KFRI Research Report - Kerala Forest Research Institute

KFRI Research Report S7 

STUDIES ON SELECTED INDIGENOUS SPECIES FOR FUTURE 

PLANTATION PROGRAMMES IN KERALA 

K.K.N. Nair 

K.C. Chacko 

A.R.R. Menon 

George Mathew 

M.I. Mohamed Ali 

R.C. Pandalai 

KERALA FOREST RESEARCH INSTITUTE 

PEECHI, THRISSUR 

1991 Pages: 193

CONTENTS 

Page File 

Abstract 4 r.s7.2 

1 Introduction 5 r.s7.3 

2 Objectives 10 r.s7.4 

3 Materials and Methods 17 r.s7.5 

4 Albizia odoratissima 35 r.s7.6 

5 Grewia tiliifolia 59 r.s7.7 

6 Haldina cordifolia 83 r.s7.8 

7 Lagerstroemia microcarpa 103 r.s7.9 

8 Pterocarpus marsupium 122 r.s7.10 

9 Xylia xylocarpa 144 r.s7.11 

10 General Observations 166 r.s7.12 

11 Conclusion and Recommendations 182 r.s7.13 

12 Literature Cited 186 r.s7.14

ABSTRACT 

This report contains data gathered while evaluating the 

plantation potentials of six moist deciduous species 

indigenous 

to the State of Kerala. The species investigated are A. 

odoratissims (L.f.) Benth., Grewia tiliifolia Vahl, Haldina 

cordifolia (Roxb.) Taub. , Lagerstroemia microcarps Wt., 

Pterocsrpus mar-supium Roxb. and Xylia xylocarpa. (Roxb. ) Taub. 

Apart from the silvicultural and plantation trial aspects of the 

six species delt with, the report also includes details on the 

pest and disease incidences in the natural stands, nurseries 

and 

trail plantations of a11 the six species and control 

measures for 

those potential pests and pathogens observed either in the 

nursery or in the plantation trial experiment. Supplementing 

the data on the above mentioned aspects of the investigation, 

information gathered on the botanical, ecological, and wood 

anatomical and utilization aspects of the six species based on 

studies in their natural populations in Kerala are also provided. 

4

1. INTRODUCTION 

Traditionally, production forestry is focussed on the monoculture 

of a few species aimed at producing wood for industrial uses. 

Becuase of this, at present, almost 85% of the total forest 

plantations in the tropics are of eucalypts, teak and pines 

(Evans, 1982). India is also not an exception to this. There 

are mainly two reasons for the preference of exotic species in 

earlier forest plantation programmes. The main reason is that, 

in the past, forest plantations were mostly raised as industrial 

plantations to meet the raw material demand of paper and pulp 

industries, for which exotics like ecualypts were preferred. The 

other reason for establishing large scale plantations of exotics 

was the ready availability of sufficient information on their 

plantation aspects. Coupled with these two reasons, in the past, 

there was also adequate supply of timber of most of the 

indigenous species and hence, there was no need to consider the 

local species in a plantation perspective, and at the same time 

area under plantations of exotics went on increasing to reach 

the present level. 

Of late, there is a growing awareness with regard to the need 

for raising indigenous trees on a plantation scale. This is 

mainly due to the dwindling supply of timber of such species 

meet the increasing local demand. Therefore, it is imperative 

that adequate research and experimental background has to be 

generated in countries where such indigenous timber trees grow 

naturally, which are the proven eco-climatic zones of such 

species. The project 'Studies on selected indigenous species 

to 

5

for future plantations programmes in Kerala is a step 

in this 

direction. 

Indigenous species are those which grow naturally in a 

country though not necessarily in all parts and certainly not 

suited for all areas. 

With such species, there are no political 

or quarantine restrictions to hinder their use in any 

plantation 

programme in their native countries, and added to this, there are 

certain important biological advantages, like: 

i. Growth of such species in natural areas can provide 

sufficient indication of their possible performance in 

plantation. 

ii. Such species are well suited to the environment and are 

falling within an ecological niche of the country which 

w i l l render them less susceptible to serious damages from 

pests and diseases, since controlling agents 

(predators, 

viruses, climatic factors, etc.) are already present. 

iii. Indigenous species, even in monoculture, are generally 

considered 

ecologically more suited than exotics for the 

conservation of native flora and fauna. 

iv. Timber of indigenous species is more familiar and comnonly 

used by the local people and also industrial wood 

consumers 

of the reglon. 

For such reasons, if the plantation potential of Indigenous 

species is worked out and demonstrated by establishing 

experimental plantations, such species will certainly be used 

the future plantation programmes i n their home countries. 

in 

There 

are also a number of examples to support this view, like Pinus 

merkusii in Indonesi a, Araucaria 

hunstinii in Papua New Guinea, 

6

Tectona grandis in India and Burma, Terminalia ivorensis in West 

Africa, Cordia alliodora 

in Central America, and so on. 

In this multi-disciplinary project, it is envisaged to 

investigate the plantation potential and related aspects of six 

species of well known timber value, indigenous to the moist 

deciduous 

forests of Kerala, and to assess their feasibility as 

plantation species 

mixtures among them. 

in the State, either as monoculture or as 

Evolving suitable silvicultural methods for 

large scale raising of seedlings and to assess the performance of 

each of the species In plantation are the two main thrust areas 

of this investigation. Establishment of an experimental 

plantation containing all the six species in pure and different 

combinations among them, to serve as a demonstration plot was 

also envisaged in this study. Other related aspects which 

received attention include gathering details on the botany and 

ecology of the species, wood anatomical studies and assessment of 

log quality in three different parts of Kerala where the 

species 

grow naturally and also evolving suitable control measures 

against serious pests or pathogens identified either in the 

nursery or in the plantation trial experiment. The species 

selected for the investigation are: 

I. Albizia odorat issima (L.f. ) Benth. (Mimosaceae) 

- Kunni-vaka 

ii. Grewia t iliifolia Vahl (Tiliaceae) - Chadachi 

iii. Haldina cordifolia (Roxb.) Rldsd. (Rubiaceae) 

- Manja-kadambu 

iv. Lagerstroemia microcarpa Wt. (Lythraceae) - Venthekku 

v. Pterocarpus marsupium Roxb. (Papilionaceae) - Venga 

vi. Xylia xylocarpa (Roxb.) Taub. (Mimosaceae) - Irul 

7

Among the six species mentioned above, A. odoratissima yeilds 

hard and heavy timber used mainly In construction and as 

furniture and panelling wood. 

Timber from G. tiliifolia i s also 

heavy, but more elastic, often used to make shafts, frames, 

agricultural implements and as furniture wood. 'Haldu', the 

timber of H. cordifolia, is moderately strong and hard, very 

commonly employed for structural works, flooring and turnery. 

Very hard and strong tlmber of X. xylocarpa is well known for 

railway sleepers and in construction work. Wood of L. 

microcarpa is much valued as construction timber as well as in 

boat and ship building. In southern India, the very hard and 

heavy timber of P. marsupium is quite popular for building 

construction and as a substitute for teak in making a variety 

of 

items like beams, shafts, posts, etc. and in the manufacture of 

railway carriages. 

In this report, apart from the general introductory part, 

chapters like project proposal, details on the objectives of the 

study and methodology adopted for various aspects of the 

investigation are given. Data gathered on different aspects of 

each of the species are arranged species-wise. For each of the 

species, details on its botany and natural distribution in Kerala 

and ecological aspects like species association in natural stands 

and regeneration status in natural areas are given first. This 

is followed by details on wood anatomy and log quality parameters 

of each of the species. Data gathered on the silvicultural and 

plantation aspects follow, and information on pests and 

diseases 

associated 

with all the six species in their natural stands, 

nursery and in the plantation trial experiment and control 

strategies 

for potential ones among them form the last part of 

the account on each of the species. General observations,

conclusions and recommendations emerged from the study are given 

towards the end of the report followed by an alphabetical list of 

references cited in the text. Scientists who did different 

aspects of the investigation are, i. Dr. K.K.N. Nair (Botanical 

aspects), ii. Shrl K.C. Chacko (Silviculture and plantation 

trials), iii. Dr. A.R.R. Menon (Ecological aspects), iv. Dr. K.V. 

Bhat (Wood anatomy and utilization), v. Dr. George Mathew (Pest 

problems and control) and vi. Shri M .I. Mohamed All (Disease 

problems and control). 

9

OBJECTIVES 

OF THE STUDY 

Following are the decipline-wise objectives of the investigation. 

2.1. Botanical studies 

In order to provide basic information on the distribution and 

taxonomy of each of the species and to facilitate their easy 

identification and correct naming, the component of botanical 

study envlsages the following objectives. 

- t o map the natural distribution of each of the species 

in the State, 

- to record the natural variatlons within each species and 

to prepare taxonomic descriptions and illustrations of 

it, authenticated by voucher specimens, and 

- to establish an arboretum containing all the species under 

study. 

11

2.2. Silvicultural studies and plantation trials 

Choice of suitable species is a very important aspect in any 

plantation programme and species selected will influence 

silvicultural and management practises and utilization of the 

crop. The purpose of plantation, availability of planting 

material and site characteristics are the three basic aspects 

to 

be considered in species selection. 

Kerala has a forest area of 9,400 km 2 of which 48% is 

covered by evergreen and semievergreen and 30.5% by moist 

deciduous forests. 

Most of the moist deciduous areas are either 

degraded or devoid of sufficient regeneration. This provides 

opportunity for planting Important indigenous species in such 

areas. At present, teak contributes to about 50% of the forest 

plantations in Kerala, whereas, all other indigenous species 

together constitute only 20% (Kerala Forest Department, 1989). 

The present study was aimed at generating information on 

artificial regeneration of A. odoratissima, G. tiliifolia, H. 

cordifolia, L. microcarpa, P. marsupium and X. xylocarpa, on a 

plantation scale, which are well known moist deciduous timber 

species of Kerala. Raising plantations of these species has not 

been seriously attempted in the past and therefore, the 

silvicutlure and plantation trial aspect of the investigation 

is 

based on the following objectives. 

- to evolve suitable methods for seed collecticn and 

storage, 

- t o standardize pre-sowing treatments for seeds and t o 

work out the suitable container size for the 

seedlings 

of each of the 

species, and 

12

- to assess the performance of each species in plantation, 

bcth pure and in mixtures. 

2.3. Ecological studies 

The study was intended to generate information regarding 

ecological associations and regeneration status of the six 

species in Kerala, based on field observations from different 

ecoclimatic zones. 

The objectives of this component of the study 

are: 

- t o analyse the ecological associations of the species 

selected for the study in their natural stands, 

- t o assess their regeneration status in natural conditions, 

and 

- t o identify broad eco-climatic zones suited for raising 

plantations of the species in the State. 

With these objectives, extensive field surveys were conducted 

throughout Kerala and permanent study plots were established 

for 

continuous monitoring, to evaluate the current status of 

regeneration and factors affecting the same. Even though 

similar 

studies were conducted in various parts of the country (Lall, 

1990; Rai, 1989; Meher-Homji, 1979; Rai and Proctor, 1986) and 

also outside India (Unesco, 1986; Tubbs,1977), 

only very little 

work has been done in Kerala with regard to the six species, 

and 

hence this aspect was included in the investigation. 

2.4. Utilization aspects 

Scientifically 

based 

utilization of any 

timber 

demands a 

complete knowledge regard 

ng i ts properties and behaviour. The 

13

is particul arly important in the case of a heterogeneous material 

like wood. 

another 

Further, the biological origin of this material 

di mension to its complexity, namely, the variability 

adds 

in 

qualit y . 

It is very often noticed that the same timber 

growing 

in different geographical regions shows drastically different 

quality; the colour, texture, weight, strength, etc. may vary 

considerably. Unless the full range of this variation is 

understood, it is rather difficult to assign appropriate uses for 

a timber or to use it efficiently. 

Thus, the study of variation 

has got vital importance in Wood Science and Technology. 

Wood quality variation is of great concern t o foresters 

as 

well. 

If the expected quality of timber is to be realized from a 

forest plantation, several silvicultural manipulations may have 

to be adopted in accordance with the species raised. For this, 

not 

only the inherent tree characteristics affecting the timber 

quality will have t o be identified but also the set of conditions 

that favour the desired type of growth and quality. 

In addition, 

it should be clearly known if faster or slower growth has any 

effect on wood characteristics. Nevertheless, the problem with 

majority 

of native timbers is that they do not possess 

distinct 

growth r ings (Pearson and Brown, 1932) as common to many tropical 

hardwood 

species (Jacoby, 1989). Therefore, no such studies have 

been carr ied out so far except for a few selected species (Rao et 

al., 1966; Purkayastha et al., 1972, Purkayastha et al., 1974). 

Some of these aspects which are considered important from the 

point of thrust of the present study are included in the 

following objectives. 

- to up-date informatlon of the anatomical characteristics 

of each of the species, 

14

- to estimate the variation in wood structure, proporties 

and log quality in relatlon to locality and sites, and 

- to correlate wood structure and properties with growh 

rate wherever growth rings are distinguishable. 

2.5. Pest problems and control 

Pest incidence is a major practical problem for the 

successful establishment of any plantation. Information on 

insect pests and the severity of their attack is very essential 

in developing strategies for the management of forest 

plantations. Since there are very few studies on the pest 

incidence patterns in natural stands and in monocultures of 

indigenous species, careful evaluation of the pest incidence 

pattern as well as their impact is very essential before 

venturing into large scale plantation activities. Information on 

the insect pests of the species selected for the study were 

collected from three situations, viz. natural stands, trial 

plantation and nurseries. The objectives of the study are: 

- to gather information on various economically important 

insects associated with each of the species in different 

stages of their growth and to evaluate the extent of 

damage caused, and 

- to evolve suitable pest control Strategies against 

the potential pests. 

2.6. Disease problems and control 

Availability of germinsble seeds is an important factor in 

raising planting stock for establishing large scale plantations. 

15

Germinabllity of seeds greatly depends upon seed health and 

storage conditions. Like seeds of agricultural and 

horticultural 

crops, seeds of trees are also liable to be affected by 

microorganisms during storage (Mital, 1983; Mital and Sharma, 

1981; Sharma and Mohanan, 1980). The various ways by which the 

seed borne fungi affect the quality of seeds reducing 

germination, introduction of diseases into newly sown crops/areas 

and reduction in viability of stored seeds, etc. are aspects 

included in the study. Availability of healthy stock of seedlings 

is of intrinsic value for raising plantations and to meet 

this, 

elimination of nursery diseases by appropriate chemical control 

methods is of prime importance. However, information on 

microbial deterioration of seeds, disease of seedlings and 

trees 

and their control measures is meagre. The investigation w i l l 

encompass pathological studies on seeds, seedlings and mature 

trees, as it envisages: 

- to investigate seed disorders, especially those 

affecting seed viability, caused by microorganisms 

and 

to develop suitable control measures, 

- to identify disease causing organisms in nurseries, trial 

plantations and natural stands and to assess the level of 

infection and to evolve control measures for serious ones, 

and 

- to explore the feasibility of enhancing the growth of 

seedl ings of leguminous species (A. odoratissima, 

P. marsupium and X. xylocarpa) by the application of 

suitable Rhizobium species. 

16

3. MATERIALS AND METHODS 

Materials used and methodologies followed for different aspects 

of the investigation are given discipline-wise. 

3.1. BOTANY 

Initially, to facilitate field work, literature and herbarium 

specimens in the neighbouring libraries and herbaria were 

scrutinised to gather information on the distribution and 

flowering and fruiting periods of all the six species in Kerala. 

Based on these data, forest range-wise field surveys were 

undertaken throughout the State to collect specimens, either in 

the flowering or in the fruiting stage, for conducting 

botanical 

studies, and also to gather field data to map the natural 

distribution of each of the species. The 

collected materials 

were processed and made into herbarium specimens (4 each per 

collection), which were labelled with up-to-date name, 

distribution data, phenological details and other field notes 

relevant to the study. 

Side by side with this, earlier collections of the species 

from Kerala available in the herbaria of the Southern Circle, 

Botanical Survey of India, Coimbatore and Institute of Forest 

Genetics and Tree Breeding, Coimbatore were studied to gather 

information on their taxonomy, variations, phenology and 

distribution. 

Their identities were confirmed and are enumeratec! 

under the head 'specimens examined' to authenticate the data 

presented in the report. 

Based on studies of samples collected during field surveys 

17

and also specimens consulted from the herbaria mentioned above, 

revised descriptions were prepared for each of the species with 

details on both qualitative and quantitative variations. Data 

on 

flowering 

and fruiting periods of each of the species were 

also 

gathered from herbarium specimens and this was supplemented by 

data collected by field observations. 

To 

prepare distribution maps of each of the species for 

Kerala, data were gathered both by field studies and also 

herbarium scrutiny. Such data were plotted on 3 skeleton map 

of 

the State, keeping in view area within each forest division and 

range in the State. 

Flower samples were collected from the field and preserved in 

suitable preservatives after recording those characters which may 

not be available with specimens after preservation (eg. flower 

colour, smell, texture of flower parts, etc.). Several such 

samples of each of the species were dissected and critically 

examined and illustrations of floral parts prepared . To 

facilitate easy identification, a representative 

habit sketch 

for 

each of the species is also provided along with the floral 

illustration. Morphological variations, mainly observed in leaf 

characters are also illustrated based on scrutiny of a large 

number of herbarium specimens showing such variations. 

In order to evaluate the observed qualitative and 

quantitative variations of leaf characters, actual measurements 

of the length of compound leaves and length, breadth and petiole 

or petiolule of leaves or leaflets and qualitative characters 

like nature of margin, apex, base, etc. were recorded based on 

IAPT (1962) specification from collections from trees distributed 

in different parts of the State. Each such specimen formed an 

Operational Taxonomic Unit (OTU) in the statistical analysis. 

18

Incidence of different characteristics in dichotomous states were 

recorded from 38 specimens for Grewia, 20 specimens of AIbizia, 

22 specimens of Haldina, 18 specimens of Lagerstroemia, 4 

specimens of Pterocarpus and 15 specimens of Xylia. , For 

characters showing continuous variation, the total range was 

divided into three dichotomous variables. Similarity measure 

used was the coefficient of Jaccard (Sneath and Sokal, 1983). 

Both specimens and characters recorded from them were clustered 

based on complete linkage algorithm. The least value for 

resemblence measure within a clustesr was set to 0.5 of the 

coefficient of Jaccard to distinguish the groups. 

By exhaustive scrutiny of literature, nomenclature of the 

species were updated in accordance with the International Code of 

Botancial 

Nomenclature (1988). Up-to-date name, basionym if any, 

and synonyms are given for each species, and wherever known, 

types are also specified. Citations to monographs, taxonomic 

revisions, floras of the State and adjoining regions and other 

reference 

relevant to the taxonomy of the species are also made 

in the nomenclature part to facilitate further reference. 

In order to establish an arboretum containing all the six 

species under investigation, seeds were collected from South, 

Central and Northern parts of Kerala. They were germinated and 

are initially grown In polythene container for transplanting in 

the arboretum plot. As mentioned, herbarium specimens consulted 

during the study are those available in the following three 

herabria with their acronyms given in parenthesis. 

Herbarium, Kerala Forest Research Institute, Peechi (KFRI). 

Herbarium, Southern Circle, Botanical Survey of India, 

Coimbatore (MH). 

19

Herbarium, Institute of Forest Genetics and Tree Breeding, 

Forest 

Research Institute, Coimbatore (FRI). 

In the botanical ccmpcnent of the study, the data gathered 

are presented in the order nomenclature, type, local name(s), 

revised taxonomic description, field notes, phenology 

(supported 

by graph), world distribution, forest division-wise distribution 

in Kerala (with distribution map), general notes and details on 

within species variations with cluster dendrograms. 

Authenticating the data presented, a list of the specimens 

examined is also given for each of the species. 

3.2. ECOLOGICAL STUDIES 

3.2.1. Stand selection 

Extensive field surveys were conducted throughout Kerala and 

based on the species richness and diversity, sample stands were 

selected. The stands were located in Northern Kerala, viz. Bavali 

and Peruvannamuzhi area in Wynad region and Central Kerala at 

Thellikkal 

and Kuriyarkutty in Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary 

of Palghat District, and Vazhani Sanctuary area in Trichur 

District (Fig.1). In the case of plots where all the six 

species were not present, subplots were taken in nearby 

localities for the missing species. The Kuriyarkutty plot in 

Parambikulsm Forest Division is one such plot selected for 

regeneration studies of Xylia. 

20

3.2.2. Size of releve 

The minimum size of the plots were worked out by species-area 

curve method (Braun-Blanquet, 1932; Sharma et al., 1983; 

Muller- 

Doubois and Ellenberg, 1974). The minimum size of the quadrat 

was later enhanced to the convenient higher size (10 m x 10 m) 

for analysis and calculation efficiency. The overall plot size 

of 2,000 m 

2 

area, ie. 20 m x 100 m size or twenty numbers of 10 m 

x 10 m subplots. The structural status of the vegetation of 

the 

localities were then studied by monitoring permanent 

observation 

plots using quadrat method (Phillips, 1959). 

3.2.3. Regeneration status 

The regeneration status of the selected species were assessed 

by periodical observations from the permanent plots established. 

During field trips, the germination and growth status of 

seedlings, micro and macro-climatic features, etc. were noted. 

The height of each tagged seedlings was recorded. 

The data thus 

obtained were further classified Into 11 subclasses of 10 cm 

interval, viz. 0-10, 11-20, 21-30, 31-40, 41-50, 51-60, 61-70, 

71-80, 81-90, 91-100 and above 100 cm. The average height of 

each class was worked out for further evaluation (Table 1). The 

seedlings of more than 1 m height were grouped into a single 

class, on the assumption that at this stage they have crossed the 

mortality range and are established so as to obtain the 

prerequisite information on regeneration. Phenalogical 

observations were made by repeated field visits at regular 

intervals. Distributional data of parent trees were plotted on 

grid sheets during the field visits. 

21

3.2.4. Phytosociology 

The stands selected in each locality were further divided 

into 20 subgrids of 10 m x 10 m size for gathering 

phytosociological data. The census quadrat method was adopted 

for field data acquisition. 

Very rarely, on slopes of varying 

Table 1. Details of the parameters used in the ecological 

descriptions given for each species 

Parent tree source Good Medium Poor 

(more than 50%) (30% - 50%) (less than 30) 

Parent tree 

distribution Frequent Occasional Rare 

Biotic interference Undistribed Parti al ly Highly 

disturbed 

disturbed 

Regeneration status One Two Three 

(more than 50%) (30%-50%) (Less than 30%) 

Young seedlings Sufficient Nos. Insufficient Nos. 

(more than 10 Nos./ (less than 10 Nos./ 

2 

100 m ) 

2 

100 m ) 

Older seedlings 

Unl imited 

(more than 5 Nos./ 

2 

100 m ) 

Limited 

(less than 5 Nos./ 

2 

100 m ) 

Saplings 

Frequent Occasional Rare 

(more than 50% (30%-50% (Less than 30% 

Mortal i t y 

occurrences) 

occurrences) occurrences) 

Low Med ium High 

22

physical features, belt transect method was also adopted for data 

collection. 

Trees of more than 30 cm GBH were considered as 

the 

lowest level of trees and those between 15 cm - 30 cm as 

saplings. The height of all trees falling within the quadrat 

limit were noted using Ravi-multimeter. The girth at breast 

height 

or 1.3 m above ground level was measured for a ll trees. 

The position of each parent tree was also charted. The 

structural data thus collected were further analysed for various 

vegetation features like density, frequency, abundance, important 

value index, etc. using conventional formulae (Muller-Dombois and 

Ellenberg, 1974). 

3.3. UTILIZATION ASPECTS 

Wood samples for the study were collected from three parts of 

Kerala representing northern, central and southern regions of the 

State. 

For Cental Kerala samples were collected separetly from 

three localities namely, Pothundi, Parambikulam and Palappilly- 

Vazhachal for the study of variation within the region. 

However, 

for rest of the regions locallty-specific collection was not 

made. Wynad was selected for the northern region and samples 

from 

Ranni and Konni representesd southern region of the State. 

Thus, in total five localities were selected for comparison and 

from each locality five mature trees were sampled for each 

species. Wood samples were collected from breast height level 

of standing trees using an increment borer of 4 mm diameter. GBH 

of sampled trees was also recorded for further calculations along 

with field notes on tree characteristics. Based on the radius 

computed from GBH, samples for density measurements were prepared 

23

from appropriate parts of the increment cores so as t o represent 

outer, inner and intermediate positions of the trunkwood 

radius. 

This was done i n order to determine the mean basic density at BH 

for each tree. The length of the core samples measured 

accurately was used to calculate the green volume using the 

formula 

V = TTr’l. Basic density was calculated by dividing 

the 

ovendry weight by the green volume thus obtained. 

The heartwood percentage was calculated from the width of the 

sapwood measured from the increment cores. For calculating the 

cross sectional area of the trunkwood, its radius was 

computed 

first from the GBH value and was corrected for bark thickness. 

The cross sectional area of the heartwood was estimated by 

deducting the sapwood width from the trunkwood radius thus 

2 

calculated. The area was calculated using the formula a = TTr . 

For H. cordifolia the heartwood was not distinct from sapwood 

and hence the heartwood percentage could not be determined. 

For anatomical study, 15 to 20 micron thick sections of the 

increment core were cut on a Reichert Sliding Microtome. 

Tangential sections were directly cut from the core samples after 

boiling them in water. On the other hand, radial and transverse 

sections were cut after affixing the core pieces on small 

cubes 

of wood of suitable size using a water-resistant adhesive; 

Araldite. The blocks thus mounted were boiled in water before 

sectioning. 

Sections were stalned with 0.5% Safranln prepared in 

50% alcohol and were mounted in DPX mountant after dehydration. 

For the study of relationship between ring width and 

anatomical characteristics only two species namely, L. microcarpa 

and G. tiliifolia were slected as the rings were distinct only in 

these two among the six species. Transverse sections were cut 

from 

the wood samples of these species as detslled above. Only 

24

the outer portion of the trunkwood was compared so as to 

eliminate the interference of age related structural changes in 

the comparison. Measurement of the ring width and other 

anatomical parameters were done with the help of Reichert 

Projection Microscope. The sectional views were traced on 

tracing film and the estimation of vessels, parenchayma, 

fibres 

and rays was done gravimetrically 

as proposed by Ghouse and Yunus 

(1974) for ray tissue estimation of cambium. 

3.4. SILVICULTURAL STUDIES AND PLANTATION TRIALS 

3.4.1. Seed collection and germination trials 

Seeds 

of the selected trees were collected during different 

months to obtain them in different levels of maturity. Seed 

collection was carried out by the conventional methods with 

certain modifications to suit smaller seeds especially that of H. 

cordifolia. The seed samples were sundried and cleaned of 

debris 

to determine the number of seeds/kg. Germination trials were 

conducted to assess the percentage germination of different 

seeds. 

The tests were conducted in different months to determine 

the season for maximum percentage germination. The germination 

capacity of stored seeds was also determined at periodic 

intervals. 

3.4.2. Nursery technique 

The nursery beds were sown with various quantities of 

seeds. 

Optimum seed rate was determined on the basis of seedling density 

on the seed beds. Seed beds were provided with shade and were 

maintained under irrigated condition till potting , . Optimum 

25

container size was arrived at based on the root growth of the 

seedlings as well as the length of the period the potted 

seedlings 

had t o be retained in the nursery . Growth details of 

the seedlings were recorded prior to outplanting. 

3.4.3. Plantation trials 

During 1988, pilot plantations of only A. odoratissima, H. 

cordifolia 

and X. xylocarpa were raised at Nilambur while all the 

six species were raised individually and as mixed plantations 

(except L. microcarpa) during 1989. Outplanting was done at the 

onset of monsoon. 

Planting was done at an espacement of 2m X 2m 

in pits (30 X 30 X 30 cm) which were prepared during May-June. 

Randomised block design was followed for the trials. 

The 

1989 trial had 14 treatments replicated thrice with 100 plants in 

each replicate. The outermost planting row of each treatment 

plot, consisting of 36 plants was regarded as surround and was 

excluded from regular observations for survival and height growth 

In mixed plantations, different species occupied different 

diagonals in the planting design. Thus, a 50% mixed plantation 

had two species and a 25% mixture had four species as combination 

(Table 1). 

The plots were protected against grazing and fire and 

maintained free from weeds by knife weeding. Observations were 

taken at monthly intervals for a period of 24 and 13 months 

respectively for 1988 and 1989 plantations. The 13th month data 

on survival and height and mean annual height increment (MAHI) 

26

Table 1. Species combinations in pure and mixed plantations 

(1989 trial). 

A H 

Ha ldina cordifol ia (H) 

H P 

AG 

HP 

H X 

Lagerstroenis microcarps (i) - 

GH 

- 

PX 

Pterocarpus msrsupium (P) 

H P 

AG 

HP 

P X 

OH 

PX 

A X 

Xy7 is xylocsrpa (X) 

H X 

GH 

PX 

P X 

during 

this period of the 1989 trial were subjected to analysis 

of variance. Analysis of variance for survival percentage was 

done after angular transformation of the data. Height and MAHI 

values were subjected to logarithmic transformations to the 

base 

E. The significance of differences between treatment means was 

tested using cluster analysis. 

27

3.5. PEST PROBLEMS AND CONTROL 

3.5.1. Pest incidence in natural stands 

Data were gathered by making regular observations in the 

natural forests as well as regeneration areas. As quantitative 

data on the distribution of each of the species in various Forest 

Divisions was not available, only qualitative sampling could be 

carried out. For this, information on the occurrence of each 

of 

the 

species in various Forest Ranges of the State was gathered 

from the Forest Working Plans or by consulting the Forest 

Department staff. The areas thus identified were visited and 

attempts were made to cover as many trees as possible. 

Observations were made on the insects present and the degree 

of 

the damage. For recording damage to the foliage, the trees were 

scored into one of the following intensity classes based on 

visual assessment of the damage. 

0 = Healthy tree, no attack. 

1 = Low level attack, with upto 15% of foliage affected. 

2 = Medium level attack with upto 50% of foliage affected. 

3 = High infestation where about 75% of foliage affected. 

4 = Very heavy infestation with over 75% of foliage affected. 

Other types of damages like sap sucking, wood boring, etc. 

were recorded separately. 

3.5.2. Pest infestation in trial plantations 

Trial plantations of the 6 species raised both as pure and i n 

mixtures at Nilambur were used for recording data. Altogether 13 

28

locks representing the two categories (ie. 6 blocks as pure 

plantations having either H. cordifolia, P. marsupium, L. 

microcarpa, X. xylocarps, G. tiliifolia or A. odoratissima and 

the remaining blocks having the above species in different 

combinations were selected for recording observations. Monthly 

observations were made successively for 5 months, from March 1990 

to July 1990 and the occurrence of various insect pests, their 

intensity as well as impact on the host were recorded. The 

proportions of infestation in pure plantations and mixtures 

were 

compared by standard normal deviate test. 

3.5.3. Studies on nursery pests 

Observations on the nursery pests were made on seedlings 

raised on standard nursery beds at Peechi. For each species, 2 

such beds were laid out for recording observations. Five 

rectangular grids of size 30 cm x 30 cm, selected along diagonal 

transects within each bed formed the sampling units. The number 

of healthy and affected seedlings within each grid and the nature 

of damage caused to them were recorded and the pooled average 

value for both beds was recorded as the percent infestation. 

Observations were repeated every fortnight. 

3.5.4. Control of insect pests 

Two species of psyllids, viz. an unidentified species 

attacking A. odoratissima and Spanioneura sp. attacking P. 

marsupium; an unidentified species of mite (attacking L. 

microcarpa) and a weevil Indomias hispidulus, feed ing on leaf 

tissues of X. xylocarpa were identified as the most important 

nursery pests. 

Standardisation of chemicals to control the above 

mentioned 

29

pests was done on the nursery beds. For this purpose, two beds 

belonging to the three affected species were selected, 

each of 

which was divided into 12 blocks of 1 m x 1 m. Alternate 

compartments were left blank as buffers between treatments in 

order to avoid any possibility of insecticidal drift while 

spraying. The treatments were done in a completely randomised 

design. Three insecticides Endosulphan, Phosphsmidon and 

Monocrotophos - at uniform concentrations of 0.05% a.i. were 

tried against the psyllids. Dicofol, 

Phosphamidon (at 0.05% a.i.) 

and Sulphur (at 0.25% a.i.) 

were used against the mite. 

3.6. DISEASE PROBLEMS AND CONTROL 

3.6.1. Collection and storage of seeds 

Seed samples were collected from different forest ranges 

during 1989. The pooled samples, soon after their collection were 

labelled, sun-dried to reduce the moisture content to about 10- 

15% and stored separately in cotton bags at room temperature (25- 

35oC). For chemical control studies, seeds were treated with 

appropriate chemicals and stored in wide mouthed sir-tight 

o 

polyester containers at room temperature (25-35 C). 

3.6.2. Incubation tests 

The 

standard blotter test recommended for seed testing was 

employed (ISTA, 

1966). A random sample of 200 seeds was used for 

each species. But for P. marsupium and X. xylocarpa where the 

seed size is large, only 50 and 100 seeds respectively were used. 

Wet sterllised blotters of 9 or 11 cm size were used in the 

o o 

study. The plates were incubated at 25 +_ 2 C under 12 hours of 

30

alternating cycles of light and darkness for 6 days and were 

examined on the 7th day with the help of a stereomicroscope 

for 

microbial growth. Relative percent incidence (RPI) of each micro- 

organism was calculated from the following formula. 

No. 

of seeds with organism 

RPI= ............................ 

x 100 

Total number of seeds tested 

3.6.3. Effect of fungicides on seed-borne fungi 

Common seed dressers like MEMC, mancozeb, carbendazim and 

carboxin were used in the study . Treated seeds, stored in 

plastic containers, were examined one day and 90 days after the 

treatment, 

employing standard blotter method. Observations were 

recorded on the 7th day of incubation. RPI of various 

microorganisms was calculated as mentioned under item 3.6.2. 

3.6.4. Diseases of seedlings 

Seedlings of different species were raised in seed beds (12 m 

x 1.2m) at Peechi during April, 1989. For the first 45 to 60 

days 

from 

Seed 

a shade pandal of coir mat was provided to protect seedlings 

sun scorch. The seed beds were watered at regular intervals. 

ings were maintained till the next planting season, ie. 

May, either in the mother beds or in polythene containers (18 cm 

x 12 

cm size). 

Occurrence of disease(s), if any, their symptoms and 

nature 

of damage caused to seedlings were recorded. The incidence of a 

disease was estimated either by counting the number of disease 

patches and approximate area covered by them or percent seedlings 

affected for a given density of seedlings in a seed bed 

(Sharma 

31

et al., 1985). Appropriate part of diseased seedlings were 

collected for isolation and identlfication of the causal 

organism. 

3.6.5. Incidence of diseases in natural stands 

Natural stands in various areas of the State were surveyed 

for the occurrence of diseases on standing trees. As far as 

possible the same areas were visited during dry 

(December-April) 

and wet season (June-September) and observations recorded. 

Diseased specimens were collected for isolation and 

identification of the causal organism. 

3.6.6. Isolation and identification of causal organism 

Diseased specimens were taken in separate polythene bags to 

the laboratory. Isolations were made usually within one week. 

Generally, potato dextrose agar for lsolatlon of fungi, and 

nutrient agar for isolation of bacteria were used. Causal 

organisms in pure culture were provisionally identified and 

identity confirmed through CAB International Mycological 

Institute, Kew, UK. The cultures were periodically subcultured 

o 

and stored in cold room at 25 fr 2 C. 

3.6.7. Pathogeneclty studies 

For pathogenicity studies, a specially designed humidity 

chamber, fabricated locally was used. For inoculation of leaves, 

detached leaf culture technique was employed (Sharna et al., 

1985). 

In the case of root, stem or shoot diseases of seedlings, 

pathogenicity was tested on seedlings in aluminium trays (30cm 

x 

30cm x 5cm). Initially seedlings raised in normal soil were 

32

transplanted to aluminium trays with sterile soil. The 

seedlings 

were first allowed to establish for a few days in the humidity 

chamber and then appropriately inoculated. In the case of soilborne 

diseases, soil was infested with appropriate quantity of 

inoculum of the test organism, usually raised on corn meal 

medium, dried and powdered (Sharma et al., 1985). The trays were 

maintained in the humidity chamber throughout, to observe the 

development of disease. 

3.6.8. Evaluation of fungicides for disease control 

Poison food technique and modified soil fungicide technique 

(Zentmeper, 1955; Sharma et al., 1935) were used to evaluate 

various fungicides in vitro against the most important seedling 

disease causing pathogens. The efficacy of most effective 

fungicides Identified in in vitro studies was evaluated in pilot 

scale field trials. 

3.6.9. Root nodulation studies 

Collection of nodules and isolation of Rhizobium were done 

based on the standard procedure of Vincent (1970). Nodules were 

collected from the nursery beds maintained at Peechi. 

Evaluation 

of isolates of X. xylocarpa, P. marsupium and A. odoratissima was 

done in polythene bags. The Rhizobium pelleted seeds were dibbled 

in polythene bags filled with gravel - free garden soil. The 

experiment had 25 replications, but the effective replications 

were between 10 to 15 because of non-viability of seeds. 

Seedlings were carefully removed and nodules collected after 

removing the soil and floating the seedlings in water. The 

effectiveness was evaluated based on the number of nodules and 

biomass production after 6 and 15 weeks. 

33

Results of seed pathological studies are dealt as 

tests and effect of fungicides on seed borne fungi. The 

incubation 

diseases 

listed for each of the tree species are d vided into nursery 

diseases and 

diseases in natural stands. Control measures for 

serious seedl ing diseases were worked out and recommendation 

made. Each disease has Seen discussed separately and a general 

discussion on diseases is given at the end, host-wise. 

Observations on root nodulation studies pertaining to the three 

leguminous species, viz. A. odoratissima, P. marsupium and X. 

xylocarpa are included host-wise. 

34

4 . A L B I Z I A O D O R A T I S S I M A 

(Kunni-vaka) 

4.1. BOTANY 

4.1.1. Nomenclature 

Albizia odoratissima (L.f.) Benth. in Hook. J. Bot. Kew Gard. 

Misc. 3:88. 1844; Bedd. Fl. Sylvat. t.54. 

1870; Baker in Hook. 

f. Fl. Brit. India 2: 298. 1878; Prain, J. Asiat. Soc. Bengal 

66(2):259.1897; Brandis, Indian Trees 371. 1906; Rama Rao, Fl. 

Pl. Travancore 153. 1914; Bourd. For. Trees Travancore 141. 

1908; Gamble, Fl. Presid. Madras 1:431. 1918; Bhattacharya et 

Maheswari, J. Indian bot. Soc. 52: 283. fig. 6c. 1973; Nair et 

Henry (eds.), Fl. Tamilnadu 1: 137. 1983; Kosterm. in 

Dassanapake et Fosberg (eds.), Revis. Handb. Fl. Ceylon 1: 

499. 1980; Matthew, Fl. Tamilnadu Carnatic 3(1): 539. 1983; 

Ramach. et Flair, Fl. Cannanore 170. 1988. 

Mimosa odoratissima L.f. Suppl. P1. 437. 1781; Roxb. Corm. Pl. 

t. 120. 1799 & Fl. Indica 2: 546. 1832; Wt. et Arn. Prodr. Fl. 

Penin. Indiae Orient. 1: 275. 1834 (as odoratissima). 

Acacia odoratissims (L.f.) Willd. Sp. Pl. 4:1063. 1805; DC. 

Prodr. 2:466. 1825. 

Mimosa marginata Lamk. Encyl. 1: 12.1783. 

Acacia lomatocarpa DC. Prodr. 2: 467.1825. 

Albizia micrantha Biov. in Miq. Fl. Ind. Bat. 1:24. 1834. 

Albizia lebekkoides Benth. in Hook. J. Kew Gard. Misc. 3:88. 1844. 

Waga van Rheede, Hort. Malab. 6:9.t.5. 1686. 

Type : Koenig, s.n. (LINN). 

35

4.1.2. Local names 

Kunni-vaka, Nelli-vaka, Chittilei-vaka, Puli-vaka, Karu-vaka, 

Chela-vaka. 

4.1.3. Botanical description 

Deciduous trees, 13 - 30 m high; bark black, flaking 

or cracking; 

young shoots drark-coloured, appressed-pubescent. Leaves 

bipinnate, 3.5 - 15.5 cm long with a sessile gland on the 

rachis 

a little above i ts base and also at the base of 1 or 2 pinnae 

towards apex; stipules cauducous; pinnae usualy 3 - 5 pairs, 

paripinnate, 

rather distant, 4.5 - 13.5 cm long, with pubescent 

rachis. Leaflets 8 to 15 pairs, sessile, 0.9 - 2.6 x 0.3 - 0.9 

cm, narrowly oblong, narrowly elliptic, narrowly ovate, 

narrcwly 

obovate or rarely linear, narrowly oblique, obovate or very 

rarely elliptic, entire, acute, apiculate, obtuse, retuse, 

oblique or cuneate at base, dark green and 

slightly pubescent 

above, glaucous and pubescent beneath, often broadest at the 

base. Inflorescence axillary or terminal in umbellate or 

corymbose panicles of 8 to 12 flowered subglobose heads, +_ 2 cm 

in diameter; bracts 2 or none, upto 0.1 cm long, pubescent. 

Flowers sessile, cream-coloured, white, yellowish-greenish white 

or pale greenish, grey and ashy-tomentose when young, 2 1 cm 

long, 

upto 0.4 cm across, fragrant; calyx 0.1 - 0.2 cm long, 

pubescent, campanulate, teeth obselete; corolla with 5 petals, 

connate, funnel or tublular-shaped, 5 teethed, grey-silky 

pubescent outside; corolla teeth ovate-lanceolate, acute at apex; 

stamens indefinite, twice as long as the corolla or more; 

filaments upto 1 cm long, pale or yellowish white, connate at 

base, upto 0.3 cm in length, long exserted; pistil upto 1.2 cm 

36

long; ovary stipitate. Pods subsessile, 12 - 22 x 1.8 - 3 cm, 

thin, flat, straight, strongly veined, continuous within, or 

subdehiscent, obtuse at apex, drying black; seeds 5 to 15 per 

pod, upto 0.8 x 0.5 cm, broadly ovate or orbicular, compressed, 

much flattened, brown or yellowish in colour, exalbuminous, 

with 

filiform funicle (Figs. 1 & 2). 

4.1.4. Field notes 

Trees 

with spreading crown, commn in the moist deciduous 

forests and grasslands of the State upto an altitude of about 

1200 m above msl, often growing in valleys and along the sides of 

ravines. When in flowers, the trees attract a lot of insects. 

Branching is less towards the base of the trunk, but profuse 

towards apex. 

4.1.5. Phenology 

Flowers from March to June, often profuse during April and 

May; fruits from July to January, maturing mostly during November 

and December (Fig. 3). 

4.1.6. World distribution 

Throughout India, Sri Lanka, Burma and Malays. 

4.1.7. Distribution in Kerala 

Trivandrum, Thenmala, Konni, Rsnni, Kottayam, Thekkedy, 

Munnar, Idukki, Kothamangalam, Mankulam, Malayattoor, 

Vazhachal, 

Chalakudy, Trichur, Nemmara, Palghat, Parambikulam, Cslicut, 

Nilambur and Wynad Forest Divisions. 

Almost throughout the State 

(Fig. 4). 

37

4.1.8. Notes 

Attributing the authorship to Bentham, Baker ( J . c. ) 

recognized the variety A. odorstissima (L. f. ) Benth. var. 

mollis 

Benth. characterized by leaflets and rachis densely grey-dawny, 

the former less rigid 

than the type (ie. A. odorstissima (L.f.) 

Benth. var. odoratissima) and referred to specimens of Thomson 

from Rohilkund and that of Edgeworth from Siwaliks, 

both in North 

India, to authenticate the identity and distribution of the 

variety. Subsequently, Gamble (l.c.) and Nair and Henry (l,c,) 

confirmed the occurrence of var. mollis in Peninsular India from 

Coimbatore and North Arcot districts of Tamilnadu State, wherein, 

grey 

on dawny-velvetty leaflets were noted as characteristic to 

the variety. Studies on the natural populations of the species 

in Kerala revealed that var. mollis does not occur in the State, 

eventhough its occurrence in the Walayar forests of Palghat 

Division in Kerala is possible, 

as forests of this region form a 

continuous stretch with that of Coimbatore wherefrom the 

variety 

has been reported in South India. There is also no record of the 

existence of var. mollis in Sri Lanka or in any other country 

falling within the range of distribution of the species. 

4.1.9. Within species variation 

Data on leaf variation were gathered from 20 specimens 

collected from different locations in the State. 

Characters 

recorded as measurements like length of compound leaves and 

length and breadth of individual leaflets (petiolule being 

very 

shcrt was not accounted) were transformed to dichotomous 

variables by dividing their ranges into classes. The class are 

3.5 to 7.5 cm (short), 7.5 to 11.5 cm (medium long) and 11.5 tc 

15.5 cm (very long) for the length of coumpound leaves, 0.8 to 

38

1.4 cm (short), 1.4 to 2 cm (medium long) and 2 to 2.6 cm (very 

long) for leaflet length, and 0.3 to 0.5 cm (narrow), 0.5 to 0.7 

cm (medium broad) and 0.7 to 0.9 cm (very broad) for leaflet 

breadth. The data thus assembled were subjected to cluster 

anal ysis. 

The cluster diagram (Fig 5.1) demonstrates the coincidence of 

characters in all the 20 OTUs. It shows that medium long 

compound leaves, and medium broad leaflets are narrowly oblong, 

narrowly obvate, entire, obtuse at apex and obtuse, oblique or 

truncate at base. Likewise, specimens with maximum breadth for 

leaflets are often narrowly ovate in shape and acute at apex. 

All other character variants namely compound leaves with maxlmum 

length, leaflets with minimum and maximum length, leaflets with 

minimum breadth and leaflets which are narrowly elliptic, linear, 

narrowly oblique, obovate or elliptic in shape and those with 

apiculate, retuse or mucronate apex and cuneate base do not form 

clusters with any other character used in the analysis. 

In the cluster analysis conducted to find out similarity 

among specimens from different parts of the State (Fig 5.2), 

there were only three clusters which showed at least 50% 

similarity among the specimens. They were of specimens from: 

i. Aryankavu, Thenmala, Mannarappara, Marayur, Orukombam in 

Parambikulam and Achenkvoil in Thennmala Division. 

ii. Palappilly, Peechi, Karulai, Adirappilly and Achenkovil, 

and 

iii. Ksrimala, Vadakkancherry, Nelliampathy and Dhoni in 

northern Kerala. 

With regard to the length of compound leaves, the shortest 

39

ones (3.5 cm) were from Varhani in Trichur Division and those 

with maximum length (15.5 cm) were from Mannarappara Range in 

Konni Division. Likewise, shorest leaflets measruing 0.9 cm in 

length were noted for specimens from Vazhani Range in Trichur 

Division and longest leaflets among all samples collected (2.6 

cm) were from Marayur in Munnar Division. With regard to the 

breadth of leaflets, it was minimum (0.3 cm) for specimens 

from 

Achenkovil in Thenmsla Division and maximum (0.9 cm) for those 

from Karimala Range in Parambikulam Division. 

4.1.10. Specimens examined 

Chandanakampara, Kasaragod Distrct, 15.5.1982, V.J. Nair 

73899 (MH); Thaliparamba farm, Malabar, 19.5.1906, C.A. Barber 

7748 (MH); Kannoth, Malabar, 8.12.1913, C.A. Barber 9501 (MH); 

Trissleri, Cannanore District, 5.5.1979, V.S. Ramachandran 62275 

(MH); Begur RF, Cannanore District, 23.6.1979, V.S. Ramachandran 

62744 (MH); Kuthirakode RF, Begur Range, Wynad Division, 

23.11.1983, K.N.Subramanian 9790 (FRI); Sultan’s Battery, Wynad 

Division, 12.8.1964, J.L. Ellis 19923 (MH); Karulai Range, 

Nilambur Division, 15.6.1989, K.K.N. Nair 6506 (KFRI); Karimala 

Range, Parambikulam Division, 19.5.1988, K.K.N. 

Nair 6355 (KFRI); 

Orukomban Range, Parambikularn Division, 19.5.1988, K.K.N. Nair 

6341 (KFRI); Chungam Range, Parambikulam Division, 19.5.1988, 

K.K.N. Nair 6346 (KFRI); Walayar RF, Palghat Division, 13.6.1989, 

K.K.N. Nair 6396 (KFRI); Walapar, Palghat, Sept. 1936, Without 

collectors’ name and number (MH); Agali, Attappady valley, 

Palghat, 23.1.1911, C.E.C. Fischer 2476 (FRI); Mukkali to 

Pathanthode, Mannarghat Range, Palghat Division, 14.6. 1989, 

K.K.N. Nair 6503 (KFRI); Dhoni RF, Palghat Division, 13.6.1989, 

K.K.N. Nair 6400 (KFRI); Pankarappally, Vadakkancherrp Range, 

40

Trichur Division, 11.4.1989, K.K.N. Nair 6384 (KFRI); Vazhani dam 

catchment, Machad Range, Trlchur Division, 11.4.1989, K.K.N. Nair 

6382 (KFRI); Peechl Range, Trichur Division, 4.5.1988, K.K.N. 

Nair 6328 (KFRI); Nelliampathy Range, Nemmara Division, 6.6.1989, 

K.K.N. Nair 6385 (KFRI); Palappilly Range, Chalakudy Division, 

23.3.1988, K.K.N. Nair 6316 (KFRI); Marayur Range, Munnar 

Division, 18.5.1988, K.K.N. Nair 6333 (KFRI); Chinnar to Marayur, 

Munnar Division, 19.4.1964, K.M. Sebastine 18311 (MH); 

Vallakadvu, 1965 Eucalypt plantation, Thekkady Division, 

15.7.1983, K.N. Subramanian 9474 (FRI); Vallakadvu Eucalypt 

plantation, Thekkady Division, 14.7.1983, K.N.Subramanian 9432 

(FRI); Thekkady Range, Thekkady Divsion, 31.3.1989, K.K.N. Nair 

6376 (KFRI); Mannarappara Range, Konni Division, 23.4.1988, 

K.K.N. Nair 6323 (KFRI); Way to Katlappara, Thenmala Range, 

Thenmala Division, 29.12.1989, K.K.N. Nalr 6304 (KFRI); Thenmala 

Division, 14.7. 1918, K.N. Subramanian 7366 (FRI); Aryankavu 

Range, Thenmala Division, 12.11.1987, K.K.N. Nair 6303 (KFRI); 

Manalar, Achenkovil Range, Thenmala Division, 30.12.1987, 

K.K.N. 


Attappady, Achenkovil Range, Thenmala Division, 

1.12.1987, K.K.N. Nair 6310 (KFRI). 

4.2. ECOLOGY 

Ecological information gathered during field studies on the 

natural stands of A. odoratissima in Kerala is given below. 

Associations: 

Pa rent tree d istribution : 

B iot i c interf e rence : 

Rare 

Terminal i a - Wrightia 

Highly disturbed 

41

Regeneration status: 

Young seedlings: 

(upto 30 cm ht.) 

Older seedlings: 

(31 cm to 1 m ht.) 

Sap1 i ngs : 

(more than 1 m ht.) 

Mortal ity rate: 

Remarks: 

Three 

Insuff icent numbers 

Limited 

Occasional 

High 

Found in pockets of high moisture 

regime. 


4.3.1. Bole characteristics 

Mature trees grow to a diameter of 90 cm and a height of 30 

m, with a straight clear bole of even upto 12 m length. The stem 

is almost cylindrical and lacks flutes or buttresses. The common 

defects in the stem include branches, decayed branch stubs, fork 

and decay cavities. The wood is more commonly interlockedgrained. 

Due to branching and spreading habit, very often the 

length of the straight bcle is limited to 4 to 6 m in certain 

localities. Wyanad in the northern region and Ranni and Konni in 

the South showed comparatively better stem form with few defects 

and stralght bole. 

4.3.2. Wood properties 

3 3 

kg/m 

Basic density of wood varied from 586.3 kg/m to 729.8 

3 

with an average of 656.8 kg/m . Analysis of variance showed that 

42

Table 1. ANOVA of basic density and heartwood percentage of 

A. odoratissima between different regions and 

localities in Kerala 

Source of Basic density Heartwood percentage 

variation DF Mean F-val ue DF Mean F-value 

square 

square 

Region 2 2830.133 1.924(ns) 2 59.394 0.944(ns) 

Locality 2 1422.963 0.967(ns) 23 172.422 2.742(ns) 

Residual 20 1471.251 16 62.889 

Total 24 1518.978 20 69.625 

ns = non significant 

there was no significant difference in basic density either 

between the northern, central or southern regions or between 

the three localities of the central region (Table 1). 

Similarly, the heartwood percentage showed no significant 

difference between the regions and between different 

localities 

(Table 1). On the other hand, heartwood percentage showed a 

significant positive correlation (R = 0.7476) with stem diameter. 

4.3.3. Wood structure 

Growth rings are generally indistinct but are distinguishable 

microscopically. 

The ring-like markings on cross sectional discs 

are partly related to changing grain direction. However, the 

rings are reported to be distinct and inconspicuous (Pearson 

and 

Brown, 1932). 

43

Vessels distributed in singles or short radial multiples, 

rarely in long radial multiples of upto 12 vessels and clusters, 

solitary vessels typically round, heartwood vessels partly 

blocked by gummy deposits; perforation simple; pitting alternate, 

pits small and narrowly bordered, pits to parenchyma distinct by 

thei r di stri but ion. 

Parenchyma abundant, aliform to alifom-confluent, 

parenchyma 

demarcating the growth rings also present; 

diffuse parenchyma 

consisting mostly of chambered crystalliferaus cells, 

fusiform 

cells present among the paratracheal parenchyma, cells contiguous 

to vessels with prominent pits; extractives scanty. 

Rays 1- to 3-seriate; commonly 2- to 3-seriate, homogeneous, 

conspicuously broader when surrounded by parenchyma; crystals 

absent, 

extractives abundant in heartwood rays; pits to vessels 

in horizontal rows. 

Fibres thin-walled and septate, without pronounced 

difference between earlywood and latewood in wall thickness; 

extractives scanty; crystals not found as contrary to their 

reported presence (Chauhan and Dayal, 1985). 

4.4. SILVICULTURE AND PLANTATION TRIALS 

4.4.1. Seed collection 

Ripened fruits were collected from Nilambur during March to 

early May. According to Troup (1983) fruits of A. odaratissima 

ripens during January-February in North India. 

From the present 

study it was clear that seeds could be collected at any time from 

March till May. The frults (pods) were collected both from the 

ground as well as from the trees. The pods split open when 

44

dried in the sun. The unopened pods were manually broken to 

release the seeds. In some places pods were beaten with sticks 

to release the seeds. The seeds were cleaned by winnowing. 

4.4.2. Seed weight 

Samples collected from Nilambur contained 20,000 seeds per 

kilogram. Sengupta (1937) has reported a seed weight of 15,521 

and 

I nd 

22,928 per kg in the case of different samples from North 

a. 

4.4.3. 

Germination capacity 

Freshly collected seeds registered only 33% geermination 

without any pretreatment. This is much below the germination 

capacity of 47% already reported (FRI, 1983). Seeds can be 

stored for long periods without loosing much of its germination 

capacity (FRI, 1983). 


About 1 to 2 kg of seeds are required for sowing on 

standard nursery beds of 12 rn X 1.2 m. Seeds were sown in March 

and germination commenced in around 4 to 6 days and continued 

upto 45 to 50 days. The seedlings were ready for potting in 

April and attainted plantable size in the following season. 

Polythene bags of 22.5 cm x 17.5 cm size are adequate for 

maintaining the seedlings upto a period of 15 months. 


4.4.5.1. Survival of seedlings 

After 24 months, A. odoratissima seedlings showed a very 

poor survival of 7% in the pilot plantation trials of 1988 (Fig. 

45

6). However, the species attainted a maximum height of 102 cm 

during this period. 

The survival percentage of the species in pure and mixed 

plantations of 1989 was also below 20%. Maximum survival was 18% 

in a 50% mixed plantation of AP. 

In other 50% mixtsres like AH 

and AX, the survival further declined to 15 and 7% respectively. 

The performance of the species in a 25% mixture of AGHP appeared 

to be better (13%) than the 50% mixture of AX. Lowest 

survival 

was 4% observed i n the pure plantations of the species. The 

statistical analysis of the data on survival of seedlings at the 

13th month did not show any significant difference between 

the 

performance of the species in pure and mixed plantations (Table 

2). 

Table 2. Analysis of variance of survival of seedlings in pure 

and mixed plantations of A. 

odoratissima 

................................................................. 

Source of variation DF MSS F-Val ues 

................................................................. 

Treatment 4 75.643 0.967(ns) 

Replication 2 34.619 0.443(ns) 

Residual 8 78.213 

Total 14 

................................................................. 

ns = not significant 

4.4.5.2. Height growth 

Mean values of height after 

12 months showed wide variation. 

The species registered maximum height of 150 cm in the 25% mixed 

46

plantation of AGHP. Even though the species in a 50% mixture of 

AP had maximum initial height at the commencement of the trial, 

it declined to 87 cm mean height after a period of 12 months. 

Performance of the species was lower in 50% combinations of AH 

and AX, where the heights recorded were 82 and 58 cm 

respectively. Lowest height growth was observed in the pure 

plantations of Albizia which was 48 cm (Fig. 7). Even though the 

mean values showed variation, it was statistically not 

significant (Table 3). 

Table 3. Analysis of variance of height of seedlings in pure 

and mixed plantations of A. 

odoratissima 

........................................................... 

Source of variation DF MSS F-values 

........................................................... 


4.4.5.3. Mean annual height increment (MAHI) 

Mean annual height increment of the species in pure and 

mixed plantations is shown in Fig. 8. The spcies recorded very 

fast rate of growth in a 25% mixed plantation of AGHP reaching 

l08 cm. In 50% mixtures of AP and AH the height increment was 

comparatively less being only 37 cm. MAHI was less in the 

combination AX and lowest in pure plantation with 21 cm and 7 cm, 

47

Table 4. Analysis of variance of MAHI in pure and mixed 

plantations of A. 

odoratissima 

Source of variation DF MSS F-Val ues 

Treatment 

Replication 

Residua l 

Total 

4 1.306 2.2595 (ns) 

2 0.719 1.2439 (ns) 

8 0.578 

14 


respectively. Analysis of variance, however, did not show any 

significant difference in MAHI of the specis in pure and mixed 

plantations (Table 4). 


4.5.1. Insect pests in natural stands 

The trees were comparatively free from pest attack in their 

natural stands in the State, although at one or two locations 

mild attack by the caterpillars of Archips sp. and Phycita sp. 

and by a bug Oxyrschis tarandus was noticed (Table 5). The 

caterpillars characteristically webbed the tender leaves and fed 

from within. However, they did not cause any serious damage to 

the foliage. 

48

Table 5. Insect pests collected from the natural stands of 

A. odoratissima in Kerala 

Insect species Place of colln. Nature of damage 

Archips sp. Peechi, Vazhsni Leaf webbing 

(Lepidoptera, Tortricidae) 

Phycita sp. Idukki Leaf webbing 

(Lepidoptera, Phycitidae) 

Oxyrachis tarandus Fb. Wilambur, Peechi Sap sucking 

(Homoptera, Membracidae) 

Earlier, six species of insects including the bug, O. 

tarandus were reported from A. odoratissima trees in India 

(Browne, 1968). O. tarandus is reported to be a minor pest 

associated with various species of Albizias, usually infesting 

the saplings and causing stunting and die-back of the shoots. 

This insect is tended by ants particularly Crematogaster 

which may also play a role in its distribution. 

spp. 

4.5.2. Pest problems in trial plantations 

In pure plantings, attack by an unidentified psyllid bug was 

the most serious problem leading to stunting and die-back of 

transplanted seedlings. About 40% of the seedlings were heavily 

affected by this insect in one block under observation. In 

addition to this, incidence of leaf feeding insects, mainly the 

caterpillars of Archips sp. was also noticed (Table 6). The 

intensity of damage was low in all other combinations. About 25% 

of the seedlings were found to be attacked by this Insect in pure 

49

plantings. 

Table 6. Percent incidence of leaf-webbing caterpillers in the trial plantstions 

of A. odoratissima 

1 

Conbinations with Tree species Percent infestation 

A. odoratissiaa A P X H G nsr Apt Nay Jun Jul 

a 

A 1.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.56 1.56 0.00 14.06 25.00 

b 

AP 0.50 0.50 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.OO 6.25 31.25 

C 

AX 0.50 0.00 0.50 0.00 0,00 0.00 0.00 3.1: 15.6: 18.75 

(I 

AH 0.50 0.00 0.00 0.50 0.00 3.12 0.00 0.00 25.00 37.50 

APHG 0.25 0.25 0.00 0.25' 0.25 0.00 0.00 12.50 19.75 O.OOe 

* The values given in the column are significant at 6% probability level. 

The 50% mixture with the combination AX showed least 

(18.75%) damage. Interestingly no instance of attack was noticed 

in the 25% mixture of APHG combination. 

4.5.3. Nursery pests 

Two species of insect pests were recorded in the nursery 

established at Peechi. They are listed in Table 7. Among them, 

the unidentified psyllid caused serious damage to the seedlings 

throughout the period of observation resulting in the stunting of 

seedlings, formation of several lateral shoots at the tip and 

subsequent mortality. When the infestation by this insect was 

noticed in September, 1989, about 31.43% of the plants were 

affected which became 98% by June, 1990. The intensity of attack 

50

was heavy and was ranked under score 4. The infestation 

continued even when the seedlings were transplanted in the field. 

In the insecticide trials, a 0.05% spray of Nuvacron 

(monocortophos) at fortnightly Intervals was found to be an 

effective control for this pest. Mathur (1975) has reported 

Psylla oblonga on A. odoratissima but no large scale build up has 

been reported so far. 

Table 7. 

Insect pests in the nursery of A. odoratissima 


Rhesela moestslis Kslker Peechi teef webbing 

(tepidoptera, Tortricidae) 

Unidentified Psyllid 

Peechi, 

N i lambur 

Sap sucking 

Apart from the above, mild build up of the defoliator, 

Rhessla moestalis was also noticed In dune, 1989. This insect 

is 

a well known defoliator of Albizias in India (Das and Sengupta, 

1960) and is potentially capable of building up in epidemic 

proportions. Incidence of the Albizia butterflies, Eurema blanda 

and E. hecabe were surprisingly not noticed during the period of 

study. 

Species 

belonging to 

Eurema are known 

to cause severe 

damage 

to seed 

ings and sapl 

ngs of seversl species of Albizias 

in India 

and 

are ranked as 

potential nursery pests (Browne, 

1968). 

51

4.5.4. Seed pests 

Two species of seed pests belonging to the colepteran 

family Bruchidae were recorded during the study, as listed In 

Table 8. Among them, C. serratus was the most serious pest of the 

seeds of A. odoratissima at Peechi. Over 70% of the seeds stored 

without sufficient chemical protection was found to be affected 

by this insect. B. chinensis is a cosmopolitan pest in various 

pulses and other leguminous seeds. Several species of 

Bruchus 

have been reported as seed pests of various species like B. 

bilineatopygus 

in A. procera, B. pisorum and B. sparsomaculatus 

Table 8. Seed pests of A. odoratissima 


Bruchus chinensis Peechi Seed boring 

Caryedon serratus Marayoor do 

(01 iver) 

in A. lebbeck and B. uberatus in A. amara (Beeson, 1941). 

Infestation by C. serratus was noticed in the seeds collected 

from Marayoor. 

52


4.6.1. Seed pathological studies 

4.6.1.1. Incubation tests 

Relative percent incidence of seed microflora in A. 

odoratissima is given in Table 9. other than F. moniliforme which 

was 

found t o have an RPI of 7%, other fungi were common storage 

fungi, viz. A. flavus, A. niger and species of Penicillium and 

Rhizopus. The RPI of these fungi ranged from 5 to 9%. In addition 

to these 

common storage fungi, a gram(-)ve bacterium was also 

Table 9. Spermoplane microorganisms and their relative percent 

incidence on seeds of A. 

odoratissima 

Microorganisms 

recorded 

Relative percent 

incidence (RPI) 

Aspergillus flavus 

A. niger 

Fusarium moniliforme 

Penicillium sp. 

Rhizopus sp. 

Bacteria (gram(-)ve) 

6.0 

7.0 

7.0 

9.0 

5.0 

15.0 

found to occur with an RPI of 15%. Most of the spermoplane 

microflora apparently harboured only the seed surface. But a 

few 

53

species 

of Aspergillus, Penicillium and Rhizopus possibly would 

have penetrated seeds and caused infection leading to seed 

rotting. The major problem of seeds under storage is due to 

insects which bored the seeds, thereby facilitating easy 

penetration of common storage fungi causing seed rotting. 

4.6.1.2. Effect of fungicides on seed borne fungi 

Results pertaining to the effect of seed dressing on the 

reduction of microflora infection of the seeds is presented 

in 

Table 10. From the results it is apparent that the seeds of A. 

odoratissima can be protected from seed microflora using seed 

dressers. Hancozeb was the most effective fungicide in 

inhibiting the microbial growth, followed by MEMC, carbendazin 

and carboxin. Out of the 6 microorganisms recorded, 5 were 

controlled by 

mancozeb, 4 by MEMC, 3 by carbendazim and 2 by 

carboxin. Interestingly the bacterium could not be fully 

controlled by any of these fungicides, their RPI reduced to 

around 2.5-3% as compared to 15% in untreated seeds. 

For storing the seeds for 90 days after treatment, mancozeb 

was very effective followed by MEMC, carboxin and carbendazim. 

Here also the bacterium could not be eradicated, 

but their RPI 

reduced from 14.5% to ca. 2.5% Interestingly, carbendazim 

treatment did not show any control of the bacterium, showing 

13.5% and 11.5% RPI for one and ninety days after treatment, 

respectively. 

54

Table 10. Effect of fungicides on seed microflora of A. odoratissima, one and 

ninety days after treatnent 


recorded 

RPI in various treatments 

Control catbendazim MEMC . carboxin mancozeb 

0 90 0 90 0 90 0 90 0 90 

Aspergillus flavos 6.0 8.0 1.0 5.0 - - 1.0 - - - 

A. niger 7.0 9.0 3.0 2.5 - - - - - - 

F. moniliforme 7.0 5.0 - - - - 3.5 - - - 

- - - 1.5 - - - 

Penicillium sp. 9.0 10.0 - 

- - - 

Rhizopus sp. 5.0 8.5 - - 1.0 - - 

Bacterium 

(gram(-)ve) 15.0 14.5 13.5 11.5 2.5 2.5 5.0 3.0 3.0 2.5 

4.6.2. Diseases in nurseries 

In nurseries, no seedling disease was recorded. 

4.6.3. Diseases in natural stands 

4.6.3.1. Leaf rust 

Leaf rust in A. odoratissima is not widespread in Kerala and 

was seen only In one locality near Nemmara in the Nemmara Forest 

Division. Approximately 25% leaflets were affected by the rust. 

The disease was observed during January-April, especially on the 

older leaves. The upper surface of affected leaflets showed dull 

green spots corresponding to orange yellow uredinia on the lower 

surface. From A. odoratissima trees, Sphserophragmium acaciae, 

55

Ravene l ia odorat issima and R. japonica have been reported to 

cause rust diseases (Barua et al., 1982; Kapoor and Agarwal, 

1972; Sydow et al., 1937). But in the present study, identity of 

the causal organisms could not be ascertained. Rust was not 

observed on seedlings in nurseries. However during the present 

investigation rust of Albizia was not noticed during rainy or 

autumn seasons and was seen only by the begining of summer. 

4.6.3.2. Phanerogamic parasite (mistletoe) 

Mistletoe infection of A. 

odoratissima trees by Dendrophthoe 

falcata is widespread throughout the State. However Viscum 

orientale was observed only in a few places. On an average, 5 - 

10 clumps of D. falcata were seen on an affected tree. Branch 

mortality due to this mistletoe infection was also seen 

occasionally. 

At present a practice of mechanical removal of the 

parasite from teak trees is followed in Kerala. Ghosh et al. 

(1984) attempted the chemical control of teak mistletoe through 

tree 

injection. However, it is difficult to practice mechanical 

removal of the parasite from A. odoratissima. During the course 

of our investigation, mistletoe infestation was observed 

throughout the State. At Moolapady of Begur Range in Wynad Forest 

Division, 18-20 clumps of D. 

falcata were seen affecting a single 

tree. Even young trees were seen affected by mlstletoe. But 

infestation of V. orientale is not common and is confined to 

central 

Kerala. 


Performance of A. odoratissima with and without Rhizobium 

inoculation is given in Table 11. In general, nodulation and 

biomass production was more in inoculated seeds, as compared to 

uninoculated seeds. Nodulation was almost double In treated 

56

Table 

11. Performance of A. odoratisima with and without 

Rhizobium treatments 

Inoculated 

Uninoculated 

Growth parameters 6 weeks 4 months 6 weeks 4 months 

after treatment 

after treatment 

Shoot length (in cm) 59.0 117.5 50.0 96.4 

Root length (in cm) 86.6 114.3 60.0 90.7 

Average no.of nodules 3.3 7.9 2.0 3.6 

Biomass 

Dry weight (in g) . 0.04 1.3 0.02 0.12 

seedlings, 

whereas increase in biomass was also observed i n the 

case of treated seeds after 4 months. Here also, pelleting seeds 

with natural Rhizobium is beneficial as the number of nodules and 

biomass increased considerably 

than the control. 

In general no serious disease was recorded from A. 

odorati ssima in Keral a. Leaf rust caused by Ravenelia japon ica 

was reported from China, Japan and India (Bakshi, 1976). Other 

records of rust fungi which include R. odoratissima and 

Sphaerophragmium acaciae were also reported from India (Tyagi 

and Prasad, 1978; Sydow et al., 1937). Sootymould caused by 

Meliola albizia in Assam (Kapoor and Tandon, 1967), wood canker 

caused by Hypoxylon denstium (Agnihothrodu, 1964) from Assam and 

anthracnose caused by Colletotrichum 

sp. (Patel et al., 1949) and 

leaf spot by Endodothella kanarensis (Ramakrishnan, 1952) were 

not observed during the present survey. But infestation of 

57

mistletoe due to Dendrophthoe falcata was found throughout the 

State causing branch dieback in severe cases. In nurseries, no 

seedling disease was observed. 

58

5.GREWIA 

T I L I I F O L I A 

(Chadachi ) 

5.1. BOTANY 


Grewia tillifolia Vahl,’ Symb. Bot. 1:35.1790; Roxb. Fl. Indica 

2:587. 1832; Wt. et Arn. Prodr. Fl. Penin. Indiae Orient. 1: 

80. 1834; Mast. in Hook. f. Fl. Brit. India 1: 386. 1874 (pro 

parte); Bourd. For. Trees Travanocre 52. 1908; Rama Rao, Fl. 

Pl. Travancore 52. 1914; Dunn in Gamble, Fl. Presid. Madras 1: 

118. 915; Burett, Notistbl. Bot. Gart. Berlin-Dahlem 9: 659. 

1926; Blatter, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 34: 887-88. 1931. 

Matthew, Fl. Tamilnadu Carnatic 3(1): 173. 1983; Ramach. et 

Nair, Fl. Cannanore 71. 1988. 

Grewia asiatica L. var. tiliaefolia Brandis, Indian Trees 98. 

1906; Blatter, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 34: 887-88. 1931. 

Grewis arborea Roxb. ex Rottler, Ges. Naturf. Freunde Berlin Neue 

Schriften 4: 205. 1803; Roth, Nov. Pl. Sp. 247. 1821. 

Type: Not known. 


Chadachi, Unnam, Unna. 


Trees, 5-15 m high; bark often fissured, pale brown; young shoots 

densely pubescent; young leaves flesh-red in colour. Leaves 

simple, petiofate, 5.5 - 23.5 x 4 - 14.5 cm, elllptlc, ovate, 

59

obovate or rarely broadly-ovate, serrate, dentate, undulate- 

serrate, crenate, incised or serrulate, minutely stellate-hairy 

or subglabrous on the upper side, hoary-tomentose and 

pubescent 

along the margins on the lower surface, oblique, subcordate, 

unequilateral, truncate, cordate, obtuse or rarely cuneate at 

base, acuminate, obtuse, acute or rarely truncate at apex, 6- 

nerved with 3 nerves on the larger side of the midrib; 

petioles 

0.8 - 4.10 cm long, pubescent; stipules upto 1.3 cm long, leafy, 

somewhat falcate or sagitate, obtusely lobed towards base, 

veined. Inflorescence umbellate, axillary, 3 or more in a 

cluster, on thick peduncles equalling the petioles in length; 

flower buds tomentose, green. Flowers 1.5 cm long, yellow or 

creamy-white with reddlsh or deep-yellow anthers, fragrant; 

bracts linear-lanceate; 

pedlcels 5 to 10 in a cluster, divergent, 

pubescent; sepals 5, distinct, upto 1 cm long, oblong, subacute 

at apex, pubescent externally, glabrous within; 

petals yellow, 

upto 0.5 cm long, oblong or spathulate, 

entire or nouched, 

densely white-villous along the margins, glandular about one- 

third of their length; stamens numerous, inserted on a short 

or 

elongated, often glandular, ribbed, glabrous torus with 5 

obscure, villous teeth at the apex; anthers deep yellow, reddish- 

yellow or red in colour; ovary 2 to 4 or many ovuled, 

spuriously 

septate 

between seeds, villous; styles longer than the stamens, 

subulate; stigma somewhat irregularly 2 to 5 lobed. Drupes 

light green, maturing light grey, yellowish grey or black, 2 0.8 

cm long, didymous, glaborous 3t maturity, globose or rarely 2 

or 

upto 4 lobed with 2-loculed stones; seeds ascending or horizontal 

with copious fleshy albumen; cotyledons flat, foliaceous or 

fleshy (Figs. 1 & 2). 

60

5.1 4. Field notes 

Trees with spreadlng crown, common in the dry and moist 

deciduos forest tracts throughout the State, even on poor and 

rocky soils. 


Flowering mostly from Msrch to June, but maximum during the 

summer months of March and April; fruiting from March to July, 

rarely extending upto next March (Fig. 3). 


Subhimalayan tracts to Peninsular India, Sri Lanka, Burma and 

tropical Africa. 


Trivandrum, Thenmala, Punalur, Konni, Ranni, Kottayam, 

Munnar, Kothamangalam, Mankulam, Malayattoor , Vazhachal, 

Chal akudy , Trichur, Nemmara, Pal ghat , Parambikulam, Calicut , 

Nilambur and Wynad Forest Divisions, in almost all Forest Ranges 

(Fig. 4). 

5.1.8. Notes 

Hole (1917) has well documented the confusion that exsisted 

in literature on the identity and nomenclature of this species, 

especially In Hooker’s Flora of British India. However, the 

identity of the species as distinct from Grewia asiatica L., G. 

vestitia Wall. and G. elastica Royle is now well established. 

Similarly, the local name Pai-paroea, Couradi in Hortus 

Malabaricus of van Rheede (Hort. Malab. 5: 91-92. t. 46. 1685) 

was earlier referred to several species under the genus Grewia, 

61

like G. orientalis L., G. columnaris Smith, G. pilosa Lamk. 

and 

G. damine. Cooke (1903) and Blatter (l.c.) reduced the species 

Grewis leptopetala Brandis to a variety under G. tiliifolia and 

this variety is rather confined to the hills of Poona 

(Maharashtra State) in Western India. 


Data on leaf variation were gathered from 38 herbarium 

specimens collected from different locations in the State. 

Depending upon the number of leaves present on each sample, 

upto 

5 variants were recorded for every character from each sample. 

The ranges of quantitative characters were divided into class 

intervals, namely 5.5 to 11.5 cm (short), 11.5 to 17.5 cm (medium 

long) and 17.5 to 23.5 cm (very long) for leaf length, 4 to 7.5 

cm (narrow), 7.5 to 11 cm (medium broad) and 11 to 14.5 cm (very 

broad) for the breadth of leaves, and 0.8 to 1.9 cm (short), 1.9 

to 3 cm (medium long) and 3 to 4.1 cm (very long) for petiole 

length. The incidence of specimens in the above groups served 

as 

dichotomous variables for these characters. Together with 

qualitiative characters, there were 31 such character 

variables 

for the 38 specimens of the species. 

The cluster diagram (Fig. 5.1) demonstrates the coincidence 

of characters in all the 38 samples. It shows that very long, 

very broad and medium broad and medium long and medium longpetioled 

leaves are obovate in shape, serrate along the margins, 

acuminate at apex and subcordate or truncate at base. 

Similarly, 

short, narrow, short-petioled leaves are mostly elliptic or ovate 

in shape with an oblique base. Further, broadly ovate leaves are 

mostly with dentate margins. It has also been noted from the 

cluster diagram that qualitative characters like crenate, 

62

Coefficient of similarity (rescaled) 

serrate 

acuminate apex 

medium broad leaf 

medium long petiole 

medium long leaf 

truncate base 

obovate leaf 

subcordate base 

short leaf 

narrow leaf 

obovate leaf 

oblique base 

elliptic leaf 

short petiole 

acute apex 

obtuse apex 

cordate base 

very Long petiole 

undulate serrate 

broadly ovate 

dentate 

incised 

obtuse base 

very long leaf 

very broad leaf 

undulate margin 

truncate apex 

cuneate base 

retuse apex 

serrulate margin 

crenate margin 

14 

21 

5 

8 

2 

26 

12 

28 

3 

6 

11 

27 

10 

9 

23 

24 

29 

7 

19 

13 

20 

16 

30 

1 

4 

18 

25 

31 

22 

17 

15 

Fig. 5.1 Phenograa based on coefficient of Jaccard 

of leaf characters of G. tiliifolia from 

different locations in Kerala.


Edakkara 

Dhoni 

Sultan's Battery 

Huthanga 

Thol petty 

Vythir i 

Thirunelli 

Kodanad 

Chethalayam 

Kannoth 

Uynad 

Kurichiad 

Erumel i 

Vallakadavu 

Vadasserikara 

Vazhani 

Hunnar 

Chimoni 

Marayur 

Athirappilly 

Karulai 

Charpa 

Palappilly 

Or ukomban 

Karual i 

tlannarappara 

Peechi 

PP Halavaram 

T hod upuz ha 

Rajakad 

Silent valley 

Chungam 

Goodr ical 

Ka 1 ady 

Nelliaapathy 

Thekkady 

Rann i 

Kollathirumedu 

28 

30 

1 

2 

5 

25 

4 

32 

24 

3 

31 

26 

17 

20 

18 

35 

11 

15 

8 

12 

27 

38 

16 

7 

9 

22 

13 

23 

37 

10 

29 

6 

19 

33 

34 

36 

21 

14 

Fig. 5.2 Phenogram based on coefficient of Jaccard 

of specimens of G. tiliifolia from 


serrulate, undulate, incised and undulate-serrate margined 

leaves, leaves with retuse, obtuse or truncate apex and 

cordate, 

obtuse or cuneate base occur irrespective of the size (ie. length 

and breadth) and shape of the leaves. 

Cluster diagram (Fig. 5.2) depicts similarity of specimens 

from different locations in Kerala with regard to all the 31 

characters analysed. Ensuring at least 50% resemblance within a 

cluster, seven distinct populations of the species could be 

identified from the State. They are from: 

i. Sultan’s Battery, Muthanga, Kannoth, Thirunelli, 

Tholpetty, Chethalayam and Vythiri. 

ii. 

iii. 

iv. 

Chungam, Goodrical and Ranni. 

Orukomban, Karulai, Peechi, Palappilly and Mannarappara. 

Marayur, Munnar, Athirappilly and Chimoni. 

v. Rajakad and PP Malavaram. 

vi . Kol lathi rumedu. 

vii. Erumel i, Vadasseri kkara and Val lakadavu. 

It may be noted from the above list that most of the 

populations from northern Kerala belong to one set with at 

least 

50% similar characters, whereas rest of the populations of the 

specices in the State, except those frcm Kollathirumedu, do not 

show any such region-wise similarity. With regard to the 

Kollathirumedu population, it stands distinct from all other 

populations of the species in Kerala. 

When the variations in quatitative characters were taken into 

account, leaves with maximum length and breadth (23.3 cm and 14.5 

cm, respectively) were noted in the population of 

Range in Vazhachal Division and those with minimum 

Kollathirumedu 

length and 

63

eadth (5.5 cm and 4 cm, respectively) were characteristic to 

the samples from Vadasserikkars Range in Ranni Division. 

In the 

case of petiole length, longest petioled leaves (ie. 4.10 cm) 

were collected from Ranni Range in Ranni Division, whereas it was 

very short (0.8 cm) in the samples from Vadasserikkara Range, 

again in the Ranni Forest Division. 


Ezhimalai, Kasaragod District,. 14.5.1982, V.J. Nair 73880 

(MH); Begur RF, Cannanore District, 5.5. 1979, V.S. Ramachandran 

62279 (MH); Tholpetty, Cannanore District, 9.7.1978, V.S. 

Ramschandran 57503 (MH); Tholpetty Range, Wynad Division, 

21.6.1988, K.K.N. Nair 6348 (KFRI); Thirunelli RF, Cannanore 

District, 8.5.1979, V.S. Ramachandran 52710 (MH); Thirunelli 

reserve, Wynad Division, 2.16.1988, K.K.N. Nair 6351 (KFRI); 

Kurichiad Range, Wynad Division, 22.6.1988, K.K.N. Nair 6359 

(KFRI); Sultan's Battery Range, Wynad Division, 22.6.1988, K.K.N. 

Nai r 6358 (KFRI); Vattapoil. Periya RF, Kannoth Range, Wyand 

Divisioin, 10.7.1982, K.N. Subramanian 8372 (FRI); Kolayad, 

Kannoth Range, Wynad Division, 21.6.1988, K.K.N. Nair 6354 

(KFRI); Kannoth, Malabar, 17.12.1913, C.A. Barber 9471 (MH); 

Thaliparamba 

farm, Malabar, 19.5.1906, C.A. Barber 7731 (MH); 

Thaliparamba farm, Malabar, 15.6.1905, C.A. Barber 7381 (MH); 

Mananthody-Kuthuparamba Road, Wynad Division, 11.2.1983, K.N. 

Subramanian 7852 (FRI); Peria, Cannanore District, 11.11.1978, 

V.S. Ramachandran 58682 (MH); Thariode, Chethalayam Range, 

Calicut Division, 22.6.1988, K.K.N. Nair 6361 (KFRI); Between 

Vythiri and Thamarasseri, Calicut Divislon, 23.6.1988, K.K.N. 

Nair 6360 (KFRI); PP Malavaram Range, Calicut Division, 

23.6.1988, K.K.N. Nair 6364 (KFRI); Kuttiyadi submergible area, 

64

Calicut District, 25.6.1965, B.D. Naithanl 24622 (MH); Edakkara 

Range, Nilambur Division, 10.6.1989, K.K.N. Nair 6505 (KFRI); 

Karulal Range, Nilambur Division, 16.6.1989, ,K.K.N.Nair 6505 

(KFRI); Karuali Range, Nilambur Division, 16.6.1989, K.K.N. 

Nair 

6507 (KFRI); Sides of Parambikularn dam, Karimala Range, 

Parambikulam Division, 17.5.1988, K.K.N.Nair, 6336 (KFRI); - 

Orukomban Range, Parambikulam Division, 19.5.1988, K.K.N. Nair 


K.K.N. Nair 6342 (KFRI); Karimala Range, Parambikulam Dlvision, 

15.5.1988, K.K.N. Nair 6346 (KFRI); Walayar, Palghat Division, 

1.7.1977, K.N. Subramanian 6785 (FRI); Walayar RF, Palghat 

Division , 13.6.1989, K.K.N. Nair 6393 (KFRI); Bhavani river 

bank, Attappady, Palghat Division, 31.5.1966, E.Vajrave?u 27745 

(MH); Karivara slopes, Palghat Division, 2.5.1980, V.J. Nair 

67436 (MH); Mukkali to Panthanthodu, Mannarghat Range, Palghat 

Division, 14.6.1898, K.K.N. Nair 6398 (KFRI); Vattapparai to 

Inchikuzhi, Siruvani western slopes, Palghat Division, 29.5.1979, 

E. Vajrsvelu 62864 (MH); Malampuzha, Palghat, 30.5.1964, E. 

Vsjravelu 20024 (MH); Peechi Range, Trichur Division, 4.5.1988, 

K.K.N. Mair 6327 (KFRI), Sazhani, Machad Range, Trichur Division, 

24.3.1983, K.N. Subramanian 9292 (FRI); Nelliampsthy Range, 

Nemrnara Divisicn, 6.6.1989, K.K.N. Nair 6354 (KFRf); Poringa?, 

Vazhachal Civisicn, 24.3.1988, K.K.N. Nair 6525 (KFRI); 

Kollathirumedu.Range, Vazhachal Division, 24.3.1988, K.K.N. 

Mair 

6318 (KFRI); Adirappi’lly Range, Vszhachal Divisjat.,, 24.3.1988, 

K.k.N. !!air 6321 (KFRI); Kalady Range, Vazhschal r?7vjsion, 

24.3.1988, K.K.P!. Nair 53% (KFRI); Thundathi?, Kodsna:! Range, 

Malayattur Civi:,ix, 7.6.59C9, k:.P,.b!. Plait- 6332 (KFDI); 

Ho:srnkuz!iy, Kalady Range, Malayattoor Divisjon, 12.7.1985, K.8. 

Subramsnian 11157 (FRI); Marayur Rsnge, Munnsr Divis;;on, 

65

18.5.1988, K.tC,.Fi. !!air 5332 (KFRI): Rajakad RF, Munnar Division, 

17.5.1988, K.K.N. Nair- 6330 (KFRI); Puduppadi, Kottayam, 

14.7.1981, Cherian Jacob 1900 (W); Kanakapafsm, Erumefi Range, 

Kcttaysm Civtision, 30.3.1989, K.K.N. ?Jajr 6374 (KFRI); 

Santhanparai, Idukki District, 21.4.1964, K.M. Sebastine 18365 

(MH); Peerumedu to Pambanar, Kcttayam District, 24.5.1965; K. 

Vivekanandan 24312 (MH); Kumily to Thekkady, 28.5.1965, K. 

Vivekanandan 24357 (HH); Way to Mangaladevi, Idukki District, 

27.8.1979, E. Vivekanadan 50554 (MH); Way to Manga adevi , 

Thekkady, 31.3.1989, K.K.N. Nair 6377 (KFRI); Val 

d k ad a v u 

1955 

Euca 1 y pt 

p 1 ant at i :In , T hek kzd y , 14.7 .! 983, I(. N . Sub ramn ! an ’ * 449 

(FRI); Vallakadavu Range, Thekkady, 29.3.1389, K.K.A. Plait- 6370 

(KFRI); Vadasserikara Ranye, Ranni Oivisian, 2‘3.3.1989, K,:~.:l. 

Nair 63?2 (KFRI); Goodricka! Range, Ranni Divisiw, 29.3.1999, 

K.K.N. Nair 6371 (KFRI); Rajampara, Ranni Range, Ranni Divisicn, 

29.3.1989, K.K.N. Nair 6368 (KFRI); Mannar-appara Range, Konni 

C:vision, 29.3.1989, K.K.N. ?Jair 6535 (KFRI); Southern side of 

Kulathupuzha, Thenmala Division, 14.4.1976, K.N. cubraman:an 5974 

(XI); Kalathuruthy river bank, Thenmala Rwge, Thenmala 

Division, 8.3.1975, K.N. SuSramat!ian 5127 (FRI). 

5.2. ECOLOGY 

Ecological information gathered during f ield studies on G. 

tiliifolia from the natural stands of the species in Kerala is 

g i ven below. 

Associations : 

Parent Tree source: 

Xylia - Lagerstroemia 

Medium 

66

Parent tree distribution: 

Biotic interference: 



Occasional 

Partially disturbed 

Sufficient numbers 

Limited 

(31 cm to 1 m in ht.) 

Saplings: 

Rare 

(more than 1 m in ht.) 

Mortality rate: 

Rema rks : 

Med ium 

No specific edaphic condition 

required; found throughtout the State. 



Mature trees growing to a height of about 15 m and a diameter 

of 70 cm are not uncommon. 

However, the stem form is found to be 

generally very poor due to the occurrence of a variety of 

defects . The most common among them are crook, sweep, 

adventitious bud clusters, branch stubs, seam, decay cavities, 

etc. Yet another defect common in certain localities is the 

exposed and damaged sapwood resulting from partial removal of the 

bark. Wood grain is irregular as evident from the external 

appearance of the bark. Length of the nearly straight sawlogs 

available is commonly upto 5 to 6 m. 


Basic density of wood showed a wide range of variation 

3 3 

from 507.0 kg/m to 716.5 kg/m between the different regions 

3 

studied. The average density at breast height was 621.2 kg/m . 

67

Although 

the scuthern region apparently recorded higher density 

values, ANOVA revealed that there is no significant difference 

in density either between 

the regions or between the localities 


G. tiliifolia between different regions and localities 


vari a t ion DF Mean F-value DF Mean F-val ue 

square 

square 

Region 2 3343.912 1.366(ns) 2 69.979 1.196(ns) 

Local ity 2 4240.451 1.732(ns) 2 135.130 2.310(ns) 

Res i dual 21 2448.557 15 58.503 

Tot al 25 2588.729 19 63.278 

ns = 

non significant 

(Table 1). The difference in heartwood percentage between the 

three regions and between the localities was also non-significant 

(Table 1). 

The heartwood percentage was significantly correlated 

with stem diameter (R = 0.8700). 


Growth 

rings are distinct, mainly due t o the thick-walled 

latewood fibres and thin-walled earlywood fibres. 

Vessels mostly solitary as well as in short radial 

multiples 

of 3 t o 4 pores, rarely in small clusters, diffuse porous, but 

with a tendency for semi-ring porous arrangement in some samples, 

68

commonly vessels smaller at the beginning and end of a growth 

ring; vessel elements indistinctly storied; perforation simple 

and pitting alternate, pits minute and narrowly bordered, pits to 

parenchyma and ray cells not distinctly larger; tyloses and 

extractives present in heartwood vessels. 

Parenchyma scanty, paratracheal forming inconspicuous 

sheath 

around 

vessels; diffuse parenchyma also present as fine lines, 

storied; fusiform parenchyma absent; crystals not found, 

parenchyma in the heartwood with small droplets of extractives. 

Rays of two types based on their height; taller rays 3- to 7- 

seriate and not storied whereas shorter ones 1- to 4-seriate and 

storied; the former-uptc 50 or more cells high especially when 

fused vertically; shorter rays uptc 10 to 15 cells high; 

heterogeneous with upright and ‘square cells, tails shorter than 

the body and commonly composed of a single cell; uniseriate 

rays 

composed of procumbent, upright and square cells thus partly 

conforming to heterogeneous type II of Kribs’s classification 

(Barefoot and Hankins, 1982). Ray tissue in some members of 

Tiliaceae belongs to heterogenous type 11 A or B of Kribs’s 

classification according to Metcalfe and Chalk (1950). 

Crystals 

present in some upright and square cells, 

extractives present. 

Fibres non-septate, the wider part of the fibres showing a 

tendency for storied arrangement, thin-walled and thick-walled 

respectively in earlywood and latewood. 

5.3.4. Relationship between ring width and other anatomical 

characters 

The interrelationship between growth ring width and 

proportion of tissues is presented in Table 2. It is seen that 

ring width is negatively correlated with vessel frequency 

69

2 

(number of vessels/mm ), vessel area percentage and proportion of 

parenchyma, and positively correlated with prcportion of fibres 

and rays. Thus, it is evident that with increasing width of 

growth rings there is a decrease in the proportion of vessels 

(void spaces) and parenchyma (soft tissue) in the wood with 

Tsbie 2. Ccrrelation between rina width 2nd other :nstonica! ~zrsneters 

?:, c2. tiiiif0it;s 

!ins Vcssel i‘essei Paren- Fibre X Rays X 

width frequency area X chyma X 

consequent increase in the proportion of fibres and rays. The 

positive correlation between vessel number and vessel ares is 

also signficant suggesting that the increase in vessel area is 

acccmpanled by an increase in their number when the ring width 

decreases. The negative correlation between vessel area and 

proportion of rays i,s also significant. However, there is no 

satisfactory reason for this relationship. The negative 

correlation between proportion of fibres and vessels supports the 

normal expectation that when the void areas increase the 

70

proportion of denser tissues such as fibres, decreases. The 

positive relationship between the parenchyma and vessel area is 

mainly because of the paratracheal (associated with vessels) 

distribution of parenchyma. 



Ripened fruits were collected from Peechi from ground 

during 

May-June. Seed collection coincided with the onset of monsoon 

showers. 

Each f ruit generally had two seeds which were extracted 

by depulping and washing in water. The seeds were then sun- 

dried. 


About 6,600 seeds weighed one kilogram before depulping. 

Sengupta (1937) has reported 19401/kg for freshly pulped seeds 

and 5,29l/kg for seeds with pulp. 

5.4.3. Germination capacity 

Freshly collected seeds registered only 10% germination 

without any pretreatment. Seeds remain viable at least upto 4 

months or possibly much longer (Dent, 1948). 


Freshly collected seeds were sown in raised nursery beds 

during May-June when the intensity of rains decreased. About 10- 

15 kg seeds were required for a standard nursery bed of 

12 m X 1.2 m. Seeds started germinating from the 5th day onwards 

71

and was complete in about 55-60 days. The seedlings can be 

pricked out after a month of sowing. 

Polythene bags of 22.5 cm X 

17.5 cm are required for maintaining the seedlings upto a period 

of 13 months i n the nursery before outplanting. 

Seedlings attain 

an average height of 35 cm by this time (Fig. 7). 



A highest survival of 93% was observed in the pure 

plantations of G. tiliifolia. The seedlings registered high 

survival rate in both the 25% mixed plantations, viz., AGHP (90%) 

and GHPX (88%) (Fig. 6). ANOVA showed no difference between 

the 

pure and mixed plantations of the species with respect to 

survival percentage (Table 3) of the seedlings. 

Table 3. Analysis of variance of survival of seedlings in pure 

and mixed 

plantations of G. tiliifolia 

Source of variation DF MSS F-val ues 

Treatment 

Replication 

Residual 

Total 

2 24.324 1.403(ns) 

2 59.575 3.437(ns) 

4 17.333 

8 



Comparatively maximum height growth was recorded both in 

pure and mixed plantations Grewia. Performance of the species was 

72

etter in mixed plantations than in the pure (Fig. 8). Height 

Table 4. Analysis of variance of height of seedlings in pure 

and 

mixed plantations of G. tiliifolia 

Source of variation DF MSS F-val ue 

Treatment 2 0.054 1.3846(ns) 



Total 8 

--------------------_____^______________------------------------- 


growth of 186 cm and 146 cm was recorded in mixed plantations 

of AGHP and GHPX, respectively (Fig. 9). The seedlings recorded 

a height of 127 cm in pure plantations which was lesser than 

that in the mixtures (Fig. 6). Variation In height growth was, 

however, not statistically significant (Table 4). 


Mean Annual Height Increment also followed a similar 

pattern as height growth (Fig. 6). Faster growth was registered 

by the species in the mixed plantations. MAHI was maximum in 

the 25% mixture of AGHP with 122 cm, and slightly lesser in 

GHPX (101 cm). Pure plantations recorded a MAHI of 81 cm only. 

indicating better performance of the species in mixtures. The 

variation was , however, statistically not significant (Table 5). 

73


5.5.1. Insect pests in the natrual stands 

Although a large number of insects were recorded no major 

build up was noticed in the natural stands of G. tiliifolia in 


The insect activity was high during the months of June- 

October. Leaf webbing by Lygropia orbinusalis, defoliation by 

Hypasidra talaca and Henicolabus octomaculatus were quite 

frequent on saplings. In an earlier study (Nair et al., 1986) the 

latter species was reported to cause over 50% defoliation in some 

trees. About 42 species of insects have been recorded earlier 

from this tree (Browne, 1968; Mathew & Mohanadss 1989). 

Insects 

collected from natural stands of G. tililfolia are listed in 

Table 6. 

74

Table 6. Insect pests in the natural stands of G. tifiifolia 

in Kerala 


L ygrop is orb inusa 7 is Peechi Leaf webbing 

(Lepidoptera, Pyrzustidae) 

?Tadsxs sp. Parambikulam, Oefoliation 

(Lepidoptera, Noctuidae) 

Vszhacha l 

Anomis fig? ina Vazhachal Leaf feeding 

(tepidoptera, Noctuidae) 

Symiths no7a 7e 77a Wlk. Vazhachal Leaf feeding 

(Lepidoptera, Noctuidae) 

Unldentified Noctuidae \J a z h a c ha 1 Skeletonizing 

(Lepidoptera) 

Hyposidrs ta7acs Wlk. Peech i Leaf feeding 

(Lepidoptera, Gemetridae) 

Unidentified Sphingidae Munnar Defcliation 

(Lepidoptera) 

My? locerus sp. 

(Coleoptera, Curculionidse) 

Seve r a l 

p 1 aces 

Hen ico labus octmscu 7etus Tek. Peechi , 

(Coleoptera, Curculionidae) 

Ni lambur 

Pseudoc Iytrs p7sgista (97 iver) Vazhachal 

(Coleoptera, Chrysomelidse, 

Cl ythr i nae) 

Unidentified gall insect Ni lambur, Leaf galls 

Peechi 

Leaf feeding 

Leaf feeding 

Leaf feeding 

75


Defoliation, leaf rolling and gall formation are the three 

important types of damage noticed in trial plantations. 

Defoliation by an unidentified caterpillar was the most serious 

problem, both in pure as well as mixed plantings. About 89% 

plants in the pure and 62.5% plants in the APHG mixture showed 

damage by the insect (Table 7). 

Table 7. Percent incidence of defolisto: in the tr?a\ plantat?ons of G.tiliIfolia 

in pure and mixed 

t 

Combinations with ?r$e species Percent infestation during 

5, tilijfolra A P X H G Hsr Apr Yay Jun Ju? 

G 0.00 0.00 4.00 0.00 1.00 87.50 50.00 82.91 99.06 99.06 

APHG 0.25 0.25 0.00 0.25 0.25 62.50 52.50 93.75 87.50 62-50 

PXHG 0.00 0.25 0.25 9.25 0.25 37.50 55.?5 0.00 56.25 37.50L 

3 

t Figures given in the last column ~ r significant e st 5% pr~S3blJity le!lel 

The incidence of this insects in the mixture PXHG was low 

(37.5%). Leaf rolling by the caterpillars of L. orbinusalis was 

noticed on 21.8% seedlings in the pure stands. In mixtures it 

was 37.5%, and 31.25% in the combination PXHG and APHG. The 

proportion of infestation was found to be significant in all the 

combinations. The intensity of attack was however low. 

Gall formation by an unidentified psyllid was noticed on 

about 37% of seedling both in the pure as well as mlxed 

76

plantings. The galls were of the pouch type, developed on the 

leaf stalk as well as on major veins of tender foliage leading to 

distortion and drying up of leaves. The intensity of infestation 

was moderate. 

The lepidopteran pests particularly the unidentified 

defoliator are considered as a potential pests of this tree in 

t ri a1 plantations. 


No serious pest problem was noticed in the nursery of G. 

tiliifolia except for mild leaf webbing by Archips 

sp.(tepidoptera, Tortricidae) and sporadic mild defoliation by 

Myllocerus sp. (Coleoptera, Curculionidae). Both the insects are 

considered to be minor pests in the nursery. The incidence by 

these insects was noticed in May-August. 


Seeds of G. toliifolia were almost free from any major pest 

attack, as evidenced by the study. 



5.6.1.1. Incubation test 

Seeds of G. tiliifolia harboured nine pathogens as shown by 

the standard blotter test (Table 8). The RPI of A. flavus was 

the highest (60.5%) followed by A. niger (50%), A. ochraceous 

(30%), A. candidus (25%) and Rhizopus sp.(25%). Fusarium 

77

moni I ifcrme, F. semitectum and Botrycdip?odia thecbrcmse had RPI 

of 5% each. No bacterial ooze was detected from the seeds. 

Compared to other indigenous tree species tested, seeds of 

G.ti?iifc?is harboured more storage fungi, viz. Aspergilfus 

sp. 

and Rhizcpus sp. and these fungi caused seed rotting and 

germination was seriously affected. IR addition to these 

common 

storage fungi, 

spermoplane microflora comprised of some potential 

pathogens, which are also known to be seed-borne in various crops 

(Neergaard, 1977). F. mcnilifornte, a pathogen, has a wide range 

of hosts and cause seedling blight, stunting and fcot rot (Bootb, 

1971). Seed mortality due to this fungus is ccmmon in G. 

tfliifclia 3s it invades the seed tissue. 8. theobnme is kncwn 

for 

causing discoloration of seeds in other crops. 

5.5.1.2. Effect of fungicides on seed microflora 

Results of the effect of fungicides on elimination of seed 

microflora is presented in Table 9. Msncozeb and MEMC were the 

best 

among them followed by carbendazim and carboxin. In seeds, 

treated with carboxin, Rhizcpus sp. could not be inhibited, 

whereas in the case of carbendazim treated seeds, surprisingly, 

F. muniliforme was observed. 

In a warm and humid State like Kerala, the rich seed 

microflora could be due to high humidity and temperature which 

contribute to the growth of several saprophytic and potential 

pathogenic organisms. This can be avoided by storing seeds 

under 

proper 

storage conditions. In the absence of effective storage 

procedures for forest seeds, it would be worth to treat them with 

the effective seed dressers and store them till they are sown. 

Seeds of G. ti?iifu!ia can be stored upto 90 days dressed with 

either mancozeb (3g/kg) or MEMC (2g/kg). 

78

Table 8. 

Spermoplane microorganisms and their relative percent 

incidence on the seeds of G. 

tiliifolitl 


recorded 


incidence(RP1) 

Aspergillus csndidus 

A. flaws 

A. niger 

A. ochrsceous 

A. vers ico lor 

Bo t r yod i p 7 od i a t heobromse 

F. mon i 7 i forme 

F. sem i t ec t um 

Rhizopus sp. 

25.0 

60.5 

50.0 

30.0 

10.0 

5.0 

5.0 

5.0 

25.0 


In the nurseries of G. tiliifo7fa no seedling disease 

was 

recorded. 


5.6.3.1. Leaf spot 

Leaf spot is widespread in G. tiliifolia throughout the 

State. Usually the leaf spots were seen during South-West monsoon 

period and continued till December. Approximately 25-30% of the 

79

T3b)e 9. Effect of fungicides an seed rnicrof1m af S. trliifolia 3ne dsy and 

90 hays sfter trestsent 

Microorganlsas !PI in vsrious treatrents 

recorded 

cantrol carbendsz ifl HEHC carboxin sancozeh 

0 90 0 90 0 90 0 40 0 90 

A. csndidus 

A. flavus 

A, niger 

A. cchraceccs 

A. versicclar 

8. theobromae 

F. miliforre 

F. seaitectua 

Rhizcpus sp. 

leaves were affected with various degrees of infection. In severe 

cases defoliation was observed. Water soaked lesion of 2-3 

mm 

diameter appeared scattered on the leaves, which sometimes 

coalesed to form larger blighted areas (Fig. 10). Leaves of all 

age groups were affected and Co 7 letotr ichum g lcecspor io ides 

(Penr . ) Penr . & Sacc. anamorph of G lmere ? ?a c ingu 7ata (Stonem) 

Spauld & Schrenk. (IMI No. 325766) was identified as the causal 

agent . 

80

5.6.3.2. Phanerogamic parasite (mistletoe) 

Mistletoe infection is very common in 6. t777ifu7fs 

throughout the State. Out of the three mistletoes recorded, 

Scurru7a parasftics was observed in all the areas, while the 

other two, viz. Viscum nepalense and Dendropthoe falcata were 

seen in lesser proportions. On an average, 3-5 clumps were seen 

in one affected tree. Interestingly, in a few cases, all the 

three mistletoes were seen infecting the same tree. In case 

of 

severe infection, branch mortality was noticed. During the course 

of the investigation mistletoe infection was noticed in all the 

forest circles surveyed. Out of the three mlstletoe species 

recorded, S. parasitica was the most common species and was 

observed in all Grewia growing localities. In some cases, 10-18 

clumps were seen affecting a single tree and causing at times, 

branch mortality. 

In nursery, there is no disease observed, but in natural 

stands, a few diseases causing leaf spot, stump rot and 

occurrence of three types of mistletoe causing branch die back 

were observed. Gallsmut of stem aid petiole 

caused by Peric?ad?urn 

ti7iacearun: (Thirumalachar, 1950), leafspots caused by 

Phyl 7ost icta grewise (Sohi and Prakash 1969), 

P. seag%:’k i i (da 

Costa and Hundukur, 1949) and Septoria grewiae (Sukapure and 

Thirurnalachar, 1959) were the other diseases reported from G. 

ti 7 f ifc? ia India. Stump rot caused by Ganaderm app lantstun! was 

recorded as early as 1874 by Currey followed by reports by 

Lloyd 

(1918 -1925) and Bose (1979-1928). But during the course of the 

investigation, Phe77inus sp. was found to be the causative 

organism of stumprot from various parts of Kerala. 

81

Mistletoe 

infection was observed to be a serious problem in 

almost all areas surveyed. Especially in Central part of the 

State Sccrulla parasitica was found causing branch die back in 

serious cases. 

82

6.HALDINA CORDIFOLIA 

(Manja-kadambu) 

6.1. BOTANY 


Ha7dfna cordifolia (Roxb.) Ridsd. Blumea 24 (2): 361. 1978; 

Ramach. et Nair, Fl. Cannanore 215. 1978. 

Nsuclea cordifo7is Roxb. Corm. PI. 1:40. t. 53.1795; Roxb. Fl. 

Indica ed. 2. 1:514.1832; Wt. et Arn. Prodr. Fl. Penin. Indiae 

Orient. 391. 1834; Bedd. F1. Sylvat. 1: t. 33.1879. 

Adins cordifolis Hook. f. (Benth. et Hook. f. Gen. P1. 2:31. 

1873) ex Brandis, For. Fl. N.W. & C. India 263. 1874; Hook. f. 

Fl. Brit. India 3:24. 1880; Havil. J. Linn. SOC. Bot. 33: 47. 

1897; Gamble, Man. Indim Timb. ed. 2, 1902, repr.ed. 401. 

1512; Gages, Rec. bot. Surv. India 3: 65. 1904; Brandis, Indian 

Trees 368. 1906; Bourd. For. Trees Travancore 212. 1908; Rama 

Rao, F1. P1. Tranvcore 201. 1914; Gamble, F1. Presld. Madras 2: 

584. 1921; Cox, Xnd. For. Dept. For. Bull. 42: 1-23. 1921; 

Blatter, J . Bombzy nat. Hist. SOC. 36: 781. 1933; Gandhi in 

Saldanha et Nichol. (eds.) F1. Hsssan Distr. Karnataks 572. 

1976. 

Nsuclea stercu7isefo7ia A. Rich. Mem. Fam. Rub. 209. 1830 & 

Mem. SOC. Hist. nst. Paris 5: 289. 1834. 

Type : Roxburgh s.n. (Herb. Smith 316/5, 

LINN). 


Manja-kadambu, Katamps, Veembu, Beembu. 

83


Deciduous trees, 10-20 m high; trunk often buttressed, flutted, 

rough, flaking; bark thick, grey, rough, reddish brcwn, scalloped 

externally; inner bark wine-cloured to brown; branchlets 

glabrous, often terete with conspicuous petiolsr scars, 

horizontal at seedling stage; branching strongly sympodial; 

stipules reddish, 0.5 - 1.8 x 0.4 - 0.8 cm, oblong, strongly 

keeled, pubescent, upto 1.5 cm long, cauducous. Leaves simple, 

peticlate, opposite, distichous;. petioles 1.4 - 16 cm ong, 

reddish, densly pubescent; lamina 5.5 - 23.5 x 4.5 - 25 cm, 

obovate, very obovate, broadly elliptic, transversely ellipt c or 

rarely tranversly broadly ovate or ovate, entire or rarely with 

undulate margins, subcoriaceaous, sparsely hairy above, densely 

pubsecent beneath, drying chocolate-brown or pattid to yellowish 

green, acuminate, acute or rarely cuspidate at apex, cordate, 

subcordate or rarely truncate at base. Inflorescence yellowish, 

solitary or in panicles of peduncled heads, 0.5 cm 

- 0.3 cm in 

diameter across calyces; floral bracts upto 0.3 cm long, 

paleaceous. Flowers creamy-white with slightly rose-coloured 

petals or brownish with a rose or red tinge; calyx 5-angled, 5- 

lobed, 0.4 - 0.8 cm long; corolla 0.7 - 0.8 cm long, 

sympetalous, funnel-shaped at apex, glabrous, valvate; corolla 

lobes 0.1 - 0.3 cm long, ovate or oblong, densely fine-hairy 

outside, almost papillose inside the tube; stamens 5, epipetalous 

at the mouth of the corolla tube; filaments short; anthers 0.1 - 

0.2 cm long, oblong; pistil 0.4 - 0.7 cm long; ovary 2-loculed; 

ovules numerous on a pendulous placenta in each locule; style 

0.3 - 0.6 cm long, filiform, exserted; stigma ovoid to 

subglobose, clavste or capltate. Fruiting heads 0.8 -1.5 cm 

84

across, globose, with a cluster or capsules, each seperating into 

two folicular cocci; seeds with winged testa, tailed above, 

oblong, ovoid or trlcornuate, bilatesrally flattened, with two 

claw-like short prcjections at the apex; albumen fleshy; 

cotyledons flat; radicle superior, cylindric (Figs. 1 & 2). 


Trees with dense crown, few branches and almost clean trunk, 

common in the deciduous forests of Kerala, often as isolated 

stands. 


Flowering form April to September, maximum in June; fruiting 

from October to January, sometimes extending to Apri 1, but 

maximum during October, November and December (Fig. 3). 


India, Sri Lanka, eastwards to South China and Vietnam and 

southwards t o Peninsular Thailand (Surat Thani). 


Trivandrum, Thenmala, Ranni, Kottayam, Kothamangalam, 

Malayattoor, Trichur, Chalakudy, Vazhachal, Nemmara, Palghat, 

Calicut, Milambur, Wynad, Thekkady, Idukki and Parambikulam 

Forest Divisions; not recorded from Munnar Division during the 

present study (Fig. 4). 

6.1.8. Notes 

Haldina is a monotypic genus recently circumscribed by 

Ridsdsle (l.c.) to include that part of Adina Slaisb. (sensu

lato) with the terminal vegetative bud pyramidal to conical in 

shape, stipules deltoid to narrowly triangular or oblong, 

sometimes narrsowly nouched at the apex, inflorescence with 

numerous flowering heads, generally over 7, and ovules 4 to 12 in 

each locule of the ovary. In the case of Adina (sensu stricto) 

the terminal vegetatlve bud is ill-defined and loosely surrounded 

by the stipules, the stipules deeply bifid for over two-third of 

their length and flowering heads solitary, rarely upto 7, 

arranged like a simple thyrse; ovules upto 4 per locule. 


Data on leaf variation from 22 samples collected from 

different locations in the State were used for the statistical 

analysis. Altogether, 24 characters were recorded from the 22 

specimens. Quantitative characters were divlded into class 

Intervals; 5.50 to 11.33 cm (short) 11.33 to 17.16 cm (medium 

long) and 17.16 to 23.00 (very long) for leaf length; 4.5 to 11.3 

(narrow), 1.33 to 18.6 cm (medium broad) and 18.16 to 25 cm (very 

broad) for leaf breadth; 1.40 to 6.26 cm (short), 6.26 to 11.13 

cm (medium long) and 11.3 to 16.00 cm (very long) for petiole 

length. From the cluster analysis among characters (Fig. 5.1), 

it was observed that leaves with medium length, medium breadth 

and medium long petioles are mostly broadly ovate in shape. 

Similarily, leaves which are short and narrow with minimum 

petiole length are entire, acuminate at apex and cordate or 

subcordate at base. Further, long-petioled leaves are broadly 

obovate In shape. OTUs with very long, very broad leaves, very 

broadly - ovate leaves, transversely broadly ovate leaves, 

transversely elllptic ovate leaves, broadly elliptic and very . 

broadly obovste leaves, and those leaves with undulate marigns,

Coeffiaient of 8imilarity (rescaledl 

entire 

acuminate apex 

cordate base 

short petiole 

subcordate base 

short leaf 

narrow leaf 

transversly broadly elliptic 

very broadly ovate leaf 


Medium broad leaf 

medium long petiole 

broadly ovate leaf 


very broad leaf 

very broadly obovate leaf 

broadly elliptic leaf 

undulate margin 

ovate leaf 

cuspidate apex 

truncate base 

transversly broadly ovate 

very long petiole 

broadly obovate 

18 

20 

22 

9 

23 

3 

6 

13 

11 

2 

5 

8 

10 

1 

4 

16 

15 

19 

14 

21 

24 

12 

7 

17 

Fig. 5.1 Phenogram based on coefficient of Jaccard . 

of leaf characters of H. oordifolia from 



Palappilly 

Peechi 

Konni 

Walayar 

Dhoni 

Achenkovil 

Mukkal i 

Vellikulangara 

Tho1 petty 

ThenmalI a 

Mannarappara 

Par iyaram 

Vazhan i 

PP Malavaram 

Kodanad 

C hun gam 

Karulai 

Kannoth 

Tho I petty 

Nel1 iampathy 

Sultan’s Battery 

Charpa 

15 

18 

13 

4 

3 

16 

2 

20 

11 

17 

14 

19 

7 

8 

5 

12 

1 

10 

22 

6 

9 

21 


of specimens of H. cordifolia from 


cuspldate apex and truncate base does not form part of any 

cluster. 

Resemblence by at least 50% characters among specimens from 

different parts of the State by the cluster diagram (Fig. 5.2) is 

as follows: 

i. Specimens from Karulai, Kondanad, Nelliampathy, Sultan’s 

Battery, 

Kannoth, Chungsm and Tholpetty. 

ii. Mukkali, Tholpetty and Velikullangars. 

iii.Dhoni, Walayar, Konni, Palappily, Achenkovil and 

Peechi 

iv. Vazhani, Mannarappara and Pariyaram. 

v. Specimens from PP Malavaram, Thenmala and Charpa ranges do 

not form part of any cluster, ie. they form isolated 

populations with regard to the characters considered. 

With regard to the size of leaves, those with least length 

(5.5 cm), least breadth (4.5 cm) and least petiole length (1.4 

cm) were recorded from Vazhani Range of Trichur Forest Division 

and leaves with maximum length (23 cm) and maximum breadth (25 

cm) were those from PP Malavaran Range in Kozhikode Division. 

In 

the case of petiole length, it was Thenmala collections which 

were having a maximum (16 cm) value. 


Cannanore, Parappa, 4.7. 1980, R. Aansari 67974 (ME); 

Tha?iparamba farm Cannanore, 17.2.1913, C.A. Barber 8773 (MH); 

Thaliparamba, Malabar, 19.5.1906, C.A. Barber 7744 (MH); Kannoth, 

Malabar District, 25.19.1913, C.A. Barber 9414 (MH); Sultan’s 

eattery Range, Wynad Division, 23.6.1988, K.K.N. Nair 6349 

(KFRI); Karulai Range, Nilambur Division, 16.6.1989, K.K.N. Nair 

87


K.K.N. Nair 6344 (KFRI); Walayar, Palghat Division, Sept. 1936, 

C.C. Monnappa 5.n. (FRI); Palghat, 17.11.1976, J. Joseph 17048 

(MH); Walaysr RF, Palghat Division, 13.6. 1989, K.K.N. Nair 6399 

(KFRI); Palghat, 1870, Major R.H. Beddcme s.n. (MH); near 

Wadakkancherry, Trichur District, 9.9.1976, K. Ramamurthy 48425 

(MH); Vazhani dam catchment, Trichur Division, 11.4.1989, 

K.K.N. 

Nair 6381 (KFRI); KFRI Campus, Peechi Range, Trichur Divislon, 

12.11.1987, K.K.N. Nair 6301 (KFRI); Nellismpathy Range, Nemmara 

Division, 6.6.1989, K.K.N. Nair 6388 (KFRI); Chalakudy-Mala 

rcute, Chalakudy Division, 10.2.1984, K. Ramamurthy 8048 (MH); 

Palappilly, Chalskudy Division, 23.3.1988, K.K.N. Nair 6312 

(KFRI); Athirappilly Range, Varhachal Division, 17.8.90, K.K.N. 

Nair 6528 (KFRI); Thundathil, Kodanad Range, Malayattoor 

Division, 7.6.1989, K.K.N. Nair 6391 (KFRI); Idukki, lower camp 

to Kumily, 26.12.1974, K. Vivekanantan 45718 (MH); Manalar, 

Achenkovil Range, Thenmala Division, 30.12.1987, K.K.N. Nair 6307 

(KFRI); Villumala, Thenmala Division, 2.6.1964, K.N. Subramanian 

1543 (FRI); Villumala, Thenmala Divisioin, 6.6.1964, K.N. 

Subramanian 5922 (FRI); Kallada, Thenmala Division, 22.4.1976, 

K.N.Subramanian 5922 (FRI); Katlappara, Thenmala Division, 

29.12.1987, K.K.N. Nair 6306 (KFRI); Perumalal, Konni RF, Konni 

Division, 

18.11.1' 

76, M. Chandrabose 49114 (MH); Mannarappara, 

Konni Range, Konni 

Thavalappara, Konn 

Division, 23.4.1988, K.K.M. Nair 6322 (KFRI); 

Range, Konni Division, 23.4.1988, K.K.N. Nair 

6324 (KFRI).

6.2. ECOLOGY 

Details on regeneration status and species association of H. 

cordifolia in the natural forests of the State is as follows. 

Associations: 

Parent tree source: 


B i ot i c i nte rf e rence : 


Grewia - Dellenia 

Med i um 

Occasional 


Three 




Sufficent 

Limited 

(31 cm to 1 m ht.) 

Sap1 ings: 


Mortality rate: 

Rare 

High 

, 


6.3.1. 

Bole characteristics 

Mature ,rees 

of H. cordifo7ia grow t o a height of 15 to 20 m 

and a diameter of over a metre. The length of clear straight 

bole may be upto 20 m or more as fcund in certain localities like 

Parambikulam and at Bavali in Wyanad. The stem log is almost 

cylindrical (Fig. 7). However, very old trees possess irregular 

89

fluting and buttresses, Other defects with the stem log are 

occasional forking at a lower height level and butt rot. 


The wood is found to be uniformly fine textured and straight 

3 

grained. The basic density ranged between 503.0 kg/m and 663.5 

3 3 

kg/m . Average density at breast height level was 596.7 kg/m . 

Samples collected from Central Kerala showed slightly higher 

density than rest of the regions but there was no significant 

difference in density between the various regions and 

localities 

as indicated by the analysis of vsrlance (Table 1). The 

estimation and comparison of heartwood proportion was not 

possible in this species since it was not readily distinguishable 

from sapwood. 

Table 1. 

ANOVA of basic density of H. cordifoJI8 wood from 

different regions and localities in Kerala 

Source of DF Mean 

variati on Square F-val ue 

Region 2 

Local ity 2 

Residual 18 

Total 22 

2072.628 1.497 (ns) 

751.269 0.543 (ns) 

1384.416 

1391.913 


90


Growth rings are indistinct in the wood of this species but 

they can be approximately demarcated in sections from vessel size 

and 

distribution. 

Vessels small and angular in outline, although short and long 

radial multiples present 

solitary vessels more common, pore 

clusters 

rarely present; 

perforation simple; pits minute and 

alternate, 

pits leading 

to parenchyma 

distributed In small 

groups; tyloses and extractives not found in the vessel lumen. 

Parenchyma scanty and not very distinct in cross section, 

diffuse in aggregates and non-storied; crystals not found but 

yellow coloured, particulate extractives present; pits having 

na r row bo rde r . 

Rays 1- to 2- 

seriate, rarely upto 3-seriate, commonly 10 to 

35 cells high, heterogeneous with tails longer thsn the body; 

thus conforming to heterogenous type I of Kribs’s 

classification 

(Barefoot and Hankins, 1982); the multiseriate portion of rays 

not much wider than uniseriate part; some rays vertically fused; 

crystals absent but particulate extractives present in ray cells. 

Fibres non-septate and thin-walled; pits narrowly 

bordered; 

with no appreciable difference between earlywood and latewood 

fibres in wall thickness. 



Seeding occurs almost annually and seeds should be 

collected from the trees when ripe. The seeds are minute snd 

often by mistake heads which have already shed their seeds 

are 

collected (FRI, 1985). The period of ripening of seeds varies 

91

depending upon the locality. The best time for collection of 

seeds is February in West Bengal, February to May in Uttar 

Pradesh and December to March i n Maharashtra (Troup, 1983). 

The 

maturity of fruits has to be carefully observed. 

When the heads 

become 

ripe they turn yellowish black in colour and the carpels 

become flesh red. Ripe fruits (Fig. 8) were collected from 

Nilambur during February. 

The heads were then put in cloth bags 

and sun dried for a few days. The fruits opened and the seeds 

escaped when the branches were tapped with a stick. The seeds 

were then cleaned by winnowing. Though other methods for 

extraction of seeds are also practised (FRI, 1985) they are not 

simple and efficient. 


About 10,000,000 seeds weighed one kilogram and it almost 

agreed with the reported figure of 10,765,624 - 11,287,678 

seeds 

per kg (Senguptha, 1937). 


Germinability of H. cordifolia seeds i s highly variable. 

Seeds in the present study gave a germination of 54-97%. 

Sengupta (1937) has reported 90% germination for seeds from 

West 

Bengal. Seeds stored for a short duration is reported to have 

improved germinability (FRI, 1985). Tests at Dehrs Dun have 

indicated that the seeds could be stored for about an year in 

sealed tins or gunny bags. 

Dent (1948) recommends that the seeds 

of H. cordifolia could be kept for the next season, but not 

1 onger . 

92


As the seeds are minute, for best results, they were sown 

in 

germination trays filled with forest soil free from debris of 

roots, stones and clods. About 10 gm of seeds were sown in a 

tray of 50 cm X 50 cm, during February. Seeds germinated In 

about 5-15 days and germination was complete by about 30 days. 

Seedlings were pricked out into polythene bags (22.5 cm X 17.5 cm 

size) filled with fertile soil. The seedlings attained about 15 

cm height in about 16 months (Fig. 9) when they were out 

planted 

in the field by June-July. 



Seedlings of H. cordifolia registered maximum survival of 70% 

and moderately good height growth in the pilot plantations of 

1988. In the 1989 trials, performance of the seedlings was 

better in mixed plantations than in pure, unlike G. tiliifolia 

where the reverse was the trend (Figs. 10 & 11). Mean survival 

T reatment 

Replication 

Residual 

Total 

5 111.794 1.6618(ns) 

2 388.753 5.7787 ** 

10 67.274 

17 

ns = not significant; ** P = 0.01 

93

values in 50% and 25% mixed plantations of HP, HX and AHGP, 

GHPX 

showed only minor variations. Maximum survival was 95% in HP 

followed by 94% i n AGHP, 

92% i n HX and 90% i n GHPX . Performance 

of the species in its pure plantation was better (79%) than in 

50% mixture of AH (77%) (Fig. 6). The variation in survival 

percentage was not statistically significant (Table 2). 


The mean values of height showed only minor variations in 

pure and mixed plantations. 

However, the seedlings showed better 

height growth in pure plantations. 

Even though maximum height of 

104 cm was observed i n a 50% mixture of HX, pure plantations of 

Table 3. Analysis of variance of height growth in seedlings of 

pure and mixed plantations of H. cordifolia 

Source of variation DF MSS F-val ue 

Treatment 

Replication 

Res idual 

Total 

5 0.013 0.4333(ns) 

2 0.121 4.0333(ns) 

10 0.030 

17 


the species recorded 102 cm average height. A 25% mixture of 

GHPX 

registered 98 cm height followed by a 50% mixture of AH 

reaching a height of 93 cm. Minimum height of 92 cm was observed 

in two combinations of 25% and 50% mixtures. The combinations 

were AGHP and HP respectively (Fig. 6). Analysis of variance 

94

showed no significant difference between the treatments (Table 

3). 


MAHI was maximum in pure plantations of H. cordifolia 

reaching 69 cm. The species performed better in two other 

combinations. When 66 cm height increment was observed in a 50% 

mixture of HX, 65 cm increment was observed in the 25% mixture of 

GHPX. 

The species registered 57 cm increment in AGHP 

combination, 55 cm in HP mixture and 54 cm in AH mixed 

plantations (Fig. 6). 

Statistical analysis showed no significant 

Table 4. Analysis of variance of mean annual height increment 

in seedlings of pure and mixed plantations 

of H. 

cordifolia 

differences between the mean annual height increment of the 

species in pure and mixed plantation (fable 4). 

95



H. cordifolia trees in the natural stands seldom showed any 

major damage by insects although occasionally, leaf rolling (by 

Parotis vertumna?is) and leaf feeding !by an unidentified beetle) 

were noticed at severs? places in Kerala (Table 5). Of them, 

vertumna ? is caused over 50% damage to fo 1 I age by folding the 

leaves and feedi:?g fr-cm within. lisaally only a sing e larva 'kas 

present per leaf,

Table 

6. Percent incidence of defoliator in trial plantations of H. cordifolia 

Conbinstions with Tree species Percent i nf estat 1 gn 

H. cordifolia A P X H G Mar Apr Msy Jun Jul t 

H ' 0.00 0,OO 0.00 1,OO 0.00 3.21 0.00 34.3'1 60.62 95.3Isrb 

Pn 0.00 0.50 0.00 0,50 0.00 6.25 0.00 53.12 81.25 96.87 b 

AH 0.50 0.00 0.00 0.50 0.00 3.12 3.12 0.00 84.37 96.~1' 

In 0.00 o,oo 0.50 0.50 0.00 9.37 0.00 84.37 93.75 96.87 b 

b 

PXHG 0.00 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 6.25 50.00 0.00 75.00 93.75 

d 

APHG 0.25 0.25 0.00 0.25 0.25 12.50 0.00 37.50 93.75 100.00 

* figures superscribed by the sane letter under the last colunn 

are not significantly different at 

5X probability level, 

during July, 1990. In the 50% mixtures ( XH and AH), 

about 97% of 

the seedlings were seen attacked. In the 25%, mixtures of APHG 

(100%) and HPXG (93.75%), the incidence was very high. The 

intensity of attack however was very low in all the combinations. 

No instance cf defoliation by the Haldina defoliator E. 

quadricandata was noticed in the trial plantings during the 

period of study. 


No pest problem was noticed in the nursery during the period 

of study. 

97


Seeds of the species was almost free from any attack by 

pests, even in stored conditions. 




Compared 

to other indigenous species included in the study, 

seeds of H. cordifolia 

harboured fewer microflora with very less 

relative percent incidence (Table 7), the maximum being only 4% 

caused by A.flavus, followed by Rhizopus sp. (3%) and Fusarium 

sp. and Curvularia sp. with a RPI of 2% each. Storage fungi, viz. 

Aspergillus and Rhizopus were less frequently observed, the 

reason may be the smaller size of the seed. The germination 

percentage is also very high and no seed rotting was observed due 

to any of the seed microflora. 

Table 7. 

Relative percent incidence of microflora on the 

seeds of H. cordifolia 

Mi croorganisms 

Relative percent incidence 

Curvularia sp. 2.0 

Fusarium sp. 2.0 

Aspergillus flavus 4.0 

Rhizopus sp. 3.0 

Penicillium sp. 

1 .0 

98

6.6.1.2. Effect of fungicides on seed borne fungi 

Carbendazim was the most effective fungicide in controlling 

the spermoplane microflora of H. coridifolia, followed by 

mancozeb and carboxin (Table 8). Eventhough MEMC treated seeds 

showed the growth of three fungi compared to five from untreated 

seeds, their RPI was very low (0.5%). 

Table 8. Effect of fungicides on seed microflora of H, cordifolia, 

one and ninety days sfter treatment 

Hi cr ocrgani SDIS 

recorde:! 

RPI in various treataents 

Contrcl carbendszin H€HC carboxin nsncczeb 

0 90 0 90 0 90 0 90 0 90 

dspergi I lus f lsvus 4.0 6.0 - - 0.5 - 0 1.0 - - 

Curvularia sp. 2.0 2.0 - - - - - - 0.5 - 

Fusu ium 2.0 2.0 - - - - 3.0 3.0 - - 

- - 

Penicilliuar sp. 1.0 2.0 - - 0.5 - - - 

Rh tzopus 3.0 4.0 - - 0,5 - - - I.0 1.0 


Leaf spot which is common in nurseries and natural stands of 

the species is dealt with under the item 6.6.3. 

6.6.2.1. Damping-off 

Damping-off of H. cordifolia seedlings was observed in the 

nursery at Peechi (Trichur Forest Division). The disease was 

99

observed within two weeks of the germinatlon of seeds, when the 

first pair of leaves start emerging and caused ca. 30-40% 

mortality of seedlings. The disease appeared in the form of 

irregular patches (Fig. 12) and the patches get enlarged 

rapidly 

from periphery, affecting the nelghbouring healthy seedlings 

under high soil moisture. Water soaked lesions appeared on the 

hypocotyl near the ground level. These lesions turned brown in 

color and the affected portion got shrunken resulting in a 

prominent ccnstricticn causing the seedlings to fall on the 

ground. 

The causal srganism has been identified as Pythium sp. 

This disease occur during warm weather under high soil moisture 

and dark shade. At Peechi, the damping-off pathogen was prevalent 

during May and once the seedlings were grown-up 

and sturdy, 

the 

disease was on the decline. As soon as the disease was noticed, 

watering of beds was reduced, and this minimised the 

incidence 

and spread of the pathogen. Thatching, if dense, should be 

reduced t o allow sunlight to reach the nursery bed. 

As the dlsease caused high mortality of seedlings, 

attempts 

were made for its chemical control. Out of the ten fungicides 

tested by poison food technique, only MEMC (6% Hg) was effective 

in all concentrations, viz. 0.006, 0.012 and 0.025% a.i. 

tested. 

However, TMTD, captafol, copper oxychloride and captsn were 

effective at higher concentrations of 0.2 and 0.1% a.i. 

Nursery 

trials using MEMC, copper oxychloride, TMTD and captafol 

indicated that damping-off can be effectively controlled by 

application of 0.012%(a.i.) 

of MEMC given as a soil drench at the 

rate of 25-30 litres of solution per standard bed. Another 

soil 

drench, if necessary, may be applied after 15-20 days, if the 

disease reappears. 

100

Pythium sp. is a common damping-off pathogen capable of 

causing large scale mortality of young seedlings under favourable 

conditions. Post emergence damping-off probably is the one and 

the most serious nursery disease. Damping-off of eucalypt 

seedlings reported to be caused by a number of pathogens, viz. R. 

solani, species of Cy7 indrocladium, Pythium and Fusarium. 

Although two species of Pythium, ie. P. de7iense and P. 

myriotylum were found to be associated with damping-off of 

eucalypts, their occurrence was uncommon. However, the disease 

was controlled by soil drenches with csrbendazim (0.1% a.i.) 

and 

MEHC (0.0125% a.i.) (Sharma et a]., 1984). Damping-off of 

A i Janthus tr iphysa seedli ngs caused by Pyth iun: sp. was observed 

at Peechi (Trichur Forest Divsion) and Thirunelli (Wynad Forest 

Division) causing 50-60% mortality and was effectively controlled 

by two soil drenches of msncozeb (0.05% and 0.02% a.i.) applied 

at weekly intervals (Sharma et sl., 1984). But carbendazim, 

mancozeb or ziram were not effective against the damping-off 

pathogen of H. cordifulia. Only MEMC (0.0125% a.i.) was 

effective in controlling the disease , which is a new disease 

record. 


6.6.3.1 Leaf spot 

Leaf spot is wide spread in H. cordifulie throughout the 

State. Usually the disease starts as small pink colored spots 

on 

the leaf blade. The spots rapidly enlarge in size and mature 

spots get surrounded by a peripheral zone of buff pink colour. 

Coalescence of spots are very rarely seen. In severely infected 

leaves, 

the spot covers a major portion of the lamina, with one 

101

or two larger spots. Leaves of all age groups were affected. 

Phoma sp. (IMI. No. 328627) was identified as the causal 

organism (Fig. 13). 

Chandra and Tandon (1965) reported the occurrence of a leaf 

spot caused by Phyllosticta hsldusns from Allahabad. The report 

from CAB IHI stated that this particular species of Phums is 

similar to P. hs7udsna as described by Chandra and Tandon (1965). 

102

7.LAGERSTROEMIA 

MICROCARPA 

(Venthekku) 

7.1. BOTANY 


Lagerstroemia microcarpa Wt. Xc. P1. Indiae Orient. t. 109. 1839; 

Bedd. Fl. Sylvat. t. 30. 1869; Nair et Henry (eds.) F1. 

Tamilnadu 1: 165. 1983; Ramach. et Nair, F1. Cannanore 192. 

1988. 

Lagesrstroemis lanceo7ata Wall. (Cst. No. 2120. 1828 non?. nud. 1 

ex Clarke in Hook. f. F1. Brit. India 2: 576. 1879; Wt. et Arn. 

Prodr. FI. Penin. Indiae Orient. 309. 1834: Gamble, F1. Presid. 

Madras 1: 513. 19f8; Brandis, Indian Trees 338. 1906; Bourd. 

For. Trees Travancore 175. 1908; Rama Rao, Fl. Pl. Travancore 

180. 1914. 

Lsgerstroemia thomsonii Koehne in Engl. Das Pflanzenr. 17:251. 

1903. 

Type: 

Not known. 


Venthekku, Vellilavu. 


Deciduous trees 

10-30 m high; bark smooth, pale-white or ash- 

coloured, peeling off as large, thin strips; young branches 

ashy 

with a reddish tinge. Leaves simple, entire, petiolate, 4 - 12.5 

x 2 - 16 cm, broadly ovate, elliptic-lanceate, broadly-elliptic,

ovate, 

elliptic, narrowly-elliptic, obovate or broadly-obovate, 

light green, glabrous above, hoary-tomentose or glabrous beneath, 

acute, acuminate, obtuse or rarely cuspidate at apex, obtuse, 

cuneate or rarely attenuate at base; stipules 2, deciduous; 

petioles 0.4-1.1 cm long, slender. Inflorescesnce in axillary or 

terminal racemes, compounded into trichotomous panicles; bracts 2 

at the apex of the peduncle; bracteoles 2 on the pedicels, short, 

pubescent. 

Flowers white with a rose tinge, 2 0.6 cm long; calyx 

less than 0.5 cm long, hoary, patent or often reflexed with 

csmpanulate, coriaceous, smooth or ribbed tube; corolla with 

often 6 petals; petals 6 (sometimes 7 to 9), 0.3 - 0.5 x 0.1 

cm, 

oblong-obovate or orbicular, inserted on the tip of the calyx 

tube with a slender claw, wrinkled, with the margins 

crisped, 

erose or fimbriate; stamens numerous, inserted near the base of 

the calyx tube, exserted; filaments long, exserted; anthers 

yellow; ovary sess le, 3 - 6 loculed; ovules numerous, ascesnding 

on axile placenta; style long, curved; stigma capitate. 

Capsules 

& 1 cm long, elli lsoid, not ribbed, glabrous, yellowish-brown, 

loculicidal, 3 -6 valved with persistent, reflexed calyx lobes; 

seeds numerous, upto 0.6 cm long, flat, erect, falcately winged 

at apeax, cultriform; testa hard; cotyledons orbicular, thin, 

convolute (Figs. 1 & 2). 

7.1.4. Fleld notes 

Trees prominent for their clean, white trunk, in the 

deciduous forests of Kerala; apical portion of the trees are 

narrow and often with only few branches; common in the openings 

and less stocked forest areas. 

104


Flowers from May to July, maximum in June; fruits from June 

to December, maximum and maturing in December (Fig. 3). 


Tropical Asia and Australia. 

7.1.7. Distribution In Kerala 

Trivandrum, Thenmala, Konni, Ranni, Thekkady, Kottayam, 

Idukki, Munnar, Kothamangalam, Mankulam, Malayattoor, 

Vazhachal, 

Chalakudy, Trichur, Palghat, Parambikulam, Calicut, Nilambur 

and 

Wynad Forest Divisions. Almost throughout the State (Fig. 4). 

7.1.8. Notes 

Without assigning any reason, Clarke (l.c.) used the 

Wallichian name Lagerstroemia parviflora for the species, a nomen 

nudum at the time of its publication, and later validated by 

Clarke (l.c.) by providing a description in 1879. This is not in 

acccrdance with the International Code of Botanical Nomenc lature 

(1998). Before the Wallichian name was validated, Robert Wight 

(l.c.) used the specific epithet microcarpa for the species and 

the 

later specific epithet has priority of publication over 

parviflora (1879) and hence accepted here as the legitimate 

specific epithet fcr the taxon. The conspecificity of L. 

microcarpa and L. parviflora was first pointed cut by Wight 

and 

Arnott (l.c.), eventhough they delt with them seperately. The 

persistent calyx lobes on the fruits of this tree is a 

reliable 

diagnostic feature. 

105


A total of 18 samples and 28 

character variants were used i n 

the cluster analysis. Quantitative characters recorded as 

measurements were realized into the following classes, ie. 4 to 

6.3 cm (short) 6.3 to 9.6 cm (medium long) and 9.6 to 12.5 cm 

(very long) for the length of leaves, 2.1 to 3.4 cm (narrow), 3.4 

to 4.7 cm (medium broad) and 4.7 to 6 cm (very broad) for leaf 

breadth and 0.3 to 0.5 cm (short), 0.5 to 0.8 cm (medium long) 

and 0.8 to 1.1 cm (very long) for the length of petioles. 

The clustesr diagram (Fig. 5.1) 

demonstrates the coincidence 

of characters in various clusters. The diagram shows that medium 

long, 

medium broad and medium long-petioled leaves are elliptic 

in shape, entire, acute or acuminate at apex and obtuse or 

cuneate at base. Similarly, very long leaves are broadly elliptic 

in shape, narrow leaves are short petioled and leaves with very 

long petioles are undulate along their margins. However, very 

broad leaves, ovate leaves, broadly cvate 'leaves, narrowly 

elliptic leaves, obovate leaves, broadly obovate leaves, narrowly 

ovate leaves and leaves 

that are obtuse at apex and truncate or 

attenute at base occur independent of the size and shape of 

leaves, whereas, leaves which are cuspidate at apex are 

invariably 

cuneate at their base. 

Analysis to find out a resemblence among specimens 

collected 

. 

from different parts of the State (Fig. 5.2) showed that 

populations of the species from following areas resemble at least 

In 50% of their leaf characters. 

i. Aryankavu, Mukkali, Tholpetty, Thenmala, Kannoth and 

Sultan's Battery. 

ii. Achenkovil, Tholpetty and 

Vazhani. 

106

iii.Karimala 

and P P Malavaram. 

iv. Orukombam, Chungam, Nelliampathy and Kalady. 

v. Karulai, Walayar and Thodupuzha. 

Among the 18 specimens, samples with maximum length (12.5 cm) 

and maximum breadth (6 cm) for leaves were those from Kannoth 

Range in Wynad Division. Specimens with minimum leaf length (4 

cm) were recorded from Nelliampathy and those with minimum 

breadth (2.1 cm) and minimum petiole length (0.3 cm) were those 

from Kalady Range in Malayattoor Division. 

Petioles with maximum 

length (1.10 cm) were seen in the leaves of specimens collected 

from Achenkovil and PP Maravaram ranges in the Thenmala and 

Cal icut Forest Division, respectively. 


Kannoth, Malabar District, 

8.112.1913, C.A. Barber 9512 

(MH); 

Kolayad, 

Kannoth Range, Wynad 

Division, 21.6.1988, 

K.K.N. 

Nai r 

6354 (KFRI); Chzndansthodu 

Ramachandran s.n. (MH); Su 

Cannanore, 3.11.1965, 

tan's Battery, Wynad Div 

V.S. 

sion, 

22.6.1988, K.K.N. Nair 6356 (KFRI); Tholpetty forest, Cannanore, 

21.6.1988, V.S. Ramachandran 52238 (MH); Tholpetty Range, Wynad 

Division, 21.6.1988, K.K.N. Nair 6447 (KFRI); Begur RF, 

Cannanore District, 23.6.1979, V.S. Ramachandran 62742 (MH); 

Pavagada, Calicut Distict 12.5.1965, J.L. Ellis 24068 (MH); 

Kuttiyadi submergible area, Calicut Division, 24.6. 1965, B.D. 

Naithani 24187 (MH); . Karulai Range, Nilambur Division, 

16.6.1989, K.K.N. Nair 6508 (KFRI); Karimala Range, Parambikulam 

Division, 19.5.1988, K.K.N. Nair 6340 (KFRI); Chungam Range, 

Parambikulam Division, 19.5.1988, K.K.N. Nair 6343 (KFRI); 

Walayar RF, Palghat Division, 13.6.1989, K.K.N. Nair 6397 

107

(KFRI); Mukkali +,c Panthanthodu , Mannarghat Range, Palghat 

Division, 14.6.1989, K.K.N. Plair, 6501 (KFRI); Panthanthodo, 

Palghat Division, 18. 12. 1969, E. Vajravelu 27811 (MH); Chindaki 

forest, Palghat District, 1.6.1966, E. Vajravelu 27754 (MH); 

Ommala, Palghat District, 29.4.1987, E. Vajravelu 49823 (MH); 

Vazhani dam catchmment, Trichur Division, 11.4.1989, K.K.N. Nair 

6379 (KFRI); PulIankandam RF, Trichur Division, 11.4.1977, t( 

Ramamurthy 49301 (MH); Machand mala RF, Trichur Division, 

6.4.1977, K. Ram,murthy 49244 (MH); Nelliampathy fiange, Nemmara 

Divisim, 6.6.1989, K.K.N Nair 6387 (KFRI); Poringal, Vazhach31 

D!v!sicrn, j7.8. 1W0, K.’K.FI. Nair 5526 (KFRT); Vazhachal , Trichur 

District, 23.9.1982, K. Ramamurthy 74725 (ME); Poringalkuthu, 

\I. * iii!aChal .. c.iv 1 xi7 10.7.!985, K.N. Subramanitn 11124 !,FRII; 

Kurisumudi , Kalady Sange, Ma!aystte:j!- Division, 7.6.1983, K.K.N. 

Ndir 6289 ‘KFRI ;; VallakadvG 1965 Euca!jlpt p!antation, 

Ti.;el.;kady 

Division, 15.7.1983, K.N. Subranmian 9484 (FRI); Thenkachi, 

Idskki Distt-ict, 24.9.1972, E.D. S!-:?:X!~ 40991) (MH); Pa~ba to 

Vandiperiyar, 28.6.1968, E.B. Deb 30466 (MH); P?appilly to 

Ni!akkal , !?u-i!on tiistrict, 3.9.1977, N.C. Nai!’ 50353 (MH); 

Alappady, Achenkcvi I Range, Thenmla Division, 30.12.1973, K.P,.M. 

Mair 6309 (KFRI?; Aryankavu Range, Thenmala Division, ?9.1?.1987, 

K.K.N. Nair 6302 (KFRI); Near Katlappara, Thenmala Range, 

Themafa Division, 29.12.1987, Y.K.N. Nair 53305 !KFRI’:; 

Travancore, June 1938, Herb. Wight ‘371 MH); Ammangada, 

TravCancore, ‘4. 10. 1928, V. Marsyanaswmi 7734.4 (MH); Forests :;F 

Neyyar dam, Trlvandrum Division, 17.4.1973, J. Joseph 44125 (MH).

7.2. ECOLOGY 

Details on the ecology of L. microcarps are as follows. 

Associations: 

Parent tree sources: 


B i ot i c i nte rf e rence : 


Xylia-Terminalia 

Good 

Frequent 


Two 




Sufficient numbers 

L imi 

ted 

(more than 1 m 

ht.) 

Mcrta lity rate: 

Remarks : 

Med i um 

Percentage germination of 

seeds are low; found through 

out in all zones. 



Trees of L. microcarps grow upto a height of 30 m and a 

diameter of 80 cm. 

The main bole is straight and branch-free for 

most part in most semievergreen localities and upto 15 m long 

straight bole can be obtained (Fig. 7). In more open areas, 

branching or forking at a lower level are prevalent. 

Fluting is 

not found and buttresses not very conspicuous. Defects are 

comparatively limited in this species except for the bumps on 

main bole and branches. In almost all localities surveyed trees 

109

were sound without any indicat 

on of irregularity of gra n. 


3 3 

Basic density of wood ranged from 528.0 kg/m to 657.8 kg/m 

between various regions. The average for different locations was 

3 

593.0 kg/m . Ranni and Konni of Southern Kerala showed slightly 

lower density as compared to rest of the regions which had almost 

equal values. The results of analysis of variance are given in 

Table 1, which show that the difference between the regions as 

well as the localities is statistically non-significant. Table 1 

also shows that the difference in heartwood proportion is not 

significant. A high degree of positive correlation (R = 0.8820) 

was observed between heartwood proportion and stem diameter. 


L. microcarpa between different regions and 



variation DF Mean F-Val ue DF Mean F-Val ue 

square 

square 

Region 2 1797.307 1.637(ns) 2 14.981 0.261(ns) 

Local i ty 2 1943.155 1.770(ns) 2 43.831 0.763(ns) 

Res i dua 1 21 1097.964 17 57.447 

Total 25 1222.633 21 52.732 


110


Growth rings are distinct as the wood is semi-ring porous. 

Vessels commonly in singles but occasionally in short 

radial 

multiples of 2 to 5, clusters rare; vessel perforation simple and 

pitting alternate; vessel pits occasionally coalesced to appear 

as parallel horizontal furrows, pits to parenchyma and ray 

cells 

grouped; heartwocd vessels plugged by tyloses; the latter of two 

types, thin-walled and thick-walled. 

Parenchyma abundant, ranging from aliform confluent to 

paratracheal banded; parenchyma delimiting growth rings also 

present in the earlywood, portions of parenchyma cells subdivided 

into chambers enclosing rhomboidal crystals; fusiform parenchyma 

absent; scanty extractives present as globules in heartwood 

parenchyma. 

Rays closely 

spaced, uniseriate, biseriate rays extremely 

rare, homogeneous and upto 20 cells high, ray cells in the 

heartwood containing abundant extractives. 

Fibres thin- to thick-walled from earlywood to latewood, 

septate, portions of fibres transversely subdivided into 

crystal 1 iferous chambers. 

7.3.4. Relationship between ring width and other anatomical 

characteristics 

Table 6 indicates the relationship between width of the 

growth ring and other anatomical characteristics. 

The ring width 

is negatively correlated with vessel frequency (number of 

2 

vessels/mm ), vessel cross sectional area, proportion of 

parenchyma and rays, and positively correlated with fibre 

proportion. 

This indicates that when the growth ring width 

111

Table 6. Correlation between 

ring width and other anatomical 

parameters in L. microcsrps wood 

Ring Vessel Vessel Parenchynta % fibre % Rays % 

width frequency 3x3 X 

R i ng w i dth 1 .0000 

Yessel frequency -0.3810 1,0000 

Vessel 3rea X -0.4856 0.1004 1.0000 

t 

it 

Psrenchgaa % -0,3375 0.2052 -0.1297 1 .0000 

fibre X 

tr 

0,5275 -0.1992 

tt 

-0.723r 

tt 

-0.493~ 1 .CON 

Rays % -0.0063 -0.0447 0.1003 * -0.1370 -0.2052 1,0000 

* Significant tt P 2 0.01 level; ft Significant tt P : 0.001 level 

increases the proportion of vessels (voids) and parenchyma 

(soft 

tissue) 

fibres. 

decreases with corresponding increase in proportion of 

There is a significant negative corelation between fibre 

proportion on one hand, and vessel and parenchyma proportion on 

the other. 

This further strengthens the above relationship that 

the fibre proportion on one hand and the vessel and parenchyma 

proportion on the other, are mutually complementary. 

Increase in 

vessel area is not accompanied by a corresponding increase in the 

vessel frequency as indicated by the poor correlation between the 

two. Similarly, the correlation between the vessel and 

parenchyma proportions is weak and negative. 

112



Ripened capsules were available from January to May at 

Nilambur and seeds collected during February and March gave 

maximum germination percentage. The ripe capsules were obtained 

from trees before they dehisce and fall off. The capsules were 

filled loosely in cloth bags and sundried. The capsules broke 

open to release of minute winged seeds which were separated and 

cleaned by winnowing. It was found that the cleaned seeds 

could 

be stored in gunny bags for about 6 months without loss of 

viability. 


About 2,63,000 seeds weighed one kilogram. Reports from 

Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka show 2,68,082 (Sengupta- 

1937) 1,95,380 and 2,67,490 (FRX, 1984) seeds per kg, 

respectively. 


Very low germination of 2-20% i s reported (FRI, 1984) for 

this species. 

In the present study, the percentage germination 

was recorded as 5-11% for both fresh and stored (for 6 months) 

seeds. Seeds stored beyond 6 months showed marked decline in 

germination. 


Not less than 300 gm seeds is required for a standard 

nursery bed of 12 m X 1.2 m. Seeds were sown during February 

and early March. Germination commenced after 5-7 days and was 

113

over by around 20-25 days. The seedlings were pricked out into 

polythene bags of 12.5 cm X 17.5 cm by the middle of April 

when 

the average height was around 4-6 cm. Out-planting was done in 

July and by then the seedlings attained an average height of 11- 

13 cm. 



Only pure plantations of the species could be raised (Fig. 8) 

as part of the experiment. Percentage of survival of seedlings 

was 55% which is higher than the survival rate of the pure 

plantations of AIbizia and Xylia (Fig. 6). 


The seedlings registered a height of 82 cm within 12 months 

which is comparatively higher than height growth of the pure 

plantations of X. xylocarpa, P. marsupium and A. oduratissima. 


The species recorded a MAHI of 67 cm in pure plantations 

and 

this is again quite high as compared to the above 

mentioned 

trees investigated. 



This tree is practically free from any serious pest attack in 

the natural stands. However 10 species of insects causing 

114

occasional minor damage to fresh foliage were recorded during the 

study (Table 3). 

7.5.2. Pest problems trial in plantations 

Mild leaf feeding by a few unidentified insects was noticed 

on 76.6% of the seedlings in pure plantings. In addition to this, 

build up of a leaf webbing caterpillar was also noticed on some 

seedlings. The caterpillars characteristically fed beneath a 

silken web on the leaf surface causing wilting of the foliage and 

drying up of the terminal bud. There was no mixed plantation 

trial of L. microcarpa and hence oberverations could not be made 

with regard to insect pests in mixtures with the species. 

Table 3. Insects attacking L. microcarpa trees in 

natural stands 


Symiths nolsle7la Wlk. Va z hac ha 1 Leaf feeding 

(Lepidoptera.,Noctuidae) 

Euptemte sp. Wadakkanchery Leaf feeding 

(Lepidoptera, Eupterotidae) 

Derscetins brettinghsmi (Bafy) Palghat Leaf feeding 

(Coleoptera, Chrysomelidae, 

Gal lerucinae) 

contd ....... 

115


D.collina (Weise) 

Pal ghat 


Gal leruci nae) 

Monolepttl ?ongitsrsis (Jacoby) Palghat 


Gal lerucinae) 

Leaf feeding 

Leaf feeding 

Dispromorpha turcics (Fb. ) Peech i 

L es f feeding 


Clythrinae) 

Microser ics sp. Vazhacha 1 Leaf feeding 

(Scarabaeidae, Melolonthinae) 

Cryptocephalus sexsignatus Fb. 

(Scarabaeidae, 

Cryptocephalinae) Va z hac ha 1 Leaf feeding 

Unidentified bug 

(Homoptera, Flattidae) Vazhachal Sap sucking 

Unidentified mite Mukkal I, Whitish 

(Acari) Peechi, growth on the 

Ni lambur 

leaf surface 


The following insects were recorded (Table 4) as pests of 

seedlings in the nursery.

Table 4. Insects attacking seedlings of 1. microcsrpa in nursery 


Phycits sp. Ni 1 ambur, Leaf and shoot 

(Lepidoptera, Phycitidae) Peechi webbing 

Unidentified caterpillar N 1 ? ambur, Webs the top 

(Lepidoptera, Tortricidae) Peechi shoot and leaves 

Indomias cretaceus (Faust) Peechi Leaf feeding 


Unidentified mite (Acari) Peech i Cushion-like 

growth on 

leaf surface 

All 

the insects recorded in the nursery caused moderate to 

heavy 

damage to seedlings. Among them, the unidentified species 

of mite which caused a fluffy overgrowth on the leaf surface was 

the most serious pest. Infestation by this species was first 

noticed in July, 1985 which persisted until November 1990. The 

peak infestation was noticed in December 1989 (39.49%). The 

affected seedlings showed stunting and poor growth when out 

planted. Application of dicofol (Kelthane) at 0.05% a.i. at 

fortnightly intervals effectively contro?led this pest. Attack 

by the unidentified topshoot webber was also noticed in the 

nursery. 

The light reddish coloured caterpillars of this insect 

webbed the tender leaves and shoots and fed from within. As 

feeding by this insect caused damage to the terminal sho~t, 

117

growth was retarded and about 20% of the seedlings suffered by 

the attack. 

The weevil, I. cretaceus attacked the tender foliage of 

seedlings causing withering of the leaves. Damage by this 

insect 

was noticed during the months of August-October. 




Tabfe 4 gives the, important seed microflora of L. 

microcarpa which Is ccmparatlvely very few in number as 

compared 

to other tree species studied. A. niger, a common storage fungus 

showed an RPI 

of 2.5%, while a bacterium (gram (->ve) occourred 

in almost 98% of the seeds showing a brown coloured ooze on them. 

Those affected seeds failed to germinate or their germination 

percentage was very low, ranging from 7 to 10%. 

Table 4. Relative % incidence of microflora on the seeds of 

L . m icroca rpa 

Microorganisms recorded Relative X incidence 

Asperg i 7 7 us n iger 2.5 

Bacteria gram(-) ve) 98.0 

118

7.6.1.2. Effect of fungicides on seed-borne microflora 

All the four fungicides tested, viz. carbendazim, carboxin, 

MEMC and mancozeb were equally effective in controlling the 

growth of A. niger, l-day and 90 days after treatment. However 

a 

gram(-)ve bacterium which affected about 98.0% of seeds in 

untreated samples, could not be checked by any of the seed 

dressers tried except for MEMC. In MEMC treated seeds, the RPI of 

this bacterium was ca. 60.0% (Table 5). 


7.6.2.1. Damping-off 

Post emergence damping-off of seedlings was observed 

causing 

ca.35% mortality in Nilambur where the seed beds were raised in 

wooden trays. However, in the nursery beds at Peechi, this 

disease was less frequent causing ca. 10% mortality. The 

disease 

appeared within two weeks after germination of seeds and is seen 

in the form of irregular patches usually from the edges 

of the 

beds and spreading towards the centre, affecting healthy 

seedlings under high soil moisture. Water soaked necrotic lesions 

appeared near the ground level and turn brown and the affected 

area get shrunken resulting in a constriction causing the 

toppling of the seedlings. Rhizoctonia so7ani Kuhn anamorph of 

Thanstephorus cucumeris (Frank) Donk (IMI No.326295) has been 

identified as the causal agent. At Nilambur and Peechi, 

damping- 

off pathogen was prevalent during May which was favoured by 

warm 

weather, high soil moisture and dark shade. Chemical control 

experiments undertaken in the laboratory had shown that MEMC 

(0.0125% 3.i.) and carboxin (0.2% a.i.) were highly effective in 

inhibiting the growth of the mycelium in soil. 

Field trials also 

indicated that soil drenching of MEMC (0.0125% a.i.) and carboxin 

119

Tsble 5. Effect of fungicides on seed microflora of L. mjcroc3rp8, 1 dsy snd 

90 days after treetment 

Hi crcorgan i sns 

l?PI in various treatment 

reccrded Control carbendarin HEMC carboxin nrsncczeb 

0 90 0 90 0 90 0 90 0 90 

Aspergillus niger 2.5 3.5 - - - - - - - 

Bacterium 

(graR(-)ve) 99.0 97.0 9B.O 94.0 61.0 60.0 98.0 96.0 95.0 94.0 

(0.2% a.i.) Q) 25-30 litres/standard bed was effective in checking 

the spread of the disease. However, since this disease is 

favoured by high soil moisture, seedling density and dense 

shading, minimising the incidence and spread of the disease can 

be achieved by reducing the watering schedule and thatching to 

allow light to fall on the bed. High seedling density may also be 

avo1 ded . 

R. solani is world wide in distribution and known to be 

pathogenic to a large number of plants (Parmeter,l970) and in 

Kerala it has emerged as one of the major seedling pathogens 

affecting A ilsnthus triphysa (Florence et s I . , 1985), A lbizia 

fa lcstaris (Sharma and Sankaran, 1985) and Azsdirschts indics 

(Sankaran et a?., 1986). A few fungicides such as PCNB (Balns and 

Jhotty, 1983) and carbendazim (Grover and Kstaria, 1985) which 

have been reported to be effective against R. so?sni were not 

found promising against the damping-off pathogen of L. 

120

microcarpa. This could possibly be due to differential 

behaviour 

of the isolates of R. 

solani to various fungicides as reported by 

various workers (Thomas, 1962; Martin et al., 1984). This Is the 

first report of R. solani causing post emergence damping-off in 

L. microcarpa. 


7.6.3.1. Tar spot 

Tar spot caused by Rhytisma lagerstroemiae is common on 

leaves of L. microcarpa, usually during the south-west monsoon 

(June-September) period and continued till December. The older 

leaves were more susceptible to infection and ca.25% of the 

leaves were affected. In some cases, the tar spots are very few 

and in others almost ca.75% of the lamina is covered by the spot. 

Elevated black spots of various sizes appear on the adaxial 

surface of the leaves with a yellow halo around the spots. 

Black 

spot . on leaves caused by Rhyt ifma lagerstroemiae was reported 

from Tamil Nadr! by Rabenhorst as early as 1878. This fungus 

appears to be comman on leaves of various species of 

Lagerstroemis (Anonymous, 1950). Recently R. lagerstroemiae as 

reported from Bombay on L. microcarpa and 

on fsgerstmemiae sp. 

from Mysore. This is the first report of R. 7agerstroemiae 

causing tar spot on f. microcarpa in Kerala. 

121

8 . P T E R O C A R P U S M A R S U P I U M 

(Venga) 

8.1. BOTANY 


Pterocarpus marsupfum Roxb. Corom. PI. t. 116.1799 & F1.Indica 3: 

234.1832; Wt. et Arn. Prodr. Fl. Penin. Indiae Orient. 266.1834; 

Bedd. F1. Sylvat. t.21.1869; Baker in Ho0k.f. Fl. Brit. India 

2: 239.1876; Erandis, Indian Trees 240.1906; Bourd. For. Trees 

Travancore 120.1908; Rama Rao, F1. Pl. Travancore 131.1914; 

Gamble, Fl. Presid. Madras 1:385. 1918; Rojo, Pterocarpus 58. 

1972; Nair et Henry (eds.), F1. Tamilnadu 1:118. 1980; Matthew, 

Fl. Tamilnadu Carnatic 3(1):445.1983; Ramach. et Nair, Fl. 

Cannanore 152.1988. 

Pterocarpus bi7obus Roxb. ex G.Don, Gen. Syst. 2: 376.1831-38. 

Type: 

Not known. 


Venga, Chola-venga, Karinthakara, Malanthakzra. 


Semievergreen trees, 10-25m high; bark corked, thick, 

yellowish-grey; young leaves reddish. Leaves compound, alternate, 

imparipinnate, 5 to 7 foliate, 9.5-18 cm long; rachis upto 5cm 

long, glabrous, prolonged beyond the insertion of the upper 

lateral leaflet; leaflets 5-10.5 x 3.8-6 cm, obovate, broadly 

obovste, elliptic, broadly elliptic, ovate, broadly ovate or 

122

arely oblong, entire, coriaceous, glabrous, retuse or obtuse 

at 

apex, obtuse, truncate or cuneate at base, with close, prominent, 

pararallel side-nerves; stipules small, deciduous; petiolules 

0.6-1.1 cm long, stout. Inflorescence terminal, fusco-pubescent, 

paniculate racemes, shorter than the leaves; bracts small, 

deciduous; bracteoles 2, cauducous. Flowers yellow, scented, upto 

1.5 cm across; pedicels short, articulated below the flowers; 

calyx upto 0.7cm long, campanulate, somewhat curved, brown- 

pubescent; calyx teeth very short, broadly triangular, the 

upper 

two lobes often connate and larger; corolla exserted, upto 1.2 cm 

long, with crisped margins; petals long-clawed; vexillum upto 

1.2 x 0.8 cm, orbicular, prominently nerved; wing petals upto 0.8 

cm long, oblique; keel petals upto 1x0.5 cm, oblique, sllghtly 

connate towards apex; stamens 10 in number, 0.5-0.8 cm long, 

monadelphous 

towards base; stamina1 tube often split along the 

sides making the stamens 

isodiadelphous (5+5); pistil upto 1 cm 

long, shortly stalked; ovary 2 to 6 ovuled; style filiform, 

Incurved, beardless, with the stipe upto 0.5 cm long; stigma 

capitate. Pods 3.5-5x3 -3.8 cm, suborbicular, winged, 

stipitate, 

upto 0.4 cm long, glabrous with veined wings; seeds one or 

rarely 2, oblong or subreniform; hilum small (Figs. 1 L? 2). 


Densely foliated trees with often fissured bark exuding 

copious resin which dries into solid blocks. 

Flowering branches 

very showy and often visible from a distance. Trees common in and 

around grasslands, rocky forest fringes and along the sides, of 

rav i nes . 

123


Flowers from May to October, maximum during October and 

occasionally during April and May. Fruits during October to 

March, but mostly during October-November. As noted in the 

field, the flowering period of the trees is rather irregular 

(Fig.3). 


Peninsular India, Sri Lanka. 


Trivandrum, Thenmala, Punalur, Kcnni, Ranni, Thekkady, 

Kottayam, Idukki, Munnar, Kothamangalam, Malayattoor, Trichur, 

Chalakudy, Vazhachal, Nemmara, Palghat, Parambikulam, Calicut, 

Nitambur and Wynad Forest Divisions (Fig. 4). 

8.1.8. Notes 

While enumerating species of Pteracarps in India, Prain 

(1891) identified two varieties and two forms under each of the 

variety, namely: 

var.a 

form 1. 

form 2. 

bi?oSs 

Vera 

var.b 

form 3. 

form 4. 

scuts 

scminsts 

From the taxonomic characters given by Wain (1891), 

specimens cf the species from Kerala belong to the var.a form 

Vera with leaves elliptic or oblong, slightly noutched and obtuse 

124

or rarely subacute at apex. This form is reported only from 

South India at Nilgiris, Cuncor, North Arcot, Nellore, 

Carnatic, 

Cuddapah, Bellary, Kurnool, Kistna and Hysore (Prain, 1891). 

However, Cooke (Fl. Presid. Bombay 1:428.1901) recognized only 

one variety under the species, namely var. acuminata Prain (J. 

Asiat. SOC. Bengal 66: 455. 1898) which is reported from Konkan 

and Canara regions of the erstwhile Bombay Presidency. 

Simi?arly, Gamble (7.c.) described the variety canus Gamble which 

again is based on a specimen of Beddome from the hills of Kistna 

District in Andhra Pradesh, characterized by branchlets, leaflets 

beneath, calyx and rachis white-silky pubescent, leaflets much 

smaller 

and small flowers in short racemes, as compared to the 

species proper. 


Data on leaf variation were gathered from 4 specimens. 

Being 

a 

compound-leaved species, the length of the same was also used 

in the analysis apart from various characters of the 

leaflets. 

For 

quantltative characters, class intervels identified in the 

analysis were 9.5 to 12.3 cm (short), 12.3 to 15.1 cm fmedlum 

long) and 15.1 to 18 cm (very long) for compound leaf length, 5 

to 6.8 cm (short), 6.8 to 8.6 cm (medium long) and 8.6 to 10.5 cm 

(very long) for the ?ength of the leaflets, 3.8 to 4.5 cm 

(narrow), 4.5 to 5.2 crn (medium broad) and 5.2 to 6 cm (very 

. broad) for breadth of leaflets and 0.6 to 0.7 cm (short), 0.7 to 

0.9 cm (medium long) and 0.9 to 1.1 cm (very long) for 

pet i ol u 1 e 

length. 

Along with the qualitative characters, there 

were 25 

such character variants used in the analysis. 

In the cluster analysis to find out the coinc 

dence 

of 

different characters (Fig. 5.1) that showed variation 

it was 

125

observed that medium long compound leaves do not occur in 

relation to any other character. But, short compound leaves 

posess broadly-elliptic leaflets which are obtuse at apex and 

cuneate at base. 

Similarly, very long compound leaves with very 

long, very broad and very long petiolules for individual leaflets 

are obovate or elliptlc in shape and entire, retuse at apex 

and 

obtuse at base. Another cluster identified in the analysis 

showed 

that short and medium long leaflets are normal or medium 

broad with short or medium long petiolule and are 

broad1 y-obovate 

in shape with a truncate base. 

In the cluster analysis (Fig. 5.2) 

to der 

ve 

resemblence 

among specimens collected from different parts of 

the State, 

the 

following conclusions could be arrived at. Specimens from 

Paruthippilly Range in Trivandrum Division and those from 

Ranni 

Range in Ranni Division show resemblence at least in 50% of their 

characters, whereas those from Rajakad and Charpa ranges stood 

isolated showing no resemblence, either among themselves 

or to 

those from Paruthippilly or Ranni. 

In general, compound leaves with maximum length (18 cm) 

were 

seen in specimens from Charpa Range in Vazhachal Division and 

those with minimum length (3.5 cm) were collected from 

Paruthippi?lp Range in Trivandrum Division. With regard to 

leaflet size, those with maximum length (10.5 cm) were seen in 

specimens from Rajakad in Munnar Division and Charpa in Vazhachal 

0 i v i s i on 

and those with minimum length (5 cm) were seen 

in the 

mater i a1 s 

Di v i sion . 

Paruthi pp 

specimens 

Narrowest 

collected from Paruthippilly Range in Trivandrum 

Broadest leaflets (6 cm) were characteristic of 

11)’ (Trivandrum Division) collections, eventhcugh 

with shortest leaflet also were reported from there. 

(3.8 cm) leaflets amcng all samples analysed was from 

126

Rajakad wherefrom those with maximum length were also 

reported. 

Petiolules were the shortest (0.6 cm) in specimens from Ranni 

whereas it was the longest in those samples from Rajakad in 

Munnsr Division. 


Beemanadi, Kasaragod District, 27.9.1982, R. Ansarl 74351 

(MH); Thaliparamba farm, Cannanore, 14.2.1930, C.A. Barber 8700 

(MH); Chedleth, Wynad, 20.8.1964, J.L. Ellis 20500 (MH); PP 

Malavaram Range, Calicut Division, 23.6.1988, K.K.N. Nair 6362 

(KFRI); Walayar, Palghat Division, Aug. 1932, Mimuddin s.n. (FRI 

Acc. No. 2168); Walayar, Palghat Division, Aug. 1932, N. 

Velayudhan Nair s.n. (FRI Acc. 9.40.2165); Above fswarsn Estate, 

Palghat Division, 23.4.1977, E. Vajravelu 49750 (MH); Attappady 

RF, Palghat, 12.10.1965, E. Vajravelu 26196 (MH); Chindaki, 

Palghat Division, 16.10.1979, N.C. Nair 64673 (MH); Poopara, 

Rajakad, Munnar Division, 17.5.1988, K.K.N. Nair 6331 (KFRI); 

Santhanpara, Kottayam District, 21.4.1964, K.M. Sebastine 18360 

(MH); Thannikudi, Thekkady, Idukki District, 20.10.1972, B.D. 

Sharma 42382 (MH); Rajampara, Ranni Range, Ranni Division, 

29.3.1989, K.K.N. Nair 6367 (KFRI); Kallar, Travancore, 

6.11.1928, V. Narayanaswamy 77825 (MH); Mangode, Paruthipilly 

Range, Trivandrum, 10.7.1978, K.N. Subramanian 7238 (FRI); 

, Forests between Vithura and Bonacaud, Trivandrum, 22.8.1975, J. 

Joseph 46477 (MH); Ponmudi, Trivandrum District, 11.6.1976, 

C.E. 

Ridsdale 129 (MH); Kottur RF, Paruthippilly Range, Trivandrum 

Division, 1.1.1988, K.K.N. Nair 6311 (KFRI). 

127

Coefficfont of similarity (rescaledl 

obtuse apex 

cuneate base 

short 1 eaf 

broadly elliptic leaflet 

broadly ovate leaflet 

oblong leaflet 

ovate leaflet 

obovate leaflet 

elliptic leaflet 

retuse apex 

obtuse base 

very long leaflet 

very long petiolule 

entire leaflet 

very broad leaflet 


medium long petiolule 

truncate base 

short I eaf 

medium broad leaflet 

short pet i o 1 u 1 e 

narrow leaflet 

broadly obovate leaflet 

medium long leaflet 


22 

25 

1 

16 

18 

19 

17 

13 

15 

21 

23 

6 

12 

20 

9 

3 

11 

24 

4 

8 

10 

7 

14 

5 

2 

-t 

-t 

-t 

-t 

I 

I 

I 

I 

1 I 

I 

I 

I 

I 

I 


of leaf characters of P. ursupium from 

different locations in Kerala. 

Coefficient of similarity (rescaledl 


of specimens of P. ursupium from 


8.2. ECOLOGY 

From the natural P. msrsupium 

growing areas in Kerala, following 

details pertaining to to the ecology of the species could be 

gathered. 

Assoc i at 4 ons : 





Cleistanthus - Eridelia 

Poor 

Rare 

Highly disturbed 

Three 


(upto 30 em ht.) 


Insufficient numbers 

Limited 

(31 cm - 1 m ht.) 

Sap1 i ngs : 


Mortiality rate: 

Remarks: 

Rare 

High 

More common in rocky and 

dry habitat. 



Mature trees of P. msrsupium grow to a height of about 25 

m 

and a diameter of over 80 cm. 

The bole Is more or less straight 

and cylindrical, and lacks flutes or buttresses. The major 

defects in the stem log are crook, fork, butt scar, decay 

128

cavities and decayed branch stubs. The bole form, in general, Is 

not very satisfactory in most of the localities although 

exceptionally, trees with better form were also noticed. 

Mature 

trees can ususlly yleld upto 8 m long nearly straight stem 

log. 

Wood Is commonly interlocked-grained. 


3 

Basic density of wood ranged between 603.1 kg/m to 727.0 

3 3 

kg/m with an average of 668.6 kg/m . Wyanad in the Northern 

Kerala 

recorded slightly lower basic density as compared to the 

central and southern reglons. However, the difference was not 

Table 1. ANCSA of basic density and heartwood percentage 

of P. marsupium, between different regions and 

localities In Kerala 

-~~~~ 


..................... ........................ 

variation DF Mean F-value DF Mean F-Val ue 

square 

square 

Reg i on 2 720.196 0.844(ns) 2 119.721 2.177(ns) 

Locality 2 414.931 0.487(ns) 2 212.275 3.861 * 

- Residual 19 852.840 16 54.986 

Total 23 885.816 20 67.694 


- -__ 

* signiflcsnt at P = 0.05 level 

129

ststistically significant as indicated by the analysis of 

variance (Table 1). 

Similarly, the difference between the three 

localities of Central Kerala was a?so non-significant. On the 

other hand, the difference in heartwood percentage between the 3 

+cca?ities of Central Kerala was significant while the difference 

xtween the regions was not significant. The percentage of 

heartwood was positive?y correlated w th stem diameter 

(R=0.8484). 


Growth 

rings are indistinct. 

Vessels commonly solitary, less commonly in short or long 

rad a1 multiples of even upto 8 vessels , rarely in double 

rows 

and SF groups; vessel elements storied and with simple 

per oration and a?ternate pitting; 

heartwood vessets blocked by 

gummy deposits. 

Axial parenchyma ranging from scanty paratrscheal or 

vasicentric to banded; bands 2 to 5 cells wide, wavy, 

continuous 

or discontinuous; diffuse parenchyma scanty, parenchyma 

storied, 

usually subdivided into two or rarely more locules, chambered 

crystalliferous cells present but not abundant; fusiform 

parenchyma present; granular extractives present in heartwood 

cells. 

Rays commonly uniseriate, rarely 2-seriate, storied and 

therefore of ufliform height having 5 to 8 cells along the height, 

homogeneous; crystals absent but extractives present. 

Fibres non-septate and thin-walled; the wider portions 

showing a tendency for storied structure; extractives scanty 

in 

fibre lumen. 

I 

130



Pods were collected during February -May from the ground or 

by plucking from the trees. They were then sundried and 

stored 

in gunny bags. 


About 2,000 fruits weighed 1 kilogram. Earlier, Sengupta 

(1937) reported that 1620, 1590 and 1940 fruits collected from 

different localities of Tamil Nadu formed 1 kilogram. 

8.4.3. Gemination capacfty 

The germinability of seeds was within the range of 40-97% 

(FRI, 1983). However, in the present study seeds collected 

during April gave a germinability of only 27%. 


Pods can be stored upto one year in gunny bags (FRI, 1983). 

Fruits available during April were sown as pods without 

extracting the seeds, in standard nursary beds. 

About 5-6 kg of 

seeds were required for this. Germination started by the 10th 

day and was completed in about 35-40 days. Seedlings could be 

pricked out after 30 days in the nursery bed into polythene bags 

(22.5 cm X 17.5 cm size). The seedlings were retained in the 

nursery for about 14 months prior to outplanting during monsoon. 

Seedllngs had attained an average height of 29 cm by 

that time 

(Fig. 7). 

131



Mixed plantings gave higher survival percentage in of P. 

marsupium. 

Seedling survial was better in 25 % mlxed plantations 

of GHPX (92%) and AGHP (90%). A survival of 89% was observed 

in a 50% mixture of HP. In pur.e plantations, survival was 76% 

followed by two 50% mixtures of AP and PX with 69% each (Fig. 6). 

ANOVA showed no significant difference between the treatments 

(Table 2). 

Table 2. 

Ana 

ysis of variance of survival of seed 

Ings in pure 

and 

mi xed plantations of P. mersup ium 

Source of DF MSS F-val ue 

var i at ion 

Treatment 5 171 .OW 1.8283(ns) 

** 

Replication 2 790.321 8.4492 

Residual 

Tota 1 

10 93.538 

17 

ns = not slgnificant ; *d p = 0.01 


The seedlings showed better height growth in mixed 

plantations, especially in 25% mixtures. A maximum height of 

100 cm was observed in GHPY, mixture and 89 cm in AGHP . In 50% 

mixtures, the seedlings recorded a maxlmium height of SO cm in AP 

followed by 76 cm in HP and 69 cm in PX combinations. Pure 

plantations of P. marsupim recorded only 65 cm height growth for 

132

the seedlings which was the lowest 

value for the species. 

Analysis of variance (Table 3) showed that performance of the 

species in pure and mixed plantations were statistically 

significant at 1% level (fable 2). According to the analysis, 

height observed in both the 25% mixed plantations were 

significantly different from the remaining 

treatments (50% mixed 

and pure plantations). 

Table 3. Analysis of variance of height in seedlings of pure 

and mixed plantations of P. marsupium 

Source of DF MSS F-va 1 ue 

vari at i on 

Treatment 5 0.093 6.2000 

Replication 

** 

f X 

2 0.115 7.6667 

Residual 

Total 

10 0.015 

17 

** P = 0.01 


MAHI 

also followed a similar trend as height growth with a 

maximum increment in 25% mixtures of GHPX and AGHP. The 

increment was 64 cm and 52 cm respectively. 

MAHI of the species 

in 50% mixtures were 48 cm in AP, 43 cm in HP and 40 cm 

in PX 

combinations. Lowest MAHI was 33 em and was seen in pure 

plantations of P. marsupium (Fig. 6). ANOVA showed significant 

difference between treatments at 5% levelITable 4. 

133

Table 4. Analysis of variance of mean annual height Increment 

in seedlings of pure and mixed plantations 

of 

P. marsupium 

Source of , OF MSS F-val ue 

variance 

T rea tme n t 

5 0.176 4.2927 

* 

Replication 

Residual 

Total 

2 0.039 0.9512(ns) 

10 0.041 

17 

* significant at P = 0.05; ns = not significant 



Six 

species of insects were found to attack P. msrs~~pium in 

their natural stands, as listed in Table 5. 

All the pests listed above except Eucosma sp. caused only 

mild damage of the tender foliage. The buprestid Sphenuptera 

indics which gnawed the tender leaf tissues caused moderate 

damage to the f liage of saplings raised at Nilambur. The 

caterpillers of Eucusma sp. tunnelled the sta?ks of the 

inflorescence lead ng to withering 

and premature shedding of the 

flower buds. 

134

Table 5. Insect pests in the natural stands of Venga 

_______ 


Eucosma sp. 

(Lepidoptera,Eucosmidae) 

Redos sg. 

(tepidoptera, Lymantriidae) 

Eupract is sp. 

(Lepidoptera, Lymantriidse) 

Aetheumurphs? ma 7sysna (Baly) 

(Coleoptera,Gallerucinae, 

C 1 yth r i nae) 

Sphenopters indics Lap. et Gory 

(Coleoptera, Buprestidae) 

Span iuneura sp. 

( qusdr imacu ?at9 group) 

(Hornoptera, Psyllidae) 

t 

Munnar 

\?a z hac ha 1 

Peechi 

Peech i 

Ni lambur 

Vazhani , 

Ni lambur, 

Peech i 

Bores in young 

inflzrescence 

Leaf feeding 

Leaf feeding 

Leaf feeding 

Gnaws on the 

leaf surface 

Sap sucking 


Leaf feeding and gall formation were the important types of 

damages to field planted seedlings. Incidence of an unidentified 

defoliator was high in most of the mixed plantations which 

ranged from 6.25-93.753 (Table 6). Attack by a gall insect was 

also noticed on 21.87% seedlings in the pure plantations and 

small scale build up of this insect was noticed in various 

mixtures as well. Although the intensity of infestation was 

135

moderate 

on most of the affected plants there were signs of the 

damage becoming serious in a few seedlings. 

Table 6, Percent of incidence defoliator in trial plantations of P. narsupiun 

Combinations with Tree species Percent infection during 

t 

P. narsupiur; 

A P X H G Mar Apr Wsy Jun Jui 

P 0.00 1.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 37.50 31.25 21,87 61.18 96.87a 

AP 0.50 0.50 0.00 0.00 0.00 43.75 25.00 45.47 59.37 

b 

81.25 

PX 0.00 0.50 0.50 0.00 0.00 14.75 21.17 15.62 34.37 87.5Cc 

PH c.co 0.50 c.oo 0.50 0.00 37.50 21.47 15.62 14.37 9 3 ~ 5 ~ 

d 

PHXG 0.00 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 56.25 25.00 0.00 50.00 6.25 

APHG 0.25 0.25 0.00 0.25 0.25 43.75 9.37 43.75 87.58 87.50' 

t Figures superscribed by the same letter in the last column are 

not 

significantly different at 5% probsbility level 

The gall insect is likely to become a potential pest in young 

plantations, especially in monoculture. 


The psyllids were the major pests of seedlings in the 

nursery (Table 7). Species of Spsnioneura caused leaf vein 

galls and crinkling of the leaves leading to severe stunting of 

the seedlings. The nature of damage is similar to the one 

caused 

by Arytafna sp. (Kandasamy and Thenmozhi, 1985). The 

infestation 

when first noticed during September 1989, was 10.8% which 

136

persisted until November, 1990 when about 42% of the seedlings 

were affected. Besides Spsnioneurs sp., another unidentified 

species of psyllid was also noticed to cause serious damage to 

seedlings and saplings by forming 'pouch galls' on the foliage. 

Table 7. Nursery pests of P. msrsupfum 


Indomias hispidu7cs (Marshal 1 ) Peec h 4 Feeds on tender 


fof iage 

Span icneurs (qusdrimscu lsts group) Peech i Sap sucking 

(Homoptera, Psyllidae) 

Unidentified Psyllidae Nilambur, Sap sucking 

Peechi 

Both the species of psyllids are considered as major 

nursery 

pests. Application of 0.05% a.i. monocrotophos (Nuvacron) at 

fortnightly intervals was found to give effective control against 

their attack in the nursery. 

The weevil, I. hispidulus, caused punctures on the leaves 

by 

feeding on the tissue leading to withering of the leaves. Its 

. attack was noticed from July-September when the new leaves 

appeared. 


A species of Eucosma, different from the one found boring 

the flower stalk, was also recorded as a borer in young fruits, 

eating sway the endosperm of seeds and thus affectlng the 

137

viability of the propagules. Observations made at Peechi indicate 

that about 12.9% of the seeds were damaged by this insect in the 

field. The infestation started while the fruits were getting 

ripe. The infested fruits could be recognised from a pin hole 

type puncture in the centre of the fruits on one side and 

accumulation of dried exudation at this point. The larvae 

matured in about 10 days during which period the endosperm was 

completely eaten up. 




Relative percent incidence of seed microflora 

is presented 

Table 8. 

Spermoplane microorganisms and their relative percent 

incidence on seeds of 

P. mrsupiun 

Mi croorgan i sms 

recorded 


i nc i dence 

Aspergi 7 ?us candidus 60.0 

A. flavus 

100.0 

A. niger 

A. ochrsceous 

A. vers ico7cr 

Rhizopus sp. 

Act inonycetes 

100.0 

70.0 

70.0 

80.0 

100.0 

138

~~ ~ ~~ 

in Table 8. Most of the spermoplane microorganisms affecting the 

winged seeds of P. msrsupium belonged to Aspergil /us sp. and 

Rhiropus sp. Of them, A. niger , A. f7svus and Rhizopus sp. were 

the prominent ones. In addition, actinomycetes were also recorded 

with an RPI of 100%. Most of the infection started from the wings 

and spread to the centre. 


Carbendazim and HEMC were highly effective in reducing the 

RPI of spermoplane microflora of P. marsupf~m. A. niger W ~ S the 

lonely fungus growing on seeds treated with carbendazim, 

whereas 

Table 9. Effect of fungicides on seed microflora of P.msrsupiutn, 

one day and ninety days after treatment 

Hicrcorgani s ~ s 

recorded 

Percent incidence in rsricus treatrent 

..................................................................... 

Contra? csrbendsil~n IEMC csrboxin nsncozeb 

9 90 0 90 0 90 0 90 0 90 

A. candidus 60.0 65.0 - - - - 

A. flsvus 100.0 100.0 - - - 32,O 38.0 51.0 43.0 

A. niger 100.0 100.0 60.0 65.0 - - 49.9 50.0 - - 

A. ochraceous 70.0 69,5 - - - - - - 12.0 18.5 

Rhiicpus sp. 80,0 70.0 - 51.5 43.5 26.0 25.0 - 

Actinomycetes 100.0 100.0 - - - - 

139

Rhiropus sp. grew on MEMC treated seeds. Mancozeb and carbc-in 

were not effective and two and three microorganisms grew on 

treated seeds, respectively (Table 9) . MEMC, which was effective 

in reducing Rhfropus sp. infection in other indigenous tree seeds 

was 

not effective in the seeds of P. marsupium, perhaps due to 

strainal variation or being a different species. However growth 

of actinomycetes was inhibited by all the fungicides tested. 

8.6.2. Diseases In nurseries 

8.6.2.1. Seedling blight 

Leaf blight caused by Sclerotium rolfsii is a serious 

disease, widely seen in nurseries. Usually this disease appeared 

after the onset of monsoon, i.e. June, and become serious in July 

and August and declines by September-October. Nearly 15% of the 

plants were affected. Usua?ly severe leaf blight was followed by 

stem infection which killed the seedlings. In plants with medium 

or low levels of infection, affected leaves were defoliated and 

growth of the plant is affected. The appearance of small circular 

yellowish brown spots in concentric rings was the initial symptom 

of the disease. The spots later increased in size due to wet 

weather conditions to form larger blighted areas in the leaves 

(Fig. 8). The defoliated leaves thus fall on the ground and by 

contact with stem cwse shoot blight which result in death of 

seedlings. On the affected leaves and stem, white sclerotial 

bodies were also seen, which was identified as Corticium 

r37fsi7 

curzi Sclerctial state Sclerotium rz7fsi:' Sacc. (IMI No.336504). 

Out of the fungicides tested in soil method, TMTD, carboxin 

and MEMC were effective in all the ccncentraticns tested. However 

captan and PCNB were effective only in higher concentrations of 

0.2% a.i. Drenching the beds with MEMC (0.0125 a.i.) or TMTD 

140

(0.2% a.i.) completely controlled the disease and avoided further 

spread. S. ro?fsii is a common soil-borne pathogen and is known 

to infect seedlings of various tree species (Browne, 1968). Leaf 

blight and stem rot of Azadirachta indica (Sankaran et a?. , 

1986), leaf blight of Bombsx ceiba and 8. insigne (Florence et 

a?., 19851, leaf blight of Gme7l'ns srbores (Maria Florence and 

Sankaran 

1987), leaf blight of Pterucargus santalinus (Sankaran 

et 37. ,1984) and leaf spot of teak (Sharma et sl. , 1984) were 

the earlier reports of S. 

ro?fsii causing leaf blight. Generally, 

incidence of leaf blight disease was high when seed beds were 

overcrowded with seedlings, and high soil rnoistgre due to 

excessive watering and thick shade. If proper nursery 

practices 

together with appropriate fungicidal treatments are follcwed, 

this disease can be kept under check. 

8.6.2.2. Leaf spat 

This 

disease was observed in one of the nurseries of State 

Forest Department maintained at Begur (Wynad Division), during 

March of 1988. Premature defoliaticn was observed. Nearly 75% 

of the leaves were affected and shot holes were seen in the case 

of severe infection. Leaves of all stages were equally 

susceptible to infection. Small brown necrotic spots 2-3 mm 

across appeared scattered on the leaflets; sometlmes the necrotic 

tissues were shed leading to the appearance of shot-holes. 

G?umere??a cingurats (Stonem) Spauld & Schrenk 

(IMI No.325768) 

was isolated and identified to be the causal agent of this 

disease. Leaf spot of P. marsupium caused by G. cinqulats is a 

new disease record. This disease could be evaded by avoiding 

crowding of seedlings. Eventhough ca. 75% of the leaves were 

affected, the new flush appearing after the natural leaf shedding 

141

were free from the disease. In case the control measures are 

necessary, a foliar spray of mancozeb (0.1% a.i.1 may be 

at tempted. 


8.6.3.1. Leaf blight 

This disease was observed in many trees at Noolpuzha during 

December, 1988. Almost 50-60% of the leaves were affected and 

severe blighting of leaves was seen (Fig. 9). However, the 

disease was not observed in any other area of the State. The 

affected leaves showed prominent dark brown blighted areas, which 

sometimes, coalesed to form larger blighted areas. Such 

affected 

leaves fa1 1 down prematurely. G?umere? la cingu7eta (Stinem) 

Spsuld 8 Schrenk conidial state of Colletotrichum gloesporioides 

(Penz. ) Penz & Sacc. (IMI No.336503) was isolated from the 

blighted tissues and pathogenecity tests were positive. Leaf 

blight disease of P. marsupium, eventhough serious, was 

observed 

in only one area at Noolpuzha, and this disease was not seen in 

other places surveyed, indicating that this disease might have 

attained serious proportions due to the favourable 

predisposing 

factors present at Noolpuzha, which is in the hlgh ranges of 

Wynad Forest Division. This is a new disease record from P. 

marsupium in Kerala. 


Generally, in P. marsupfun, nodulation was good in Peechi 

soils, where the pH of soil ranged between 6.0 and 6.2. 

Uninoculsted seedlings, after 6 weeks, showed an average of 10 

nodules/plant, 

whi 

e it was 13/plant for 

inoculated seed1 

ngs. 

Similarly, 

it was 

10.77 and 13.5/plant for uninoculated 

and 

142

Table 10. Performance of P. marsupium with and without 

R+izubim inoculation 

Inoculated 

Uninoculated 

Growth parameters 6 weeks 4 months 6 weeks 4months 

after treartment after treatment 

Shoot length (in mm) 124.0 203.85 85.0 172.5 

Root length (in mm) 145.0 261.77 100.0 210.15 

Average no. of nodules 15.0 13.5 10.9 10.77 

Biomass (in gm) 

Fresh weight 1.70 10.53 0.57 5.14 

Dry weight 0.33 2.85 0.10 1.85 

inoculated seedlings, respective y, four months after 

inoculation. Biomass was also more in inoculated seedlings. 

Compared to uninoculated seedllngs noculated seedlings fared 

better indicating that Rhizobiunt pelleting of seeds is effective 

in increasing the number of nodules and biomass (Table 10). 

143

9 . X Y L I A X Y L O C A R P A 

(Irul, Irumullu) 

9.1. BOTANY 


Xy7fa xylocarps (Roxb.) Theob. in Mason Burma ed. Theob. 2: 541. 

1883 & in Taub. Bot. Centralbl. 47: 395. 1891 & in Engl. et 

Prantl, Das Pflanzenr. 3(3): 122. 1903; Gamble, F1. Presid. 

Madras 1: 417.1918; Benn. et Bahadur, Indian For. 104: 621-624. 

1978; Mabberley, Taxon 24: 155. 1985; Ramach. et Nair, Fl. 

Cannanore 172. 1983. 

Mimosa xylocarps Roxb. Corm. P1. 100. 1798 i3 F1. Indica 2: 

543. 1832. 

Inga xplocsrps DC. Prodr. 2: 439. 1825; Wt. et Arn. Prodr. F1. 

Penin. Indiae Orient. 1: 269. 1834. 

Xy7ia dolabrifonis Benth. in Hock. J. Bot. 4: 417. 1844 (nm. 

illeg,); Bedd. F1. Splvat. t. 186. 1869-74; Baker in Hook. f. 

F1. Brlt. India 2: 286. 1878; Rama Rao, F1. P1. Travancore 146. 

1914; Brandis, Indian Tress 262. 1906; Bcurd. For. Trees 

Travancore 134. 1908. 

Type: Not known. 


Irul, Irumulu, Kadamararr,, Kada pangal. 


Deciduous trees, 10-25 m high; bark rough reddish grey; young 

144

parts tomentose, tender leaves dull brawn. Leaves 5.5 - 23 cm 

long, bipinnate; pinnae 2, terminal one 2 - 5.5. cm long; rachis 

with a gland at the apex between the pinnae. Leaflets 2 to 10 

pairs, 3.5 - 16.5 cm x 1.8 - 6.7 cm, obovate, narrowly obovate, 

elliptic, narrowly elliptic, ovate or narrcwly ovate, entire, 

acute, acuminate or rarely obtuse at apex, cuneate, obtuse or 

rarely truncate at base, subcoriaceous, glabrous; petiolules 0.2 

- 0.5 cm long; stipules small, deciduous; stipels absent. 

Inflorescence axillary, peduncled, fascicled or racemose, in 

dense globose heads, 1 - 1.5 cm in diameter; peduncles 5 - 8 cm 

long, slender, on soft, puberulous branchlets with tender leaves, 

thickening in fruit. Flowers creamy-white, light yellow or 

yellowish-white; calyx 0.2 - 0.3 cm long, tubular, campanulate, 

5-lobed, valvate; corolla 0.3 to 0.4 cm long; petals valvate, 

slightly connate at base; stamens 10, free, exserted; filaments 

slender; anthers crested when young, tipped with a stalked and 

early decidous gland; pistil 15 cm long; ovary sessile; sytle 

fillform; stigma minute, terminal; ovules many. Pods 12.5 - 16 x 

3.5 - 6.5 cm, woody, oblong-falcate, oblong or broadly-falcate, 

flat, rusty-tomentose, septate between seeds, finally dehiscent; 

seeds 4 - 10 per fruit, 0.9 - 1.5 x 0.5 -1 cm, oblong-ellipsoid, 

smooth, polished, brown (Figs. 1 Fi 2). 


Dry deciduous forests , specially in rocky, degreded areas. 

9.1 ..5. Phenology 

Flowers from March to May when the trees are mostly 

deciduous, but rarely during February also, Fruits from May to 

December, but maximum during June to September. Frults, after 

145

the 

dispersal of seeds, sometimes hang on the trees during the 

next flowering season (Fig. 3). 

9.1.6. World distrlbutlon 

Peninsular and Central India, extending upto Orissa. 


Thenmala, Punalur, Konni, Ranni, Thekkady, Kottayam, 

Munnar, 

Kothamangalam, Munkulam, Malayattoor, Vazhachal, Chalakudy, 

Trichur, Nemmara, Palghat, Parambikulam, Calicut, Nilambur and 

Wynad Forest Divisions (Fig. 4); not recorded from Trivandrum 

Forest Division. 

9.1.8. Notes 

In forestry circles, there are two timber types, namely 

Iru7 

and Pyinkado, both assaigned to the species Xyl is xy7ocarpa (as 

X. dolabrifurmis) form the Indo-Malayan region. Recently, 

Bennett and Bahadur (7.c.) have identified Pyinkado, a common 

timber of Burma and Indo-Malayan region, as belonging to the 

species Xylia kerrii Crsib et Hutch. (Kew Bu77. 1909: 357. 1909) 

which is not naturally growing in India, eventhough there is a 

trial plantation of it in Assam in North-East India. 

Therefore, 

lrul is the timber solely from the species X. xy7ocsrpa which 

is 

indigenous tc South and Central India and not naturally growing 

in Burma or Malayan Islands. The two closely allied species can 

be differentiated by the following characters. 

Calyx villous outside; petals oblanceolate, mid-nerve 

prominent, the other two nerves faint; ovary villous 

. . . . . . . . X. kerr i i 

7 46

Calyx not villous, more or less pubescent, petals 

narrowly oblong, conspicuously 3 - 5 narved; ovary more or 

less pubescent. 

. . . . . . . X. xy locarps 


Data on variation in length with regard to the 

imparipinnate 

compound leaves and also individual leaflets were gathered from 

15 specimens collected from different parts of the State. Upto 

five data variants were noted from them depending upon their 

availability in each sample. They were compound leaf length, 

length of individual leaflets, breadth of corresponding leaflets, 

length of their petiolules, shape of leaflets, nature of 

leaf 

margins, and charact'ers of leaf and leaflet base and apex. 

Quantitative characters were divided into three class 

intervals each, i.e., 5.5 to 11.3 cm (short), 11.3 to 17.1 cm 

(medium long) and 17.1 to 23 cm (very long) for the length of 

compound leaves, 3.5 to 7.8 cm (short), 7.3 to 12.1 cm (medicm 

long) and 12.1 to 16.5 cm (very long) for leaflet length, 1.8 

to 

3.4 cm (narrow), 3.4 to 5 cm (medium broad) and 5 to 6.7 cm (very 

broad) for leaflet breadth and 0.2 to 0.3 cm (short), 0.3 to 0.4 

cm (medium long) and 0.4 to 0.5 cm (very long) for petiolule 

1 ength. 

Cluster diagram (Fig. 5.1) demonstrates the coincidence of 

. characaters in different groups (clusters) in all the 15 OTUs. 

It may be observed that medium long compound leaves with leaflets 

showing maximum length, maximum breadth and maximum petiolule 

length are mostly narrowly elliptic or ovate in shape, 

entire, 

acute or acuminate at apex and cuneate or obtuse at base. 

Likewise, leaflets with minimum or medium length, medium breadth 

and medium petiolule length form one set and narrowly obovate and 

147


acute apex 20 

obtuse base 24 

very long leaflet 6 

very broad leaflet 9 

entire leaflet 19 

cuneate base 23 

medium long leaf 2 

very long petiolule 12 

acuminate apex 21 

ovate leaf let 17 

narrowly elliptic leaflet 16 

narrowly obovate leaf let 14 

narrowly ovate leaflet 18 

medium long leaflet 5 

medium long petiolule 11 

medium broad leaflet 8 

short leaf let 4 

short petiolule 10 

very broad leaflet 7 

very long leaf 3 

obtuse apex 22 

obovate leaflet 13 

elliptic leaflet 15 

truncate base 25 

short leaf 1 

Fig, 5.1 Phenogram based on coefficient of Jaccard 

of leaf characters of X. xylocarpa from 



Mullaringad 

Vellikulangara 

Nilambur 

Charpa 

flannarappara 

Rann i 

Vazhan i 

Walayar 

Vadasserikara 

Parambikulam 

Orukomban 

Vazhachal 

Palappilly 

Palappilly 

Chungam 

13 

14 

12 

15 

7 

8 

10 

11 

9 

4 

5 

2 

3 

1 

6 


of specimens of X. xylocarpa from 

different Locations in Kerala.

narrowly ovate leaflets form another cluster. Yet another group 

is with obovate and ellliptic leaflets. Compound leaves with 

minimum and maximum length, leaflets with maximum breadth, least 

petiolule length and truncate base or obtuse apex occcr 

independantly and has no correlation with other characters used 

In the analysis. 

In the cluster analysis to assess similarity among specimens 

from different parts of the State (Fig. 5.2), specimens from 

Palappilly, Vazhachal, Prambikulam, Orukomban and Chungam Ranges 

showed similarity at least in 50% of their characters. Similarly, 

specimens from Mannarappare, Ranni, Vadasserikkara, Vazhani, 

Walayar, Nilambur, Mullaringad, Vellikulangara and Charpa from 

another set with at least 50% resemblence. 

Among the total number of samples analysed, compound leaves 

with maximum length (23 cm) were recorded from Chungam Range in 

Parambikulam Division and those with very short compound leaves 

(5.5 cm) were seen in specimens from Palappilly in Chalakudy 

Division. Leaflets with maximum length (16.5 cm) and breadth (6.7 

cm) were also seen for species collected from Chungam Range of 

Parambikulam Division. Leaflets shortest in length (3.5 cm) were 

,collected from Ranni and those with least breadth (1.8 cm) were 

characteristic of Mannarappara collection from Konni Division. 

With regard to petiolule length, in samples from Palappilly, 

Hannarappara, Ranni and Walayar, they were the least (0.2 cm) and 

in Vellikulangara (Chalakudy Division) specimens, it was maximum 

(0.5 cm). 


Pariyaram, Kasaragode, 14.5.198, V.J. Nair 73872 (MH); 

Thaliparamba farm, Malabar, 13.2.1913, C.A. 

Barbar 8682 (MH); 

148

Thaliparamaba, Malabar, 19.5.1906, C.A. Barbar 7756 (MH); 

Thaliparamba farm, Malabar, 12.6.1905, C.A. Barbar 7363 (MH); 

Ambayathodu, Cannanore District, 15.12.1979, V.S. Ramachandran 

65224 (MH); Parappa, Cannanore, 31.12.1980, R. Ansari 70083 (MH); 

Kannoth RF, Cannanore, 25.2.1979, V.S. Ramachandran s.n. (MH); 

Nilambur, Malappuram District, 2.3.1910, J.L. Ellis 33645 (MH); 

KFRI Subcentre Campus, Nilambur, 16.6.1989, K.K.N. Nair 6510 

(KFRI); Nilambur, Malappuram District, 1872, R.H Beddome s.n. 

(MH); Dhoni RF, Palghat, 19.7.1963, J. Joseph 17215 (MH); Walayar 

RF, Palghat Division, 13.6.1989, K.K.N. Nair 6395 (KFRI); Chungam 

Range, Parambikulam Division, 19.5.1988, K.K.N. 


Orukomban Range, Parambikulam, 19.5.1988, K.K.N. Nair 6338 

(KFRI); Parambikulam Range, way to Kuriarkutty, 19.5.1988, K.K.N. 

Nair 6337 (KFRI); Parambikulam submergible ares, 7.4.1963, K. 

Ramamurthy 16140 (MH); Parambikulam Range, 19.5.1988, K.K.N. Nair 

6337 (KFRI); Walayar RF, Pullimanpatti, Palghat District, 

4.9.1975, K.N. Subramanian 5274 (FRI); Anamooly, Mukkali slcpes, 

Palghat, 13.7.1969, E. Vajravelyu 60560 (MH); Mukkali, Palghat, 

27.2.1975, E. Vajravelu 32070 (MH); Adiparanda, Palghat, 

27.2.1975, E. Vajravelu 45776 (MH); Vazhani dam site, Machad 

Range, Trichur, 24.3.1983, K.N. Subramanian 9293 (FRI); Varhani 

dam catchment, Trichur Division, 11.4.1989, K.K.N. Nair 6380 

(KFRI); Peechi dam site, Trichur Division, 20.3.1980, K. 

Ramamurthy 66224 (MH); Peechi Range, Trichur Division, 18.5.1966, 

K.M. Sebastine 27180 (MH); Machad mals RF, Trichur Division, 

6.4.1974, K. Ramamurthy 49238 (MH); Palappilly, Chalakudy 

Division, 23.8.1988, K.K.N. Nair 6313 (KFRI); Kandankuzhi, 

Chalakudy Division, 18.3.1966, K. Ramamurthy 15978 (MH); 

Athirappilly range, Vazhachal Division, 24.3.1988, K.K.N. Nair 

6320 (KFRI); Athirappilly water falls, Vazhachal Division, 

149

17.3.1982, R. Rajan 73040 (MH); Vazhachal, Vazhachal Division 

24.4..1988, K.K.N. Nair 6319 (KFRI); Poringal, Vazhachal 

Division, 17.8.1990, K.K.N. Nair 6527 (KFRI); Vazhachal to 

Sholayar, 23.9.1982, K. Ramamurthy 74753 (MH) ; Kurishumudi, 

Malayattoor Division, 14.2:1970, B.V. Shetty 33506 (MH); 

Valiyakavu, Ranni Range, 22.2.1983, K.N.Subramanian s.n. (FRI); 

Rajampara, Ranni Range, 29.3.1989, K.K.N. Nair 6369 (KFRI); way 

to Sabarimala, Pathanamthitta, Attathodu RF, 26.4.1984, E. 

Vajravelu 80605 (MH); Maniyar, Vadasserikkara Range, Ranni 

Division 29.3.1939, K.K.N Nair 6373 (KFRI); Mannarappara, Konni 

Division, 28.3.1989, K.K.N. Nair 6366 (KFRI); Kumaramperur RF, 

Konni Division,, 13.11.1975, M. Chandrabose 49012 (MH); Yerur RF, 

Punalur, 4.3.1982, K.N. Subramanian & Venkatsubramsnian 8029 

(FRI); Kalathurthy, Thenmala Range, Thenmala Division 8.3.1975, 

K.N. Subramanian 5079 (FRI); Thenmala Range, Sanyasipara, 

Thenmala Division, 8.3.1975, K.N. Subramanian 5079 (FRI). 

9.2. ECOLOGY 

With regard to the ecology of X. xylocarpa, following 

observations could be made in the natural areas of the species in 

Ke rsl a. 

Associations: 




Grew ia- L age rst roem i a 

Good 


One 

150


Sufficient Nos 

(upto 30 cm ht.): 


Unlimited 

(31 cm t o 1 m ht.) 

Sapl ings: 


Mortal i ty rate: 

Remarks : 

Occasional 

Low 

Restricted to lateritic soils. 



X. xylocarpa trees normally grow upto a height of 25 m and a 

diameter of 60 cm. The main bole is very rarely straight and 

cylindrical. Length of straight log from main stem may be 

normally upto 6 m. 

The most common defects are branches, decayed 

branch stubs, fork, fluting and crook. Bole form was 

comparatively better around certain semievergreen areas (Fig. 7) 

of Ranni Division of Southern Kerala. Although no external 

indications are found, the wood is more commonly interlocked- 

* grained. 


The range of basic density observed was 

3 

680.3 kg/m to 

3 3 

807.1 kg/m , the average being 746.6 kg/m . Wyanad in the 

Northern Kerala recorded comparatively lower density. 

Nevertheless, the difference was not statistically significant 

(Table 1). Similarly, the difference in density between the 

151

Table 1. ANOVA of basic density and heartwood percentage 

of X. xylocarpa 

between dlfferent regions and 


Region 2 4368.515 5.433(ns) L 3 234.290 3.812 

Local i ty 2 193.812 0.241(ns) L 3 91.428 1.488(ns) 

Residual 19 804.100 16 61.464 

Total 23 1135.104 20 77.124 

* 


*significant at P = 0.05 level 

three localities of Central Kerala was not significant. On the 

other hand, there was significant variation in heartwood 

proportion between the three regions while the variation 

between 

the localities was not appreciable (Table 1). The heartwood 

percentage showed high positive correlation (R = 0.8065) with 

stem diameter. 


Growth rings are not distinct but 3re detectable in sections. 

Solitary vessels as well as short radial multiples equally 

common, but vessel groups rarely present, heartwood vessels 

blocked by extractives; perforation simple; pits small and 

152

alternate, coalescent pits appearing fusiforrn shaped, pits to 

parenchyma not much distinct from intervessel pits in their 

size 

and distribution but pits to rays arranged in horizontal rows. 

Axial parenchyma vasicentric to aliform confluent, 

sometimes 

forming an incomplete sheath around vessels, parenchyma 

delimiting growth rings present but inconspicuous, diffuse 

parenchyma scanty, fusiform parenchyma rarely present; crystals 

present in chambered cells; extractives abundant in parenchyma 

cel Is. 

Rays 1- to 3-seriate, commonly 2- to 3-seriate, rarely upto 

4-seriate; homogeneous, upto 50 cells high especially when 

fused 

vertically, commonly upto 35 cells high, non-storied; extractives 

abundant but crystals not found. 

Fibres thick walled, both septate and non-septate types 

present although said to be non-septate (Pearson and Brown, 

1932); extractives scanty in fibre 'lumen. 



Ripened seeds were available during Janusry-March. The ripe 

pods were gathered from the ground soon after dehiscence. 

Seeds 

collected by the end of February and beginning of March gave 

maximum germinability. The pods, when sundried, split open 

releasing the seeds which were dried and stored in gunny bags. 


About 4,000 seeds made one kilogram. Sengupta (1937) 

recorded 3,200 - 3,500 seeds/kg from Tamil Nadu. 

153 ,


Fresh seeds gave 72% germination without any pretreatment. 

Germinability of Irul seeds declined after three months of 

storage. 

Dent (1948) reported that seeds remain viable for at 

least one year. However, trials in Tamil Nadu indicated that 

seeds were viable only upto 3 months when stored in gunny bags or 

airtight tins (FRI, 1983). 


Soaking the seeds in cold water accelerated germination (FRI, 

1983). Seeds can be sown in March on raised nursery beds of 12 rn 

X 1.2 m size. About 3-4 kg of seeds were required to cover a 

standard nursery bed of the above mentioned size. Germination 

started on the 3rd day and continued upto 8th day and was over 

within 20 days. When the seedlings attained one month’s growth 

they were pricked out into polythene bags of 17.5 cm X 12.5 cm 

size. Outplanting could be done only during the forthcoming 

season when the seedlings were around 15 months old and about 15 

cm in height (Fig 8). 


9.4.5.1 Survival of seedlings 

X. xp?ocsrpa, in the pilot plantations of 1988, showed a 

survival of 25% after 24 months of growth in the field. 

Similarly, the seedlings recorded an average height growth of 50 

cm during this period (Fig. 6). In the 1989 trials, survival of 

the seedlings was comparatively lower than that of Grewia, 

Ha ?dins, Pterocsrpis and LsgerstremTa, but better than 

A7biris. 

The survival percentage in pure and mixed plantations showed only 

154

minor variation. The species recorded a maximum survival of 63% 

in a 50% mixed plantation of HX. Performance of the species in 

pure plantation and in a 25% mixed plantation of GHPX combination 

was almost similar with 54% survival. Survival of 43-44%, lowest 

among 

all the species was observed in the two 50% combinations 

of PX and AX respectively (Fig. 6). However, the mean survival 

values when statistically analysed showed no significant 

difference between them (Table 2). 

Table 2. Analysis of variance of survival in pure and mixed 

plantations of X. xylocarpa 

Source of 

DF MSS F-Val ue 

vari at ion 

Treatment 

Replication 

Residual 

Total 

4 93.063 0.8722(ns) 

2 8.771 0.0822(ns) 

8 106.702 

14 

ns = not signifcant 

9.4.6. Height growth 

X. xylocarpa seedlings showed lowest height growth when 

compared to all other species in the trial. The variation among 

pure and mixed plantations were also very little and 

statistically non-significant (Table 3). 

155

Table 3. Analysis of variance of height growth in seedlings of 

pure and mixed plantations of X. xylocarpa 

Source of variation DF MSS F-Val ue 

Treatment 4 0.002 0.0769(ns) 

. 


Resi dua 1 8 0.026 

Total 14 

ns = 

not significant 

Maximum height growth of 31 cm was observed in a 50% mixture 

of HX combination. A height growth of 30 cm was recorded in 

mixtures of PX and GHPX, 50% and 25% combinations 

respectively. 

The AX combination, another 50% mixture, showed 29 cm height 

growth while the minimum height (27 cm) was observed in the 

pure 

plantations of X. xylocarpa (Fig. 6). 


Very low mean annual height increment was observed both in 

the pure and mixed plantations of X. xylocarpa. The variation 

was marginal and ranged between 14-18 cm (Fig. 8). The species 

registered better annual height increment in mixed plantations 

than in pure stands. 

The values showed no significant difference 

between the treatments (Table 4). 

156

Table 

4. Analysis of variance of mean annual height increment in 

seedlings of pure and mlxed plantations of X. xylocarpa 

Source of OF MSS F-Val ue 

var i at i on 

Treatment 4 0.008 0.1250(ns) 

Replication 2 6.068 1.0625tns) 


Total 14 



9.5.1. Insect pests in the natural stands 

Eventhough a number of insects were found to be 

associated 

with Xylia trees in their natural stands in Kersla (Table 5), 

none of them caused any serious damage. About 50% defoliation of 

saplings during the months June to October by Oenospila 

quadraria, Sauris sp. nr. cinerosa and Buzura sp. was noticed, 

but the infestation was not serious. Marucs 

testula7is, Agrotera 

bssinotata and Rhodoneurs sp. nr. myrtacese folded the leaves and 

fed from within, 

but the damage never exceeded 25%. All the other 

insects listed in Table 5 caused only minor damages. 

157

Table 5. 

Insects collected from the natural stands of 

X. xylocarpa in Kerala 

-- 


Azanus or related genus Vazhachal Leaf feeding 

(Lepidoptera, Lycaenidae) 

Curet is sp. Vazhachsl, Peechi Leaf feeding 

(Lepidoptera, Lycaenidae) 

Maruca testulal is Geyer Vazhachal, Peechi, Leaf webbing 

(Lepidoptera, Pyraustidae) Nilambur, Erumeli 

Agrotera bas inotsta 

Nilambur 

Leaf webbing 

(Lepidoptera, Pyraustidae) 

Oenospila quadraria 

Vazhachal, Peechi Defoliation 

(Lepidoptera, Geomet ridae) 

Buzurt? sp. 

Vazhachal, Peechi Defoliation 

(Lepidoptera, Geometridse) 

Sauris sp.-nr. 

cinerosa Warren 

Vazhachsl, Peechi Defoliation 

(Lepidoptera, Geometridae) 

Rhodoneura sp. nr. 

mprtacese Orury 

Peechi 

Leaf webbing 

(Lepidoptera, Thyrididae) 


Mild incidence of a few unidentified leaf feeding Insects was 

noticed on 54.6% seedlings of X. xylocarpa in pure plantations. 

158

Table 6. Percent incidence of leaf feeding insects in the 

trial plantations of X. xylocarpa 

PX 0.00 0.50 0,50 0.00 0.00 

AX 0.50 0.00 0.50 0.00 0.00 

XH 0,oc 0.00 0.50 0.50 0.00 

PXHG 0.00 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 

* Figures superscribed by the $ 3 ~ letter are not significantly different 

at 5X 

probability level. 

Among the various mixtures, the 25% mixture (PXHG) was 

completely free from pest incidence by leaf feeding insects 

although 41% to 72% pest incidence was recorded in the 50% 

mixtures (PX, AX and AH). However, the intensity of attack was 

very low and the insects are not considered as potential pests in 

plantations (Table 6). 


No serious pest problem was noticed in the nursery of Xylis 

except for the damage caused by the weevil Indumias hlspidulus 

which attacked the tender foliage of the seedlings leading to 

withering of the leaves. Incidence of this insect was noticed 

throughout the year and the attack was within 12% to 41%, 

depending upon the season. 

159


The seed pest, Caryedon serratus (Coleoptera, Bruchidae), 

caused about 35% damage to stored seeds in a span of 3 weeks. 

Infestation was noticed in samples collected from Palappilly. 




Xylia xylocarpa seeds harboured eleven microorganisms of 

which A. niger, Rhizopus sp. and actionomycetes were the dominent 

ones (Table 7). In addition to these common storage microflora, 

Botrytis sp. and a gram (-)ve bacterium were alsc seen with 

RPI 

of 10-15%. Actinomycetes were also seen profusely growing on seed 

surface as well as on germinating seeds in soil. But they 

caused 

no damage tc the seeds or seedlings. However Rhfzopus sp and A. 

f7avus which were frequently observed on seeds in the soil caused 

rotting and in fact they were the most common microorganisms 

causing rotting of the seeds in nurseries. Other than these 

fungi, no seedling disease of economic importance was seen in 

nurseries. 


Mancozeb and MEMC were found to be effective fungicides 

in 

the elimination of seed mycoflora of X. xylocsrps (Table 8). 

From the seeds treated with both the fungicides, only bacteria 

was observed. But from seeds treated with carbendazim and 

carboxin, 

Rhizopus sp. was seen growing, thereby inferring that 

160

Table 7. Spermoplane microflora and their relative 4; incidence 

on the seeds of X. xy7ocarps 

Microorganisms recorded Relative x: incidence 

Aspergi77us candidus 

A. f7svus 

A. niger 

A. v,ors ico lor 

Botryt is sp. 

Clsdosporium sp. 

F. mon i 7 i famae 

PeniciJlium sp. 

Rhiropus sp. 

Bacteria(-ve) 

Actinomycetes 

16.0 

15.0 

37.5 

20.0 

10.0 

14.0 

10.0 

13.0 

40.0 

15.0 

30.0 

the above two fungicides may not be effective for seed 

dressing. 

Viability of seeds stored for 90 days did not alter 

appreciably, 

in treated as well control seeds. 

. 9.6.2. Dlseases in nurseries 

In nurseries no seedling disease was recorded. However, 

in 

container seedlings, leaf spot and seedling blight diseases were 

recorded. Leaf spot disease which is common in natural stands 

is 

dealt with under 9.6.3.

Table 8. Effect of fungicides on seed mlcroflora of X. xylocarps, 

one and ninety days after treatment 

Hicroorganiss: 

Percent incidence in variogs treatlnent 

recorded 

Control cs:bende!it MEMC carbaxin Mancazeb 

0 90 0 90 0 90 0 90 0 90 

A. niger 37.5 12.0 - - 10.0 10.0 - - 

Rhizops sp, 40.0 3?,0 34.0 32.0 - - 10,c 10.0 - - 

Eacteria (-ye) 15.0 - - 15.0 - - - 2.0 - 

- - - - - - 

Actinocycetes 30.0 40.0 - - 

9.6.2.1. Seedling blight 

The seedlings were to be transplanted into polythene 

containers and maintained for nearly ten months till the next 

planting season. During this period, especially during monsoon 

season, seedling blight was observed in less than 5% of the 

seedlings maintained at Milambur. In severe cases, complete 

defoliation occurred and the whole plant dried. Initially, the: 

leaves became light yellow, and within 3 week, all the leaves 

were affected and the apical portion of seedlings showed wilting. 

162

In severe cases complete defoliation occurred (Fig. 9). 

Rh fzocton is solan i Kuhn. anamorph of Thanatephorus cucunteris 

(Frank) 50nk fIMI No.326296) was found to cause the seedling 

blight. Laboratory screening indicated that carbendszim and 

MEMC 

were most effectitle in inhibiting the growth of the pathogen in 

poison food technique. However, in soil method these fungicides 

were effective only at higher concentrations, viz. 0.2% and 

0.025% a.i., respective y. R. solani is a common soil-borne 

pathogen and is known to parasitize seedlings of various plant 

species, Since no root nfection was observed in the affected 

seedllngs, this strain of R. sclani may be an aerial strain. 

But 

it is neither a serious nor a common disease. 


9.6.3.1. Leaf blight 

Usually this disease was observed during monsoon season 

and 

continued till December. Small dark brown spots were noticed on 

the leaves spread and causing shot holes and affected leaves 

were shed prematurely. All stages of leaves were susceptible 

ca. 20-30% of the leaves were affected. Dull to dark brown 

appeared on the leaves and they enlarged in size and turned 

and 

spots 

dark 

brown with yellowish margins. In some cases the spots coalesed 

covering large portlons, resulting in leaf blight. Colletotrichum 

gloeospurioides (Penz.) Penz 8, Sacc. anamorph of Glcmere? la 

cingulsta (Stonem) Spauld 9( Schrenk (IMI No.328622) was found to 

be associated with the disease. Eventhough the leaf blight 

infection of the leaves of X. xylocsrpa was observed year 

after 

year causing premature defoliation, ,control measures are 

impracticable in the field. 

163 

.

Earlier reports indicated the presence of a stump rot caused 

by Fomes fastusus, Po7yst ictus steinhei 7 7 iances and Trametes 

serpens from Andra Pradesh and Orissa (Hennings, 1901; Anonymous, 

1950). However during the present study, stump rot caused by 

Phelinus sp. is reported from X. xylocarpa in Kerala. 


Performance of X. xylocsrpa with and without Rhizobium 

inoculation is given in Table 9. In general, nodulation was not 

seen in uninoculated seedlings 6 weeks after germination. 

Table 9. Performance of X.xy?ocarpa with and without 

Rhizobium inoculation 

Inoculated 

seed I i ngs 

Uninoculated 

seedlings 

Parameters 

6 weeks 15 weeks 6 weeks 15 weeks 

after 

treatment 

after 

treatment 

Shoot length 150.77 167.0 108.33 149.90 

Root length 184.11 276.66 136.66 197.66 

Average no. of 

nodules 2.55 9.58 - 

4.9 

Biomass(in gm 

Fresh weight 2.30 5.149 2.01 4.873 

Dry weight 0.632 2.81 0.59 1.010 

164

However, nodulation was noticed after 15 weeks. But in inoculated 

seedlings, nodulation as well as biomass production were almost 

double as compared to uninoculated seedlings, indicating the 

effectiveness of the Rhizobium isolate. The pH of soil around 

Peechi was found to be around 6.0 to 6.2 which is close to 

neutral and effective nodulaticn shculd have been cbserved in 

such soils. However, nodulation was seen moderate in uninoculated 

seedlings, perhaps due the insufficient natural Rh i zsb i urn 

population present in the soil. But if inoculation cf specific 

Rhizobium is carried out, it may be possible to increase the 

nodulaticn as well the biomass of X. xylocarpa seedlings. 

165

10. GENERAL OBSERVATIONS 

10. 1. BOTANICAL STUDIES 

In general, all the timber species considered in a plantation 

perspective during the study, are distributed almost 

throughout 

KeraJa, in the mo-ist, or dry deciduous forest tracts. However, 

it 

was observed during field surveys thzt H. cordifulis and X. 

~yv?oc~-apr8 are npt. distributed in Munmr and Trivandrum Forest 

Divisions, respectively. It was alsc evident during the field 

surveys that natural populaticns of all the six specjes are 

fsir?y rich and as compared to the other five species, population 

3f ti. cordifc7ia i n the State 1s poor, so also the regeneration 

status of the species. 

Phenologicsl!y, 

flowering months of A. 

sumrner moiths af Marctt, April and May are the 

cdmstiss?ms, G. ti?iifc?js, L. mfcrocarps 

a~.c! Y. 

xy?oca:-p8. With regard tc P. mar-supium at:d H. cord7fc?fa, 

it is the rs!ny SeZSS:-i that promote f'lower.rni:. Eventhough, 

maturity and ripening periods of fruits vary for each of the 

species, fruiting branches can be seen for a11 the six species 

during September to December. Ripened fruits of most cf the 

species sre ava?:able during December, January or February. 

With regsrd to variation in leaf characteristics, cluster 

analysis bad shown that there is no definite pattern of 

similarility or co-existence of either different characters or 

resemblence among specimens form different regions of the State. 

166

10. 2. ECOLOGICAL STUDIES 

10.2.1. Regeneration and climate 

Important climatic factors that affect the regeneration of 

trees 

are mean temperature of the coldest month of the year 

and 

annual precipitation. 

The months with precipitation ranging from 

25-100 mm is usually considered 8s dry months (Meher-Homji, 

1979). This is in accordance with the definition 3f Bagnculs and 

Gaussen (1957) and is true for India (Meher-Hcmji, 1955). On the 

analysis of Ombrotherms (Meher-Hmji, 1979), the alternation of 

rainy season and dry season, a phenomenon so typical of the 

tropical climate, is very clear. The sharp alternation of dry and 

wet season is baneficial to regeneration, because the fruits 

which are shed towards the beginning of the dry season weathers 

during that season, soak in the pre-monsoon showers of April-May, 

dries out in the monscon break that follows and finally soaks 

again by the monsoon. If the break between the pre-monsoon and 

monsoon is tcc long, then there is every chance that the seeds 

whose germination would start in the pre-monsoon rain w i l l die 

(Seth and Kaul, 1978). The alternation of dry and wet season 

can 

be observed in study areas 

identified also. 

10.2.2. Structural and functional variations 

The 

structural and functional variations are related to the 

development phase of stands or groups of trees. This variation 

is largely controlled by destructive forces causing openings 

tn 

the forest. Gaps caused by lightenings and wind usually occupy 

between 0.5% and 3% of the area (UNESCO, 1978). The size of the 

gap and regeneration determine the nature and sequence of 

floristic and architectural structure. The knowledge of this 

167

kind and complexity of variation in relatlon to the avallable 

flora is essential for the assessment of variation in function. 

Hence the structural aspects of the selected sample plots were 

studied. The species selected for the present regeneration study 

are the components of moist deciduous, and to a limited extent, 

dry deciduous vegetation types. The moist deciduous forests, as 

the name denotes is in leafless condition, especially the upper 

canopy, during the dry season, ie. from January to March. Before 

the onset of rains, a large number of trees come to new leaf. 

Since annual fire is a common feature in such areas, it plays an 

important role in regeneration of tree species. With regard to 

the vegetational structure of the study area, the top canopy 

species comprises of A?bizia odoratissims, 

A lstonis scho?sris, 

Grewia ti?iifclis, Dalbergis sp., Haldina cordifo?ia, 

Largerstrcemis microcarpa, Mi 3 iusa tomentosa, Pterocarpus 

marsupium, Tectona grandis, Terminalia bellerica and Xylia 

xy locsrpa. Of them, species 1 i ke Pterocarpus marsup ium and 

A lbizis odoratissims show scattered distribution, whereas the 

other species mentioned above are cmon in most of the 

localities. The lower canopy species consists of plants like 

Bride7ia s9umosa, Carey8 srbores, Cassia fistula, etc. mostly 

of less valuable timber species. Xy? is xylocarps, Grewis 

ti 7 iifcfia and Lsgerstroemia microcarpa often form dominant 

communities in most of the study plots, whereas Pterocarpus 

marsupium and A7bizia odorstissima are of rare occurrence 

throughout. The restricted distribution of Xy7is xylocuprps, in 

the lateritic soils of central Kerala is noteworthy. This 

species is highly dwinant in the Kuriyarkutty study plat of 

Parambikulam Division. With regard to tree density, all the 

sample plots are medium dense in nature and there is no 

168

'character species' for the area. With respect to the biotic 

interference, the Bavali plot in Wynad region is highly disturbed 

partially due to selectlve extraction of timber species and 

partly due to annual fire, whereas in Vazhani area firewood 

collection and cattle grazing are the major biotic factors. The 

Thellikkal plot and Kuriyarkutty plot in Parambikulam Oivision 

and Peruvannamuzhy plot in Wynad Oivision are comparatively ?ess 

disturbed. The relative removals have a direct bearing on 

regeneration (Rai, 1989). This is true in Bavali area of 

northern Kerala, where, trees of one or two species of and above 

certain dimensions were selectively removed. 

10.2.3. Species composition and vegetation status 

From the evaluation of vegetation status of each of the study 

area, it was clear that Vazhani and Parambikulam in central 

Kerala are more or less similar in vegetation structure and 

species composition. The major species found in the area and the 

dominants and sub-dominant ones are the same . Species like 

Fagerstrcernis microcarpa, Xy ? i3 xy locarpa and Grewia 1 i ? I i fo 1 ia 

are of common occurrence. The XyJia dominant Kuriyarkutty releve 

and non-availability of Xy?is in Thellikkal releve, etc. are 

exceptional features observed. Similarly, the Bavali and 

Peruvannamuzhy stands are of uniform phytosociological status. 

Almost all typical moist deciduous species are observed in the 

releves irrespective of the locality and distribution of the 

spec i es . 

10.2.4. Germination status 

Yet another aspect which received attention is the 

germination status of the six selected species in field 

169

conditions. Most of the moist deciduous species germinate 

immediately after natural stratification, but many newly 

germinated seedlings fail to survive because of the low 

moisture 

level and high temperature. Thls phenomenon is true to some 

extent, at least in the case of Ha’Idina. The time of seedfall and 

the length of time the seed is exposed to dormancy breaking 

conditions influence the germination capacity of seeds and 

survival percentage of seedlings. Hence, a very detailed 

phenological study of the species is much desired. 

10.2.5. Soil moisture status 

Soil moisture is another bioclimatic factor determining 

species compositicn and their dominance. Many of the hardwood 

species in moist deciduous forests are shallow rooted. 

In forest 

situations, more than 90% of the feeder roots of trees are 

distributed in the top three or four inches of soils. The 

lached 

A?: horizons usually prevents any significant root development and 

penetration into underlying regions. 

This restricts soil water 

availability to young seedlings. 

Forest disturbances or draught 

that tend to dry out the upper soil layer may affect small 

seedling stands, profoundly on soils that have shallow rooting 

zones because of leached layer, high ground water or bed rock 

(Tubbs, 1977). The soil is extremely dry and temperature regime 

is on the higher side in the study plots, with low noisture 

content. Antong the species considered, only species with high ’ 

ecclogical efficiency’ like Xy7!’s, Grewi8 and Lsgerstroemia are 

able to withstand to some extent arid hence having fairly good 

regeneraticn in the area, whereas species like HEId7,73, 

A?bizia, 

etc. show pmr regeneration (Table 1). Although there is an 

optimum corcbination of light, moisture and temperature for each 

170

in five stud;, plcts selectcd in Central and North Ker-a?? 

Spec i es 

.. . . 

x. xylocarpa 

G. tiliifolia 

L. 13 i c:-ocdrpa 

H. cordifclia 

A. ::Cjor'at?ssi.::3 

P. marsupfum 

.......... .- 

...... - . .... __ __.__. 

. .......... 

.- 

X Regeneration 

171

10.2.6, Tolerance 

Tolerance of a specie:, 

factor that received attention in the 

to var ying 1 ight conditions i s another 

present regeneration 

studies. Only a particular set of combinations which ensure 

filtered light and partial shade t o the young seedlings support 

regeneration (Rai, 1989). 

The distinct periodicity of moist 

deciduous forest species makes the system more complex. 

initial growth of the seedlings in shades of other trees is more 

in many places, but the subsequent growth i s retarded because of 

lack of light due to thick undergrowth, as observed in 

Parambikulam region in Central Kerala or due to more light 

available due to large canopy openings as observed in Vazhani 

area. It was also observed that many of the seedlings can 

survive for a lrng period without considerable growth increment. 

The 

The 

general behsviour of tree seedlings under various 1 ig!jt 

ccnditions deper?ds on nmiy site factors, such as moisture, 

temperature and nutrients, as they are reflected by 

seed bed, 

x i 1:. x:5 sn:ou::t and ccmpositic!-: of over-storey as we1 1 as 

competitive potential of other pls.nts. The scattered 

distribution and community format r x of one of the selected 

species, ie. X. xplocarps in central Kersla is thus partly due to 

the 

scil characteristics and is ev dent by the lateritic soil 

composition in Euriyarkutty study site. The 

dist ributio:: a:-td regeneration of X. xylc~~zrpa ir, 

high and patchy 

the Ce~tra? 

Eerala region can be accounted by this pt-lenomzn. Similarly, the 

3c:w seedling rate of A7bizis anc! Ha?di!?a species c3:: alsc be 

attr’buted to the lob: 1 ight conS?tion in The1 1 Ikksl and 

Pe!-u:fa:tnamuzhy study plots , d-~e:e s!-c:d:-:~ biegetatiz:: 1s mcc!-~ 

mre, which ofte:? prevents the i!iit?a! gr-cv:th of seed? itiy:,. 

T!-:L~:.

constraints and low lighting condition due to ground coverage are 

some of the limiting factors affecting regeneration of Haldins 

and A7bizia in these areas. In Pterocsrpus , the situation is 

slightly different. Here, the major limiting factor is not 

temperature and light conditions, but the distribution. This 

species can be found throughout Kerala, restrlcted in 

distribution to specific localities like Chinnar Wildlife 

Sanctuary in Central Kerala. The rocky terrain and dry 

bicclimatic condition of this area can be one of the reasons 

the restricted and localized distribution of the species. 

for 

Thus, 

the low regeneration rate of this species in north and central 

region of Kerala can be correlated to the rare occurrence of 

parent trees (limiting seed source) in the area. 

The fairly good regeneration of Grewia and Lsgerstroemia in 

south, central and northern Kerala is due to many factors. The 

phytosociological study on the distribution status obtained 

from 

species abundance-frequency ratio (Fracker and Brischle, 1944) 

reveals that their distribution is more uniform throughout Kerala 

and often form dominant communities in many localities. Thus, 

the availability of sufficient quantity of seeds and high 

ecological efficiency of the species to exposure to adverse 

conditions are some factors governing their regeneration. 

10.2.7. Blotic interferences 

From 

species 

field observations, it was evident that even for those 

with high rate of regeneration, the mortality rate is 

much more in later stages. The percentage of seedling height 

class is more in the initial stages, ie. up to 30 cm range and 

decreases as they grow . This phenomenon can be assigned only to 

the high degree of biotic interference such as grazing, removal 

173

of ground cover etc. for various purposes. This is ev1mc-t from 

the observations made in the Bavali study plot in North Kerala, 

where periodical ground clearing and ground fire are of common 

occurrence. 


Bole form is one of the main considerations apart from wood 

properties while assessing the timber quality of a species 

because highly defective logs lead to loss in both quality and 

quantity of timber. At least some such undesirible traits which 

frequently occur in natural populations of various species seem 

to be controllable in partially controlled conditions such as a 

plantation If appropriate management practices are adapted. 

Therefore, it is essential, as a first step, to identify these 

traits which require particular attention from the point of view 

of improving timber qua7ity. 

Among the six species, L. microcarpa and H. cordifo7ia and to 

scne extent, A. sdoratissima can be ranked as comparatively less 

defective. Defects are more prevalent in G. tfZiifo7ia. The 

growth-related defects common to almost all the species are fork 

and branches. The former can be found at any height level of 

trees, even below breast height level in extreme cases. On the 

cther hand, presence of branches in the stem bole is very common 

in X. 

xpfccarpa but less predominent in rest of the species. 

However, G. tiliifo7ia often produces new shoots from 

adventitious bud clusters. Some of the defects like branch 

stubs, butt scars, decay cavities and exposed sapwood in 

different species originate as a consequence of mechanical injury 

174

to living trees due to various reasons like biological organisms 

or other natural phencmena. 

Among the six timber specles studied, wood density was the 

highest for X. xylocarps and lowest for L. microcarpa. H. 

cordifolis had almost the same density as L. microcarpa. 

E!sslc 

density of no timber was found to vary between different regions 

of the State or betgeen the three localities of Central 


This 

indicates that climatic or other site factors are not much 

different between these regions so as to affect the wocd 

characteristics. Various studies carried out in this regard, 

mostly on softwoods and a few hardwoods, have shown contrasting 

results. While a few Investigations have shown no significant 

difference between different locat!ons (Taylor, 1975; Tsoumis and 

Panagiotidis, 1980), a number of studies have indicated 

appreciable variaton in density (Harris, 1977; Purkayastha et 

al., 1984). 

It has been suggested that environment, particularly 

the climatic factors, are more correlated to density 

(Purkayastha et al., 1973). 

The proportion of heartwood which is another parameter of 

wood quality, was not found to be significantly variable between 

the different regions and localities. 

The significant difference 

obtained between localities for P. marsufiium, and between regions 

for X. xylocarpa is probably due to difference in average age 

or 

maturity of the sampled trees. This conclusion is further 

supported by the high correlation obtained between heartwood 

percentage and stem diameter. It is generally accepted that the 

heartwood formation is an sge-related change. Therefore, Its 

proportion is often found correlated with tree age or stem 

dlameter (Carrodus, 1912; Gown et al., 1984). 

175

Yet another significant observation made during the present 

study concerns the lnterrelatlonship between the growth ring 

width and tissue proportion. Both in the diffuse porous G. 

tiliifo7is and semi-ring porous 1. microcarpa, increase in ring 

width is accompsnied by increase in fibre proportion and decrease 

in vessel and parenchyma percentage. Thus the results partly 

agree with ezrlier observations by Taylor (1975) on sycamore and 

black willow. On the other hand, observations on teak (Rao, et 

a]., 1966) have shown no definite relationship between ring width 

and tissue proportions. The present observations, however, 

indicate that faster rate of growth has the likelihood of ' being 

advantageous as compared to slow growth from the point of view of 

fsvourable wood quality characteristics. 


Seeds of all the six indigenous species were collected frm 

Nilambur and/or Peechi forest divisions. Since the seed 

production is during January-June every year, unless the seeds 

are ripe and ready by Feburary-March, outplanting may not be 

possible the same year. In that case, the seedlings may be 

retained in the nursery upto the next planting season. Sturdy 

seedlings will only ensure higher survival in the field. 

Quantity cf seeds required for a standard nursery bed will alsc 

vary as per the germination capacity of the seeds. The size of 

the polyethene bags to be used depends on the duration to which 

the seedlings are to be maintained in the nursery. Larger bags 

will enable better and healthy root growth especially when the 

176

seedlings are to be maintained in the nursery for longer 

periods 

and w i l l also ensure higher survuval rate in the field. 

As a thumb rule, a plantation with a stocking of above 70% is 

considered as successful and those upto 40% stocking as 

moderately successful (Qureshi, 1968). 

study indicate that pure and mixed plantations of G. 

Results from the present 

tiliifolia, 

H. cordffolis and P. msrsupium with a stocking of above 70% can 

be regarded as successful plantations. 

Among the pure plantations, G. ti?iifoJis recorded the 

highest survival followed by H. cordifolia and P. msrsupium. 

However, the performance of H. cordifoJis and P. mars~~pium Is 

better in mixed plantations than in pure stands whereas the 

reverse was the trend with G. tiliifolis. A general observation 

from the present study is that seedlings showed higher 

survival 

rates in 25% mixed plantations than 50% mixtures. This is true 

with ti. cordifolis and P. marsupium. Among the 50% mixed 

plantations also higher survival is observed in mixtures with H. 

cordifo7ia or P. msrsupium, thus confirming the superiority of 

these species over the rest (Fig. 1). 

In the second category of plantations (survival between 40- 

70%) are included the pure and mixed plantations of L. microcarpa 

. 

and X. xy?ocarpa. However, the highest survival in this category 

is recorded for P. msrsupium in two mixtures of AP and PX. This 

also gives an indication that P. marsupium is the species to be 

preferred to A. odoratissima and X. xy?ocarps. In terms of a 

higher survival percentage, X. xylocarpa performed moderately 

good in the pure and 25% mixed plantations. 

A. odoratissima showed very poor survival in pure and mixed 

plantations. This may probably be due to the frequent and heavy 

infestations by pests. The pure plantation of the specles 

177

Fig. 1 

Percentage sur vival 

after 13 months of planting 

Percentage aur vival 

__ 

I00 p - 

- -7 

Species combination 

I 1 22 

a! 

I1 

! 23 242526 

1. HP-H 

2. AGHP-H 

3. G 

4. HX-H 

5. GHPX-P 

6. AGHP-G 

7. GHPX-H 

8. AGHP-P 

9. HP-P 

10. GHPX-G 

11. H 

12. AH-H 

13. P 

14. AP-P 

15. PX-P 

16. HX-X 

17. L 

18. X 

19. GHPX-X 

20. PX-x 

21. Ax-x 

22. AP-A 

23. AH-A 

24. AGHP-A 

25. AX-A 

26. A 

Fig. 1. Survival percentage of the seedlings of the six 

tried in pure and mixed plantation experiments. 

species

ecorded only 4% survival confirming the susceptibility of 

this 

species to pests. 

According to Qureshi (1988), mean annual height increment 

(MAHI) of above 60 cm is the standard for a species to qualify 

it as fast growing during the early years of growth. In the 

present study faster growth is observed in pure plantations of G. 

ti?iifo?is, H. cordifo7ie and 1.microcarpa. The MAHI of H. 

cordifolia is better in 25% mixed plantations than in the pure 

stands. However, H. cordifolie showed better growth in pure 

pl antat ions 

also. A general trend with 

regard to MAHI 

is that 

this 

spec 

es performs better both n pure and 25% mixed 

plantations 

(Fig. 2). 

of 

None of 

species 

the pure plantations appeared in the second 

category 

with moderately fast growth. In the case of H. 

cordifulia and P. marsupfum, 25% mixed plantetions showed 

better 

growth than their 50% mixtures. 

Pure plantations of P. marsupium, X. xy?ocsrpa and A. 

odorat issima recorded poor height increment. 

P. msrsupiuln in the 

mixed plantations showed better growth than in its pure 

plantations. Eventhough A. odcratissima showed faster rate of 

growth in a 25% mixture, general performance of the species in 

other combinations was poor. X. xylocarpa also confirmed its 

slow 

growth during initial stages of growth in the plantation 

trial. 


10.5. Pest problems in nurseries 

Incidence of insect pests is an important factor which

precludes the successful establishment of plantations. Data 

gathered in this regard during the study indicate that 3 out of 

the 6 species tried were moderately to heavily susceptible to 

various nursery pests. They are A. udoratissima attacked by an 

unidentified Psyllidae, Pterocarpus marsupium attacked by the 

psyllid Spsnioneurs sp. and L. microcarpa attacked by an 

unidentified species of mite. A l l the other species studied 

were almost free from my major pest damage. 

10.5.2. Pest problems in trial plantation 

With regard to pest attacks, both in the pure and mixed 

plantations trials, the trend was almost similar to that of the 

nursery experiment. The very same insects which affected the 

nusery seedlings were also found to attack the field planted 

seedlings. Due to pest incidence, saplings of A. udoratissima, 

P. marsupium and L. microcarpa suffered serious damage in 

monoculture. However, the incidence rate of these insects in 

various mixtures could not be fully evaluatead due to insufficent 

data. In natural stands G. tiliifglr’a, H. cordffo7ia and Xylia 

xylocarpa were found to be only occasionally attacked by insect 

pests - G. ti?iifo?is by the Ieafwebber Lygropr’s orbinvsabis, H. 

cordifolia by the leaf roller Parotis vertumnalis as well as 

the 

defoliator Epip7ems qusdricsudsts and X. xylocarpa by the 

, defoliators Oenospila quadraria, 8ugura sp. and Ssuris sp. nr. 

Cirurusa. 

Although no instance of large scale build up by any of 

the above mentioned insects was noticed in the trial 

plantations, the possibility of their assuming pest status in 

subsequent phases of growth cannot be ruled out. Only continued 

observations w i l l yield enough data to conclude whether or not 

179

Fig. 2 

M A H I (in cm) 

140) 

120 - 

100. 

Mean annual height increment 

after 13 months of planting 

80. 

60 . 

40. 

20. 

n 

u- 

1 2 3 4 6 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 192021 2223242526 

Species combination 

1. 

2. 

3. 

4. 

5. 

6. 

7. 

8. 

9. 

AGHP-G 

AGHP-A 

GHPX-G 

G 

L 

H 

HX-H 

GHPX-H 

GHPX-P 

10. 

11. 

12. 

13. 

14. 

15. 

16. 

17. 

AGHP-H 

HP-H 

AH-H 

AGHP-P 

AP-P 

HP-P 

PX-P 

AP-A 

18. 

19. 

20 - 

21. 

22. 

23. 

24. 

25. 

26. 

AH-A 

P 

AX-A 

HX-X 

PX-x 

GHPX-X 

AX-X 

X 

A 

Fig. 2. Mean Annual Height Increment of the seedlings of 

different species in pure and mixed plantation trials.

any of the insects recorded during the study from natural 

stands 

w i l l become potentially serious pests In plantatlons. 

Another observation made during the study was that, despite 

severity of attack, none of the pests seen in the natural 

stands 

seriously affected their growth. This is possibly due to the 

natural balance operating in natural forests, where natural 

mortality factors play 3 major role in regulating pest outbreaks 

beyond a certain limit. The extent of structual diversity 

attained in man-made plantations is good enough to create such 

a 

balance leading to natural regulation of insect pests beyond a 

limit. 

Data gathered during the study indicate that pests adversely 

affect the successful establishment of nursery seedlings as 

well 

as saplings. Therefore, adequate chemical protection is 

essential during the initial phases of plantation raising. 

Once 

the seedlings are established, it w i l l be appropriate 

them without any chemical treatment so as to enable 

to leave 

the natural 

pest mortality factors to become operational. 


10.6.1. Seed patholgical studies 

Seed pathology of the six species investigated has shown that 

the magnitude of attack on seeds by spermoplane micrcflora is 

varied. L. micrccarpa seeds harbour only two pathogens whereas 

X. xylocarpe had a maximum number of eleven species affecting 

seed viabillty. As?ergi77us sp. and Rhlropus sp. were the most 

commor? fungi attacking seeds of all the specles except L. 

microcarpa, where it was a gram (-)ve bacterium. Most of the

spermoplane orgaanisms were confined to seed surface and a few 

species of Aspergi77us, PeniciI lium and Rhizopus pentrated the 

seeds and caused seed rotting. Seed dressing with fungicides was 

effective in controlling the spermoplsne microflora of all the 

six species studied. In general, carbendazim, MEMC and mancozeb 

were the effective fungicides. 

10.6.2. Diseases In nurseries 

In general, only very few serious diseases were observed in 

nurseries. A. odorstissims and G. tiJiifoJis were the two species 

without any seedling disease. In the case of the remaining fotlr 

species seedling diseases were mainly due to soil pathogens 

like Pyth:’um sp. and Rhiroctonia soJsni, for which adequate 

control measures are suggested in the report. MEMC (0.01?5/a.i.) 

as a soil drench was found to be effective in checking the spread 

of the above mentioned pathogens in most of the cases. 


Root nodulstion studjes pertaining to the leguminous species 

included in the study indicated that pelleting the seeds with 

local Rhirobium sp. is effective in enhancing the number of 

nodules and thereby the biomass. 


In addition to the few leaf and stem diseases causesd by 

fungi, mistletoe attack was prevalent in the natural stands of 

two species namely vir. A. 

odoratissima and G. tiliifo7ia. 

181

11. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 

11 . 1 . A 76 iz ia odorat iss ima (Kunn i -vaka) 

This tree species is almost free from disease problems at seed, 

seed ing and plantation trial stages. 

Better performance of the 

seed ings can also be ensured by Rhizobium application. 

Further, 

log quality of the timber of A. oduratissima is found to be 

better as compared to the other five species investigated in 

this project. But, in plantation, the species can not be 

considered as 'fast growing' and survival percentage of seedlings 

is also comparatively low. Pest attack was severe on the 

seedlings of this species, both in nursery and in the 

plantation 

trial experiments. For raising seedlings in bulk, availability 

of seeds from the natural stands is essential and as shown by the 

* 

natural distribution of the species in the State, there wlll 

not be any constraint in procuring the same from the natural 

stands. 

Ecologically, the species is well suited to the moist 

deciduous tracts of the State, where forest plantations are often 

raised. Based on the observations made during the study, the 

species is recommeded to be grown in mixtures, with species 

like 

G. ti7iifel is, and proper pest management stratagies as 

suggested in this report may be adpoted in the seedling stage, 

both in nursery and 

in plantation. 

11.2. Grewia ti7iifolia (Chadachi) 

During the investigation on the plantation potential of 

this 

tree, mistltoe attack and defective log quality noted in the 

natural stands are the only two negetative aspects identified, 

182

which can be regulated by proper silvicultural and management 

practices when raised on a large scale as plantations. 

Otherwise, the tree belongs to the category of 'fast growing' 

as 

proven by the plantation trial experiment. Very high survival 

rate of out-planted seedlings and resistence to serious 

pests 

and diseases at all stages of plantation raising are the salient 

features of this species. In addition, the species performs 

very well 

both as monoculture and in mixtures among the species 

considered, eventhough it performed better in mixtures rather 

than in monoculture. Seed availability frcm the natural stands 

w i l l also be very good as Grewis trees are well distributed 

almost throughtout the State in the moist deciduous tracts, and 

is ecologically suited to degraded forest gaps and tracts. 

11.3. Haldina cordifolis (Manja-kadambu) 

Results of the nursery and plantation trial experiment 

have 

shown that Haldu trees, a class one plywood species, is a very 

potential plantation species for Kerala, mainly because it has 

proved to be 'fast growing' in plantation trial and is almost 

free from seed disorders, seedling defects and disease and 

pest 

attacks in plantation. Survey of the natural stands of the 

species has also proved that log quality of its timber is 

very 

good. As shown by the study, a mixed plantation of P. marsupium 

and H. cordifolia w i l l be ideal and more productive. Seed 

collection and handling is very easy and seed germination 

percentage 

is quite high. Moist dec 

duous forest tracks of the 

State can be choosen as areas for 

. @ 

cordifolis either as monoculture or 

raising plantations of H. 

n 

mixtures, preferably with 

P. marsupium. 

183

11.4. Lagerstroemia microcarpa (Venthek) 

This is proved to be a disease free tree species in seed, 

nursery and plantation trail stages, but with serious pest 

problems both in the nursery and in the plantation trial 

experiment. If pest attack can be controlled at various 

stages, 

being a species proved to be 'fast growing' in the 

plantation 

trial experiment with very good log quality in the natural stands 

can prove itself to be a very potential species suited for 

reising on a large scale in the moist decidous tracts of the 

State. Seed source is also very promising as Venthek trees are 

common throughout the moist decidous forests of the State and 

procuring and handlings of large quantities of seeds is also 

not 

difficult. 

11.5. Pterocarpus marsupium (Venga) 

In mixtures, especially with H. curdifu7ia, Venga can be 

safely recommended for raising plantations in Kerala. Survival 

percentage of seedlings is quite high in the case of field 

planted propagules. Potential pests and diseases 

affecting the 

seed and seedling stages cf the species are also very few and 

those present can be controlled easily by using pesticides or 

fungicides, as recommended in this report. Further, Rhirobium 

application can ensure a better performance of the seedlings 

in 

plantation. Log quality of the timber, as assesed from its 

natural stands, is also promising. Further, the seed source of 

the tree at present is very good. However, it has been 

observed in the field that both in the flowering stage and also 

at seed setting period, there are potential pests which cause 

184

damage to the seeds, often eating them away on the tree itself. 

Otherwise, as Pterocarpus trees are common at present in the 

moist decidous forests its seed availability is quite good for 

raising seedlings in bulk. The species is suited for raising 

plantations in the moist decidous areas of the State. 

11.6. XyIia xy?ocarpa (Irul) 

Eventhough seedlings of Irul outplanted in the 

plantstlon 

trial plot at Nilambur showed very high survival rate, their 

growth was rather slow and could not be ranked as 8 "fast growing 

species". Further, a maximum number of pathogenic microflora were 

seen infesting the seeds of this tree species causing seed 

disorders. However, pest attack is rare both for seeds and 

seedlings in the nursery and tria? plantation, as compared to the 

other five species studied. Density of wood is comparatlvely the 

highest for the species and ?og qua1 ty of timber as assessed 

from the natural stands is rather good 

In plantation experiment, 

the species performed better in monocu ture than in mixtures and 

can be considered for large scale raising in degraded forest 

tracts and forest gaps with poor and rocky soil. Seeds are 

available 

in plenty from the natural stands, but its collection 

in large quantities can be ensured only by a careful obsearvation 

of their maturity time, as the seeds get dispersed to distances, 

by the elastic breaking of the fruits while attached to the 

parent tree. If the log quality of this timber tree can be 

improved by suitable sllviculural and management practices, it 

can form a highly poential suitable species for plantation 

growth in Kerala, as it requries only poor sites and local demand 

for Irul wood is c;u!te high. 

185

12. LITERATURE CITED 

Anonymous, 1950. List of cmon names of plant diseases. Indian 

J. Agric. Sci. 20: 107-142. 

Agnihothrodu, V. 1960. Melioia albizziae Hansford et Delighton 

from Assam. Curr. Sci. 20: 149. 

Agnihothrodu, V. 1964. Notes on fungi from North-East India - 

XXII. Some spp. of Hypoxylon from Assam. Mycopsth. et Mycol. 

App?. 23: 111-117. 

Austin, M.P. 1977. Use of ordination and other multivariate 

descriptive methods to study succession. Vegetatio 35 (3):165- 

175: 

Bagnouls, F. and Gaussen, H. 1957. Less climates bioligiqus et 

leur classification. Ann. Geogr.'355:135-220. 

Bains, S.S. and Jhooty, J.S. 1983. Sensitivity of 

fungitoxicants, cultural behaviour and pathogenicity of 

Rhizoctonia isolates, naturally occurring in Punjab. Indian 

J. Ecol.10: 214-278. 

Bazzaz, F.A. 1984. Dynamics of wet tropical forests and their 

species strategies. In: E. Median, H.A., Mooney, C. Vezquez- 

Yanes (eds.) Physiological Ecolcgy of Plants of the Wet 

Tropics. The Hague. pp. 223-243. 

Bakshi, B.K. 1976. Forest Pathology. Principles and Practices in 

forestry. FRI and Colleges, Dehra Dun, 400p. 

Barefoot, A.C. and Hankins, F.W. 1982. Identification of Modern 

and Tertiary Woods. Oxford University Press, U.K. 

Barua, K.C, Barua, G.C.S and Satyanarayanz, G. 1982. Uredinale 

rust of A. odorstissima Benth. Twc and a Bud 29(1): 21-22. 

Beeson, C.F.C. 1941. The Ecology and Control of the Forest 

Insects of India and the Neighbouring Countries. Vasant Press, 

Dehra Dun. 767 p. 

Bennett, S.S.R. and Bahadur, K.N. 1978. Botanical identity of 

Pyinkado and Irul. Indian For. 104: 621-624. 

186

Bose, S.R. 1919-28. Description of fungi in Bengsl. J.Dept. Sci. 

Calcutta Univ. 9: 27-44. 

Eowne, F.G. 1968. Pests and Qfseases of Forest P7antation Trees. 

An snnctated 7ist of principal species occurring in the 

British Commonwealth. Clerendon Press, Oxford. 1330 pp. 

Braun-Blanquet, J. 1932. Plant Sociology. English ed. Mcgraw- 

Hill, New Ycrk. 

Carrodus, B.E. 1972. Variability in the proportion of heartwood 

formed in woody stems. New Phytol. 71: 713-718. 

Chandra, S. and Tandon, R.N. 1965. Three new folico!ws fungi. 

Curr. Sci. 34: 257-260. 

Chauhan, L. and Dayal, R. 1985. 

IAWA 8~77. (n.s.) 6:213-218. 

Wood anatomy of Indian Albizias. 

Cooke, C.D. 1901. Flora of the Presidency of Bumbay. Vol. 1. 

London. 

COWR, D.J., Love, J.G., McConchie, D.L. and Colbert, C. 1984. 

Wood properties of Radiata pine in some forests of Bay of 

plenty/Taupo Region. For. Res. Inst. Bull. (N.Z.) No. 31. 

da Costa G.C. and Mundkur, B.B. 1948. A revision of the genus 

Phy7losticta in India. Proc. Natl. *Inst. Sci. India 14: 55- 

63. 

Das, G.M. and Sen Gupta, N. 1960. On the biology of Rhesala 

moestalis Walker (Lepidotera: Nelctuidae) - a serious pest of 

nursery and young shade trees in tea in Horth-East India. 

Kndian Agri. 4: 95-103. 

Dent, T.V. 1948. Seed storage with particular reference to the 

storage of seeds of Indian forest plants. Indian For. Rec. 

* (R.s.) Silviculture ?(I): 1-134. 

Evans, J. 1982. Plantation Forestry in the Tropics. Clarenden 

Press, Oxford. 

Fracker, S.B. and Brischfe, H.A. 1944. Measuring the local 

distribution of Ribes. Ecology 25: 283-303. 

F.R.I. 1981, 1983, 1984, 1985 The Silvicu7ture of Indian Trees. 

Vo? 3, 4, 5 S 6 ((Revised ed.). FRI and Colleges, Dehra Dun. 

197

Ghosh, S.K.,Balasundaran, M and Mohamed All, M.I. 1984. Studies 

on the Host Parasite Re lat ionship of Phanerogarnic Paras ite(s) 

on Teak and Their Control. KFRI. Res. Rep. No. 21. 39p. 

Ghouse, A.K.M and Yunus, M. 1974. The ratio of ray and fusiform 

Initials in some woody specles of Ranaltan complex. Bu?l. 

Torrey bot. Club 101: 363-366. 

Greuter, E. (ed.) 1988. International Code of Botanical 

Nomenclature. Regnum Vegetabile 118. Konigstein, Germany. 

Halliday, Jake 1984. Register of nodulation rep’orts for 

leguminous trees and other arboreal genera with nitrogen 

fixing members. Nitrogen fixing Tree Res. Rep. 2: 38-46. 

Harris, J.M. 1977. Note on wood density of Pinus caribaea Morelet 

grown under temperate, subtropical and tropical conditions. 

IUFRU Joint Workshop. Working part Yes S2. 02-08 & S2.03-01. 

Bri sbane. 

Hennings, P. 1901. Fungi Indiae Orientalis. 11. Cl. Gu17ana 1900. 

Co lect. Hedw. 40: 323-342. 

Hole, R.S. 1917. Indian specles of Grewfa of forest importance. 

Indian For. 43:312-317. 

IAPT 1962. Systematics association committee of descriptive 

biological terminology. 11. Terminology of simple symmetrical 

p?ane shapes. Taxon ll(5): 145-146. 1 chart. 

ISTA 1966. International rules for seed testing. Proc. Internat]. 

Seed Test Assoc. 31: 1-152. 

Jacoby, G.C. 1989. Overview of tree-ring analysis in tropical 

regions. IAWA Bu??. (n.s.1 10: 99-108. 

Kandasamy, C. and Thenmozhi, K. 1985. New record of leaf vein 

gall on Pterocsrpus msrsupium Roxb. (Leguminosae) induced by 

a psyllid. Curr. Sci. 54(6): 288. 

1972. Indian species of R,?vene/is 

Kapoor, J.N. and Agarwal, D.K. 

on Abrus & A 7Oizzis. Indian Phytupath. 25: 551-554. 

188

Kapoor, L.J. and Tandon, R.N. 1967. Notes on Indian Meliolinae. 

Indian Phytopsth. 20:151-160. 

Lall, Jagjeevan 1990. Vegetation structure and regeneration 

studies on two adjacent protected and unprotected tropical 

forest sites in Central India. Indian for. 116:194-201. 

Led 9, F.T. Zobel, B.J. and Mathias, M.F. 1975. Geoclimatic 

patterns in specific gravity and tracheid length in the wcod 

of Pitch pine. Can. J. for. Res. 5: 318-329. 

Lloyd, C.G. 1898-1925. Mycological Notes, Nos. 1-75. Private 

publication, Clincinnati, Ohio. pp. 1-1364. 

Lloyd, C.G. 1904-1919. Mycologica? Letters No. 1-69 (each 

separately paged). Private plublication, Clincinnati, Ohio. 

Maria Florence, E.J., Sharma, J.K., Sankaran, K.V. and Mchanan, 

C. 1985. Some diseases of foresst tree seedlings in India 

caused by Sclerct ium rof isi i and Rhizoctonia solani. Eur. 

J. For. Path. 187-1 90. 

Martin, S.B., Lucas, L.T. and Campbell, C.L. 1984. Csmparative 

sensitivity of Rhizoctonis solani and Rhiroctonia like fungi , 

to selected fungicides in vitro. Phytopsthology 74:778-781. 

Mathew, George afid Mohanadas, K. 1989. Insects associated with 

some forest trees in two types of natural forests in the 

Western Ghats, Kerala (India). Entomon 14(3 & 4): 325-333. 

Mathur, R.M. 1975. Psyllidae of the Indian Subcontinent. ICAR, 

New Delhi. 429 p. 

Meher-Homji, V.M. 1965. Drought: its ecological definition and 

phytogeographical significance 11. Trop. Ecol. 6:19-33. 

4 

Meher-Homji, V.M. 1979. Some aspects of bioclimatology and 

vegetation of Peninsular India. Proc. 27th Sir Albert Charlo 

Seward Memorial Lecture. Birbal Sahni Institute of 

Paleobotany, Lucknow. 

Mittal, R.K. and Sharma, M.R. 1981. Evaluation of funglcides to 

control some common seed borne fungi. Indian For. 107: 589- 

591. 

189

Mittal, R.K. 1983. Studies on the microflora and its control on 

the seeds of some forest trees 1.Cedrus deodars. Can. J. Bot. 

61(1):197-201. 

Mordue, J.E.M. 1971. Gloerella cingu’lats set 32, No. 315. 

Commonwealth 

Descriptions of Pathogenic Fungi and Bacteria. 

Mycological Institute, Kew. Surrey, England. 

Nair, K.S.S., George Mathew, Mohanadas, K. and A.R.R. Menon 1986. 

A Study of Insect Pest Incidence in Natural Forest. KFRI 

Research Report 44. Peechi. 28 p. 

Muller-Dombois, 0 and Ellenberg, ti. 1974. Aims and Methods of 

Vegetation Ecology. Wiley International, New York. 

Meergaard, P. 1977. Seed Pathology. Vol. I. The Macmillan Press, 

London. 

Patel, M.K., Kamat, M.N. and Bhide, V.P. 1949. Fungi of Bombay. 

Suppl. I. Ind. Phytcpath. 2: 142-155. 

Pearson, R.S. and grown, H.P. 1932. Commercial Timbers of 

India. Vols. I & 11. Government of India, Calcutta. 

Phillips, A.E. 1959. Methods of Vegetation Study. Hentry Holt. p1 

Co. Inc. USA. 

Prain, D. 1891. Report on the Indian species of Pterocarpus. 

Indian For. 26. Appendix, pp. 1-16. 

Prain, 0. 1387. Some additional Leguminosae. J. Asiat. Soc. 

Benga? 66: 347-518. 

Purkayastha, S.K., Tandon, R.D. and Rao, K.R. 1972. Variation in 

anatomical structure of teak and its influence on specific 

gravity and maximum crushing strees. Indian fur. 98: 332-337. 

Purkayastha, S.K., Tandon, R.D. R~lo and Rao K.R. 1973. A note 

on the variation in wood density in some 36 years old teak 

trees from different seed origins. Indian Fm. 99: 215-217. 

Purkayastha, S.K. , Krishna Lal, Rao, K.R. and Megi, G.S. 1974. 

Variation in structure and density within a single tree of 

M:’che?ia champacs Linn. Indian For. 100: 453-465. 

190

Qureshi, I.M. 1968. The concept of fast growth in forestry and 

the place of indigenous fast growing broad-leaved species. 

Indian Fur. 94:51-56. 

Rabenhorst, L. 1978. Fungi europaei exsiccati. Hedw. 17: 31. 44- 

47, 59-63, 71-76, 88-90. 

Rai, S.N. and Proctor, J. 1986. Ecological studies on four 

rainforests in Karnataks. I. Environment, structure, 

floristics and biomass. J. ECOlOgY 74:439-454. 

Rat, S.N. 1989. Tropical rainforests of India - their management 

and regenerat ion. Indian for. 11 5: 82-85. 

Ramakrishnan T.S. 1952. Addltions to fungi of Madras XII. Pruc. 

Indian Acsd. Sci. 358*:111-121. 

Ramakrishnan, T.S. and Ramakrishnan, K. 1947. Additions to 

fmgi of Madras III. Proc. Indian Acsd. Sci. 269: 7-12. 

Ramakrishnan, T.S. and Srinivasan, K.V. 1950. Tido grass smuts. 

Curr. Sci. 19:216. 

Ramakrishanan, T.S. and Sundaram, N.V. 1955a. Additions to fungi 

of Madras XVII. Proc. Indian Acsd. Sci. 416: 189-195. 

Ramakrishnan, T.S. and Sundaran, N.V. 1955b. Additions to fungi 

of Madras VXII. Proc. Indian Acad. Sci. 426: 58-64. 

Rao, K.R., Purkayashta, S.K. and Tandon, R.D. 1966. Effect of 

rate of growth on proportion of tissues in teak. Indian Fur. 

92: 133-136. 

Ridsdale, C.E. 1978. A revision of the tribe Naucleae 

.~ S.S. (Rubiaceae). B7umes 24: 307-336. 

Sankaran, K.V., Maria Florence, E.J. and Sharma, J.K. 1984. Two 

new diseases of forest tree seedlings caused by Sclerotium 

ruIbsii. Eur. J. For. Path. 14: 318-320. 

Sankaran, K.V., Balasundaran, M.. and Sharma J.K. 1986. Seedling 

diseases of Arsdirachta indica in Kerala, India. Eur. J. For. 

Path. 16: 324-320. 

191

Sengupta, J.N. 1937. Seed weights, plant percents, etc. for 

forest plants In India. Indian For. Rec. (n.s.1 Si?vicu?ture 

2(5): 175-221. 

Seth, S.K. and Kaul, D.N. 1978. Tropical forest ecosystems of 

India: The teak forests (as a case study of silviculture and 

management). In: Tropical Forest Ecosystem. U#ESCC/UNEP,/FAO 

Report. 

Sharma, J.K. and Mohanan, C. 1980. Spermoplane microflora of 

stored seeds of Tectona grandis, Bombdx ceiba and Euca lyptus 

spp. in relation tc germinability. In: Proc. International 

Symposium on Forest Tree Seed Storage. Ontario, Canada. pp. 

107-125. 

Sharma, S.K., George, M. and Prasad K.G. 1983. Forest vegetation 

survey and classification with special refearence to South 

India. Indian For. 109: 384-393. 

Sharma, J.K. and Sankaran, K.V. 1984. Rhizoconia web blight of 

Albizia falcataria in India. Eur. J. For. Path. 14: 261-264. 

Sharma, J.K. Mohanan, C. and Maria Florence, E.J. 1985. Disease 

Survey in Nurseries and Plantat ions of Forest Tree Spmies 

Grown in Kera73. KFRI Research Report 36. Peechi. 268 p. 

Sharma. J.K. Mohanan, C. and Maria Florence, E.J. 1984. Nursery 

diseases of Euc87yptus in Kerala. Eur. J. For. Path. 14:77-89. 

Singh, S.M. 1971. Some folicolous Cercospora from Balaghat 

(M.P.). Sydowia 25: 225-231. 

Sneath, P.H.A. and Sokal, R.R. 1973. Numerica! Taxonomy. W.H. 

Freeman & Co. Sanfrancisco. 537 p. 

Sukapure, R.S. and Thirumalachar, M.J. 1965. Studies on some 

Septoris species from India XI. Sydowia 19: 165-170. 

Sydow, H. Mitter, J.H. and Tandon, R.N. 1937. Fungi indici 111. 

Ann. Myco7. 35: 222-243. 

Taylor, F.W. 1975. Wood property difference between two stands 

cf sycamore and black willow. Wood and Fiber 7: 187-191. 

192

Thirumalachar, M.J. 1947. Some noteworthy rusts - IS. Myco7ogia 

39: 231-248. 

Thirumalachar, M.J. 1950. Notes on sane Indian ustilagineae. XI. 

L loydia 13: 173-178. 

Thomas, W.B., Jr. 1962. Reaction of biotypes of Rhizotcnia sc7ani 

to different funglcides. Phytopatholgy 52: 366 (Abstr.). 

Tsoumis G. and Panagiotidis, N. 1990. Effect of growth 

conditions on wood quality characteristics of black pine 

(Pinus nigra Arn. 1. Wmd Sci. Techno!. 14: 301-310. 

Tubbs, Carl, H. 1977. Matura7 Regeneration of Northern Hardwoods 

in the Northern Great Lakes Region. USDA Forest Service Res. 

Paper No. 150. Minnesota. 

Tyagi, R.N.S. and Prasad, N. 1978. Some new Raveneliss from 

Rajasthan. Sci. & Cult. 44(6): 268-272. 

Vincent, J.M. 1970. A Manuat for the Practl'ca! Study of the Rcot- 

#odule Bacteria. XBH Handbook No. 15. Blackwell Scientific 

Publications, Oxford. 164 p. 

UNESCO, 1978. Tropical Forest Eco~yste~vs. A state of knowledge 

report prepared by LJNESCO, UMEP and FA@. Natural Resources 

Research Series 14. UNESCO, Paris. 

UNESCO, 1986. Rainforest Regeneration and Management. Report of a 

WorkshopVenezuela 1986. Malcolm Hadley Special issue - 18. 

.' 

Whitmore, J.L. 1973. Wood density variation in Costa Rica balsa. 

Wood Sci. 5: 223-229. 

Zentmeyer, C.A. 1955. A laboratory method for testing soil 

fungicides with Phytophthors cinnamon7 as test organism. 

Phytopathology 45: 308-404. 

193

KFRI Research Report - Kerala Forest Research Institute

Create successful ePaper yourself

Delete template?

Save as template?