemporaries from out of such primitively organized material that their 

Stone Age ancestors' brains would have afforded according to the hypothesis, so the time 

between the year 200 and 384 BC must have been a period of an enormously fast 

51 i.e. between 1869 and 1889. 

52 Aristotle (384 - 322 BC) Greek philosopher of Athens, student of Plato; Archimedes (287- 212 BC), 

Greek Mathematician of Syracuse, student of Euclid.

physiological development, absolutely worthy of amazement, in comparison with which 

the time between Aristotle and the year 1889 AD must be considered a complete standing 

still, if not a setback. However -- I have wasted too much ink on the unnecessary work of 

rejecting an objection which starts from our ancestors assumed simple-mindedness, in 

order to admire wie wir's dann zuletzt so herrlich weit gebracht. 53 

With the ideas concerning our heathen ancestors' simple-mindedness are coupled 

those about their indescribable barbarism. One thinks of himself as a proper scientifically 

educated person in full possession of the benefits of progress, when he speaks about the 

barbarity of the ancient Teutons. This idea is as naive as the opposite view previously 

held about our forefather's deep wisdom. It seems to me that if one speaks of the past 

centuries' barbarism he ought to keep in mind the saying that warns against speaking of 

rope in a hanged man's house. The European people in the nineteenth century are 

considerably more barbaric in a purely cultural respect than the Romans of Caesar's 

time 54 and the Athenians of Pericles' time. 55 They are more barbaric than the latter as far 

as poetry and art are concerned. They are more barbaric than them as far as the training of 

the individual into a healthy and harmonious personality is concerned. The great mass of 

European people is more barbaric in the nineteenth century than the Teutons were at the 

time of Christ's birth, as far as our opinion of woman is concerned. In this consideration, I 

refer to Tacitus' narrative and to the feminine character that the Germanic myths describe. 

The great mass of European people in the nineteenth century is more barbaric than the 

heathen Teutons as far as the treatment of strangers and uninvited guests is concerned: 

Quemcunque mortalium arcre tecto nefas habetur, 56 says Tacitus about the Teutons of 

his time and his statement is substantiated by Hávamál. One might object that hospitality 

has always been the barbarian's virtue. This is not true, but if it were, the opposite of 

hospitality is not proof of civilization, but a worrisome condition of the civilization that 

places its morality on this point lower than the "barbarian.” I have not seen how a troop 

of Klodvig's Franks 57 or a band of Vikings looked, but I have reason to believe that their 

appearance provided evidence of a better corporeal culture than that of the Silesian 

weavers and the Moravian factory-workers. 58 What I can say with certainty is that the 

Teutons in Tacitus' time were a cleaner people than all of the European people in the 

nineteenth century, assuming that the Roman historian's reporter did not lie when he 

assured him that the Teutons bathed every morning, in cold water during the summer and 

in warm water in the winter. In filth, the European masses today are probably almost 

unsurpassable. Of the heathen-Germanic skalds and singers, he was assured that they 

were capable of deeply influencing the feelings of their audience. It is lucky if one can 

say this occasionally about more modern poets. There are no statistics regarding sexcrimes 

committed among the heathen Teutons, but when contemporary and impartial 

53 "how magnificently far we have brought it at last," i.e. How far we have come. This is a quote, likely 

meant ironically, from Goethe’s Faust, Part I, which Rydberg translated into Swedish. 

54 Julius Caesar (100-44 BC), Roman Emperor. 

55 Pericles (495-429 BC), Athenian statesman. 

56 "It is accounted a sin to turn any man away from your door." Germania 21, H. Mattingly translation. 

57 Klodvig I (died 511) was founder of the Frankish empire who converted to Christianity c. 496. The most 

famous of the Merovingian Kings, he ruled between 481-511 AD. 

58 Schlesien (Silesia) is a region in central Europe in the upper valley of the Oder river, located in modern 

Germany, Poland, and Czech Republic. Mähren (Moravia) is a region in the modern Czech Republic. No 

doubt, Rydberg is referring to sweatshop workers at the dawn of the industrial age.

witnesses assure us that they held chastity in honor, one might assume that the barbarity 

of the nineteenth century is probably greater in this area too. Thanks to individual 

sciences and their progress, we have certain definite advantages over heathen antiquity, 

and progress is not an empty word. At this time, however, the blessings of progress are 

hardly noticeable in the physical and moral conditions of the modern masses of people, 

which in some respects may be much better, but in others seem to be much worse than 

those of the Germanic heathen age. Hence, we would be wiser to speak more modestly 

about ourselves and with less disdain about deceased generations. 

At the beginning of my investigations into Germanic mythology, I did not 

presuppose an epic connection among the myths, although Völuspá already refers to one. 

It was the slow advancing observation that individual fragments of the divine- and heroic 

sagas whose fractured edges suited one another came to us in a broken and isolated state, 

that urged me to gather and compare all the remaining fragments. It was this, their 

character, not some prerequisite on my part, that gradually dictated the form in which 

they appear here as a reunited whole upon which generations have worked from the 

Proto-Indo-European era up until the last age of Germanic heathendom. So unpleasant 

now must be this discovery of a pervading epic connection among the myths for the 

meteorological-etymological school, which holds as its prerequisite the isolated condition 

of the myths and which has been prevalent in the subject of mythology up until now that I 

naturally think that not one of its adherents will abandon his way of thinking. At the same 

time, I am convinced that the results acquired through methodical research without 

preconditions will increasingly win the recognition they deserve. 

___________________________ 

This essay was previously published in 

Viktor Rydberg’s 

Investigations into Germanic Mythology, Vol. II 

Part 2: Germanic Mythology 

Translated and Annotated by William P. Reaves, 2004 

Available at www.amazon.com and wherever books are sold

Viktor Rydberg's Investigations into Germanic Mythology, Vol. II

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